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[
[
"Ceres"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Ceres''' most commonly refers to:* Ceres (dwarf planet), the largest asteroid and first to be discovered* Ceres (mythology), the Roman goddess of agriculture'''Ceres''' may also refer to:"
],
[
"Places",
"===Brazil===* Ceres, Goiás, Brazil* Ceres Microregion, in north-central Goiás state, Brazil=== United States ===* Ceres, California* Ceres, Georgia* Ceres, Iowa* Ceres, New York, a community that also extends into Pennsylvania* Ceres, Oklahoma, a community in Noble County* Ceres, Virginia* Ceres, Washington* Ceres, West Virginia* Ceres Township, McKean County, Pennsylvania===Other countries===* Ceres, Santa Fe, Argentina* Ceres, Victoria, Australia* Ceres, Piedmont, Italy* Ceres, Fife, Scotland* Ceres, South Africa, in Western Cape* Ga-Ngwetsana, also known as Ceres, Limpopo, South Africa* Ceres Nunataks, Antarctica* Ceres Koekedouw Dam, dam on the Koekedouw River, near Ceres, Western Cape, South Africa"
],
[
"Acronyms",
"* California Environmental Resources Evaluation System* Centre for Research on Energy Security (CeRES), an Indian research center on geopolitics and energy* CERES (satellite), a French spy satellite program* CERES Community Environment Park (Centre for Education and Research in Environmental Strategies), a community environmental park in Melbourne, Australia* Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System, an ongoing NASA meteorological experiment.",
"* Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies * '''' (French: Center of Socialist Studies, Research and Education), a left-wing political organization founded by Jean-Pierre Chevènement"
],
[
"Aircraft, rocket, transport, and vessels",
"===Aircraft, locomotive, car===* CAC Ceres, a crop-duster aircraft manufactured in Australia* ''Ceres'', a West Cornwall Railway steam locomotive* Toyota Corolla Ceres a compact, 4-door hardtop sold in Japan* Kia Ceres, a version of the Kia Bongo, a 2-door pick up truck===Ships and submarines===* ''Ceres'' (East Indiaman), three vessels of the British East India Company* , several ships* HMS ''Ceres'', three ships and three shore establishments of the British Royal Navy* , several ships of the French Navy* USS ''Ceres'' (1856), a Union Navy steamship during the American Civil War=== Rocket ===* Ceres-1, a PR of China four stage rocket"
],
[
"Arts, entertainment, and media",
"* Ceres (band), a band from Melbourne, Australia* ''Ceres'' (sculpture), a c.1770 statuette by Augustin Pajou*''Ceres'' (2005), an orchestral work by Mark-Anthony Turnage* Sailor Ceres, a character in ''Sailor Moon'' media* The titular character of ''Ceres, Celestial Legend'', a manga and mini anime series* Ceres Space Colony, from the video game ''Super Metroid''"
],
[
"Brands and enterprises",
"* Ceres (organization), a coalition of investors and environmentalists (formerly the Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies)* Ceres Brewery, a brewery in Aarhus, Denmark* Ceres Fruit Juices, a South African juice company* Ceres Hellenic Shipping Enterprises, a Greek shipping company* Ceres, Inc., a US energy crop seeds developer* Ceres Liner, a bus company in the Philippines"
],
[
"Education",
"* Ceres Connection, a cooperative program between MIT's Lincoln Laboratory and the Society for Science and the Public dedicated for promoting science education* Ceres School, an historic school building located at Ceres in Allegany County, New York* Ceres (women's fraternity), a women's fraternity focused on agriculture"
],
[
"Sport",
"* Ceres Futebol Clube, a Brazilian football team from the city of Rio de Janeiro* SK Ceres, a Norwegian sports team from Skedsmo, Akershus* United City F.C., a Philippine football team formerly known as Ceres–Negros F.C."
],
[
"People",
"* Dragoș Cereș (born 2004), a Moldovan chess master"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* Ceres (workstation), a computer workstation built at ETH Zürich* Ceres series (disambiguation), several series of postage stamps representing the goddess Ceres* Ceres Chess Engine, an experimental chess engine that uses Leela Chess Zero networks* Plural of cere"
],
[
"See also",
"* Colonization of Ceres* Keres (mythology), death spirits unconnected with Ceres* Seres (disambiguation)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cultural imperialism"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Chaco Boreal.",
"The father continues to wear the traditional clothing of his region while the son has already adopted Western clothing.",
"'''Cultural imperialism''' (also '''cultural colonialism''') comprises the cultural dimensions of imperialism.",
"The word \"imperialism\" describes practices in which a country engages culture (language, tradition, and ritual, politics, economics) to create and maintain unequal social and economic relationships among social groups.",
"Cultural imperialism often uses wealth, media power and violence to implement the system of cultural hegemony that legitimizes imperialism.Cultural imperialism may take various forms, such as an attitude, a formal policy, or military action—insofar as each of these reinforces the empire's cultural hegemony.",
"Research on the topic occurs in scholarly disciplines, and is especially prevalent in communication and media studies, education, foreign policy, history, international relations, linguistics, literature, post-colonialism, science, sociology, social theory, environmentalism, and sports.Cultural imperialism may be distinguished from the natural process of cultural diffusion.",
"The spread of culture around the world is referred to as cultural globalization."
],
[
"Background and definitions",
"residential school, which aimed to eliminate Indigenous language and culture and replace it with English language and Christian beliefsAlthough the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' has a 1921 reference to the \"cultural imperialism of the Russians\", John Tomlinson, in his book on the subject, writes that the term emerged in the 1960s and has been a focus of research since at least the 1970s.",
"Terms such as \"media imperialism\", \"structural imperialism\", \"cultural dependency and domination\", \"cultural synchronization\", \"electronic colonialism\", \"ideological imperialism\", and \"economic imperialism\" have all been used to describe the same basic notion of cultural imperialism.The term refers largely to the exercise of power in a cultural relationship in which the principles, ideas, practices, and values of a powerful, invading society are imposed upon indigenous cultures in the occupied areas.",
"The process is often used to describe examples of when the compulsory practices of the cultural traditions of the imperial social group are implemented upon a conquered social group.",
"The process is also present when powerful nations are able to flood the information and media space with their ideas, limiting countries and communities ability to compete and expose people to locally created content.",
"Cultural imperialism has been called a process that intends to transition the \"cultural symbols of the invading communities from domestic, comments Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera.",
"He described the process as being carried out in three phases by merchants, then the military, then politicians.",
"While the third phase continues \"in perpetuity\", cultural imperialism tends to be \"gradual, contested (and continues to be contested), and is by nature incomplete.",
"The partial and imperfect configuration of this ontology takes an implicit conceptualization of reality and attempts—and often fails—to elide other forms of collective existence.\"",
"In order to achieve that end, cultural engineering projects strive to \"isolate residents within constructed spheres of symbols\" such that they (eventually, in some cases after several generations) abandon other cultures and identify with the new symbols.",
"\"The broader intended outcome of these interventions might be described as a common recognition of ''possession'' of the land itself (on behalf of the organizations publishing and financing the images).",
"\"For Herbert Schiller, cultural imperialism refers to the American Empire's \"coercive and persuasive agencies, and their capacity to promote and universalize an American 'way of life' in other countries without any reciprocation of influence.\"",
"According to Schiller, cultural imperialism \"pressured, forced and bribed\" societies to integrate with the U.S.'s expansive capitalist model but also incorporated them with attraction and persuasion by winning \"the mutual consent, even solicitation of the indigenous rulers.\"",
"He continues remarks that it is:the sum processes by which a society is brought into the modern U.S.-centered world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating centres of the system.",
"The public media are the foremost example of operating enterprises that are used in the penetrative process.",
"For penetration on a significant scale the media themselves must be captured by the dominating/penetrating power.",
"This occurs largely through the commercialization of broadcasting.The historical contexts, iterations, complexities, and politics of Schiller's foundational and substantive theorization of cultural imperialism in international communication and media studies are discussed in detail by political economy of communication researchers Richard Maxwell, Vincent Mosco, Graham Murdock, and Tanner Mirrlees.Downing and Sreberny-Mohammadi state: \"Cultural imperialism signifies the dimensions of the process that go beyond economic exploitation or military force.",
"In the history of colonialism, (i.e., the form of imperialism in which the government of the colony is run directly by foreigners), the educational and media systems of many Third World countries have been set up as replicas of those in Britain, France, or the United States and carry their values.",
"Western advertising has made further inroads, as have architectural and fashion styles.",
"Subtly but powerfully, the message has often been insinuated that Western cultures are superior to the cultures of the Third World.",
"\"=== Poststructuralism ===In poststructuralist and postcolonial theory, ''cultural imperialism'' is often understood as the cultural legacy of Western colonialism, or forms of social action contributing to the continuation of Western hegemony.",
"To some outside of the realm of this discourse, the term is critiqued as being unclear, unfocused, and/or contradictory in nature.The work of French philosopher and social theorist Michel Foucault has heavily influenced use of the term ''cultural imperialism,'' particularly his philosophical interpretation of power and his concept of governmentality.",
"Following an interpretation of power similar to that of Machiavelli, Foucault defines power as immaterial, as a \"certain type of relation between individuals\" that has to do with complex strategic social positions that relate to the subject's ability to control its environment and influence those around itself.",
"According to Foucault, power is intimately tied with his conception of truth.",
"\"Truth\", as he defines it, is a \"system of ordered procedures for the production, regulation, distribution, circulation, and operation of statements\" which has a \"circular relation\" with systems of power.",
"Therefore, inherent in systems of power, is always \"truth\", which is culturally specific, inseparable from ideology which often coincides with various forms of hegemony.",
"''Cultural imperialism'' may be an example of this.Foucault's interpretation of governance is also very important in constructing theories of transnational power structure.",
"In his lectures at the Collège de France, Foucault often defines governmentality as the broad art of \"governing\", which goes beyond the traditional conception of governance in terms of state mandates, and into other realms such as governing \"a household, souls, children, a province, a convent, a religious order, a family\".",
"This relates directly back to Machiavelli's treatise on how to retain political power at any cost, ''The Prince'', and Foucault's aforementioned conceptions of truth and power.",
"(i.e.",
"various subjectivities are created through power relations that are culturally specific, which lead to various forms of culturally specific governmentality such as neoliberal governmentality.",
")=== Post-colonialism ===Edward Saïd is a founding figure of postcolonialism, established with the book ''Orientalism'' (1978), a humanist critique of The Enlightenment, which criticises Western knowledge of \"The East\"—specifically the English and the French constructions of what is and what is not \"Oriental\".",
"Whereby said \"knowledge\" then led to cultural tendencies towards a binary opposition of the Orient vs. the Occident, wherein one concept is defined in opposition to the other concept, and from which they emerge as of unequal value.",
"In ''Culture and Imperialism'' (1993), the sequel to ''Orientalism'', Saïd proposes that, despite the formal end of the \"age of empire\" after the Second World War (1939–1945), colonial imperialism left a cultural legacy to the (previously) colonised peoples, which remains in their contemporary civilisations; and that said American ''cultural imperialism'' is very influential in the international systems of power.In \"Can the Subaltern Speak?\"",
"Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak critiques common representations in the West of the Sati, as being controlled by authors other than the participants (specifically English colonizers and Hindu leaders).",
"Because of this, Spivak argues that the subaltern, referring to the communities that participate in the Sati, are not able to represent themselves through their own voice.",
"Spivak says that cultural imperialism has the power to disqualify or erase the knowledge and mode of education of certain populations that are low on the social and economic hierarchy.In ''A Critique of Postcolonial Reason'', Spivak argues that Western philosophy has a history of not only exclusion of the subaltern from discourse, but also does not allow them to occupy the space of a fully human subject."
],
[
"Contemporary ideas and debate",
"''Cultural imperialism'' can refer to either the forced acculturation of a subject population, or to the voluntary embracing of a foreign culture by individuals who do so of their own free will.",
"Since these are two very different referents, the validity of the term has been called into question.Cultural influence can be seen by the \"receiving\" culture as either a threat to or an enrichment of its cultural identity.",
"It seems therefore useful to distinguish between cultural imperialism as an (active or passive) attitude of superiority, and the position of a culture or group that seeks to complement its own cultural production, considered partly deficient, with imported products.The imported products or services can themselves represent, or be associated with, certain values (such as consumerism).",
"According to one argument, the \"receiving\" culture does not necessarily perceive this link, but instead absorbs the foreign culture passively through the use of the foreign goods and services.",
"Due to its somewhat concealed, but very potent nature, this hypothetical idea is described by some experts as \"''banal imperialism''\".",
"For example, it is argued that while \"American companies are accused of wanting to control 95 percent of the world's consumers\", \"cultural imperialism involves much more than simple consumer goods; it involved the dissemination of American principles such as freedom and democracy\", a process which \"may sound appealing\" but which \"masks a frightening truth: many cultures around the world are disappearing due to the overwhelming influence of corporate and cultural America\".Some believe that the newly globalised economy of the late 20th and early 21st century has facilitated this process through the use of new information technology.",
"This kind of cultural imperialism is derived from what is called \"soft power\".",
"The theory of electronic colonialism extends the issue to global cultural issues and the impact of major multi-media conglomerates, ranging from Paramount, WarnerMedia, AT&T, Disney, News Corp, to Google and Microsoft with the focus on the hegemonic power of these mainly United States-based communication giants.===Cultural diversity===One of the reasons often given for opposing any form of cultural imperialism, voluntary or otherwise, is the preservation of cultural diversity, a goal seen by some as analogous to the preservation of ecological diversity.",
"Proponents of this idea argue either that such diversity is valuable in itself, to preserve human historical heritage and knowledge, or instrumentally valuable because it makes available more ways of solving problems and responding to catastrophes, natural or otherwise.===African colonisation===Of all the areas of the world that scholars have claimed to be adversely affected by imperialism, Africa is probably the most notable.",
"In the expansive \"age of imperialism\" of the nineteenth century, scholars have argued that European colonisation in Africa has led to the elimination of many various cultures, worldviews, and epistemologies, particularly through neocolonisation of public education.",
"This, arguably has led to uneven development, and further informal forms of social control having to do with culture and imperialism.",
"A variety of factors, scholars argue, lead to the elimination of cultures, worldviews, and epistemologies, such as \"de-linguicization\" (replacing native African languages with European ones), devaluing ontologies that are not explicitly individualistic, and at times going as far as to not only define Western culture itself as science, but that non-Western approaches to science, the Arts, indigenous culture, etc.",
"are not even knowledge.",
"One scholar, Ali A. Abdi, claims that imperialism inherently \"involves extensively interactive regimes and heavy contexts of identity deformation, misrecognition, loss of self-esteem, and individual and social doubt in self-efficacy.\"",
"Therefore, all imperialism would always, already be cultural.===Neoliberalism===Neoliberalism is often critiqued by sociologists, anthropologists, and cultural studies scholars as being culturally imperialistic.",
"Critics of neoliberalism, at times, claim that it is the newly predominant form of imperialism.",
"Other scholars, such as Elizabeth Dunn and Julia Elyachar have claimed that neoliberalism requires and creates its own form of governmentality.In Dunn's work, ''Privatizing Poland'', she argues that the expansion of the multinational corporation, Gerber, into Poland in the 1990s imposed Western, neoliberal governmentality, ideologies, and epistemologies upon the post-soviet persons hired.",
"Cultural conflicts occurred most notably the company's inherent individualistic policies, such as promoting competition among workers rather than cooperation, and in its strong opposition to what the company owners claimed was bribery.In Elyachar's work, ''Markets of Dispossession'', she focuses on ways in which, in Cairo, NGOs along with INGOs and the state promoted neoliberal governmentality through schemas of economic development that relied upon \"youth microentrepreneurs\".",
"Youth microentrepreneurs would receive small loans to build their own businesses, similar to the way that microfinance supposedly operates.",
"Elyachar argues though, that these programs not only were a failure, but that they shifted cultural opinions of value (personal and cultural) in a way that favoured Western ways of thinking and being.===Development studies===Often, methods of promoting development and social justice are critiqued as being imperialistic in a cultural sense.",
"For example, Chandra Mohanty has critiqued Western feminism, claiming that it has created a misrepresentation of the \"third world woman\" as being completely powerless, unable to resist male dominance.",
"Thus, this leads to the often critiqued narrative of the \"white man\" saving the \"brown woman\" from the \"brown man\".",
"Other, more radical critiques of development studies, have to do with the field of study itself.",
"Some scholars even question the intentions of those developing the field of study, claiming that efforts to \"develop\" the Global South were never about the South itself.",
"Instead, these efforts, it is argued, were made in order to advance Western development and reinforce Western hegemony.===Media effects studies===The core of cultural imperialism thesis is integrated with the political-economy traditional approach in media effects research.",
"Critics of cultural imperialism commonly claim that non-Western cultures, particularly from the Third World, will forsake their traditional values and lose their cultural identities when they are solely exposed to Western media.",
"Nonetheless, Michael B. Salwen, in his book ''Critical Studies in Mass Communication'' (1991), claims that cross-consideration and integration of empirical findings on cultural imperialist influences is very critical in terms of understanding mass media in the international sphere.",
"He recognises both of contradictory contexts on cultural imperialist impacts.",
"The first context is where cultural imperialism imposes socio-political disruptions on developing nations.",
"Western media can distort images of foreign cultures and provoke personal and social conflicts to developing nations in some cases.",
"Another context is that peoples in developing nations resist to foreign media and preserve their cultural attitudes.",
"Although he admits that outward manifestations of Western culture may be adopted, but the fundamental values and behaviours remain still.",
"Furthermore, positive effects might occur when male-dominated cultures adopt the \"liberation\" of women with exposure to Western media and it stimulates ample exchange of cultural exchange.===Criticisms of \"cultural imperialism theory\"===Critics of scholars who discuss cultural imperialism have a number of critiques.",
"''Cultural imperialism'' is a term that is only used in discussions where cultural relativism and constructivism are generally taken as true.",
"(One cannot critique promoting Western values if one believes that said values are good.",
"Similarly, one cannot argue that Western epistemology is unjustly promoted in non-Western societies if one believes that those epistemologies are good.)",
"Therefore, those who disagree with cultural relativism and/or constructivism may critique the employment of the term, ''cultural imperialism'' on those terms.John Tomlinson provides a critique of cultural imperialism theory and reveals major problems in the way in which the idea of cultural, as opposed to economic or political, imperialism is formulated.",
"In his book ''Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction'', he delves into the much debated \"media imperialism\" theory.",
"Summarizing research on the Third World's reception of American television shows, he challenges the cultural imperialism argument, conveying his doubts about the degree to which US shows in developing nations actually carry US values and improve the profits of US companies.",
"Tomlinson suggests that cultural imperialism is growing in some respects, but local transformation and interpretations of imported media products propose that cultural diversification is not at an end in global society.",
"He explains that one of the fundamental conceptual mistakes of cultural imperialism is to take for granted that the distribution of cultural goods can be considered as cultural dominance.",
"He thus supports his argument highly criticising the concept that Americanization is occurring through global overflow of American television products.",
"He points to a myriad of examples of television networks who have managed to dominate their domestic markets and that domestic programs generally top the ratings.",
"He also doubts the concept that cultural agents are passive receivers of information.",
"He states that movement between cultural/geographical areas always involves translation, mutation, adaptation, and the creation of hybridity.Other key critiques are that the term is not defined well, and employs further terms that are not defined well, and therefore lacks explanatory power, that ''cultural imperialism'' is hard to measure, and that the theory of a legacy of colonialism is not always true.===Dealing with cultural dominance===David Rothkopf, managing director of Kissinger Associates and an adjunct professor of international affairs at Columbia University (who also served as a senior U.S. Commerce Department official in the Clinton Administration), wrote about cultural imperialism in his provocatively titled ''In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?''",
"in the summer 1997 issue of ''Foreign Policy'' magazine.",
"Rothkopf says that the United States should embrace \"cultural imperialism\" as in its self-interest.",
"But his definition of cultural imperialism stresses spreading the values of tolerance and openness to cultural change in order to avoid war and conflict between cultures as well as expanding accepted technological and legal standards to provide free traders with enough security to do business with more countries.",
"Rothkopf's definition almost exclusively involves allowing individuals in other nations to accept or reject foreign cultural influences.",
"He also mentions, but only in passing, the use of the English language and consumption of news and popular music and film as cultural dominance that he supports.",
"Rothkopf additionally makes the point that globalisation and the Internet are accelerating the process of cultural influence.Culture is sometimes used by the organisers of society—politicians, theologians, academics, and families—to impose and ensure order, the rudiments of which change over time as need dictates.",
"One need only look at the 20th century's genocides.",
"In each one, leaders used culture as a political front to fuel the passions of their armies and other minions and to justify their actions among their people.Rothkopf then cites genocide and massacres in Armenia, Russia, the Holocaust, Cambodia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Rwanda and East Timor as examples of culture (in some cases expressed in the ideology of \"political culture\" or religion) being misused to justify violence.",
"He also acknowledges that cultural imperialism in the past has been guilty of forcefully eliminating the cultures of natives in the Americas and in Africa, or through use of the Inquisition, \"and during the expansion of virtually every empire.\"",
"The most important way to deal with cultural influence in any nation, according to Rothkopf, is to promote tolerance and allow, or even promote, cultural diversities that are compatible with tolerance and to eliminate those cultural differences that cause violent conflict::Successful multicultural societies, be they nations, federations, or other conglomerations of closely interrelated states, discern those aspects of culture that do not threaten union, stability, or prosperity (such as food, holidays, rituals, and music) and allow them to flourish.",
"But they counteract or eradicate the more subversive elements of culture (exclusionary aspects of religion, language, and political/ideological beliefs).",
"History shows that bridging cultural gaps successfully and serving as a home to diverse peoples requires certain social structures, laws, and institutions that transcend culture.",
"Furthermore, the history of a number of ongoing experiments in multiculturalism, such as in the European Union, India, South Africa, Canada and the United States, suggests that workable, if not perfected, integrative models exist.",
"Each is built on the idea that tolerance is crucial to social well-being, and each at times has been threatened by both intolerance and a heightened emphasis on cultural distinctions.",
"The greater public good warrants eliminating those cultural characteristics that promote conflict or prevent harmony, even as less-divisive, more personally observed cultural distinctions are celebrated and preserved.Cultural dominance can also be seen in the 1930s in Australia where the Aboriginal Assimilation Policy acted as an attempt to wipe out the Native Australian people.",
"The British settlers tried to biologically alter the skin colour of the Australian Aboriginal people through mixed breeding with white people.",
"The policy also made attempts to forcefully conform the Aborigines to western ideas of dress and education."
],
[
"In history",
"Although the term was popularised in the 1960s, and was used by its original proponents to refer to cultural hegemonies in a post-colonial world, cultural imperialism has also been used to refer to times further in the past.===Antiquity===The Ancient Greeks are known for spreading their culture around the Mediterranean and Near East through trade and conquest.",
"During the Archaic Period, the burgeoning Greek city-states established settlements and colonies across the Mediterranean Sea, especially in Sicily and southern Italy, influencing the Etruscan and Roman peoples of the region.",
"In the late fourth century BC, Alexander the Great conquered Persian and Indian territories all the way to the Indus River Valley and Punjab, spreading Greek pagan religion, art, and science along the way.",
"This resulted in the rise of Hellenistic kingdoms and cities across Egypt, the Near East, Central Asia, and Northwest India where Greek culture fused with the cultures of the indigenous peoples.",
"The Greek influence prevailed even longer in science and literature, where medieval Muslim scholars in the Middle East studied the writings of Aristotle for scientific learning.The Roman Empire was also an early example of cultural imperialism.",
"Early Rome, in its conquest of Italy, assimilated the people of Etruria by replacing the Etruscan language with Latin, which led to the demise of that language and many aspects of Etruscan civilisation.",
"Cultural Romanization was imposed on many parts of Rome's empire by \"many regions receiving Roman culture unwillingly, as a form of cultural imperialism.\"",
"For example, when Greece was conquered by the Roman armies, Rome set about altering the culture of Greece to conform with Roman ideals.",
"For instance, the Greek habit of stripping naked, in public, for exercise, was looked on askance by Roman writers, who considered the practice to be a cause of the Greeks' effeminacy and enslavement.",
"The Roman example has been linked to modern instances of European imperialism in African countries, bridging the two instances with Slavoj Zizek's discussions of 'empty signifiers'.",
"The Pax Romana was secured in the empire, in part, by the \"forced acculturation of the culturally diverse populations that Rome had conquered.",
"\"===British Empire===British worldwide expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries was an economic and political phenomenon.",
"However, \"there was also a strong social and cultural dimension to it, which Rudyard Kipling termed the 'white man's burden'.\"",
"One of the ways this was carried out was by religious proselytising, by, amongst others, the London Missionary Society, which was \"an agent of British cultural imperialism.\"",
"Another way, was by the imposition of educational material on the colonies for an \"imperial curriculum\".",
"Robin A. Butlin writes, \"The promotion of empire through books, illustrative materials, and educational syllabuses was widespread, part of an education policy geared to cultural imperialism\".",
"This was also true of science and technology in the empire.",
"Douglas M. Peers and Nandini Gooptu note that \"Most scholars of colonial science in India now prefer to stress the ways in which science and technology worked in the service of colonialism, as both a 'tool of empire' in the practical sense and as a vehicle for cultural imperialism.",
"In other words, science developed in India in ways that reflected colonial priorities, tending to benefit Europeans at the expense of Indians, while remaining dependent on and subservient to scientific authorities in the colonial metropolis.\"",
"British sports were spread across the Empire partially as a way of encouraging British values and cultural uniformity, though this was tempered by the fact that colonised peoples gained a sense of nationalistic pride by defeating the British in their own sports.The analysis of cultural imperialism carried out by Edward Said drew principally from a study of the British Empire.",
"According to Danilo Raponi, the cultural imperialism of the British in the 19th century had a much wider effect than only in the British Empire.",
"He writes, \"To paraphrase Said, I see cultural imperialism as a complex cultural hegemony of a country, Great Britain, that in the 19th century had no rivals in terms of its ability to project its power across the world and to influence the cultural, political and commercial affairs of most countries.",
"It is the 'cultural hegemony' of a country whose power to export the most fundamental ideas and concepts at the basis of its understanding of 'civilisation' knew practically no bounds.\"",
"In this, for example, Raponi includes Italy.===Other pre-Second World War examples===The New Cambridge Modern History writes about the cultural imperialism of Napoleonic France.",
"Napoleon used the Institut de France \"as an instrument for transmuting French universalism into cultural imperialism.\"",
"Members of the Institute (who included Napoleon), descended upon Egypt in 1798.",
"\"Upon arrival they organised themselves into an Institute of Cairo.",
"The Rosetta Stone is their most famous find.",
"The science of Egyptology is their legacy.",
"\"After the First World War, Germans were worried about the extent of French influence in the annexed Rhineland, with the French occupation of the Ruhr Valley in 1923.An early use of the term appeared in an essay by Paul Ruhlmann (as \"Peter Hartmann\") at that date, entitled ''French Cultural Imperialism on the Rhine''.=== North American colonisation ===Keeping in line with the trends of international imperialistic endeavours, the expansion of Canadian and American territory in the 19th century saw cultural imperialism employed as a means of control over indigenous populations.",
"This, when used in conjunction of more traditional forms of ethnic cleansing and genocide in the United States, saw devastating, lasting effects on indigenous communities.In 2017 Canada celebrated its 150-year anniversary of the confederating of three British colonies.",
"As Catherine Murton Stoehr points out in ''Origins'', a publication organised by the history departments of Ohio State University and Miami University, the occasion came with remembrance of Canada's treatment of First Nations people.Numerous policies focused on indigenous persons came into effect shortly thereafter.",
"Most notable is the use of residential schools across Canada as a means to remove indigenous persons from their culture and instill in them the beliefs and values of the majorised colonial hegemony.",
"The policies of these schools, as described by Ward Churchill in his book ''Kill the Indian, Save the Man'', were to forcefully assimilate students who were often removed with force from their families.",
"These schools forbid students from using their native languages and participating in their own cultural practices.",
"Residential schools were largely run by Christian churches, operating in conjunction with Christian missions with minimal government oversight.",
"The book, ''Stolen Lives: The Indigenous peoples of Canada and the Indian Residentials Schools'', describes this form of operation: \"The government provided little leadership, and the clergy in charge were left to decide what to teach and how to teach it.",
"Their priority was to impart the teachings of their church or order—not to provide a good education that could help students in their post-graduation lives.\"",
"In a ''New York Times'' op-ed, Gabrielle Scrimshaw describes her grandparents being forced to send her mother to one of these schools or risk imprisonment.",
"After hiding her mother on \"school pick up day\" so as to avoid sending their daughter to institutions whose abuse was well known at the time (mid-20th century).",
"Scrimshaw's mother was left with limited options for further education she says and is today illiterate as a result.",
"Scrimshaw explains, \"Seven generations of my ancestors went through these schools.",
"Each new family member enrolled meant a compounding of abuse and a steady loss of identity, culture and hope.",
"My mother was the last generation.",
"the experience left her broken, and like so many, she turned to substances to numb these pains.\"",
"A report, republished by CBC News, estimates nearly 6,000 children died in the care of these schools.The colonisation of native peoples in North America remains active today despite the closing of the majority of residential schools.",
"This form of cultural imperialism continues in the use of Native Americans as mascots for schools and athletic teams.",
"Jason Edward Black, a professor and chair in the Department of Communication Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, describes how the use of Native Americans as mascots furthers the colonial attitudes of the 18th and 19th centuries.In ''Deciphering Pocahontas'', Kent Ono and Derek Buescher wrote: \"Euro-American culture has made a habit of appropriating, and redefining what is 'distinctive' and constitutive of Native Americans.",
"\"===Nazi colonialism===''Cultural imperialism'' has also been used in connection with the expansion of German influence under the Nazis in the middle of the twentieth century.",
"Alan Steinweis and Daniel Rogers note that even before the Nazis came to power, \"Already in the Weimar Republic, German academic specialists on eastern Europe had contributed through their publications and teaching to the legitimization of German territorial revanchism and cultural imperialism.",
"These scholars operated primarily in the disciplines of history, economics, geography, and literature.\"",
"In the area of music, Michael Kater writes that during the WWII German occupation of France, Hans Rosbaud, a German conductor based by the Nazi regime in Strasbourg, became \"at least nominally, a servant of Nazi cultural imperialism directed against the French.",
"\"In Italy during the war, Germany pursued \"a European cultural front that gravitates around German culture\".",
"The Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels set up the European Union of Writers, \"one of Goebbels's most ambitious projects for Nazi cultural hegemony.",
"Presumably a means of gathering authors from Germany, Italy, and the occupied countries to plan the literary life of the new Europe, the union soon emerged as a vehicle of German cultural imperialism.\"",
"For other parts of Europe, Robert Gerwarth, writing about cultural imperialism and Reinhard Heydrich, states that the \"Nazis' Germanization project was based on a historically unprecedented programme of racial stock-taking, theft, expulsion and murder.\"",
"Also, \"The full integration of the Czech Protectorate into this New Order required the complete Germanization of the Protectorate's cultural life and the eradication of indigenous Czech and Jewish culture.",
"\"The actions by Nazi Germany reflect on the notion of race and culture playing a significant role in imperialism.",
"The idea that there is a distinction between the Germans and the Jews has created the illusion of Germans believing they were superior to the Jewish inferiors, the notion of us/them and self/others.===Western imperialism===Cultural imperialism manifests in the Western world in the form legal system to include commodification and marketing of indigenous resources (example medicinal, spiritual or artistic) and genetic resources (example human DNA).====Americanization====The terms \"McDonaldization\", \"Disneyization\" and \"Cocacolonization\" have been coined to describe the spread of Western cultural influence.There are many countries affected by the US and their pop-culture.",
"For example, the film industry in Nigeria referred to as \"Nollywood\" being the second largest as it produces more films annually than the United States, their films are shown across Africa.",
"Another term that describes the spread of Western cultural influence is \"Hollywoodization\" it is when American culture is promoted through Hollywood films which can culturally affect the viewers of Hollywood films."
],
[
"See also",
"* * Related negative concepts ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * Impact ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * Cultural examples ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * Theocultural** Processes *** *** **** **** ** Examples*** **** ***"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* \"In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?",
"\", by David Rothkopf, ''Foreign Policy'' no.",
"107, Summer 1997, pp.",
"38–53, which argues that cultural imperialism is a positive thing.",
"* \"Reconsidering cultural imperialism theory\" by Livingston A.",
"White, ''Transnational Broadcasting Studies'' no.",
"6, Spring/Summer 2001, which argues that the idea of media imperialism is outdated.",
"* Academic Web page from 24 February 2000, discussing the idea of cultural imperialism* \"Cultural Imperialism\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Linda Colley, Phillip Dodd and Mary Beard (''In Our Time'', 27 June 2002)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chemical reaction"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A thermite reaction using iron(III) oxide.",
"The sparks flying outwards are globules of molten iron trailing smoke in their wake.A '''chemical reaction''' is a process that leads to the chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.",
"Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation.",
"Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes can occur.The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants or reagents.",
"Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products, which usually have properties different from the reactants.",
"Reactions often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps, the so-called elementary reactions, and the information on the precise course of action is part of the reaction mechanism.",
"Chemical reactions are described with chemical equations, which symbolically present the starting materials, end products, and sometimes intermediate products and reaction conditions.Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at a given temperature and chemical concentration.",
"Typically, reaction rates increase with increasing temperature because there is more thermal energy available to reach the activation energy necessary for breaking bonds between atoms.A reaction may be classified as redox in which oxidation and reduction occur or non-redox in which there is no oxidation and reduction occurring.",
"Most simple redox reactions may be classified as a combination, decomposition, or single displacement reaction.Different chemical reactions are used during chemical synthesis in order to obtain the desired product.",
"In biochemistry, a consecutive series of chemical reactions (where the product of one reaction is the reactant of the next reaction) form metabolic pathways.",
"These reactions are often catalyzed by protein enzymes.",
"Enzymes increase the rates of biochemical reactions, so that metabolic syntheses and decompositions impossible under ordinary conditions can occur at the temperature and concentrations present within a cell.The general concept of a chemical reaction has been extended to reactions between entities smaller than atoms, including nuclear reactions, radioactive decays and reactions between elementary particles, as described by quantum field theory."
],
[
"History",
"Antoine Lavoisier developed the theory of combustion as a chemical reaction with oxygen.Chemical reactions such as combustion in fire, fermentation and the reduction of ores to metals were known since antiquity.",
"Initial theories of transformation of materials were developed by Greek philosophers, such as the Four-Element Theory of Empedocles stating that any substance is composed of the four basic elements – fire, water, air and earth.",
"In the Middle Ages, chemical transformations were studied by alchemists.",
"They attempted, in particular, to convert lead into gold, for which purpose they used reactions of lead and lead-copper alloys with sulfur.The artificial production of chemical substances already was a central goal for medieval alchemists.",
"Examples include the synthesis of ammonium chloride from organic substances as described in the works (c. 850–950) attributed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān, or the production of mineral acids such as sulfuric and nitric acids by later alchemists, starting from c. 1300.The production of mineral acids involved the heating of sulfate and nitrate minerals such as copper sulfate, alum and saltpeter.",
"In the 17th century, Johann Rudolph Glauber produced hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate by reacting sulfuric acid and sodium chloride.",
"With the development of the lead chamber process in 1746 and the Leblanc process, allowing large-scale production of sulfuric acid and sodium carbonate, respectively, chemical reactions became implemented into the industry.",
"Further optimization of sulfuric acid technology resulted in the contact process in the 1880s, and the Haber process was developed in 1909–1910 for ammonia synthesis.From the 16th century, researchers including Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Boyle, and Isaac Newton tried to establish theories of experimentally observed chemical transformations.",
"The phlogiston theory was proposed in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher.",
"It postulated the existence of a fire-like element called \"phlogiston\", which was contained within combustible bodies and released during combustion.",
"This proved to be false in 1785 by Antoine Lavoisier who found the correct explanation of the combustion as a reaction with oxygen from the air.Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac recognized in 1808 that gases always react in a certain relationship with each other.",
"Based on this idea and the atomic theory of John Dalton, Joseph Proust had developed the law of definite proportions, which later resulted in the concepts of stoichiometry and chemical equations.Regarding the organic chemistry, it was long believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were too complex to be obtained synthetically.",
"According to the concept of vitalism, organic matter was endowed with a \"vital force\" and distinguished from inorganic materials.",
"This separation was ended however by the synthesis of urea from inorganic precursors by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828.Other chemists who brought major contributions to organic chemistry include Alexander William Williamson with his synthesis of ethers and Christopher Kelk Ingold, who, among many discoveries, established the mechanisms of substitution reactions."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"The general characteristics of chemical reactions are:* Evolution of a gas* Formation of a precipitate* Change in temperature* Change in state"
],
[
"Equations",
"As seen from the equation , a coefficient of 2 must be placed before the oxygen gas on the reactants side and before the water on the products side in order for, as per the law of conservation of mass, the quantity of each element does not change during the reactionChemical equations are used to graphically illustrate chemical reactions.",
"They consist of chemical or structural formulas of the reactants on the left and those of the products on the right.",
"They are separated by an arrow (→) which indicates the direction and type of the reaction; the arrow is read as the word \"yields\".",
"The tip of the arrow points in the direction in which the reaction proceeds.",
"A double arrow () pointing in opposite directions is used for equilibrium reactions.",
"Equations should be balanced according to the stoichiometry, the number of atoms of each species should be the same on both sides of the equation.",
"This is achieved by scaling the number of involved molecules (A, B, C and D in a schematic example below) by the appropriate integers ''a, b, c'' and ''d''.",
":More elaborate reactions are represented by reaction schemes, which in addition to starting materials and products show important intermediates or transition states.",
"Also, some relatively minor additions to the reaction can be indicated above the reaction arrow; examples of such additions are water, heat, illumination, a catalyst, etc.",
"Similarly, some minor products can be placed below the arrow, often with a minus sign.oxidation of ketones to esters with a peroxycarboxylic acidRetrosynthetic analysis can be applied to design a complex synthesis reaction.",
"Here the analysis starts from the products, for example by splitting selected chemical bonds, to arrive at plausible initial reagents.",
"A special arrow (⇒) is used in retro reactions."
],
[
"Elementary reactions",
"The elementary reaction is the smallest division into which a chemical reaction can be decomposed, it has no intermediate products.",
"Most experimentally observed reactions are built up from many elementary reactions that occur in parallel or sequentially.",
"The actual sequence of the individual elementary reactions is known as reaction mechanism.",
"An elementary reaction involves a few molecules, usually one or two, because of the low probability for several molecules to meet at a certain time.Isomerization of azobenzene, induced by light (hν) or heat (Δ)The most important elementary reactions are unimolecular and bimolecular reactions.",
"Only one molecule is involved in a unimolecular reaction; it is transformed by isomerization or a dissociation into one or more other molecules.",
"Such reactions require the addition of energy in the form of heat or light.",
"A typical example of a unimolecular reaction is the cis–trans isomerization, in which the cis-form of a compound converts to the trans-form or vice versa.In a typical dissociation reaction, a bond in a molecule splits ('''ruptures''') resulting in two molecular fragments.",
"The splitting can be homolytic or heterolytic.",
"In the first case, the bond is divided so that each product retains an electron and becomes a neutral radical.",
"In the second case, both electrons of the chemical bond remain with one of the products, resulting in charged ions.",
"Dissociation plays an important role in triggering chain reactions, such as hydrogen–oxygen or polymerization reactions.",
":AB -> A + B: Dissociation of a molecule AB into fragments A and B For bimolecular reactions, two molecules collide and react with each other.",
"Their merger is called chemical synthesis or an addition reaction.",
":A + B -> ABAnother possibility is that only a portion of one molecule is transferred to the other molecule.",
"This type of reaction occurs, for example, in redox and acid-base reactions.",
"In redox reactions, the transferred particle is an electron, whereas in acid-base reactions it is a proton.",
"This type of reaction is also called metathesis.",
":HA + B -> A + HBfor example:NaCl + AgNO3 -> NaNO3 + AgCl(v)"
],
[
"Chemical equilibrium",
"Most chemical reactions are reversible; that is, they can and do run in both directions.",
"The forward and reverse reactions are competing with each other and differ in reaction rates.",
"These rates depend on the concentration and therefore change with the time of the reaction: the reverse rate gradually increases and becomes equal to the rate of the forward reaction, establishing the so-called chemical equilibrium.",
"The time to reach equilibrium depends on parameters such as temperature, pressure, and the materials involved, and is determined by the minimum free energy.",
"In equilibrium, the Gibbs free energy must be zero.",
"The pressure dependence can be explained with the Le Chatelier's principle.",
"For example, an increase in pressure due to decreasing volume causes the reaction to shift to the side with fewer moles of gas.The reaction yield stabilizes at equilibrium but can be increased by removing the product from the reaction mixture or changed by increasing the temperature or pressure.",
"A change in the concentrations of the reactants does not affect the equilibrium constant but does affect the equilibrium position."
],
[
"Thermodynamics",
"Chemical reactions are determined by the laws of thermodynamics.",
"Reactions can proceed by themselves if they are exergonic, that is if they release free energy.",
"The associated free energy change of the reaction is composed of the changes of two different thermodynamic quantities, enthalpy and entropy::; .",
":: : free energy, : enthalpy, : temperature, : entropy, : difference (change between original and product) Reactions can be exothermic, where Δ''H'' is negative and energy is released.",
"Typical examples of exothermic reactions are combustion, precipitation and crystallization, in which ordered solids are formed from disordered gaseous or liquid phases.",
"In contrast, in endothermic reactions, heat is consumed from the environment.",
"This can occur by increasing the entropy of the system, often through the formation of gaseous or dissolved reaction products, which have higher entropy.",
"Since the entropy term in the free-energy change increases with temperature, many endothermic reactions preferably take place at high temperatures.",
"On the contrary, many exothermic reactions such as crystallization occur preferably at lower temperatures.",
"A change in temperature can sometimes reverse the sign of the enthalpy of a reaction, as for the carbon monoxide reduction of molybdenum dioxide::2CO(g) + MoO2(s) -> 2CO2(g) + Mo(s); This reaction to form carbon dioxide and molybdenum is endothermic at low temperatures, becoming less so with increasing temperature.",
"Δ''H''° is zero at , and the reaction becomes exothermic above that temperature.Changes in temperature can also reverse the direction tendency of a reaction.",
"For example, the water gas shift reaction:CO(g) + H2O({v}) CO2(g) + H2(g)is favored by low temperatures, but its reverse is favored by high temperatures.",
"The shift in reaction direction tendency occurs at .Reactions can also be characterized by their internal energy change, which takes into account changes in the entropy, volume and chemical potentials.",
"The latter depends, among other things, on the activities of the involved substances.",
":; :: : internal energy, : entropy, : pressure, : chemical potential, : number of molecules, : small change sign"
],
[
"Kinetics",
"The speed at which reactions take place is studied by reaction kinetics.",
"The rate depends on various parameters, such as:* Reactant concentrations, which usually make the reaction happen at a faster rate if raised through increased collisions per unit of time.",
"Some reactions, however, have rates that are ''independent'' of reactant concentrations, due to a limited number of catalytic sites.",
"These are called zero order reactions.",
"* Surface area available for contact between the reactants, in particular solid ones in heterogeneous systems.",
"Larger surface areas lead to higher reaction rates.",
"* Pressure – increasing the pressure decreases the volume between molecules and therefore increases the frequency of collisions between the molecules.",
"* Activation energy, which is defined as the amount of energy required to make the reaction start and carry on spontaneously.",
"Higher activation energy implies that the reactants need more energy to start than a reaction with lower activation energy.",
"* Temperature, which hastens reactions if raised, since higher temperature increases the energy of the molecules, creating more collisions per unit of time,* The presence or absence of a catalyst.",
"Catalysts are substances that make weak bonds with reactants or intermediates and change the pathway (mechanism) of a reaction which in turn increases the speed of a reaction by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to take place.",
"A catalyst is not destroyed or changed during a reaction, so it can be used again.",
"* For some reactions, the presence of electromagnetic radiation, most notably ultraviolet light, is needed to promote the breaking of bonds to start the reaction.",
"This is particularly true for reactions involving radicals.Several theories allow calculating the reaction rates at the molecular level.",
"This field is referred to as reaction dynamics.",
"The rate ''v'' of a first-order reaction, which could be the disintegration of a substance A, is given by::Its integration yields::Here ''k'' is the first-order rate constant, having dimension 1/time, A(''t'') is the concentration at a time ''t'' and A0 is the initial concentration.",
"The rate of a first-order reaction depends only on the concentration and the properties of the involved substance, and the reaction itself can be described with a characteristic half-life.",
"More than one time constant is needed when describing reactions of higher order.",
"The temperature dependence of the rate constant usually follows the Arrhenius equation::where ''E''a is the activation energy and ''k''B is the Boltzmann constant.",
"One of the simplest models of reaction rate is the collision theory.",
"More realistic models are tailored to a specific problem and include the transition state theory, the calculation of the potential energy surface, the Marcus theory and the Rice–Ramsperger–Kassel–Marcus (RRKM) theory."
],
[
"Reaction types",
"===Four basic types===Representation of four basic chemical reactions types: synthesis, decomposition, single replacement and double replacement.====Synthesis====In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance.",
"These reactions are in the general form:A + B->ABTwo or more reactants yielding one product is another way to identify a synthesis reaction.",
"One example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to form iron(II) sulfide:8Fe + S8->8FeSAnother example is simple hydrogen gas combined with simple oxygen gas to produce a more complex substance, such as water.====Decomposition====A decomposition reaction is when a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts.",
"It is thus the opposite of a synthesis reaction and can be written asAB->A + BOne example of a decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water to make oxygen and hydrogen gas:2H2O->2H2 + O2====Single displacement====In a single displacement reaction, a single uncombined element replaces another in a compound; in other words, one element trades places with another element in a compound These reactions come in the general form of:A + BC->AC + BOne example of a single displacement reaction is when magnesium replaces hydrogen in water to make magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas:Mg + 2H2O->Mg(OH)2 + H2 (^)====Double displacement====In a double displacement reaction, the anions and cations of two compounds switch places and form two entirely different compounds.",
"These reactions are in the general form:AB + CD->AD + CBFor example, when barium chloride (BaCl2) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) react, the SO42− anion switches places with the 2Cl− anion, giving the compounds BaSO4 and MgCl2.Another example of a double displacement reaction is the reaction of lead(II) nitrate with potassium iodide to form lead(II) iodide and potassium nitrate:Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI->PbI2(v) + 2KNO3===Forward and backward reactions===According to Le Châtelier's Principle, reactions may proceed in the forward or reverse direction until they end or reach equilibrium.====Forward reactions====Reactions that proceed in the forward direction to approach equilibrium are often called spontaneous reactions, that is, is negative, which means that if they occur at constant temperature and pressure, they decrease the Gibbs free energy of the reaction.",
"They don't require much energy to proceed in the forward direction.",
"Most reactions are forward reactions.",
"Examples:* Reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to form water.",
": + * Dissociation of acetic acid in water into acetate ions and hydronium ions.",
": + + ====Backward reactions====Reactions that proceed in the backward direction to approach equilibrium are often called non-spontaneous reactions, that is, is positive, which means that if they occur at constant temperature and pressure, they increase the Gibbs free energy of the reaction.",
"They require input of energy to proceed in the forward direction.",
"Examples include:* Charging a normal DC battery (consisting of electrolytic cells) from an external electrical power source* Photosynthesis driven by absorption of electromagnetic radiation usually in the form of sunlight: + + → + ===Combustion===In a combustion reaction, an element or compound reacts with an oxidant, usually oxygen, often producing energy in the form of heat or light.",
"Combustion reactions frequently involve a hydrocarbon.",
"For instance, the combustion of 1 mole (114 g) of octane in oxygenC8H18(l) + 25/2 O2(g)->8CO2 + 9H2O(l)releases 5500 kJ.",
"A combustion reaction can also result from carbon, magnesium or sulfur reacting with oxygen.2Mg(s) + O2->2MgO(s)S(s) + O2(g)->SO2(g)===Oxidation and reduction===Illustration of a redox reactionSodium chloride is formed through the redox reaction of sodium metal and chlorine gasRedox reactions can be understood in terms of the transfer of electrons from one involved species (reducing agent) to another (oxidizing agent).",
"In this process, the former species is ''oxidized'' and the latter is ''reduced''.",
"Though sufficient for many purposes, these descriptions are not precisely correct.",
"Oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation state of atoms and reduction as a decrease in oxidation state.",
"In practice, the transfer of electrons will always change the oxidation state, but there are many reactions that are classed as \"redox\" even though no electron transfer occurs (such as those involving covalent bonds).In the following redox reaction, hazardous sodium metal reacts with toxic chlorine gas to form the ionic compound sodium chloride, or common table salt:2Na(s) + Cl2(g)->2NaCl(s)In the reaction, sodium metal goes from an oxidation state of 0 (as it is a pure element) to +1: in other words, the sodium lost one electron and is said to have been oxidized.",
"On the other hand, the chlorine gas goes from an oxidation of 0 (it is also a pure element) to −1: the chlorine gains one electron and is said to have been reduced.",
"Because the chlorine is the one reduced, it is considered the electron acceptor, or in other words, induces oxidation in the sodium – thus the chlorine gas is considered the oxidizing agent.",
"Conversely, the sodium is oxidized or is the electron donor, and thus induces a reduction in the other species and is considered the ''reducing agent''.Which of the involved reactants would be a reducing or oxidizing agent can be predicted from the electronegativity of their elements.",
"Elements with low electronegativities, such as most metals, easily donate electrons and oxidize – they are reducing agents.",
"On the contrary, many oxides or ions with high oxidation numbers of their non-oxygen atoms, such as , , , , or , can gain one or two extra electrons and are strong oxidizing agents.For some main-group elements the number of electrons donated or accepted in a redox reaction can be predicted from the electron configuration of the reactant element.",
"Elements try to reach the low-energy noble gas configuration, and therefore alkali metals and halogens will donate and accept one electron, respectively.",
"Noble gases themselves are chemically inactive.The overall redox reaction can be balanced by combining the oxidation and reduction half-reactions multiplied by coefficients such that the number of electrons lost in the oxidation equals the number of electrons gained in the reduction.An important class of redox reactions are the electrolytic electrochemical reactions, where electrons from the power supply at the negative electrode are used as the reducing agent and electron withdrawal at the positive electrode as the oxidizing agent.",
"These reactions are particularly important for the production of chemical elements, such as chlorine or aluminium.",
"The reverse process, in which electrons are released in redox reactions and chemical energy is converted to electrical energy, is possible and used in batteries.===Complexation===Ferrocene – an iron atom sandwiched between two C5H5 ligandsIn complexation reactions, several ligands react with a metal atom to form a coordination complex.",
"This is achieved by providing lone pairs of the ligand into empty orbitals of the metal atom and forming dipolar bonds.",
"The ligands are Lewis bases, they can be both ions and neutral molecules, such as carbon monoxide, ammonia or water.",
"The number of ligands that react with a central metal atom can be found using the 18-electron rule, saying that the valence shells of a transition metal will collectively accommodate 18 electrons, whereas the symmetry of the resulting complex can be predicted with the crystal field theory and ligand field theory.",
"Complexation reactions also include ligand exchange, in which one or more ligands are replaced by another, and redox processes which change the oxidation state of the central metal atom.===Acid–base reactions===In the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, an acid–base reaction involves a transfer of protons (H+) from one species (the acid) to another (the base).",
"When a proton is removed from an acid, the resulting species is termed that acid's conjugate base.",
"When the proton is accepted by a base, the resulting species is termed that base's conjugate acid.",
"In other words, acids act as proton donors and bases act as proton acceptors according to the following equation:\\underset{acid}{HA} + \\underset{base}{B} \\underset{conjugated\\ base}{A^-} + \\underset{conjugated\\ acid}{HB+}The reverse reaction is possible, and thus the acid/base and conjugated base/acid are always in equilibrium.",
"The equilibrium is determined by the acid and base dissociation constants (''K''a and ''K''b) of the involved substances.",
"A special case of the acid-base reaction is the neutralization where an acid and a base, taken at the exact same amounts, form a neutral salt.Acid-base reactions can have different definitions depending on the acid-base concept employed.",
"Some of the most common are:* Arrhenius definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H3O+ ions; bases dissociate in water releasing OH− ions.",
"* Brønsted–Lowry definition: Acids are proton (H+) donors, bases are proton acceptors; this includes the Arrhenius definition.",
"* Lewis definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors, and bases are electron-pair donors; this includes the Brønsted-Lowry definition.===Precipitation===PrecipitationPrecipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical reaction.",
"It usually takes place when the concentration of dissolved ions exceeds the solubility limit and forms an insoluble salt.",
"This process can be assisted by adding a precipitating agent or by the removal of the solvent.",
"Rapid precipitation results in an amorphous or microcrystalline residue and a slow process can yield single crystals.",
"The latter can also be obtained by recrystallization from microcrystalline salts.===Solid-state reactions===Reactions can take place between two solids.",
"However, because of the relatively small diffusion rates in solids, the corresponding chemical reactions are very slow in comparison to liquid and gas phase reactions.",
"They are accelerated by increasing the reaction temperature and finely dividing the reactant to increase the contacting surface area.===Reactions at the solid/gas interface===The reaction can take place at the solid|gas interface, surfaces at very low pressure such as ultra-high vacuum.",
"Via scanning tunneling microscopy, it is possible to observe reactions at the solid|gas interface in real space, if the time scale of the reaction is in the correct range.",
"Reactions at the solid|gas interface are in some cases related to catalysis.===Photochemical reactions===In this Paterno–Büchi reaction, a photoexcited carbonyl group is added to an unexcited olefin, yielding an oxetane.In photochemical reactions, atoms and molecules absorb energy (photons) of the illumination light and convert it into an excited state.",
"They can then release this energy by breaking chemical bonds, thereby producing radicals.",
"Photochemical reactions include hydrogen–oxygen reactions, radical polymerization, chain reactions and rearrangement reactions.Many important processes involve photochemistry.",
"The premier example is photosynthesis, in which most plants use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, disposing of oxygen as a side-product.",
"Humans rely on photochemistry for the formation of vitamin D, and vision is initiated by a photochemical reaction of rhodopsin.",
"In fireflies, an enzyme in the abdomen catalyzes a reaction that results in bioluminescence.",
"Many significant photochemical reactions, such as ozone formation, occur in the Earth atmosphere and constitute atmospheric chemistry."
],
[
"Catalysis",
"Schematic potential energy diagram showing the effect of a catalyst in an endothermic chemical reaction.",
"The presence of a catalyst opens a different reaction pathway (in red) with lower activation energy.",
"The final result and the overall thermodynamics are the same.Solid heterogeneous catalysts are plated on meshes in ceramic catalytic converters in order to maximize their surface area.",
"This exhaust converter is from a Peugeot 106 S2 1100In catalysis, the reaction does not proceed directly, but through a reaction with a third substance known as catalyst.",
"Although the catalyst takes part in the reaction, forming weak bonds with reactants or intermediates, it is returned to its original state by the end of the reaction and so is not consumed.",
"However, it can be inhibited, deactivated or destroyed by secondary processes.",
"Catalysts can be used in a different phase (heterogeneous) or in the same phase (homogeneous) as the reactants.",
"In heterogeneous catalysis, typical secondary processes include coking where the catalyst becomes covered by polymeric side products.",
"Additionally, heterogeneous catalysts can dissolve into the solution in a solid-liquid system or evaporate in a solid–gas system.",
"Catalysts can only speed up the reaction – chemicals that slow down the reaction are called inhibitors.",
"Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons.",
"With a catalyst, a reaction that is kinetically inhibited by high activation energy can take place in the circumvention of this activation energy.Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids, powdered in order to maximize their surface area.",
"Of particular importance in heterogeneous catalysis are the platinum group metals and other transition metals, which are used in hydrogenations, catalytic reforming and in the synthesis of commodity chemicals such as nitric acid and ammonia.",
"Acids are an example of a homogeneous catalyst, they increase the nucleophilicity of carbonyls, allowing a reaction that would not otherwise proceed with electrophiles.",
"The advantage of homogeneous catalysts is the ease of mixing them with the reactants, but they may also be difficult to separate from the products.",
"Therefore, heterogeneous catalysts are preferred in many industrial processes."
],
[
"Reactions in organic chemistry",
"In organic chemistry, in addition to oxidation, reduction or acid-base reactions, a number of other reactions can take place which involves covalent bonds between carbon atoms or carbon and heteroatoms (such as oxygen, nitrogen, halogens, etc.).",
"Many specific reactions in organic chemistry are name reactions designated after their discoverers.===Substitution===In a substitution reaction, a functional group in a particular chemical compound is replaced by another group.",
"These reactions can be distinguished by the type of substituting species into a nucleophilic, electrophilic or radical substitution.In the first type, a nucleophile, an atom or molecule with an excess of electrons and thus a negative charge or partial charge, replaces another atom or part of the \"substrate\" molecule.",
"The electron pair from the nucleophile attacks the substrate forming a new bond, while the leaving group departs with an electron pair.",
"The nucleophile may be electrically neutral or negatively charged, whereas the substrate is typically neutral or positively charged.",
"Examples of nucleophiles are hydroxide ion, alkoxides, amines and halides.",
"This type of reaction is found mainly in aliphatic hydrocarbons, and rarely in aromatic hydrocarbon.",
"The latter have high electron density and enter nucleophilic aromatic substitution only with very strong electron withdrawing groups.",
"Nucleophilic substitution can take place by two different mechanisms, SN1 and SN2.In their names, S stands for substitution, N for nucleophilic, and the number represents the kinetic order of the reaction, unimolecular or bimolecular.The SN1 reaction proceeds in two steps.",
"First, the leaving group is eliminated creating a carbocation.",
"This is followed by a rapid reaction with the nucleophile.In the SN2 mechanisms, the nucleophile forms a transition state with the attacked molecule, and only then the leaving group is cleaved.",
"These two mechanisms differ in the stereochemistry of the products.",
"SN1 leads to the non-stereospecific addition and does not result in a chiral center, but rather in a set of geometric isomers (''cis/trans'').",
"In contrast, a reversal (Walden inversion) of the previously existing stereochemistry is observed in the SN2 mechanism.Electrophilic substitution is the counterpart of the nucleophilic substitution in that the attacking atom or molecule, an electrophile, has low electron density and thus a positive charge.",
"Typical electrophiles are the carbon atom of carbonyl groups, carbocations or sulfur or nitronium cations.",
"This reaction takes place almost exclusively in aromatic hydrocarbons, where it is called electrophilic aromatic substitution.",
"The electrophile attack results in the so-called σ-complex, a transition state in which the aromatic system is abolished.",
"Then, the leaving group, usually a proton, is split off and the aromaticity is restored.",
"An alternative to aromatic substitution is electrophilic aliphatic substitution.",
"It is similar to the nucleophilic aliphatic substitution and also has two major types, SE1 and SE2Mechanism of electrophilic aromatic substitutionIn the third type of substitution reaction, radical substitution, the attacking particle is a radical.",
"This process usually takes the form of a chain reaction, for example in the reaction of alkanes with halogens.",
"In the first step, light or heat disintegrates the halogen-containing molecules producing radicals.",
"Then the reaction proceeds as an avalanche until two radicals meet and recombine.:;X.",
"+ R-H -> X-H + R.:;R. + X2 -> R-X + X.:: Reactions during the chain reaction of radical substitution ===Addition and elimination===The addition and its counterpart, the elimination, are reactions that change the number of substituents on the carbon atom, and form or cleave multiple bonds.",
"Double and triple bonds can be produced by eliminating a suitable leaving group.",
"Similar to the nucleophilic substitution, there are several possible reaction mechanisms that are named after the respective reaction order.",
"In the E1 mechanism, the leaving group is ejected first, forming a carbocation.",
"The next step, the formation of the double bond, takes place with the elimination of a proton (deprotonation).",
"The leaving order is reversed in the E1cb mechanism, that is the proton is split off first.",
"This mechanism requires the participation of a base.",
"Because of the similar conditions, both reactions in the E1 or E1cb elimination always compete with the SN1 substitution.E2 eliminationThe E2 mechanism also requires a base, but there the attack of the base and the elimination of the leaving group proceed simultaneously and produce no ionic intermediate.",
"In contrast to the E1 eliminations, different stereochemical configurations are possible for the reaction product in the E2 mechanism, because the attack of the base preferentially occurs in the anti-position with respect to the leaving group.",
"Because of the similar conditions and reagents, the E2 elimination is always in competition with the SN2-substitution.Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromideThe counterpart of elimination is an addition where double or triple bonds are converted into single bonds.",
"Similar to substitution reactions, there are several types of additions distinguished by the type of the attacking particle.",
"For example, in the electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide, an electrophile (proton) attacks the double bond forming a carbocation, which then reacts with the nucleophile (bromine).",
"The carbocation can be formed on either side of the double bond depending on the groups attached to its ends, and the preferred configuration can be predicted with the Markovnikov's rule.",
"This rule states that \"In the heterolytic addition of a polar molecule to an alkene or alkyne, the more electronegative (nucleophilic) atom (or part) of the polar molecule becomes attached to the carbon atom bearing the smaller number of hydrogen atoms.",
"\"If the addition of a functional group takes place at the less substituted carbon atom of the double bond, then the electrophilic substitution with acids is not possible.",
"In this case, one has to use the hydroboration–oxidation reaction, wherein the first step, the boron atom acts as electrophile and adds to the less substituted carbon atom.",
"In the second step, the nucleophilic hydroperoxide or halogen anion attacks the boron atom.While the addition to the electron-rich alkenes and alkynes is mainly electrophilic, the nucleophilic addition plays an important role in the carbon-heteroatom multiple bonds, and especially its most important representative, the carbonyl group.",
"This process is often associated with elimination so that after the reaction the carbonyl group is present again.",
"It is, therefore, called an addition-elimination reaction and may occur in carboxylic acid derivatives such as chlorides, esters or anhydrides.",
"This reaction is often catalyzed by acids or bases, where the acids increase the electrophilicity of the carbonyl group by binding to the oxygen atom, whereas the bases enhance the nucleophilicity of the attacking nucleophile.Acid-catalyzed addition-elimination mechanismNucleophilic addition of a carbanion or another nucleophile to the double bond of an alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl compound can proceed via the Michael reaction, which belongs to the larger class of conjugate additions.",
"This is one of the most useful methods for the mild formation of C–C bonds.Some additions which can not be executed with nucleophiles and electrophiles can be succeeded with free radicals.",
"As with the free-radical substitution, the radical addition proceeds as a chain reaction, and such reactions are the basis of the free-radical polymerization.===Other organic reaction mechanisms===The Cope rearrangement of 3-methyl-1,5-hexadieneIn a rearrangement reaction, the carbon skeleton of a molecule is rearranged to give a structural isomer of the original molecule.",
"These include hydride shift reactions such as the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement, where a hydrogen, alkyl or aryl group migrates from one carbon to a neighboring carbon.",
"Most rearrangements are associated with the breaking and formation of new carbon-carbon bonds.",
"Other examples are sigmatropic reaction such as the Cope rearrangement.Cyclic rearrangements include cycloadditions and, more generally, pericyclic reactions, wherein two or more double bond-containing molecules form a cyclic molecule.",
"An important example of cycloaddition reaction is the Diels–Alder reaction (the so-called 4+2 cycloaddition) between a conjugated diene and a substituted alkene to form a substituted cyclohexene system.Whether a certain cycloaddition would proceed depends on the electronic orbitals of the participating species, as only orbitals with the same sign of wave function will overlap and interact constructively to form new bonds.",
"Cycloaddition is usually assisted by light or heat.",
"These perturbations result in a different arrangement of electrons in the excited state of the involved molecules and therefore in different effects.",
"For example, the 4+2 Diels-Alder reactions can be assisted by heat whereas the 2+2 cycloaddition is selectively induced by light.",
"Because of the orbital character, the potential for developing stereoisomeric products upon cycloaddition is limited, as described by the Woodward–Hoffmann rules."
],
[
"Biochemical reactions",
"Illustration of the induced fit model of enzyme activityBiochemical reactions are mainly controlled by enzymes.",
"These proteins can specifically catalyze a single reaction so that reactions can be controlled very precisely.",
"The reaction takes place in the active site, a small part of the enzyme which is usually found in a cleft or pocket lined by amino acid residues, and the rest of the enzyme is used mainly for stabilization.",
"The catalytic action of enzymes relies on several mechanisms including the molecular shape (\"induced fit\"), bond strain, proximity and orientation of molecules relative to the enzyme, proton donation or withdrawal (acid/base catalysis), electrostatic interactions and many others.The biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms are collectively known as metabolism.",
"Among the most important of its mechanisms is the anabolism, in which different DNA and enzyme-controlled processes result in the production of large molecules such as proteins and carbohydrates from smaller units.",
"Bioenergetics studies the sources of energy for such reactions.",
"Important energy sources are glucose and oxygen, which can be produced by plants via photosynthesis or assimilated from food and air, respectively.",
"All organisms use this energy to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which can then be used to energize other reactions."
],
[
"Applications",
"Thermite reaction proceeding in railway welding.",
"Shortly after this, the liquid iron flows into the mould around the rail gap.Chemical reactions are central to chemical engineering, where they are used for the synthesis of new compounds from natural raw materials such as petroleum, mineral ores, and oxygen in air.",
"It is essential to make the reaction as efficient as possible, maximizing the yield and minimizing the number of reagents, energy inputs and waste.",
"Catalysts are especially helpful for reducing the energy required for the reaction and increasing its reaction rate.Some specific reactions have their niche applications.",
"For example, the thermite reaction is used to generate light and heat in pyrotechnics and welding.",
"Although it is less controllable than the more conventional oxy-fuel welding, arc welding and flash welding, it requires much less equipment and is still used to mend rails, especially in remote areas."
],
[
"Monitoring",
"Mechanisms of monitoring chemical reactions depend strongly on the reaction rate.",
"Relatively slow processes can be analyzed in situ for the concentrations and identities of the individual ingredients.",
"Important tools of real-time analysis are the measurement of pH and analysis of optical absorption (color) and emission spectra.",
"A less accessible but rather efficient method is the introduction of a radioactive isotope into the reaction and monitoring how it changes over time and where it moves to; this method is often used to analyze the redistribution of substances in the human body.",
"Faster reactions are usually studied with ultrafast laser spectroscopy where utilization of femtosecond lasers allows short-lived transition states to be monitored at a time scaled down to a few femtoseconds."
],
[
"See also",
"* Chemical equation* Chemical reaction** Substrate** Reagent** Catalyst** Product* Chemical reaction model* Chemist* Chemistry* Combustion* Limiting reagent* List of organic reactions* Mass balance* Microscopic reversibility* Organic reaction* Reaction progress kinetic analysis* Reversible reaction"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Charleston"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Charleston''' most commonly refers to:* Charleston, South Carolina* Charleston, West Virginia, the state capital* Charleston (dance)'''Charleston''' may also refer to:"
],
[
"Places",
"===Australia===* Charleston, South Australia===Canada===* Charleston, Newfoundland and Labrador* Charleston, Nova Scotia===New Zealand===* Charleston, New Zealand===United Kingdom===* Charleston Farmhouse, Sussex, artists' house open to the public* Charleston, Angus, near Dundee, Scotland* Charleston, Dundee, Scotland* Charleston, Paisley, Scotland===United States===* Charleston, Arizona* Charleston, Arkansas* Charleston, Illinois* Charleston, Iowa* Charleston, Kansas* Charleston, Kentucky* Charleston, Maine* Charleston, Mississippi* Charleston, Missouri* Charleston, Nevada* Charleston, New Jersey* Charleston, New York* Charleston, Staten Island, in New York City, New York* Charleston, North Carolina* Charleston, Oklahoma* Charleston, Oregon* Charleston, Tennessee* Charleston, Utah* Charleston, Vermont* Charleston County, South Carolina* Charleston Township, Coles County, Illinois* Charleston Township, Kalamazoo County, Michigan* Charleston Township, Tioga County, Pennsylvania* Mount Charleston, Nevada, Clark County, a town* Mount Charleston, Nevada, a mountain* North Charleston, South Carolina* South Charleston, Ohio* South Charleston, West Virginia* West Charleston, Ohio"
],
[
"Naval history",
"* USS ''Charleston'', several US Navy ships* ''Charleston'', later Texan schooner ''Zavala''"
],
[
"Railway stations",
"* Charleston station (West Virginia), US* North Charleston station, South Carolina, US"
],
[
"Education",
"* Charleston Collegiate School, South Carolina* Charleston High School (disambiguation)* College of Charleston, in South Carolina** Charleston Cougars, the school's athletic program* University of Charleston, West Virginia** Charleston Golden Eagles, the school's athletic program* Charleston Academy, Inverness, Scotland"
],
[
"Music",
"* \"Charleston\" (1923 song)* \"Charleston\", a song by Brendan James* Charleston (Den Harrow song)* \"Charleston\", a song by Sons of Bill* \"Charleston\", a track on the 1979 Mike Oldfield album ''Platinum''"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* Charleston (name)* ''Charleston'' (novel),by John Jakes, 2002* ''Charleston'', a 1981 novel by Alexandra Ripley* ''Charleston'' (1974 film), Italy* ''Charleston'' (1977 film), Italy* Charleston Open, a tennis tournament, Charleston, South Carolina* Charleston, a procedure in mahjong* Charleston, a model of the Citroën 2CV car* Charleston, restaurant in Baltimore, Maryland"
],
[
"See also",
"* Charleston metropolitan area (disambiguation)* Charlestown (disambiguation)* Charlton (disambiguation)* Charlottetown (disambiguation)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Casiquiare canal"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Casiquiare river''' () is a distributary of the upper Orinoco flowing southward into the Rio Negro, in Venezuela, South America.",
"As such, it forms a unique natural canal between the Orinoco and Amazon river systems.",
"It is the world's largest river of the kind that links two major river systems, a so-called bifurcation.",
"The area forms a water divide, more dramatically at regional flood stage."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The name ''Casiquiare'', first used in that form by Manuel Román, likely derives from the Ye'kuana language name of the river, ''Kashishiwadi''."
],
[
"Discovery",
"Casiquiare river or channel, connecting the rivers Orinoco and Negro in the Amazonas forest.",
"The map was drafted based on Alexander von Humboldt 1799 survey of the area.The first to discover and describe it was Cristóbal Diatristán de Acuña in 1639.In 1744 a Jesuit priest named Manuel Román, while ascending the Orinoco River in the region of La Esmeralda, met some Portuguese slave-traders from the settlements on the Rio Negro.",
"The Portuguese insisted they were not in Spanish territory but on a tributary of the Amazon; they invited Román back with them to prove their claim.",
"He accompanied them on their return, by way of the Casiquiare canal, and afterwards retraced his route to the Orinoco.",
"Along the way, he made first contact with the Ye'kuana people, whom he enlisted to help in his journey.",
"Charles Marie de La Condamine, seven months later, was able to give to the ''Académie française'' an account of Father Román's voyage, and thus confirm the existence of this waterway, first reported by Father Acuña in 1639.Little credence was given to Román's statement until it was verified, in 1756, by the Spanish Boundary-line Commission of José Yturriaga and Solano.",
"In 1800 German scientist Alexander von Humboldt and French botanist Aimé Bonpland explored the river.",
"During a 1924–25 expedition, Alexander H. Rice Jr. of Harvard University traveled up the Orinoco, traversed the Casiquiare canal, and descended the Rio Negro to the Amazon at Manaus.",
"It was the first expedition to use aerial photography and shortwave radio for mapping of the region.",
"In 1968 the Casiquiare was navigated by an SRN6 hovercraft during a National Geographic expedition."
],
[
"Geography",
"The Casiquiare (bottom left) is separated from the OrinocoThe origin of the Casiquiare, at the River Orinoco, is below the mission of La Esmeralda at , and about above sea level.",
"Its mouth at the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon River, is near the town of San Carlos and is above sea level.The general course is south-west, and its length, including windings, is about .",
"Its width, at its bifurcation with the Orinoco, is approximately , with a current towards the Rio Negro of .",
"However, as it gains in volume from the very numerous tributary streams, large and small, that it receives en route, its velocity increases, and in the wet season reaches , even in certain stretches.",
"It broadens considerably as it approaches its mouth, where it is about wide.",
"The volume of water the Casiquiare captures from the Orinoco is small in comparison to what it accumulates in its course.",
"Nevertheless, the geological processes are ongoing, and evidence points to a slow and gradual increase in the size of Casiquiare.",
"It is likely that stream capture is in progress, i.e.",
"what currently is the uppermost Orinoco basin, including Cunucunuma River, eventually will be entirely diverted by the Casiquiare into the Amazon basin.In flood time, it is said to have a second connection with the Rio Negro by a branch, which it throws off to the westward, called the Itinivini, which leaves it at a point about above its mouth.",
"In the dry season, it has shallows, and is obstructed by sandbanks, a few rapids and granite rocks.",
"Its shores are densely wooded, and the soil more fertile than that along the Rio Negro.",
"The general slope of the plains through which the canal runs is south-west, but those of the Rio Negro slope south-east.The Casiquiare is not a sluggish canal on a flat tableland, but a great, rapid river which, if its upper waters had not found contact with the Orinoco, perhaps by cutting back, would belong entirely to the Negro branch of the Amazon.To the west of the Casiquiare, there is a much shorter and easier portage between the Orinoco and Amazon basins, called the isthmus of Pimichin, which is reached by ascending the Temi branch of the Atabapo River, an affluent of the Orinoco.",
"Although the Temi is somewhat obstructed, it is believed that it could easily be made navigable for small craft.",
"The isthmus is across, with undulating ground, nowhere over high, with swamps and marshes.",
"In the early 20th century, it was much used for the transit of large canoes, which were hauled across it from the Temi River and reached the Rio Negro by a little stream called the Pimichin."
],
[
"Hydrographic divide",
"Sunset on the Casiquiare River, in the State of Amazonas (Venezuela)The Casiquiare canal – Orinoco River hydrographic divide is a representation of the hydrographic water divide that delineates the separation between the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin.",
"(The Orinoco Basin flows west–north–northeast into the Caribbean; the Amazon Basin flows east into the western Atlantic in the extreme northeast of Brazil.",
")Essentially the river divide is a west-flowing, upriver section of Venezuela's Orinoco River with an outflow to the south into the Amazon Basin.",
"This named outflow is the Casiquiare canal, which, as it heads downstream (southerly), picks up speed and also accumulates water volume.The greatest manifestation of the divide is during floods.",
"During flood stage, the Casiquiare's main outflow point into the Rio Negro is supplemented by an overflow that is a second, and more minor, entry river bifurcation into the Rio Negro and upstream from its major, common low-water entry confluence with the Rio Negro.",
"At flood, the river becomes an area flow source, far more than a narrow confined river.The Casiquiare canal connects the upper Orinoco, below the mission of Esmeraldas, with the Rio Negro affluent of the Amazon River near the town of San Carlos.The simplest description (besides the entire area-floodplain) of the water divide is a \"south-bank Orinoco River strip\" at the exit point of the Orinoco, also the origin of the Casiquiare canal.",
"However, during the Orinoco's flood stage, that single, simply defined \"origin of the canal\" is turned into a region, and an entire strip along the southern bank of the Orinoco River."
],
[
"See also",
"*''Crypturellus casiquiare'', the barred tinamou."
],
[
"References",
"===Sources===**VARESCHI, Volkmar.",
"''Orinoco arriba.",
"A través de Venezuela siguiendo a Humboldt''.",
"Caracas: Ediciones Lectura, 1959===Notes==="
],
[
"External links",
"* The point where the Casiquiare bifurcates from the Orinoco, on Google Maps* Wikimapia satellite image displaying locations of both the beginning (principio) and the end (desague) of the Casiquiare Canal."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Capetian dynasty"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Capetian dynasty''' (; ), also known as the \"House of France\", is a dynasty of European origin, and a branch of the Robertians.",
"It is among the largest and oldest royal houses in Europe and the world, and consists of Hugh Capet, the founder of the dynasty, and his male-line descendants, who ruled in France without interruption from 987 to 1792, and again from 1814 to 1848.The senior line ruled in France as the House of Capet from the election of Hugh Capet in 987 until the death of Charles IV in 1328.That line was succeeded by cadet branches, the Houses of Valois and then Bourbon, which ruled without interruption until the French Revolution abolished the monarchy in 1792.The Bourbons were restored in 1814 in the aftermath of Napoleon's defeat, but had to vacate the throne again in 1830 in favor of the last Capetian monarch of France, Louis Philippe I, who belonged to the House of Orléans.Cadet branches of the Capetian House of Bourbon are still reigning over Spain and Luxembourg.The dynasty had a crucial role in the formation of the French state.",
"Initially obeyed only in their own demesne, the Île-de-France, the Capetian kings slowly but steadily increased their power and influence until it grew to cover the entirety of their realm.",
"For a detailed narration on the growth of French royal power, see ''Crown lands of France''.Members of the dynasty were traditionally Catholic, and the early Capetians had an alliance with the Church.",
"The French were also the most active participants in the Crusades, culminating in a series of five Crusader kings – Louis VII, Philip Augustus, Louis VIII, Louis IX, and Philip III.",
"The Capetian alliance with the papacy suffered a severe blow after the disaster of the Aragonese Crusade.",
"Philip III's son and successor, Philip IV, humiliated Pope Boniface VIII and brought the papacy under French control.",
"The later Valois, starting with Francis I, ignored religious differences and allied with the Ottoman sultan to counter the growing power of the Holy Roman Empire.",
"Henry IV was a Protestant at the time of his accession, but realized the necessity of conversion after four years of religious warfare.The Capetians generally enjoyed a harmonious family relationship.",
"By tradition, younger sons and brothers of the king of France were given appanages for them to maintain their rank and to dissuade them from claiming the French crown itself.",
"When Capetian cadets did aspire for kingship, their ambitions were directed not at the French throne, but at foreign thrones.",
"As a result, the Capetians have reigned at different times in the kingdoms of Portugal, Sicily and Naples, Navarre, Hungary and Croatia, Poland, Spain and Sardinia, grand dukedoms of Lithuania and Luxembourg, and in Latin and Brazilian empires.In modern times, King Felipe VI of Spain is a member of this family, while Grand Duke Henri of Luxembourg is related to the family by agnatic kinship; both through the Bourbon branch of the dynasty.",
"Along with the House of Habsburg, arguably its greatest historic rival, it was one of the two oldest European royal dynasties.",
"It was also the most powerful royal family in European history, having played a major role in its politics for much of its existence.",
"According to Oxford University, 75% of all royal families in European history, are related to the Capetian dynasty."
],
[
"Name origins and usage",
"The name of the dynasty derives from its founder, Hugh, who was known as \"Hugh Capet\".",
"The meaning of \"Capet\" (a nickname rather than a surname of the modern sort) is unknown.",
"While folk etymology identifies it with \"cape\", other suggestions indicate it might be connected to the Latin word ''caput'' (\"head\"), and explain it as meaning \"chief\" or \"head\".Historians in the 19th century (see House of France) came to apply the name \"Capetian\" to both the ruling house of France and to the wider-spread male-line descendants of Hugh Capet.",
"It was not a contemporary practice.",
"The name \"Capet\" has also been used as a surname for French royalty, particularly but not exclusively those of the House of Capet.",
"One notable use was during the French Revolution, when the dethroned King Louis XVI (a member of the House of Bourbon and a direct male-line descendant of Hugh Capet) and Queen Marie Antoinette (a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine) were referred to as \"Louis and Antoinette Capet\" (the queen being addressed as \"the Widow Capet\" after the execution of her husband)."
],
[
"Capetian miracle",
"12th-century portrait of Hugh Capet.",
"His direct descendants ruled France for many centuries.",
"The '''Capetian miracle''' () refers to the dynasty's ability to attain and hold onto the French crown.In 987, Hugh Capet was elected to succeed Louis V of the Carolingian dynasty that had ruled France for over three centuries.",
"By a process of associating elder sons with them in the kingship, the early Capetians established the hereditary succession in their family and transformed a theoretically electoral kingship into a sacral one.",
"By the time of Philip II Augustus, who became king in 1180, the Capetian hold on power was so strong that the practice of associate kingship was dropped.",
"While the Capetian monarchy began as one of the weakest in Europe, drastically eclipsed by the new Anglo-Norman realm in England (who, as dukes of Normandy, were technically their vassals) and even other great lords of France, the political value of orderly succession in the Middle Ages cannot be overstated.",
"The orderly succession of power from father to son over such a long period of time meant that the French monarchs, who originally were essentially just the direct rulers of the Île-de-France, were able to preserve and extend their power, while over the course of centuries the great peers of the realm would eventually lose their power in one succession crisis or another.By comparison, the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem was constantly beset with internal succession disputes because each generation only produced female heirs who tended to die young.",
"Even the English monarchy encountered severe succession crises, such as The Anarchy of the 1120s between Stephen and Matilda, and the murder of Arthur I, Duke of Brittany, the primogeniture heir of Richard I of England.",
"The latter case would deal a severe blow to the prestige of King John, leading to the eventual destruction of Angevin hegemony in France.",
"In contrast, the French kings were able to maintain uncontested father-to-son succession from the time of Hugh Capet until the succession crisis which began the Hundred Years' War of the 14th century."
],
[
"The Robertians and before",
"The dynastic surname now used to describe Hugh Capet's family prior to his election as King of France is \"Robertians\" or \"Robertines.\"",
"The name is derived from the family's first certain ancestor, Robert the Strong (b.",
"820), the count of Paris.",
"Robert was probably son of Robert III of Worms (b.",
"800) and grandson of Robert of Hesbaye (b.",
"770).",
"The Robertians probably originated in the county Hesbaye, around Tongeren in modern-day Belgium.",
"The sons of Robert the Strong were Odo and Robert, who both ruled as king of Western Francia.",
"The family became Counts of Paris under Odo and Dukes of the Franks under Robert, possessing large parts of Neustria.In the late 9th century, King Robert I, grandfather of Hugh Capet, married Beatrice of Vermandois, a direct descendant of Charlemagne, thus making the Capetian dynasty a cadet branch of the Carolingian dynasty.The Carolingian dynasty ceased to rule France upon the death of Louis V. After the death of Louis V, the son of Hugh the Great, Hugh Capet, was elected by the nobility as king of France.",
"Hugh was crowned at Noyon on 3 July 987 with the full support from Holy Roman Emperor Otto III.",
"With Hugh's coronation, a new era began for France, and his descendants came to be named the ''Capetians,'' with the Capetian dynasty and its cadet branches such as the House of Valois ruling France for more than 800 years (987–1848, with two interruptions during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, first between 1792 and 1814, and then for three months in 1815.",
")=== Robertian family branches ===*Rodbert**Ingerman of Hesbaye***Ermengarde of Hesbaye, wife of Louis the Pious**Cancor, founder of the Lorsch Abbey***Heimrich (−795), count in the Lahngau****Poppo of Grapfeld (−839/41), ancestor of the Frankish House of Babenberg**Landrada***Saint Chrodogang, Archbishop of Metz, Abbot of the Lorsch Abbey**Robert of Hesbaye***Robert III of Worms****Robert the Strong*****Odo, king of Western Francia*****Richildis, married to a count of Troyes*****Robert, king of Western Francia******Emma, married Rudolph of Burgundy******Adela, married Herbert II, Count of Vermandois******Hugh the Great*******Hugh Capet, founder House of Capet********Hadwig, married Reginar IV, Count of Mons********Robert II*******Otto-Henry*******Odo*******Beatrix, married Frederick of Bar*******Emma, married Richard I of Normandy*******Herbert, bishop of Auxerre"
],
[
"Capetians through history",
"Genealogy of the Third Lineage of King of the Franks''Over the succeeding centuries, Capetians spread throughout Europe, ruling every form of provincial unit from kingdoms to manors.=== Salic law ===Salic law, re-established during the Hundred Years' War from an ancient Frankish tradition, caused the French monarchy to permit only male (agnatic) descendants of Hugh to succeed to the throne of France.Without Salic law, upon the death of John I, the crown would have passed to his half-sister, Joan (later Joan II of Navarre).",
"However, Joan's paternity was suspect due to her mother's adultery in the Tour de Nesle Affair; the French magnates adopted Salic law to avoid the succession of a possible bastard.In 1328, King Charles IV of France died without male heirs, as his brothers did before him.",
"Philip of Valois, the late king's first cousin, acted as regent, pending the birth of the king's posthumous child, which proved to be a girl.",
"Isabella of France, sister of Charles IV, claimed the throne for her son, Edward III of England.",
"The English king did not find support among the French lords, who made Philip of Valois their king.",
"From then on the French succession not only excluded females but also rejected claims based on the female line of descent.Thus the French crown passed from the House of Capet after the death of Charles IV to Philip VI of France of the House of Valois, a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty,*then to Louis II, Duke of Orléans, of the Orléans branch of the Valois, who became Louis XII of France,*then to Francis, Duke of Valois, Count of Angoulème, who became Francis I of France, and his descendants, of the Orléans-Angoulème,*then to Henry III of Navarre, who became Henry IV of France, of the House of Bourbon, a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty.This did not affect monarchies not under that law such as Portugal, Spain, Navarre, and various smaller duchies and counties.",
"Therefore, many royal families appear and disappear in the French succession or become cadet branches upon marriage.",
"A complete list of the senior-most line of Capetians is available below.=== Capetian cadet branches ===The Capetian dynasty has been broken many times into (sometimes rival) cadet branches.",
"A cadet branch is a line of descent from another line than the senior-most.",
"This list of cadet branches shows most of the Capetian cadet lines and designating their royal French progenitor, although some sub-branches are not shown.",
"* Hugh Capet** Robert II of France*** Henry I of France**** Philip I of France***** Louis VI of France****** Louis VII of France******* Philip II of France******** Louis VIII of France********* Louis IX of France********** Philip III of France*********** Philip IV of France*********** 25px '''House of Valois'''*********** 25px '''House of Évreux'''********** 25px '''House of Bourbon'''********* 25px '''House of Artois'''********* 25px '''House of Anjou'''****** 25px '''House of Dreux'''****** 25px '''House of Courtenay'''**** 25px '''House of Vermandois'''*** 25px '''House of Burgundy'''==== Descendants of Philip III of France ====* House of Valois (1293–1498)** House of Valois-Orléans (1392–1515)*** House of Orléans-Angoulême (1407–1589)** House of Valois-Anjou (1356–1481)** House of Valois-Burgundy (1364–1477)*** House of Burgundy-Brabant (1404–1430)*** House of Burgundy-Nevers (1404–1491)** House of Valois-Alençon (1325–1525)* House of Évreux (1303–1400)** House of Évreux-Navarre (1328–1425)==== Descendants of Louis IX of France ====* House of Bourbon (1268–1503)** House of Bourbon-Montpensier, counts (1443–1527)** House of Bourbon-La Marche (1356–1438)*** House of Bourbon-Vendôme (became Royal House of France in 1589)**** House of Artois (1775–1883)**** House of Bourbon, Spanish branch (1700–present)***** Carlists (1819–1936)***** Alfonsines (1819–present)****** House of Bourbon-Anjou (1933–present)****** House of Bourbon, Spanish royal family (1933–present)***** House of Bourbon-Seville (1823–)***** House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1751–present)***** House of Bourbon-Braganza (1752–1979)***** House of Bourbon-Parma (1748–present)****** Parma-Luxembourg, called House of Nassau-Weilburg (1919–present)**** House of Orléans (1661–)***** Orléans-Nemours, then (1891) House of Orléans-Braganza (1864–present)****** Orléans-Alençon (1844–1970)***** Orléans-Aumale (1822–1872)***** Orléans-Montpensier, then House of Orléans-Galliera (1824–present)**** House of Bourbon-Condé (1557–1830)***** House of Bourbon-Conti (1629–1814)***** House of Bourbon-Soissons (1569–1641)**** House of Bourbon-Montpensier, dukes (1477–1608)*** House of Bourbon-Carency (1393–1520)**** House of Bourbon-Duisant (1457–1530)*** House of Bourbon-Preaux (1385–1429)==== Descendants of Louis VIII of France ====* House of Artois (1237–1472)* House of Anjou (initially ruling house of Sicily, then of Naples, became ruling house of Hungary) (1247–1382)** House of Anjou-Naples (1309–1343)** House of Anjou–Taranto (1294–1374)** House of Anjou–Durazzo (1309–1414)==== Descendants of Louis VI of France ====* House of Dreux (1137–1345)** Breton House of Dreux (1213–1341)*** House of Montfort (1322–1488)* Capetian House of Courtenay (1150–1727)** Capetian House of Courtenay – Latin emperors of Constantinople (1217–1283)==== Descendants of Henry I of France ====* Capetian House of Vermandois (1085–1212)==== Descendants of Robert II of France ====* House of Burgundy (1032–1361)** Portuguese House of Burgundy (1109–1383)*** ''House of Aviz'' (1385–1580) – illegitimate male-line descent from Burgundy**** ''House of Braganza'' (1442–present) – illegitimate male-line descent from Aviz***** ''House of Cadaval'' (1645–present), the male line went extinct in 2001=== Sovereigns from the Capetian dynasty ======= Latin Empire====* Peter (1216–1217)* Robert (1219–1228)* Baldwin II (1228–1273, exiled in 1261)* Philip I (1273–1283)* Catherine I (1283–1307)* Catherine II (1307–1346)* Robert II (1346–1364)* Philip II (1364–1374)==== Kingdom of Albania ====* Charles I (1272–1285)* Charles II (1285–1294)* Philip (1294–1331)* Robert (1331–1332)* John (1332–1336)* Charles III (1336–1348)* Joan I (1348–1368)* Louis (1376–1383)==== Kingdom of Etruria ====* Louis (1801–1803)* Charles Louis (1803–1807)==== Kingdom of France ====* Hugh (987–996)* Robert II (996–1031)* Henry I (1031–1060)* Philip I (1060–1108)* Louis VI (1108–1137)* Louis VII (1137–1180)* Philip II (1180–1223)* Louis VIII (1223–1226)* Louis IX (1226–1270)* Philip III (1270–1285)* Philip IV (1285–1314)* Louis X (1314–1316)* John I (1316)* Philip V (1316–1322)* Charles IV (1322–1328)* Philip VI (1328–1350)* John II (1350–1364)* Charles V (1364–1380)* Charles VI (1380–1422)* Charles VII (1422–1461)* Louis XI (1461–1483)* Charles VIII (1483–1498)* Louis XII (1498–1515)* Francis I (1515–1547)* Henry II (1547–1559)* Francis II (1559–1560)* Charles IX (1560–1574)* Henry III (1574–1589)* Henry IV (1589–1610)* Louis XIII (1610–1643)* Louis XIV (1643–1715)* Louis XV (1715–1774)* Louis XVI (1774–1792)* Louis XVIII (1814–1815, 1815–1824)* Charles X (1824–1830)* Louis Philip (1830–1848)==== Kingdom of Hungary ====* Charles I (1310–1342)* Louis I (1342–1382)* Mary (1382–1385, 1386–1395)* Charles II (1385–1386)==== Kingdom of Naples ====* Charles I (1266–1285)* Charles II (1285–1309)* Robert (1309–1343)* Joan I (1343–1382)* Charles III (1382–1386)* Ladislas (1386–1414)* Joan II (1414–1435)* René I (1435–1442)* Philip (1700–1707)* Charles VII (1735–1759)* Ferdinand IV (1759–1816)==== Kingdom of Navarre ====* Philip I (1284–1305)* Louis I (1305–1316)* John I (1316–1316)* Philip II (1316–1322)* Charles I (1322–1328)* Joan II (1328–1349)* Philip III (1328–1343)* Charles II (1349–1387)* Charles III (1387–1425)* Blanche I (1425–1441)* Anthony (1555–1562)* Henry III (1572–1610)* Louis II (1610–1643)* Louis III (1643–1715)* Louis IV (1715–1774)* Louis V (1774–1792)* Louis VII (1814–1815, 1815–1824)* Charles V (1824–1830)* Louis Philip (1830–1848)==== Kingdom of Poland ====* Louis (1370–1382)* Hedwig (1384–1399)* Henry (1573–1574)==== Kingdom and County of Portugal ====* Henry (1093–1112)* Alphonse I (1112–1185, crowned in 1139)* Sancho I (1185–1211)* Alphonse II (1211–1223)* Sancho II (1223–1247)* Alphonse III (1247–1279)* Denis (1279–1325)* Alphonse IV (1325–1357)* Peter I (1357–1367)* Ferdinand I (1367–1383)==== Kingdom of Sicily ====* Charles I (1266–1282)* Philip (1700–1713)* Charles VII (1735–1759)* Ferdinand III (1759–1816)==== Kingdom of Spain ====* Philip V (1700–1724, 1724–1746)* Louis I (1724)* Ferdinand VI (1746–1759)* Charles III (1759–1788)* Charles IV (1788–1808, 1808)* Ferdinand VII (1808, 1813–1833)* Isabella II (1833–1868)* Alphonse XII (1874–1885)* Alphonse XIII (1886–1931)* John Charles I (1975–2014)* Philip VI (2014–)==== Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ====* Ferdinand I (1816–1825)* Francis I (1825–1830)* Ferdinand II (1830–1859)* Francis II (1859–1860)==== Grand Duchy of Lithuania ====* Henry (1573–1574)==== Grand Duchy of Luxembourg ====* Jean (1964–2000)* Henri (2000–)==== Duchy of Brabant ====* Anthony (1406–1415)* John IV (1415–1427)* Philip I (1427–1430)* Philip II (1430–1467)* Charles (1467–1477)* Mary (1477–1482)==== Duchy of Brittany ====* Peter I (1213–1237)* John I (1237–1286)* John II (1286–1305)* Arthur II (1305–1316)* John III (1312–1341)* John IV (1341–1345)* John V (1364–1399)* John VI (1399–1442)* Francis I (1442–1450)* Peter II (1450–1457)* Arthur III (1457–1458)* Francis II (1458–1488)* Anne (1488–1514)* Claude (1514–1524)* Francis III (1514–1524)* Francis IV (1524–1536)* Henry (1536–1547)==== Duchy of Burgundy ====* Otto of Paris (956–965)* Odo-Henry (965–1002)* Henry I (1026–1032)* Robert I (1032–1076)* Hugh I (1076–1079)* Odo I (1079–1103)* Hugh II (1103–1143)* Odo II (1143–1162)* Hugh III (1162–1192)* Odo III (1192–1218)* Hugh IV (1218–1272)* Robert II (1272–1306)* Hugh V (1306–1315)Charles the Bold as a boy stands next to his father, Philip the Good, c. 1447–8* Odo IV (1315–1349)* Philip I (1349–1361)* John I (1361–1363)* Philip II (1363–1404)* John II (1404–1419)* Philip III (1419–1467)* Charles (1467–1477)* Mary (1477–1482)==== Duchy of Lorraine ====* René I (1431–1453)* John II (1453–1470)* Nicholas I (1470–1473)* Yolande (1473–1473)==== Duchy of Lucca ====* Maria Louisa (1815–1824)* Charles (1824–1847)==== Duchy of Luxemburg ====* Anthony (1411–1415)* Philip I (1443–1467)* Charles (1467–1477)* Mary (1477–1482)* Philip V (1700–1712)==== Duchy of Milan ====* Louis I (1499–1512)* Francis II (1515–1521)* Philip IV (1700–1714)==== Duchy of Parma ====* Charles I (1731–1735)* Philip (1748–1765)* Ferdinand (1765–1802)* Charles II (1847–1849)* Charles III (1849–1854)* Robert I (1854–1859)==== Principality of Achaea ====* Charles I (1278–1285)* Charles II (1285–1289)* Philip I (1307–1313)* Louis (1313–1316)* Robert I (1318–1322)* Robert II (1333–1364)* Catherine II (1333–1346)* Philip II (1364–1373)* Joan I (1373–1381)* Charles III (1383–1386)==== Principality of Taranto ====* Charles I (1266–1285)* Charles II (1285–1294)* Philip I (1294–1331)* Robert II (1331–1346, 1362–1364)* Louis (1346–1362)* Philip II (1362–1374)* Ladislaus (1406–1414)* James (1414–1420)==== Marquisate of Namur ====* Philip II (1212–1226)* Henry II (1226–1229)* Margaret (1229–1237)* Baldwin II (1237–1256)* Philip IV (1421–1467)* Charles I (1467–1477)* Mary I (1477–1482)=== Illegitimate descent ======= Empire of Brazil ====* Peter I (1822–1831)* Peter II (1831–1889)==== Kingdom of Portugal ====* John I (1385–1433)* Edward (1433–1438)* Alphonse V (1438–1481)* John II (1481–1495)* Manuel I (1495–1521)* John III, (1521–1557)* Sebastian, (1557–1578)* Henry (1578–1580)* Anthony (1580–1580, disputed)* John IV (1640–1656)* Alphonse VI (1656–1683)* Peter II (1683–1706)* John V (1706–1750)* Joseph I (1750–1777)* Peter III (1777–1786)* Mary I (1777–1816)* John VI (1816–1826)* Peter IV (1826–1826)* Mary II (1826–1828, 1834–1853)* Michael I (1828–1834)"
],
[
"Senior Capets",
"Throughout most of history, the '''Senior Capet''' and the King of France were synonymous terms.",
"Only in the time before Hugh Capet took the crown for himself and after the reign of Charles X is there a distinction such that the senior Capet must be identified independently from succession to the French Crown.",
"However, since primogeniture and the Salic law provided for the succession of the French throne for most of French history, here is a list of all the French kings from Hugh until Charles, and all the Legitimist pretenders thereafter.",
"All dates are for seniority, not reign.King of France:* Hugh, King of France (987–996)* Robert II, King of France (996–1031)* Henry I, King of France (1031–1060)* Philip I, King of France (1060–1108)* Louis VI, King of France (1108–1137)* Louis VII, King of France (1137–1180)* Philip II, King of France (1180–1223)* Louis VIII, King of France (1223–1226)* Louis IX, King of France (1226–1270)* Philip III, King of France (1271–1285)* Philip IV, King of France (1285–1314)* Louis X, King of France (1314–1316)* John I, King of France (1316–1316)* Philip V, King of France (1316–1322)* Charles IV, King of France (1322–1328)* Philip VI, King of France (1328–1350)* John II, King of France (1350–1364)* Charles V, King of France (1364–1380)* Charles VI, King of France (1380–1422)* Charles VII, King of France (1422–1461)* Louis XI, King of France (1461–1483)* Charles VIII, King of France (1483–1498)* Louis XII, King of France (1498–1515)* Francis I, King of France (1515–1547)* Henry II, King of France (1547–1559)* Francis II, King of France (1559–1560)* Charles IX, King of France (1560–1574)* Henry III, King of France (1574–1589)* Henry IV, King of France (1589–1610)* Louis XIII, King of France (1610–1643)* Louis XIV, King of France (1643–1715)* Louis XV, King of France (1715–1774)* Louis XVI, King of France (1774–1793)* Louis XVII, King of France (1793–1795)* Louis XVIII, King of France (1795–1824)* Charles X, King of France (1824–1836)Legitimist Pretenders:* Louis Anthony, Duke of Angoulême (1836–1844)* Henry, Count of Chambord (1844–1883)* John, Count of Montizón (1883–1887)* Charles, Duke of Madrid (1887–1909)* James, Duke of Anjou and Madrid (1909–1931)* Alphonse Charles, Duke of San Jaime (1931–1936)* Alphonse XIII, King of Spain (1936–1941)* James Henry, Duke of Anjou and Segovia (1941–1975)* Alphonse, Duke of Anjou and Cádiz (1975–1989)* Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou (1989–)"
],
[
"The Capetian dynasty today",
"Many years have passed since the Capetian monarchs ruled a large part of Europe; however, they still remain as kings, as well as other titles.",
"Currently two Capetian monarchs still rule in Spain and Luxembourg.",
"In addition, seven pretenders represent exiled dynastic monarchies in Brazil, France, Spain, Portugal, Parma and Two Sicilies.",
"The current legitimate, senior family member is Louis-Alphonse de Bourbon, known by his supporters as Duke of Anjou, who also holds the Legitimist (''Blancs d'Espagne'') claim to the French throne.",
"Overall, dozens of branches of the Capetian dynasty still exist throughout Europe.Except for the House of Braganza (founded by an illegitimate son of King John I of Portugal, who was himself illegitimate), all current major Capetian branches are of the Bourbon cadet branch.",
"Within the House of Bourbon, many of these lines are themselves well-defined cadet lines of the House.=== Current Capetian rulers ===* Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (since 2000)*Felipe VI, King of Spain (since 2014)=== Current Capetian pretenders ===* Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou, Legitimist pretender to the Kingdom of France since 1989.",
"* Prince Pedro, Duke of Calabria, Calabrian pretender to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies since 2015.",
"* Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro, Castroist pretender to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies since 2008.",
"* Carlos, Duke of Parma, pretender to the Duchy of Parma since 2010 and one of the Carlist pretender to the Kingdom of Spain since 2010.",
"* Prince Sixtus Henry of Bourbon-Parma, the other Carlist pretenders to the Kingdom of Spain since 1979.",
"* Jean, Count of Paris, Orléanist pretender to the Kingdom of France since 2019.",
"* Prince Pedro Carlos of Orléans-Braganza, Petrópolis pretender to the Empire of Brazil since 2007.",
"* Prince Bertrand of Orléans-Braganza, Vassouras pretender to the Empire of Brazil since 2022.",
"* Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza, pretender to the Kingdom of Portugal since 1976.",
"* Balthazar Napoleon IV de Bourbon, Raja of Bhopal of the Bourbon-Bhopal dynasty* Philippe, Count of Châlus of Bourbon-Busset"
],
[
"Arms of cadet branches"
],
[
"See also",
"*French monarchs family tree*''Genealogiae scriptoris Fusniacensis''*Capetian Armorial"
],
[
"Notes",
"===Works cited===*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Ingmar Krause: ''Konflikt und Ritual im Herrschaftsbereich der frühen Capetinger – Untersuchungen zur Darstellung und Funktion symbolischen Verhaltens''.",
".",
"Rhema-Verlag, Münster 2006, *Fawtier, Robert.",
"''The Capetian Kings of France: Monarchy & Nation (987–1328)''.",
"Macmillan, 1960.",
"(translated from French edition of 1941)*Hallam, Elizabeth M. ''Capetian France 987–1328''.",
"Longman, 1980.",
"*Le Hête, Thierry.",
"''Les Capetiens: Le Livre du Millenaire''.",
"Editions Christian, 1987."
],
[
"External links",
"* Genealogies of the Capetian dynasty from Genealogy.eu* Capetian Kings: Chart of 148 Kings, France, Spain, England, etc, 500 yr timeline and wiki links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cuboctahedron"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''cuboctahedron''' is a polyhedron with 8 triangular faces and 6 square faces.",
"A cuboctahedron has 12 identical vertices, with 2 triangles and 2 squares meeting at each, and 24 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a square.",
"As such, it is a quasiregular polyhedron, i.e.",
"an Archimedean solid that is not only vertex-transitive but also edge-transitive.",
"It is radially equilateral.Its dual polyhedron is the rhombic dodecahedron.The cuboctahedron was probably known to Plato: Heron's ''Definitiones'' quotes Archimedes as saying that Plato knew of a solid made of 8 triangles and 6 squares."
],
[
"Synonyms",
"*''Vector Equilibrium'' (Buckminster Fuller) because its center-to-vertex radius equals its edge length (it has radial equilateral symmetry).",
"Fuller also called a cuboctahedron built of rigid struts and flexible vertices a ''jitterbug''; this object can be progressively transformed into an icosahedron, octahedron, and tetrahedron by folding along the diagonals of its square sides.",
"*With Oh symmetry, order 48, it is a ''rectified cube'' or ''rectified octahedron'' (Norman Johnson)*With Td symmetry, order 24, it is a ''cantellated tetrahedron'' or rhombitetratetrahedron.",
"*With D3d symmetry, order 12, it is a ''triangular gyrobicupola''."
],
[
"Orthogonal projections",
"The ''cuboctahedron'' has four special orthogonal projections, centered on a vertex, an edge, and the two types of faces, triangular and square.",
"The last two correspond to the B2 and A2 Coxeter planes.",
"The skew projections show a square and hexagon passing through the center of the cuboctahedron.+ Cuboctahedron (orthogonal projections)SquareFaceTriangularFaceVertexEdgeSkew70px80px60px80px80px80px80px80px80px4622Rhombic dodecahedron (Dual polyhedron)80px80px80px80px80px80px"
],
[
"Spherical tiling",
"The spherical cuboctahedron is formed by four great circles.The cuboctahedron can also be represented as a spherical tiling, and projected onto the plane via a stereographic projection.",
"This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths.",
"Straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane.150px155px160px160pxorthographic projectionsquare-centeredtriangle-centeredVertex centeredStereographic projection"
],
[
"Structure",
"===Coordinates===The Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a cuboctahedron (of edge length ) centered at the origin are::(±1,±1,0):(±1,0,±1):(0,±1,±1)An alternate set of coordinates can be made in 4-space, as 12 permutations of::(0,1,1,2)This construction exists as one of 16 orthant facets of the cantellated 16-cell.===Root vectors===The cuboctahedron's 12 vertices can represent the root vectors of the simple Lie group A3.With the addition of 6 vertices of the octahedron, these vertices represent the 18 root vectors of the simple Lie group B3.===Metric properties===The area ''A'' and the volume ''V'' of the cuboctahedron of edge length ''a'' are::"
],
[
"Dissection",
"===Tetrahedra and Octahedra===The cuboctahedron can be dissected into 6 square pyramids and 8 tetrahedra meeting at a central point.",
"This dissection is expressed in the tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb where pairs of square pyramids are combined into octahedra.",
": 160px===Irregular polyhedra===The ''cuboctahedron'' can be dissected into two triangular cupolas by a common hexagon passing through the center of the cuboctahedron.",
"If these two triangular cupolas are twisted so triangles and squares line up, Johnson solid J27, the triangular orthobicupola, is created.",
": 120px120px120px"
],
[
"Geometric relations",
"Progression between a tetrahedron, expanded into a cuboctahedron, and reverse expanded into the dual tetrahedron=== Radial equilateral symmetry ===In a cuboctahedron, the long radius (center to vertex) is the same as the edge length; thus its long diameter (vertex to opposite vertex) is 2 edge lengths.",
"Its center is like the apical vertex of a pyramid: one edge length away from ''all'' the other vertices.",
"(In the case of the cuboctahedron, the center is in fact the apex of 6 square and 8 triangular pyramids).",
"This radial equilateral symmetry is a property of only a few uniform polytopes, including the two-dimensional hexagon, the three-dimensional cuboctahedron, and the four-dimensional 24-cell and 8-cell (tesseract).",
"''Radially equilateral'' polytopes are those which can be constructed, with their long radii, from equilateral triangles which meet at the center of the polytope, each contributing two radii and an edge.",
"Therefore, all the interior elements which meet at the center of these polytopes have equilateral triangle inward faces, as in the dissection of the cuboctahedron into 6 square pyramids and 8 tetrahedra.",
"Each of these radially equilateral polytopes also occurs as cells of a characteristic space-filling tessellation: the tiling of regular hexagons, the rectified cubic honeycomb (of alternating cuboctahedra and octahedra), the 24-cell honeycomb and the tesseractic honeycomb, respectively.",
"Each tessellation has a dual tessellation; the cell centers in a tessellation are cell vertices in its dual tessellation.",
"The densest known regular sphere-packing in two, three and four dimensions uses the cell centers of one of these tessellations as sphere centers.A cuboctahedron has octahedral symmetry.",
"Its first stellation is the compound of a cube and its dual octahedron, with the vertices of the cuboctahedron located at the midpoints of the edges of either.=== Constructions ===A cuboctahedron can be obtained by taking an equatorial cross section of a four-dimensional 24-cell or 16-cell.",
"A hexagon or a square can be obtained by taking an equatorial cross section of a cuboctahedron.The cuboctahedron is a rectified cube and also a rectified octahedron.It is also a cantellated tetrahedron.",
"With this construction it is given the Wythoff symbol: .",
"50pxA skew cantellation of the tetrahedron produces a solid with faces parallel to those of the cuboctahedron, namely eight triangles of two sizes, and six rectangles.",
"While its edges are unequal, this solid remains ''vertex-uniform'': the solid has the full tetrahedral symmetry group and its vertices are equivalent under that group.The edges of a cuboctahedron form four regular hexagons.",
"If the cuboctahedron is cut in the plane of one of these hexagons, each half is a triangular cupola, one of the Johnson solids; the cuboctahedron itself thus can also be called a triangular gyrobicupola, the simplest of a series (other than the gyrobifastigium or \"digonal gyrobicupola\").",
"If the halves are put back together with a twist, so that triangles meet triangles and squares meet squares, the result is another Johnson solid, the triangular orthobicupola, also called an anticuboctahedron.Both triangular bicupolae are important in sphere packing.",
"The distance from the solid's center to its vertices is equal to its edge length.",
"Each central sphere can have up to twelve neighbors, and in a face-centered cubic lattice these take the positions of a cuboctahedron's vertices.",
"In a hexagonal close-packed lattice they correspond to the corners of the triangular orthobicupola.",
"In both cases the central sphere takes the position of the solid's center.Cuboctahedra appear as cells in three of the convex uniform honeycombs and in nine of the convex uniform 4-polytopes.The volume of the cuboctahedron is of that of the enclosing cube and of that of the enclosing octahedron.=== Vertex arrangement ===Because it is radially equilateral, the cuboctahedron's center is one edge length distant from the 12 vertices.The cuboctahedron shares its edges and vertex arrangement with two nonconvex uniform polyhedra: the cubohemioctahedron (having the square faces in common) and the octahemioctahedron (having the triangular faces in common), both have four hexagons.",
"It also serves as a cantellated tetrahedron, as being a rectified tetratetrahedron.100pxCuboctahedron100pxits equator100pxCubohemioctahedron100pxOctahemioctahedronThe cuboctahedron 2-covers the tetrahemihexahedron, which accordingly has the same abstract vertex figure (two triangles and two squares: 3.4.3.4) and half the vertices, edges, and faces.",
"(The actual vertex figure of the tetrahemihexahedron is 3.4..4, with the factor due to the cross.",
")100pxCuboctahedron100pxTetrahemihexahedron===Kinematics===Progressions between an octahedron, pseudoicosahedron, and cuboctahedron.",
"The cuboctahedron can flex this way even if its edges (but not its faces) are rigid.When interpreted as a framework of rigid flat faces, connected along the edges by hinges, the cuboctahedron is a rigid structure, as are all convex polyhedra, by Cauchy's theorem.",
"However, when the faces are removed, leaving only rigid edges connected by flexible joints at the vertices, the result is not a rigid system(unlike polyhedra whose faces are all triangles, to which Cauchy's theorem applies despite the missing faces).Adding a central vertex, connected by rigid edges to all the other vertices, subdivides the cuboctahedron into square pyramids and tetrahedra, meeting at the central vertex.",
"Unlike the cuboctahedron itself, the resulting system of edges and joints is rigid, and forms part of the infinite octet truss structure."
],
[
"Related polytopes",
"===Regular polyhedra===The cuboctahedron is one of a family of uniform polyhedra related to the cube and regular octahedron.The cuboctahedron also has tetrahedral symmetry with two colors of triangles.=== Quasiregular polyhedra and tilings ===The cuboctahedron exists in a sequence of symmetries of quasiregular polyhedra and tilings with vertex configurations (3.",
"''n'')2, progressing from tilings of the sphere to the Euclidean plane and into the hyperbolic plane.",
"With orbifold notation symmetry of *''n''32 all of these tilings are wythoff construction within a fundamental domain of symmetry, with generator points at the right angle corner of the domain.This polyhedron is topologically related as a part of sequence of cantellated polyhedra with vertex figure (3.4.",
"''n''.4), and continues as tilings of the hyperbolic plane.",
"These vertex-transitive figures have (*''n''32) reflectional symmetry.===4-dimensional polytopes===Orthogonal projections of 24-cellThe cuboctahedron can be decomposed into a regular octahedron and eight irregular but equal octahedra in the shape of the convex hull of a cube with two opposite vertices removed.",
"This decomposition of the cuboctahedron corresponds with the cell-first parallel projection of the 24-cell into three dimensions.",
"Under this projection, the cuboctahedron forms the projection envelope, which can be decomposed into six square faces, a regular octahedron, and eight irregular octahedra.",
"These elements correspond with the images of six of the octahedral cells in the 24-cell, the nearest and farthest cells from the 4D viewpoint, and the remaining eight pairs of cells, respectively."
],
[
"Cuboctahedral graph",
"In the mathematical field of graph theory, a '''cuboctahedral graph''' is the graph of vertices and edges of the cuboctahedron, one of the Archimedean solids.",
"It can also be constructed as the line graph of the cube.",
"It has 12 vertices and 24 edges, is locally linear, and is a quartic Archimedean graph.+ orthogonal projection200px6-fold symmetry"
],
[
"See also",
"*Icosidodecahedron*Pseudocuboctahedron*Rhombicuboctahedron*Truncated cuboctahedron*Tetradecahedron*Snub cube"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* *** (Section 3-9)* Cromwell, P. ''Polyhedra'', CUP hbk (1997), pbk.",
"(1999).",
"Ch.2 p. 79-86 ''Archimedean solids''"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Uniform Polyhedra* Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra** The Cuboctahedron on Hexnet a website devoted to hexagon mathematics.",
"** Editable printable net of a Cuboctahedron with interactive 3D view*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Canton"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Canton''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Administrative division terminology",
"* Canton (administrative division), territorial/administrative division in some countries** Cantons of Switzerland, the member states of the Swiss Confederation* Township (Canada), known as ''canton'' in Canadian French"
],
[
"Arts and entertainment",
"* Canton (band), an Italian synth pop group* \"Canton\" (song) by Japan* Canton, a fictional town in \"Jaynestown\", an episode of ''Firefly''"
],
[
"Design",
"* Canton (building), a corner pilaster* Canton (flag), an emblem placed in the top left quarter of a flag* Canton (heraldry), a square or other charge (symbol) occupying the upper left corner of a coat of arms* Canton porcelain, Chinese ceramic ware"
],
[
"People",
"* Canton (surname), and list of people with the surname* Canton Jones, American Christian music/hip-hop artist"
],
[
"Places",
"=== Canada ===* Canton, New Brunswick, a community in Drummond Parish, New Brunswick* Canton, Ontario=== China ===* Guangdong (Canton Province), province in southern China* Guangzhou (Canton City), capital of Guangdong Province* Canton River (Pearl River), a river in southern China near Guangzhou* Canton Road, Hong Kong=== United States ===* Canton, Connecticut* Canton, Georgia* Canton, Illinois* New Canton, Illinois* Canton, Indiana* Canton, Iowa* Canton, Kansas* Canton, Maine* Canton, Baltimore, Maryland, a neighborhood and park* Canton, Massachusetts* Canton, Michigan* Canton, Minnesota* Canton, Mississippi* Canton, Missouri* Canton, Montana, a former town now situated under Canyon Ferry Lake* Canton, New Jersey* Canton, New York, a town* Canton (village), New York* Canton, North Carolina* Canton City, North Dakota* West Canton, North Carolina* Canton, Ohio* East Canton, Ohio* North Canton, Ohio* Canton, Oklahoma* Canton, Pennsylvania* Canton, South Dakota* Canton, Texas* Canton, West Virginia* Canton, Wisconsin, a town* Canton, Barron County, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community* Canton River (United States), a river in Canton, Massachusetts, United States* Canton Township (disambiguation)=== Other countries ===* Canton, Cardiff, Wales, UK** Canton (Cardiff electoral ward)* Canton Beach, New South Wales, Australia* Canton Island, Kiribati*"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* ''Canton'' (1790 EIC ship), an East Indiaman* Canton (basketball), a 1906–1907 basketball team in Canton, Ohio, US* Canton (liqueur), a ginger-flavored liqueur* Cantoning, the division of soldiers into groups for the purpose of billeting on campaign or to garrison a territory* Cantonment, soldiers encamped and awaiting action* Canton Fair, a biannual trade fair in Canton (Guangzhou), China* Canton System, a Chinese trade policy from 1757 to 1842* Canton System (Prussia), unrelated to the above - a system of recruitment to the Prussian Army* A metonym for the Pro Football Hall of Fame, located in Canton, Ohio, US* Canton Electronics, German loudspeaker manufacturer"
],
[
"See also",
"* Kanton (disambiguation)* Cantone (disambiguation)* Cantonese (disambiguation)* Guangzhou (disambiguation)* Cantons of Switzerland* Cantonist, sons of Russian conscripts who were educated in special canton schools* East Cantons, a region of eastern Belgium* Afrin Canton, one of the cantons of the autonomous Democratic Federation of Northern Syria* Shahba Canton, one of the cantons of the autonomous Democratic Federation of Northern Syria* Pancit canton, a Philippine noodle dish"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Class"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Class, Classes,''' or '''The Class''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Common uses not otherwise categorized",
"* Class (biology), a taxonomic rank* Class (knowledge representation), a collection of individuals or objects* Class (philosophy), an analytical concept used differently from such group phenomena as \"types\" or \"kinds\"* Class (set theory), a collection of sets that can be unambiguously defined by a property that all its members share* Hazard class, a dangerous goods classification* Social class, the hierarchical arrangement of individuals in society, usually defined by wealth and occupation* Working class, can be defined by rank, income or collar"
],
[
"Arts, entertainment, and media",
"*\"The Class\" (song), 1959 Chubby Checker song*Character class in role-playing games and other genres*Class 95 (radio station), a Singaporean radio channel===Films===*''Class'' (film), 1983 American film*''The Class'' (2007 film), 2007 Estonian film*''The Class'' (2008 film), 2008 film (''Entre les murs'')===Television===*''Class'' (2016 TV series), a 2016 British spinoff from ''Doctor Who''*''The Class'' (TV series), a CBS sitcom*''Class'' (2023 TV series), a 2023 Indian Netflix teen drama===Literature===*''Class: A Guide Through the American Status System'' by Paul Fussell*''Class'' (Pacifico novel), a 2014 novel by Francesco Pacifico*''Class'' (Rosenfeld novel), a 2017 novel by Lucinda Rosenfeld*''The Class'' (Segal novel), a 1985 novel by Erich Segal"
],
[
"Computing",
"*Class (computer programming), a fundamental concept of object-oriented programming*Class (warez), a defunct group in the warez scene*C++ classes, program-specific data types *Class attribute (HTML), a feature of many HTML and XHTML elements*Class attributes (computer programming), defining the structure of a class*Complexity class, a set of problems of related complexity in computational complexity theory*Java class file, the interpretable bytecode of a compiled Java program*Pseudo-class, in cascading style sheets*Type class, a type system construct that supports polymorphism"
],
[
"Education",
"* Class (education), a group of students attending a specific course or lesson* Class, a course (education)* Class, a lesson or course session, in education* Classroom, a room where classes are held"
],
[
"Law and government",
"* Class, a group of people involved in a class action lawsuit* Classes of United States senators, for describing the schedules of elections for Senate seats"
],
[
"Transportation",
"*Class (locomotive), a single design of a locomotive as assigned by the railroad*Class rating, an allowance to fly aircraft of similar design*Classification of United States railroads:**Class I railroad**Class II railroad**Class III railroad*Ship class, a group of ships of similar design*Travel class, a quality of accommodation on public transport*Vehicle size class, a way of classifying cars"
],
[
"See also",
"* CLASS (disambiguation)* Klass (disambiguation)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Critical point"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Critical point''' may refer to:*Critical phenomena in physics*Critical point (mathematics), in calculus, a point where a function's derivative is either zero or nonexistent*Critical point (set theory), an elementary embedding of a transitive class into another transitive class which is the smallest ordinal which is not mapped to itself*Critical point (thermodynamics), a temperature and pressure of a material beyond which there is no longer any difference between the liquid and gas phases*Quantum critical point*Critical point (network science)*Construction point, in skiing, a line that represents the steepest point on a hill"
],
[
"See also",
"*Critical value (disambiguation)*Critical path (disambiguation)*Brillouin zone*Percolation thresholds"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cube"
],
[
"Introduction",
"3D model of a cubeIn geometry, a '''cube''' is a three-dimensional solid object bounded by six square faces, facets, or sides, with three meeting at each vertex.",
"Viewed from a corner, it is a hexagon and its net is usually depicted as a cross.The cube is the only regular hexahedron and is one of the five Platonic solids.",
"It has 6 faces, 12 edges, and 8 vertices.The cube is also a square parallelepiped, an equilateral cuboid, a right rhombohedron, and a '''3'''-zonohedron.",
"It is a regular square prism in three orientations, and a trigonal trapezohedron in four orientations.The cube is dual to the octahedron.",
"It has cubical or octahedral symmetry, and is the only convex polyhedron whose faces are all squares.",
"Its generalization for higher-dimensional spaces is called a ''hypercube''."
],
[
"Orthogonal projections",
"The ''cube'' has four special orthogonal projections, centered, on a vertex, edges, face and normal to its vertex figure.",
"The first and third correspond to the A2 and B2 Coxeter planes.+ Orthogonal projectionsCentered byFaceVertexCoxeter planes'''B2'''100px'''A2'''100pxProjectivesymmetry46Tilted views100px100px"
],
[
"Spherical tiling",
"The cube can also be represented as a spherical tiling, and projected onto the plane via a stereographic projection.",
"This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths.",
"Straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane.160px160pxOrthographic projectionStereographic projection"
],
[
"Cartesian coordinates",
"For a cube centered at the origin, with edges parallel to the axes and with an edge length of 2, the Cartesian coordinates of the vertices are:(±1, ±1, ±1)while the interior consists of all points (''x''0, ''x''1, ''x''2) with −1 ''i'' < 1 for all ''i''.=== As a configuration ===This configuration matrix represents the cube.",
"The rows and columns correspond to vertices, edges, and faces.",
"The diagonal numbers say how many of each element occur in the whole cube.",
"The nondiagonal numbers say how many of the column's element occur in or at the row's element.",
"For example, the 2 in the first column of the middle row indicates that there are 2 vertices in (i.e., at the extremes of) each edge; the 3 in the middle column of the first row indicates that 3 edges meet at each vertex."
],
[
"Equation in three dimensional space",
"In analytic geometry, a cube's surface with center (''x''0, ''y''0, ''z''0) and edge length of ''2a'' is the locus of all points (''x'', ''y'', ''z'') such that:A cube can also be considered the limiting case of a 3D superellipsoid as all three exponents approach infinity."
],
[
"Formulas",
"For a cube of edge length :surface areavolumeface diagonalspace diagonalradius of circumscribed sphereradius of sphere tangent to edgesradius of inscribed sphereangles between faces (in radians)As the volume of a cube is the third power of its sides , third powers are called ''cubes'', by analogy with squares and second powers.A cube has the largest volume among cuboids (rectangular boxes) with a given surface area.",
"Also, a cube has the largest volume among cuboids with the same total linear size (length+width+height).===Point in space===For a cube whose circumscribing sphere has radius ''R'', and for a given point in its 3-dimensional space with distances ''di'' from the cube's eight vertices, we have::"
],
[
"Doubling the cube",
"Doubling the cube, or the ''Delian problem'', was the problem posed by ancient Greek mathematicians of using only a compass and straightedge to start with the length of the edge of a given cube and to construct the length of the edge of a cube with twice the volume of the original cube.",
"They were unable to solve this problem, which in 1837 Pierre Wantzel proved it to be impossible because the cube root of 2 is not a constructible number."
],
[
"Uniform colorings and symmetry",
"Octahedral symmetry treeThe cube has three uniform colorings, named by the unique colors of the square faces around each vertex: 111, 112, 123.The cube has four classes of symmetry, which can be represented by vertex-transitive coloring the faces.",
"The highest octahedral symmetry Oh has all the faces the same color.",
"The dihedral symmetry D4h comes from the cube being a solid, with all the six sides being different colors.",
"The prismatic subsets D2d has the same coloring as the previous one and D2h has alternating colors for its sides for a total of three colors, paired by opposite sides.",
"Each symmetry form has a different Wythoff symbol.NameRegularhexahedronSquare prismRectangulartrapezoprismRectangularcuboidRhombicprismTrigonaltrapezohedronCoxeterdiagramSchläflisymbol{4,3}{4}×{ }rr{4,2}s2{2,4}{ }3tr{2,2}{ }×2{ }Wythoffsymbol 4 2 2SymmetryOh4,3(*432)D4h4,2(*422)D2d4,2+(2*2)D2h2,2(*222)D3d6,2+(2*3)Symmetryorder24168812Image(uniformcoloring)80px(111)80px(112)80px(112)80px(123)80px(112)80px(111), (112)"
],
[
"Geometric relations",
"The 11 nets of the cubeNet of a cube folding into 3 dimensionsA cube has eleven nets: that is, there are eleven ways to flatten a hollow cube by cutting seven edges.",
"To color the cube so that no two adjacent faces have the same color, one would need at least three colors.The cube is the cell of the only regular tiling of three-dimensional Euclidean space.",
"It is also unique among the Platonic solids in having faces with an even number of sides and, consequently, it is the only member of that group that is a zonohedron (every face has point symmetry).The cube can be cut into six identical square pyramids.",
"If these square pyramids are then attached to the faces of a second cube, a rhombic dodecahedron is obtained (with pairs of coplanar triangles combined into rhombic faces)."
],
[
"In theology",
"Cubes appear in Abrahamic religions.",
"The Kaaba (Arabic for 'cube') in Mecca is one example.",
"Cubes also appear in Judaism as tefillin, and the New Jerusalem is described in the New Testament as a cube."
],
[
"Other dimensions",
"The analogue of a cube in four-dimensional Euclidean space has a special name—a tesseract or hypercube.",
"More properly, a hypercube (or ''n''-dimensional cube or simply ''n''-cube) is the analogue of the cube in ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space and a tesseract is the order-4 hypercube.",
"A hypercube is also called a ''measure polytope''.There are analogues of the cube in lower dimensions too: a point in dimension 0, a line segment in one dimension and a square in two dimensions."
],
[
"Related polyhedra",
"The dual of a cube is an octahedron, seen here with vertices at the center of the cube's square faces.hemicube is the 2-to-1 quotient of the cube.The quotient of the cube by the antipodal map yields a projective polyhedron, the hemicube.If the original cube has edge length 1, its dual polyhedron (an octahedron) has edge length .The cube is a special case in various classes of general polyhedra:NameEqual edge-lengths?Equal angles?Right angles?",
"'''Cube''''''Yes''''''Yes''''''Yes'''RhombohedronYesYesNoCuboidNoYesYesParallelepipedNoYesNoquadrilaterally faced hexahedronNoNoNoThe vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four, each forming a regular tetrahedron; more generally this is referred to as a demicube.",
"These two together form a regular compound, the stella octangula.",
"The intersection of the two forms a regular octahedron.",
"The symmetries of a regular tetrahedron correspond to those of a cube which map each tetrahedron to itself; the other symmetries of the cube map the two to each other.One such regular tetrahedron has a volume of of that of the cube.",
"The remaining space consists of four equal irregular tetrahedra with a volume of of that of the cube, each.The rectified cube is the cuboctahedron.",
"If smaller corners are cut off we get a polyhedron with six octagonal faces and eight triangular ones.",
"In particular we can get regular octagons (truncated cube).",
"The rhombicuboctahedron is obtained by cutting off both corners and edges to the correct amount.A cube can be inscribed in a dodecahedron so that each vertex of the cube is a vertex of the dodecahedron and each edge is a diagonal of one of the dodecahedron's faces; taking all such cubes gives rise to the regular compound of five cubes.If two opposite corners of a cube are truncated at the depth of the three vertices directly connected to them, an irregular octahedron is obtained.",
"Eight of these irregular octahedra can be attached to the triangular faces of a regular octahedron to obtain the cuboctahedron.The cube is topologically related to a series of spherical polyhedral and tilings with order-3 vertex figures.The cuboctahedron is one of a family of uniform polyhedra related to the cube and regular octahedron.The cube is topologically related as a part of sequence of regular tilings, extending into the hyperbolic plane: {4,p}, p=3,4,5...With dihedral symmetry, Dih4, the cube is topologically related in a series of uniform polyhedral and tilings 4.2n.2n, extending into the hyperbolic plane:All these figures have octahedral symmetry.The cube is a part of a sequence of rhombic polyhedra and tilings with ''n'',3 Coxeter group symmetry.",
"The cube can be seen as a rhombic hexahedron where the rhombi are squares.The cube is a square prism:As a trigonal trapezohedron, the cube is related to the hexagonal dihedral symmetry family.+ Regular and uniform compounds of cubes100pxCompound of three cubes100pxCompound of five cubes===In uniform honeycombs and polychora===It is an element of 9 of 28 convex uniform honeycombs: Cubic honeycombTruncated square prismatic honeycombSnub square prismatic honeycombElongated triangular prismatic honeycombGyroelongated triangular prismatic honeycomb100px100px100px100px100pxCantellated cubic honeycombCantitruncated cubic honeycombRuncitruncated cubic honeycombRuncinated alternated cubic honeycomb100px100px100px100pxIt is also an element of five four-dimensional uniform polychora: TesseractCantellated 16-cellRuncinated tesseractCantitruncated 16-cellRuncitruncated 16-cell100px100px100px100px100px"
],
[
"Cubical graph",
"The skeleton of the cube (the vertices and edges) forms a graph with 8 vertices and 12 edges, called the '''cube graph'''.",
"It is a special case of the hypercube graph.",
"It is one of 5 Platonic graphs, each a skeleton of its Platonic solid.An extension is the three dimensional ''k''-ARY Hamming graph, which for ''k'' = 2 is the cube graph.",
"Graphs of this sort occur in the theory of parallel processing in computers."
],
[
"See also",
"* Pyramid* Tesseract* Trapezohedron* Prince Rupert's cube"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Works cited===*"
],
[
"External links",
"** Cube: Interactive Polyhedron Model** Volume of a cube, with interactive animation* Cube (Robert Webb's site)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Commuter rail"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Commuter rail''', or '''suburban rail''', is a passenger rail transport service that primarily operates within a metropolitan area, connecting commuters to a central city from adjacent suburbs or commuter towns.",
"Commuter rail systems are considered heavy rail, using electric or diesel trains.",
"Distance charges or zone pricing may be used.The term can refer to systems with a wide variety of different features and service frequencies, but is often used in contrast to rapid transit or light rail.Some services share similarities with both commuter rail and high-frequency rapid transit; examples being the German S-Bahn in some cities, the Réseau Express Régional (RER) in Paris, the S Lines in Milan, many Japanese commuter systems, the East Rail line in Hong Kong and some Australasian suburban networks, such as Sydney Trains.",
"Some services, like British commuter rail, share tracks with other passenger services and freight.In North America, commuter rail sometimes refers only to systems that primarily operate during peak periods and offer little to no service for the rest of the day, with regional rail being used to refer to systems that offer all-day service."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"Mumbai Suburban Railway carries more than 7.24 million commuters on a daily basispush mode.GO Transit serves the Greater Golden Horseshoe region surrounding Toronto.",
"Its train services are transitioning from a peak direction commuter railway to a Regional Express Network.Most commuter (or suburban) trains are built to main line rail standards, differing from light rail or rapid transit (metro rail) systems by:*being larger*providing more seating and less standing room, owing to the longer distances involved*having (in most cases) a lower frequency of service*having scheduled services (i.e.",
"trains run at specific times rather than at specific intervals)*serving lower-density suburban areas, typically connecting suburbs to the city center*sharing track or right-of-way with intercity and/or freight trains*not fully grade separated (containing at-grade crossings with crossing gates)*being able to skip certain stations as an express service due to normally being driver controlled===Train schedule===Compared to rapid transit (or metro rail), commuter/suburban rail often has lower frequency, following a schedule rather than fixed intervals, and fewer stations spaced further apart.",
"They primarily serve lower density suburban areas (non inner-city), generally only having one or two stops in a city's central business district, and often share right-of-way with intercity or freight trains.",
"Some services operate only during peak hours and others uses fewer departures during off peak hours and weekends.",
"Average speeds are high, often 50 km/h (30 mph) or higher.",
"These higher speeds better serve the longer distances involved.",
"Some services include express services which skip some stations in order to run faster and separate longer distance riders from short-distance ones.The general range of commuter trains' travel distance varies between 15 and 200 km (10 and 125 miles), but longer distances can be covered when the trains run between two or several cities (e.g.",
"S-Bahn in the Ruhr area of Germany).",
"Distances between stations may vary, but are usually much longer than those of urban rail systems.",
"In city centers the train either has a terminal station or passes through the city centre with notably fewer station stops than those of urban rail systems.",
"Toilets are often available on-board trains and in stations.===Track===Their ability to coexist with freight or intercity services in the same right-of-way can drastically reduce system construction costs.",
"However, frequently they are built with dedicated tracks within that right-of-way to prevent delays, especially where service densities have converged in the inner parts of the network.Most such trains run on the local standard gauge track.",
"Some systems may run on a narrower or broader gauge.",
"Examples of narrow gauge systems are found in Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Taiwan, Switzerland, in the Brisbane (Queensland Rail's City network) and Perth (Transperth) systems in Australia, in some systems in Sweden, and on the Genoa-Casella line in Italy.",
"Some countries and regions, including Finland, India, Pakistan, Russia, Brazil and Sri Lanka, as well as San Francisco (BART) in the US and Melbourne and Adelaide in Australia, use broad gauge track.===Distinction between other modes of rail=======Metro====Metro rail and rapid transit usually cover smaller inner-urban areas within of city centers, with shorter stop spacing, use rolling stocks with larger standing spaces, lower top speed and higher acceleration, designed for short-distance travel.",
"They also run more frequently, to a headway rather than a published timetable and use dedicated tracks (underground or elevated), whereas commuter rail often shares tracks, technology and the legal framework within mainline railway systems, and uses rolling stocks with more seating and higher speed for comfort on longer city-suburban journeys.",
"However, the classification as a metro or rapid rail can be difficult as both may typically cover a metropolitan area exclusively, run on separate tracks in the centre, and often feature purpose-built rolling stock.",
"The fact that the terminology is not standardised across countries (even across English-speaking countries) further complicates matters.",
"This distinction is most easily made when there are two (or more) systems such as New York's subway and the LIRR and Metro-North Railroad, Paris' Métro and RER along with Transilien, Washington D.C.'s Metro along with its MARC and VRE, London's tube lines of the Underground and the Overground, Elizabeth line, Thameslink along with other commuter rail operators, Madrid's Metro and Cercanías, Barcelona's Metro and Rodalies, and Tokyo's subway and the JR lines along with various privately owned and operated commuter rail systems.====Regional rail====Regional rail usually provides rail services between towns and cities, rather than purely linking major population hubs in the way inter-city rail does.",
"Regional rail operates outside major cities.",
"Unlike Inter-city, it stops at most or all stations between cities.",
"It provides a service between smaller communities along the line that are often byproducts of ribbon developments, and also connects with long-distance services at interchange stations located at junctions, terminals, or larger towns along the line.",
"Alternative names are \"local train\" or \"stopping train\".",
"Examples include the former BR's Regional Railways, France's TER (''Transport express régional''), Germany's Regionalexpress and Regionalbahn, and South Korea's Tonggeun services.====Inter-city rail====A Sydney Trains B set with an upper and lower deckIn some European countries, the distinction between commuter trains and long-distance/intercity trains is subtle, due to the relatively short distances involved.",
"For example, so-called \"intercity\" trains in Belgium and the Netherlands carry many commuters, while their equipment, range, and speeds are similar to those of commuter trains in some larger countries.",
"The United Kingdom has a privatised rail system, with different routes and services covered by different private operators.",
"The distinction between commuter and intercity rail is not as clear as it was before privatisation (when InterCity existed as a brand of its own), but usually it is still possible to tell them apart.",
"Some operators, for example Thameslink, focus solely on commuter services.",
"Others, such as Avanti West Coast and LNER, run solely intercity services.",
"Others still, such as GWR and EMR, run a mixture of commuter, regional and intercity services.",
"Some of these operators use different branding for different types of service (for example EMR brands its trains as either \"InterCity\", \"Connect\" for London commuter services, and \"Regional\") but even for those operators that do not, the type of train, amenities offered, and stopping pattern, usually tell the services apart.Russian commuter trains, on the other hand, frequently cover areas larger than Belgium itself, although these are still short distances by Russian standards.",
"They have a different ticketing system from long-distance trains, and in major cities they often operate from a separate section of the train station.Some consider \"inter-city\" service to be that which operates as an express service between two main city stations, bypassing intermediate stations.",
"However, this term is used in Australia (Sydney for example) to describe the regional trains operating beyond the boundaries of the suburban services, even though some of these \"inter-city\" services stop all stations similar to German regional services.",
"In this regard, the German service delineations and naming conventions are clearer and better used for academic purposes.====High-speed rail====A Tokyo-bound E4 Series Shinkansen train.",
"As of October 2021 these have since been retired.Sometimes high-speed rail can serve daily use of commuters.",
"The Japanese Shinkansen high speed rail system is heavily used by commuters in the Greater Tokyo Area, who commute between by Shinkansen.",
"To meet the demand of commuters, JR sells commuter discount passes.",
"Before 2021, they operated 16-car bilevel E4 Series Shinkansen trains at rush hour, providing a capacity of 1,600 seats.",
"Several lines in China, such as the Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Railway and the Shanghai–Nanjing High-Speed Railway, serve a similar role with many more under construction or planned.In South Korea, some sections of the high-speed rail network are also heavily used by commuters, such as the section between Gwangmyeong Station and Seoul Station on the KTX network (Gyeongbu HSR Line), or the section between Dongtan Station and Suseo station on the SRT Line.",
"The high-speed services linking Zürich, Bern and Basel in Switzerland () have brought the Central Business Districts (CBDs) of these three cities within 1 hour of each other.",
"This has resulted in unexpectedly high demand for new commuter trips between the three cities and a corresponding increase in suburban rail passengers accessing the high-speed services at the main city-centre stations (''Hauptbahnhof'').",
"The Regional-Express commuter service between Munich and Nuremberg in Germany runs at on the Nuremberg–Ingolstadt high-speed railway.The regional trains Stockholm–Uppsala, Stockholm–Västerås, Stockholm–Eskilstuna and Gothenburg–Trollhättan in Sweden reach and have many daily commuters.In Great Britain, the HS1 domestic services between London and Ashford runs at a top speed of 225 km/h, and in peak hours the trains can be full with commuters standing.",
"The Athens Suburban Railway in Greece consists of five lines, 4 of which are electrified.",
"The Kiato–Piraeus line and the Aigio–Airport lines reach speeds of up to .",
"The Athens–Chalcis line is also expected to attain speeds of up to upon upgrading of the SKA–Oinoi railway sector.",
"These lines also have many daily commuters, with the number expected to rise even higher upon full completion of the Acharnes Railway Center.Eskişehir-Ankara and Konya-Ankara high speed train routes serve as high speed commuter trains in Turkey."
],
[
"Train types",
"Commuter/suburban trains are usually optimized for maximum passenger volume, in most cases without sacrificing too much comfort and luggage space, though they seldom have all the amenities of long-distance trains.",
"Cars may be single- or double-level, and aim to provide seating for all.",
"Compared to intercity trains, they have less space, fewer amenities and limited baggage areas.===Multiple unit type===Commuter rail trains are usually composed of multiple units, which are self-propelled, bidirectional, articulated passenger rail cars with driving motors on each (or every other) bogie.",
"Depending on local circumstances and tradition they may be powered either by diesel engines located below the passenger compartment (diesel multiple units) or by electricity picked up from third rails or overhead lines (electric multiple units).",
"Multiple units are almost invariably equipped with control cabs at both ends, which is why such units are so frequently used to provide commuter services, due to the associated short turn-around time.===Locomotive hauled services===An Altamont Corridor Express train operating along the San Francisco Bay; a MPI F40PH-2C locomotive hauls a consist of Bombardier BiLevel Coaches.Locomotive hauled services are used in some countries or locations.",
"This is often a case of asset sweating, by using a single large combined fleet for intercity and regional services.",
"Loco hauled services are usually run in push-pull formation, that is, the train can run with the locomotive at the \"front\" or \"rear\" of the train (pushing or pulling).",
"Trains are often equipped with a control cab at the other end of the train from the locomotive, allowing the train operator to operate the train from either end.",
"The motive power for locomotive-hauled commuter trains may be either electric or diesel-electric, although some countries, such as Germany and some of the former Soviet-bloc countries, also use diesel-hydraulic locomotives.===Seat plans===In the US and some other countries, a three-and-two seat plan is used.",
"Middle seats on these trains are often less popular because passengers feel crowded and uncomfortable.In Japan, South Korea and Indonesia, longitudinal (sideways window-lining) seating is widely used in many commuter rail trains to increase capacity in rush hours.",
"Carriages are usually not organized to increase seating capacity (although in some trains at least one carriage would feature more doors to facilitate easier boarding and alighting and bench seats so that they can be folded up during rush hour to provide more standing room) even in the case of commuting longer than 50 km and commuters in the Greater Tokyo Area, Seoul metropolitan area, and Jabodetabek area have to stand in the train for more than an hour."
],
[
"Commuter rail systems around the world",
"===Africa===Metrorail train pulling out of Kalk Bay station in Cape TownCurrently there are not many examples of commuter rail in Africa.",
"Metrorail operates in the major cities of South Africa, and there are some commuter rail services in Algeria, Botswana, Kenya, Morocco, Egypt and Tunisia.In Algeria, SNTF operates commuter rail lines between the capital Algiers and its southern and eastern suburbs.",
"They also serve to connect Algiers' main universities to each other.",
"The Dar es Salaam commuter rail offers intracity services in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.",
"In Botswana, the (Botswana Railways) \"BR Express\" has a commuter train between Lobatse and Gaborone.===Asia=======East Asia====An E235 series train operating a through service on the JR East Yamanote Line, an example of high-density commuter rail in Japan.In Japan, commuter rail systems have extensive network and frequent service and are heavily used.",
"In many cases, Japanese commuter rail is operationally more like a typical metro system (frequent trains, an emphasis on standing passengers, short station spacings) than it is like commuter rail in other countries.",
"Japanese commuter rail commonly interline with city center subway lines, with commuter rail trains continuing into the subway network, and then out onto different commuter rail systems on the other side of the city.",
"Many Japanese commuter systems operate various stopping patterns to reduce the travel time to distant locations, often using station passing loops instead of dedicated express tracks.",
"It is notable that the larger Japanese commuter rail systems are owned and operated by for-profit private railway companies, without public subsidy.East Japan Railway Company operates a large suburban train network in Tokyo with various lines connecting the suburban areas to the city center.",
"While the Yamanote Line, Keihin Tohoku Line, Chūō–Sōbu Line services arguably are more akin to rapid transit with frequent stops, simple stopping patterns (relative to other JR East lines) no branching services and largely serving the inner suburbs; other services along the Chūō Rapid Line, Sōbu Rapid Line/Yokosuka Line, Ueno–Tokyo Line, Shōnan–Shinjuku Line etc.",
"are mid-distance services from suburban lines in the outer reaches of Greater Tokyo through operating into these lines to form a high frequency corridor though central Tokyo.Other commuter rail routes in Japan include:* Hanshin Namba Line and Kintetsu Namba Line have a busy east west underground section that allow trains from both Hanshin Electric Railway and Kintetsu Railway to access Namba, a major commercial center of Osaka, and service destinations east and west of Osaka.",
"* Osaka Metro Sakaisuji Line is a north south line that allows Hankyu services from the Senri Line, Kyoto Main Line and Arashiyama Line to enter Osaka city center.",
"* JR West Tozai Line is an underground east west corridor allowing trains from the Kobe Line, Takarazuka Line and Gakkentoshi Line to access Umeda in central Osaka.",
"*JR West Osaka Loop Line is a mostly elevated loop line that allows for services from the Yamatoji Line, Hanwa Line and Sakurajima Line to loop around central Osaka.",
"*JR West Kobe Line/Kyoto Line is a four track corridor allowing Biwako Line, Kosei Line, Takarazuka Line, San'yō Main Line and Akō Line services to service Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe.",
"*A special private railway Kōbe Rapid Transit Railway owns two underground corridors (a north south and east west line) that allow for Sanyo Electric Railway, Hankyu railway, Hanshin Electric Railway and Kobe Electric Railway services to enter and cross Kobe city center.",
"* Most of the trains on the Meitetsu network through operate into a high frequency trunk line on the Meitetsu Nagoya Main Line branching out to other lines on the other side of Nagoya.Commuter rail systems have been inaugurated in several cities in China such as Beijing, Shanghai, Zhengzhou, Wuhan, Changsha and the Pearl River Delta.",
"With plans for large systems in northeastern Zhejiang, Jingjinji, and Yangtze River Delta areas.",
"The level of service varies considerably from line to line ranging high to near high speeds.",
"More developed and established lines such as the Guangshen Railway have more frequent metro-like service.",
"The two MTR lines which are owned and formerly operated by the Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation (East Rail line and Tuen Ma line which is integrated from the former West Rail line and Ma On Shan line in 2021), then the \"KCR\"), and MTR's own Tung Chung line connect the new towns in New Territories and the city centre Kowloon together with frequent intervals, and some New Territories-bound trains terminate at intermediate stations, providing more frequent services in Kowloon and the towns closer to Kowloon.",
"They use rolling stocks with a faster maximum speed and have longer stop spacing compard to other lines which only run in the inner urban area, but in order to maximise capacity and throughput, these rolling stocks have longitudinal seatings, 5 pairs of doors in each carriage with large standing spaces like the urban lines, and run as frequent as well.",
"Most of the sections of these four lines are overground and some sections of the East Rail Line share tracks with intercity trains to mainland China.",
"The three KCR lines are integrated into the MTR network since 2008 and most passengers do not need to exit and re-enter the system through separate fare gates and purchase separate tickets to transfer between such lines and the rest of the network (the exceptions are between the Tuen Ma line's East Tsim Sha Tsui station and the Tsuen Wan line's Tsim Sha Tsui station.In Taiwan, the Western line in the Taipei-Taoyuan Metropolitan Area, Taichung Metropolitan Area and Tainan-Kaohsiung Metropolitan Area as well as the Neiwan-Liujia line in the Hsinchu Area are considered commuter rail.In South Korea, the Seoul Metropolitan Subway includes a total of 22 lines, and some of its lines are suburban lines.",
"This is especially the case for lines operated by Korail, such as the Gyeongui-Jungang Line, the Gyeongchun Line, the Suin-Bundang Line, or the Gyeonggang Line.",
"Even some lines not operated by Korail, such as the AREX Line, the Seohae Line or the Shinbundang Line mostly function as commuter rail.",
"Lastly, even for the \"numbered lines\" (1–9) of the Seoul Metropolitan Subway which mostly travel in the dense parts of Seoul, some track sections extend far outside of the city, and operate large sections at ground level, such as on the Line 1, Line 3 and Line 4.In Busan, the Donghae Line, while part of the Busan Metro system, mostly functions as a commuter rail line.====Southeast Asia====The KRL Commuterline set 6000 series departing from Kebayoran station in JakartaIn Indonesia, the KRL Commuterline is the largest commuter rail system in the country, serving the Greater Jakarta.",
"It connects the Jakarta city center with surrounding cities and sub-urbans in Banten and West Java provinces, including Depok, Bogor, Tangerang, Serpong, Rangkasbitung, Bekasi and Cikarang.",
"In July 2015, KRL Commuterline served more than 850,000 passengers per day, which is almost triple of the 2011 figures, but still less than 3.5% of all Jabodetabek commutes.",
"Other commuter rail systems in Indonesia include the Metro Surabaya Commuter Line, Commuter Line Bandung, KAI Commuter Yogyakarta–Solo Line, Kedung Sepur, and the Sri Lelawangsa.In the Philippines, the Philippine National Railways has two commuter rail systems currently operational; the PNR Metro Commuter Line in the Greater Manila Area and the PNR Bicol Commuter in the Bicol Region.",
"A new commuter rail line in Metro Manila, the North–South Commuter Railway, is currently under construction.",
"Its North section is set to be partially opened by 2021.In Malaysia, there are two commuter services operated by Keretapi Tanah Melayu.",
"They are the KTM Komuter that serves Kuala Lumpur and the surrounding Klang Valley area, and the KTM Komuter Northern Sector that serves Greater Penang, Perak, Kedah and Perlis in the northern region of Peninsular Malaysia.In Thailand, the Greater Bangkok Commuter rail and the Airport Rail Link serve the Bangkok Metropolitan Region.",
"The SRT Red Lines, a new commuter line in Bangkok, started construction in 2009.It opened in 2021.Another commuter rail system in Southeast Asia is the Yangon Circular Railway in Myanmar.====South Asia====Chennai suburban railwayIn India, commuter rail systems are present in major cities and form an important part of people's daily lives.",
"Mumbai Suburban Railway, the oldest suburban rail system in Asia, carries more than 7.24 million commuters on a daily basis which constitutes more than half of the total daily passenger capacity of the Indian Railways itself.",
"Kolkata Suburban Railway, one of the largest suburban railway networks in the world, consists of more than 450 stations and carries more than 3.5 million commuters per day.",
"The Chennai Suburban Railway along with the Chennai MRTS, also covers over 300 stations and carries more than 2.5 million people daily to different areas in Chennai and its surroundings.",
"Other commuter railways in India include the Hyderabad MMTS, Delhi Suburban Railway, Pune Suburban Railway and Lucknow-Kanpur Suburban Railway.Kolkata Suburban Railway is the largest suburban railway network in India.",
"In 2020, Government of India approved Bengaluru Suburban Railway to connect Bengaluru and its suburbs.",
"It will be unique and first of its kind in India as it will have metro like facilities and rolling stock.In Bangladesh, there is one suburban rail called the Chittagong Circular Railway.",
"Another suburban railway called the Dhaka Circular Railway is currently proposed.Karachi in Pakistan has a circular railway since 1969.==== West Asia ====In Iran, SYSTRA proposed 4 express lines similar to RER suburban lines in Paris.",
"Tehran Metro is going to construct express lines.",
"For instance, the Rahyab Behineh, a consultant for Tehran Metro, is studying Tehran Express Line 2.Tehran Metro currently has a commuter line, which is Line 5 between Tehran and Karaj.",
"Isfahan has two lines to its suburbs Baharestan and Fuladshahr under construction, and a third line to Shahinshahr is planned.In Turkey; Başkentray, İZBAN, Marmaray and Gaziray are well-known examples.===Europe===X60 at Stockholm Central in SwedenMajor metropolitan areas in most European countries are usually served by extensive commuter/suburban rail systems.",
"Well-known examples include BG Voz in Belgrade (Serbia), S-Bahn in Germany, Austria and German-speaking areas of Switzerland, Proastiakos in Greece, RER in France and Belgium, Servizio ferroviario suburbano in Italy, Cercanías and Rodalies (Catalonia) in Spain, CP Urban Services in Portugal, Esko in Prague and Ostrava (Czech Republic), HÉV in Budapest (Hungary) and DART in Dublin (Ireland).====Western Europe====London has multiple commuter rail routes:* The Elizabeth line runs on a (14 mi)-long east–west twin tunnel under central London (Crossrail project) as its central core section.",
"* Thameslink brings together several branches from northern and southern suburbs and satellite towns in to a high frequency central tunnel underneath London.",
"* The London Overground, by contrast, skirts through the inner suburbs with lines mostly independent of each other, although there are several branches.",
"The Watford DC line, partly shared with underground trains, uses third rail, but parallels a main line using overhead wires.",
"The East London Line and North London Line run at metro-like frequencies in inner London, which make them nearly indistinguishable from metro systems apart from the fact that the tracks are shared with freight trains.",
"* The Metropolitan line, despite being part of the London Underground, is a commuter rail route as it links the City of London to commuter towns outside Greater London such as Rickmansworth, Amersham and Chesham, where it runs to a timetable, being the only London Underground line with a public timetable published.",
"It also shares tracks with Chiltern Railways main line services between London and Aylesbury.The Merseyrail network in Liverpool consists of two commuter rail routes powered by third rail, both of which branch out at one end.",
"At the other, the Northern Line continues out of the city centre to a mainline rail interchange, while the Wirral Line has a city-centre loop.Birmingham has four suburban routes, one of which is operated with diesel trains.The Tyneside Electrics system in Newcastle existed from 1904 to 1967 using DC third rail.",
"British Rail did not have the budget to maintain the ageing electrification system.",
"The Riverside Branch was closed, while the remaining lines were de-electrified.",
"13 years later, they were re-electrified using DC overhead wires, and now form the Tyne & Wear Metro Yellow Line.Many of the rail services around Glasgow are branded as Strathclyde Partnership for Transport.",
"The network includes most electrified Scottish rail routes.The Metro run eleven services which feed into Leeds, connecting the city with commuter areas and neighbouring urban centres in the West Yorkshire Connurbation.MetroWest is a proposed network in Bristol, northern Somerset & southern Gloucestershire.",
"The four-tracking of the line between Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway stations will enable local rail services to be separated from long-distance trains.The Réseau express régional d'Île-de-France (RER) is a commuter rail network in the agglomeration of Paris.",
"In the centre the RER has high frequency underground corridors where several suburban branches feed similar to a rapid transit system.Commuter rail systems in Germany are called S-Bahn.",
"While in some major cities S-Bahn services run on separate lines exclusively other systems use the existing regional rail tracks.Randstadspoor is a network of Sprinter train services in and around the city of Utrecht in the Netherlands.",
"For the realisation of this network, new stations were opened.",
"Separate tracks have been built for these trains, so they can call frequently without disturbing high-frequent Intercity services parallel to these routes.",
"Similar systems are planned for The Hague and Rotterdam.====Northern Europe====In Sweden, electrified commuter rail systems known as ''Pendeltåg'' are present in the cities of Stockholm and Gothenburg.",
"The Stockholm commuter rail system, which began in 1968, shares railway tracks with inter-city trains and freight trains, but for the most part runs on its own dedicated tracks.",
"It is primarily used to transport passengers from nearby towns and other suburban areas into the city centre, not for transportation inside the city centre.",
"The Gothenburg commuter rail system, which began in 1960, is similar to the Stockholm system, but does fully share tracks with long-distance trains.In Norway, the Oslo commuter rail system mostly shares tracks with more long-distance trains, but also runs on some local railways without other traffic.",
"Services converge on a primary main line between Asker and Lillestrøm.",
"Oslo has the largest commuter rail system in the Nordic countries in terms of line lengths and number of stations.",
"But some lines have travel times (over an hour from Oslo) and frequencies (once per hour) which are more like regional trains.",
"Also Bergen, Stavanger and Trondheim have commuter rail systems.",
"These have only one or two lines each and they share tracks with other trains.In Finland, the Helsinki commuter rail network runs on dedicated tracks from Helsinki Central railway station to Leppävaara and Kerava.",
"The Ring Rail Line serves Helsinki Airport and northern suburbs of Vantaa and is exclusively used by the commuter rail network.",
"On 15 December 2019, the Tampere region got its own commuter rail service, with trains running from Tampere to Nokia, Lempäälä and Orivesi.====Southern Europe====In Spain, ''Cercanías'' networks exist in Madrid, Sevilla, Murcia/Alicante, San Sebastián, Cádiz, Valencia, Asturias, Santander, Zaragoza, Bilbao and Málaga.",
"All these systems include underground sections in the city centre.",
"There is also a network of narrow-gauge commuter systems in North Spain and Murcia.Atocha is the main station in Spain mainly due to the Cercanías.Cercanías Madrid is one of the most important train services in the country, more than 900,000 passengers move in the system.",
"It has underground stations in Madrid like Recoletos, Sol or Nuevos Ministerios and in the metropolitan area in cities like Parla or Getafe.Rodalies Renfe trains in Estació de França, Barcelona|221x221pxFGC Llobregat-Anoia line in 2009In the autonomous community of Catalonia, and unlike the rest of Spain, the commuter service is not managed by Renfe Operadora.",
"Since 2010, the Government of Catalonia has managed all the regular commuter services with the \"transfer of ''Rodalies''\".",
"There are two companies that manage the Catalan commuter network:* Rodalies de Catalunya, which after the transfer at the beginning of 2010 when, due to the \"Catalan rail chaos\" of 2007, the Spanish government promised to transfer the Renfe commuter service to the Generalitat, although it does not deal with the entire service; After the transfer, responsibilities for the commuter trains were divided into three parts: the Generalitat (management, regulation, planning, coordination and inspection of services and activities and power to charge), Renfe (train operator and its maintenance), and Adif (owner of the railway infrastructure).",
"Lines R1, R2, R2 Nord, R2 Sud, R3 (to Sant Quirze de Besora, from there to Puigcerdà or La Tor de Querol it is considered a regional route), R4, R7 and R8 run through Rodalies de Catalunya, all on Iberian gauge (1668 mm).",
"* Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya (or FGC) is the railway company responsible for the Vallès, Llobregat-Anoia and Lleida-La Pobla de Segur lines.",
"This company is mainly in charge of metro and suburban lines, although it also has five commuter lines spread over two lines, four on the Llobregat-Anoia line (R5, R50, R6, R60) on metre-gauge (1000 mm) and a single line on the Lleida-La Pobla de Segur line (RL1) on Iberian gauge (1668 mm).",
"FGC is in charge of the entire service, unlike Rodalies de Catalunya, which is not in charge of either the trains or the infrastructure.",
"The Government of Catalonia will assume full control of the current R12 regional line in 2024 and it will be owned by the FGC.",
"It will eliminate the current line and replace it with the new commuter lines RL3 and RL4, towards Cervera and Manresa from Lleida respectively.In Italy there are several commuter rail networks:*Roman FL lines cover most of the Latium regional railways.",
"*Milan suburban railway service, operated by Trenord, has numerous services funneling into the underground Milan Passante railway.",
"*Turin metropolitan railway service, operated by Trenitalia and GTT, with an underground railway line running through the city used by most services.",
"*Naples Metro Line 2 is an underground corridor where commuter rail services operated by Trenitalia traverse and service the urban center.",
"*Genoa urban railway service consists in three lines passing through the Giovi railway line and the Tyrrhenian railway lines Genoa–Ventimiglia and Genoa–Pisa.",
"*Bologna metropolitan railway service.",
"The system comprises 8 lines.",
"*Bari metropolitan railway service*Canton Tessin suburban railway reaches Italian cities like Como and Varese and the Malpensa Airport.SKM train in Warsaw, Poland====Eastern Europe====In Poland, commuter rail systems exist in Tricity, Warsaw, Kraków (SKA) and Katowice (SKR).",
"There is also a similar system planned in Wrocław and Szczecin.",
"The terms used are \"Szybka Kolej Miejska\" (fast urban rail) and \"kolej aglomeracyjna\" (agglomeration rail).",
"These systems are:* Szybka Kolej Miejska w Warszawie in the Warsaw urban area, with 4 lines and 46 stations.",
"* Łódzka Kolej Aglomeracyjna is located in the center of Poland connecting satellite towns in and around Łódź.",
"It also operates some trains between Łódź and Warsaw.",
"*Szybka Kolej Miejska w Trójmieście is located in the Tricity/Trójmiasto urban area, the three cities of Gdańsk, Gdynia and Sopot.The Proastiakos (; \"suburban\") is Greece's suburban railway (commuter rail) services, which are run by TrainOSE, on infrastructure owned by the Hellenic Railways Organisation (OSE).",
"There are three Proastiakos networks, servicing the country's three largest cities: Athens, Thessaloniki and Patras.",
"In particular, the Athenian network is undergoing modifications to completely separate it from mainline traffic, by re-routing the tracks via a tunnel underneath the city center.",
"A similar project is planned for the Patras network, whereas a new line is due to be constructed for the Thessalonian network.In Romania, the first commuter trains were introduced in December 2019.They operate between Bucharest and Funduea or Buftea.BG Voz is an urban rail system that serves Belgrade.",
"It currently has only two routes, with plans for further expansion.",
"Between early 1990s and mid-2010s, there was another system, known as Beovoz, that was used to provide mass-transit service within the Belgrade metropolitan area, as well as to nearby towns, similarly to RER in Paris.",
"Beovoz had more lines and far more stops than the current system.",
"However, it was abandoned in favor of more accurate BG Voz, mostly due to inefficiency.",
"While current services rely mostly on the existing infrastructure, any further development means furthering capacities (railways expansion and new trains).",
"Plans for further extension of system include another two lines, one of which should reach Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport.In Russia, Ukraine and some other countries of the former Soviet Union, electrical multiple unit passenger suburban trains called Elektrichka are widespread.",
"The first such system in Russia is the Oranienbaum Electric Line in St. Petersburg.",
"In Moscow the Beskudnikovskaya railway branch existed between the 1940s and 1980s.",
"The trains that shuttled along it did not go to the main lines, so it was a city transport.",
"Today there are the Moscow Central Circle and the Moscow Central Diameters.In Turkey, Marmaray line stations from Sirkeci to Halkalı are located at the European side.",
"Overground section between Kazlıçeşme and Sirkeci, stations such as Cankurtaran, are closed since 2013.===Americas===SEPTA Regional Rail serves Philadelphia and its suburbs.====North America====In the United States, Canada, Costa Rica, El Salvador and Mexico regional passenger rail services are provided by governmental or quasi-governmental agencies, with the busiest and most expansive rail networks located in the Northeastern US, California, and Eastern Canada.",
"Most North American commuter railways utilize diesel locomotive propulsion, with the exception of services in New York City, Philadelphia, Chicago, Denver, and Mexico City; New York's commuter rail lines use a combination of third rail and overhead wire power generation, while Chicago only has two out of twelve services that are electrified.",
"Many newer and proposed systems in Canada and the United States are often are geared to serving peak-hour commutes as opposed to the all-day systems of Europe, East Asia, and Australia.Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America.The FrontRunner commuter rail system serves Utah's Wasatch Front.",
"WES Commuter Rail is a DMU operated commuter rail line in Oregon.===== United States =====Eight commuter rail systems in the United States carried over ten million trips in 2018, those being in descending order:* Metropolitan Transportation Authority's Long Island Rail Road, serving New York City and Long Island* NJ Transit Rail Operations, serving New York City, New Jersey (Newark, Trenton) and Philadelphia* Metropolitan Transportation Authority's Metro-North Railroad, serving New York (Yonkers and New York City) and Southwest Connecticut (New Haven)* Metra, serving northeast Illinois (Chicago) and Kenosha, Wisconsin.",
"The network consists of 11 services, of which only the Electric District service runs on tracks exclusively used for passenger traffic.",
"**The South Shore Line is a commuter line that serves the South Side and northern Indiana.",
"Although the line is operated by NICTD, an agency separate from Metra, the line runs along the Metra Electric Line north of Kensington/115th Street station.",
"* SEPTA Regional Rail, serving southeast Pennsylvania (Philadelphia), as well as Wilmington, Delaware, and Trenton, New Jersey.",
"The network features a tunneled corridor through the city center and through-routed services from several commuter lines.",
"The arrangement of services through the corridor was originally proposed by Vukan Vuchic and Shinya Kikuchi in 1984 and 1985.",
"* MBTA Commuter Rail, serving Massachusetts (Boston, Worcester, Lowell) and Providence, Rhode Island* Caltrain, serving California (San Francisco, San Jose, and the San Francisco Peninsula)* Metrolink, serving California (Los Angeles, Burbank, Anaheim, San Bernardino, and Southern California)Other commuter rail systems in the United States (not in ridership order) are:*CTRail, serving Connecticut (Hartford, New Haven and New London)*Utah Transit Authority FrontRunner, serving Utah (Wasatch Front)*North County Transit District Coaster, serving California (San Diego County)*Maryland Area Regional Commuter, serving Maryland (Baltimore) and Washington, D.C.)*Regional Transportation District, serving Colorado (Denver)*Virginia Railway Express, serving suburbs of Northern Virginia and Washington, D.C.*Sounder commuter rail, serving Washington (Seattle / Tacoma)*Tri-Rail, serving Florida (Miami / Fort Lauderdale / West Palm Beach)* Trinity Railway Express, serving Texas (Dallas / Fort Worth)* Westside Express Service, serving Oregon (Beaverton / Wilsonville)*Altamont Corridor Express, serving California (San Jose / Stockton)*SunRail, serving Florida (Orlando/Poinciana)*New Mexico Rail Runner Express, serving New Mexico (Albuquerque)*Northstar Line, serving Minnesota (Big Lake and downtown Minneapolis)*Capital MetroRail, serving Texas (Austin)*A-train, serving Texas (Denton County)*SMART, serving California (Sonoma and Marin counties)*WeGo Star, serving Nashville and Lebanon, Tennessee.",
"* Denver's RTD four electrified commuter rail lines – the A, B, G and N Lines, run on segregated tracks.",
"In its entirety the system combines elements of tram-train and commuter rail.===== Canada =====UP Express and GO Transit both serve the Toronto area.",
"* Exo in Montreal* GO Transit in Toronto* West Coast Express in Vancouver* UP Express in Toronto===== Mexico =====* Suburban Railway of the Valley of Mexico Metropolitan Area serving Mexico City* Toluca–Mexico City commuter rail serving Toluca and Mexico City=====Central America=====*City Rail serving La Ceiba*San Salvador Suburban Rail serving San Salvador and Santa Ana*Rail Transport in Costa Rica serving San Jose====South America====The Mitre Line is part of the extensive Buenos Aires metropolitan rail system.Examples include an commuter system in the Buenos Aires metropolitan area, the long Supervia in Rio de Janeiro, the Metrotrén in Santiago, Chile, and the Valparaíso Metro in Valparaíso, Chile.Another example is Companhia Paulista de Trens Metropolitanos (CPTM) in Greater São Paulo, Brazil.",
"CPTM has 94 stations with seven lines, numbered starting on 7 (the lines 1 to 6 and the line 15 belong to the São Paulo Metro), with a total length of .",
"Trains operates at high frequencies on tracks used exclusively for commuter traffic.",
"In Rio de Janeiro SuperVia provides electrified commuter rail services.===Oceania===A Siemens Nexas used on the Metro Trains Melbourne networkThe five major cities in Australia have suburban railway systems in their metropolitan areas.",
"These networks have frequent services, with frequencies varying from every 10 to every 30 minutes on most suburban lines, and up to 3–5 minutes in peak on bundled underground lines in the city centres of Sydney, Brisbane, Perth and Melbourne.",
"The networks in each state developed from mainline railways and have never been completely operationally separate from long distance and freight traffic, unlike metro systems.",
"The suburban networks are almost completely electrified.The main suburban rail networks in Australia are:* The Sydney Trains suburban rail network consists of nine lines converging in the underground City Circle with frequencies as high as three minutes in this section, 5–10 minutes at most major stations all day and 15 minutes at most minor stations all day.",
"*The Sydney rail network operated by Sydney Trains in Sydney (with connected suburban services in Newcastle and Wollongong run by its counterpart intercity operator, NSW TrainLink).",
"* Melbourne's rail network features sixteen electrified commuter rail lines traversing the city centre in the underground City Loop providing a metro-like service in the central core.",
"A second underground core is under construction, as the Metro Tunnel project.",
"V/Line operates some commuter services between Melbourne and surrounding towns, as well as between Melbourne and some locations within the Melbourne metropolitan area.",
"* Commuter rail services in Brisbane are provided under the Queensland Rail City network brand, featuring twelve electrified lines converging in the city centre.",
"Cross River Rail is an under construction underground cross-city tunnel to relieve pressure on this network.",
"* Railways in Perth fall under the Transperth network, which are operated by the Public Transport Authority*The Adelaide rail network operated by Adelaide Metro in Adelaide.New Zealand has two frequent suburban rail services comparable to those in Australia: the Auckland rail network is operated by Auckland One Rail and the Wellington rail network is operated by Transdev Wellington."
],
[
"Hybrid urban-suburban rail systems",
"Hybrid urban-suburban rail systems exhibiting characteristics of both rapid transit and commuter rail serving a metropolitan region are common in German-speaking countries, where they are known as S-Bahn.",
"Other examples include: Lazio regional railways in Rome, the RER in France and the Elizabeth line, London Underground Metropolitan line, London Overground and Merseyrail in the UK.",
"A comparable system in India, the Delhi RRTS, is also under construction."
],
[
"See also",
"*List of suburban and commuter rail systems*Public transport*Commuting*Cercanías, the commuter rail systems of Spain's major metropolitan areas*Commuter rail in the United Kingdom*Commuter rail in North America*Commuter rail in Australia*S-Bahn, the combined city center and suburban railway system metro in Austria, Germany, Switzerland and Denmark"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Commuter Rail & Transit News Current news concerning commuter rail development and issues"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cambridgeshire"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cambridgeshire''' (abbreviated '''Cambs.''')",
"is a ceremonial county in the East of England and East Anglia.",
"It is bordered by Lincolnshire to the north, Norfolk to the north-east, Suffolk to the east, Essex and Hertfordshire to the south, and Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire to the west.",
"The largest settlement is the city of Peterborough, and the city of Cambridge is the county town.The county has an area of and a population of 852,523.Peterborough (179,349) and Cambridge (145,674), located in the north-west and south respectively, are by far the largest settlements.",
"The remainder of the county is rural, and contains the city of Ely (20,112) and towns such as Wisbech and St Neots.",
"Cambridgeshire contains six local government districts; five are part of a two-tier non-metropolitan county also called Cambridgeshire, and the district of Peterborough is a unitary area.",
"The local authorities collaborate through Cambridgeshire and Peterbrough Combined Authority.",
"The county did not historically include Huntingdonshire or the Soke of Peterborough, which was part of Northamptonshire.The north and east of the county are dominated by the Fens, an extremely flat, drained marsh maintained by drainage ditches and dykes.",
"Holme Fen is the UK's lowest physical point, at 2.75 m (9 ft) below sea level.",
"The flatness of the landscape makes the few areas of higher ground, such as that Ely is built on, very conspicuous.",
"The landscape in the south and west is gently undulating.",
"Cambridgeshire's principal rivers are the Nene, which flows through the north of the county and is canalised east of Peterborough; the Great Ouse, which flows from west to east past Huntingdon and Ely; and the Cam, a tributary of the Great Ouse which flows through Cambridge."
],
[
"History",
"Cambridgeshire is noted as the site of Flag Fen in Fengate, one of the earliest-known Neolithic permanent settlements in the United Kingdom, compared in importance to Balbridie in Aberdeen, Scotland.",
"Must Farm quarry, at Whittlesey has been described as 'Britain's Pompeii due to its relatively good condition, including the 'best-preserved Bronze Age dwellings ever found'.",
"A great quantity of archaeological finds from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age were made in East Cambridgeshire.",
"Most items were found in Isleham.The area was settled by the Anglo-Saxons starting in the fifth century.",
"Genetic testing on seven skeletons found in Anglo-Saxon era graves in Hinxton and Oakington found that five were either migrants or descended from migrants from the continent, one was a native Briton, and one had both continental and native ancestry, suggesting intermarriage.Cambridgeshire was recorded in the ''Domesday Book'' as \"Grantbridgeshire\" (or rather ''Grentebrigescire'') (related to the river Granta).Map showing the historical administrative boundaries in the modern ceremonial county of Cambridgeshire.",
"Historical administrative counties showed in the background, short-lived combined counties of 1965–1974 in red outlines, and modern county council areas, unitary authorities, and districts in black outlines.Covering a large part of East Anglia, Cambridgeshire today is the result of several local government unifications.",
"In 1888 when county councils were introduced, separate councils were set up, following the traditional division of Cambridgeshire, for* the area in the south around Cambridge, and* the liberty of the Isle of Ely.In 1965, these two administrative counties were merged to form Cambridgeshire and the Isle of Ely.Under the Local Government Act 1972 this merged with the county to the west, Huntingdon and Peterborough, which had been formed in 1965, by the merger of Huntingdonshire with the Soke of Peterborough (the latter previously a part of Northamptonshire with its own county council).",
"The resulting county was called simply Cambridgeshire.Since 1998, the City of Peterborough has been separately administered as a unitary authority area.",
"It is associated with Cambridgeshire for ceremonial purposes such as Lieutenancy and joint functions such as policing and the fire service.In 2002, the conservation charity Plantlife unofficially designated Cambridgeshire's county flower as the Pasqueflower.The Cambridgeshire Regiment (nicknamed the Fen Tigers), the county-based army unit, fought in the Boer War in South Africa, the First World War and Second World War.Due to the county's flat terrain and proximity to the continent, during the Second World War the military built many airfields here for RAF Bomber Command, RAF Fighter Command, and the allied USAAF.",
"In recognition of this collaboration, the Cambridge American Cemetery and Memorial is located in Madingley.",
"It is the only WWII burial ground in England for American servicemen who died during that event.Most English counties have nicknames for their people, such as a \"Tyke\" from Yorkshire and a \"Yellowbelly\" from Lincolnshire.",
"The historical nicknames for people from Cambridgeshire are \"Cambridgeshire Camel\" or \"Cambridgeshire Crane\", referring to the wildfowl that were once abundant in the Fens.",
"The term \"Fen Tigers\" is sometimes used to describe the people who live and work in the Fens.Original historical documents relating to Cambridgeshire are held by Cambridgeshire Archives.",
"Cambridgeshire County Council Libraries maintains several Local Studies collections of printed and published materials, significantly at the Cambridgeshire Collection held in the Cambridge Central Library."
],
[
"Flag",
"The flag of the historic county of CambridgeshireCambridgeshire's county flag was made official on 1 February 2015, after the design was selected as an entry from design competition that ran during 2014.The design features three golden crowns, two on the top, one on the bottom that are separated by two wavy lines in the middle.",
"The crowns are meant to represent East Anglia, and the two lines represent the River Cam and are in the university's colours."
],
[
"Geography",
": ''See also Geology of Cambridgeshire''Hand-drawn map of Northampshire, Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire and Rutland by Christopher Saxton from 1576Large areas of the county are extremely low-lying and Holme Fen is notable for being the UK's lowest physical point at 2.75 m (9 ft) below sea level.",
"The highest point of the modern administrative county is in the village of Great Chishill at 146 m (480 ft) above sea level.",
"However, this parish was historically a part of Essex, having been moved to Cambridgeshire in boundary changes in 1895.The historic county top is close to the village of Castle Camps where a point on the disused RAF airfield reaches a height of above sea level (grid reference TL 63282 41881).Other prominent hills are Little Trees Hill and Wandlebury Hill (both at ) in the Gog Magog Hills, Rivey Hill above Linton, Rowley's Hill and the Madingley Hills.Wicken Fen is a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest west of Wicken.",
"A large part of it is owned and managed by the National Trust.===Green belt===Cambridgeshire contains all its green belt around the city of Cambridge, extending to places such as Waterbeach, Lode, Duxford, Little & Great Abington and other communities a few miles away in nearby districts, to afford a protection from the conurbation.",
"It was first drawn up in the 1950s."
],
[
"Politics",
"The coat of arms of Cambridgeshire County CouncilCambridgeshire County Council is controlled by an alliance of the Liberal Democrats, the Labour Party and independent groups, while Peterborough City Council is currently controlled by a Conservative Party minority administration.The county contains seven Parliamentary constituencies:+Parliamentary constituencies in Cambridgeshire Constituency Member of Parliament (MP) Party Cambridge Daniel Zeichner Huntingdon Jonathan Djanogly North East Cambridgeshire Steve Barclay North West Cambridgeshire Shailesh Vara Peterborough Paul Bristow South Cambridgeshire Anthony Browne South East Cambridgeshire Lucy Frazer"
],
[
"Economy",
"This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Cambridgeshire at current basic prices published (pp.",
"240–253) by ''Office for National Statistics'' with figures in millions of English Pounds Sterling.",
"Year Regional Gross Value Added Agriculture Industry Services 1995 '''5,896''' 228 1,646 4,022 2000 '''7,996''' 166 2,029 5,801 2003 '''10,154''' 207 2,195 7,752AWG plc is based in Huntingdon.",
"The RAF has several stations in the Huntingdon and St Ives area.",
"RAF Alconbury, three miles north of Huntingdon, is being reorganised after a period of obsolescence following the departure of the USAF, to be the focus of RAF/USAFE intelligence operations, with activities at Upwood and Molesworth being transferred there.",
"Most of Cambridgeshire is agricultural.",
"Close to Cambridge is the so-called Silicon Fen area of high-technology (electronics, computing and biotechnology) companies.",
"ARM Limited is based in Cherry Hinton.",
"The inland Port of Wisbech on the River Nene is the county's only remaining port."
],
[
"Education",
"=== Primary and secondary ===Cambridgeshire has a comprehensive education system with over 240 state schools, not including sixth form colleges.",
"The independent sector includes King's Ely and Wisbech Grammar School, founded in 970 and 1379 respectively, they are two of the oldest schools in the country.Some of the secondary schools act as Village Colleges, institutions unique to Cambridgeshire.",
"For example, Comberton Village College.===Tertiary===Cambridgeshire is home to a number of institutes of higher education:* The University of Cambridge – second-oldest university in the English-speaking world, and regarded as one of the most prestigious academic institutions in the world* Anglia Ruskin University – has campuses located in Cambridge and Peterborough and a base at Fulbourn* The Open University – has a regional centre located in Cambridge* The University Centre Peterborough – operated by Anglia Ruskin University and Peterborough Regional College, located in Peterborough* The College of West Anglia has a campus at Milton, on the northern outskirts of Cambridge and a campus at Wisbech.In addition, Cambridge Regional College and Huntingdonshire Regional College both offer a limited range of higher education courses in conjunction with partner universities."
],
[
"Settlements",
"Map of the Cambridgeshire area (1904).These are the settlements in Cambridgeshire with a town charter, city status or a population over 5,000; for a complete list of settlements see list of places in Cambridgeshire.",
"* Burwell* Cambridge* Chatteris* Cottenham* Ely* Godmanchester* Huntingdon* Littleport* March* Peterborough* Ramsey* Sawston* Sawtry* Soham* St Ives* St Neots* Wisbech* Whittlesey* YaxleySee the List of Cambridgeshire settlements by population page for more detail.The town of Newmarket is surrounded on three sides by Cambridgeshire, being connected by a narrow strip of land to the rest of Suffolk.Cambridgeshire has seen 32,869 dwellings created from 2002 to 2013 and there are a further 35,360 planned new dwellings between 2016 and 2023."
],
[
"Climate",
"Cambridgeshire has a maritime temperate climate which is broadly similar to the rest of the United Kingdom, though it is drier than the UK average due to its low altitude and easterly location, the prevailing southwesterly winds having already deposited moisture on higher ground further west.",
"Average winter temperatures are cooler than the English average, due to Cambridgeshire's inland location and relative nearness to continental Europe, which results in the moderating maritime influence being less strong.",
"Snowfall is slightly more common than in western areas, due to the relative winter coolness and easterly winds bringing occasional snow from the North Sea.",
"In summer temperatures are average or slightly above, due to less cloud cover.",
"It reaches on around ten days each year, and is comparable to parts of Kent and East Anglia."
],
[
"Culture",
"===Sports===Various forms of football have been popular in Cambridgeshire since medieval times at least.",
"In 1579 one match played at Chesterton between townspeople and University of Cambridge students ended in a violent brawl that led the Vice-Chancellor to issue a decree forbidding them to play \"footeball\" outside of college grounds.",
"During the nineteenth century, several formulations of the laws of football, known as the Cambridge rules, were created by students at the university.",
"One of these codes, dating from 1863, had a significant influence on the creation of the original laws of the Football Association.Cambridgeshire is also the birthplace of bandy, now an IOC accepted sport.",
"According to documents from 1813, Bury Fen Bandy Club was undefeated for 100 years.",
"A member of the club, Charles Goodman Tebbutt, wrote down the first official rules in 1882.Tebbutt was instrumental in spreading the sport to many countries.",
"Great Britain Bandy Association is based in Cambridgeshire.Fen skating is a traditional form of skating in the Fenland.",
"The National Ice Skating Association was set up in Cambridge in 1879, they took the top Fen skaters to the world speedskating championships where James Smart (skater) became world champion.On 6–7 June 2015, the inaugural Tour of Cambridgeshire cycle race took place on closed roads across the county.",
"The event was an official UCI qualification event, and consisted of a Time Trial on the 6th, and a Gran Fondo event on the 7th.",
"The Gran Fondo event was open to the public, and over 6000 riders took part in the race.The River Cam is the main river flowing through Cambridge, parts of the River Nene and River Great Ouse lie within the county.",
"In 2021 the latter was used as the course for The Boat Race.",
"The River Cam serves as the course for the university Lent Bumps and May Bumps and the non-college rowing organised by Cambridgeshire Rowing Association.There is only one racecourse in Cambridgeshire, located at Huntingdon.===Contemporary art===Cambridge is home to the Kettle's Yard gallery and the artist-run Aid and Abet project space.",
"Nine miles west of Cambridge next to the village of Bourn is Wysing Arts Centre.Cambridge Open Studios is the region's large arts organisation with over 500 members.",
"Every year, more than 370 artists open their doors to visitors during four weekends in July.===Literature===The annual Fenland Poet Laureate awards were instigated for poets in the North of the county in 2012 at Wisbech & Fenland Museum.===Theatre===The county was visited by travelling companies of comedians in the Georgian period.",
"These came from different companies.",
"The Lincoln Circuit included, at various times, Wisbech and Whittlesey.",
"The Wisbech Georgian theatre still survives as an operating theatre now known as The Angles Theatre.In Cambridge the ADC Theatre is the venue for the Footlights."
],
[
"Places of interest"
],
[
"Notable people from Cambridgeshire",
" *Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658), Roundhead commander in the English Civil War from 1642 to 1651, and Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1653 to 1658"
],
[
"See also",
"* Cambridgeshire (UK Parliament constituency) – Historical list of MPs for Cambridgeshire constituency* Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies* Cambridgeshire Constabulary* Cambridgeshire local elections* Cambridgeshire Police and Crime Commissioner* Custos Rotulorum of Cambridgeshire – Keepers of the Rolls for Cambridgeshire* Healthcare in Cambridgeshire* List of High sheriffs of Cambridgeshire* List of Lord Lieutenants of Cambridgeshire* The Hundred Parishes"
],
[
"Explanatory notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Cambridgeshire County Council* Cambridgeshire Community Archive Network.",
"* Images of Cambridgeshire at the English Heritage Archive* * Cambridge Military History Blog* The Flag Institute: Cambridgeshire* Cost of living tool London"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Christian Goldbach"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Christian Goldbach''' (; ; 18 March 1690 – 20 November 1764) was a Prussian mathematician connected with some important research mainly in number theory; he also studied law and took an interest in and a role in the Russian court.",
"After traveling around Europe in his early life, he landed in Russia in 1725 as a professor at the newly founded Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences.",
"Goldbach jointly led the Academy in 1737.However, he relinquished duties in the Academy in 1742 and worked in the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs until his death in 1764.He is remembered today for Goldbach's conjecture and the Goldbach–Euler Theorem.",
"He had a close friendship with famous mathematician Leonard Euler, serving as inspiration for Euler's mathematical pursuits."
],
[
"Biography",
"=== Early life ===Born in the Duchy of Prussia's capital Königsberg, part of Brandenburg-Prussia, Goldbach was the son of a pastor.",
"He studied at the Royal Albertus University.",
"After finishing his studies he went on long educational trips from 1710 to 1724 through Europe, visiting other German states, England, the Netherlands, Italy, and France, meeting with many famous mathematicians, such as Gottfried Leibniz, Leonhard Euler, and Nicholas I Bernoulli.",
"These acquaintances started Goldbach's interest in mathematics.",
"He briefly attended Oxford University in 1713 and, while he was there, Goldbach studied mathematics with John Wallis and Isaac Newton.",
"Also, Goldbach's travels fostered his interest in philology, archaeology, metaphysics, ballistics, and medicine.",
"Between 1717 and 1724, Goldbach published his first few papers which, while minor, credited his mathematical ability.",
"Back in Königsberg, he became acquainted with Georg Bernhard Bilfinger and Jakob Hermann.=== Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences ===Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences building called Kunstkammer dating back to 1728Goldbach followed Bilfinger and Hermann to the newly opened St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1725.Christian Wolff had invited and had written recommendations for all the Germans who traveled to Saint Petersburg for the academy except Goldbach.",
"Goldbach wrote to the president-designate of the academy, petitioning for a position in the academy, using his past publications and knowledge in medicine and law as qualifications.",
"Goldbach was then hired to a five-year contract as a professor of mathematics and historian of the academy.",
"As historian of the academy, he recorded each academy meeting from the opening of the school in 1725 until January 1728.Goldbach worked with famous mathematicians like Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, Johann Bernoulli, and Jean le Rond d'Alembert.",
"Goldbach also played a part in Euler's decision to academically pursue mathematics instead of medicine, cementing mathematics as the premier research field of the academy in the 1730s.=== Russian government work ===In 1728, when Peter II became Tsar of Russia, Goldbach became Peter II and Anna's, Peter II's cousin, tutor.",
"Peter II moved the Russian court from St. Petersburg to Moscow in 1729, so Goldbach followed him to Moscow.",
"Goldbach started a correspondence with Euler in 1729, in which some of Goldbach's most important mathematics contributions can be found.",
"Upon Peter II's death in 1730, Goldbach stopped teaching but continued to assist Empress Anna.",
"In 1732, Goldbach returned to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and stayed in the Russian government when Anna moved the court back to St. Petersburg.",
"Upon return to the academy, Goldbach was named corresponding secretary.",
"With Goldbach's return, his friend Euler continued his teaching and research at the academy as well.",
"Then, in 1737, Goldbach and J.D.",
"Schumacher took over the administration of the academy.",
"Also, Goldbach took on duty in Russian court under Empress Anna.",
"He managed to retain his influence in court after the death of Anna and the rule of Empress Elizabeth.",
"In 1742 he entered the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, stepping away from the academy once more.",
"Goldbach was gifted land and increased salary for his good work and rise in the Russian government.",
"In 1760, Goldbach created new guidelines for the education of the royal children which would remain in place for 100 years.",
"He died on 20 November 1764, aged 74, in Moscow.Christian Goldbach was multilingual – he wrote a diary in German and Latin, his letters were written in German, Latin, French, and Italian and for official documents he used Russian, German and Latin."
],
[
"Contributions",
"Letter from Goldbach to Euler, 1742Goldbach is most noted for his correspondence with Leibniz, Euler, and Bernoulli, especially in his 1742 letter to Euler stating his Goldbach's conjecture.",
"He also studied and proved some theorems on perfect powers, such as the Goldbach–Euler theorem, and made several notable contributions to analysis.",
"He also proved a result concerning Fermat numbers that is called Goldbach's theorem.=== Impact on Euler ===It is Goldbach and Euler's correspondence that contains some of Goldbach's most important contributions to mathematics, specifically number theory.",
"Goldbach and Euler's friendship survived Goldbach's move to Moscow in 1728 and communication ensued.",
"Their correspondence spanned 196 letters over 35 years written in Latin, German, and French.",
"These letters spanned a wide range of topics, including various mathematics topics.",
"Goldbach was the leading influence on Euler's interest and work in number theory.",
"Most of the letters discuss Euler's research in number theory as well as differential calculus.",
"Until the late 1750s, Euler's correspondence on his number theory research was almost exclusively with Goldbach.Portrait of Leonard Euler, one of the premier mathematicians everGoldbach's earlier mathematical work and ideas in letters to Euler directly influenced some of Euler's work.",
"In 1729, Euler solved two problems pertaining to sequences which had stumped Goldbach.",
"Ensuingly, Euler outlined the solutions to Goldbach.",
"Also, in 1729 Goldbach closely approximated the Basel problem, which prompted Euler's interest and concurring breakthrough solution.",
"Goldbach, through his letters, kept Euler focused on number theory in the 1730s by discussing Fermat's conjecture with Euler.",
"Euler subsequently offered a proof to the conjecture, crediting Goldbach with introducing him to the subfield.",
"Euler proceeded to write 560 writings, published posthumously in four volumes of Opera omnia, with Goldbach's influence guiding some of the writings.",
"Goldbach's famous conjecture and his writings with Euler prove him to be one of a handful of mathematicians who understood complex number theory in light of Fermat's revolutionary ideas on the topic."
],
[
"Works",
"* (1729) ''De transformatione serierum''* (1732) ''De terminis generalibus serierum''"
],
[
"See also",
"*Goldbach's comet"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*** Electronic copies of Euler's correspondence with Goldbach* ''Neuester Himmels-Atlas'', 1799 - Full digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Roman censor"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''censor''' was a magistrate in ancient Rome who was responsible for maintaining the census, supervising public morality, and overseeing certain aspects of the government's finances.The power of the censor was absolute: no magistrate could oppose his decisions, and only another censor who succeeded him could cancel those decisions.The censor's regulation of public morality is the origin of the modern meaning of the words ''censor'' and ''censorship''."
],
[
"Early history of the magistracy",
"The ''census'' was first instituted by Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome, BC.",
"After the abolition of the monarchy and the founding of the Republic in 509 BC, the consuls had responsibility for the census until 443 BC.",
"In 442 BC, no consuls were elected, but tribunes with consular power were appointed instead.",
"This was a move by the plebeians to try to attain higher magistracies: only patricians could be elected consuls, while some military tribunes were plebeians.",
"To prevent the possibility of plebeians obtaining control of the census, the patricians removed the right to take the census from the consuls and tribunes, and appointed for this duty two magistrates, called ''censores'' (censors), elected exclusively from the patricians in Rome.",
"The magistracy continued to be controlled by patricians until 351 BC, when Gaius Marcius Rutilus was appointed the first plebeian censor.",
"Twelve years later, in 339 BC, one of the Publilian laws required that one censor had to be a plebeian.",
"Despite this, no plebeian censor performed the solemn purification of the people (the ''lustrum''; Livy ''Periochae'' 13) until 280 BC.",
"In 131 BC, for the first time, both censors were plebeians.The reason for having two censors was that the two consuls had previously taken the census together.",
"If one of the censors died during his term of office, another was chosen to replace him, just as with consuls.",
"This happened only once, in 393 BC.",
"However, the Gauls captured Rome in that ''lustrum'' (five-year period), and the Romans thereafter regarded such replacement as \"an offense against religion\".",
"From then on, if one of the censors died, his colleague resigned, and two new censors were chosen to replace them.The office of censor was limited to eighteen months by a law proposed by the dictator Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus.",
"During the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus (312–308 BC) the prestige of the censorship massively increased.",
"Caecus built the first-ever Roman road (the Via Appia) and the first Roman aqueduct (the Aqua Appia), both named after him.",
"He changed the organisation of the Roman tribes and was the first censor to draw the list of senators.",
"He also advocated the founding of Roman ''coloniae'' throughout Latium and Campania to support the Roman war effort in the Second Samnite War.",
"With these efforts and reforms, Appius Claudius Caecus was able to hold the censorship for a whole ''lustrum'' (five-year period), and the office of censor, subsequently entrusted with various important duties, eventually attained one of the highest political statuses in the Roman Republic, second only to that of the consuls."
],
[
"Election",
"The censors were elected in the Centuriate Assembly, which met under the presidency of a consul.",
"Barthold Niebuhr suggests that the censors were at first elected by the Curiate Assembly, and that the Assembly's selections were confirmed by the Centuriate, but William Smith believes that \"there is no authority for this supposition, and the truth of it depends entirely upon the correctness of views respecting the election of the consuls\".",
"Both censors had to be elected on the same day, and accordingly if the voting for the second was not finished in the same day, the election of the first was invalidated, and a new assembly had to be held.The assembly for the election of the censors was held under different auspices from those at the election of the consuls and praetors, so the censors were not regarded as their colleagues, although they likewise possessed the ''maxima auspicia''.",
"The assembly was held by the new consuls shortly after they began their term of office; and the censors, as soon as they were elected and the censorial power had been granted to them by a decree of the Centuriate Assembly (''lex centuriata''), were fully installed in their office.As a general principle, the only ones eligible for the office of censor were those who had previously been consuls, but there were a few exceptions.",
"At first, there was no law to prevent a person being censor twice, but the only person who was elected to the office twice was Gaius Marcius Rutilus in 265 BC.",
"In that year, he originated a law stating that no one could be elected censor twice.",
"In consequence of this, he received the ''cognomen'' of Censorinus."
],
[
"Attributes",
"The censorship differed from all other Roman magistracies in the length of office.",
"The censors were originally chosen for a whole ''lustrum'' (a period of five years), but as early as ten years after its institution (433 BC) their office was limited to eighteen months by a law of Dictator Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus.",
"The censors were also unique with respect to rank and dignity.",
"They had no ''imperium'', and accordingly no lictors.",
"Their rank was granted to them by the Centuriate Assembly, and not by the ''curiae'', and in that respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors.Notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, with the exception of the dictatorship; it was a \"sacred magistracy\" (''sanctus magistratus''), to which the deepest reverence was due.",
"The high rank and dignity which the censorship obtained was due to the various important duties gradually entrusted to it, and especially to its possessing the ''regimen morum'', or general control over the conduct and the morals of the citizens.",
"In the exercise of this power, they were regulated solely by their own views of duty, and were not responsible to any other power in the state.The censors possessed the official stool called a \"curule chair\" (''sella curulis''), but some doubt exists with respect to their official dress.",
"A well-known passage of Polybius describes the use of the ''imagines'' at funerals; we may conclude that a consul or praetor wore the purple-bordered ''toga praetexta'', one who triumphed the embroidered ''toga picta'', and the censor a purple toga peculiar to him, but other writers speak of their official dress as being the same as that of the other higher magistrates.",
"The funeral of a censor was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a \"censorial funeral\" (''funus censorium'') was voted even to the emperors."
],
[
"Abolition",
"The censorship continued in existence for 421 years, from 443 BC to 22 BC, but during this period, many ''lustra'' passed by without any censor being chosen at all.",
"According to one statement, the office was abolished by Lucius Cornelius Sulla.",
"Although the authority on which this statement rests is not of much weight, the fact itself is probable, since there was no census during the two ''lustra'' which elapsed from Sulla's dictatorship to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey)'s first consulship (82–70 BC), and any strict \"imposition of morals\" would have been found inconvenient to the aristocracy that supported Sulla.If the censorship had been done away with by Sulla, it was at any rate restored in the consulship of Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus.",
"Its power was limited by one of the laws of the tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher (58 BC), which prescribed certain regular forms of proceeding before the censors in expelling a person from the Roman Senate, and required that the censors be in agreement to exact this punishment.",
"This law, however, was repealed in the third consulship of Pompey in 52 BC, on the urging of his colleague Q. Caecilius Metellus Scipio, but the office of the censorship never recovered its former power and influence.During the civil wars which followed soon afterwards, no censors were elected; it was only after a long interval that they were again appointed, namely in 23 BC, when Augustus caused Lucius Munatius Plancus and Aemilius Lepidus Paullus to fill the office.",
"This was the last time that such magistrates were appointed; the emperors in future discharged the duties of their office under the name of Praefectura Morum (\"prefect of the morals\").Some of the emperors sometimes took the name of censor when they held a census of the Roman people; this was the case with Claudius, who appointed the elder Lucius Vitellius as his colleague, and with Vespasian, who likewise had a colleague in his son Titus.",
"Domitian assumed the title of \"perpetual censor\" (''censor perpetuus''), but this example was not imitated by succeeding emperors.",
"In the reign of Decius, the elder Valerian was nominated to the censorship, but declined the position."
],
[
"Duties",
"The duties of the censors may be divided into three classes, all of which were closely connected with one another:#The ''Census'', or register of the citizens and of their property, in which were included the reading of the Senate's lists (''lectio senatus'') and the recognition of who qualified for equestrian rank (''recognitio equitum'');#The ''Regimen Morum'', or keeping of the public morals; and#The administration of the finances of the state, under which were classed the superintendence of the public buildings and the erection of all new public works.The original business of the censorship was at first of a much more limited kind, and was restricted almost entirely to taking the census, but the possession of this power gradually brought with it fresh power and new duties, as is shown below.",
"A general view of these duties is briefly expressed in the following passage of Cicero: \"''Censores populi aevitates, soboles, familias pecuniasque censento: urbis templa, vias, aquas, aerarium, vectigalia tuento: populique partes in tribus distribunto: exin pecunias, aevitates, ordines patiunto: equitum, peditumque prolem describunto: caelibes esse prohibento: mores populi regunto: probrum in senatu ne relinquunto.''\"",
"This can be translated as: \"The Censors are to determine the generations, origins, families, and properties of the people; they are to (watch over/protect) the city's temples, roads, waters, treasury, and taxes; they are to divide the people into three parts; next, they are to (allow/approve) the properties, generations, and ranks of the people; they are to describe the offspring of knights and footsoldiers; they are to forbid being unmarried; they are to guide the behavior of the people; they are not to overlook abuse in the Senate.\"",
"===Census===Scene of census-taking from the so-called Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, late 2nd century BCThe Census, the first and principal duty of the censors, was always held in the Campus Martius, and from the year 435 BC onwards, in a special building called Villa publica, which was erected for that purpose by the second pair of censors, Gaius Furius Pacilus Fusus and Marcus Geganius Macerinus.",
"An account of the formalities with which the census was opened is given in a fragment of the ''Tabulae Censoriae'', preserved by Varro.",
"After the auspices had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier to appear before the censors.",
"Each tribe was called up separately, and the names in each tribe were probably taken according to the lists previously made out by the tribunes of the tribes.",
"Every ''pater familias'' had to appear in person before the censors, who were seated in their curule chairs, and those names were taken first which were considered to be of good omen, such as Valerius, Salvius, Statorius, etc.The Census was conducted according to the judgement of the censor (''ad arbitrium censoris''), but the censors laid down certain rules, sometimes called ''leges censui censendo'', in which mention was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census, and in what way their value was to be estimated.",
"According to these laws, each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family, and of his property upon oath, \"declared from the heart\".",
"First he had to give his full name (''praenomen'', ''nomen'', and ''cognomen'') and that of his father, or if he were a ''libertus'' (\"freedman\") that of his patron, and he was likewise obliged to state his age.",
"He was then asked, \"You, declaring from your heart, do you have a wife?\"",
"and if married he had to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and ages of his children, if any.",
"Single women and orphans were represented by their guardians; their names were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the sum total of heads.After a citizen had stated his name, age, family, etc., he then had to give an account of all his property, so far as it was subject to the census.",
"Only such things were liable to the census (''censui censendo'') as were property according to the Quiritary law.",
"At first, each citizen appears to have merely given the value of his whole property in general without entering into details; but it soon became the practice to give a minute specification of each article, as well as the general value of the whole.",
"Land formed the most important article of the census, but public land, the possession of which only belonged to a citizen, was excluded as not being Quiritarian property.",
"Judging from the practice of the imperial period, it was the custom to give a most minute specification of all such land as a citizen held according to the Quiritarian law.",
"He had to state the name and location of the land, and to specify what portion of it was arable, what meadow, what vineyard, and what olive-ground: and of the land thus described, he had to give his assessment of its value.Slaves and cattle formed the next most important item.",
"The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing, jewels, and carriages.",
"It has been doubted by some modern writers whether the censors possessed the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the citizens themselves gave, but given the discretionary nature of the censors' powers, and the necessity almost that existed, in order to prevent fraud, that the right of making a surcharge should be vested in somebody's hands, it is likely that the censors had this power.",
"It is moreover expressly stated that on one occasion they made an extravagant surcharge on articles of luxury; and even if they did not enter in their books the property of a person at a higher value than he returned it, they accomplished the same end by compelling him to pay a tax upon the property at a higher rate than others.",
"The tax was usually one per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors, but on one occasion the censors compelled a person to pay eight per thousand as a punishment.A person who voluntarily absented himself from the census was considered ''incensus'' and subject to the severest punishment.",
"Servius Tullius is said to have threatened such individuals with imprisonment and death, and in the Republican period he might be sold by the state as a slave.",
"In the later period of the Republic, a person who was absent from the census might be represented by another, and be thus registered by the censors.",
"Whether the soldiers who were absent on service had to appoint a representative is uncertain.",
"In ancient times, the sudden outbreaks of war prevented the census from being taken, because a large number of the citizens would necessarily be absent.",
"It is supposed from a passage in Livy that in later times the censors sent commissioners into the provinces with full powers to take the census of the Roman soldiers there, but this seems to have been a special case.",
"It is, on the contrary, probable from the way in which Cicero pleads the absence of Archias from Rome with the army under Lucullus, as a sufficient reason for his not having been enrolled in the census, that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence.The Temple of Saturn, which housed the ''aerarium Saturni'' and the ''aerarium sanctumAfter the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was determined by the amount of his property (Comitia Centuriata).",
"These lists formed a most important part of the ''Tabulae Censoriae'', under which name were included all the documents connected in any way with the discharge of the censors' duties.",
"These lists, insofar as they were connected with the finances of the state, were deposited in the ''aerarium'', located in the Temple of Saturn; but the regular depository for all the archives of the censors was in earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the Villa publica, and in later times the temple of the Nymphs.Besides the division of the citizens into tribes, centuries, and classes, the censors had also to make out the lists of the senators for the ensuing five years, or until new censors were appointed, striking out the names of such as they considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who were qualified.",
"In the same manner they held a review of the ''equites'' who received a horse from public funds (''equites equo publico''), and added and removed names as they judged proper.",
"They also confirmed the ''princeps senatus'', or appointed a new one.",
"The princeps himself had to be a former censor.",
"After the lists had been completed, the number of citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced.",
"Accordingly, we find that in the account of a census, the number of citizens is likewise usually given.",
"They are in such cases spoken of as ''capita'' (\"heads\"), sometimes with the addition of the word ''civium'' (\"of the citizens\"), and sometimes not.",
"Hence, to be registered in the census was the same thing as \"having a head\" (''caput habere'').====Census beyond Rome====A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even under the Republic.",
"The emperor sent into the provinces special officers called ''censitores'' to take the census; but the duty was sometimes discharged by the Imperial ''legati''.",
"The ''censitores'' were assisted by subordinate officers, called ''censuales'', who made out the lists, etc.",
"In Rome, the census was still taken under the Empire, but the old ceremonies connected with it were no longer performed, and the ceremony of the ''lustratio'' was not performed after the time of Vespasian.",
"The jurists Paulus and Ulpian each wrote works on the census in the imperial period; and several extracts from these works are given in a chapter in the ''Digest'' (50 15).",
"====Other uses of census====The word ''census'', besides the conventional meaning of \"valuation\" of a person's estate, has other meaning in Rome; it could refer to: *the amount of a person's property (hence we read of ''census senatorius'', the estate of a senator; ''census equestris'', the estate of an eques).",
"*the lists of the censors.",
"*the tax which depended upon the valuation in the census.",
"The Lexicons will supply examples of these meanings.",
"===''Regimen morum''===Keeping the public morals (''regimen morum'', or in the Empire ''cura morum'' or ''praefectura morum'') was the second most important branch of the censors' duties, and the one which caused their office to be one of the most revered and the most dreaded; hence they were also known as ''castigatores'' (\"chastisers\").",
"It naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding persons from the lists of citizens; for, as has been well remarked, \"they would, in the first place, be the sole judges of many questions of fact, such as whether a citizen had the qualifications required by law or custom for the rank which he claimed, or whether he had ever incurred any judicial sentence, which rendered him infamous: but from thence the transition was easy, according to Roman notions, to the decisions of questions of right; such as whether a citizen was really worthy of retaining his rank, whether he had not committed some act as justly degrading as those which incurred the sentence of the law.\"",
"In this manner, the censors gradually assumed at least nominal complete superintendence over the whole public and private life of every citizen.",
"They were constituted as the conservators of public morality; they were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality, but rather to maintain the traditional Roman character, ethics, and habits (''mos majorum'')—''regimen morum'' also encompassed this protection of traditional ways, which was called in the times of the Empire ''cura'' (\"supervision\") or ''praefectura'' (\"command\").",
"The punishment inflicted by the censors in the exercise of this branch of their duties was called ''nota'' (\"mark, letter\") or ''notatio'', or ''animadversio censoria'' (\"censorial reproach\").",
"In inflicting it, they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of duty; they had to take an oath that they would act biased by neither partiality nor favour; and, in addition to this, they were bound in every case to state in their lists, opposite the name of the guilty citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him, ''subscriptio censoria''.This part of the censors' office invested them with a peculiar kind of jurisdiction, which in many respects resembled the exercise of public opinion in modern times; for there are innumerable actions which, though acknowledged by everyone to be prejudicial and immoral, still do not come within the reach of the positive laws of a country; as often said, \"immorality does not equal illegality\".",
"Even in cases of real crimes, the positive laws frequently punish only the particular offence, while in public opinion the offender, even after he has undergone punishment, is still incapacitated for certain honours and distinctions which are granted only to persons of unblemished character.Hence, the Roman censors might brand a man with their \"censorial mark\" (''nota censoria'') in case he had been convicted of a crime in an ordinary court of justice, and had already suffered punishment for it.",
"The consequence of such a ''nota'' was only ''ignominia'' and not ''infamia''.",
"''Infamia'' and the censorial verdict was not a ''judicium'' or ''res judicata'', for its effects were not lasting, but might be removed by the following censors, or by a ''lex'' (roughly \"law\").",
"A censorial mark was moreover not valid unless both censors agreed.",
"The ''ignominia'' was thus only a transitory reduction of status, which does not even appear to have deprived a magistrate of his office, and certainly did not disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy, for being appointed as ''judices'' by the praetor, or for serving in the Roman army.",
"Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus was thus, notwithstanding the reproach of the censors (''animadversio censoria''), made dictator.A person might be branded with a censorial mark in a variety of cases, which it would be impossible to specify, as in a great many instances it depended upon the discretion of the censors and the view they took of a case; and sometimes even one set of censors would overlook an offence which was severely chastised by their successors.",
"But the offences which are recorded to have been punished by the censors are of a threefold nature.A person who had been branded with a ''nota censoria'', might, if he considered himself wronged, endeavour to prove his innocence to the censors, and if he did not succeed, he might try to gain the protection of one of the censors, that he might intercede on his behalf.====Punishments====The punishments inflicted by the censors generally differed according to the station which a man occupied, though sometimes a person of the highest rank might suffer all the punishments at once, by being degraded to the lowest class of citizens.",
"The punishments are generally divided into four classes:#''Motio'' (\"removal\") or ''ejectio e senatu'' (\"ejection from the Senate\"), or the exclusion of a man from the ranks of senators.",
"This punishment might either be a simple exclusion from the list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an ''aerarian''.",
"The latter course seems to have been seldom adopted; the ordinary mode of inflicting the punishment was simply this: the censors in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, quietly omitted the names of those who were no longer to be senators.",
"Hence the expression ''praeteriti senatores'' (\"senators passed over\") is equivalent to ''e senatu ejecti'' (those removed from the Senate).",
"In some cases, however, the censors did not acquiesce to this simple mode of proceeding, but addressed the senator whom they had noted, and publicly reprimanded him for his conduct.",
"As in ordinary cases an ex-senator was not disqualified by his ''ignominia'' for holding any of the magistracies which opened the way to the Senate, he might at the next census again become a senator.#The ''ademptio equi'', or the taking away the publicly funded horse from an equestrian.",
"This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank of an ''aerarian''.#The ''motio e tribu'', or the exclusion of a person from his tribe.",
"This punishment and the degradation to the rank of an ''aerarian'' were originally the same, but when in the course of time a distinction was made between the rural or rustic tribes and the urban tribes, the ''motio e tribu'' transferred a person from the rustic tribes to the less respectable city tribes, and if the further degradation to the rank of an ''aerarian'' was combined with the ''motio e tribu'', it was always expressly stated.#The fourth punishment was called ''referre in aerarios'' or ''facere aliquem aerarium'', and might be inflicted on any person who was thought by the censors to deserve it.",
"This degradation, properly speaking, included all the other punishments, for an equestrian could not be made an ''aerarius'' unless he was previously deprived of his horse, nor could a member of a rustic tribe be made an ''aerarius'' unless he was previously excluded from it.It was this authority of the Roman censors which eventually developed into the modern meaning of \"censor\" and \"censorship\"—i.e., officials who review published material and forbid the publication of material judged to be contrary to \"public morality\" as the term is interpreted in a given political and social environment.===Administration of the finances of the state===The administration of the state's finances was another part of the censors' office.",
"In the first place the ''tributum'', or property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the censors.",
"They also had the superintendence of all the other revenues of the state, the ''vectigalia'', such as the tithes paid for the public lands, the salt works, the mines, the customs, etc.The censors typically auctioned off to the highest bidder for the space of a ''lustrum'' the collection of the tithes and taxes (tax farming).",
"This auctioning was called ''venditio'' or ''locatio'', and seems to have taken place in the month of March, in a public place in Rome The terms on which they were let, together with the rights and duties of the purchasers, were all specified in the ''leges censoriae'', which the censors published in every case before the bidding commenced.",
"For further particulars see Publicani.The censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the assent of the Senate, of imposing new ''vectigalia'', and even of selling the land belonging to the state.",
"It would thus appear that it was the duty of the censors to bring forward a budget for a five-year period, and to take care that the income of the state was sufficient for its expenditure during that time.",
"In part, their duties resembled those of a modern minister of finance.",
"The censors, however, did not receive the revenues of the state.",
"All the public money was paid into the ''aerarium'', which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the Senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which employed the quaestors as its officers.====Overseeing public works====In one important department, the public works, the censors were entrusted with the expenditure of the public money (though the actual payments were no doubt made by the quaestors).The censors had the general superintendence of all the public buildings and works (''opera publica''), and to meet the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the Senate voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ according to their discretion.",
"They had to see that the temples and all other public buildings were in a good state of repair, that no public places were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons, and that the aqueducts, roads, drains, etc.",
"were properly attended to.The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them in proper condition were let out by the censors by public auction to the lowest bidder, just as the ''vectigalia'' were let out to the highest bidder.",
"These expenses were called ''ultrotributa'', and hence we frequently find ''vectigalia'' and ''ultrotributa'' contrasted with one another.",
"The persons who undertook the contract were called ''conductores'', ''mancipes'', ''redemptores'', ''susceptores'', etc., and the duties they had to discharge were specified in the Leges Censoriae.",
"The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the worship of the gods, even for instance the feeding of the sacred geese in the Capitol; these various tasks were also let out on contract.",
"It was ordinary for censors to expend large amounts of money (“by far the largest and most extensive” of the state) in their public works.Appius Claudius Caecus, one of the most influential censorsBesides keeping existing public buildings and facilities in a proper state of repair, the censors were also in charge of constructing new ones, either for ornament or utility, both in Rome and in other parts of Italy, such as temples, basilicae, theatres, porticoes, fora, aqueducts, town walls, harbours, bridges, cloacae, roads, etc.",
"These works were either performed by them jointly, or they divided between them the money, which had been granted to them by the Senate.",
"They were let out to contractors, like the other works mentioned above, and when they were completed, the censors had to see that the work was performed in accordance with the contract: this was called ''opus probare'' or ''in acceptum referre''.The first ever Roman road, the Via Appia, and the first Roman aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, were all constructed under the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus, one of the most influential censors.The aediles had likewise a superintendence over the public buildings, and it is not easy to define with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles, but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors were more financial in subject matter.===Lustrum===After the censors had performed their various duties and taken the five-yearly census, the ''lustrum'', a solemn purification of the people, followed.",
"When the censors entered upon their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this purification; but both censors were of course obliged to be present at the ceremony.Long after the Roman census was no longer taken, the Latin word ''lustrum'' has survived, and been adopted in some modern languages, in the derived sense of a period of five years, i.e., half a decennium."
],
[
"Census statistics",
"CensusNumber of Roman citizensEconomic crisesWarsEpidemics 508 BC 130,000 505–504 BC 503 BC 120,000 499 or 496 BC 498 BC150,700 493 BC110,000 492–491 BC 486 BC 474 BC103,000474 BC 474 BC 465 BC104,714 459 BC117,319 456 BC 454 BC 454 BC 440–439 BC 433 BC 433 BC 428 BC 428 BC 412 BC 412 BC 400 BC 396 BC 392 BC152,573 392 BC 392 BC390 BC 390 BC 386 BC 383 BC 383 BC 343–341 BC 340 BC165,000 340–338 BC 326–304 BC 323 BC150,000 299 BC 298–290 BC 294 BC262,321 293/292 BC289 BC272,200 281 BC 280 BC287,222 280–275 BC 276 BC271,224 276 BC?265 BC292,234 264–241 BC 252 BC297,797 250 BC 250 BC 247 BC241,712 241 BC260,000 234 BC270,713 216 BC216 BC 211–210 BC211–210 BC209 BC137,108 204 BC214,000 204 BC 203 BC 201 BC 200 BC 200–195 BC 194 BC143,704 192–188 BC 189 BC258,318 187 BC 182–180 BC179 BC258,318 176–175 BC174 BC269,015 171–167 BC 169 BC312,805 165 BC164 BC337,022 159 BC328,316 154 BC324,000 153 BC 147 BC322,000 142 BC322,442 142 BC 138 BC 136 BC317,933 131 BC318,823 125 BC394,736 123 BC 115 BC394,336 104 BC 87 BC86 BC463,000 75 BC 70 BC910,000 67 BC 65 BC 54 BC 49–46 BC 43 BC 28 BC4,063,000 23–22 23–22 8 BC 4,233,000 5–6 10 14 AD 4,937,000"
],
[
"See also",
"*Authoritarianism*Birth registration in Ancient Rome*Cursus honorum*Lex Caecilia de censoria*Outline of ancient Rome*Political institutions of Rome*Pauly–Wissowa"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Citations ====== Sources ===* Brunt, P. A. Italian Manpower 225 BC – AD 14.Oxford, 1971;* * Virlouvet, C. Famines et émeutes à Rome, des origines de la République à la mort de Néron.",
"Roma, 1985;* Suder, W., Góralczyk, E. Sezonowość epidemii w Republice Rzymskiej.",
"Vitae historicae, Księga jubileuszowa dedykowana profesorowi Lechowi A. Tyszkiewiczowi w siedemdziesiątą rocznicę urodzin.",
"Wrocław, 2001.",
"* Suolahti, J.",
"The Roman Censors: A Study on Social Structure.",
"Helsinki, 1963.",
"* Melnichuk Y.",
"Birth of the Roman censorship: Exploring the ancient tradition of the civil control of ancient Rome.",
"- Moscow, 2010*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Convex set"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Illustration of a convex set shaped like a deformed circle.",
"The line segment joining points ''x'' and ''y'' lies completely within the set, illustrated in green.",
"Since this is true for any potential locations of two points within the set, the set is convex.Illustration of a non-convex set.",
"The line segment joining points ''x'' and ''y'' partially extends outside of the set, illustrated in red, and the intersection of the set with the line occurs in two places, illustrated in black.In geometry, a subset of a Euclidean space, or more generally an affine space over the reals, is '''convex''' if, given any two points in the subset, the subset contains the whole line segment that joins them.",
"Equivalently, a '''convex set''' or a '''convex region''' is a subset that intersects every line into a single line segment (possibly empty).For example, a solid cube is a convex set, but anything that is hollow or has an indent, for example, a crescent shape, is not convex.The boundary of a convex set in the plane is always a convex curve.",
"The intersection of all the convex sets that contain a given subset of Euclidean space is called the convex hull of .",
"It is the smallest convex set containing .A convex function is a real-valued function defined on an interval with the property that its epigraph (the set of points on or above the graph of the function) is a convex set.",
"Convex minimization is a subfield of optimization that studies the problem of minimizing convex functions over convex sets.",
"The branch of mathematics devoted to the study of properties of convex sets and convex functions is called convex analysis.The notion of a convex set can be generalized as described below."
],
[
"Definitions",
"function is convex if and only if its epigraph, the region (in green) above its graph (in blue), is a convex set.Let be a vector space or an affine space over the real numbers, or, more generally, over some ordered field (this includes Euclidean spaces, which are affine spaces).",
"A subset of is '''convex''' if, for all and in , the line segment connecting and is included in .",
"This means that the affine combination belongs to for all in and in the interval .",
"This implies that convexity is invariant under affine transformations.",
"Further, it implies that a convex set in a real or complex topological vector space is path-connected (and therefore also connected).A set is '''''' if every point on the line segment connecting and other than the endpoints is inside the topological interior of .",
"A closed convex subset is strictly convex if and only if every one of its boundary points is an extreme point.A set is '''absolutely convex''' if it is convex and balanced.===Examples===The convex subsets of (the set of real numbers) are the intervals and the points of .",
"Some examples of convex subsets of the Euclidean plane are solid regular polygons, solid triangles, and intersections of solid triangles.",
"Some examples of convex subsets of a Euclidean 3-dimensional space are the Archimedean solids and the Platonic solids.",
"The Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra are examples of non-convex sets.=== Non-convex set ===A set that is not convex is called a ''non-convex set''.",
"A polygon that is not a convex polygon is sometimes called a concave polygon, and some sources more generally use the term ''concave set'' to mean a non-convex set, but most authorities prohibit this usage.The complement of a convex set, such as the epigraph of a concave function, is sometimes called a ''reverse convex set'', especially in the context of mathematical optimization."
],
[
"Properties",
"Given points in a convex set , and nonnegative numbers such that , the affine combination belongs to .",
"As the definition of a convex set is the case , this property characterizes convex sets.Such an affine combination is called a convex combination of .=== Intersections and unions ===The collection of convex subsets of a vector space, an affine space, or a Euclidean space has the following properties:#The empty set and the whole space are convex.#The intersection of any collection of convex sets is convex.#The ''union'' of a sequence of convex sets is convex, if they form a non-decreasing chain for inclusion.",
"For this property, the restriction to chains is important, as the union of two convex sets ''need not'' be convex.=== Closed convex sets ===Closed convex sets are convex sets that contain all their limit points.",
"They can be characterised as the intersections of ''closed half-spaces'' (sets of point in space that lie on and to one side of a hyperplane).From what has just been said, it is clear that such intersections are convex, and they will also be closed sets.",
"To prove the converse, i.e., every closed convex set may be represented as such intersection, one needs the supporting hyperplane theorem in the form that for a given closed convex set and point outside it, there is a closed half-space that contains and not .",
"The supporting hyperplane theorem is a special case of the Hahn–Banach theorem of functional analysis.=== Convex sets and rectangles ===Let be a convex body in the plane (a convex set whose interior is non-empty).",
"We can inscribe a rectangle ''r'' in such that a homothetic copy ''R'' of ''r'' is circumscribed about .",
"The positive homothety ratio is at most 2 and:=== Blaschke-Santaló diagrams ===The set of all planar convex bodies can be parameterized in terms of the convex body diameter ''D'', its inradius ''r'' (the biggest circle contained in the convex body) and its circumradius ''R'' (the smallest circle containing the convex body).",
"In fact, this set can be described by the set of inequalities given byand can be visualized as the image of the function ''g'' that maps a convex body to the point given by (''r''/''R'', ''D''/2''R'').",
"The image of this function is known a (''r'', ''D'', ''R'') Blachke-Santaló diagram.Blaschke-Santaló (''r'', ''D'', ''R'') diagram for planar convex bodies.",
"denotes the line segment, the equilateral triangle, the Reuleaux triangle and the unit circle.Alternatively, the set can also be parametrized by its width (the smallest distance between any two different parallel support hyperplanes), perimeter and area.=== Other properties ===Let ''X'' be a topological vector space and be convex.",
"* and are both convex (i.e.",
"the closure and interior of convex sets are convex).",
"* If and then (where ).",
"* If then:** , and** , where is the algebraic interior of ''C''."
],
[
"Convex hulls and Minkowski sums",
"=== Convex hulls ===Every subset of the vector space is contained within a smallest convex set (called the convex hull of ), namely the intersection of all convex sets containing .",
"The convex-hull operator Conv() has the characteristic properties of a hull operator:* ''extensive'': ,* ''non-decreasing'': implies that , and* ''idempotent'': .The convex-hull operation is needed for the set of convex sets to form a lattice, in which the \"''join''\" operation is the convex hull of the union of two convex setsThe intersection of any collection of convex sets is itself convex, so the convex subsets of a (real or complex) vector space form a complete lattice.=== Minkowski addition ===Minkowski addition of sets.",
"The sum of the squares Q1=0,12 and Q2=1,22 is the square Q1+Q2=1,32.In a real vector-space, the ''Minkowski sum'' of two (non-empty) sets, and , is defined to be the set formed by the addition of vectors element-wise from the summand-setsMore generally, the ''Minkowski sum'' of a finite family of (non-empty) sets is the set formed by element-wise addition of vectorsFor Minkowski addition, the ''zero set'' containing only the zero vector has special importance: For every non-empty subset S of a vector spacein algebraic terminology, is the identity element of Minkowski addition (on the collection of non-empty sets).=== Convex hulls of Minkowski sums ===Minkowski addition behaves well with respect to the operation of taking convex hulls, as shown by the following proposition:Let be subsets of a real vector-space, the convex hull of their Minkowski sum is the Minkowski sum of their convex hullsThis result holds more generally for each finite collection of non-empty sets:In mathematical terminology, the operations of Minkowski summation and of forming convex hulls are commuting operations.=== Minkowski sums of convex sets ===The Minkowski sum of two compact convex sets is compact.",
"The sum of a compact convex set and a closed convex set is closed.The following famous theorem, proved by Dieudonné in 1966, gives a sufficient condition for the difference of two closed convex subsets to be closed.",
"It uses the concept of a '''recession cone''' of a non-empty convex subset ''S'', defined as:where this set is a convex cone containing and satisfying .",
"Note that if ''S'' is closed and convex then is closed and for all ,'''Theorem''' (Dieudonné).",
"Let ''A'' and ''B'' be non-empty, closed, and convex subsets of a locally convex topological vector space such that is a linear subspace.",
"If ''A'' or ''B'' is locally compact then ''A'' − ''B'' is closed."
],
[
"Generalizations and extensions for convexity",
"The notion of convexity in the Euclidean space may be generalized by modifying the definition in some or other aspects.",
"The common name \"generalized convexity\" is used, because the resulting objects retain certain properties of convex sets.=== Star-convex (star-shaped) sets ===Let be a set in a real or complex vector space.",
"is '''star convex (star-shaped)''' if there exists an in such that the line segment from to any point in is contained in .",
"Hence a non-empty convex set is always star-convex but a star-convex set is not always convex.=== Orthogonal convexity ===An example of generalized convexity is '''orthogonal convexity'''.A set in the Euclidean space is called '''orthogonally convex''' or '''ortho-convex''', if any segment parallel to any of the coordinate axes connecting two points of lies totally within .",
"It is easy to prove that an intersection of any collection of orthoconvex sets is orthoconvex.",
"Some other properties of convex sets are valid as well.=== Non-Euclidean geometry ===The definition of a convex set and a convex hull extends naturally to geometries which are not Euclidean by defining a geodesically convex set to be one that contains the geodesics joining any two points in the set.=== Order topology ===Convexity can be extended for a totally ordered set endowed with the order topology.Let .",
"The subspace is a convex set if for each pair of points in such that , the interval is contained in .",
"That is, is convex if and only if for all in , implies .A convex set is connected in general: a counter-example is given by the subspace {1,2,3} in , which is both convex and not connected.=== Convexity spaces ===The notion of convexity may be generalised to other objects, if certain properties of convexity are selected as axioms.Given a set , a '''convexity''' over is a collection of subsets of satisfying the following axioms:#The empty set and are in #The intersection of any collection from is in .#The union of a chain (with respect to the inclusion relation) of elements of is in .The elements of are called convex sets and the pair is called a '''convexity space'''.",
"For the ordinary convexity, the first two axioms hold, and the third one is trivial.For an alternative definition of abstract convexity, more suited to discrete geometry, see the ''convex geometries'' associated with antimatroids.=== Convex spaces ===Convexity can be generalised as an abstract algebraic structure: a space is convex if it is possible to take convex combinations of points."
],
[
"See also",
"* Absorbing set* Algorithmic problems on convex sets* Bounded set (topological vector space)* Brouwer fixed-point theorem* Complex convexity* Convex hull* Convex series* Convex metric space* Carathéodory's theorem (convex hull)* Choquet theory* Helly's theorem* Holomorphically convex hull* Integrally-convex set* John ellipsoid* Pseudoconvexity* Radon's theorem* Shapley–Folkman lemma* Symmetric set"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Lectures on Convex Sets, notes by Niels Lauritzen, at Aarhus University, March 2010."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cairo"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cairo''' ( ; ; ) is the capital of Egypt and the city-state Cairo Governorate, and is the country's largest city, home to 10 million people.",
"It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metropolitan area is the 12th-largest in the world by population with a population of over 22.1 million.",
"Cairo is associated with ancient Egypt, as the Giza pyramid complex and the ancient cities of Memphis and Heliopolis are located in its geographical area.",
"Located near the Nile Delta, the city first developed as Fustat following the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 641 next to an existing ancient Roman fortress, Babylon.",
"Cairo was founded by the Fatimid dynasty in 969.It later superseded Fustat as the main urban centre during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods (12th–16th centuries).",
"Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life, and is titled \"the city of a thousand minarets\" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture.",
"Cairo's historic center was awarded World Heritage Site status in 1979.Cairo is considered a World City with a \"Beta +\" classification according to GaWC.Cairo has the oldest and largest film and music industry in the Arab world, as well as Egypt's oldest institution of higher learning, Al-Azhar University.",
"Many international media, businesses, and organizations have regional headquarters in the city; the Arab League has had its headquarters in Cairo for most of its existence.With a population of over 10 million spread over , Cairo is by far the largest city in Egypt.",
"An additional 9.5 million inhabitants live close to the city.",
"Cairo, like many other megacities, suffers from high levels of pollution and traffic.",
"The Cairo Metro, opened in 1987, is the oldest metro system in Africa, and ranks amongst the fifteen busiest in the world, with over 1 billion annual passenger rides.",
"The economy of Cairo was ranked first in the Middle East in 2005, and 43rd globally on ''Foreign Policy'' 2010 Global Cities Index."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The name of Cairo is derived from the Arabic '''' (), meaning 'the Vanquisher' or 'the Conqueror', given by the Fatimid Caliph al-Mu'izz following the establishment of the city as the capital of the Fatimid dynasty.",
"Its full, formal name was '''' (القاهرة المعزيّة), meaning 'the Vanquisher of al-Mu'izz'.",
"It is also supposedly due to the fact that the planet Mars, known in Arabic by names such as (, 'the Conquering Star'), was rising at the time of the city's founding.Egyptians often refer to Cairo as '''' (; ), the Egyptian Arabic name for Egypt itself, emphasizing the city's importance for the country.There are a number of Coptic names for the city.",
"''Tikešrōmi'' ( Late Coptic: ) is attested in the 1211 text ''The Martyrdom of John of Phanijoit'' and is either a calque meaning 'man breaker' (, 'the', , 'to break', and , 'man'), akin to Arabic '''', or a derivation from Arabic (''qaṣr ar-rūm'', \"the Roman castle\"), another name of Babylon Fortress in Old Cairo.",
"The Arabic name is also calqued as , \"the victor city\" in the Coptic antiphonary.The form Khairon () is attested in the modern Coptic text Ⲡⲓⲫⲓⲣⲓ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉ ϯⲁⲅⲓⲁ ⲙ̀ⲙⲏⲓ Ⲃⲉⲣⲏⲛⲁ (The Tale of Saint Verina).",
"( Late Coptic: ) or ( Late Coptic: ) is another name which is descended from the Greek name of Heliopolis ().",
"Some argue that ( Late Coptic: ) or ( Late Coptic: ) is another Coptic name for Cairo, although others think that it is rather a name for the Abbasid province capital al-Askar.",
"() is a popular modern rendering of an Arabic name (others being Kairon and Kahira) which is modern folk etymology meaning 'land of sun'.",
"Some argue that it was a name of an Egyptian settlement upon which Cairo was built, but it is rather doubtful as this name is not attested in any Hieroglyphic or Demotic source, although some researchers, like Paul Casanova, view it as a legitimate theory.",
"Cairo is also referred to as (Late Coptic: ) or (Late Coptic: ), which means Egypt in Coptic, the same way it is referred to in Egyptian Arabic.Sometimes the city is informally referred to as '''' by people from Alexandria (; )."
],
[
"History",
"===Ancient settlements===Remains of a circular Roman tower at Babylon Fortress (late 3rd century) in Old Cairo|leftThe area around present-day Cairo had long been a focal point of Ancient Egypt due to its strategic location at the junction of the Nile Valley and the Nile Delta regions (roughly Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt), which also placed it at the crossing of major routes between North Africa and the Levant.",
"Memphis, the capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom and a major city up until the Ptolemaic period, was located a short distance south west of present-day Cairo.",
"Heliopolis, another important city and major religious center, was located in what are now the modern districts of Matariya and Ain Shams in northeastern Cairo.",
"It was largely destroyed by the Persian invasions in 525 BC and 343 BC and partly abandoned by the late first century BC.However, the origins of modern Cairo are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium AD.",
"Around the turn of the fourth century, as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance, the Romans established a large fortress along the east bank of the Nile.",
"The fortress, called Babylon, was built by the Roman emperor Diocletian (r. 285–305) at the entrance of a canal connecting the Nile to the Red Sea that was created earlier by emperor Trajan (r. 98–115).",
"Further north of the fortress, near the present-day district of al-Azbakiya, was a port and fortified outpost known as Tendunyas () or Umm Dunayn.",
"While no structures older than the 7th century have been preserved in the area aside from the Roman fortifications, historical evidence suggests that a sizeable city existed.",
"The city was important enough that its bishop, Cyrus, participated in the Second Council of Ephesus in 449.The Byzantine-Sassanian War between 602 and 628 caused great hardship and likely caused much of the urban population to leave for the countryside, leaving the settlement partly deserted.",
"The site today remains at the nucleus of the Coptic Orthodox community, which separated from the Roman and Byzantine churches in the late 4th century.",
"Cairo's oldest extant churches, such as the Church of Saint Barbara and the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus (from the late 7th or early 8th century), are located inside the fortress walls in what is now known as Old Cairo or Coptic Cairo.=== Fustat and other early Islamic settlements ===Excavated ruins of Fustat (2004 photo)The Muslim conquest of Byzantine Egypt was led by Amr ibn al-As from 639 to 642.Babylon Fortress was besieged in September 640 and fell in April 641.In 641 or early 642, after the surrender of Alexandria (the Egyptian capital at the time), he founded a new settlement next to Babylon Fortress.",
"The city, known as Fustat (), served as a garrison town and as the new administrative capital of Egypt.",
"Historians such as Janet Abu-Lughod and André Raymond trace the genesis of present-day Cairo to the foundation of Fustat.",
"The choice of founding a new settlement at this inland location, instead of using the existing capital of Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast, may have been due to the new conquerors' strategic priorities.",
"One of the first projects of the new Muslim administration was to clear and re-open Trajan's ancient canal in order to ship grain more directly from Egypt to Medina, the capital of the caliphate in Arabia.",
"Ibn al-As also founded a mosque for the city at the same time, now known as the Mosque of Amr Ibn al-As, the oldest mosque in Egypt and Africa (although the current structure dates from later expansions).In 750, following the overthrow of the Umayyad caliphate by the Abbasids, the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became the new provincial capital.",
"This was known as al-Askar () as it was laid out like a military camp.",
"A governor's residence and a new mosque were also added, with the latter completed in 786.In 861, on the orders of the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil, a Nilometer was built on Roda Island near Fustat.",
"Although it was repaired and given a new roof in later centuries, its basic structure is still preserved today, making it the oldest preserved Islamic-era structure in Cairo today.The Mosque of Ibn Tulun, built by Ahmad Ibn Tulun in 876–879 ADIn 868 a commander of Turkic origin named Bakbak was sent to Egypt by the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'taz to restore order after a rebellion in the country.",
"He was accompanied by his stepson, Ahmad ibn Tulun, who became effective governor of Egypt.",
"Over time, Ibn Tulun gained an army and accumulated influence and wealth, allowing him to become the ''de facto'' independent ruler of both Egypt and Syria by 878.In 870, he used his growing wealth to found a new administrative capital, al-Qata'i (), to the northeast of Fustat and of al-Askar.",
"The new city included a palace known as the ''Dar al-Imara'', a parade ground known as ''al-Maydan'', a bimaristan (hospital), and an aqueduct to supply water.",
"Between 876 and 879 Ibn Tulun built a great mosque, now known as the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, at the center of the city, next to the palace.",
"After his death in 884, Ibn Tulun was succeeded by his son and his descendants who continued a short-lived dynasty, the Tulunids.",
"In 905, the Abbasids sent general Muhammad Sulayman al-Katib to re-assert direct control over the country.",
"Tulunid rule was ended and al-Qatta'i was razed to the ground, except for the mosque which remains standing today.===Foundation and expansion of Cairo===A plan of Cairo before 1200 AD, as reconstructed by Stanley Lane-Poole (1906), showing the location of Fatimid structures, Saladin's Citadel, and earlier sites (Fustat not shown)In 969, the Shi'a Isma'ili Fatimid empire conquered Egypt after ruling from Ifriqiya.",
"The Fatimid general Jawhar Al Saqili founded a new fortified city northeast of Fustat and of former al-Qata'i.",
"It took four years to build the city, initially known as al-Manṣūriyyah, which was to serve as the new capital of the caliphate.",
"During that time, the construction of the al-Azhar Mosque was commissioned by order of the caliph, which developed into the third-oldest university in the world.",
"Cairo would eventually become a centre of learning, with the library of Cairo containing hundreds of thousands of books.",
"When Caliph al-Mu'izz li Din Allah arrived from the old Fatimid capital of Mahdia in Tunisia in 973, he gave the city its present name, ''Qāhirat al-Mu'izz'' (\"The Vanquisher of al-Mu'izz\"), from which the name \"Cairo\" (''al-Qāhira'') originates.",
"The caliphs lived in a vast and lavish palace complex that occupied the heart of the city.",
"Cairo remained a relatively exclusive royal city for most of this era, but during the tenure of Badr al-Gamali as vizier (1073–1094) the restrictions were loosened for the first time and richer families from Fustat were allowed to move into the city.",
"Between 1087 and 1092 Badr al-Gamali also rebuilt the city walls in stone and constructed the city gates of Bab al-Futuh, Bab al-Nasr, and Bab Zuweila that still stand today.During the Fatimid period Fustat reached its apogee in size and prosperity, acting as a center of craftsmanship and international trade and as the area's main port on the Nile.",
"Historical sources report that multi-story communal residences existed in the city, particularly in its center, which were typically inhabited by middle and lower-class residents.",
"Some of these were as high as seven stories and could house some 200 to 350 people.",
"They may have been similar to Roman ''insulae'' and may have been the prototypes for the rental apartment complexes which became common in the later Mamluk and Ottoman periods.However, in 1168 the Fatimid vizier Shawar set fire to unfortified Fustat to prevent its potential capture by Amalric, the Crusader king of Jerusalem.",
"While the fire did not destroy the city and it continued to exist afterward, it did mark the beginning of its decline.",
"Over the following centuries it was Cairo, the former palace-city, that became the new economic center and attracted migration from Fustat.The Cairo Citadel, seen above in the 19th century, was begun by Saladin in 1176.|alt=A multi-domed mosque dominates the walled Citadel, with ruined tombs and a lone minaret in front.While the Crusaders did not capture the city in 1168, a continuing power struggle between Shawar, King Amalric, and the Zengid general Shirkuh led to the downfall of the Fatimid establishment.",
"In 1169, Shirkuh's nephew Saladin was appointed as the new vizier of Egypt by the Fatimids and two years later he seized power from the family of the last Fatimid caliph, al-'Āḍid.",
"As the first Sultan of Egypt, Saladin established the Ayyubid dynasty, based in Cairo, and aligned Egypt with the Sunni Abbasids, who were based in Baghdad.",
"In 1176, Saladin began construction on the Cairo Citadel, which was to serve as the seat of the Egyptian government until the mid-19th century.",
"The construction of the Citadel definitively ended Fatimid-built Cairo's status as an exclusive palace-city and opened it up to common Egyptians and to foreign merchants, spurring its commercial development.",
"Along with the Citadel, Saladin also began the construction of a new 20-kilometre-long wall that would protect both Cairo and Fustat on their eastern side and connect them with the new Citadel.",
"These construction projects continued beyond Saladin's lifetime and were completed under his Ayyubid successors.=== Apogee and decline under the Mamluks ===Mausoleum-Madrasa-Hospital complex of Sultan Qalawun, built in 1284–1285 in the center of Cairo, over the remains of a Fatimid palaceIn 1250, during the Seventh Crusade, the Ayyubid dynasty had a crisis with the death of al-Salih and power transitioned instead to the Mamluks, partly with the help of al-Salih's wife, Shajar ad-Durr, who ruled for a brief period around this time.",
"Mamluks were soldiers who were purchased as young slaves and raised to serve in the sultan's army.",
"Between 1250 and 1517 the throne of the Mamluk Sultanate passed from one mamluk to another in a system of succession that was generally non-hereditary, but also frequently violent and chaotic.",
"The Mamluk Empire nonetheless became a major power in the region and was responsible for repelling the advance of the Mongols (most famously at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260) and for eliminating the last Crusader states in the Levant.Despite their military character, the Mamluks were also prolific builders and left a rich architectural legacy throughout Cairo.",
"Continuing a practice started by the Ayyubids, much of the land occupied by former Fatimid palaces was sold and replaced by newer buildings, becoming a prestigious site for the construction of Mamluk religious and funerary complexes.",
"Construction projects initiated by the Mamluks pushed the city outward while also bringing new infrastructure to the centre of the city.",
"Meanwhile, Cairo flourished as a centre of Islamic scholarship and a crossroads on the spice trade route among the civilisations in Afro-Eurasia.",
"Under the reign of the Mamluk sultan al-Nasir Muhammad (1293–1341, with interregnums), Cairo reached its apogee in terms of population and wealth.",
"By 1340, Cairo had a population of close to half a million, making it the largest city west of China.Multi-story buildings occupied by rental apartments, known as a ''rab''' (plural ''ribā''' or ''urbu''), became common in the Mamluk period and continued to be a feature of the city's housing during the later Ottoman period.",
"These apartments were often laid out as multi-story duplexes or triplexes.",
"They were sometimes attached to caravanserais, where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to tenants.",
"The oldest partially-preserved example of this type of structure is the Wikala of Amir Qawsun, built before 1341.Residential buildings were in turn organized into close-knit neighbourhoods called a ''harat'', which in many cases had gates that could be closed off at night or during disturbances.Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay, built in 1470–1474 in the Northern Cemetery (seen in 1880)|alt=When the traveller Ibn Battuta first came to Cairo in 1326, he described it as the principal district of Egypt.",
"When he passed through the area again on his return journey in 1348 the Black Death was ravaging most major cities.",
"He cited reports of thousands of deaths per day in Cairo.",
"Although Cairo avoided Europe's stagnation during the Late Middle Ages, it could not escape the Black Death, which struck the city more than fifty times between 1348 and 1517.During its initial, and most deadly waves, approximately 200,000 people were killed by the plague, and, by the 15th century, Cairo's population had been reduced to between 150,000 and 300,000.The population decline was accompanied by a period of political instability between 1348 and 1412.It was nonetheless in this period that the largest Mamluk-era religious monument, the Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan, was built.",
"In the late 14th century the Burji Mamluks replaced the Bahri Mamluks as rulers of the Mamluk state, but the Mamluk system continued to decline.Though the plagues returned frequently throughout the 15th century, Cairo remained a major metropolis and its population recovered in part through rural migration.",
"More conscious efforts were conducted by rulers and city officials to redress the city's infrastructure and cleanliness.",
"Its economy and politics also became more deeply connected with the wider Mediterranean.",
"Some Mamluk sultans in this period, such as Barbsay (r. 1422–1438) and Qaytbay (r. 1468–1496), had relatively long and successful reigns.",
"After al-Nasir Muhammad, Qaytbay was one of the most prolific patrons of art and architecture of the Mamluk era.",
"He built or restored numerous monuments in Cairo, in addition to commissioning projects beyond Egypt.",
"The crisis of Mamluk power and of Cairo's economic role deepened after Qaytbay.",
"The city's status was diminished after Vasco da Gama discovered a sea route around the Cape of Good Hope between 1497 and 1499, thereby allowing spice traders to avoid Cairo.===Ottoman rule===Map of Cairo in 1809, from the ''Description de l'Égypte''Cairo's political influence diminished significantly after the Ottomans defeated Sultan al-Ghuri in the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516 and conquered Egypt in 1517.Ruling from Constantinople, Sultan Selim I relegated Egypt to a province, with Cairo as its capital.",
"For this reason, the history of Cairo during Ottoman times is often described as inconsequential, especially in comparison to other time periods.",
"During the 16th and 17th centuries, Cairo still remained an important economic and cultural centre.",
"Although no longer on the spice route, the city facilitated the transportation of Yemeni coffee and Indian textiles, primarily to Anatolia, North Africa, and the Balkans.",
"Cairene merchants were instrumental in bringing goods to the barren Hejaz, especially during the annual hajj to Mecca.",
"It was during this same period that al-Azhar University reached the predominance among Islamic schools that it continues to hold today; pilgrims on their way to hajj often attested to the superiority of the institution, which had become associated with Egypt's body of Islamic scholars.",
"The first printing press of the Middle East, printing in Hebrew, was established in Cairo by a scion of the Soncino family of printers, Italian Jews of Ashkenazi origin who operated a press in Constantinople.",
"The existence of the press is known solely from two fragments discovered in the Cairo Geniza.Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848–1933).",
"''On the Way Between Old and New Cairo, Citadel Mosque of Mohammed Ali, and Tombs of the Mamelukes'', 1872.Oil on canvas.",
"Brooklyn Museum.Under the Ottomans, Cairo expanded south and west from its nucleus around the Citadel.",
"The city was the second-largest in the empire, behind Constantinople, and, although migration was not the primary source of Cairo's growth, twenty percent of its population at the end of the 18th century consisted of religious minorities and foreigners from around the Mediterranean.",
"Still, when Napoleon arrived in Cairo in 1798, the city's population was less than 300,000, forty percent lower than it was at the height of Mamluk—and Cairene—influence in the mid-14th century.The French occupation was short-lived as British and Ottoman forces, including a sizeable Albanian contingent, recaptured the country in 1801.Cairo itself was besieged by a British and Ottoman force culminating with the French surrender on 22 June 1801.The British vacated Egypt two years later, leaving the Ottomans, the Albanians, and the long-weakened Mamluks jostling for control of the country.",
"Continued civil war allowed an Albanian named Muhammad Ali Pasha to ascend to the role of commander and eventually, with the approval of the religious establishment, viceroy of Egypt in 1805.===Modern era===Cairo in the late 19th century, Georg Macco (1863–1933), oil on canvas.Until his death in 1848, Muhammad Ali Pasha instituted a number of social and economic reforms that earned him the title of founder of modern Egypt.",
"However, while Muhammad Ali initiated the construction of public buildings in the city, those reforms had minimal effect on Cairo's landscape.",
"Bigger changes came to Cairo under Isma'il Pasha (r. 1863–1879), who continued the modernisation processes started by his grandfather.",
"Drawing inspiration from Paris, Isma'il envisioned a city of maidans and wide avenues; due to financial constraints, only some of them, in the area now composing Downtown Cairo, came to fruition.",
"Isma'il also sought to modernize the city, which was merging with neighbouring settlements, by establishing a public works ministry, bringing gas and lighting to the city, and opening a theatre and opera house.The immense debt resulting from Isma'il's projects provided a pretext for increasing European control, which culminated with the British invasion in 1882.The city's economic centre quickly moved west toward the Nile, away from the historic Islamic Cairo section and toward the contemporary, European-style areas built by Isma'il.",
"Europeans accounted for five percent of Cairo's population at the end of the 19th century, by which point they held most top governmental positions.In 1906 the Heliopolis Oasis Company headed by the Belgian industrialist Édouard Empain and his Egyptian counterpart Boghos Nubar, built a suburb called Heliopolis (city of the sun in Greek) ten kilometers from the center of Cairo.",
"In 1905–1907 the northern part of the Gezira island was developed by the Baehler Company into Zamalek, which would later become Cairo's upscale \"chic\" neighbourhood.",
"In 1906 construction began on Garden City, a neighbourhood of urban villas with gardens and curved streets.Qasr El Nil BridgeGezira/Zamalek Island (center left), and Downtown (lower right), as well as Bulaq (upper right).The British occupation was intended to be temporary, but it lasted well into the 20th century.",
"Nationalists staged large-scale demonstrations in Cairo in 1919, five years after Egypt had been declared a British protectorate.",
"Nevertheless, this led to Egypt's independence in 1922.The King Fuad I Edition of the Qur'an was first published on 10 July 1924 in Cairo under the patronage of King Fuad.",
"The goal of the government of the newly formed Kingdom of Egypt was not to delegitimize the other variant Quranic texts (\"qira'at\"), but to eliminate errors found in Qur'anic texts used in state schools.",
"A committee of teachers chose to preserve a single one of the canonical qira'at \"readings\", namely that of the \"Ḥafṣ\" version, an 8th-century Kufic recitation.",
"This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran for much of the Islamic world.",
"The publication has been called a \"terrific success\", and the edition has been described as one \"now widely seen as the official text of the Qur'an\", so popular among both Sunni and Shi'a that the common belief among less well-informed Muslims is \"that the Qur'an has a single, unambiguous reading\".",
"Minor amendments were made later in 1924 and in 1936 - the \"Faruq edition\" in honour of then ruler, King Faruq.====British occupation until 1956====Everyday life in Cairo, 1950sBritish troops remained in the country until 1956.During this time, urban Cairo, spurred by new bridges and transport links, continued to expand to include the upscale neighbourhoods of Garden City, Zamalek, and Heliopolis.",
"Between 1882 and 1937, the population of Cairo more than tripled—from 347,000 to 1.3 million—and its area increased from .The city was devastated during the 1952 riots known as the Cairo Fire or Black Saturday, which saw the destruction of nearly 700 shops, movie theatres, casinos and hotels in downtown Cairo.",
"The British departed Cairo following the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, but the city's rapid growth showed no signs of abating.",
"Seeking to accommodate the increasing population, President Gamal Abdel Nasser redeveloped Tahrir Square and the Nile Corniche, and improved the city's network of bridges and highways.",
"Meanwhile, additional controls of the Nile fostered development within Gezira Island and along the city's waterfront.",
"The metropolis began to encroach on the fertile Nile Delta, prompting the government to build desert satellite towns and devise incentives for city-dwellers to move to them.====After 1956====In the second half of the 20th century Cairo continue to grow enormously in both population and area.",
"Between 1947 and 2006 the population of Greater Cairo went from 2,986,280 to 16,292,269.The population explosion also drove the rise of \"informal\" housing ('''ashwa'iyyat''), meaning housing that was built without any official planning or control.",
"The exact form of this type of housing varies considerably but usually has a much higher population density than formal housing.",
"By 2009, over 63% of the population of Greater Cairo lived in informal neighbourhoods, even though these occupied only 17% of the total area of Greater Cairo.",
"According to economist David Sims, informal housing has the benefits of providing affordable accommodation and vibrant communities to huge numbers of Cairo's working classes, but it also suffers from government neglect, a relative lack of services, and overcrowding.The \"formal\" city was also expanded.",
"The most notable example was the creation of Madinat Nasr, a huge government-sponsored expansion of the city to the east which officially began in 1959 but was primarily developed in the mid-1970s.",
"Starting in 1977 the Egyptian government established the New Urban Communities Authority to initiate and direct the development of new planned cities on the outskirts of Cairo, generally established on desert land.",
"These new satellite cities were intended to provide housing, investment, and employment opportunities for the region's growing population as well as to pre-empt the further growth of informal neighbourhoods.",
"As of 2014, about 10% of the population of Greater Cairo lived in the new cities.Concurrently, Cairo established itself as a political and economic hub for North Africa and the Arab world, with many multinational businesses and organisations, including the Arab League, operating out of the city.",
"In 1979 the historic districts of Cairo were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.In 1992, Cairo was hit by an earthquake causing 545 deaths, injuring 6,512 and leaving around 50,000 people homeless.====2011 Egyptian revolution====protests that started on 25 January 2011Cairo's Tahrir Square was the focal point of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution against former president Hosni Mubarak.",
"Over 2 million protesters were at Cairo's Tahrir square.",
"More than 50,000 protesters first occupied the square on 25 January, during which the area's wireless services were reported to be impaired.",
"In the following days Tahrir Square continued to be the primary destination for protests in Cairo as it took place following a popular uprising that began on Tuesday, 25 January 2011 and continued until June 2013.The uprising was mainly a campaign of non-violent civil resistance, which featured a series of demonstrations, marches, acts of civil disobedience, and labour strikes.",
"Millions of protesters from a variety of socio-economic and religious backgrounds demanded the overthrow of the regime of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak.",
"Despite being predominantly peaceful in nature, the revolution was not without violent clashes between security forces and protesters, with at least 846 people killed and 6,000 injured.",
"The uprising took place in Cairo, Alexandria, and in other cities in Egypt, following the Tunisian revolution that resulted in the overthrow of the long-time Tunisian president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali.",
"On 11 February, following weeks of determined popular protest and pressure, Hosni Mubarak resigned from office.====Post-revolutionary Cairo====Under the rule of President el-Sisi, in March 2015 plans were announced for another yet-unnamed planned city to be built further east of the existing satellite city of New Cairo, intended to serve as the new capital of Egypt."
],
[
"Geography",
"Greater Cairo seen from Sentinel-2AThe river Nile flows through Cairo, here contrasting ancient customs of daily life with the modern city of today.Aerial view looking south, with the Zamalek and Gezira districts on Gezira Island, surrounded by the NileCairo is located in northern Egypt, known as Lower Egypt, south of the Mediterranean Sea and west of the Gulf of Suez and Suez Canal.",
"The city lies along the Nile River, immediately south of the point where the river leaves its desert-bound valley and branches into the low-lying Nile Delta region.",
"Although the Cairo metropolis extends away from the Nile in all directions, the city of Cairo resides only on the east bank of the river and two islands within it on a total area of .",
"Geologically, Cairo lies on alluvium and sand dunes which date from the quaternary period.Until the mid-19th century, when the river was tamed by dams, levees, and other controls, the Nile in the vicinity of Cairo was highly susceptible to changes in course and surface level.",
"Over the years, the Nile gradually shifted westward, providing the site between the eastern edge of the river and the Mokattam highlands on which the city now stands.",
"The land on which Cairo was established in 969 (present-day Islamic Cairo) was located underwater just over three hundred years earlier, when Fustat was first built.Low periods of the Nile during the 11th century continued to add to the landscape of Cairo; a new island, known as ''Geziret al-Fil'', first appeared in 1174, but eventually became connected to the mainland.",
"Today, the site of ''Geziret al-Fil'' is occupied by the Shubra district.",
"The low periods created another island at the turn of the 14th century that now composes Zamalek and Gezira.",
"Land reclamation efforts by the Mamluks and Ottomans further contributed to expansion on the east bank of the river.Because of the Nile's movement, the newer parts of the city—Garden City, Downtown Cairo, and Zamalek—are located closest to the riverbank.",
"The areas, which are home to most of Cairo's embassies, are surrounded on the north, east, and south by the older parts of the city.",
"Old Cairo, located south of the centre, holds the remnants of Fustat and the heart of Egypt's Coptic Christian community, Coptic Cairo.",
"The Boulaq district, which lies in the northern part of the city, was born out of a major 16th-century port and is now a major industrial centre.",
"The Citadel is located east of the city centre around Islamic Cairo, which dates back to the Fatimid era and the foundation of Cairo.",
"While western Cairo is dominated by wide boulevards, open spaces, and modern architecture of European influence, the eastern half, having grown haphazardly over the centuries, is dominated by small lanes, crowded tenements, and Islamic architecture.Northern and extreme eastern parts of Cairo, which include satellite towns, are among the most recent additions to the city, as they developed in the late-20th and early-21st centuries to accommodate the city's rapid growth.",
"The western bank of the Nile is commonly included within the urban area of Cairo, but it composes the city of Giza and the Giza Governorate.",
"Giza city has also undergone significant expansion over recent years, and today has a population of 2.7 million.",
"The Cairo Governorate was just north of the Helwan Governorate from 2008 when some Cairo's southern districts, including Maadi and New Cairo, were split off and annexed into the new governorate, to 2011 when the Helwan Governorate was reincorporated into the Cairo Governorate.According to the World Health Organization, the level of air pollution in Cairo is nearly 12 times higher than the recommended safety level.===Climate===Cairo weather observations by French savantsIn Cairo, and along the Nile River Valley, the climate is a hot desert climate (''BWh'' according to the Köppen climate classification system).Wind storms can be frequent, bringing Saharan dust into the city, from March to May and the air often becomes uncomfortably dry.",
"Winters are mild to warm, while summers are long and hot.",
"High temperatures in winter range from , while night-time lows drop to below , often to .",
"In summer, the highs often exceed but rarely surpass , and lows drop to about .",
"Rainfall is sparse and only happens in the colder months, but sudden showers can cause severe flooding.",
"The summer months have high humidity due to its coastal location.",
"Snowfall is extremely rare; a small amount of graupel, widely believed to be snow, fell on Cairo's easternmost suburbs on 13 December 2013, the first time Cairo's area received this kind of precipitation in many decades.",
"Dew points in the hottest months range from in June to in August.=== Metropolitan area and districts ===Cairo city administrative boundary and districts in EnglishThe city of Cairo forms part of Greater Cairo, the largest metropolitan area in Africa.",
"While it has no administrative body, the Ministry of Planning considers it as an economic region consisting of Cairo Governorate, Giza Governorate, and Qalyubia Governorate.",
"As a contiguous metropolitan area, various studies have considered Greater Cairo be composed of the administrative cities that are Cairo, Giza and Shubra al-Kheima, in addition to the satellite cities/new towns surrounding them.Cairo is a city-state where the governor is also the head of the city.",
"Cairo City itself differs from other Egyptian cities in that it has an extra administrative division between the city and district levels, and that is areas, which are headed by deputy governors.",
"Cairo consists of 4 areas ''(manatiq, singl.",
"mantiqa)'' divided into 38 districts ''(ahya', singl.",
"hayy)'' and 46 qisms (police wards, 1-2 per district):The '''Northern Area''' is divided into 8 Districts:* Shubra* Al-Zawiya al-Hamra* Hadayek al-Qubba* Rod al-Farg* Al-Sharabia* Al-Sahel* Al-Zeitoun* Al-AmiriyyaMap of Northern Area, Cairo (En)The '''Eastern Area''' divided into 9 Districts and three new cities:* Misr al-Gadidah and Al-Nozha (Heliopolis)* Nasr City East and Nasr City West* Al-Salam 1 (Awwal) and al-Salam 2 (Than)* Ain Shams* Al-Matariya* Al-Marg* Shorouk (Under jurisdiction of NUCA)* Badr (Under jurisdiction of NUCA)* Al-Qahira al-Gadida (New Cairo, three qisms, under jurisdiction of NUCA)Cairo Eastern Area mapThe '''Western Area''' divided into 9 Districts:* Manshiyat Nasser* Al-Wayli (Incl.",
"qism al-Daher)* Wasat al-Qahira (Central Cairo, incl.",
"Al-Darb al-Ahmar, al-Gamaliyya qisms)* Bulaq* Gharb al-Qahira (West Cairo, incl.",
"Zamalek qism, Qasr al-Nil qism incl.",
"Garden City and part of Down Town)* Abdeen* Al-Azbakiya* Al-Muski* Bab al-Sha'ariaCairo Western Area mapThe '''Southern Area''' divided into 12 Districts:* Masr El-Qadima (Old Cairo, including Al-Manial)* Al-Khalifa* Al-Moqattam* Al-Basatin* Dar al-Salam* Al-Sayeda Zeinab* Al-Tebin* Helwan* Al-Ma'sara* Al-Maadi* Tora* 15th of May (Under jurisdiction of NUCA)Cairo Southern Area map==== Satellite cities ====Since 1977 a number of new towns have been planned and built by the New Urban Communities Authority (NUCA) in the Eastern Desert around Cairo, ostensibly to accommodate additional population growth and development of the city and stem the development of self-built informal areas, especially over agricultural land.",
"As of 2022 four new towns have been built and have residential populations: 15th of May City, Badr City, Shorouk City, and New Cairo.",
"In addition, two more are under construction: the New Administrative Capital.",
"And Capital Gardens, where land was allocated in 2021, and which will house most of the civil servants employed in the new capital.==== Planned new capital ====In March 2015, plans were announced for a new city to be built east of Cairo, in an undeveloped area of the Cairo Governorate, which would serve as the New Administrative Capital of Egypt."
],
[
"Demographics",
"According to the 2017 census, Cairo had a population of 9,539,673 people, distributed across 46 qisms (police wards): QismCode 2017Total PopulationMaleFemaleEl Tibbin01010072,04036,34935,691Helwan010200521,239265,347255,892Al Maasara010300270,032137,501132,53115 May City01040093,57449,43744,137Tura010500230,438168,15262,286Maadi01060088,57543,97244,603El Basatin010700495,443260,756234,687Dar El Salam010800525,638273,603252,035Masr El Qedima010900250,313129,582120,731El Sayeda Zeinab011000136,27868,57167,707El Khalifa011100105,23554,15051,085Mokattam011200224,138116,011108,127Manshiyat Naser011300258,372133,864124,508Al Darb Al Ahmar01140058,48930,30728,182El Muski01150016,6628,2168,446Abdeen01160040,32119,35220,969Garden City01170010,5634,9515,612Zamalek01180014,9467,3967,550Bulaq01190048,14724,10524,042Azbakeya01200019,7639,7669,997Bab El Shariya01210046,67324,26122,412El Gamaliya01220036,36818,48717,881Al Daher01230071,87035,95635,914Al Wayli01240079,29239,40739,885Hadayek El Qobbah012500316,072161,269154,803El Sharabiya012600187,20194,94292,259Shubra01270076,69538,34738,348Rod El Farag012800145,63272,85972,773El Sahel012900316,421162,063154,358El Zawya El Hamra013000318,170162,304155,866Amairiya013100152,55477,35575,199Zeitoun013200174,17687,23586,941El Matareya013300602,485312,407290,078Ain Shams013400614,391315,394298,997El Marg013500798,646412,476386,170El Salam 1013600480,721249,639231,082El Salam 2013700153,77280,49273,280El Nozha013800231,241117,910113,331Heliopolis013900134,11668,32765,789Nasr City 1014000634,818332,117302,701Nasr City 201410072,18238,37433,808New Cairo 1014200135,83470,76565,069New Cairo 201430090,66846,10244,566New Cairo 301440070,88537,34033,545El Shorouk01450087,28545,96041,325Badr City01460031,29917,44913,850=== Religion ===The majority of Egypt and Cairo's population is Sunni Muslim.",
"A significant Christian minority exists, among whom Coptic Orthodox are the majority.",
"Precise numbers for each religious community in Egypt are not available and estimates vary.",
"Other churches that have, or had, a presence in modern Cairo include the Catholic Church (including Armenian Catholic, Coptic Catholic, Chaldean Catholic, Syrian Catholic, and Maronite), the Greek Orthodox Church, the Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile), and some Protestant churches.",
"Until the 20th century, Cairo had a sizeable Jewish community, but as of 2022 only three Jews were reported to be living in the city.",
"A total of 12 synagogues in Cairo still exist."
],
[
"Economy",
"Talaat Pasha Harb, the father of the modern Egyptian economy, in Downtown CairoNBE towers as viewed from the NileInformal economy in CairoCairo's economy has traditionally been based on governmental institutions and services, with the modern productive sector expanding in the 20th century to include developments in textiles and food processing – specifically the production of sugar cane.",
"As of 2005, Egypt has the largest non-oil based GDP in the Arab world.",
"Cairo accounts for 11% of Egypt's population and 22% of its economy (PPP).",
"The majority of the nation's commerce is generated there, or passes through the city.",
"The great majority of publishing houses and media outlets and nearly all film studios are there, as are half of the nation's hospital beds and universities.",
"This has fuelled rapid construction in the city, with one building in five being less than 15 years old.This growth until recently surged well ahead of city services.",
"Homes, roads, electricity, telephone and sewer services were all in short supply.",
"Analysts trying to grasp the magnitude of the change coined terms like \"hyper-urbanization\".===Automobile manufacturers from Cairo===* Arab American Vehicles Company* Egyptian Light Transport Manufacturing Company (Egyptian NSU pedant)* Ghabbour Group (Fuso, Hyundai and Volvo)* MCV Corporate Group (a part of the Daimler AG)* Mod Car* Seoudi Group (Modern Motors: Nissan, BMW (formerly); El-Mashreq: Alfa Romeo and Fiat)* Speranza (former Daewoo Motors Egypt; Chery, Daewoo)* General Motors Egypt"
],
[
"Infrastructure",
"===Health===Cairo, as well as neighbouring Giza, has been established as Egypt's main centre for medical treatment, and despite some exceptions, has the most advanced level of medical care in the country.",
"Cairo's hospitals include the JCI-accredited As-Salaam International Hospital, Ain Shams University Hospital, Dar Al Fouad, Nile Badrawi Hospital, 57357 Hospital, as well as Qasr El Eyni Hospital.===Education===Greater Cairo has long been the hub of education and educational services for Egypt and the region.Today, Greater Cairo is the centre for many government offices governing the Egyptian educational system, has the largest number of educational schools, and higher education institutes among other cities and governorates of Egypt.",
"'''Some of the International Schools found in Cairo:'''Cairo University is the largest university in Egypt, and is located in Giza.Library building at the new campus of the American University of Cairo in New Cairo'''Universities in Greater Cairo:'''+ University Date of FoundationAl Azhar University970–972Cairo University1908American University in Cairo1919Ain Shams University1950Arab Academy for Science & Technology and Maritime Transport1972Helwan University1975Sadat Academy for Management Sciences1981Higher Technological Institute1989Modern Academy In Maadi1993Misr International University1996Misr University for Science and Technology1996Modern Sciences and Arts University1996Université Française d'Égypte2002German University in Cairo2003Arab Open University2003Canadian International College2004British University in Egypt2005Ahram Canadian University2005Nile University2006Future University in Egypt2006Egyptian Russian University2006Heliopolis University for Sustainable Development2009New Giza University2016"
],
[
"Transport",
"Cairo has an extensive road network, rail system, subway system and maritime services.",
"Road transport is facilitated by personal vehicles, taxi cabs, privately owned public buses and microbuses.",
"Cairo International Airport is the country's largest airport and one of the busiest airports in Africa.=== Public transportation ===The interior of Ramses StationCairo, specifically Ramses Station, is the centre of almost the entire Egyptian transportation network.The Cairo Transportation Authority (CTA) manages Cairo's public transit.",
"The subway system, the Cairo Metro, is a fast and efficient way of getting around Cairo.",
"The metro network covers Helwan and other suburbs.",
"It can get very crowded during rush hour.",
"Two train cars (the fourth and fifth ones) are reserved for women only, although women may ride in any car they want.Trams in Greater Cairo and Cairo trolleybus were used as modes of transportation, but were closed in the 1970s everywhere except Heliopolis and Helwan.",
"These were shut down in 2014, after the Egyptian Revolution.In 2017, plans to construct two monorail systems were announced, one linking 6th of October to suburban Giza, a distance of , and the other linking Nasr City to New Cairo, a distance of .Cairo Metro, LRT, BRT and monorail expansion plans=== Roads ===6th October Bridge in CairoAn extensive road network connects Cairo with other Egyptian cities and villages.",
"There is a new Ring Road that surrounds the outskirts of the city, with exits that reach outer Cairo districts.",
"There are flyovers and bridges, such as the 6th October Bridge that, when the traffic is not heavy, allow fast means of transportation from one side of the city to the other.Cairo traffic is known to be overwhelming and overcrowded.",
"Traffic moves at a relatively fluid pace.",
"Drivers tend to be aggressive, but are more courteous at junctions, taking turns going, with police aiding in traffic control of some congested areas.=== Other forms of transport ===* Cairo Taxi/Yellow Cab* Cairo Nile Ferry* Careem* Uber* DiDi"
],
[
"Culture",
"Cairo Opera House, at the National Cultural Center, Zamalek districtKhedivial Opera House, 1869===Cultural tourism in Egypt======Cairo Opera House===President Mubarak inaugurated the new Cairo Opera House of the Egyptian National Cultural Centres on 10 October 1988, 17 years after the Royal Opera House had been destroyed by fire.",
"The National Cultural Centre was built with the help of JICA, the Japan International Co-operation Agency and stands as a prominent feature for the Japanese-Egyptian co-operation and the friendship between the two nations.===Khedivial Opera House===The Khedivial Opera House, or Royal Opera House, was the original opera house in Cairo.",
"It was dedicated on 1 November 1869 and burned down on 28 October 1971.After the original opera house was destroyed, Cairo was without an opera house for nearly two decades until the opening of the new Cairo Opera House in 1988.===Cairo International Film Festival===Cairo held its first international film festival 16 August 1976, when the first Cairo International Film Festival was launched by the Egyptian Association of Film Writers and Critics, headed by Kamal El-Mallakh.",
"The Association ran the festival for seven years until 1983.This achievement lead to the President of the Festival again contacting the FIAPF with the request that a competition should be included at the 1991 Festival.",
"The request was granted.In 1998, the Festival took place under the presidency of one of Egypt's leading actors, Hussein Fahmy, who was appointed by the Minister of Culture, Farouk Hosni, after the death of Saad El-Din Wahba.",
"Four years later, the journalist and writer Cherif El-Shoubashy became president.===Cairo Geniza===Solomon Schechter at work in Cambridge University Library, studying the fragments of the Cairo Geniza, The Cairo Geniza is an accumulation of almost 200,000 Jewish manuscripts that were found in the ''genizah'' of the Ben Ezra synagogue (built 882) of Fustat, Egypt (now Old Cairo), the Basatin cemetery east of Old Cairo, and a number of old documents that were bought in Cairo in the later 19th century.",
"These documents were written from about 870 to 1880 AD and have been archived in various American and European libraries.",
"The Taylor-Schechter collection in the University of Cambridge runs to 140,000 manuscripts; a further 40,000 manuscripts are housed at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America.===Food=== Down Town Cairo SnackThe majority of Cairenes make food for themselves and make use of local produce markets.",
"The restaurant scene includes Arab cuisine and Middle Eastern cuisine, including local staples such as ''koshary''.",
"The city's most exclusive restaurants are typically concentrated in Zamalek and around the luxury hotels lining the shore of the Nile near the Garden City district.",
"Influence from modern western society is also evident, with American chains such as McDonald's, Arby's, Pizza Hut, Subway, and Kentucky Fried Chicken being easy to find in central areas."
],
[
"Sports",
"Cairo International Stadium with 75,100 seatsFootball is the most popular sport in Egypt, and Cairo has sporting teams that compete in national and regional leagues, most notably Al Ahly and Zamalek SC, who were the CAF first and second African clubs of the 20th century.",
"The annual match between Al Ahly and El Zamalek is one of the most watched sports events in Egypt.",
"The teams form the major rivalry of Egyptian football.",
"They play their home games at Cairo International Stadium, which is the second largest stadium in Egypt, as well as the largest in Cairo.The Cairo International Stadium was built in 1960.Its multi-purpose sports complex houses the main football stadium, an indoor stadium, satellite fields that hold regional and continental games, including the African Games, U17 Football World Championship and the 2006 Africa Cup of Nations.",
"Egypt later won the competition and the next edition in Ghana (2008) making the Egyptian and Ghanaian national teams the only to win the African Nations Cup back to back.",
"Egypt won the title for a record six times in the history of African Continental Competition.",
"This was followed by a third consecutive win in Angola in 2010, making Egypt the only country with a record 3-consecutive and 7-total Continental Football Competition winner.",
"As of 2021, Egypt's national team is ranked #46 in the world by FIFA.Cairo failed at the applicant stage when bidding for the 2008 Summer Olympics, which was hosted in Beijing.",
"However, Cairo did host the 2007 Pan Arab Games.There are other sports teams in the city that participate in several sports including Gezira Sporting Club, el Shams Club, Shooting Club, Heliopolis Sporting Club, and several smaller clubs.",
"There are new sports clubs in the area of New Cairo (one hour far from Cairo's downtown), these are Al Zohour sporting club, Wadi Degla sporting club and Platinum Club.Most of the sports federations of the country are located in the city suburbs, including the Egyptian Football Association.",
"The headquarters of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) was previously located in Cairo, before relocating to its new headquarters in 6 October City, a small city away from Cairo's crowded districts.",
"In 2008, the Egyptian Rugby Federation was officially formed and granted membership into the International Rugby Board.Egypt is internationally known for the excellence of its squash players who excel in professional and junior divisions.",
"Egypt has seven players in the top ten of the PSA men's world rankings, and three in the women's top ten.",
"Mohamed El Shorbagy held the world number one position for more than a year.",
"Nour El Sherbini has won the Women's World Championship twice and been women's world number one.",
"On 30 April 2016, she became the youngest woman to win the Women's World Championship.",
"In 2017 she retained her title.Cairo is the official end point of Cross Egypt Challenge where its route ends yearly in the most sacred place in Egypt, under the Great Pyramids of Giza with a huge trophy-giving ceremony."
],
[
"Cityscape and landmarks",
"===Tahrir Square===View of alt=Tahrir Square was founded during the mid 19th century with the establishment of modern downtown Cairo.",
"It was first named Ismailia Square, after the 19th-century ruler Khedive Ismail, who commissioned the new downtown district's 'Paris on the Nile' design.",
"After the Egyptian Revolution of 1919 the square became widely known as Tahrir (Liberation) Square, though it was not officially renamed as such until after the 1952 Revolution which eliminated the monarchy.",
"Several notable buildings surround the square including, the American University in Cairo's downtown campus, the Mogamma governmental administrative Building, the headquarters of the Arab League, the Nile Ritz Carlton Hotel, and the Egyptian Museum.",
"Being at the heart of Cairo, the square witnessed several major protests over the years.",
"However, the most notable event in the square was being the focal point of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution against former president Hosni Mubarak.",
"In 2020 the government completed the erection of a new monument in the center of the square featuring an ancient obelisk from the reign of Ramses II, originally unearthed at Tanis (San al-Hagar) in 2019, and four ram-headed sphinx statues moved from Karnak.===Egyptian Museum===Main entrance of the Egyptian Museum, located at Tahrir SquareThe Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, known commonly as the Egyptian Museum, is home to the most extensive collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities in the world.",
"It has 136,000 items on display, with many more hundreds of thousands in its basement storerooms.",
"Among the collections on display are the finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun.====Grand Egyptian Museum====Much of the collection of the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, including the Tutankhamun collection, are slated to be moved to the new Grand Egyptian Museum, under construction in Giza and was due to open by the end of 2020.===Cairo Tower===Cairo Tower at nightThe Cairo Tower is a free-standing tower with a revolving restaurant at the top.",
"It provides a bird's eye view of Cairo to the restaurant patrons.",
"It stands in the Zamalek district on Gezira Island in the Nile River, in the city centre.",
"At , it is higher than the Great Pyramid of Giza, which stands some to the southwest.===Old Cairo===The Hanging Church in Old Cairo|leftThis area of Cairo is so-named as it contains the remains of the ancient Roman fortress of Babylon and also overlaps the original site of Fustat, the first Arab settlement in Egypt (7th century AD) and the predecessor of later Cairo.",
"The area includes Coptic Cairo, which holds a high concentration of old Christian churches such as the Hanging Church, the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George, and other Christian or Coptic buildings, most of which are located in an enclave on the site of the ancient Roman fortress.",
"It is also the location of the Coptic Museum, which showcases the history of Coptic art from Greco-Roman to Islamic times, and of the Ben Ezra Synagogue, the oldest and best-known synagogue in Cairo, where the important collection of Geniza documents were discovered in the 19th century.Cemetery in Coptic CairoTo the north of this Coptic enclave is the Amr ibn al-'As Mosque, the first mosque in Egypt and the most important religious centre of what was formerly Fustat, founded in 642 AD right after the Arab conquest but rebuilt many times since.",
"A part of the former city of Fustat has also been excavated to the east of the mosque and of the Coptic enclave, although the archeological site is threatened by encroaching construction and modern development.",
"To the northwest of Babylon Fortress and the mosque is the Monastery of Saint Mercurius (or ''Dayr Abu Sayfayn''), an important and historic Coptic religious complex consisting of the Church of Saint Mercurius, the Church of Saint Shenute, and the Church of the Virgin (also known as ''al-Damshiriya'').",
"Several other historic churches are also situated to the south of Babylon Fortress.===Islamic Cairo===Al-Azhar Mosque, view of Fatimid-era courtyard and Mamluk minaretsAl-Muizz Street in Islamic CairoMosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hassan and the al-Rifa'i Mosque, seen from the CitadelCairo holds one of the greatest concentrations of historical monuments of Islamic architecture in the world.",
"The areas around the old walled city and around the Citadel are characterized by hundreds of mosques, tombs, madrasas, mansions, caravanserais, and fortifications dating from the Islamic era and are often referred to as \"Islamic Cairo\", especially in English travel literature.",
"It is also the location of several important religious shrines such as the al-Hussein Mosque (whose shrine is believed to hold the head of Husayn ibn Ali), the Mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi'i (founder of the Shafi'i ''madhhab'', one of the primary schools of thought in Sunni Islamic jurisprudence), the Tomb of Sayyida Ruqayya, the Mosque of Sayyida Nafisa, and others.The first mosque in Egypt was the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in what was formerly Fustat, the first Arab-Muslim settlement in the area.",
"However, the Mosque of Ibn Tulun is the oldest mosque that still retains its original form and is a rare example of Abbasid architecture from the classical period of Islamic civilization.",
"It was built in 876–879 AD in a style inspired by the Abbasid capital of Samarra in Iraq.",
"It is one of the largest mosques in Cairo and is often cited as one of the most beautiful.",
"Another Abbasid construction, the Nilometer on Roda Island, is the oldest original structure in Cairo, built in 862 AD.",
"It was designed to measure the level of the Nile, which was important for agricultural and administrative purposes.The settlement that was formally named Cairo (Arabic: ''al-Qahira'') was founded to the northeast of Fustat in 959 AD by the victorious Fatimid army.",
"The Fatimids built it as a separate palatial city which contained their palaces and institutions of government.",
"It was enclosed by a circuit of walls, which were rebuilt in stone in the late 11th century AD by the vizier Badr al-Gamali, parts of which survive today at Bab Zuwayla in the south and Bab al-Futuh and Bab al-Nasr in the north.",
"Among the extant monuments from the Fatimid era are the large Mosque of al-Hakim, the Aqmar Mosque, Juyushi Mosque, Lulua Mosque, and the Mosque of Al-Salih Tala'i.One of the most important and lasting institutions founded in the Fatimid period was the Mosque of al-Azhar, founded in 970 AD, which competes with the Qarawiyyin in Fes for the title of oldest university in the world.",
"Today, al-Azhar University is the foremost Center of Islamic learning in the world and one of Egypt's largest universities with campuses across the country.",
"The mosque itself retains significant Fatimid elements but has been added to and expanded in subsequent centuries, notably by the Mamluk sultans Qaytbay and al-Ghuri and by Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda in the 18th century.The most prominent architectural heritage of medieval Cairo, however, dates from the Mamluk period, from 1250 to 1517 AD.",
"The Mamluk sultans and elites were eager patrons of religious and scholarly life, commonly building religious or funerary complexes whose functions could include a mosque, madrasa, khanqah (for Sufis), a sabil (water dispensary), and a mausoleum for themselves and their families.",
"Among the best-known examples of Mamluk monuments in Cairo are the huge Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan, the Mosque of Amir al-Maridani, the Mosque of Sultan al-Mu'ayyad (whose twin minarets were built above the gate of Bab Zuwayla), the Sultan Al-Ghuri complex, the funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay in the Northern Cemetery, and the trio of monuments in the Bayn al-Qasrayn area comprising the complex of Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun, the Madrasa of al-Nasir Muhammad, and the Madrasa of Sultan Barquq.",
"Some mosques include spolia (often columns or capitals) from earlier buildings built by the Romans, Byzantines, or Copts.The Mamluks, and the later Ottomans, also built ''wikala''s or caravanserais to house merchants and goods due to the important role of trade and commerce in Cairo's economy.",
"Still intact today is the Wikala al-Ghuri, which today hosts regular performances by the Al-Tannoura Egyptian Heritage Dance Troupe.",
"The Khan al-Khalili is a commercial hub which also integrated caravanserais (also known as ''khan''s).===Citadel of Cairo===The Citadel of Cairo, with the alt=The Citadel is a fortified enclosure begun by Salah al-Din in 1176 AD on an outcrop of the Muqattam Hills as part of a large defensive system to protect both Cairo to the north and Fustat to the southwest.",
"It was the centre of Egyptian government and residence of its rulers until 1874, when Khedive Isma'il moved to 'Abdin Palace.",
"It is still occupied by the military today, but is now open as a tourist attraction comprising, notably, the National Military Museum, the 14th century Mosque of al-Nasir Muhammad, and the 19th century Mosque of Muhammad Ali which commands a dominant position on Cairo's skyline.===Khan el-Khalili===Khan al-KhaliliKhan el-Khalili is an ancient bazaar, or marketplace adjacent to the Al-Hussein Mosque.",
"It dates back to 1385, when Amir Jarkas el-Khalili built a large caravanserai, or khan.",
"(A caravanserai is a hotel for traders, and usually the focal point for any surrounding area.)",
"This original caravanserai building was demolished by Sultan al-Ghuri, who rebuilt it as a new commercial complex in the early 16th century, forming the basis for the network of souqs existing today.",
"Many medieval elements remain today, including the ornate Mamluk-style gateways.",
"Today, the Khan el-Khalili is a major tourist attraction and popular stop for tour groups."
],
[
"Society",
"In the present day, Cairo is heavily urbanized and most Cairenes live in apartment buildings.",
"Because of the influx of people into the city, lone standing houses are rare, and apartment buildings accommodate for the limited space and abundance of people.",
"Single detached houses are usually owned by the wealthy.",
"Formal education is also seen as important, with twelve years of standard formal education.",
"Cairenes can take a standardized test similar to the SAT to be accepted to an institution of higher learning, but most children do not finish school and opt to pick up a trade to enter the work force.",
"Egypt still struggles with poverty, with almost half the population living on $2 or less a day.===Women's rights===The civil rights movement for women in Cairo – and by extent, Egypt – has been a struggle for years.",
"Women are reported to face constant discrimination, sexual harassment, and abuse throughout Cairo.",
"A 2013 UN study found that over 99% of Egyptian women reported experiencing sexual harassment at some point in their lives.",
"The problem has persisted in spite of new national laws since 2014 defining and criminalizing sexual harassment.",
"The situation is so severe that in 2017, Cairo was named by one poll as the most dangerous megacity for women in the world.",
"In 2020, the social media account \"Assault Police\" began to name and shame perpetrators of violence against women, in an effort to dissuade potential offenders.",
"The account was founded by student Nadeen Ashraf, who is credited for instigating an iteration of the #MeToo movement in Egypt."
],
[
"Pollution",
"Smog in CairoTraffic in CairoThe air pollution in Cairo is a matter of serious concern.",
"Greater Cairo's volatile aromatic hydrocarbon levels are higher than many other similar cities.",
"Air quality measurements in Cairo have also been recording dangerous levels of lead, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and suspended particulate matter concentrations due to decades of unregulated vehicle emissions, urban industrial operations, and chaff and trash burning.",
"There are over 4,500,000 cars on the streets of Cairo, 60% of which are over 10 years old, and therefore lack modern emission cutting features.",
"Cairo has a very poor dispersion factor because of its lack of rain and its layout of tall buildings and narrow streets, which create a bowl effect.In recent years, a black cloud (as Egyptians refer to it) of smog has appeared over Cairo every autumn due to temperature inversion.",
"Smog causes serious respiratory diseases and eye irritations for the city's citizens.",
"Tourists who are not familiar with such high levels of pollution must take extra care.Cairo also has many unregistered lead and copper smelters which heavily pollute the city.",
"The results of this has been a permanent haze over the city with particulate matter in the air reaching over three times normal levels.",
"It is estimated that 10,000 to 25,000 people a year in Cairo die due to air pollution-related diseases.",
"Lead has been shown to cause harm to the central nervous system and neurotoxicity particularly in children.",
"In 1995, the first environmental acts were introduced and the situation has seen some improvement with 36 air monitoring stations and emissions tests on cars.",
"Twenty thousand buses have also been commissioned to the city to improve congestion levels, which are very high.The city also suffers from a high level of land pollution.",
"Cairo produces 10,000 tons of waste material each day, 4,000 tons of which is not collected or managed.",
"This is a huge health hazard, and the Egyptian Government is looking for ways to combat this.",
"The Cairo Cleaning and Beautification Agency was founded to collect and recycle the waste; they work with the Zabbaleen community that has been collecting and recycling Cairo's waste since the turn of the 20th century and live in an area known locally as Manshiyat naser.",
"Both are working together to pick up as much waste as possible within the city limits, though it remains a pressing problem.Water pollution is also a serious problem in the city as the sewer system tends to fail and overflow.",
"On occasion, sewage has escaped onto the streets to create a health hazard.",
"This problem is hoped to be solved by a new sewer system funded by the European Union, which could cope with the demand of the city.",
"The dangerously high levels of mercury in the city's water system has global health officials concerned over related health risks."
],
[
"International relations",
"The Headquarters of the Arab League is located in Tahrir Square, near the downtown business district of Cairo.===Twin towns – sister cities===Cairo is twinned with:* Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates* Amman, Jordan* Baghdad, Iraq* Beijing, China* Damascus, Syria* East Jerusalem, Palestine* Istanbul, Turkey* Kairouan, Tunisia* Khartoum, Sudan* Muscat, Oman* Palermo Province, Italy* Rabat, Morocco* Sanaa, Yemen* Seoul, South Korea* Stuttgart, Germany * Tashkent, Uzbekistan* Tbilisi, Georgia* Tokyo, Japan* Tripoli, Libya"
],
[
"Notable people",
"* Zulfikar family, Egyptian noble family* Rabab Al-Kadhimi (1918–1998), dentist and poet* Wael Alaa (born 1987), musician known as Neobyrd * Gamal Aziz, also known as Gamal Mohammed Abdelaziz, former president and chief operating officer of Wynn Resorts, and former CEO of MGM Resorts International, indicted as part of the 2019 college admissions bribery scandal* Yasser Arafat (1929–2004), born Mohammed Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf al-Qudwa al-Husseini, was the 3rd Chairman of The PLO and first president of the Palestinian Authority* Abu Sa'id al-Afif, 15th-century Samaritan* Ezz El-Dine Zulficar, (1919–1963) was an Egyptian film director, screenwriter, actor and producer, known for his distinctive style, which blends romance and action.",
"Zulficar was one of the most influential filmmakers in the Egyptian Cinema's golden age.",
"* Boutros Ghali (1922–2016), former Secretary-General of the United Nations* Dalida (1933–1987), Italian-Egyptian singer who lived most of her life in France, received 55 golden records and was the first singer to receive a diamond disc* Farouk El-Baz (born 1938), an Egyptian American space scientist who worked with NASA to assist in the planning of scientific exploration of the Moon, including the selection of landing sites for the Apollo missions and the training of astronauts in lunar observations and photography* Ahmed Mourad Bey Zulfikar (1888–1945), Egyptian chief of police* Freddy Elbaiady (born 1971), Egyptian politician* Mohamed ElBaradei (born 1942), former Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, 2005 Nobel Peace Prize laureate* Nourane Foster (born 1987), Cameroonian entrepreneur, politician and member of the National Assembly* William Donald Hamilton (1936–2000), British evolutionary biologist, was born in Cairo* Mauro Hamza (born 1965 or 1966), fencing coach* Taco Hemingway (born 1990), Polish hip-hop artist* Dorothy Hodgkin (1910–1994), British chemist, credited with the development of protein crystallography, Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964* Naguib Mahfouz (1911–2006), novelist, Nobel Prize in Literature laureate in 1988* Roland Moreno (1945–2012), French inventor, engineer, humorist and author who invented the smart card* Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970) was an Egyptian politician who served as the second President of Egypt from 1954 until his death in 1970.",
"* Gaafar Nimeiry (1930–2009), President of Sudan* Ahmed Sabri (1889–1955), painter* Dina Zulfikar (born 1962), film distributor and animal welfare activist* Mohamed Sobhi (born 1948), film, television and stage actor, and director* Blessed Maria Caterina Troiani (1813–1887), a charitable activist* Magdi Yacoub (born 1935), Egyptian-British cardiothoracic surgeon* Hesham Youssef, Egyptian diplomat* Ahmed Zulfikar (1952–2010), mechanical engineer and entrepreneur* Naguib Sawiris (born 1954), businessman, 62nd richest person on Earth in 2007 list of billionaires, reaching US$10.0 billion with his company Orascom Telecom Holding* Yakub Kadri Karaosmanoğlu (1889–1974), Turkish novelist* Mona Zulficar (born 1950), lawyer and human rights activist.",
"She was included in the Forbes 2021 list of the \"100 most powerful businesswomen in the Arab region\".",
"* Ismail Pacha (1830–1895), was an Egyptian politician who served as Khedive of Egypt from 1863 to 1879* Avi Cohen (1956–2010), Israeli international footballer"
],
[
"See also",
"* Charles Ayrout* Cultural tourism in Egypt* List of buildings in Cairo* List of cities and towns in Egypt* Outline of Cairo* Outline of Egypt* Architecture of Egypt"
],
[
"Explanatory notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Citations ======Works cited===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''English translation:''' * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * Artemis Cooper, ''Cairo in the War, 1939–1945'', Hamish Hamilton, 1989 / Penguin Book, 1995.",
"(Pbk)* Max Rodenbeck, ''Cairo– the City Victorious'', Picador, 1998.",
"(Hbk) (Pbk)* Wahba, Magdi (1990).",
"''Cairo Memories\" in Studies in Arab History: The Antonius Lectures, 1978–87''.",
"Edited by Derek Hopwood.",
"London: Macmillan Press.",
"* * Peter Theroux, ''Cairo: Clamorous heart of Egypt'' National Geographic Magazine April 1993* Cynthia Myntti, ''Paris Along the Nile: Architecture in Cairo from the Belle Epoque'', American University in Cairo Press, 2003.",
"* Cairo's belle époque architects 1900–1950, by Samir Raafat.",
"* Antonine Selim Nahas, one of city's major belle époque (1900–1950) architects.",
"* Nagib Mahfooz novels, all tell great stories about Cairo's deep conflicts.",
"* * * Jörg Armbruster, Suleman Taufiq (Eds.)",
"''مدينتي القاهرة (MYCAI – My Cairo Mein Kairo)'', text by different authors, photos by Barbara Armbruster and Hala Elkoussy, edition esefeld & traub, Stuttgart 2014, ."
],
[
"External links",
"* Cairo City Government* Coptic Churches of Cairo* * Map of Cairo, 1914.Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel.",
"* Maps of Cairo.",
"Historic Cities Research Project.",
"===Photos and videos===* Cairo 360-degree full-screen images* Cairo Travel Photos Pictures of Cairo published under Creative Commons License* Call to Cairo Time-lapse film of Cairo cityscapes* Cairo, Egypt – video by ''Global Post''* Photos of Cairo / Travel"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chaos theory"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A plot of the Lorenz attractor for values , , double-rod pendulum at an intermediate energy showing chaotic behavior.",
"Starting the pendulum from a slightly different initial condition would result in a vastly different trajectory.",
"The double-rod pendulum is one of the simplest dynamical systems with chaotic solutions.",
"'''Chaos theory''' is an interdisciplinary area of scientific study and branch of mathematics focused on underlying patterns and deterministic laws of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions, and were once thought to have completely random states of disorder and irregularities.",
"Chaos theory states that within the apparent randomness of chaotic complex systems, there are underlying patterns, interconnection, constant feedback loops, repetition, self-similarity, fractals, and self-organization.",
"The butterfly effect, an underlying principle of chaos, describes how a small change in one state of a deterministic nonlinear system can result in large differences in a later state (meaning that there is sensitive dependence on initial conditions).",
"A metaphor for this behavior is that a butterfly flapping its wings in Texas can cause a tornado in Brazil.Small differences in initial conditions, such as those due to errors in measurements or due to rounding errors in numerical computation, can yield widely diverging outcomes for such dynamical systems, rendering long-term prediction of their behavior impossible in general.",
"This can happen even though these systems are deterministic, meaning that their future behavior follows a unique evolution and is fully determined by their initial conditions, with no random elements involved.",
"In other words, the deterministic nature of these systems does not make them predictable.",
"This behavior is known as '''deterministic chaos''', or simply '''chaos'''.",
"The theory was summarized by Edward Lorenz as:Chaotic behavior exists in many natural systems, including fluid flow, heartbeat irregularities, weather, and climate.",
"It also occurs spontaneously in some systems with artificial components, such as road traffic.",
"This behavior can be studied through the analysis of a chaotic mathematical model, or through analytical techniques such as recurrence plots and Poincaré maps.",
"Chaos theory has applications in a variety of disciplines, including meteorology, anthropology, sociology, environmental science, computer science, engineering, economics, ecology, and pandemic crisis management.",
"The theory formed the basis for such fields of study as complex dynamical systems, edge of chaos theory, and self-assembly processes."
],
[
"Introduction",
"Chaos theory concerns deterministic systems whose behavior can, in principle, be predicted.",
"Chaotic systems are predictable for a while and then 'appear' to become random.",
"The amount of time for which the behavior of a chaotic system can be effectively predicted depends on three things: how much uncertainty can be tolerated in the forecast, how accurately its current state can be measured, and a time scale depending on the dynamics of the system, called the Lyapunov time.",
"Some examples of Lyapunov times are: chaotic electrical circuits, about 1 millisecond; weather systems, a few days (unproven); the inner solar system, 4 to 5 million years.",
"In chaotic systems, the uncertainty in a forecast increases exponentially with elapsed time.",
"Hence, mathematically, doubling the forecast time more than squares the proportional uncertainty in the forecast.",
"This means, in practice, a meaningful prediction cannot be made over an interval of more than two or three times the Lyapunov time.",
"When meaningful predictions cannot be made, the system appears random.Chaos theory is a method of qualitative and quantitative analysis to investigate the behavior of dynamic systems that cannot be explained and predicted by single data relationships, but must be explained and predicted by whole, continuous data relationships."
],
[
"Chaotic dynamics",
"map defined by ''x'' → 4 ''x'' (1 – ''x'') and ''y'' → (''x'' + ''y)'' mod 1 displays sensitivity to initial x positions.",
"Here, two series of ''x'' and ''y'' values diverge markedly over time from a tiny initial difference.In common usage, \"chaos\" means \"a state of disorder\".",
"However, in chaos theory, the term is defined more precisely.",
"Although no universally accepted mathematical definition of chaos exists, a commonly used definition, originally formulated by Robert L. Devaney, says that to classify a dynamical system as chaotic, it must have these properties:# it must be sensitive to initial conditions,# it must be topologically transitive,# it must have dense periodic orbits.In some cases, the last two properties above have been shown to actually imply sensitivity to initial conditions.",
"In the discrete-time case, this is true for all continuous maps on metric spaces.",
"In these cases, while it is often the most practically significant property, \"sensitivity to initial conditions\" need not be stated in the definition.If attention is restricted to intervals, the second property implies the other two.",
"An alternative and a generally weaker definition of chaos uses only the first two properties in the above list.===Sensitivity to initial conditions===Lorenz equations used to generate plots for the y variable.",
"The initial conditions for ''x'' and ''z'' were kept the same but those for ''y'' were changed between '''1.001''', '''1.0001''' and '''1.00001'''.",
"The values for , and were '''45.92''', '''16''' and '''4 ''' respectively.",
"As can be seen from the graph, even the slightest difference in initial values causes significant changes after about 12 seconds of evolution in the three cases.",
"This is an example of sensitive dependence on initial conditions.",
"'''Sensitivity to initial conditions''' means that each point in a chaotic system is arbitrarily closely approximated by other points that have significantly different future paths or trajectories.",
"Thus, an arbitrarily small change or perturbation of the current trajectory may lead to significantly different future behavior.Sensitivity to initial conditions is popularly known as the \"butterfly effect\", so-called because of the title of a paper given by Edward Lorenz in 1972 to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Washington, D.C., entitled ''Predictability: Does the Flap of a Butterfly's Wings in Brazil set off a Tornado in Texas?''.",
"The flapping wing represents a small change in the initial condition of the system, which causes a chain of events that prevents the predictability of large-scale phenomena.",
"Had the butterfly not flapped its wings, the trajectory of the overall system could have been vastly different.As suggested in Lorenz's book entitled ''The Essence of Chaos'', published in 1993, \"sensitive dependence can serve as an acceptable definition of chaos\".",
"In the same book, Lorenz defined the butterfly effect as: \"The phenomenon that a small alteration in the state of a dynamical system will cause subsequent states to differ greatly from the states that would have followed without the alteration.\"",
"The above definition is consistent with the sensitive dependence of solutions on initial conditions (SDIC).",
"An idealized skiing model was developed to illustrate the sensitivity of time-varying paths to initial positions.",
"A predictability horizon can be determined before the onset of SDIC (i.e., prior to significant separations of initial nearby trajectories).A consequence of sensitivity to initial conditions is that if we start with a limited amount of information about the system (as is usually the case in practice), then beyond a certain time, the system would no longer be predictable.",
"This is most prevalent in the case of weather, which is generally predictable only about a week ahead.",
"This does not mean that one cannot assert anything about events far in the future—only that some restrictions on the system are present.",
"For example, we know that the temperature of the surface of the earth will not naturally reach or fall below on earth (during the current geologic era), but we cannot predict exactly which day will have the hottest temperature of the year.In more mathematical terms, the Lyapunov exponent measures the sensitivity to initial conditions, in the form of rate of exponential divergence from the perturbed initial conditions.",
"More specifically, given two starting trajectories in the phase space that are infinitesimally close, with initial separation , the two trajectories end up diverging at a rate given by:where is the time and is the Lyapunov exponent.",
"The rate of separation depends on the orientation of the initial separation vector, so a whole spectrum of Lyapunov exponents can exist.",
"The number of Lyapunov exponents is equal to the number of dimensions of the phase space, though it is common to just refer to the largest one.",
"For example, the maximal Lyapunov exponent (MLE) is most often used, because it determines the overall predictability of the system.",
"A positive MLE is usually taken as an indication that the system is chaotic.In addition to the above property, other properties related to sensitivity of initial conditions also exist.",
"These include, for example, measure-theoretical mixing (as discussed in ergodic theory) and properties of a K-system.===Non-periodicity===A chaotic system may have sequences of values for the evolving variable that exactly repeat themselves, giving periodic behavior starting from any point in that sequence.",
"However, such periodic sequences are repelling rather than attracting, meaning that if the evolving variable is outside the sequence, however close, it will not enter the sequence and in fact, will diverge from it.",
"Thus for almost all initial conditions, the variable evolves chaotically with non-periodic behavior.===Topological mixing===Six iterations of a set of states passed through the logistic map.",
"The first iterate (blue) is the initial condition, which essentially forms a circle.",
"Animation shows the first to the sixth iteration of the circular initial conditions.",
"It can be seen that ''mixing'' occurs as we progress in iterations.",
"The sixth iteration shows that the points are almost completely scattered in the phase space.",
"Had we progressed further in iterations, the mixing would have been homogeneous and irreversible.",
"The logistic map has equation .",
"To expand the state-space of the logistic map into two dimensions, a second state, , was created as , if and otherwise.mod 1 also displays topological mixing.",
"Here, the blue region is transformed by the dynamics first to the purple region, then to the pink and red regions, and eventually to a cloud of vertical lines scattered across the space.Topological mixing (or the weaker condition of topological transitivity) means that the system evolves over time so that any given region or open set of its phase space eventually overlaps with any other given region.",
"This mathematical concept of \"mixing\" corresponds to the standard intuition, and the mixing of colored dyes or fluids is an example of a chaotic system.Topological mixing is often omitted from popular accounts of chaos, which equate chaos with only sensitivity to initial conditions.",
"However, sensitive dependence on initial conditions alone does not give chaos.",
"For example, consider the simple dynamical system produced by repeatedly doubling an initial value.",
"This system has sensitive dependence on initial conditions everywhere, since any pair of nearby points eventually becomes widely separated.",
"However, this example has no topological mixing, and therefore has no chaos.",
"Indeed, it has extremely simple behavior: all points except 0 tend to positive or negative infinity.===Topological transitivity===A map is said to be topologically transitive if for any pair of non-empty open sets , there exists such that .",
"Topological transitivity is a weaker version of topological mixing.",
"Intuitively, if a map is topologically transitive then given a point ''x'' and a region ''V'', there exists a point ''y'' near ''x'' whose orbit passes through ''V''.",
"This implies that it is impossible to decompose the system into two open sets.An important related theorem is the Birkhoff Transitivity Theorem.",
"It is easy to see that the existence of a dense orbit implies topological transitivity.",
"The Birkhoff Transitivity Theorem states that if ''X'' is a second countable, complete metric space, then topological transitivity implies the existence of a dense set of points in ''X'' that have dense orbits.===Density of periodic orbits===For a chaotic system to have dense periodic orbits means that every point in the space is approached arbitrarily closely by periodic orbits.",
"The one-dimensional logistic map defined by ''x'' → 4 ''x'' (1 – ''x'') is one of the simplest systems with density of periodic orbits.",
"For example, → → (or approximately 0.3454915 → 0.9045085 → 0.3454915) is an (unstable) orbit of period 2, and similar orbits exist for periods 4, 8, 16, etc.",
"(indeed, for all the periods specified by Sharkovskii's theorem).Sharkovskii's theorem is the basis of the Li and Yorke (1975) proof that any continuous one-dimensional system that exhibits a regular cycle of period three will also display regular cycles of every other length, as well as completely chaotic orbits.===Strange attractors===The Lorenz attractor displays chaotic behavior.",
"These two plots demonstrate sensitive dependence on initial conditions within the region of phase space occupied by the attractor.Some dynamical systems, like the one-dimensional logistic map defined by ''x'' → 4 ''x'' (1 – ''x''), are chaotic everywhere, but in many cases chaotic behavior is found only in a subset of phase space.",
"The cases of most interest arise when the chaotic behavior takes place on an attractor, since then a large set of initial conditions leads to orbits that converge to this chaotic region.An easy way to visualize a chaotic attractor is to start with a point in the basin of attraction of the attractor, and then simply plot its subsequent orbit.",
"Because of the topological transitivity condition, this is likely to produce a picture of the entire final attractor, and indeed both orbits shown in the figure on the right give a picture of the general shape of the Lorenz attractor.",
"This attractor results from a simple three-dimensional model of the Lorenz weather system.",
"The Lorenz attractor is perhaps one of the best-known chaotic system diagrams, probably because it is not only one of the first, but it is also one of the most complex, and as such gives rise to a very interesting pattern that, with a little imagination, looks like the wings of a butterfly.Unlike fixed-point attractors and limit cycles, the attractors that arise from chaotic systems, known as strange attractors, have great detail and complexity.",
"Strange attractors occur in both continuous dynamical systems (such as the Lorenz system) and in some discrete systems (such as the Hénon map).",
"Other discrete dynamical systems have a repelling structure called a Julia set, which forms at the boundary between basins of attraction of fixed points.",
"Julia sets can be thought of as strange repellers.",
"Both strange attractors and Julia sets typically have a fractal structure, and the fractal dimension can be calculated for them.=== Coexisting attractors ===Coexisting chaotic and non-chaotic attractors within the generalized Lorenz model.",
"There are 128 orbits in different colors, beginning with different initial conditions for dimensionless time between 0.625 and 5 and a heating parameter r = 680.Chaotic orbits recurrently return close to the saddle point at the origin.",
"Nonchaotic orbits eventually approach one of two stable critical points, as shown with large blue dots.",
"Chaotic and nonchaotic orbits occupy different regions of attraction within the phase space.In contrast to single type chaotic solutions, recent studies using Lorenz models have emphasized the importance of considering various types of solutions.",
"For example, coexisting chaotic and non-chaotic may appear within the same model (e.g., the double pendulum system) using the same modeling configurations but different initial conditions.",
"The findings of attractor coexistence, obtained from classical and generalized Lorenz models, suggested a revised view that \"the entirety of weather possesses a dual nature of chaos and order with distinct predictability\", in contrast to the conventional view of \"weather is chaotic\".===Minimum complexity of a chaotic system===Bifurcation diagram of the logistic map ''x'' → ''r'' ''x'' (1 – ''x'').",
"Each vertical slice shows the attractor for a specific value of ''r''.",
"The diagram displays period-doubling as ''r'' increases, eventually producing chaos.",
"Darker points are visited more frequently.Discrete chaotic systems, such as the logistic map, can exhibit strange attractors whatever their dimensionality.",
"In contrast, for continuous dynamical systems, the Poincaré–Bendixson theorem shows that a strange attractor can only arise in three or more dimensions.",
"Finite-dimensional linear systems are never chaotic; for a dynamical system to display chaotic behavior, it must be either nonlinear or infinite-dimensional.The Poincaré–Bendixson theorem states that a two-dimensional differential equation has very regular behavior.",
"The Lorenz attractor discussed below is generated by a system of three differential equations such as:: where , , and make up the system state, is time, and , , are the system parameters.",
"Five of the terms on the right hand side are linear, while two are quadratic; a total of seven terms.",
"Another well-known chaotic attractor is generated by the Rössler equations, which have only one nonlinear term out of seven.",
"Sprott found a three-dimensional system with just five terms, that had only one nonlinear term, which exhibits chaos for certain parameter values.",
"Zhang and Heidel showed that, at least for dissipative and conservative quadratic systems, three-dimensional quadratic systems with only three or four terms on the right-hand side cannot exhibit chaotic behavior.",
"The reason is, simply put, that solutions to such systems are asymptotic to a two-dimensional surface and therefore solutions are well behaved.While the Poincaré–Bendixson theorem shows that a continuous dynamical system on the Euclidean plane cannot be chaotic, two-dimensional continuous systems with non-Euclidean geometry can still exhibit some chaotic properties.",
"Perhaps surprisingly, chaos may occur also in linear systems, provided they are infinite dimensional.",
"A theory of linear chaos is being developed in a branch of mathematical analysis known as functional analysis.The above set of three ordinary differential equations has been referred to as the three-dimensional Lorenz model.",
"Since 1963, higher-dimensional Lorenz models have been developed in numerous studies for examining the impact of an increased degree of nonlinearity, as well as its collective effect with heating and dissipations, on solution stability.===Infinite dimensional maps===The straightforward generalization of coupled discrete maps is based upon convolution integral which mediates interaction between spatially distributed maps:,where kernel is propagator derived as Green function of a relevant physical system, might be logistic map alike or complex map.",
"For examples of complex maps the Julia set or Ikeda map may serve.",
"When wave propagation problems at distance with wavelength are considered the kernel may have a form of Green function for Schrödinger equation:..=== Jerk systems ===In physics, jerk is the third derivative of position, with respect to time.",
"As such, differential equations of the form:: are sometimes called ''jerk equations''.",
"It has been shown that a jerk equation, which is equivalent to a system of three first order, ordinary, non-linear differential equations, is in a certain sense the minimal setting for solutions showing chaotic behavior.",
"This motivates mathematical interest in jerk systems.",
"Systems involving a fourth or higher derivative are called accordingly hyperjerk systems.A jerk system's behavior is described by a jerk equation, and for certain jerk equations, simple electronic circuits can model solutions.",
"These circuits are known as jerk circuits.One of the most interesting properties of jerk circuits is the possibility of chaotic behavior.",
"In fact, certain well-known chaotic systems, such as the Lorenz attractor and the Rössler map, are conventionally described as a system of three first-order differential equations that can combine into a single (although rather complicated) jerk equation.",
"Another example of a jerk equation with nonlinearity in the magnitude of is::Here, ''A'' is an adjustable parameter.",
"This equation has a chaotic solution for ''A''=3/5 and can be implemented with the following jerk circuit; the required nonlinearity is brought about by the two diodes:centerIn the above circuit, all resistors are of equal value, except , and all capacitors are of equal size.",
"The dominant frequency is .",
"The output of op amp 0 will correspond to the x variable, the output of 1 corresponds to the first derivative of x and the output of 2 corresponds to the second derivative.Similar circuits only require one diode or no diodes at all.See also the well-known Chua's circuit, one basis for chaotic true random number generators.",
"The ease of construction of the circuit has made it a ubiquitous real-world example of a chaotic system."
],
[
"Spontaneous order",
"Under the right conditions, chaos spontaneously evolves into a lockstep pattern.",
"In the Kuramoto model, four conditions suffice to produce synchronization in a chaotic system.Examples include the coupled oscillation of Christiaan Huygens' pendulums, fireflies, neurons, the London Millennium Bridge resonance, and large arrays of Josephson junctions."
],
[
"History",
"Barnsley fern created using the chaos game.",
"Natural forms (ferns, clouds, mountains, etc.)",
"may be recreated through an iterated function system (IFS).James Clerk Maxwell first emphasized the \"butterfly effect\", and is seen as being one of the earliest to discuss chaos theory, with work in the 1860s and 1870s.",
"An early proponent of chaos theory was Henri Poincaré.",
"In the 1880s, while studying the three-body problem, he found that there can be orbits that are nonperiodic, and yet not forever increasing nor approaching a fixed point.",
"In 1898, Jacques Hadamard published an influential study of the chaotic motion of a free particle gliding frictionlessly on a surface of constant negative curvature, called \"Hadamard's billiards\".",
"Hadamard was able to show that all trajectories are unstable, in that all particle trajectories diverge exponentially from one another, with a positive Lyapunov exponent.Chaos theory began in the field of ergodic theory.",
"Later studies, also on the topic of nonlinear differential equations, were carried out by George David Birkhoff, Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov, Mary Lucy Cartwright and John Edensor Littlewood, and Stephen Smale.",
"Except for Smale, these studies were all directly inspired by physics: the three-body problem in the case of Birkhoff, turbulence and astronomical problems in the case of Kolmogorov, and radio engineering in the case of Cartwright and Littlewood.",
"Although chaotic planetary motion had not been observed, experimentalists had encountered turbulence in fluid motion and nonperiodic oscillation in radio circuits without the benefit of a theory to explain what they were seeing.Despite initial insights in the first half of the twentieth century, chaos theory became formalized as such only after mid-century, when it first became evident to some scientists that linear theory, the prevailing system theory at that time, simply could not explain the observed behavior of certain experiments like that of the logistic map.",
"What had been attributed to measure imprecision and simple \"noise\" was considered by chaos theorists as a full component of the studied systems.",
"In 1959 Boris Valerianovich Chirikov proposed a criterion for the emergence of classical chaos in Hamiltonian systems (Chirikov criterion).",
"He applied this criterion to explain some experimental results on plasma confinement in open mirror traps.",
"This is regarded as the very first physical theory of chaos, which succeeded in explaining a concrete experiment.",
"And Boris Chirikov himself is considered as a pioneer in classical and quantum chaos.The main catalyst for the development of chaos theory was the electronic computer.",
"Much of the mathematics of chaos theory involves the repeated iteration of simple mathematical formulas, which would be impractical to do by hand.",
"Electronic computers made these repeated calculations practical, while figures and images made it possible to visualize these systems.",
"As a graduate student in Chihiro Hayashi's laboratory at Kyoto University, Yoshisuke Ueda was experimenting with analog computers and noticed, on November 27, 1961, what he called \"randomly transitional phenomena\".",
"Yet his advisor did not agree with his conclusions at the time, and did not allow him to report his findings until 1970.Turbulence in the tip vortex from an airplane wing.",
"Studies of the critical point beyond which a system creates turbulence were important for chaos theory, analyzed for example by the Soviet physicist Lev Landau, who developed the Landau-Hopf theory of turbulence.",
"David Ruelle and Floris Takens later predicted, against Landau, that fluid turbulence could develop through a strange attractor, a main concept of chaos theory.Edward Lorenz was an early pioneer of the theory.",
"His interest in chaos came about accidentally through his work on weather prediction in 1961.Lorenz and his collaborator Ellen Fetter and Margaret Hamilton were using a simple digital computer, a Royal McBee LGP-30, to run weather simulations.",
"They wanted to see a sequence of data again, and to save time they started the simulation in the middle of its course.",
"They did this by entering a printout of the data that corresponded to conditions in the middle of the original simulation.",
"To their surprise, the weather the machine began to predict was completely different from the previous calculation.",
"They tracked this down to the computer printout.",
"The computer worked with 6-digit precision, but the printout rounded variables off to a 3-digit number, so a value like 0.506127 printed as 0.506.This difference is tiny, and the consensus at the time would have been that it should have no practical effect.",
"However, Lorenz discovered that small changes in initial conditions produced large changes in long-term outcome.",
"Lorenz's discovery, which gave its name to Lorenz attractors, showed that even detailed atmospheric modeling cannot, in general, make precise long-term weather predictions.In 1963, Benoit Mandelbrot, studying information theory, discovered that noise in many phenomena (including stock prices and telephone circuits) was patterned like a Cantor set, a set of points with infinite roughness and detail Mandelbrot described both the \"Noah effect\" (in which sudden discontinuous changes can occur) and the \"Joseph effect\" (in which persistence of a value can occur for a while, yet suddenly change afterwards).",
"In 1967, he published \"How long is the coast of Britain?",
"Statistical self-similarity and fractional dimension\", showing that a coastline's length varies with the scale of the measuring instrument, resembles itself at all scales, and is infinite in length for an infinitesimally small measuring device.",
"Arguing that a ball of twine appears as a point when viewed from far away (0-dimensional), a ball when viewed from fairly near (3-dimensional), or a curved strand (1-dimensional), he argued that the dimensions of an object are relative to the observer and may be fractional.",
"An object whose irregularity is constant over different scales (\"self-similarity\") is a fractal (examples include the Menger sponge, the Sierpiński gasket, and the Koch curve or ''snowflake'', which is infinitely long yet encloses a finite space and has a fractal dimension of circa 1.2619).",
"In 1982, Mandelbrot published ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature'', which became a classic of chaos theory.In December 1977, the New York Academy of Sciences organized the first symposium on chaos, attended by David Ruelle, Robert May, James A. Yorke (coiner of the term \"chaos\" as used in mathematics), Robert Shaw, and the meteorologist Edward Lorenz.",
"The following year Pierre Coullet and Charles Tresser published \"Itérations d'endomorphismes et groupe de renormalisation\", and Mitchell Feigenbaum's article \"Quantitative Universality for a Class of Nonlinear Transformations\" finally appeared in a journal, after 3 years of referee rejections.",
"Thus Feigenbaum (1975) and Coullet & Tresser (1978) discovered the universality in chaos, permitting the application of chaos theory to many different phenomena.In 1979, Albert J. Libchaber, during a symposium organized in Aspen by Pierre Hohenberg, presented his experimental observation of the bifurcation cascade that leads to chaos and turbulence in Rayleigh–Bénard convection systems.",
"He was awarded the Wolf Prize in Physics in 1986 along with Mitchell J. Feigenbaum for their inspiring achievements.In 1986, the New York Academy of Sciences co-organized with the National Institute of Mental Health and the Office of Naval Research the first important conference on chaos in biology and medicine.",
"There, Bernardo Huberman presented a mathematical model of the eye tracking dysfunction among people with schizophrenia.",
"This led to a renewal of physiology in the 1980s through the application of chaos theory, for example, in the study of pathological cardiac cycles.In 1987, Per Bak, Chao Tang and Kurt Wiesenfeld published a paper in ''Physical Review Letters'' describing for the first time self-organized criticality (SOC), considered one of the mechanisms by which complexity arises in nature.Alongside largely lab-based approaches such as the Bak–Tang–Wiesenfeld sandpile, many other investigations have focused on large-scale natural or social systems that are known (or suspected) to display scale-invariant behavior.",
"Although these approaches were not always welcomed (at least initially) by specialists in the subjects examined, SOC has nevertheless become established as a strong candidate for explaining a number of natural phenomena, including earthquakes, (which, long before SOC was discovered, were known as a source of scale-invariant behavior such as the Gutenberg–Richter law describing the statistical distribution of earthquake sizes, and the Omori law describing the frequency of aftershocks), solar flares, fluctuations in economic systems such as financial markets (references to SOC are common in econophysics), landscape formation, forest fires, landslides, epidemics, and biological evolution (where SOC has been invoked, for example, as the dynamical mechanism behind the theory of \"punctuated equilibria\" put forward by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould).",
"Given the implications of a scale-free distribution of event sizes, some researchers have suggested that another phenomenon that should be considered an example of SOC is the occurrence of wars.",
"These investigations of SOC have included both attempts at modelling (either developing new models or adapting existing ones to the specifics of a given natural system), and extensive data analysis to determine the existence and/or characteristics of natural scaling laws.In the same year, James Gleick published ''Chaos: Making a New Science'', which became a best-seller and introduced the general principles of chaos theory as well as its history to the broad public.",
"Initially the domain of a few, isolated individuals, chaos theory progressively emerged as a transdisciplinary and institutional discipline, mainly under the name of nonlinear systems analysis.",
"Alluding to Thomas Kuhn's concept of a paradigm shift exposed in ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' (1962), many \"chaologists\" (as some described themselves) claimed that this new theory was an example of such a shift, a thesis upheld by Gleick.The availability of cheaper, more powerful computers broadens the applicability of chaos theory.",
"Currently, chaos theory remains an active area of research, involving many different disciplines such as mathematics, topology, physics, social systems, population modeling, biology, meteorology, astrophysics, information theory, computational neuroscience, pandemic crisis management, etc."
],
[
"Lorenz's pioneering contributions to chaotic modeling",
"Throughout his career, Professor Lorenz authored a total of 61 research papers, out of which 58 were solely authored by him.",
"Commencing with the 1960 conference in Japan, Lorenz embarked on a journey of developing diverse models aimed at uncovering the SDIC and chaotic features.",
"A recent review of Lorenz's model progression spanning from 1960 to 2008 revealed his adeptness at employing varied physical systems to illustrate chaotic phenomena.",
"These systems encompassed Quasi-geostrophic systems, the Conservative Vorticity Equation, the Rayleigh-Bénard Convection Equations, and the Shallow Water Equations.",
"Moreover, Lorenz can be credited with the early application of the logistic map to explore chaotic solutions, a milestone he achieved ahead of his colleagues (e.g.",
"Lorenz 1964 ).In 1972, Lorenz coined the term \"butterfly effect\" as a metaphor to discuss whether a small perturbation could eventually create a tornado with a three-dimensional, organized, and coherent structure.",
"While connected to the original butterfly effect based on sensitive dependence on initial conditions, its metaphorical variant carries distinct nuances.",
"To commemorate this milestone, a reprint book containing invited papers that deepen our understanding of both butterfly effects was officially published to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the metaphorical butterfly effect."
],
[
"A popular but inaccurate analogy for chaos",
"The sensitive dependence on initial conditions (i.e., butterfly effect) has been illustrated using the following folklore:Based on the above, many people mistakenly believe that the impact of a tiny initial perturbation monotonically increases with time and that any tiny perturbation can eventually produce a large impact on numerical integrations.",
"However, in 2008, Lorenz stated that he did not feel that this verse described true chaos but that it better illustrated the simpler phenomenon of instability and that the verse implicitly suggests that subsequent small events will not reverse the outcome.",
"Based on the analysis, the verse only indicates divergence, not boundedness.",
"Boundedness is important for the finite size of a butterfly pattern.",
"In a recent study, the characteristic of the aforementioned verse was recently denoted as \"finite-time sensitive dependence\"."
],
[
"Applications",
"A conus textile shell, similar in appearance to Rule 30, a cellular automaton with chaotic behaviour.Although chaos theory was born from observing weather patterns, it has become applicable to a variety of other situations.",
"Some areas benefiting from chaos theory today are geology, mathematics, biology, computer science, economics, engineering, finance, meteorology, philosophy, anthropology, physics, politics, population dynamics, and robotics.",
"A few categories are listed below with examples, but this is by no means a comprehensive list as new applications are appearing.=== Cryptography ===Chaos theory has been used for many years in cryptography.",
"In the past few decades, chaos and nonlinear dynamics have been used in the design of hundreds of cryptographic primitives.",
"These algorithms include image encryption algorithms, hash functions, secure pseudo-random number generators, stream ciphers, watermarking, and steganography.",
"The majority of these algorithms are based on uni-modal chaotic maps and a big portion of these algorithms use the control parameters and the initial condition of the chaotic maps as their keys.",
"From a wider perspective, without loss of generality, the similarities between the chaotic maps and the cryptographic systems is the main motivation for the design of chaos based cryptographic algorithms.",
"One type of encryption, secret key or symmetric key, relies on diffusion and confusion, which is modeled well by chaos theory.",
"Another type of computing, DNA computing, when paired with chaos theory, offers a way to encrypt images and other information.",
"Many of the DNA-Chaos cryptographic algorithms are proven to be either not secure, or the technique applied is suggested to be not efficient.=== Robotics ===Robotics is another area that has recently benefited from chaos theory.",
"Instead of robots acting in a trial-and-error type of refinement to interact with their environment, chaos theory has been used to build a predictive model.Chaotic dynamics have been exhibited by passive walking biped robots.===Biology===For over a hundred years, biologists have been keeping track of populations of different species with population models.",
"Most models are continuous, but recently scientists have been able to implement chaotic models in certain populations.",
"For example, a study on models of Canadian lynx showed there was chaotic behavior in the population growth.",
"Chaos can also be found in ecological systems, such as hydrology.",
"While a chaotic model for hydrology has its shortcomings, there is still much to learn from looking at the data through the lens of chaos theory.",
"Another biological application is found in cardiotocography.",
"Fetal surveillance is a delicate balance of obtaining accurate information while being as noninvasive as possible.",
"Better models of warning signs of fetal hypoxia can be obtained through chaotic modeling.As Perry points out, modeling of chaotic time series in ecology is helped by constraint.",
"There is always potential difficulty in distinguishing real chaos from chaos that is only in the model.",
"Hence both constraint in the model and or duplicate time series data for comparison will be helpful in constraining the model to something close to the reality, for example Perry & Wall 1984.Gene-for-gene co-evolution sometimes shows chaotic dynamics in allele frequencies.",
"Adding variables exaggerates this: Chaos is more common in models incorporating additional variables to reflect additional facets of real populations.",
"Robert M. May himself did some of these foundational crop co-evolution studies, and this in turn helped shape the entire field.",
"Even for a steady environment, merely combining one crop and one pathogen may result in quasi-periodic- or chaotic- oscillations in pathogen population.===Economics===It is possible that economic models can also be improved through an application of chaos theory, but predicting the health of an economic system and what factors influence it most is an extremely complex task.",
"Economic and financial systems are fundamentally different from those in the classical natural sciences since the former are inherently stochastic in nature, as they result from the interactions of people, and thus pure deterministic models are unlikely to provide accurate representations of the data.",
"The empirical literature that tests for chaos in economics and finance presents very mixed results, in part due to confusion between specific tests for chaos and more general tests for non-linear relationships.Chaos could be found in economics by the means of recurrence quantification analysis.",
"In fact, Orlando et al.",
"by the means of the so-called recurrence quantification correlation index were able detect hidden changes in time series.",
"Then, the same technique was employed to detect transitions from laminar (regular) to turbulent (chaotic) phases as well as differences between macroeconomic variables and highlight hidden features of economic dynamics.",
"Finally, chaos theory could help in modeling how an economy operates as well as in embedding shocks due to external events such as COVID-19.===Other areas===In chemistry, predicting gas solubility is essential to manufacturing polymers, but models using particle swarm optimization (PSO) tend to converge to the wrong points.",
"An improved version of PSO has been created by introducing chaos, which keeps the simulations from getting stuck.",
"In celestial mechanics, especially when observing asteroids, applying chaos theory leads to better predictions about when these objects will approach Earth and other planets.",
"Four of the five moons of Pluto rotate chaotically.",
"In quantum physics and electrical engineering, the study of large arrays of Josephson junctions benefitted greatly from chaos theory.",
"Closer to home, coal mines have always been dangerous places where frequent natural gas leaks cause many deaths.",
"Until recently, there was no reliable way to predict when they would occur.",
"But these gas leaks have chaotic tendencies that, when properly modeled, can be predicted fairly accurately.Chaos theory can be applied outside of the natural sciences, but historically nearly all such studies have suffered from lack of reproducibility; poor external validity; and/or inattention to cross-validation, resulting in poor predictive accuracy (if out-of-sample prediction has even been attempted).",
"Glass and Mandell and Selz have found that no EEG study has as yet indicated the presence of strange attractors or other signs of chaotic behavior.Researchers have continued to apply chaos theory to psychology.",
"For example, in modeling group behavior in which heterogeneous members may behave as if sharing to different degrees what in Wilfred Bion's theory is a basic assumption, researchers have found that the group dynamic is the result of the individual dynamics of the members: each individual reproduces the group dynamics in a different scale, and the chaotic behavior of the group is reflected in each member.Redington and Reidbord (1992) attempted to demonstrate that the human heart could display chaotic traits.",
"They monitored the changes in between-heartbeat intervals for a single psychotherapy patient as she moved through periods of varying emotional intensity during a therapy session.",
"Results were admittedly inconclusive.",
"Not only were there ambiguities in the various plots the authors produced to purportedly show evidence of chaotic dynamics (spectral analysis, phase trajectory, and autocorrelation plots), but also when they attempted to compute a Lyapunov exponent as more definitive confirmation of chaotic behavior, the authors found they could not reliably do so.In their 1995 paper, Metcalf and Allen maintained that they uncovered in animal behavior a pattern of period doubling leading to chaos.",
"The authors examined a well-known response called schedule-induced polydipsia, by which an animal deprived of food for certain lengths of time will drink unusual amounts of water when the food is at last presented.",
"The control parameter (r) operating here was the length of the interval between feedings, once resumed.",
"The authors were careful to test a large number of animals and to include many replications, and they designed their experiment so as to rule out the likelihood that changes in response patterns were caused by different starting places for r.Time series and first delay plots provide the best support for the claims made, showing a fairly clear march from periodicity to irregularity as the feeding times were increased.",
"The various phase trajectory plots and spectral analyses, on the other hand, do not match up well enough with the other graphs or with the overall theory to lead inexorably to a chaotic diagnosis.",
"For example, the phase trajectories do not show a definite progression towards greater and greater complexity (and away from periodicity); the process seems quite muddied.",
"Also, where Metcalf and Allen saw periods of two and six in their spectral plots, there is room for alternative interpretations.",
"All of this ambiguity necessitate some serpentine, post-hoc explanation to show that results fit a chaotic model.By adapting a model of career counseling to include a chaotic interpretation of the relationship between employees and the job market, Amundson and Bright found that better suggestions can be made to people struggling with career decisions.",
"Modern organizations are increasingly seen as open complex adaptive systems with fundamental natural nonlinear structures, subject to internal and external forces that may contribute chaos.",
"For instance, team building and group development is increasingly being researched as an inherently unpredictable system, as the uncertainty of different individuals meeting for the first time makes the trajectory of the team unknowable.Some say the chaos metaphor—used in verbal theories—grounded on mathematical models and psychological aspects of human behaviorprovides helpful insights to describing the complexity of small work groups, that go beyond the metaphor itself.The red cars and blue cars take turns to move; the red ones only move upwards, and the blue ones move rightwards.",
"Every time, all the cars of the same colour try to move one step if there is no car in front of it.",
"Here, the model has self-organized in a somewhat geometric pattern where there are some traffic jams and some areas where cars can move at top speed.Traffic forecasting may benefit from applications of chaos theory.",
"Better predictions of when a congestion will occur would allow measures to be taken to disperse it before it would have occurred.",
"Combining chaos theory principles with a few other methods has led to a more accurate short-term prediction model (see the plot of the BML traffic model at right).Chaos theory has been applied to environmental water cycle data (also hydrological data), such as rainfall and streamflow.",
"These studies have yielded controversial results, because the methods for detecting a chaotic signature are often relatively subjective.",
"Early studies tended to \"succeed\" in finding chaos, whereas subsequent studies and meta-analyses called those studies into question and provided explanations for why these datasets are not likely to have low-dimension chaotic dynamics.In art (predominately art theory) a possible postpostmodern era has been outlined with emphasis on multiple narratives and the notion that every fictional angle is a possibility.",
"In part this is therefor of a bisociate (trissociative) discourse and can be explained within emphasis on an institutional interchange of subjectivistic agents."
],
[
"See also",
"'''Examples of chaotic systems'''* Advected contours* Arnold's cat map* Bifurcation theory* Bouncing ball dynamics* Chua's circuit* Cliodynamics* Coupled map lattice* Double pendulum* Duffing equation* Dynamical billiards* Economic bubble* Gaspard-Rice system* Hénon map* Horseshoe map* List of chaotic maps* Rössler attractor* Standard map* Swinging Atwood's machine* Tilt A Whirl'''Other related topics'''* Amplitude death* Anosov diffeomorphism* Catastrophe theory* Causality* Chaos as topological supersymmetry breaking* Chaos machine* Chaotic mixing* Chaotic scattering* Control of chaos* Determinism* Edge of chaos* Emergence* Mandelbrot set* Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser theorem* Ill-conditioning* Ill-posedness* Nonlinear system* Patterns in nature* Predictability* Quantum chaos* Santa Fe Institute* Shadowing lemma* Synchronization of chaos* Unintended consequence'''People'''* Ralph Abraham* Michael Berry* Leon O. Chua* Ivar Ekeland* Doyne Farmer* Martin Gutzwiller* Brosl Hasslacher* Michel Hénon* Aleksandr Lyapunov* Norman Packard* Otto Rössler* David Ruelle* Oleksandr Mikolaiovich Sharkovsky* Robert Shaw* Floris Takens* James A. Yorke* George M. Zaslavsky"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"===Articles===* * * * Online version (Note: the volume and page citation cited for the online text differ from that cited here.",
"The citation here is from a photocopy, which is consistent with other citations found online that don't provide article views.",
"The online content is identical to the hardcopy text.",
"Citation variations are related to country of publication).",
"* * * * * ===Textbooks===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Semitechnical and popular works===* Christophe Letellier, ''Chaos in Nature'', World Scientific Publishing Company, 2012, .",
"* * * * John Briggs and David Peat, ''Turbulent Mirror: : An Illustrated Guide to Chaos Theory and the Science of Wholeness'', Harper Perennial 1990, 224 pp.",
"* John Briggs and David Peat, ''Seven Life Lessons of Chaos: Spiritual Wisdom from the Science of Change'', Harper Perennial 2000, 224 pp.",
"* * Predrag Cvitanović, ''Universality in Chaos'', Adam Hilger 1989, 648 pp.",
"* Leon Glass and Michael C. Mackey, ''From Clocks to Chaos: The Rhythms of Life,'' Princeton University Press 1988, 272 pp.",
"* James Gleick, ''Chaos: Making a New Science'', New York: Penguin, 1988.368 pp.",
"* * L Douglas Kiel, Euel W Elliott (ed.",
"), ''Chaos Theory in the Social Sciences: Foundations and Applications'', University of Michigan Press, 1997, 360 pp.",
"* Arvind Kumar, ''Chaos, Fractals and Self-Organisation; New Perspectives on Complexity in Nature '', National Book Trust, 2003.",
"* Hans Lauwerier, ''Fractals'', Princeton University Press, 1991.",
"* Edward Lorenz, ''The Essence of Chaos'', University of Washington Press, 1996.",
"* * David Peak and Michael Frame, ''Chaos Under Control: The Art and Science of Complexity'', Freeman, 1994.",
"* Heinz-Otto Peitgen and Dietmar Saupe (Eds.",
"), ''The Science of Fractal Images'', Springer 1988, 312 pp.",
"* Nuria Perpinya, ''Caos, virus, calma.",
"La Teoría del Caos aplicada al desórden artístico, social y político'', Páginas de Espuma, 2021.",
"* Clifford A. Pickover, ''Computers, Pattern, Chaos, and Beauty: Graphics from an Unseen World '', St Martins Pr 1991.",
"* Clifford A. Pickover, ''Chaos in Wonderland: Visual Adventures in a Fractal World'', St Martins Pr 1994.",
"* Ilya Prigogine and Isabelle Stengers, ''Order Out of Chaos'', Bantam 1984.",
"* * David Ruelle, ''Chance and Chaos'', Princeton University Press 1993.",
"* Ivars Peterson, ''Newton's Clock: Chaos in the Solar System'', Freeman, 1993.",
"* * * Manfred Schroeder, ''Fractals, Chaos, and Power Laws'', Freeman, 1991.",
"* * Ian Stewart, ''Does God Play Dice?",
": The Mathematics of Chaos '', Blackwell Publishers, 1990.",
"* Steven Strogatz, ''Sync: The emerging science of spontaneous order'', Hyperion, 2003.",
"* Yoshisuke Ueda, ''The Road To Chaos'', Aerial Pr, 1993.",
"* M. Mitchell Waldrop, ''Complexity : The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos'', Simon & Schuster, 1992.",
"* Antonio Sawaya, ''Financial Time Series Analysis : Chaos and Neurodynamics Approach'', Lambert, 2012."
],
[
"External links",
"* * Nonlinear Dynamics Research Group with Animations in Flash* The Chaos group at the University of Maryland* The Chaos Hypertextbook.",
"An introductory primer on chaos and fractals* ChaosBook.org An advanced graduate textbook on chaos (no fractals)* Society for Chaos Theory in Psychology & Life Sciences* Nonlinear Dynamics Research Group at CSDC, Florence, Italy* Nonlinear dynamics: how science comprehends chaos, talk presented by Sunny Auyang, 1998.",
"* Nonlinear Dynamics.",
"Models of bifurcation and chaos by Elmer G. Wiens* Gleick's ''Chaos'' (excerpt) * Systems Analysis, Modelling and Prediction Group at the University of Oxford* A page about the Mackey-Glass equation* High Anxieties — The Mathematics of Chaos (2008) BBC documentary directed by David Malone* The chaos theory of evolution – article published in Newscientist featuring similarities of evolution and non-linear systems including fractal nature of life and chaos.",
"* Jos Leys, Étienne Ghys et Aurélien Alvarez, ''Chaos, A Mathematical Adventure''.",
"Nine films about dynamical systems, the butterfly effect and chaos theory, intended for a wide audience.",
"* \"Chaos Theory\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Susan Greenfield, David Papineau & Neil Johnson (''In Our Time'', May 16, 2002)* Chaos: The Science of the Butterfly Effect (2019) an explanation presented by Derek Muller"
],
[
"Copyright note",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cupola"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The dome of Florence Cathedral, which includes a cupola at the topIn architecture, a '''cupola''' () is a relatively small, most often dome-like, tall structure on top of a building.",
"Often used to provide a lookout or to admit light and air, it usually crowns a larger roof or dome.The word derives, via Italian, from lower Latin ''cupula'' (classical Latin ''cupella''), (Latin ''cupa''), indicating a vault resembling an upside-down cup."
],
[
"Background",
"The cupola evolved during the Renaissance from the older oculus.",
"Being weatherproof, the cupola was better suited to the wetter climates of northern Europe.",
"The chhatri, seen in Indian architecture, fits the definition of a cupola when it is used atop a larger structure.Cupolas often serve as a belfry, belvedere, or roof lantern above a main roof.",
"In other cases they may crown a spire, tower, or turret.",
"Barns often have cupolas for ventilation.Cupolas can also appear as small buildings in their own right.The square, dome-like segment of a North American railroad train caboose that contains the second-level or \"angel\" seats is also called a cupola."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:White marble cupolas cap minarets at the Tomb of Jahangir.jpg|White marble cupolas cap minarets at the Tomb of Jahangir in Lahore, PakistanFile:Montefiascone cupola.JPG|Cupolas on the towers of Montefiascone Cathedral, Italy.File:Cupola ceiling Synagogue Gyor Hungary.jpg|Interior of cupola ceiling in the old Synagogue of Győr, Hungary.File:Great Mosque Minaret - Kairouan, Tunisia.jpg|Ribbed cupola crowns the minaret of the Mosque of Uqba, in Kairouan, Tunisia.File:Cupola - Armenian Orthodox church in Lvov.jpg|Inside of Armenian Orthodox church cupola in Lviv, Ukraine.File:Old Barn at Brookwood Farm MA 02.jpg|Cupolas were also used on some old barns for ventilation.File:ISS STS130 Cupola view of Algeria coast.jpg|View from the interior of the Cupola module on the International Space Station.File:Brivio.church.cupola.jpg|Trompe-l'œil painting of a cupola in a church in Northern Italy (Brivio)File:Cupola caboose.jpg|A cupola-style caboose with an \"angel seat\" above"
],
[
"On armoured vehicles",
"The turret of a Japanese Type 91 Ha-Go light tank with its distinctive, bubble-shaped commander's cupolaThe term cupola can also refer to the protrusions atop an armoured fighting vehicle due to their distinctive dome-like appearance.",
"They allow crew or personnel to observe, offering very good all round vision, or even field weaponry, without being exposed to incoming fire.",
"Later designs, however, became progressively flatter and less prominent as technology evolved to allow designers to reduce the profile of their vehicles."
],
[
"See also",
"* Cupola (ISS module)* Daylighting* Windcatcher"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chupacabra"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''chupacabra''' or '''''chupacabras''''' (, literally 'goat-sucker'; from , 'sucks', and , 'goats') is a legendary creature, or cryptid, in the folklore of parts of the Americas.",
"The name comes from the animal's reported vampirism—the chupacabra is said to attack and drink the blood of livestock, including goats.Physical descriptions of the creature vary.",
"In Puerto Rico and in Hispanic America it is generally described as a heavy creature, reptilian and alien-like, roughly the size of a small bear, and with a row of spines reaching from the neck to the base of the tail, while in the Southwestern United States it is depicted as more dog-like.Initial sightings and accompanying descriptions first occurred in Puerto Rico in 1995.The creature has since been reported as far north as Maine, as far south as Chile, and even outside the Americas in countries like Russia and Philippines.",
"All of the reports are anecdotal and have been disregarded as uncorroborated or lacking evidence.",
"Sightings in northern Mexico and the southern United States have been verified as canids afflicted by mange."
],
[
"Name",
" can be literally translated as 'goat-sucker', from ('to suck') and ('goats').",
"It is known as both and throughout the Americas, with the former being the original name, and the latter a regularization.",
"The name is attributed to Puerto Rican comedian Silverio Pérez, who coined the label in 1995 while commenting on the attacks as a San Juan radio deejay."
],
[
"History",
"In 1975, a series of livestock killings in the small town of Moca, Puerto Rico were attributed to ('the vampire of Moca').",
"Initially, it was suspected that the killings were committed by a Satanic cult; later more killings were reported around the island, and many farms reported loss of animal life.",
"Each of the animals was reported to have had its body bled dry through a series of small circular incisions.Graphic depiction of Chupacabra, as described by Puerto Rican witnesses in 1995The first reported attack eventually attributed to the actual chupacabras occurred in March 1995.Eight sheep were discovered dead in Puerto Rico, each with three puncture wounds in the chest area and reportedly completely drained of blood.",
"A few months later, in August, an eyewitness named Madelyne Tolentino reported seeing the creature in the Puerto Rican town of Canóvanas, where as many as 150 farm animals and pets were reportedly killed.Puerto Rican comedian and entrepreneur Silverio Pérez is credited with coining the term soon after the first incidents were reported in the press.",
"Shortly after the first reported incidents in Puerto Rico, other animal deaths were reported in other countries, such as Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, and the United States.In 2019 a video recorded by showed the results of a supposed attack on chickens in the Seburuquillo sector of Lares, Puerto Rico."
],
[
"Reputed origin",
"A five-year investigation by Benjamin Radford, documented in his 2011 book ''Tracking the Chupacabra'', concluded that the description given by the original eyewitness in Puerto Rico, Madelyne Tolentino, was based on the creature Sil in the 1995 science-fiction horror film ''Species''.",
"The alien creature Sil is nearly identical to Tolentino's chupacabra eyewitness account and she had seen the movie before her report: \"It was a creature that looked like the chupacabra, with spines on its back and all...",
"The resemblance to the chupacabra was really impressive\", Tolentino reported.",
"Radford revealed that Tolentino \"believed that the creatures and events she saw in ''Species'' were happening in reality in Puerto Rico at the time\", and therefore concludes that \"the most important chupacabra description cannot be trusted\".",
"This, Radford believes, seriously undermines the credibility of the chupacabra as a real animal.The reports of blood-sucking by the chupacabra were never confirmed by a necropsy, the only way to conclude that the animal was drained of blood.",
"Dr. David Morales, a Puerto Rican veterinarian with the Department of Agriculture, analyzed 300 reported victims of the chupacabra and found that they had not been bled dry.Radford divided the chupacabra reports into two categories: the reports from Puerto Rico and Latin America, where animals were attacked and it is supposed their blood was extracted; and the reports in the United States of mammals, mostly dogs and coyotes with mange, that people call \"chupacabra\" due to their unusual appearance.In 2010, University of Michigan biologist Barry O'Connor concluded that all the chupacabra reports in the United States were simply coyotes infected with the parasite ''Sarcoptes scabiei'', whose symptoms would explain most of the features of the chupacabra: they would be left with little fur, thickened skin, and a rank odor.",
"O'Connor theorized that the attacks on goats occurred \"because these animals are greatly weakened, so they're going to have a hard time hunting.",
"So they may be forced into attacking livestock because it's easier than running down a rabbit or a deer.\"",
"Both dogs and coyotes can kill and not consume the prey, either because they are inexperienced, or due to injury or difficulty in killing the prey.",
"The prey can survive the attack and die afterwards from internal bleeding or circulatory shock.",
"The presence of two holes in the neck, corresponding with the canine teeth, are to be expected since this is the only way that most land carnivores have to catch their prey.",
"There are reports of stray Mexican hairless dogs being mistaken for chupacabras."
],
[
"Appearance",
"Mange can often greatly alter the expected appearance of an animal.",
"Wild and domestic canines with severe cases of mange have been proposed as explanations for the Chupacabra.The most common description of the chupacabra is that of a reptile-like creature, said to have leathery or scaly greenish-gray skin and sharp spines or quills running down its back.",
"It is said to be approximately high, and stands and hops in a fashion similar to that of a kangaroo.",
"This description was the chief one given to the few Puerto Rican reports in 1995 that claimed to have sighted the creature, with similar reports in parts of Chile and Argentina following.Another common description of the chupacabra is of a strange breed of wild dog.",
"This form is mostly hairless and has a pronounced spinal ridge, unusually pronounced eye sockets, fangs, and claws.",
"This description started to appear in the early 2000s from reports trailing north from the Yucatán Peninsula, northern Mexico, and then into the United States; becoming the predominant description since.",
"Unlike conventional predators, the chupacabra is said to drain all of the animal's blood (and sometimes organs) usually through three holes in the shape of a downwards-pointing triangle, but sometimes through only one or two holes."
],
[
"Plausibility of Existence",
"The chupacabra panic first started in late 1995, Puerto Rico: farmers were mass reporting the mysterious killings of various livestock.",
"In these reports, the farmers recalled two puncture wounds on the animal carcasses.",
"Chupacabra killings were soon associated with a seemingly untouched animal carcass other than puncture wounds which were said to be used to suck the blood out of the victim.",
"Reports of such killings began to spread around and eventually out of the country, reaching areas such as Mexico, Brazil, Chile, and the Southern area of the United States.",
"Most notably, these areas experience frequent, and extreme dry seasons; in the cases of the Puerto Rican reports of 1995 and the Mexican reports of 1996, both countries were currently experiencing or dealing with the aftermath of severe droughts.",
"Investigations carried out in both countries at this time noted a certain dramatic violence in these killings.",
"These environmental conditions could provide a simple explanation for the livestock killings: wild predators losing their usual prey to the drought, therefore being forced to hunt the livestock of farmers for sustenance.",
"Thus, the same theory can be applied to many of the other ‘chupacabra’ attacks: that the dry weather had created a more competitive environment for native predators, leading them to prey on livestock to survive.",
"Such an idea can also explain the increased violence in the killings; hungry and desperate predators are driven to hunt livestock to avoid starvation, causing an increase in both the number of livestock killings, and the viciousness of each one.",
"Evidence of such is provided in page 179 of Benjamin Radford’s book, ''Tracking the Chupacabra: The Vampire Beast in Fact, Fiction, and Folklore.''",
"Radford’s chart highlights ten significant reports of chupacabra attacks, seven of which had a carcass recovered and examined; these autopsies concluded the causes of death as various animal attacks, as displayed though the animal DNA found on the carcasses.",
"Radford provides further evidence in pages 161-162 of his book, displaying animals who are proven to have fallen victim to regular coyote attacks; thus, explaining that it is not unusual for an animal carcass to be left uneaten while only displaying puncture wounds and/or minimal signs of attack.",
"The plausibility of the chupacabra’s existence is also discredited by the varying descriptions of the creature.",
"Depending on the reported sighting, the creature is described with thick skin or fur, wings or no wings, a long tail or no tail, is bat-like, dog-like, or even alien-like.",
"Evidently, the chupacabra has a wide variety of descriptions; to the point where it is hard to believe that all the sightings are of the same creature.",
"A very likely explanation for this phenomenon is that individuals who had heard of the newly popular chupacabra had the creature’s name fresh in their mind before they happened to see a strange looking animal.",
"They then resort to make sense of their encounter by labelling it as the recently ‘discovered’ monster, instead of a more realistic explanation.",
"For example, some scientists hypothesize that what many believe to be a chupacabra is a wild or domestic dog affected by mange, a disease causing a thick buildup of skin and hair loss."
],
[
"Related legends",
"The \"Ozark Howler\", a large bear-like animal, is the subject of a similar legend.The Peuchens of Chile also share similarities in their supposed habits, but instead of being dog-like they are described as winged snakes.",
"This legend may have originated from the vampire bat, an animal endemic to the region.In the Philippines the Sigbin shares many of the chupacabra's descriptions.",
"\"Grunches\" is a legend in New Orleans that gets its name from a lovers' lane called Grunch Road, between the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico.",
"The road was said to be inhabited by creatures called \"grunches\", similar in appearance to the Chupacabra.",
"In 2018 there were reports of suspected chupacabras in Manipur, India.",
"Many domestic animals and poultry were killed in a manner similar to other chupacabra attacks, and several people reported that they had seen creatures.",
"Forensic experts opined that street dogs were responsible for mass killing of domestic animals and poultry after studying the remnants of a corpse."
],
[
"Media",
"* A chupacabra is referred to in the 2009 novel Drive Your Plow Over The Bones of the Dead.",
"* The debut album by Imani Coppola is titled ''Chupacabra''.",
"* In ''Indigenous'' (2014), the chupacabra is the main antagonist.",
"* The myth of the chupacabra is mocked in a 2012 episode of the cartoon series ''South Park'', titled \"Jewpacabra\", in which antisemitic main character Eric Cartman claims to have seen a Jewish Chupacabra that kills children on Easter.",
"* The chupacabra was included as one of several vinyl figurines in Cryptozoic Entertainment's Cryptkins blind box toy line in 2018.A redesigned series of figurines, including an updated chupacabra, was released in August 2020.",
"* The search for a chupacabra was featured in the 1997 ''The X-Files'' episode \"El Mundo Gira\".",
"* \"Chupacabra\" was the title of the midseason finale of season 4 of the supernatural drama television series ''Grimm'', in December 2014.",
"* ''Teen Titans Academy'', a DC Comics book, has a bat-like metahuman called Chupacabra, whose alter ego is Diego Pérez, named in honour of George Pérez (the artist that initially illustrated the Teen Titans).",
"* A 1999 episode of ''Futurama'' features a monster called \"El Chupanibre\".",
"* In the ''Jackie Chan Adventures'' episode \"The Curse of El Chupacabra\", Jackie Chan's friend El Toro gets scratched and infected by a Chupacabra, causing him to transform into another Chupacabra every night, much like a werewolf.",
"* In season 3 of ''Workaholics'' called \"To Kill a Chupacabraj\", Blake finds what he believes to be the deceased corpse of the Rancho Chupacabra in the pool, though it turns out to be the neighbor's dog.",
"* In the Netflix original series ''The Imperfects'', the character of Juan Ruiz transforms into a chupacabra whenever anyone he cares about is in danger.",
"* The 2016 film ''La leyenda del Chupacabras'' features the titular Chupacabra initially as an antagonist before revealing the creature is merely trying to rescue its family.",
"* The 2023 film ''Chupa'' is about a chupacabra that is saved from scientists who want to capture it to prove it is real and exploit it for medicine."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Alleged chupacabra likely a \"Xolo dog\"; story a hoax* * Chupacabra mystery solved from Seeker.com* Ooty: Kangaroo cousin lived in western ghats?",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cayuga Lake"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cayuga Lake''' (, or ) is the longest of central New York's glacial Finger Lakes, and is the second largest in surface area (marginally smaller than Seneca Lake) and second largest in volume.",
"It is just under long.",
"Its average width is , and it is at its widest point, near Aurora.",
"It is approximately at its deepest point, and has over of shoreline.The lake is named after the indigenous Cayuga people."
],
[
"Location",
"The city of Ithaca, site of Ithaca College and Cornell University, is located at the southern end of Cayuga Lake.Villages and settlements along the east shore of Cayuga Lake include Myers, King Ferry, Aurora, Levanna, Union Springs, and Cayuga.",
"Settlements along the west shore of the lake include Sheldrake, Poplar Beach, and Canoga.The lake has two small islands.",
"One is near Union Springs, called Frontenac Island (northeast); this island is not inhabited.",
"The other island, Canoga Island (northwest), is located near the town of Canoga.",
"This island has several camps and is inhabited during the summer months.",
"The only other island in any of the Finger Lakes is Skenoh Island in Canandaigua Lake.===Geographical characteristics===Map of the Finger LakesCayuga Lake is located at ; above sea level.",
"Its depth, with steep east and west sides and shallow north and south ends, is typical of the Finger Lakes, as they were carved by glaciers during the last ice age.The water level is regulated by the Mud Lock at the north end of the lake.",
"It is connected to Lake Ontario by the Erie Canal and Seneca Lake by the Seneca River.",
"The lake is drawn down as winter approaches, to minimize ice damage and to maximize its capacity to store heavy spring runoff.The north end is dominated by shallow mudflats.",
"An important stopover for migratory birds, the mudflats and marsh are the location of the Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge.",
"The southern end is also shallow and often freezes during the winter.===Human impact===Winter view of the head of Cayuga LakeCayuga Lake is very popular among recreational boaters.",
"The Allan H. Treman State Marine Park, with a large state marina and boat launch, is located at the southern end of the lake in Ithaca.",
"There are two yacht clubs on the western shore: Ithaca Yacht Club, a few miles north of Ithaca, and Red Jacket Yacht Club, just south of Canoga.",
"There are several other marinas and boat launches, scattered along the lake shore.Cayuga Lake is the source of drinking water for several communities, including Lansing, near the southern end of the lake along the east side, which draws water through the Bolton Point Water System.",
"There are also several lake source cooling systems that are in operation on the lake, whereby cooler water is pumped from the depths of the lake, warmed, and circulated in a closed system back to the surface.",
"One of these systems, which is operated by Cornell University and began operation in 2000, was controversial during the planning and building stages, due to its potential for having a negative environmental impact.",
"However, all of the environmental impact reports and scientific studies have shown that the Cornell lake source cooling system has not yet had, and will not likely have any measurably significant environmental impact.",
"Furthermore, Cornell's system pumps significantly less warm water back into the lake than others further north, which have been operating for decades, including the coal-fired power plant on the eastern shore.AES Cayuga, on the eastern shore of the lakeThe AES Coal Power plant was shut down in August 2019, and there are plans to convert it into a data center in the near future.",
"The plant used to use Cayuga Lake as a cooling source.",
"In the late 1960s, citizens successfully opposed the construction of an 830-MW nuclear power plant on the shore of Cayuga Lake.Rod Serling named his production company Cayuga Productions, during the years of his TV series, ''The Twilight Zone''.",
"Serling and his family had a summer home at Cayuga Lake."
],
[
"Fishing",
"The fish population is managed and substantial sport fishing is practiced, with anglers targeting smelt, lake trout and smallmouth bass.",
"Fish species present in the lake include lake trout, landlocked salmon, brown trout, rainbow trout, smallmouth bass, smelt, alewife, atlantic salmon, black crappie, bluegill, pickerel, largemouth bass, northern pike, pumpkinseed sunfish, rock bass, and yellow perch.",
"There are state owned hard surface ramps in Cayuga–Seneca Canal, Lock #1 (Mud Lock), Long Point State Park, Cayuga Lake State Park, Deans Cove Boat Launch, Taughannock Falls State Park, and Allan H. Treman State Marine Park."
],
[
"Tributaries",
"The major inflows to the lake are: Fall Creek, Cayuga Inlet, Salmon Creek, Taughannock Creek, and Six Mile Creek; while the lake outflows into the Seneca River and other tributaries.",
"Ungaged tributaries that inflow to the lake include: *Demont Creek*Canoga Creek*Schuyler Creek*Red Creek*Big Hollow Creek*Mack Creek*Bloomer Creek*Barnum Creek*Groves Creek*Sheldrake Creek*Lively Run*Bergen Creek*Trumansburg Creek*Willow Creek*Glenwood Creek*Indian Creek*Williams Brook*Gulf Creek*Minnegar Brook*Morrow Creek*Paines Creek*Little Creek*Dean Creek*Glen Creek*Great Gully Brook*Yawger Creek"
],
[
"Folklore",
"Cornell West Campus and Cayuga Lake, as seen from McGraw TowerThe lake is the subject of local folklore.",
"An ''Ithaca Journal'' article of January 5, 1897, reported that a sea serpent, nicknamed \"Old Greeny,\" had been sighted in Cayuga Lake annually for 69 years.",
"A sighting in that month described the animal, from shore, as \"large and its body long,\" though a \"tramp\" suggested it was a muskrat.",
"In 1929, two creatures, about in length, were reportedly spotted along the eastern shore of the lake.",
"Further sightings were reported in 1974 and 1979.Cornell's alma mater makes reference to its position \"Far Above Cayuga's Waters\", while that of Ithaca College references \"Cayuga's shore\".A tradition at Wells College in Aurora holds that if the lake completely freezes over, classes are canceled (though for only one day).",
"According to Wells College records, this most recently happened in 1979 and the record cold month of February 2015.However, other sources suggest that the only time the entire lake froze over solid end to end in the 20th century was in 1912, when even the deeper Seneca Lake last froze over completely.Cayuga Lake, like nearby Seneca Lake, is also the site of a phenomenon known as the Guns of the Seneca, mysterious cannon-like booms heard in the surrounding area.",
"Many of these booms may be attributable to bird-scarers, automated cannon-like devices used by farmers to scare birds away from the many vineyards, orchards and crops.",
"There is, however, no proof of this."
],
[
"Wine",
"Cayuga Lake is included in the American Viticultural Area with which it shares its name.",
"Established in 1988, the AVA now boasts over a dozen wineries, four distilleries, a cidery, and a meadery."
],
[
"See also",
"*Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge*Taughannock Falls"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* World Lakes Database - Cayuga Lake* Cayuga Lake Watershed Network* The Cayuga Lake Defense Fund* Cornell's Lake Source Cooling FAQ* Cornell's environmental impact statement for Lake Source Cooling"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Columbia University"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Columbia University''', officially '''Columbia University in the City of New York''', is a private Ivy League research university in New York City.",
"Established in 1754 as '''King's College''' on the grounds of Trinity Church in Manhattan, it is the oldest institution of higher education in New York and the fifth-oldest in the United States.Columbia was established as a colonial college by royal charter under George II of Great Britain.",
"It was renamed Columbia College in 1784 following the American Revolution, and in 1787 was placed under a private board of trustees headed by former students Alexander Hamilton and John Jay.",
"In 1896, the campus was moved to its current location in Morningside Heights and renamed Columbia University.Columbia is organized into twenty schools, including four undergraduate schools and 16 graduate schools.",
"The university's research efforts include the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory, the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, and accelerator laboratories with Big Tech firms such as Amazon and IBM.",
"Columbia is a founding member of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the MD degree.",
"The university also administers and annually awards the Pulitzer Prize.Columbia scientists and scholars have played a pivotal role in scientific breakthroughs including brain-computer interface; the laser and maser; nuclear magnetic resonance; the first nuclear pile; the first nuclear fission reaction in the Americas; the first evidence for plate tectonics and continental drift; and much of the initial research and planning for the Manhattan Project during World War II., its alumni, faculty, and staff have included seven of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America; four U.S. presidents; 34 foreign heads of state or government; two secretaries-general of the United Nations; ten justices of the United States Supreme Court; 103 Nobel laureates; 125 National Academy of Sciences members; 53 living billionaires; 23 Olympic medalists; 33 Academy Award winners; and 125 Pulitzer Prize recipients."
],
[
"History",
"===18th century===Samuel Johnson, the first president of ColumbiaKing's College Hall in 1790Taylor Map of New York City, showing \"The College\" at its Park Place (then Robinson Street) location and its earlier location, Trinity Church, on the lower leftDiscussions regarding the founding of a college in the Province of New York began as early as 1704, at which time Colonel Lewis Morris wrote to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the missionary arm of the Church of England, persuading the society that New York City was an ideal community in which to establish a college.",
"However, it was not until the founding of the College of New Jersey (renamed Princeton) across the Hudson River in New Jersey that the City of New York seriously considered founding a college.",
"In 1746, an act was passed by the general assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college.",
"In 1751, the assembly appointed a commission of ten New York residents, seven of whom were members of the Church of England, to direct the funds accrued by the state lottery towards the foundation of a college.Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the college's first president, Samuel Johnson.",
"Johnson was the only instructor of the college's first class, which consisted of a mere eight students.",
"Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan.",
"The college was officially founded on October 31, 1754, as King's College by royal charter of George II, making it the oldest institution of higher learning in the State of New York and the fifth oldest in the United States.In 1763, Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queen's College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory.",
"In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his chief opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777, Alexander Hamilton.",
"The Irish anatomist, Samuel Clossy, was appointed professor of natural philosophy in October 1765 and later the college's first professor of anatomy in 1767.The American Revolutionary War broke out in 1776, and was catastrophic for the operation of King's College, which suspended instruction for eight years beginning in 1776 with the arrival of the Continental Army.",
"The suspension continued through the military occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783.The college's library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a military hospital first by American and then British forces.After the Revolutionary War, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, promising to make whatever changes to the school's charter the state might demand.",
"The legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1, 1784, it passed \"an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called King's College\".",
"The Act created a board of regents to oversee the resuscitation of King's College, and, in an effort to demonstrate its support for the new Republic, the legislature stipulated that \"the College within the City of New York heretofore called King's College be forever hereafter called and known by the name of Columbia College\", a reference to Columbia, an alternative name for America which in turn comes from the name of Christopher Columbus.",
"The Regents finally became aware of the college's defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, which was headed by John Jay and Alexander Hamilton.",
"In April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college granted the power to a separate board of 24 trustees.On May 21, 1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected president of Columbia College.",
"Prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention.",
"For a period in the 1790s, with New York City as the federal and state capital and the country under successive Federalist governments, a revived Columbia thrived under the auspices of Federalists such as Hamilton and Jay.",
"President George Washington and Vice President John Adams, in addition to both houses of Congress attended the college's commencement on May 6, 1789, as a tribute of honor to the many alumni of the school who had been involved in the American Revolution.===19th century===The Gothic Revival library and law school buildings on the Madison Avenue campusLow Memorial Library, Alma Mater''In November 1813, the college agreed to incorporate its medical school with The College of Physicians and Surgeons, a new school created by the Regents of New York, forming Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons.",
"The college's enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned.",
"In 1857, the college moved from the King's College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, where it remained for the next forty years.",
"During the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F.A.P.",
"Barnard, the president that Barnard College is named after, the institution rapidly assumed the shape of a modern university.",
"Barnard College was created in 1889 as a response to the university's refusal to accept women.",
"By this time, the college's investments in New York real estate became a primary source of steady income for the school, mainly owing to the city's expanding population.",
"In 1896, university president Seth Low moved the campus from 49th Street to its present location, a more spacious campus in the developing neighborhood of Morningside Heights.",
"Under the leadership of Low's successor, Nicholas Murray Butler, who served for over four decades, Columbia rapidly became the nation's major institution for research, setting the multiversity model that later universities would adopt.",
"Prior to becoming the president of Columbia University, Butler founded Teachers College, as a school to prepare home economists and manual art teachers for the children of the poor, with philanthropist Grace Hoadley Dodge.",
"Teachers College is currently affiliated as the university's Graduate School of Education.===20th century===Research into the atom by faculty members John R. Dunning, I. I. Rabi, Enrico Fermi and Polykarp Kusch placed Columbia's physics department in the international spotlight in the 1940s after the first nuclear pile was built to start what became the Manhattan Project.",
"In 1928, Seth Low Junior College was established by Columbia University in order to mitigate the number of Jewish applicants to Columbia College.",
"The college was closed in 1936 due to the adverse effects of the Great Depression and its students were subsequently taught at Morningside Heights, although they did not belong to any college but to the university at large.",
"There was an evening school called University Extension, which taught night classes, for a fee, to anyone willing to attend.",
"In 1947, the program was reorganized as an undergraduate college and designated the School of General Studies in response to the return of GIs after World War II.",
"In 1995, the School of General Studies was again reorganized as a full-fledged liberal arts college for non-traditional students (those who have had an academic break of one year or more, or are pursuing dual-degrees) and was fully integrated into Columbia's traditional undergraduate curriculum.",
"The same year, the Division of Special Programs, later called the School of Continuing Education and now the School of Professional Studies, was established to reprise the former role of University Extension.",
"While the School of Professional Studies only offered non-degree programs for lifelong learners and high school students in its earliest stages, it now offers degree programs in a diverse range of professional and inter-disciplinary fields.In the aftermath of World War II, the discipline of international relations became a major scholarly focus of the university, and in response, the School of International and Public Affairs was founded in 1946, drawing upon the resources of the faculties of political science, economics, and history.",
"The Columbia University Bicentennial was celebrated in 1954.During the 1960s Columbia experienced large-scale student activism, which reached a climax in the spring of 1968 when hundreds of students occupied buildings on campus.",
"The incident forced the resignation of Columbia's president, Grayson Kirk, and the establishment of the University Senate.Though several schools within the university had admitted women for years, Columbia College first admitted women in the fall of 1983, after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard College, the all-female institution affiliated with the university, to merge the two schools.",
"Barnard College still remains affiliated with Columbia, and all Barnard graduates are issued diplomas signed by the presidents of Columbia University and Barnard College.During the late 20th century, the university underwent significant academic, structural, and administrative changes as it developed into a major research university.",
"For much of the 19th century, the university consisted of decentralized and separate faculties specializing in Political Science, Philosophy, and Pure Science.",
"In 1979, these faculties were merged into the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.",
"In 1991, the faculties of Columbia College, the School of General Studies, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, the School of the Arts, and the School of Professional Studies were merged into the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, leading to the academic integration and centralized governance of these schools.",
"===21st century===In 2010, the School of International and Public Affairs, which was previously a part of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, became an independent faculty."
],
[
"Campus",
"===Morningside Heights===College WalkThe majority of Columbia's graduate and undergraduate studies are conducted in the Upper Manhattan neighborhood of Morningside Heights on Seth Low's late-19th century vision of a university campus where all disciplines could be taught at one location.",
"The campus was designed along Beaux-Arts planning principles by the architects McKim, Mead & White.",
"Columbia's main campus occupies more than six city blocks, or , in Morningside Heights, New York City, a neighborhood that contains a number of academic institutions.",
"The university owns over 7,800 apartments in Morningside Heights, housing faculty, graduate students, and staff.",
"Almost two dozen undergraduate dormitories (purpose-built or converted) are located on campus or in Morningside Heights.",
"Columbia University has an extensive tunnel system, more than a century old, with the oldest portions predating the present campus.",
"Some of these remain accessible to the public, while others have been cordoned off.Butler LibraryThe Nicholas Murray Butler Library, known simply as Butler Library, is the largest single library in the Columbia University Library System, and is one of the largest buildings on the campus.",
"Proposed as \"South Hall\" by the university's former president Nicholas Murray Butler as expansion plans for Low Memorial Library stalled, the new library was funded by Edward Harkness, benefactor of Yale's residential college system, and designed by his favorite architect, James Gamble Rogers.",
"It was completed in 1934 and renamed for Butler in 1946.The library design is neo-classical in style.",
"Its facade features a row of columns in the Ionic order above which are inscribed the names of great writers, philosophers, and thinkers, most of whom are read by students engaged in the Core Curriculum of Columbia College.",
", Columbia's library system includes over 15.0 million volumes, making it the eighth largest library system and fifth largest collegiate library system in the United States.Several buildings on the Morningside Heights campus are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.",
"Low Memorial Library, a National Historic Landmark and the centerpiece of the campus, is listed for its architectural significance.",
"Philosophy Hall is listed as the site of the invention of FM radio.",
"Also listed is Pupin Hall, another National Historic Landmark, which houses the physics and astronomy departments.",
"Here the first experiments on the fission of uranium were conducted by Enrico Fermi.",
"The uranium atom was split there ten days after the world's first atom-splitting in Copenhagen, Denmark.",
"Other buildings listed include Casa Italiana, the Delta Psi, Alpha Chapter building of St. Anthony Hall, Earl Hall, and the buildings of the affiliated Union Theological Seminary.Union Theological SeminaryA statue by sculptor Daniel Chester French called ''Alma Mater'' is centered on the front steps of Low Memorial Library.",
"McKim, Mead & White invited French to build the sculpture in order to harmonize with the larger composition of the court and library in the center of the campus.",
"Draped in an academic gown, the female figure of Alma Mater wears a crown of laurels and sits on a throne.",
"The scroll-like arms of the throne end in lamps, representing sapientia and doctrina.",
"A book signifying knowledge, balances on her lap, and an owl, the attribute of wisdom, is hidden in the folds of her gown.",
"Her right hand holds a scepter composed of four sprays of wheat, terminating with a crown of King's College which refers to Columbia's origin as a royal charter institution in 1754.A local actress named Mary Lawton was said to have posed for parts of the sculpture.",
"The statue was dedicated on September 23, 1903, as a gift of Mr. & Mrs. Robert Goelet, and was originally covered in golden leaf.",
"During the Columbia University protests of 1968 a bomb damaged the sculpture, but it has since been repaired.",
"The small hidden owl on the sculpture is also the subject of many Columbia legends, the main legend being that the first student in the freshmen class to find the hidden owl on the statue will be valedictorian, and that any subsequent Columbia male who finds it will marry a Barnard student, given that Barnard is a women's college.",
"\"The Steps\", alternatively known as \"Low Steps\" or the \"Urban Beach\", are a popular meeting area for Columbia students.",
"The term refers to the long series of granite steps leading from the lower part of campus (South Field) to its upper terrace.",
"With a design inspired by the City Beautiful movement, the steps of Low Library provides Columbia University and Barnard College students, faculty, and staff with a comfortable outdoor platform and space for informal gatherings, events, and ceremonies.",
"McKim's classical facade epitomizes late 19th-century new-classical designs, with its columns and portico marking the entrance to an important structure.===Other campuses===Palisades, New YorkCollege of Physicians and Surgeons in Washington HeightsIn April 2007, the university purchased more than two-thirds of a site for a new campus in Manhattanville, an industrial neighborhood to the north of the Morningside Heights campus.",
"Stretching from 125th Street to 133rd Street, Columbia Manhattanville houses buildings for Columbia's Business School, School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia School of the Arts, and the Jerome L. Greene Center for Mind, Brain, and Behavior, where research will occur on neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.",
"The $7 billion expansion plan included demolishing all buildings, except three that are historically significant (the Studebaker Building, Prentis Hall, and the Nash Building), eliminating the existing light industry and storage warehouses, and relocating tenants in 132 apartments.",
"Replacing these buildings created of space for the university.",
"Community activist groups in West Harlem fought the expansion for reasons ranging from property protection and fair exchange for land, to residents' rights.",
"Subsequent public hearings drew neighborhood opposition.",
", the State of New York's Empire State Development Corporation approved use of eminent domain, which, through declaration of Manhattanville's \"blighted\" status, gives governmental bodies the right to appropriate private property for public use.",
"On May 20, 2009, the New York State Public Authorities Control Board approved the Manhanttanville expansion plan.NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital is affiliated with the medical schools of both Columbia University and Cornell University.",
"According to ''U.S.",
"News & World Report''s \"2020–21 Best Hospitals Honor Roll and Medical Specialties Rankings\", it is ranked fourth overall and second among university hospitals.",
"Columbia's medical school has a strategic partnership with New York State Psychiatric Institute, and is affiliated with 19 other hospitals in the U.S. and four hospitals in other countries.",
"Health-related schools are located at the Columbia University Medical Center, a campus located in the neighborhood of Washington Heights, fifty blocks uptown.",
"Other teaching hospitals affiliated with Columbia through the NewYork-Presbyterian network include the Payne Whitney Clinic in Manhattan, and the Payne Whitney Westchester, a psychiatric institute located in White Plains, New York.",
"On the northern tip of Manhattan island (in the neighborhood of Inwood), Columbia owns the Baker Field, which includes the Lawrence A. Wien Stadium as well as facilities for field sports, outdoor track, and tennis.",
"There is a third campus on the west bank of the Hudson River, the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory and Earth Institute in Palisades, New York.",
"A fourth is the Nevis Laboratories in Irvington, New York, for the study of particle and motion physics.",
"A satellite site in Paris holds classes at Reid Hall.===Sustainability===In 2006, the university established the Office of Environmental Stewardship to initiate, coordinate and implement programs to reduce the university's environmental footprint.",
"The U.S. Green Building Council selected the university's Manhattanville plan for the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Neighborhood Design pilot program.",
"The plan commits to incorporating smart growth, new urbanism and \"green\" building design principles.",
"Columbia is one of the 2030 Challenge Partners, a group of nine universities in the city of New York that have pledged to reduce their greenhouse emissions by 30% within the next ten years.",
"Columbia University adopts LEED standards for all new construction and major renovations.",
"The university requires a minimum of Silver, but through its design and review process seeks to achieve higher levels.",
"This is especially challenging for lab and research buildings with their intensive energy use; however, the university also uses lab design guidelines that seek to maximize energy efficiency while protecting the safety of researchers.Every Thursday and Sunday of the month, Columbia hosts a greenmarket where local farmers can sell their produce to residents of the city.",
"In addition, from April to November Hodgson's farm, a local New York gardening center, joins the market bringing a large selection of plants and blooming flowers.",
"The market is one of the many operated at different points throughout the city by the non-profit group GrowNYC.",
"Dining services at Columbia spends 36 percent of its food budget on local products, in addition to serving sustainably harvested seafood and fair trade coffee on campus.",
"Columbia has been rated \"B+\" by the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card for its environmental and sustainability initiatives.116th Street–Columbia University subway station () on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line.According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Columbia University would have a dominant vegetation type of Appalachian Oak (''104'') with a dominant vegetation form of Eastern Hardwood Forest (''25'').=== Transportation ===Columbia Transportation is the bus service of the university, operated by Academy Bus Lines.",
"The buses are open to all Columbia faculty, students, Dodge Fitness Center members, and anyone else who holds a Columbia ID card.",
"In addition, all TSC students can ride the buses.In the New York City Subway, the train serves the university at 116th Street-Columbia University.",
"The buses stop on Broadway while the stops on Amsterdam Avenue."
],
[
"Academics",
"=== Undergraduate admissions and financial aid ===Van Amringe Quadrangle and MemorialColumbia University received 60,551 applications for the class of 2025 (entering 2021) and a total of around 2,218 were admitted to the two schools for an overall acceptance rate of 3.66%.",
"Columbia is a racially diverse school, with approximately 52% of all students identifying themselves as persons of color.",
"Additionally, 50% of all undergraduates received grants from Columbia.",
"The average grant size awarded to these students is $46,516.In 2015–2016, annual undergraduate tuition at Columbia was $50,526 with a total cost of attendance of $65,860 (including room and board).",
"The college is need-blind for domestic applicants.Annual gifts, fund-raising, and an increase in spending from the university's endowment have allowed Columbia to extend generous financial aid packages to qualifying students.",
"On April 11, 2007, Columbia University announced a $400 million donation from media billionaire alumnus John Kluge to be used exclusively for undergraduate financial aid.",
"The donation is among the largest single gifts to higher education.",
", undergraduates from families with incomes as high as $60,000 a year will have the projected cost of attending the university, including room, board, and academic fees, fully paid for by the university.",
"That same year, the university ended loans for incoming and then-current students who were on financial aid, replacing loans that were traditionally part of aid packages with grants from the university.",
"However, this does not apply to international students, transfer students, visiting students, or students in the School of General Studies.",
"In the fall of 2010, admission to Columbia's undergraduate colleges Columbia College and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering) began accepting the Common Application.",
"The policy change made Columbia one of the last major academic institutions and the last Ivy League university to switch to the Common Application.Scholarships are also given to undergraduate students by the admissions committee.",
"Designations include John W. Kluge Scholars, John Jay Scholars, C. Prescott Davis Scholars, Global Scholars, Egleston Scholars, and Science Research Fellows.",
"Named scholars are selected by the admission committee from first-year applicants.",
"According to Columbia, the first four designated scholars \"distinguish themselves for their remarkable academic and personal achievements, dynamism, intellectual curiosity, the originality and independence of their thinking, and the diversity that stems from their different cultures and their varied educational experiences\".In 1919, Columbia established a student application process characterized by ''The New York Times'' as \"the first modern college application\".",
"The application required a photograph of the applicant, the maiden name of the applicant's mother, and the applicant's religious background.=== Organization ===Columbia Graduate/Professional Schools'''College/school''''''Year founded'''Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons1767College of Dental Medicine1852Columbia Law School1858Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science1864Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences1880Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation1881Teachers College, Columbia University 1887Columbia University School of Nursing1892Columbia University School of Social Work1898Graduate School of Journalism1912Columbia Business School1916Mailman School of Public Health1922School of International and Public Affairs1946School of the Arts1965School of Professional Studies1995Columbia Climate School2021Columbia Undergraduate Schools'''College/school''''''Year founded'''Columbia College1754Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science1864Barnard College 1889Columbia University School of General Studies1947Columbia University is an independent, privately supported, nonsectarian institution of higher education.",
"Its official corporate name is \"The Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York\".",
"The university's first charter was granted in 1754 by King George II; however, its modern charter was first enacted in 1787 and last amended in 1810 by the New York State Legislature.",
"The university is governed by 24 trustees, customarily including the president, who serves ''ex officio''.",
"The trustees themselves are responsible for choosing their successors.",
"Six of the 24 are nominated from a pool of candidates recommended by the Columbia Alumni Association.",
"Another six are nominated by the board in consultation with the executive committee of the University Senate.",
"The remaining 12, including the president, are nominated by the trustees themselves through their internal processes.",
"The term of office for trustees is six years.",
"Generally, they serve for no more than two consecutive terms.",
"The trustees appoint the president and other senior administrative officers of the university, and review and confirm faculty appointments as required.",
"They determine the university's financial and investment policies, authorize the budget, supervise the endowment, direct the management of the university's real estate and other assets, and otherwise oversee the administration and management of the university.Low Memorial LibraryThe University Senate was established by the trustees after a university-wide referendum in 1969.It succeeded to the powers of the University Council, which was created in 1890 as a body of faculty, deans, and other administrators to regulate inter-Faculty affairs and consider issues of university-wide concern.",
"The University Senate is a unicameral body consisting of 107 members drawn from all constituencies of the university.",
"These include the president of the university, the provost, the deans of Columbia College and the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, all of whom serve ''ex officio'', and five additional representatives, appointed by the president, from the university's administration.",
"The president serves as the Senate's presiding officer.",
"The Senate is charged with reviewing the educational policies, physical development, budget, and external relations of the university.",
"It oversees the welfare and academic freedom of the faculty and the welfare of students.The president of Columbia University, who is selected by the trustees in consultation with the executive committee of the University Senate and who serves at the trustees' pleasure, is the chief executive officer of the university.",
"Assisting the president in administering the university are the provost, the senior executive vice president, the executive vice president for health and biomedical sciences, several other vice presidents, the general counsel, the secretary of the university, and the deans of the faculties, all of whom are appointed by the trustees on the nomination of the president and serve at their pleasure.",
"Minouche Shafik became the 20th president of Columbia University on July 1, 2023.The Barnard College Class of 1913 processes down the steps of Low Library.Columbia has four official undergraduate colleges: Columbia College, the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree; the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering), the engineering and applied science school offering the Bachelor of Science degree; the School of General Studies, the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree to non-traditional students undertaking full- or part-time study; and Barnard College.",
"Barnard College is a women's liberal arts college and an academic affiliate in which students receive a Bachelor of Arts degree from Columbia University.",
"Their degrees are signed by the presidents of Columbia University and Barnard College.",
"Barnard students are also eligible to cross-register classes that are available through the Barnard Catalogue and alumnae can join the Columbia Alumni Association.Joint degree programs are available through Union Theological Seminary, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, and the Juilliard School.",
"Teachers College and Barnard College are official faculties of the university; both colleges' presidents are deans under the university governance structure.",
"The Columbia University Senate includes faculty and student representatives from Teachers College and Barnard College who serve two-year terms; all senators are accorded full voting privileges regarding matters impacting the entire university.",
"Teachers College is an affiliated, financially independent graduate school with their own board of trustees.",
"Pursuant to an affiliation agreement, Columbia is given the authority to confer \"degrees and diplomas\" to the graduates of Teachers College.",
"The degrees are signed by presidents of Teachers College and Columbia University in a manner analogous to the university's other graduate schools.",
"Columbia's General Studies school also has joint undergraduate programs available through University College London, Sciences Po, City University of Hong Kong, Trinity College Dublin, and the Juilliard School.The university also has several Columbia Global Centers, in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Mumbai, Nairobi, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, and Tunis.=== International partnerships ===Columbia students can study abroad for a semester or a year at partner institutions such as Sciences Po, (EHESS), (ENS), Panthéon-Sorbonne University, King's College London, London School of Economics, University College London and the University of Warwick.",
"Select students can study at either the University of Oxford or the University of Cambridge for a year if approved by both Columbia and either Oxford or Cambridge.",
"Columbia also has a dual MA program with the Aga Khan University in London.===Rankings===National Program Rankings Program Ranking Biological Sciences 11 Business 8 Chemistry 12 Computer Science 11 Earth Sciences 5 Economics 9 Engineering 13 English 8 Fine Arts 10 Health Care Management 15 History 5 Law 4 Mathematics 7 Medicine: Primary Care 75 Medicine: Research 3 Nursing: Doctorate 5 Nursing: Master's 6 Nursing–Anesthesia 22 Nursing–Midwifery 13 Occupational Therapy 8 Physical Therapy 25 Physics 9 Political Science 8 Psychology 12 Public Affairs 23 Public Health 4 Social Work 5 Sociology 11 Statistics 5Global Program Rankings Program Ranking Arts & Humanities 18 Biology & Biochemistry 20 Cardiac & Cardiovascular Systems 3 Chemistry 33 Clinical Medicine 10 Computer Science 36 Economics & Business 8 Electrical & Electronic Engineering 102 Engineering 114 Environment/Ecology 36 Geosciences 4 Immunology 32 Materials Science 57 Mathematics 11 Microbiology 33 Molecular Biology & Genetics 18 Neuroscience & Behavior 7 Oncology 32 Pharmacology & Toxicology 46 Physics 12 Plant & Animal Science 202 Psychiatry/Psychology 4 Social Sciences & Public Health 8 Space Science 37 Surgery 27Columbia University is ranked 12th in the United States and seventh globally for 2023–2024 by ''U.S.",
"News & World Report''.",
"QS University Rankings listed Columbia as fifth in the United States.",
"Ranked 15th among U.S. colleges for 2020 by ''The Wall Street Journal'' and ''Times Higher Education'', in recent years it has been ranked as high as second.",
"Individual colleges and schools were also nationally ranked by ''U.S.",
"News & World Report'' for its 2021 edition.",
"Columbia Law School was ranked fourth, the Mailman School of Public Health fourth, the School of Social Work tied for third, Columbia Business School eighth, the College of Physicians and Surgeons tied for sixth for research (and tied for 31st for primary care), the School of Nursing tied for 11th in the master's program and tied for first in the doctorate nursing program, and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (graduate) was ranked tied for 14th.In 2021, Columbia was ranked seventh in the world (sixth in the United States) by ''Academic Ranking of World Universities'', sixth in the world by ''U.S.",
"News & World Report'', 19th in the world by ''QS World University Rankings'', and 11th globally by ''Times Higher Education World University Rankings''.",
"It was ranked in the first tier of American research universities, along with Harvard, MIT, and Stanford, in the 2019 report from the Center for Measuring University Performance.",
"Columbia's Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation was ranked the second most admired graduate program by Architectural Record in 2020.In 2011, the Mines ParisTech: Professional Ranking of World Universities ranked Columbia third best university for forming CEOs in the US and 12th worldwide.==== Controversies ====In 2022, Columbia's reporting of metrics used for university ranking was criticized by Professor of Mathematics Michael Thaddeus, who argued key data supporting the ranking was \"inaccurate, dubious or highly misleading.\"",
"Subsequently, ''U.S.",
"News & World Report'' \"unranked\" Columbia from its 2022 list of Best Colleges saying that it could not verify the data submitted by the university.",
"In June 2023, Columbia University announced their undergraduate schools would no longer participate in ''U.S.",
"News & World Report's'' rankings, following the lead of its law, medical and nursing schools.",
"A press release cited concerns that such rankings unduly influence applicants and \"distill a university's profile into a composite of data categories.",
"\"===Research===Havemeyer Hall, a National Historic Chemical Landmark, where deuterium was discovered in 1931.Research conducted in Havemeyer has led to at least seven Nobel Prizes.Columbia is classified among \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity\".",
"Columbia was the first North American site where the uranium atom was split.",
"The College of Physicians and Surgeons played a central role in developing the modern understanding of neuroscience with the publication of ''Principles of Neural Science'', described by historian of science Katja Huenther as the \"neuroscience 'bible' \".",
"The book was written by a team of Columbia researchers that included Nobel Prize winner Eric Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas Jessell.",
"Columbia was the birthplace of FM radio and the laser.",
"The first brain-computer interface capable of translating brain signals into speech was developed by neuroengineers at Columbia.",
"The MPEG-2 algorithm of transmitting high quality audio and video over limited bandwidth was developed by Dimitris Anastassiou, a Columbia professor of electrical engineering.",
"Biologist Martin Chalfie was the first to introduce the use of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) in labeling cells in intact organisms.",
"Other inventions and products related to Columbia include Sequential Lateral Solidification (SLS) technology for making LCDs, System Management Arts (SMARTS), Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) (which is used for audio, video, chat, instant messaging and whiteboarding), pharmacopeia, Macromodel (software for computational chemistry), a new and better recipe for glass concrete, Blue LEDs, and Beamprop (used in photonics).Columbia scientists have been credited with about 175 new inventions in the health sciences each year.",
"More than 30 pharmaceutical products based on discoveries and inventions made at Columbia reached the market.",
"These include Remicade (for arthritis), Reopro (for blood clot complications), Xalatan (for glaucoma), Benefix, Latanoprost (a glaucoma treatment), shoulder prosthesis, homocysteine (testing for cardiovascular disease), and Zolinza (for cancer therapy).",
"Columbia Technology Ventures (formerly Science and Technology Ventures), , manages some 600 patents and more than 250 active license agreements.",
"Patent-related deals earned Columbia more than $230 million in the 2006 fiscal year, according to the university, more than any university in the world.",
"Columbia owns many unique research facilities, such as the Columbia Institute for Tele-Information dedicated to telecommunications and the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, which is an astronomical observatory affiliated with NASA.===Military and veteran enrollment===Columbia is a long-standing participant of the United States Department of Veterans Affairs Yellow Ribbon Program, allowing eligible veterans to pursue a Columbia undergraduate degree regardless of socioeconomic status for over 70 years.",
"As a part of the Eisenhower Leader Development Program (ELDP) in partnership with the United States Military Academy at West Point, Columbia is the only school in the Ivy League to offer a graduate degree program in organizational psychology to aid military officers in tactical decision making and strategic management.=== Awards ===President Lee Bollinger presents the 2003 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction to Jeffrey Eugenides.Several prestigious awards are administered by Columbia University, most notably the Pulitzer Prize and the Bancroft Prize in history.",
"Other prizes, which are awarded by the Graduate School of Journalism, include the Alfred I. duPont–Columbia University Award, the National Magazine Awards, the Maria Moors Cabot Prizes, the John Chancellor Award, and the Lukas Prizes, which include the J. Anthony Lukas Book Prize and Mark Lynton History Prize.",
"The university also administers the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize, which is considered an important precursor to the Nobel Prize, 51 of its 101 recipients having gone on to win either a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine or Nobel Prize in Chemistry as of October 2018; the W. Alden Spencer Award; the Vetlesen Prize, which is known as the Nobel Prize of geology; the Japan-U.S.",
"Friendship Commission Prize for the Translation of Japanese Literature, the oldest such award; the Edwin Howard Armstrong award; the Calderone Prize in public health; and the Ditson Conductor's Award."
],
[
"Student life",
"===Students===Student body composition as of May 2, 2022 Race and ethnicityTotal White Foreign national Asian Hispanic Other Black Economic diversity Low-income Affluent In 2020, Columbia University's student population was 31,455 (8,842 students in undergraduate programs and 22,613 in postgraduate programs), with 45% of the student population identifying themselves as a minority.",
"Twenty-six percent of students at Columbia have family incomes below $60,000.16% of students at Columbia receive Federal Pell Grants, which mostly go to students whose family incomes are below $40,000.Seventeen percent of students are the first member of their family to attend a four-year college.On-campus housing is guaranteed for all four years as an undergraduate.",
"Columbia College and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering) share housing in the on-campus residence halls.",
"First-year students usually live in one of the large residence halls situated around South Lawn: Carman Hall, Furnald Hall, Hartley Hall, John Jay Hall, or Wallach Hall (originally Livingston Hall).",
"Upperclassmen participate in a room selection process, wherein students can pick to live in a mix of either corridor- or apartment-style housing with their friends.",
"The Columbia University School of General Studies, Barnard College and graduate schools have their own apartment-style housing in the surrounding neighborhood.Columbia University is home to many fraternities, sororities, and co-educational Greek organizations.",
"Approximately 10–15% of undergraduate students are associated with Greek life.",
"Many Barnard women also join Columbia sororities.",
"There has been a Greek presence on campus since the establishment in 1836 of the Delta chapter of Alpha Delta Phi.",
"The InterGreek Council is the self-governing student organization that provides guidelines and support to its member organizations within each of the three councils at Columbia, the Interfraternity Council, Panhellenic Council, and Multicultural Greek Council.",
"The three council presidents bring their affiliated chapters together once a month to meet as one Greek community.",
"The InterGreek Council meetings provide opportunity for member organizations to learn from each other, work together and advocate for community needs.====Publications====Copies of the ''Columbia Daily Spectator'' being sold during the 1962–63 New York City newspaper strikeThe Art Deco cover of the November 1931 edition of the ''Jester'', celebrating the opening of the George Washington BridgeThe ''Columbia Daily Spectator'' is the nation's second-oldest continuously operating daily student newspaper.",
"''The Blue and White'' is a monthly literary magazine established in 1890 that discusses campus life and local politics.",
"''Bwog'', originally an offshoot of ''The Blue and White'' but now fully independent, is an online campus news and entertainment source.",
"''The Morningside Post'' is a student-run multimedia news publication.Political publications include ''The Current'', a journal of politics, culture and Jewish Affairs; the ''Columbia Political Review'', the multi-partisan political magazine of the Columbia Political Union; and ''AdHoc'', which denotes itself as the \"progressive\" campus magazine and deals largely with local political issues and arts events.",
"''Columbia Magazine'' is the alumni magazine of Columbia, serving all 340,000+ of the university's alumni.",
"Arts and literary publications include ''The Columbia Review'', the nation's oldest college literary magazine; ''Surgam'', the literary magazine of The Philolexian Society; ''Quarto'', Columbia University's official undergraduate literary magazine; ''4x4'', a student-run alternative to ''Quarto''; ''Columbia'', a nationally regarded literary journal; the ''Columbia Journal of Literary Criticism''; and ''The Mobius Strip'', an online arts and literary magazine.",
"''Inside New York'' is an annual guidebook to New York City, written, edited, and published by Columbia undergraduates.",
"Through a distribution agreement with Columbia University Press, the book is sold at major retailers and independent bookstores.Columbia is home to numerous undergraduate academic publications.",
"The ''Columbia Undergraduate Science Journal'' prints original science research in its two annual publications.",
"The ''Journal of Politics & Society'' is a journal of undergraduate research in the social sciences; ''Publius'' is an undergraduate journal of politics established in 2008 and published biannually; the ''Columbia East Asia Review'' allows undergraduates throughout the world to publish original work on China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, and Vietnam and is supported by the Weatherhead East Asian Institute; ''The Birch'' is an undergraduate journal of Eastern European and Eurasian culture that is the first national student-run journal of its kind; the ''Columbia Economics Review'' is the undergraduate economic journal on research and policy supported by the Columbia Economics Department; and the ''Columbia Science Review'' is a science magazine that prints general interest articles and faculty profiles.Humor publications on Columbia's campus include ''The Fed'', a triweekly satire and investigative newspaper, and the ''Jester of Columbia.''",
"Other publications include ''The Columbian'', the undergraduate colleges' annually published yearbook; the ''Gadfly'', a biannual journal of popular philosophy produced by undergraduates; and ''Rhapsody in Blue'', an undergraduate urban studies magazine.",
"Professional journals published by academic departments at Columbia University include ''Current Musicology'' and ''The Journal of Philosophy''.",
"During the spring semester, graduate students in the Journalism School publish ''The Bronx Beat'', a bi-weekly newspaper covering the South Bronx.Founded in 1961 under the auspices of Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism, the ''Columbia Journalism Review'' (CJR) examines day-to-day press performance as well as the forces that affect that performance.",
"The magazine is published six times a year.Former publications include the Columbia University Forum, a review of literature and cultural affairs distributed for free to alumni.====Broadcasting====Columbia is home to two pioneers in undergraduate campus radio broadcasting, WKCR-FM and CTV.",
"Many undergraduates are also involved with Barnard's radio station, WBAR.",
"WKCR, the student run radio station that broadcasts to the Tri-state area, claims to be the oldest FM radio station in the world, owing to the university's affiliation with Major Edwin Armstrong.",
"The station went operational on July 18, 1939, from a 400-foot antenna tower in Alpine, New Jersey, broadcasting the first FM transmission in the world.",
"Initially, WKCR was not a radio station, but an organization concerned with the technology of radio communications.",
"As membership grew, however, the nascent club turned its efforts to broadcasting.",
"Armstrong helped the students in their early efforts, donating a microphone and turntables when they designed their first makeshift studio in a dorm room.",
"The station has its studios on the second floor of Alfred Lerner Hall on the Morningside campus with its main transmitter tower at 4 Times Square in Midtown Manhattan.",
"Columbia Television (CTV) is the nation's second oldest student television station and the home of CTV News, a weekly live news program produced by undergraduate students.====Debate and Model UN====The Philolexian Society is a literary and debating club founded in 1802, making it the oldest student group at Columbia, as well as the third oldest collegiate literary society in the country.",
"The society annually administers the Joyce Kilmer Memorial Bad Poetry Contest.",
"The Columbia Parliamentary Debate Team competes in tournaments around the country as part of the American Parliamentary Debate Association, and hosts both high school and college tournaments on Columbia's campus, as well as public debates on issues affecting the university.The Columbia International Relations Council and Association (CIRCA), oversees Columbia's Model United Nations activities.",
"CIRCA hosts college and high school Model UN conferences, hosts speakers influential in international politics to speak on campus, and trains students from underprivileged schools in New York in Model UN.===Technology and entrepreneurship===Pupin Hall, the physics building, showing the rooftop Rutherfurd ObservatoryColumbia is a top supplier of young engineering entrepreneurs for New York City.",
"Over the past 20 years, graduates of Columbia established over 100 technology companies.The Columbia University Organization of Rising Entrepreneurs (CORE) was founded in 1999.The student-run group aims to foster entrepreneurship on campus.",
"Each year CORE hosts dozens of events, including talks, #StartupColumbia, a conference and venture competition for $250,000, and Ignite@CU, a weekend for undergrads interested in design, engineering, and entrepreneurship.",
"Notable speakers include Peter Thiel, Jack Dorsey, Alexis Ohanian, Drew Houston, and Mark Cuban.",
"As of 2006, CORE had awarded graduate and undergraduate students over $100,000 in seed capital.CampusNetwork, an on-campus social networking site called Campus Network that preceded Facebook, was created and popularized by Columbia engineering student Adam Goldberg in 2003.Mark Zuckerberg later asked Goldberg to join him in Palo Alto to work on Facebook, but Goldberg declined the offer.",
"The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science offers a minor in Technical Entrepreneurship through its Center for Technology, Innovation, and Community Engagement.",
"SEAS' entrepreneurship activities focus on community building initiatives in New York and worldwide, made possible through partners such as Microsoft Corporation.On June 14, 2010, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg launched the NYC Media Lab to promote innovations in New York's media industry.",
"Situated at the New York University Tandon School of Engineering, the lab is a consortium of Columbia University, New York University, and New York City Economic Development Corporation acting to connect companies with universities in new technology research.",
"The Lab is modeled after similar ones at MIT and Stanford, and was established with a $250,000 grant from the New York City Economic Development Corporation.===Athletics===200x200pxA member institution of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in Division I FCS, Columbia fields varsity teams in 29 sports and is a member of the Ivy League.",
"The football Lions play home games at the 17,000-seat Robert K. Kraft Field at Lawrence A. Wien Stadium.",
"The Baker Athletics Complex also includes facilities for baseball, softball, soccer, lacrosse, field hockey, tennis, track, and rowing, as well as the new Campbell Sports Center, which opened in January 2013.The basketball, fencing, swimming & diving, volleyball, and wrestling programs are based at the Dodge Physical Fitness Center on the main campus.Major League Baseball Hall of Famer, Lou Gehrig |257x257pxFormer students include Baseball Hall of Famers Lou Gehrig and Eddie Collins, football Hall of Famer Sid Luckman, Marcellus Wiley, and world champion women's weightlifter Karyn Marshall.",
"On May 17, 1939, fledgling NBC broadcast a doubleheader between the Columbia Lions and the Princeton Tigers at Columbia's Baker Field, making it the first televised regular athletic event in history.Columbia University athletics has a long history, with many accomplishments in athletic fields.",
"In 1870, Columbia played against Rutgers University in the second intercollegiate rugby football game in the history of the sport.",
"Eight years later, Columbia crew won the famed Henley Royal Regatta in the first-ever defeat for an English crew rowing in English waters.",
"In 1900, Olympian and Columbia College student Maxie Long set the first official world record in the 400 meters with a time of 47.8 seconds.",
"In 1983, Columbia men's soccer went 18–0 and was ranked first in the nation, but lost to Indiana 1–0 in double overtime in the NCAA championship game; nevertheless, the team went further toward the NCAA title than any Ivy League soccer team in history.",
"The football program unfortunately is best known for its record of futility set during the 1980s: between 1983 and 1988, the team lost 44 games in a row, which is still the record for the NCAA Football Championship Subdivision.",
"The streak was broken on October 8, 1988, with a 16–13 victory over arch-rival Princeton University.",
"That was the Lions' first victory at Wien Stadium, which had been opened during the losing streak and was already four years old.",
"A new tradition has developed with the Liberty Cup.",
"The Liberty Cup is awarded annually to the winner of the football game between Fordham and Columbia Universities, two of the only three NCAA Division I football teams in New York City.===World Leaders Forum===World Leaders Forum at Low Memorial LibraryEstablished in 2003 by university president Lee C. Bollinger, the World Leaders Forum at Columbia University provides the opportunity for undergraduate and graduate students alike to listen to world leaders in government, religion, industry, finance, and academia.",
"The World Leaders Forum is a year-around event series that strives to provide a platform for uninhibited speech among nations and cultures, while educating students about problems and progress around the globe.Past forum speakers include former president of the United States Bill Clinton, the prime minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee, former president of Ghana John Agyekum Kufuor, president of Afghanistan Hamid Karzai, prime minister of Russia Vladimir Putin, president of the Republic of Mozambique Joaquim Alberto Chissano, president of the Republic of Bolivia Carlos Diego Mesa Gisbert, president of the Republic of Romania Ion Iliescu, president of the Republic of Latvia Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, the first female president of Finland Tarja Halonen, President Yudhoyono of Indonesia, President Pervez Musharraf of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, Iraq President Jalal Talabani, the 14th Dalai Lama, president of the Islamic Republic of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, financier George Soros, Mayor of New York City Michael R. Bloomberg, President Václav Klaus of the Czech Republic, President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner of Argentina, former Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, and Al Gore.===Other===Earl Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places for its role in serving as a venue for meetings and dances of the Columbia Queer Alliance.The Columbia University Orchestra was founded by composer Edward MacDowell in 1896, and is the oldest continually operating university orchestra in the United States.",
"Undergraduate student composers at Columbia may choose to become involved with Columbia New Music, which sponsors concerts of music written by undergraduate students from all of Columbia's schools.",
"The Notes and Keys, the oldest a cappella group at Columbia, was founded in 1909.There are a number of performing arts groups at Columbia dedicated to producing student theater, including the Columbia Players, King's Crown Shakespeare Troupe (KCST), Columbia Musical Theater Society (CMTS), NOMADS (New and Original Material Authored and Directed by Students), LateNite Theatre, Columbia University Performing Arts League (CUPAL), Black Theatre Ensemble (BTE), sketch comedy group Chowdah, and improvisational troupes Alfred and Fruit Paunch.The Columbia Queer Alliance is the central Columbia student organization that represents the bisexual, lesbian, gay, transgender, and questioning student population.",
"It is the oldest gay student organization in the world, founded as the Student Homophile League in 1967 by students including lifelong activist Stephen Donaldson.Columbia University campus military groups include the U.S. Military Veterans of Columbia University and Advocates for Columbia ROTC.",
"In the 2005–06 academic year, the Columbia Military Society, Columbia's student group for ROTC cadets and Marine officer candidates, was renamed the Hamilton Society for \"students who aspire to serve their nation through the military in the tradition of Alexander Hamilton\".The largest student service organization at Columbia is Community Impact (CI).",
"Founded in 1981, CI provides food, clothing, shelter, education, job training, and companionship for residents in its surrounding communities.",
"CI consists of about 950 Columbia University student volunteers participating in 25 community service programs, which serve more than 8,000 people each year.Columbia has several secret societies, including St. Anthony Hall, which was founded at the university in 1847, and two senior societies, the Nacoms and Sachems."
],
[
"Traditions",
"Fly With Me'' (1920), one of the only collaborations between Richard Rodgers, Oscar Hammerstein II, and Lorenz Hart|left=== The Varsity Show ===The Varsity Show is one of the oldest traditions at Columbia.",
"Founded in 1893 as a fundraiser for the university's fledgling athletic teams, the Varsity Show now draws together the entire Columbia undergraduate community for a series of performances every April.",
"Dedicated to producing a unique full-length musical that skewers and satirizes many dubious aspects of life at Columbia, the Varsity Show is written and performed exclusively by university undergraduates.",
"Various renowned playwrights, composers, authors, directors, and actors have contributed to the Varsity Show, either as writers or performers, while students at Columbia, including Richard Rodgers, Oscar Hammerstein II, Lorenz Hart, Herman J. Mankiewicz, I.",
"A. L. Diamond, Herman Wouk, Greta Gerwig, and Kate McKinnon.Notable past shows include ''Fly With Me'' (1920), ''The'' ''Streets of New York'' (1948), ''The Sky's the Limit'' (1954), and ''Angels at Columbia'' (1994).",
"In particular, ''Streets of New York'', after having been revived three times, opened off-Broadway in 1963 and was awarded a 1964 Drama Desk Award.",
"''The Mischief Maker'' (1903), written by Edgar Allan Woolf and Cassius Freeborn, premiered at Madison Square Garden in 1906 as ''Mam'zelle Champagne''.===Tree Lighting and Yule Log ceremonies===The campus Tree Lighting ceremony was inaugurated in 1998.It celebrates the illumination of the medium-sized trees lining College Walk in front of Kent Hall and Hamilton Hall on the east end and Dodge Hall and Pulitzer Hall on the west, just before finals week in early December.",
"The lights remain on until February 28.Students meet at the sundial for free hot chocolate, performances by ''a cappella'' groups, and speeches by the university president and a guest.Immediately following the College Walk festivities is one of Columbia's older holiday traditions, the lighting of the Yule Log.",
"The Christmas ceremony dates to a period prior to the American Revolutionary War, but lapsed before being revived by President Nicholas Murray Butler in 1910.A troop of students dressed as Continental Army soldiers carry the eponymous log from the sundial to the lounge of John Jay Hall, where it is lit amid the singing of seasonal carols.",
"The Christmas ceremony is accompanied by a reading of ''A Visit From St. Nicholas'' by Clement Clarke Moore and ''Yes, Virginia, There is a Santa Claus'' by Francis Pharcellus Church."
],
[
"Notable people",
"=== Alumni ===The university has graduated many notable alumni, including five Founding Fathers of the United States, an author of the United States Constitution and a member of the Committee of Five.",
"Three United States presidents have attended Columbia, as well as ten Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, including three Chief Justices.",
", 125 Pulitzer Prize winners and 39 Oscar winners have attended Columbia.",
", there were 101 National Academy members who were alumni.In a 2016 ranking of universities worldwide with respect to living graduates who are billionaires, Columbia ranked second, after Harvard.Former U.S. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Delano Roosevelt attended the law school.",
"Other political figures educated at Columbia include former U.S. President Barack Obama, Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Ruth Bader Ginsburg, former U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, former chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank Alan Greenspan, U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder, and U.S.",
"Solicitor General Donald Verrilli Jr.",
"The university has also educated 29 foreign heads of state, including president of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili, president of East Timor Jose Ramos Horta, president of Estonia Toomas Hendrik Ilves and other historical figures such as Wellington Koo, Radovan Karadžić, Gaston Eyskens, and T. V. Soong.",
"One of the architects of the Constitution of India, B. R. Ambedkar, was an alumnus.Alumni of Columbia have occupied top positions in Wall Street and the rest of the business world.",
"Notable members of the Astor family attended Columbia, while other business graduates include investor Warren Buffett, former CEO of PBS and NBC Larry Grossman, chairman of Wal-Mart S. Robson Walton, Bain Capital Co-Managing Partner, Jonathan Lavine, Thomson Reuters CEO Tom Glocer, New York Stock Exchange president Lynn Martin, and AllianceBernstein Chairman and CEO Lewis A. Sanders.",
"CEO's of top Fortune 500 companies include James P. Gorman of Morgan Stanley, Robert J. Stevens of Lockheed Martin, Philippe Dauman of Viacom, Robert Bakish of Paramount Global, Ursula Burns of Xerox, Devin Wenig of EBay, Vikram Pandit of Citigroup, Ralph Izzo of Public Service Enterprise Group, Gail Koziara Boudreaux of Anthem, and Frank Blake of The Home Depot.",
"Notable labor organizer and women's educator Louise Leonard McLaren received her degree of Master of Arts from Columbia.In science and technology, Columbia alumni include: founder of IBM Herman Hollerith; inventor of FM radio Edwin Armstrong; Francis Mechner; integral in development of the nuclear submarine Hyman Rickover; founder of Google China Kai-Fu Lee; scientists Stephen Jay Gould, Robert Millikan, Helium–neon laser inventor Ali Javan and Mihajlo Pupin; chief-engineer of the New York City Subway, William Barclay Parsons; philosophers Irwin Edman and Robert Nozick; economist Milton Friedman; psychologist Harriet Babcock; archaeologist Josephine Platner Shear; and sociologists Lewis A. Coser and Rose Laub Coser.Many Columbia alumni have gone on to renowned careers in the arts, including composers Richard Rodgers, Oscar Hammerstein II, Lorenz Hart, and Art Garfunkel; and painter Georgia O'Keeffe.",
"Five United States Poet Laureates received their degrees from Columbia.",
"Columbia alumni have made an indelible mark in the field of American poetry and literature, with such people as Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg, pioneers of the Beat Generation; and Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston, seminal figures in the Harlem Renaissance, all having attended the university.",
"Other notable writers who attended Columbia include authors Isaac Asimov, J.D.",
"Salinger, Upton Sinclair, Ursula K. Le Guin, Danielle Valore Evans, and Hunter S. Thompson.",
"In architecture, William Lee Stoddart, a prolific architect of U.S. East Coast hotels, is an alumnus.University alumni have also been very prominent in the film industry, with 33 alumni and former students winning a combined 43 Academy Awards ().",
"Some notable Columbia alumni that have gone on to work in film include directors Sidney Lumet (''12 Angry Men'') and Kathryn Bigelow (''The Hurt Locker''), screenwriters Howard Koch (''Casablanca'') and Joseph L. Mankiewicz (''All About Eve''), and actors James Cagney, Ed Harris and Timothée Chalamet.File:Alexander Hamilton portrait by John Trumbull 1806.jpg|Alexander Hamilton: Founding Father of the United States; author of ''The Federalist Papers''; first United States Secretary of the Treasury — King's CollegeFile:John Jay (Gilbert Stuart portrait).jpg|John Jay: Founding Father of the United States; author of ''The Federalist Papers''; first Chief Justice of the United States; second Governor of New York — King's CollegeFile:Robert R Livingston, attributed to Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828).jpg|Robert R. Livingston: Founding Father of the United States; drafter of the Declaration of Independence; first United States Secretary of Foreign Affairs — King's CollegeFile:Gouverneur Morris.jpg|Gouverneur Morris: Founding Father of the United States; author of the United States Constitution; United States Senator from New York — King's CollegeFile:DeWitt Clinton by Rembrandt Peale.jpg|DeWitt Clinton: United States Senator from New York; sixth Governor of New York; responsible for construction of Erie Canal — Columbia CollegeFile:President Barack Obama.jpg|Barack Obama: 44th President of the United States; United States Senator from Illinois; Nobel laureate — Columbia CollegeFile:FDR in 1933.jpg|Franklin D. Roosevelt: 32nd President of the United States; 44th Governor of New York — Columbia Law SchoolFile:President Theodore Roosevelt, 1904.jpg|Theodore Roosevelt: 26th President of the United States; 25th Vice President of the United States; 33rd Governor of New York; Nobel laureate – Columbia Law SchoolFile:Wellington Koo 1945.jpg|Wellington Koo: acting President of the Republic of China; judge of the International Court of Justice — Columbia College, Graduate School of Arts and SciencesFile:Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar.jpg|B.",
"R. Ambedkar: Founding Father of India; architect of the Constitution of India; First Minister of Law and Justice — Graduate School of Arts and SciencesFile:Ruth Bader Ginsburg official SCOTUS portrait.jpg|Ruth Bader Ginsburg: Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States — Columbia Law SchoolFile:Associate Justice Neil Gorsuch Official Portrait.jpg|Neil Gorsuch: Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States — Columbia CollegeFile:Charles Evans Hughes cph.3b15401.jpg|Charles Evans Hughes: 11th Chief Justice of the United States; 44th United States Secretary of State; 35th Governor of New York — Columbia Law SchoolFile:Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone photograph circa 1927-1932 (cropped).jpg|Harlan Fiske Stone: 12th Chief Justice of the United States; 52nd United States Attorney General — Columbia Law SchoolFile:William Barr.jpg|William Barr: 77th and 85th United States Attorney General – Columbia College, Graduate School of Arts and SciencesFile:Hamilton Fish Brady Edited.jpg|Hamilton Fish: 26th United States Secretary of State; United States Senator from New York; 16th Governor of New York — Columbia CollegeFile:Secalbright.jpg|Madeleine Albright: 64th United States Secretary of State; first female Secretary of State — School of International and Public AffairsFile:Frances Perkins cph.3a04983.jpg|Frances Perkins: fourth United States Secretary of Labor; first female member of any U.S.",
"Cabinet — Graduate School of Arts and SciencesFile:Robert Andrews Millikan 1920s.jpg|Robert A. Millikan: Nobel laureate; measured the elementary electric charge — Graduate School of Arts and SciencesFile:II Rabi.jpg|Isidor Isaac Rabi: Nobel Laureate; discovered nuclear magnetic resonance — Graduate School of Arts and SciencesFile:Schwinger.jpg|Julian S. Schwinger: Nobel laureate; pioneer of quantum field theory — Columbia College, Graduate School of Arts and SciencesFile:Portrait of Milton Friedman.jpg|Milton Friedman: Nobel laureate, leading member of the Chicago school of economics — Graduate School of Arts and SciencesFile:Simon Kuznets 1971b.jpg|Simon Kuznets: Nobel laureate; invented concept of GDP; Milton Friedman's doctoral advisor — School of General Studies, Graduate School of Arts and SciencesFile:Alan Greenspan color photo portrait.jpg|Alan Greenspan: 13th Chair of the Federal Reserve — Graduate School of Arts and SciencesFile:Warren Buffett KU Visit.jpg|Warren Buffett: CEO of Berkshire Hathaway; one of the world's wealthiest people — Columbia Business SchoolFile:Hollerith.jpg|Herman Hollerith: inventor; co-founder of IBM – School of Engineering and Applied SciencesFile:Robert Kraft at Patriots at Raiders 12-14-08.JPG|Robert Kraft: billionaire; owner of the New England Patriots; chairman and CEO of the Kraft Group — Columbia CollegeFile:Rodgers.jpg|Richard Rodgers: legendary Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony award-winning composer; Pulitzer Prize winner — Columbia CollegeFile:LangstonHughes crop.jpg|Langston Hughes: Harlem Renaissance poet, novelist, and playwright — School of Engineering and Applied ScienceFile:Zora Neale Hurston.jpg|Zora Neale Hurston: Harlem Renaissance author, anthropologist, and filmmaker — Barnard College, Graduate School of Arts and SciencesFile:Allen Ginsberg 1979 - cropped.jpg|Allen Ginsberg: poet; founder of the Beat Generation — Columbia CollegeFile:Kerouac by Palumbo 2 (cropped).png|Jack Kerouac: poet; founder of the Beat Generation — Columbia CollegeFile:Isaac.Asimov01.jpg|Isaac Asimov: science fiction writer; biochemist — School of General Studies, Graduate School of Arts and SciencesFile:J. D. Salinger (Catcher in the Rye portrait).jpg|J.",
"D. Salinger: novelist, ''The Catcher in the Rye'' — School of General StudiesFile:Amelia Earhart 1935.jpg|Amelia Earhart: first female aviator to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean — School of General StudiesFile:Jake Gyllenhaal (22373266462) (cropped 2).jpg|Jake Gyllenhaal: actor and film producer — Columbia College=== Faculty ===As of 2021, Columbia employs 4,381 faculty, including 70 members of the National Academy of Sciences, 178 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and 65 members of the National Academy of Medicine.",
"In total, the Columbia faculty has included 52 Nobel laureates, 12 National Medal of Science recipients, and 32 National Academy of Engineering members.Columbia University faculty played particularly important roles during World War II and the creation of the New Deal under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who attended Columbia Law School.",
"The three core members of Roosevelt's Brain Trust: Adolf A. Berle, Raymond Moley, and Rexford Tugwell, were law professors at Columbia.",
"The Statistical Research Group, which used statistics to analyze military problems during World War II, was composed of Columbia researchers and faculty including George Stigler and Milton Friedman.",
"Columbia faculty and researchers, including Enrico Fermi, Leo Szilard, Eugene T. Booth, John R. Dunning, George B. Pegram, Walter Zinn, Chien-Shiung Wu, Francis G. Slack, Harold Urey, Herbert L. Anderson, and Isidor Isaac Rabi, also played a significant role during the early phases of the Manhattan Project.Following the rise of Nazi Germany, the exiled Institute for Social Research at Goethe University Frankfurt would affiliate itself with Columbia from 1934 to 1950.It was during this period that thinkers including Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Herbert Marcuse wrote and published some of the most seminal works of the Frankfurt School, including ''Reason and Revolution'', ''Dialectic of Enlightenment'', and ''Eclipse of Reason''.",
"Professors Edward Said, author of ''Orientalism'', and Gayatri Spivak are generally considered as founders of the field of postcolonialism; other professors that have significantly contributed to the field include Hamid Dabashi and Joseph Massad.",
"The works of professors Kimberlé Crenshaw, Patricia J. Williams, and Kendall Thomas were foundational to the field of critical race theory.Columbia and its affiliated faculty have also made significant contributions to the study of religion.",
"The affiliated Union Theological Seminary is a center of liberal Christianity in the United States, having served as the birthplace of Black theology through the efforts of faculty including James H. Cone and Cornel West, and Womanist theology, through the works of Katie Cannon, Emilie Townes, and Delores S. Williams.",
"Likewise, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America was the birthplace of Conservative Judaism movement in the United States, which was founded and led by faculty members including Solomon Schechter, Alexander Kohut, and Louis Ginzberg in the early 20th century, and is a major center for Jewish studies in general.Other schools of thought in the humanities Columbia professors made significant contributions toward include the Dunning School, founded by William Archibald Dunning; the anthropological schools of historical particularism and cultural relativism, founded by Franz Boas; and functional psychology, whose founders and proponents include John Dewey, James McKeen Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike, and Robert S. Woodworth.Notable figures that have served as the president of Columbia University include 34th President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower, 4th Vice President of the United States George Clinton, Founding Father and U.S.",
"Senator from Connecticut William Samuel Johnson, Nobel Peace Prize laureate Nicholas Murray Butler, and First Amendment scholar Lee Bollinger.",
"Notable Columbia University faculty include Zbigniew Brzezinski, Sonia Sotomayor, Kimberlé Crenshaw, Lee Bollinger, Franz Boas, Margaret Mead, Edward Sapir, John Dewey, Charles A.",
"Beard, Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, Edward Said, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Orhan Pamuk, Edwin Howard Armstrong, Enrico Fermi, Chien-Shiung Wu, Tsung-Dao Lee, Jack Steinberger, Joachim Frank, Joseph Stiglitz, Jeffrey Sachs, Robert Mundell, Thomas Hunt Morgan, Eric Kandel, Richard Axel, and Andrei Okounkov."
],
[
"See also",
"* Columbia Glacier, a glacier in Alaska, U.S., named for Columbia University* Columbia MM, a text-based mail client developed at Columbia University* Columbia Non-neutral Torus, a small stellarator at the Columbia University Plasma Physics Laboratory* ''Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center'', an album of electronic music released in 1961* ''Columbia Revolt'', a black-and-white 1968 documentary film* Columbia Scholastic Press Association* Columbia School of Linguistics* Columbia Spelling Board, a historic etymological organization* Columbia University Partnership for International Development* Columbia Encyclopedia* Mount Columbia, a mountain in Colorado, U.S., named for Columbia University* Nutellagate, a controversy surrounding high Nutella consumption at Columbia University* ''The Strawberry Statement'', a non-fiction account of the 1968 protests* Columbia University in popular culture"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Citations"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Carriere, Micheal.",
"\"Fighting the war against blight: Columbia University, Morningside Heights, Inc., and counterinsurgent urban renewal.\"",
"''Journal of Planning History'' 10.1 (2011): 5-29.",
"* De Bary, Wm Theodore ed.",
"''Living Legacies at Columbia'' (Columbia University Press, 2006), .",
"* McCaughey, Robert A.",
"''Stand, Columbia: A History of Columbia University in the City of New York, 1754–2004'', Columbia University Press, 2003, .",
"* Pettit, Marilyn H. \"Slavery, abolition, and Columbia University.\"",
"''Journal of Archival Organization'' 1.4 (2002): 77-89."
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cell wall"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''cell wall''' is a structural layer that surrounds some cell types, found immediately outside the cell membrane.",
"It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid.",
"Primarily, it provides the cell with structural support, shape, protection, and functions as a selective barrier.",
"Another vital role of the cell wall is to help the cell withstand osmotic pressure and mechanical stress.",
"While absent in many eukaryotes, including animals, cell walls are prevalent in other organisms such as fungi, algae and plants, and are commonly found in most prokaryotes, with the exception of mollicute bacteria.The composition of cell walls varies across taxonomic groups, species, cell type, and the cell cycle.",
"In land plants, the primary cell wall comprises polysaccharides like cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectin.",
"Often, other polymers such as lignin, suberin or cutin are anchored to or embedded in plant cell walls.",
"Algae exhibit cell walls composed of glycoproteins and polysaccharides, such as carrageenan and agar, distinct from those in land plants.",
"Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, while archaeal cell walls vary in composition, potentially consisting of glycoprotein S-layers, pseudopeptidoglycan, or polysaccharides.",
"Fungi possess cell walls constructed from the polymer chitin, specifically N-acetylglucosamine.",
"Interestingly, diatoms have a unique cell wall composed of biogenic silica."
],
[
"History",
"A plant cell wall was first observed and named (simply as a \"wall\") by Robert Hooke in 1665.However, \"the dead excrusion product of the living protoplast\" was forgotten, for almost three centuries, being the subject of scientific interest mainly as a resource for industrial processing or in relation to animal or human health.In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F.",
"Link proved that cells had independent cell walls.",
"Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and that fluid passed between them this way.The mode of formation of the cell wall was controversial in the 19th century.",
"Hugo von Mohl (1853, 1858) advocated the idea that the cell wall grows by apposition.",
"Carl Nägeli (1858, 1862, 1863) believed that the growth of the wall in thickness and in area was due to a process termed intussusception.",
"Each theory was improved in the following decades: the apposition (or lamination) theory by Eduard Strasburger (1882, 1889), and the intussusception theory by Julius Wiesner (1886).In 1930, Ernst Münch coined the term ''apoplast'' in order to separate the \"living\" symplast from the \"dead\" plant region, the latter of which included the cell wall.By the 1980s, some authors suggested replacing the term \"cell wall\", particularly as it was used for plants, with the more precise term \"extracellular matrix\", as used for animal cells, but others preferred the older term."
],
[
"Properties",
"Diagram of the plant cell, with the cell wall in green.Cell walls serve similar purposes in those organisms that possess them.",
"They may give cells rigidity and strength, offering protection against mechanical stress.",
"The chemical composition and mechanical properties of the cell wall are linked with plant cell growth and morphogenesis.",
"In multicellular organisms, they permit the organism to build and hold a definite shape.",
"Cell walls also limit the entry of large molecules that may be toxic to the cell.",
"They further permit the creation of stable osmotic environments by preventing osmotic lysis and helping to retain water.",
"Their composition, properties, and form may change during the cell cycle and depend on growth conditions.===Rigidity of cell walls===In most cells, the cell wall is flexible, meaning that it will bend rather than holding a fixed shape, but has considerable tensile strength.",
"The apparent rigidity of primary plant tissues is enabled by cell walls, but is not due to the walls' stiffness.",
"Hydraulic turgor pressure creates this rigidity, along with the wall structure.",
"The flexibility of the cell walls is seen when plants wilt, so that the stems and leaves begin to droop, or in seaweeds that bend in water currents.",
"As John Howland explainsThe apparent rigidity of the cell wall thus results from inflation of the cell contained within.",
"This inflation is a result of the passive uptake of water.In plants, a '''secondary cell wall''' is a thicker additional layer of cellulose which increases wall rigidity.",
"Additional layers may be formed by lignin in xylem cell walls, or suberin in cork cell walls.",
"These compounds are rigid and waterproof, making the secondary wall stiff.",
"Both wood and bark cells of trees have secondary walls.",
"Other parts of plants such as the leaf stalk may acquire similar reinforcement to resist the strain of physical forces.===Permeability===The primary cell wall of most plant cells is freely permeable to small molecules including small proteins, with size exclusion estimated to be 30-60 kDa.",
"The pH is an important factor governing the transport of molecules through cell walls."
],
[
"Evolution",
"Cell walls evolved independently in many groups.The photosynthetic eukaryotes (so-called plant and algae) is one group with cellulose cell walls, where the cell wall is closely related to the evolution of multicellularity, terrestrialization and vascularization.",
"The CesA cellulose synthase evolved in ''Cyanobacteria'' and was part of Archaeplastida since endosymbiosis; secondary endosymbiosis events transferred it (with the arabinogalactan proteins) further into brown algae and oomycetes.",
"Plants later evolved various genes from CesA, including the Csl (cellulose synthase-like) family of proteins and additional Ces proteins.",
"Combined with the various glycosyltransferases (GT), they enable more complex chemical structures to be built.Fungi use a chitin-glucan-protein cell wall.",
"They share the 1,3-β-glucan synthesis pathway with plants, using homologous GT48 family 1,3-Beta-glucan synthases to perform the task, suggesting that such an enzyme is very ancient within the eukaryotes.",
"Their glycoproteins are rich in mannose.",
"The cell wall might have evolved to deter viral infections.",
"Proteins embedded in cell walls are variable, contained in tandem repeats subject to homologous recombination.",
"An alternative scenario is that fungi started with a chitin-based cell wall and later acquired the GT-48 enzymes for the 1,3-β-glucans via horizontal gene transfer.",
"The pathway leading to 1,6-β-glucan synthesis is not sufficiently known in either case."
],
[
"Plant cell walls",
"The walls of plant cells must have sufficient tensile strength to withstand internal osmotic pressures of several times atmospheric pressure that result from the difference in solute concentration between the cell interior and external solutions.",
"Plant cell walls vary from 0.1 to several µm in thickness.===Layers===Cell wall in multicellular plants – its different layers and their placement with respect to protoplasm (highly diagrammatic)Molecular structure of the primary cell wall in plantsUp to three strata or layers may be found in plant cell walls:*The '''primary cell wall''', generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell is growing.",
"*The '''secondary cell wall''', a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is fully grown.",
"It is not found in all cell types.",
"Some cells, such as the conducting cells in xylem, possess a secondary wall containing lignin, which strengthens and waterproofs the wall.",
"*The '''middle lamella''', a layer rich in pectins.",
"This outermost layer forms the interface between adjacent plant cells and glues them together.===Composition===In the primary (growing) plant cell wall, the major carbohydrates are cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.",
"The cellulose microfibrils are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix.",
"The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is xyloglucan.",
"In grass cell walls, xyloglucan and pectin are reduced in abundance and partially replaced by glucuronoarabinoxylan, another type of hemicellulose.",
"Primary cell walls characteristically extend (grow) by a mechanism called acid growth, mediated by expansins, extracellular proteins activated by acidic conditions that modify the hydrogen bonds between pectin and cellulose.",
"This functions to increase cell wall extensibility.",
"The outer part of the primary cell wall of the plant epidermis is usually impregnated with cutin and wax, forming a permeability barrier known as the plant cuticle.Secondary cell walls contain a wide range of additional compounds that modify their mechanical properties and permeability.",
"The major polymers that make up wood (largely secondary cell walls) include:* cellulose, 35-50%* xylan, 20-35%, a type of hemicellulose* lignin, 10-25%, a complex phenolic polymer that penetrates the spaces in the cell wall between cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin components, driving out water and strengthening the wall.Photomicrograph of onion root cells, showing the centrifugal development of new cell walls (phragmoplast)Additionally, structural proteins (1-5%) are found in most plant cell walls; they are classified as hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP), arabinogalactan proteins (AGP), glycine-rich proteins (GRPs), and proline-rich proteins (PRPs).",
"Each class of glycoprotein is defined by a characteristic, highly repetitive protein sequence.",
"Most are glycosylated, contain hydroxyproline (Hyp) and become cross-linked in the cell wall.",
"These proteins are often concentrated in specialized cells and in cell corners.",
"Cell walls of the epidermis may contain cutin.",
"The Casparian strip in the endodermis roots and cork cells of plant bark contain suberin.",
"Both cutin and suberin are polyesters that function as permeability barriers to the movement of water.",
"The relative composition of carbohydrates, secondary compounds and proteins varies between plants and between the cell type and age.",
"Plant cells walls also contain numerous enzymes, such as hydrolases, esterases, peroxidases, and transglycosylases, that cut, trim and cross-link wall polymers.Secondary walls - especially in grasses - may also contain microscopic silica crystals, which may strengthen the wall and protect it from herbivores.Cell walls in some plant tissues also function as storage deposits for carbohydrates that can be broken down and resorbed to supply the metabolic and growth needs of the plant.",
"For example, endosperm cell walls in the seeds of cereal grasses, nasturtiumand other species, are rich in glucans and other polysaccharides that are readily digested by enzymes during seed germination to form simple sugars that nourish the growing embryo.===Formation===The middle lamella is laid down first, formed from the cell plate during cytokinesis, and the primary cell wall is then deposited inside the middle lamella.",
"The actual structure of the cell wall is not clearly defined and several models exist - the covalently linked cross model, the tether model, the diffuse layer model and the stratified layer model.",
"However, the primary cell wall, can be defined as composed of cellulose microfibrils aligned at all angles.",
"Cellulose microfibrils are produced at the plasma membrane by the cellulose synthase complex, which is proposed to be made of a hexameric rosette that contains three cellulose synthase catalytic subunits for each of the six units.",
"Microfibrils are held together by hydrogen bonds to provide a high tensile strength.",
"The cells are held together and share the gelatinous membrane called the ''middle lamella'', which contains magnesium and calcium pectates (salts of pectic acid).",
"Cells interact though plasmodesmata, which are inter-connecting channels of cytoplasm that connect to the protoplasts of adjacent cells across the cell wall.In some plants and cell types, after a maximum size or point in development has been reached, a ''secondary wall'' is constructed between the plasma membrane and primary wall.",
"Unlike the primary wall, the cellulose microfibrils are aligned parallel in layers, the orientation changing slightly with each additional layer so that the structure becomes helicoidal.",
"Cells with secondary cell walls can be rigid, as in the gritty sclereid cells in pear and quince fruit.",
"Cell to cell communication is possible through pits in the secondary cell wall that allow plasmodesmata to connect cells through the secondary cell walls."
],
[
"Fungal cell walls",
"Chemical structure of a unit from a chitin polymer chainThere are several groups of organisms that have been called \"fungi\".",
"Some of these groups (Oomycete and Myxogastria) have been transferred out of the Kingdom Fungi, in part because of fundamental biochemical differences in the composition of the cell wall.",
"Most true fungi have a cell wall consisting largely of chitin and other polysaccharides.",
"True fungi do not have cellulose in their cell walls.In fungi, the cell wall is the outer-most layer, external to the plasma membrane.",
"The fungal cell wall is a matrix of three main components:* chitin: polymers consisting mainly of unbranched chains of β-(1,4)-linked-N-Acetylglucosamine in the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, or poly-β-(1,4)-linked-N-Acetylglucosamine (chitosan) in the Zygomycota.",
"Both chitin and chitosan are synthesized and extruded at the plasma membrane.",
"* glucans: glucose polymers that function to cross-link chitin or chitosan polymers.",
"β-glucans are glucose molecules linked via β-(1,3)- or β-(1,6)- bonds and provide rigidity to the cell wall while α-glucans are defined by α-(1,3)- and/or α-(1,4) bonds and function as part of the matrix.",
"* proteins: enzymes necessary for cell wall synthesis and lysis in addition to structural proteins are all present in the cell wall.",
"Most of the structural proteins found in the cell wall are glycosylated and contain mannose, thus these proteins are called mannoproteins or mannans."
],
[
"Other eukaryotic cell walls",
"===Algae===Scanning electron micrographs of diatoms showing the external appearance of the cell wallLike plants, algae have cell walls.",
"Algal cell walls contain either polysaccharides (such as cellulose (a glucan)) or a variety of glycoproteins (Volvocales) or both.",
"The inclusion of additional polysaccharides in algal cells walls is used as a feature for algal taxonomy.",
"* Mannans: They form microfibrils in the cell walls of a number of marine green algae including those from the genera, ''Codium'', ''Dasycladus'', and ''Acetabularia'' as well as in the walls of some red algae, like ''Porphyra'' and ''Bangia''.",
"* Xylans:* Alginic acid: It is a common polysaccharide in the cell walls of brown algae.",
"* Sulfonated polysaccharides: They occur in the cell walls of most algae; those common in red algae include agarose, carrageenan, porphyran, furcelleran and funoran.Other compounds that may accumulate in algal cell walls include sporopollenin and calcium ions.The group of algae known as the diatoms synthesize their cell walls (also known as frustules or valves) from silicic acid.",
"Significantly, relative to the organic cell walls produced by other groups, silica frustules require less energy to synthesize (approximately 8%), potentially a major saving on the overall cell energy budget and possibly an explanation for higher growth rates in diatoms.In brown algae, phlorotannins may be a constituent of the cell walls.===Water molds===The group Oomycetes, also known as water molds, are saprotrophic plant pathogens like fungi.",
"Until recently they were widely believed to be fungi, but structural and molecular evidence has led to their reclassification as heterokonts, related to autotrophic brown algae and diatoms.",
"Unlike fungi, oomycetes typically possess cell walls of cellulose and glucans rather than chitin, although some genera (such as ''Achlya'' and ''Saprolegnia'') do have chitin in their walls.",
"The fraction of cellulose in the walls is no more than 4 to 20%, far less than the fraction of glucans.",
"Oomycete cell walls also contain the amino acid hydroxyproline, which is not found in fungal cell walls.===Slime molds===The dictyostelids are another group formerly classified among the fungi.",
"They are slime molds that feed as unicellular amoebae, but aggregate into a reproductive stalk and sporangium under certain conditions.",
"Cells of the reproductive stalk, as well as the spores formed at the apex, possess a cellulose wall.",
"The spore wall has three layers, the middle one composed primarily of cellulose, while the innermost is sensitive to cellulase and pronase."
],
[
"Prokaryotic cell walls",
"===Bacterial cell walls===gram-positive bacterium.",
"The cell envelope comprises a plasma membrane, seen here in light brown, and a thick peptidoglycan-containing cell wall (the purple layer).",
"No outer lipid membrane is present, as would be the case in gram-negative bacteria.",
"The red layer, known as the capsule, is distinct from the cell envelope.Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall.",
"Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan (also called murein), which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by unusual peptides containing D-amino acids.",
"Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi which are made of cellulose and chitin, respectively.",
"The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan.",
"The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria, although L-form bacteria can be produced in the laboratory that lack a cell wall.",
"The antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to weaken and lyse.",
"The lysozyme enzyme can also damage bacterial cell walls.There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria, called gram-positive and gram-negative.",
"The names originate from the reaction of cells to the Gram stain, a test long-employed for the classification of bacterial species.Gram-positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids.",
"Gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane containing lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins.",
"Most bacteria have the gram-negative cell wall and only the Bacillota and Actinomycetota (previously known as the low G+C and high G+C gram-positive bacteria, respectively) have the alternative gram-positive arrangement.",
"These differences in structure produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility.",
"The beta-lactam antibiotics (e.g.",
"penicillin, cephalosporin) only work against gram-negative pathogens, such as ''Haemophilus influenzae'' or ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa''.",
"The glycopeptide antibiotics (e.g.",
"vancomycin, teicoplanin, telavancin) only work against gram-positive pathogens such as ''Staphylococcus aureus'' ===Archaeal cell walls===Although not truly unique, the cell walls of Archaea are unusual.",
"Whereas peptidoglycan is a standard component of all bacterial cell walls, all archaeal cell walls lack peptidoglycan, though some methanogens have a cell wall made of a similar polymer called pseudopeptidoglycan.",
"There are four types of cell wall currently known among the Archaea.One type of archaeal cell wall is that composed of pseudopeptidoglycan (also called pseudomurein).",
"This type of wall is found in some methanogens, such as ''Methanobacterium'' and ''Methanothermus''.",
"While the overall structure of archaeal ''pseudo''peptidoglycan superficially resembles that of bacterial peptidoglycan, there are a number of significant chemical differences.",
"Like the peptidoglycan found in bacterial cell walls, pseudopeptidoglycan consists of polymer chains of glycan cross-linked by short peptide connections.",
"However, unlike peptidoglycan, the sugar N-acetylmuramic acid is replaced by N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid, and the two sugars are bonded with a ''β'',1-3 glycosidic linkage instead of ''β'',1-4.Additionally, the cross-linking peptides are L-amino acids rather than D-amino acids as they are in bacteria.A second type of archaeal cell wall is found in ''Methanosarcina'' and ''Halococcus''.",
"This type of cell wall is composed entirely of a thick layer of polysaccharides, which may be sulfated in the case of ''Halococcus''.",
"Structure in this type of wall is complex and not fully investigated.A third type of wall among the Archaea consists of glycoprotein, and occurs in the hyperthermophiles, ''Halobacterium'', and some methanogens.",
"In ''Halobacterium'', the proteins in the wall have a high content of acidic amino acids, giving the wall an overall negative charge.",
"The result is an unstable structure that is stabilized by the presence of large quantities of positive sodium ions that neutralize the charge.",
"Consequently, ''Halobacterium'' thrives only under conditions with high salinity.In other Archaea, such as ''Methanomicrobium'' and ''Desulfurococcus'', the wall may be composed only of surface-layer proteins, known as an ''S-layer''.",
"S-layers are common in bacteria, where they serve as either the sole cell-wall component or an outer layer in conjunction with polysaccharides.",
"Most Archaea are Gram-negative, though at least one Gram-positive member is known."
],
[
"Other cell coverings",
"Many protists and bacteria produce other cell surface structures apart from cell walls, external (extracellular matrix) or internal.",
"Many algae have a sheath or envelope of mucilage outside the cell made of exopolysaccharides.",
"Diatoms build a frustule from silica extracted from the surrounding water; radiolarians, foraminiferans, testate amoebae and silicoflagellates also produce a skeleton from minerals, called test in some groups.",
"Many green algae, such as ''Halimeda'' and the Dasycladales, and some red algae, the Corallinales, encase their cells in a secreted skeleton of calcium carbonate.",
"In each case, the wall is rigid and essentially inorganic.",
"It is the non-living component of cell.",
"Some golden algae, ciliates and choanoflagellates produces a shell-like protective outer covering called lorica.",
"Some dinoflagellates have a theca of cellulose plates, and coccolithophorids have coccoliths.An extracellular matrix (ECM) is also present in metazoans.",
"Its composition varies between cells, but collagens are the most abundant protein in the ECM.== See also == * Extracellular matrix* Bacterial cell structure* Plant cell"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Cell wall ultrastructure* The Cell Wall"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Classical element"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Leibniz representation of universe resulting by combination of Aristotle four elementsRococo set of personification figurines of the ''Four Elements'', 1760s, Chelsea porcelainThe '''classical elements''' typically refer to earth, water, air, fire, and (later) aether which were proposed to explain the nature and complexity of all matter in terms of simpler substances.",
"Ancient cultures in Greece, Tibet, and India had similar lists which sometimes referred, in local languages, to \"air\" as \"wind\" and the fifth element as \"void\".The concept of five classical elements in the traditional Meitei religion (Sanamahism)These different cultures and even individual philosophers had widely varying explanations concerning their attributes and how they related to observable phenomena as well as cosmology.",
"Sometimes these theories overlapped with mythology and were personified in deities.",
"Some of these interpretations included atomism (the idea of very small, indivisible portions of matter), but other interpretations considered the elements to be divisible into infinitely small pieces without changing their nature.While the classification of the material world in ancient India, Hellenistic Egypt, and ancient Greece into air, earth, fire, and water was more philosophical, during the Middle Ages medieval scientists used practical, experimental observation to classify materials.",
"In Europe, the ancient Greek concept, devised by Empedocles, evolved into the systematic classifications of Aristotle and Hippocrates.",
"This evolved slightly into the medieval system, and eventually became the object of experimental verification in the 1600s, at the start of the Scientific Revolution.Modern science does not support the classical elements to classify types of substances.",
"Atomic theory classifies atoms into more than a hundred chemical elements such as oxygen, iron, and mercury, which may form chemical compounds and mixtures.",
"The modern categories roughly corresponding to the classical elements are the states of matter produced under different temperatures and pressures.",
"Solid, liquid, gas, and plasma share many attributes with the corresponding classical elements of earth, water, air, and fire, but these states describe the similar behavior of different types of atoms at similar energy levels, not the characteristic behavior of certain atoms or substances."
],
[
"Hellenistic philosophy",
"Aristotelian elements and qualitiesFour classical elements''Empedoclean elements''🜂 fire 🜁 air 🜄 water 🜃 earthThe ancient Greek concept of four basic elements, these being earth ( ), water ( ), air ( ), and fire ( ), dates from pre-Socratic times and persisted throughout the Middle Ages and into the Early modern period, deeply influencing European thought and culture.=== Pre-Socratic elements ===The four classical elements of Empedocles and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log.",
"The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.==== Fire, earth, air, and water ====The Sicilian Greek philosopher Empedocles () was the first to propose the four classical elements as a set: fire, earth, air, and water.",
"He called them the four \"roots\" (, ).",
"Empedocles also proved (at least to his own satisfaction) that air was a separate substance by observing that a bucket inverted in water did not become filled with water, a pocket of air remaining trapped inside.Fire, earth, air, and water have become the most popular set of classical elements in modern interpretations.",
"One such version was provided by Robert Boyle in ''The Sceptical Chymist'', which was published in 1661 in the form of a dialogue between five characters.",
"''Themistius,'' the Aristotelian of the party, says:=== Humorism (Hippocrates) ===According to Galen, these elements were used by Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) in describing the human body with an association with the four humours: yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), blood (air), and phlegm (water).",
"Medical care was primarily about helping the patient stay in or return to their own personal natural balanced state.=== Plato ===Plato (428/423 – 348/347 BC) seems to have been the first to use the term \"element (, )\" in reference to air, fire, earth, and water.",
"The ancient Greek word for element, (from , \"to line up\") meant \"smallest division (of a sun-dial), a syllable\", as the composing unit of an alphabet it could denote a letter and the smallest unit from which a word is formed.=== Aristotle ===In ''On the Heavens'' (350 BC), Aristotle defines \"element\" in general:In his ''On Generation and Corruption'', Aristotle related each of the four elements to two of the four sensible qualities:* '''Fire''' is both hot and dry.",
"* '''Air''' is both hot and wet (for air is like vapor, ).",
"* '''Water''' is both cold and wet.",
"* '''Earth''' is both cold and dry.A classic diagram has one square inscribed in the other, with the corners of one being the classical elements, and the corners of the other being the properties.",
"The opposite corner is the opposite of these properties, \"hot – cold\" and \"dry – wet\".==== Aether ====Aristotle added a fifth element, aether ( ), as the quintessence, reasoning that whereas fire, earth, air, and water were earthly and corruptible, since no changes had been perceived in the heavenly regions, the stars cannot be made out of any of the four elements but must be made of a different, unchangeable, heavenly substance.",
"It had previously been believed by pre-Socratics such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras that aether, the name applied to the material of heavenly bodies, was a form of fire.",
"Aristotle himself did not use the term ''aether'' for the fifth element, and strongly criticised the pre-Socratics for associating the term with fire.",
"He preferred a number of other terms indicating eternal movement, thus emphasising the evidence for his discovery of a new element.",
"These five elements have been associated since Plato's ''Timaeus'' with the five platonic solids.=== Neo-Platonism ===The Neoplatonic philosopher Proclus rejected Aristotle's theory relating the elements to the sensible qualities hot, cold, wet, and dry.",
"He maintained that each of the elements has three properties.",
"Fire is sharp, subtle, and mobile while its opposite, earth, is blunt, dense, and immobile; they are joined by the intermediate elements, air and water, in the following fashion: Fire Sharp Subtle Mobile Air Blunt Subtle Mobile Water Blunt Dense Mobile Earth Blunt Dense Immobile=== Hermeticism ===A text written in Egypt in Hellenistic or Roman times called the ''Kore Kosmou'' (\"Virgin of the World\") ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus (associated with the Egyptian god Thoth), names the four elements fire, water, air, and earth.",
"As described in this book:"
],
[
"Ancient Indian philosophy",
"===Hinduism===The system of five elements are found in Vedas, especially Ayurveda, the ''pancha mahabhuta'', or \"five great elements\", of Hinduism are:#''bhūmi'' or ''pṛthvī'' (earth), #''āpas'' or ''jala'' (water), #''agní'' or ''tejas'' (fire), #''vāyu'', ''vyāna'', or ''vāta'' (air or wind)#''ākāśa'', ''vyom'', or ''śūnya'' (space or zero) or (aether or void).",
"They further suggest that all of creation, including the human body, is made of these five essential elements and that upon death, the human body dissolves into these five elements of nature, thereby balancing the cycle of nature.The five elements are associated with the five senses, and act as the gross medium for the experience of sensations.",
"The basest element, earth, created using all the other elements, can be perceived by all five senses — (i) hearing, (ii) touch, (iii) sight, (iv) taste, and (v) smell.",
"The next higher element, water, has no odor but can be heard, felt, seen and tasted.",
"Next comes fire, which can be heard, felt and seen.",
"Air can be heard and felt.",
"\"Akasha\" (aether) is beyond the senses of smell, taste, sight, and touch; it being accessible to the sense of hearing alone.===Buddhism===Buddhism has had a variety of thought about the five elements and their existence and relevance, some of which continue to this day.In the Pali literature, the ''mahabhuta'' (\"great elements\") or ''catudhatu'' (\"four elements\") are earth, water, fire and air.",
"In early Buddhism, the four elements are a basis for understanding suffering and for liberating oneself from suffering.",
"The earliest Buddhist texts explain that the four primary material elements are solidity, fluidity, temperature, and mobility, characterized as earth, water, fire, and air, respectively.The Buddha's teaching regarding the four elements is to be understood as the base of all observation of real sensations rather than as a philosophy.",
"The four properties are cohesion (water), solidity or inertia (earth), expansion or vibration (air) and heat or energy content (fire).",
"He promulgated a categorization of mind and matter as composed of eight types of \"kalapas\" of which the four elements are primary and a secondary group of four are colour, smell, taste, and nutriment which are derivative from the four primaries.Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997) renders an extract of Shakyamuni Buddha’s from Pali into English thus:Tibetan Buddhist medical literature speaks of the (five elements) or \"elemental properties\": earth, water, fire, wind, and space.",
"The concept was extensively used in traditional Tibetan medicine.",
"Tibetan Buddhist theology, tantra traditions, and \"astrological texts\" also spoke of them making up the \"environment, human bodies,\" and at the smallest or \"subtlest\" level of existence, parts of thought and the mind.",
"Also at the subtlest level of existence, the elements exist as \"pure natures represented by the five female buddhas\", Ākāśadhātviśvarī, Buddhalocanā, Mamakī, Pāṇḍarāvasinī, and Samayatārā, and these pure natures \"manifest as the physical properties of earth (solidity), water (fluidity), fire (heat and light), wind (movement and energy), and\" the expanse of space.",
"These natures exist as all \"qualities\" that are in the physical world and take forms in it."
],
[
"Post-classical history",
"===Alchemy===Seventeenth century alchemical emblem showing the four Classical elements in the corners of the image, alongside the tria prima on the central triangleThe elemental system used in medieval alchemy was developed primarily by the anonymous authors of the Arabic works attributed to Pseudo Apollonius of Tyana.",
"This system consisted of the four classical elements of air, earth, fire, and water, in addition to a new theory called the sulphur-mercury theory of metals, which was based on two elements: sulphur, characterizing the principle of combustibility, \"the stone which burns\"; and mercury, characterizing the principle of metallic properties.",
"They were seen by early alchemists as idealized expressions of irreducible components of the universe and are of larger consideration within philosophical alchemy.The three metallic principles—sulphur to flammability or combustion, mercury to volatility and stability, and salt to solidity—became the ''tria prima'' of the Swiss alchemist Paracelsus.",
"He reasoned that Aristotle's four element theory appeared in bodies as three principles.",
"Paracelsus saw these principles as fundamental and justified them by recourse to the description of how wood burns in fire.",
"Mercury included the cohesive principle, so that when it left in smoke the wood fell apart.",
"Smoke described the volatility (the mercurial principle), the heat-giving flames described flammability (sulphur), and the remnant ash described solidity (salt).=== Central Africa ===The Bakongo CosmogramIn traditional Bakongo religion, the four elements are incorporated into the Kongo cosmogram.",
"This sacred symbol depicts the physical world (''Nseke''), the spiritual world of the ancestors (''Mpémba''), the Kalûnga line that runs between the two worlds, the sacred river (''mbûngi'') that began as a circular void and forms a circle around the two worlds, and the path of the sun.",
"Each element correlates to a period in the life cycle, which the Bakongo people also equate to the four cardinal directions and seasons.",
"According to their cosmology, all living things go through this cycle.",
"* '''Water''' (South) represents ''musoni'', the period of conception that takes place during spring.",
"* '''Fire''' (East) represent ''kala'', the period of birth that takes place during summer.",
"* '''Air''' (North) represents ''tukula'', the period of maturity that takes place during fall.",
"* '''Earth''' (West) represents ''luvemba'', the period of death that takes place during winter.",
"* '''Aether''' represents ''mbûngi'', the circular void that begot the universe.===Japan===Japanese traditions use a set of elements called the (''godai'', literally \"five great\").",
"These five are earth, water, fire, wind/air, and void.",
"These came from Indian Vastu shastra philosophy and Buddhist beliefs; in addition, the classical Chinese elements (, ''wu xing'') are also prominent in Japanese culture, especially to the influential Neo-Confucianists during the medieval Edo period.",
"* '''Earth''' represented rocks and stability.",
"* '''Water''' represented fluidity and adaptability.",
"* '''Fire''' represented life and energy.",
"* '''Wind''' represented movement and expansion.",
"* '''Void''' or '''Sky/Heaven''' represented spirit and creative energy.===Medieval Aristotelian philosophy===The Islamic philosophers al-Kindi, Avicenna and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi followed Aristotle in connecting the four elements with the four natures heat and cold (the active force), and dryness and moisture (the recipients).=== Native American tradition ===The medicine wheel is a sacred symbol across many Indigenous American cultures that signifies Earth's boundary and all the knowledge of the universe.",
"It depicts the four cardinal directions, the path of the sun, the four seasons and the four sacred medicines.",
"Each element is also represented by a color that signifies that four races of humans.",
"*'''Earth''' (South) represents the youth cycle, summer, the Indigenous race, and cedar medicine.",
"*'''Fire''' (East) represents the birth cycle, spring, the Asian race, and tobacco medicine.",
"*'''Wind/Air''' (North) represents the elder cycle, winter, the European race, and sweetgrass medicine.",
"* '''Water''' (West) represents the adulthood cycle, autumn, the African race, and sage medicine.The medicine wheel symbol is a modern invention dating to approximately 1972, with these descriptions and associations being a later addition.",
"The associations with the classical elements are not grounded in traditional Indigenous teachings and the symbol has not been adopted by all Indigenous American nations."
],
[
"Modern history",
"Artus Wolffort, ''The Four Elements'', before 1641===Chemical element===The Aristotelian tradition and medieval alchemy eventually gave rise to modern chemistry, scientific theories and new taxonomies.",
"By the time of Antoine Lavoisier, for example, a list of elements would no longer refer to classical elements.",
"Some modern scientists see a parallel between the classical elements and the four states of matter: solid, liquid, gas and weakly ionized plasma.Modern science recognizes classes of elementary particles which have no substructure (or rather, particles that are not made of other particles) and composite particles having substructure (particles made of other particles).===Western astrology===Western astrology uses the four classical elements in connection with astrological charts and horoscopes.",
"The twelve signs of the zodiac are divided into the four elements: Fire signs are Aries, Leo and Sagittarius, Earth signs are Taurus, Virgo and Capricorn, Air signs are Gemini, Libra and Aquarius, and Water signs are Cancer, Scorpio, and Pisces.===Criticism===The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis writes that the theory of the classical elements \"was bound to exercise a really harmful influence.",
"As is now clear, Aristotle, by adopting this theory as the basis of his interpretation of nature and by never losing faith in it, took a course which promised few opportunities and many dangers for science.\"",
"Bertrand Russell says that Aristotle's thinking became imbued with almost biblical authority in later centuries.",
"So much so that \"Ever since the beginning of the seventeenth century, almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine\"."
],
[
"See also",
"*** – Early Islamic alchemy*****"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"** Section on 4 elements in Buddhism"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Fire (classical element)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Fire''' is one of the four classical elements along with earth, water and air in ancient Greek philosophy and science.",
"Fire is considered to be both hot and dry and, according to Plato, is associated with the tetrahedron."
],
[
"Greek and Roman tradition",
"Fire is one of the four classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy and science.",
"It was commonly associated with the qualities of energy, assertiveness, and passion.",
"In one Greek myth, Prometheus stole ''fire'' from the gods to protect the otherwise helpless humans, but was punished for this charity.Fire was one of many ''archai'' proposed by the pre-Socratics, most of whom sought to reduce the cosmos, or its creation, to a single substance.",
"Heraclitus considered ''fire'' to be the most fundamental of all elements.",
"He believed fire gave rise to the other three elements: \"All things are an interchange for fire, and fire for all things, just like goods for gold and gold for goods.\"",
"He had a reputation for obscure philosophical principles and for speaking in riddles.",
"He described how fire gave rise to the other elements as the: \"upward-downward path\", (), a \"hidden harmony\" or series of transformations he called the \"turnings of fire\", (), first into ''sea'', and half that ''sea'' into ''earth'', and half that ''earth'' into rarefied ''air''.",
"This is a concept that anticipates both the four classical elements of Empedocles and Aristotle's transmutation of the four elements into one another.This world, which is the same for all, no one of gods or men has made.",
"But it always was and will be: an ever-living fire, with measures of it kindling, and measures going out.",
"Heraclitus regarded the soul as being a mixture of fire and water, with fire being the more noble part and water the ignoble aspect.",
"He believed the goal of the soul is to be rid of water and become pure fire: the dry soul is the best and it is worldly pleasures that make the soul \"moist\".",
"He was known as the \"weeping philosopher\" and died of hydropsy, a swelling due to abnormal accumulation of fluid beneath the skin.However, Empedocles of Akragas , is best known for having selected all elements as his ''archai'' and by the time of Plato , the four Empedoclian elements were well established.",
"In the ''Timaeus'', Plato's major cosmological dialogue, the Platonic solid he associated with fire was the tetrahedron which is formed from four triangles and contains the least volume with the greatest surface area.",
"This also makes fire the element with the smallest number of sides, and Plato regarded it as appropriate for the heat of fire, which he felt is sharp and stabbing, (like one of the points of a tetrahedron).Plato's student Aristotle did not maintain his former teacher's geometric view of the elements, but rather preferred a somewhat more naturalistic explanation for the elements based on their traditional qualities.",
"Fire the hot and dry element, like the other elements, was an abstract principle and not identical with the normal solids, liquids and combustion phenomena we experience: What we commonly call fire.",
"It is not really fire, for fire is an excess of heat and a sort of ebullition; but in reality, of what we call air, the part surrounding the earth is moist and warm, because it contains both vapour and a dry exhalation from the earth.According to Aristotle, the four elements rise or fall toward their natural place in concentric layers surrounding the center of the Earth and form the terrestrial or sublunary spheres.In ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element.",
"Yellow bile was the humor identified with fire, since both were hot and dry.",
"Other things associated with fire and yellow bile in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of summer, since it increased the qualities of heat and aridity; the choleric temperament (of a person dominated by the yellow bile humour); the masculine; and the eastern point of the compass.uprightIn alchemy the chemical element of sulfur was often associated with fire and its alchemical symbol and its symbol was an upward-pointing triangle.",
"In alchemic tradition, metals are incubated by fire in the womb of the Earth and alchemists only accelerate their development."
],
[
"Indian tradition",
"Agni is a Hindu and Vedic deity.",
"The word ''agni'' is Sanskrit for fire (noun), cognate with Latin ''ignis'' (the root of English ''ignite''), Russian ''огонь'' (fire), pronounced ''agon''.",
"Agni has three forms: fire, lightning and the sun.Agni is one of the most important of the Vedic gods.",
"He is the god of fire and the accepter of sacrifices.",
"The sacrifices made to Agni go to the deities because Agni is a messenger from and to the other gods.",
"He is ever-young, because the fire is re-lit every day, yet he is also immortal.",
"In Indian tradition fire is also linked to Surya or the Sun and Mangala or Mars, and with the south-east direction."
],
[
"Ceremonial magic",
"Fire and the other Greek classical elements were incorporated into the Golden Dawn system.",
"Philosophus (4=7) is the elemental grade attributed to fire; this grade is also attributed to the Qabalistic Sephirah Netzach and the planet Venus.",
"The elemental weapon of fire is the Wand.",
"Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings.",
"The archangel of fire is Michael, the angel is Aral, the ruler is Seraph, the king is Djin, and the fire elementals (following Paracelsus) are called salamanders.",
"Fire is considered to be active; it is represented by the symbol for Leo and it is referred to the lower right point of the pentacle in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentacle.",
"Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community."
],
[
"Tarot",
"Fire in tarot symbolizes conversion or passion.",
"Many references to fire in tarot are related to the usage of fire in the practice of alchemy, in which the application of fire is a prime method of conversion, and everything that touches fire is changed, often beyond recognition.",
"The symbol of fire was a cue pointing towards transformation, the chemical variant being the symbol delta, which is also the classical symbol for fire.",
"Conversion symbolized can be good, for example, refining raw crudities to gold, as seen in The Devil.",
"Conversion can also be bad, as in The Tower, symbolizing a downfall due to anger.",
"Fire is associated with the suit of rods/wands, and as such, represents passion from inspiration.",
"As an element, fire has mixed symbolism because it represents energy, which can be helpful when controlled, but volatile if left unchecked."
],
[
"Modern witchcraft",
"Fire is one of the five elements that appear in most Wiccan traditions influenced by the Golden Dawn system of magic, and Aleister Crowley's mysticism, which was in turn inspired by the Golden Dawn."
],
[
"Freemasonry",
"Fire during the winter solstice ceremony (Most Worshipful Grand National Mexican Lodge \"Independencia No.",
"2\") at the Tlatelolco Conventions Center (Manuel González 171, col. San Simón Tolnáhuac, del.",
"Cuauhtémoc).In freemasonry, fire is present, for example, during the ceremony of winter solstice, a symbol also of renaissance and energy.",
"Freemasonry takes the ancient symbolic meaning of fire and recognizes its double nature: creation, light, on the one hand, and destruction and purification, on the other."
],
[
"See also",
"* Fire god* Fire worship* Pyrokinesis* Pyromancy* Pyromania"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Frazer, Sir James George, ''Myths of the Origin of Fire'', London: Macmillan, 1930.",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* Different versions of the classical elements* Overview the 5 elements* Section on 4 elements in Buddhism* a virtual exhibition about the history of fire"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Air (classical element)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Air''' or '''Wind''' is one of the four classical elements along with water, earth and fire in ancient Greek philosophy and in Western alchemy."
],
[
"Greek and Roman tradition",
"The four humors and their qualitiesAccording to Plato, it is associated with the octahedron; air is considered to be both hot and wet.",
"The ancient Greeks used two words for air: ''aer'' meant the dim lower atmosphere, and ''aether'' meant the bright upper atmosphere above the clouds.",
"Plato, for instance writes that \"So it is with air: there is the brightest variety which we call ''aether'', the muddiest which we call mist and darkness, and other kinds for which we have no name....\" Among the early Greek Pre-Socratic philosophers, Anaximenes (mid-6th century BCE) named air as the ''arche''.",
"A similar belief was attributed by some ancient sources to Diogenes Apolloniates (late 5th century BCE), who also linked air with intelligence and soul (''psyche''), but other sources claim that his ''arche'' was a substance between air and fire.",
"Aristophanes parodied such teachings in his play ''The Clouds'' by putting a prayer to air in the mouth of Socrates.Air was one of many ''archai'' proposed by the Pre-socratics, most of whom tried to reduce all things to a single substance.",
"However, Empedocles of Acragas (c. 495-c. 435 BCE) selected four ''archai'' for his four roots: air, fire, water, and earth.",
"Ancient and modern opinions differ as to whether he identified air by the divine name Hera, Aidoneus or even Zeus.",
"Empedocles’ roots became the four classical elements of Greek philosophy.",
"Plato (427–347 BCE) took over the four elements of Empedocles.",
"In the ''Timaeus'', his major cosmological dialogue, the Platonic solid associated with air is the octahedron which is formed from eight equilateral triangles.",
"This places air between fire and water which Plato regarded as appropriate because it is intermediate in its mobility, sharpness, and ability to penetrate.",
"He also said of air that its minuscule components are so smooth that one can barely feel them.Plato's student Aristotle (384–322 BCE) developed a different explanation for the elements based on pairs of qualities.",
"The four elements were arranged concentrically around the center of the universe to form the sublunary sphere.",
"According to Aristotle, air is both hot and wet and occupies a place between fire and water among the elemental spheres.",
"Aristotle definitively separated air from aether.",
"For him, aether was an unchanging, almost divine substance that was found only in the heavens, where it formed celestial spheres.=== Humorism and temperaments === '''Humour''' '''Season''' '''Ages''' '''Element''' '''Organ''' '''Qualities''' '''Temperament''' Blood spring infancy air liver moist and warm sanguine Yellow bile summer youth fire gallbladder warm and dry choleric Black bile autumn adulthood earth spleen dry and cold melancholic Phlegm winter old age water brain/lungs cold and moist phlegmaticIn ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element.",
"Blood was the humor identified with air, since both were hot and wet.",
"Other things associated with air and blood in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of spring, since it increased the qualities of heat and moisture; the sanguine temperament (of a person dominated by the blood humour); hermaphrodite (combining the masculine quality of heat with the feminine quality of moisture); and the northern point of the compass.=== Alchemy ===Alchemical symbol for airThe alchemical symbol for air is an upward-pointing triangle, bisected by a horizontal line."
],
[
"Modern reception",
"The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, founded in 1888, incorporates air and the other Greek classical elements into its teachings.",
"The elemental weapon of air is the dagger which must be painted yellow with magical names and sigils written upon it in violet.",
"Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings.",
"The archangel of air is Raphael, the angel is Chassan, the ruler is Ariel, the king is Paralda, and the air elementals (following Paracelsus) are called sylphs.",
"Air is considerable and it is referred to the upper left point of the pentagram in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentagram.",
"Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community.In the Golden Dawn and many other magical systems, each element is associated with one of the cardinal points and is placed under the care of guardian Watchtowers.",
"The Watchtowers derive from the Enochian system of magic founded by Dee.",
"In the Golden Dawn, they are represented by the Enochian elemental tablets.",
"Air is associated with the east, which is guarded by the First Watchtower.",
"Air is one of the five elements that appear in most Wiccan and Pagan traditions.",
"Wicca in particular was influenced by the Golden Dawn system of magic and Aleister Crowley's mysticism."
],
[
"Parallels in non-Western traditions",
"Air is not one of the traditional five Chinese classical elements.",
"Nevertheless, the ancient Chinese concept of ''Qi'' or ''chi'' is believed to be close to that of air.",
"''Qi'' is believed to be part of every living thing that exists, as a kind of \"life force\" or \"spiritual energy\".",
"It is frequently translated as \"energy flow\", or literally as \"air\" or \"breath\".",
"(For example, ''tiānqì'', literally \"sky breath\", is the Chinese word for \"weather\").",
"The concept of qi is often reified, however no scientific evidence supports its existence.The element air also appears as a concept in the Buddhist philosophy which has an ancient history in China.Some Western modern occultists equate the Chinese classical element of metal with ''air'', others with wood due to the elemental association of wind and wood in the bagua.Enlil was the god of air in ancient Sumer.",
"Shu was the ancient Egyptian deity of air and the husband of Tefnut, goddess of moisture.",
"He became an emblem of strength by virtue of his role in separating Nut from Geb.",
"Shu played a primary role in the Coffin Texts, which were spells intended to help the deceased reach the realm of the afterlife safely.",
"On the way to the sky, the spirit had to travel through the air as one spell indicates: \"I have gone up in Shu, I have climbed on the sunbeams.\""
],
[
"See also",
"* Atmosphere of Earth* Sky deity* Wind deity"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* Barnes, Jonathan.",
"''Early Greek Philosophy''.",
"London: Penguin, 1987.",
"* Brier, Bob.",
"''Ancient Egyptian Magic''.",
"New York: Quill, 1980.",
"* Guthrie, W. K. C. ''A History of Greek Philosophy''.",
"6 volumes.",
"Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962–81.",
"* Hutton, Ronald.",
"''Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft''.",
"Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, 2001.",
"* Kraig, Donald Michael.",
"''Modern Magick: Eleven Lessons in the High Magickal Arts''.",
"St. Paul: Llewellyn, 1994.",
"* Lloyd, G. E. R. ''Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought''.",
"Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968.",
"* Plato.",
"''Timaeus and Critias''.",
"Translated by Desmond Lee.",
"Revised edition.",
"London: Penguin, 1977.",
"* Regardie, Israel.",
"''The Golden Dawn''.",
"6th edition.",
"St. Paul: Llewellyn, 1990.",
"* Schiebinger, Londa.",
"''The Mind Has No Sex?",
"Women in the Origins of Modern Science''.",
"Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989.",
"* Valiente, Doreen.",
"''Witchcraft for Tomorrow''.",
"Custer, Wash.: Phoenix Publishing, 1978.",
"* Valiente, Doreen.",
"''The Rebirth of Witchcraft''.",
"Custer, Wash.: Phoenix Publishing, 1989.",
"* Vlastos, Gregory.",
"''Plato’s Universe''.",
"Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1975."
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Cunningham, Scott.",
"''Earth, Air, Fire and Water: More Techniques of Natural Magic''.",
"* Starhawk.",
"''The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess''.",
"3rd edition.",
"1999."
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Water (classical element)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Water''' is one of the classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy along with air, earth and fire, in the Asian Indian system ''Panchamahabhuta'', and in the Chinese cosmological and physiological system ''Wu Xing''.",
"In contemporary esoteric traditions, it is commonly associated with the qualities of emotion and intuition."
],
[
"Greek and Roman tradition",
"Water was one of many ''archai'' proposed by the Pre-socratics, most of whom tried to reduce all things to a single substance.",
"However, Empedocles of Acragas (c. 495 – c. 435 BC) selected four archai for his four roots: air, fire, water and earth.",
"Empedocles roots became the four classical elements of Greek philosophy.",
"Plato (427–347 BC) took over the four elements of Empedocles.",
"In the Timaeus, his major cosmological dialogue, the Platonic solid associated with water is the icosahedron which is formed from twenty equilateral triangles.",
"This makes water the element with the greatest number of sides, which Plato regarded as appropriate because water flows out of one's hand when picked up, as if it is made of tiny little balls.Plato's student Aristotle (384–322 BC) developed a different explanation for the elements based on pairs of qualities.",
"The four elements were arranged concentrically around the center of the Universe to form the sublunary sphere.",
"According to Aristotle, water is both cold and wet and occupies a place between air and earth among the elemental spheres.Alchemical symbol for waterIn ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element.",
"Phlegm was the humor identified with water, since both were cold and wet.",
"Other things associated with water and phlegm in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of Winter, since it increased the qualities of cold and moisture, the phlegmatic temperament, the feminine and the western point of the compass.In alchemy, the chemical element of mercury was often associated with water and its alchemical symbol was a downward-pointing triangle."
],
[
"Indian tradition",
"'''Ap''' ('''') is the Vedic Sanskrit term for water, in Classical Sanskrit occurring only in the plural is not an element.v, '''''' (sometimes re-analysed as a thematic singular, ''''), whence Hindi ''''''.",
"The term is from PIE ''hxap'' water.In Hindu philosophy, the term refers to water as an element, one of the ''Panchamahabhuta,'' or \"five great elements\".",
"In Hinduism, it is also the name of the deva, a personification of water, (one of the Vasus in most later Puranic lists).",
"The element water is also associated with Chandra or the moon and Shukra, who represent feelings, intuition and imagination."
],
[
"Ceremonial magic",
"Water and the other Greek classical elements were incorporated into the Golden Dawn system.",
"The elemental weapon of water is the cup.",
"Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings.",
"The archangel of water is Gabriel, the angel is Taliahad, the ruler is Tharsis, the king is Nichsa and the water elementals are called Ondines.",
"It is referred to the upper right point of the pentagram in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentagram.",
"Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community."
],
[
"Modern witchcraft",
"Water is one of the five elements that appear in most Wiccan traditions.",
"Wicca in particular was influenced by the Golden Dawn system of magic and Aleister Crowley's mysticism, which was in turn inspired by the Golden Dawn."
],
[
"See also",
"* Water* Sea and river deity"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"External links",
"* Different versions of the classical elements"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Earth (classical element)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Earth''' is one of the classical elements, in some systems being one of the four along with air, fire, and water."
],
[
"European tradition",
"''Earth'' (1681) by Benoît Massou, a statue of the ''Grande Commande'', with allegorical attributes inspired by Cesare Ripa’s ''Iconologia''.Earth is one of the four classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy and science.",
"It was commonly associated with qualities of heaviness, matter and the terrestrial world.",
"Due to the hero cults, and chthonic underworld deities, the element of ''earth'' is also associated with the sensual aspects of both life and death in later occultism.Empedocles of Acragas proposed four ''archai'' by which to understand the cosmos: ''fire'','' air'', ''water'', and ''earth''.",
"Plato (427–347 BCE) believed the elements were geometric forms (the platonic solids) and he assigned the cube to the element of ''earth'' in his dialogue ''Timaeus''.",
"Aristotle (384–322 BCE) believed ''earth'' was the heaviest element, and his theory of ''natural place'' suggested that any ''earth–laden'' substances, would fall quickly, straight down, towards the center of the ''cosmos''.In Classical Greek and Roman myth, various goddesses represented the Earth, seasons, crops and fertility, including Demeter and Persephone; Ceres; the Horae (goddesses of the seasons), and Proserpina; and Hades (Pluto) who ruled the souls of dead in the Underworld.In ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element.",
"Black bile was the humor identified with earth, since both were cold and dry.",
"Other things associated with earth and black bile in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of fall, since it increased the qualities of cold and aridity; the melancholic temperament (of a person dominated by the black bile humour); the feminine; and the southern point of the compass.Alchemical symbol for earthIn alchemy, earth was believed to be primarily dry, and secondarily cold, (as per Aristotle).",
"Beyond those classical attributes, the chemical substance salt, was associated with earth and its alchemical symbol was a downward-pointing triangle, bisected by a horizontal line."
],
[
"Indian tradition",
"'''Prithvi''' (Sanskrit: '''', also '''') is the Hindu ''earth'' and mother goddess.",
"According to one such tradition, she is the personification of the Earth itself; according to another, its actual mother, being ''Prithvi Tattwa'', the essence of the element earth.As ''Prithvi Mata'', or \"Mother Earth\", she contrasts with ''Dyaus Pita'', \"father sky\".",
"In the Rigveda, ''earth'' and sky are frequently addressed as a duality, often indicated by the idea of two complementary \"half-shells.\"",
"In addition, the element Earth is associated with Budha or Mercury who represents communication, business, mathematics and other practical matters."
],
[
"Ceremonial magic",
"Earth and the other Greek classical elements were incorporated into the Golden Dawn system.",
"Zelator is the elemental grade attributed to earth; this grade is also attributed to the Sephirot of Malkuth.",
"The elemental weapon of earth is the Pentacle.",
"Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings.",
"The archangel of earth is Uriel, the angel is Phorlakh, the ruler is Kerub, the king is Ghob, and the earth elementals (following Paracelsus) are called gnomes.",
"Earth is considered to be passive; it is represented by the symbol for Taurus, and it is referred to the lower left point of the pentagram in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentagram.",
"Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community.It is sometimes represented by its Tattva or by a downward pointing triangle with a horizontal line through it."
],
[
"Modern witchcraft",
"Earth is one of the five elements that appear in most Wiccan and Pagan traditions.",
"Wicca in particular was influenced by the Golden Dawn system of magic, and Aleister Crowley's mysticism which was in turn inspired by the Golden Dawn."
],
[
"Other traditions",
"''Earth'' is represented in the Aztec religion by a house; to the Hindus, a lotus; to the Scythians, a plough; to the Greeks, a wheel; and in Christian iconography; bulls and birds."
],
[
"See also",
"* Gaia (mythology)* Mother goddess* Mother nature* Pherecydes of Syros"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"External links",
"* Different versions of the classical elements"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Blue Jam"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Blue Jam''''' was an ambient, surreal dark comedy and horror radio programme created and directed by Chris Morris.",
"It was broadcast on BBC Radio 1 in the early hours of the morning, for three series from 1997 to 1999.The programme gained cult status due to its unique mix of surreal monologue, ambient soundtrack, synthesised voices, heavily edited broadcasts and recurring sketches.",
"It featured vocal performances of Kevin Eldon, Julia Davis, Mark Heap, David Cann and Amelia Bullmore, with Morris himself delivering disturbing monologues, one of which was revamped and made into the BAFTA-winning short film ''My Wrongs #8245–8249 & 117''.",
"Writers who contributed to the programme included Graham Linehan, Arthur Mathews, Peter Baynham, David Quantick, Jane Bussmann, Robert Katz and the cast.The programme was adapted into the TV series ''Jam'', which aired in 2000.All episodes of ''Blue Jam'' are currently available for streaming and download on the Internet Archive and Youtube."
],
[
"Production",
"On his inspiration for making the show, Morris commented: \"It was so singular, and it came from a mood, quite a desolate mood.",
"I had this misty, autumnal, boggy mood anyway, so I just went with that.",
"But no doubt getting to the end of something like ''Brass Eye'', where you've been forced to be a sort of surrogate lawyer, well, that's the most creatively stifling thing you could possibly do.\"",
"Morris also described the show as being \"like the nightmares you have when you fall asleep listening to the BBC World Service\" (a reference to the World Service also appears in one of the monologues read by Morris).Morris originally requested that the show be broadcast at 3 a.m. on Radio 1 \"because at that hour, on insomniac radio, the amplitude of terrible things is enormously overblown\".",
"As a compromise, the show was broadcast at midnight without much promotion.",
"Morris reportedly included sketches too graphic or transgressive for radio that he knew would be cut so as to make his other material seem less transgressive in comparison.",
"During the airing of episode 6 of series one, a re-editing of the Archbishop of Canterbury's speech at Princess Diana's funeral was deemed too offensive for broadcast, and was switched with a different episode as it aired."
],
[
"Format and style",
"Each episode opened (and closed) with a short spoken monologue (delivered by Morris) describing, in surreal, broken language, various bizarre feelings and situations (for example: \"when you sick so sad you cry, and in crying cry a whole leopard from your eye\"), set to ambient music interspersed with short clips of other songs and sounds.",
"The introduction would always end with \"welcome in Blue Jam\", inviting the listener, who is presumably experiencing such feelings, to get lost in the program.",
"(This format was replicated in the television adaptation ''Jam'', often reusing opening monologues from series 3 of the radio series.)",
"The sketches within dealt with heavy and taboo topics, such as murder, suicide, missing or dead children, and rape.===Common recurring sketches===*'''Doctor''' (played by David Cann): \"The Doctor\" is a seemingly \"normal\" physician working in a standard British medical practice.",
"However, he has a habit of treating his patients in bizarre and often disturbing ways, such as prescribing heroin for a cold, kissing patients on various body parts to make swellings go away, making a man with a headache jump up and down to make his penis swing (while mirroring the patient's bewildered jumping himself) and making a patient leave and go into the next room so he can examine him over the telephone.",
"His name is revealed to be '''Michael Perlin''' in several sketches.",
"*'''The Monologue Man''' (played by Chris Morris): Short stories, often up to 10 minutes in length, written from the perspective of a lonely and socially inept man.",
"Each story usually involves the protagonist's acquaintance Suzy in some capacity.",
"*'''Michael Alexander St. John''': A parody of hyperbolic and pun-laden radio presenting, St. John presents items such as the top 10 singles charts and the weekend's gigs.",
"*'''Bad Sex''': Short clips of two lovers (played by Julia Davis and Kevin Eldon) making increasingly bizarre erotic requests of one another, such as to \"shit your leg off\" and \"make your spunk come out green\".",
"*'''The Interviewer''' (played by Chris Morris): conducting real interviews with celebrities such as Andrew Morton and Jerry Springer, Morris confuses and mocks his subjects with ambiguous and odd questions.*'''Mr.",
"Ventham''' (played by Mark Heap): An extremely awkward man who requires one-to-one consultations with '''Mr.",
"Reilly''' (played by David Cann), who seems to be his psychologist, for the most banal of matters.The sketches not listed are often in the style of a documentary; characters speak as if being interviewed about a recent event.",
"In one sketch, a character voiced by Morris describes a man attempting to commit suicide by jumping off a second-story balcony repeatedly; in another, an angry man (Eldon) shouts about how his car, after being picked up from the garage, is only four feet long.===Radio stings===Morris included a series of 'radio stings', bizarre sequences of sounds and prose as a parody of modern DJs' own soundbites and self-advertising pieces.",
"Each one revolves around a contemporary DJ, such as Chris Moyles, Jo Whiley and Mark Goodier, typically involving each DJ dying in a graphic way or going mad in some form – for example, Chris Moyles covering himself in jam and hanging himself from the top of a building."
],
[
"Episodes",
"Three series were produced, with a total of eighteen episodes.",
"All episodes were originally broadcast weekly on BBC Radio 1.Series 1 was broadcast from 14 November to 19 December 1997; series 2 was broadcast from 27 March to 1 May 1998; and series 3 broadcast from 21 January to 25 February 1999.",
"*Series 1 – (Fridays) 14 November 1997 to 19 December 1997, from 00:00 to 01:00.",
"*Series 2 – (Fridays) 27 March 1998 to 1 May 1998, from 01:00 to 02:00.",
"*Series 3 – (Thursdays) 21 January 1999 to 25 February 1999, from 00:00 to 01:00.The first five episodes of series 1 of ''Blue Jam'' were repeated by BBC Radio 4 Extra in February and March 2014, and series 2 was rebroadcast in December."
],
[
"Music",
"''Blue Jam'' features songs, generally of a downtempo nature, interspersed between (and sometimes during) sketches.",
"Artists featured includes Massive Attack, Air, Morcheeba, The Chemical Brothers, Björk, Aphex Twin, Everything But the Girl and Dimitri from Paris, as well as various non-electronic artists including Sly and the Family Stone, Serge Gainsbourg, The Cardigans and Eels."
],
[
"Reception",
"''Blue Jam'' was favourably reviewed on several occasions by ''The Guardian'' and also received a positive review by ''The Independent''.Digital Spy wrote in 2014: \"It's a heady cocktail that provokes an odd, unsettling reaction in the listener, yet ''Blue Jam'' is still thumpingly and frequently laugh-out-loud hilarious.\"",
"''Hot Press'' called it \"as odd as comedy gets\"."
],
[
"CD release",
"A CD of a number of ''Blue Jam'' sketches was released on 23 October 2000 by record label Warp.",
"Although the CD claims to have 22 tracks, the last one, \"www.bishopslips.com\", is not a track, but rather a reference to the \"Bishopslips\" sketch, which was cut in the middle of a broadcast.",
"Most of the sketches on the CD were remade for ''Jam''.",
"; Track listing# \"Blue Jam Intro\"# \"Doc Phone\"# \"Lamacq sting\"# \"4 ft Car\"# \"Suicide Journalist\"# \"Acupuncture\"# \"Bad Sex\"# \"Mayo Sting\"# \"Unflustered Parents\"# \"Moyles Sting\"# \"TV Lizards\"# \"Doc Cock\"# \"Hobbs Sting\"# \"Morton Interview\"# \"Fix It Girl\"# \"Porn\"# \"Kids Party\"# \"Club News\"# \"Whiley Sting\"# \"Little Girl Balls\"# \"Blue Jam Outro\"# \"www.bishopslips.com\" (not a real track)"
],
[
"Related shows",
"''Blue Jam'' was later made for television and broadcast on Channel 4 as ''Jam''.",
"It used unusual editing techniques to achieve an unnerving ambience in keeping with the radio show.",
"Many of the sketches were lifted from the radio version, even to the extent of simply setting images to the radio soundtrack.",
"A subsequent \"re-mixed\" airing, called ''Jaaaaam'' was even more extreme in its use of post-production gadgetry, often heavily distorting the footage.",
"''Blue Jam'' shares parallels with early editions of a US public radio show ''Joe Frank: Work in Progress'' from the mid-1980s, that Joe Frank did on the NPR affiliate station, KCRW, in Santa Monica, California."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * ''Blue Jam'' on the BBC Comedy site* – repeats on BBC Radio 4 Extra"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Channel 4"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Channel 4''' is a British free-to-air public broadcast television channel owned and operated by Channel Four Television Corporation.",
"It is publicly owned but, unlike the BBC, it receives no public funding and is funded entirely by its commercial activities, including publicity.",
"It began its transmission in 1982 and was established to provide a fourth television service in the United Kingdom.",
"At the time, the only other channels were the licence-funded BBC1 and BBC2, and a single commercial broadcasting network ITV.Originally a subsidiary of the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA), the station is now owned and operated by Channel Four Television Corporation, a public corporation of the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, which was established in 1990 and came into operation in 1993.Until 2010, Channel 4 did not broadcast in Wales, but many of its programmes were re-broadcast there by the Welsh fourth channel S4C.",
"In 2010, Channel 4 extended service into Wales and became a nationwide television channel.",
"The network's headquarters are in London and Leeds, with creative hubs in Glasgow and Bristol."
],
[
"History",
"===Conception===Before Channel 4 and S4C, Britain had three terrestrial television services: BBC1, BBC2, and ITV.",
"The Broadcasting Act 1980 began the process of adding a fourth; Channel 4 was formally created, along with its Welsh counterpart, by an act of Parliament in 1982.After some months of test broadcasts, it began scheduled transmissions on 2 November 1982 from Scala House, the former site of the Scala Theatre.The notion of a second commercial broadcaster in the United Kingdom had been around since the inception of ITV in 1954 and its subsequent launch in 1955; the idea of an \"ITV2\" was long expected and pushed for.",
"Indeed, television sets sold throughout the 1970s and early 1980s often had a spare tuning button labelled \"ITV 2\" or \"IBA 2\".",
"Throughout ITV's history and until Channel 4 finally became a reality, a perennial dialogue existed between the GPO, the government, the ITV companies and other interested parties, concerning the form such an expansion of commercial broadcasting would take.",
"Most likely, politics had the biggest impact leading to a delay of almost three decades before the second commercial channel became a reality.One clear benefit of the \"late arrival\" of the channel was that its frequency allocations at each transmitter had already been arranged in the early 1960s when the launch of an ITV2 was anticipated.",
"This led to very good coverage across most of the country and few problems of interference with other UK-based transmissions; a stark contrast to the problems associated with Channel 5's launch almost 15 years later.",
"\"ITV2\" is not to be confused with ITV's digital television channel launched in 1998.===Wales===At the time the fourth service was being considered, a movement in Wales lobbied for the creation of dedicated service that would air Welsh language programmes, then only catered for at \"off peak\" times on BBC Wales and HTV.",
"The campaign was taken so seriously by Gwynfor Evans, former president of Plaid Cymru, that he threatened the government with a hunger strike were it not to honour the plans.The result was that Channel 4 as seen by the rest of the United Kingdom would be replaced in Wales by Sianel Pedwar Cymru (S4C) (\"Channel Four Wales\").",
"Operated by a specially created authority, S4C would air programmes in Welsh made by HTV, the BBC and independent companies.",
"Initially limited frequency space meant that Channel 4 could not be broadcast alongside S4C, though some Channel 4 programmes would be aired at less popular times on the Welsh variant; this practice continued until the closure of S4C's analogue transmissions in 2010, at which time S4C became a fully Welsh channel.With this conversion of the Wenvoe transmitter group in Wales to digital terrestrial broadcasting on 31 March 2010, Channel 4 became a UK-wide television channel for the first time.Since then, carriage on digital cable, satellite and digital terrestrial has introduced Channel 4 to Welsh homes where it is now universally available.===1982-1992: Launch and IBA control===The first voice heard on Channel 4's opening day of 2 November 1982 was that of continuity announcer Paul Coia who said: \"Good afternoon.",
"It's a pleasure to be able to say to you, welcome to Channel Four.\"",
"Following the announcement, the channel headed into a montage of clips from its programmes set to the station's signature tune, \"Fourscore\", written by David Dundas, which would form the basis of the station's jingles for its first decade.",
"The first programme to air on the channel was the teatime game show ''Countdown'', produced by Yorkshire Television, at 16:45.The first person to be seen on Channel 4 was Richard Whiteley, with Ted Moult being the second.",
"The first woman on the channel, contrary to popular belief, was not Whiteley's ''Countdown'' co-host Carol Vorderman, but a lexicographer only ever identified as Mary.",
"Whiteley opened the show with the words: \"As the countdown to a brand new channel ends, a brand new countdown begins.\"",
"On its first day, Channel 4 also broadcast the soap opera ''Brookside'', which often ran storylines thought to be controversial; this ran until 2003.At its launch, Channel 4 committed itself to providing an alternative to the existing channels, an agenda in part set out by its remit which required the provision of programming to minority groups.",
"In step with its remit, the channel became well received both by minority groups and the arts and cultural worlds during this period under founding chief executive Jeremy Isaacs, where the channel gained a reputation for programmes on the contemporary arts.",
"Two programmes captured awards from the Broadcasting Press Guild in March 1983: Best comedy for ''The Comic Strip Presents…Five Go Mad in Dorset,'' and best on-screen performance in a non-acting role for Tom Keating in his series ''On Painters''.",
"Channel 4 co-commissioned Robert Ashley's television opera ''Perfect Lives'', which it premiered over several episodes in 1984.The channel often did not receive mass audiences for much of this period, however, as might be expected for a station focusing on minority interests.",
"During this time Channel 4 also began the funding of independent films, such as the Merchant Ivory docudrama ''The Courtesans of Bombay''.In 1992, Channel 4 faced its first libel case by Jani Allan, a South African journalist, who objected to her representation in Nick Broomfield's documentary ''The Leader, His Driver and the Driver's Wife''.===1993-2006: Channel Four Television Corporation===Channel 4 headquarters, 124 Horseferry Road, LondonAfter control of the station passed from the Channel Four Television Company to the Channel Four Television Corporation in 1993, a shift in broadcasting style took place.",
"Instead of aiming for minority tastes, it began to focus on the edges of the mainstream, and the centre of the mass market itself.",
"It began to show many US programmes in peak viewing time, far more than it had previously done.",
"In September 1993, the channel broadcast the direct-to-TV documentary film ''Beyond Citizen Kane'', in which it displayed the dominant position of the Rede Globo (now TV Globo) television network, and discussed its influence, power, and political connections in Brazil.",
"Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Channel 4 gave many popular and influential American comedy and drama series their first exposure on British television, such as ''Friends'', ''ER'', ''Desperate Housewives'', ''Without A Trace'', ''Home Improvement'', ''Frasier'', ''Lost'', ''Dawson's Creek'', ''Oz'', ''Sex and The City'', ''The Sopranos'', ''Scrubs'' and ''King of The Hill''.",
"It also gave some series already screened on subscription channels such as ''Family Guy'', ''South Park'' and ''Futurama'' their British network television debuts.In the early 2000s, Channel 4 began broadcasting reality formats such as ''Big Brother'' and obtained the rights to broadcast mass appeal sporting events like cricket and horse racing.",
"This new direction increased ratings and revenues.In addition, the corporation launched several new television channels through its new 4Ventures offshoot, including Film4, At the Races, E4 and More4.Partially in reaction to its new \"populist\" direction, the Communications Act 2003 directed the channel to demonstrate innovation, experimentation, and creativity, appeal to the tastes and interests of a culturally diverse society, and include programmes of an educational nature which exhibit a distinctive character.On 31 December 2004, Channel 4 launched a 'brand' new look and new visual identity in which the logo is disguised as different objects and the \"4\" can be seen from an angle.Under the leadership of Freeview founder Andy Duncan, 2005 saw a change of direction for Channel 4's digital channels.",
"Channel 4 made E4 free-to-air on digital terrestrial television, and launched a new free-to-air digital channel called More4.By October, Channel 4 had joined the Freeview consortium.",
"By July 2006, Film4 had likewise become free-to-air and restarted broadcasting on digital terrestrial.Venturing into radio broadcasting, 2005 saw Channel 4 purchase 51 per cent of shares in the now defunct Oneword radio station, with UBC Media holding on to the remaining shares.",
"New programmes such as the weekly, half-hour ''The Morning Report'' news programme were among some of the new content Channel 4 provided for the station, with the name 4Radio being used.",
"As of early 2009, however, Channel 4's future involvement in radio remained uncertain.=== Since 2006 ===Majestic Building on City Square, Leeds.Before the digital switch-over, Channel 4 raised concerns over how it might finance its public service obligations afterward.",
"In April 2006, it was announced that Channel 4's digital switch-over costs would be paid for by licence fee revenues.On 28 March 2007, Channel 4 announced plans to launch a music channel \"4Music\" as a joint venture with British media company EMAP, which would include carriage on the Freeview platform.",
"On 15 August 2008, 4Music was launched across the UK.",
"Channel 4 announced interest in launching a high-definition version of Film4 on Freeview, to coincide with the launch of Channel 4 HD.",
"However, the fourth HD slot was given to Channel 5 instead.",
"Channel 4 has since acquired a 50 per cent stake in EMAP's TV business for a reported £28 million.On 2 November 2007, the station celebrated its 25th birthday.",
"It showed the first episode of ''Countdown'', an anniversary ''Countdown'' special, as well as a special edition of ''The Big Fat Quiz'' and using the original multicoloured 1982–1996 blocks logo on presentation and idents using the Fourscore jingle throughout the day.In November 2009, Channel 4 launched a week of 3D television, broadcasting selected programmes each night using stereoscopic ColorCode 3D technology.",
"The accompanying 3D glasses were distributed through Sainsbury's supermarkets.On 29 September 2015, Channel 4 revamped its presentation for a fifth time; the new branding downplayed the \"4\" logo from most on-air usage, in favour of using the shapes from the logo in various forms.",
"Four new idents were filmed by Jonathan Glazer, which featured the shapes in various real-world scenes depicting the \"discovery\" and \"origins\" of the shapes.",
"The full logo was still occasionally used, but primarily for off-air marketing.",
"Channel 4 also commissioned two new corporate typefaces, \"Chadwick\", and \"Horseferry\" (a variation of Chadwick with the aforementioned shapes incorporated into its letter forms), for use across promotional material and on-air.In June 2017, it was announced that Alex Mahon would be the next chief executive, and would take over from David Abraham, who left in November 2017.On 31 October 2017, Channel 4 introduced a new series of idents continuing the theme, this time depicting the logo shapes as having formed into an anthropomorphic \"giant\" character.On 25 September 2021, Channel 4 and several of its sub-channels went off air after an incident at Red Bee Media's playout centre in west London.",
"Channel 4, More4, Film4, E4, 4Music, The Box, Box Hits, Kiss, Magic and Kerrang!",
"were impacted (4seven was not impacted), with the incident still affecting a number of the channels on 30 September 2021.The London Fire Brigade confirmed that a gas fire prevention system at the site had been activated, but firefighters found no sign of fire.",
"Activation of the fire suppression system caused catastrophic damage to some systems, such as Channel 4's subtitles, signing, and audio description system.",
"An emergency backup subtitling system also failed, leaving Channel 4 unable to provide access services to viewers.",
"This situation was criticised by the National Deaf Children's Society, which complained to the broadcasting watchdog.",
"A new subtitling, signing and audio description system had to be built from scratch.",
"The service eventually began to return at the end of October.",
"In June 2022 after a six-month long investigation, Ofcom found that Channel 4 had breached its broadcast licence conditions on two grounds: Missing its subtitles quota on Freesat for 2021 and failure to effectively communicate with affected audiences.On 23 December 2021, Jon Snow presented ''Channel 4 News'' for the last time, after 32 years as a main presenter on the programme, making Snow one of the UK's longest-serving presenters on a national news programme.====Abandoned privatisation====Channel 4's parent company, Channel Four Television Corporation, was considered for privatisation by the governments of Margaret Thatcher, John Major and Tony Blair.",
"In 2014, the Cameron-Clegg coalition government drew up proposals to privatise the corporation but the sale was blocked by the Liberal Democrat Business Secretary Vince Cable.",
"In 2016, the future of the channel was again being looked into by the government, with analysts suggesting several options for its future.",
"In June 2021, the government of Boris Johnson was considering selling the channel.In April 2022, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport acknowledged that ministerial discussions were taking place regarding the sale of Channel Four Television Corporation.",
"The channel's chief executive, Alex Mahon, expressed disappointment at this, saying that its vision for the future was \"rooted in continued public ownership\".In January 2023, Michelle Donelan confirmed that the plans to sell Channel 4 were scrapped and that it would remain in public ownership for the foreseeable future."
],
[
"Public service remit",
"Channel 4 was established with, and continues to hold, a remit of public service obligations which it must fulfil.",
"The remit changes periodically, as dictated by various broadcasting and communications acts, and is regulated by the various authorities Channel 4 has been answerable to; originally the IBA, then the ITC and now Ofcom.The preamble of the remit as per the Communications Act 2003 states that:The remit also involves an obligation to provide programming for schools, and a substantial amount of programming produced outside of Greater London."
],
[
"Carriage",
"Channel 4 was carried from its beginning on analogue terrestrial, the standard means of television broadcast in the United Kingdom.",
"It continued to be broadcast through these means until the changeover to digital terrestrial television in the United Kingdom was complete.",
"Since 1998, it has been universally available on digital terrestrial, and the Sky platform (initially encrypted, though encryption was dropped on 14 April 2008 and is now free of charge and available on the Freesat platform) as well as having been available from various times in various areas, on analogue and digital cable networks.Due to its special status as a public service broadcaster with a specific remit, it is afforded free carriage on the terrestrial platforms, in contrast with other broadcasters such as ITV.Channel 4 is available outside the United Kingdom; it is widely available in the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium and Switzerland.",
"The channel is registered to broadcast within the European Union/EEA through the Luxembourg Broadcasting Regulator (ALIA).Since 2019, it has been offered by British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS) to members of the British Armed Forces and their families around the world, BFBS Extra having previously carried a selection of Channel 4 programmes.The Channel 4 website allows people in the United Kingdom to watch Channel 4 live on the Internet.",
"Previously, some programmes (mostly international imports) were not shown.",
"Channel 4 is also provided by Virgin Mobile's DAB mobile TV service, which has the same restrictions as the Internet live stream.",
"Channel 4 is also carried by the Internet TV service TVCatchup and was previously carried by Zattoo until the operator removed the channel from its platform.Channel 4 also makes some of its programming available \"on demand\" via cable and the Internet through Channel 4."
],
[
"Funding",
"During its first decade, Channel 4 was funded by subscriptions collected by the IBA from the ITV regional companies, in return for which each company had the right to sell advertisements on the fourth channel in its own region and keep the proceeds.",
"This meant that ITV and Channel 4 were not in competition with each other, and often promoted each other's programmes.A change in funding came about under the Broadcasting Act 1990 when the new corporation was afforded the ability to fund itself.",
"Originally this arrangement left a \"safety net\" guaranteed minimum income should the revenue fall too low, funded by large insurance payments made to the ITV companies.",
"Such a subsidy was never required, however, and these premiums were phased out by the government in 1998.After the link with ITV was cut, the cross-promotion which had existed between ITV and Channel 4 also ended.In 2007, owing to severe funding difficulties, the channel sought government help and was granted a payment of £14 million over a six-year period.",
"The money was to have come from the television licence fee, and would have been the first time that money from the licence fee had been given to any broadcaster other than the BBC.",
"However, the plan was scrapped by the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport, Andy Burnham, ahead of \"broader decisions about the future framework of public service broadcasting\".",
"The broadcasting regulator Ofcom released its review in January 2009 in which it suggested that Channel 4 would preferably be funded by \"partnerships, joint ventures or mergers\"., it breaks even in much the same way as most privately run commercial stations through the sale of on-air advertising, programme sponsorship, and the sale of any programme content and merchandising rights it owns, such as overseas broadcasting rights and domestic video sales.",
"For example, its total revenues were £925 million with 91 per cent derived from sale of advertising.",
"It also has the ability to subsidise the main network through any profits made on the corporation's other endeavours, which have in the past included subscription fees from stations such as E4 and Film4 (now no longer subscription services) and its \"video-on-demand\" sales.",
"In practice, however, these other activities are loss-making, and are subsidised by the main network.",
"According to Channel 4's last published accounts, for 2005, the extent of this cross-subsidy was some £30 million."
],
[
"Programming",
"Channel 4 is a \"publisher-broadcaster\", meaning that it commissions or \"buys\" all of its programming from companies independent of itself.",
"It was the first UK broadcaster to do so on a significant scale; such commissioning is a stipulation which is included in its licence to broadcast.",
"In consequence, numerous independent production companies emerged, though external commissioning on the BBC and in ITV (where a quota of 25 per cent minimum of total output has been imposed since the Broadcasting Act 1990 came into force) has become regular practice, as well as on the numerous stations that launched later.",
"Although it was the first British broadcaster to commission all of its programmes from third parties, Channel 4 was the last terrestrial broadcaster to outsource its transmission and playout operations (to Red Bee Media), after 25 years in-house.The requirement to obtain all content externally is stipulated in its licence.",
"Additionally, Channel 4 also began a trend of owning the copyright and distribution rights of the programmes it aired, in a manner that is similar to the major Hollywood studios' ownership of television programmes that they did not directly produce.",
"Thus, although Channel 4 does not produce programmes, many are seen as belonging to it.It was established with a specific intention of providing programming to groups of minority interests, not catered for by its competitors, which at the time were only the BBC and ITV.Channel 4 also pioneered the concept of 'stranded programming', where seasons of programmes following a common theme would be aired and promoted together.",
"Some would be very specific, and run for a fixed period of time; the ''4 Mation'' season, for example, showed innovative animation.",
"Other, less specific strands, were (and still are) run regularly, such as ''T4'', a strand of programming aimed at teenagers, on weekend mornings (and weekdays during school/college holidays); ''Friday Night Comedy'', a slot where the channel would pioneer its style of comedy commissions, ''4Music'' (now a separate channel) and ''4Later'', an eclectic collection of offbeat programmes transmitted in the early hours of the morning.For a period in the mid-1980s, some art-house films (dubbed by Channel 4's critics as being pornographic) would be screened with a ''red triangle'' graphic in the upper right of the screen.In recent years concerns have arisen regarding a number of programmes made for Channel 4, that are believed missing from all known archives.=== Most watched programmes ===The following is a list of the 10 most watched shows on Channel 4 since launch, based on Live +28 data supplied by BARB, and archival data published by Channel 4.Rank Programme or film Viewers (millions) Date1 ''A Woman of Substance'' 13.85 4 January 19852 ''Big Brother'' 13.74 27 July 20013 ''A Woman of Substance'' 13.20 3 January 19854 ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' 12.40 15 November 19955 ''A Woman of Substance'' 11.55 2 January 19856 ''The Great British Bake Off'' 11.21 22 September 20207 ''Gregory's Girl'' 10.75 8 January 19858 ''The Great British Bake Off'' 10.54 30 October 20189 ''The Great British Bake Off'' 10.13 31 October 201710 ''The Great British Bake Off'' 10.03 27 August 2019 === Comedy ===During the station's early days, the screenings of innovative short one-off comedy films produced by a rotating line-up of alternative comedians went under the title of ''The Comic Strip Presents''.",
"''The Tube'' and ''Saturday Live/Friday Night Live'' also launched the careers of a number of comedians and writers.",
"Channel 4 broadcast a number of popular American imports, including ''The Cosby Show'', ''Roseanne'', ''Home Improvement'', ''Friends'', ''Sex and the City'', ''South Park'' and ''Will & Grace''.",
"Other significant US acquisitions include ''The Simpsons'', for which the station was reported to have paid £700,000 per episode for the terrestrial television rights.In April 2010, Channel 4 became the first UK broadcaster to adapt the American comedy institution of roasting to British television, with ''A Comedy Roast''.In 2010, Channel 4 organised ''Channel 4's Comedy Gala'', a comedy benefit show in aid of Great Ormond Street Children's Hospital.",
"With over 25 comedians appearing, it billed it as \"the biggest live stand up show in United Kingdom history\".",
"Filmed live on 30 March in front of 14,000 at The O2 Arena in London, it was broadcast on 5 April.",
"This has continued to 2016.In 2021, Channel 4 decided to revive The British Comedy Awards as part of their Stand Up To Cancer programming.",
"The ceremony, billed as The National Comedy Awards was due to be held in the spring of 2021 but was delayed due to the Coronavirus pandemic until 15 December 2021 and then cancelled a week before it was due to be held, due to concerns over the Omicron variant.The ceremony was finally held on 2 March 2022 and broadcast on Channel 4 three days later.",
"The National Comedy Awards was not the only live comedy event that was part of the channel's Christmas schedule that was effected by these concerns as ''Joe Lycett: Mummy's Big Christmas Do!''",
"was also postponed, with the 22 December show due to air as a pilot for a new series called ''Mummy's House Party'' in spring 2022.Lycett's Birmingham-based extravaganza finally made it to air on 3 July 2022 as ''Joe Lycett's Big Pride Party'', with 0.29 million viewers tuning in (compared to 0.69 million for ''The Cruise'' on Channel 5).=== Factual and current affairs ===Channel 4 has a strong reputation for history programmes and documentaries.",
"Its news service, ''Channel 4 News'', is supplied by ITN whilst its long-standing investigative documentary series, ''Dispatches'', gains attention from other media outlets.",
"Its live broadcast of the first public autopsy in the UK for 170 years, carried out by Gunther von Hagens in 2002 and the 2003 one-off stunt ''Derren Brown Plays Russian Roulette Live'' proved controversial.A season of television programmes about masturbation, called ''Wank Week'', was to be broadcast in the United Kingdom by Channel 4 in March 2007.The series came under public attack from senior television figures, and was pulled amid claims of declining editorial standards and concern for the channel's public service broadcasting credentials.=== FourDocs ===FourDocs was an online documentary site provided by Channel 4.It allowed viewers to upload their own documentaries to the site for others to view.",
"It focused on documentaries of between 3 and 5 minutes.",
"The website also included an archive of classic documentaries, interviews with documentary filmmakers and short educational guides to documentary-making.",
"It won a Peabody Award in 2006.The site also included a strand for documentaries of under 59 seconds, called \"Microdocs\".=== Schools programming ===Channel 4 is obliged to carry schools programming as part of its remit and licence.==== ITV Schools on Channel 4 ====Since 1957 ITV had produced schools programming, which became an obligation.",
"In 1987, five years after the station was launched, the IBA afforded ITV free carriage of these programmes during Channel 4's then-unused weekday morning hours.",
"This arrangement allowed the ITV companies to fulfil their obligation to provide schools programming, whilst allowing ITV itself to broadcast regular programmes complete with advertisements.",
"During the times in which schools programmes were aired Central Television provided most of the continuity with play-out originating from Birmingham.==== Channel 4 Schools/4Learning ====After the restructuring of the station in 1993, ITV's obligations to provide such programming on Channel 4's airtime passed to Channel 4 itself, and the new service became Channel 4 Schools, with the new corporation administering the service and commissioning its programmes, some still from ITV, others from independent producers.In March 2008, the 4Learning interactive new media commission Slabovia.tv was launched.",
"The Slabplayer online media player showing TV shows for teenagers was launched on 26 May 2008.The schools programming has always had elements which differ from its normal presentational package.",
"In 1993, the Channel 4 Schools idents featured famous people in one category, with light shining on them in front of an industrial-looking setting supplemented by instrumental calming music.",
"This changed in 1996 with the circles look to numerous children touching the screen, forming circles of information then picked up by other children.",
"The last child would produce the Channel 4 logo in the form of three vertical circles, with another in the middle and to the left containing the Channel 4 logo.A present feature of presentation was a countdown sequence featuring, in 1993 a slide with the programme name, and afterwards an extended sequence matching the channel branding.",
"In 1996, this was an extended ident with timer in top left corner, and in 1999 following the adoption of the squares look, featured a square with timer slowly make its way across the right of the screen with people learning and having fun while doing so passing across the screen.",
"It finished with the Channel 4 logo box on the right of the screen and the name 'Channel 4 Schools' being shown.",
"This was adapted in 2000 when the service's name was changed to '4Learning'.In 2001, this was altered to various scenes from classrooms around the world and different parts of school life.",
"The countdown now flips over from the top, right, bottom and left with each second, and ends with four coloured squares, three of which are aligned vertically to the left of the Channel 4 logo, which is contained inside the fourth box.",
"The tag 'Learning' is located directly beneath the logo.",
"The final countdown sequence lasted between 2004 and 2005 and featured a background video of current controversial issues, overlaid with upcoming programming information.",
"The video features people in the style of graffiti enacting the overuse of CCTV cameras, fox hunting, computer viruses and pirate videos, relationships, pollution of the seas and violent lifestyles.",
"Following 2005, no branded section has been used for schools programmes.=== Religious programmes ===From the outset, Channel 4 did not conform to the expectations of conventional religious broadcasting in the UK.",
"John Ranelagh, first Commissioning Editor for Religion, made his priority 'broadening the spectrum of religious programming' and more 'intellectual' concerns.",
"He also ignored the religious programme advisory structure that had been put in place by the BBC, and subsequently adopted by ITV.",
"Ranelagh's first major commission caused a furore, a three-part documentary series called ''Jesus: The Evidence''.",
"The programmes, transmitted during the Easter period of 1984, seemed to advocate the idea that the Gospels were unreliable, Jesus may have indulged in witchcraft, and that he may not have even existed.",
"The series triggered a public outcry, and marked a significant moment in the deterioration in the relationship between the UK's broadcasting and religious institutions.=== Film ===Numerous genres of film-making – such as comedy, drama, documentary, adventure/action, romance and horror/thriller – are represented in the channel's schedule.",
"From the launch of Channel 4 until 1998, film presentations on C4 would often be broadcast under the \"Film on Four\" banner.In March 2005, Channel 4 screened the uncut Lars von Trier film ''The Idiots'', which includes unsimulated sexual intercourse, making it the first UK terrestrial channel to do so.",
"The channel had previously screened other films with similar material but censored and with warnings.Since 1 November 1998, Channel 4 has had a digital subsidiary channel dedicated to the screening of films.",
"This channel launched as a paid subscription channel under the name \"FilmFour\", and was relaunched in July 2006 as a free-to-air channel under the current name of \"Film4\".",
"The Film4 channel carries a wide range of film productions, including acquired and Film4-produced projects.",
"Channel 4's general entertainment channels E4 and More4 also screen feature films at certain points in the schedule as part of their content mix.=== Global warming ===On 8 March 2007, Channel 4 screened a documentary, ''The Great Global Warming Swindle'' stating that global warming is \"a lie\" and \"the biggest scam of modern times\".",
"The programme's accuracy were disputed on multiple points, and commentators criticised it for being one-sided, observing that the mainstream position on global warming is supported by the scientific academies of the major industrialised nations.",
"There were 246 complaints to Ofcom as of 25 April 2007, including allegations that the programme falsified data.",
"The programme was criticised by scientists and scientific organisations, and various scientists who participated in the documentary claimed their views had been distorted.",
"''Against Nature'': An earlier controversial Channel 4 programme made by Martin Durkin which was also critical of the environmental movement and was charged by the UK's Independent Television Commission for misrepresenting and distorting the views of interviewees by selective editing.",
"''The Greenhouse Conspiracy'': An earlier Channel 4 documentary broadcast on 12 August 1990, as part of the ''Equinox'' series, in which similar claims were made.",
"Three of the people interviewed (Lindzen, Michaels and Spencer) were also interviewed in ''The Great Global Warming Swindle''.=== Ahmadinejad's Christmas speech ===In the ''Alternative Christmas address'' of 2008, a Channel 4 tradition since 1993 with a different presenter each year, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad made a thinly veiled attack on the United States by claiming that Christ would have been against \"bullying, ill-tempered and expansionist powers\".The broadcast was rebuked by human rights activists, politicians and religious figures, including Peter Tatchell, Louise Ellman, Ron Prosor and Rabbi Aaron Goldstein.",
"A spokeswoman for the Foreign and Commonwealth Office said: \"President Ahmadinejad has, during his time in office, made a series of appalling anti-Semitic statements.",
"The British media are rightly free to make their own editorial choices, but this invitation will cause offence and bemusement not just at home but among friendly countries abroad\".However, Channel 4 was defended by Stonewall director Ben Summerskill who stated: \"In spite of his ridiculous and often offensive views, it is an important way of reminding him that there are some countries where free speech is not repressed...If it serves that purpose, then Channel 4 will have done a significant public service\".",
"Dorothy Byrne, Channel 4's head of news and current affairs, said in response to the station's critics: \"As the leader of one of the most powerful states in the Middle East, President Ahmadinejad's views are enormously influential... As we approach a critical time in international relations, we are offering our viewers an insight into an alternative world view...Channel 4 has devoted more airtime to examining Iran than any other broadcaster and this message continues a long tradition of offering a different perspective on the world around us\".=== 4Talent ===4Talent is an editorial branch of Channel 4's commissioning wing, which co-ordinates Channel 4's various talent development schemes for film, television, radio, new media and other platforms and provides a showcasing platform for new talent.There are bases in London, Birmingham, Glasgow and Belfast, serving editorial hubs known respectively as 4Talent National, 4Talent Central England, 4Talent Scotland and 4Talent Northern Ireland.",
"These four sites include features, profiles and interviews in text, audio and video formats, divided into five zones: TV, Film, Radio, New Media and Extras, which covers other arts such as theatre, music and design.",
"4Talent also collates networking, showcasing and professional development opportunities, and runs workshops, masterclasses, seminars and showcasing events across the UK.==== ''4Talent Magazine'' ====''4Talent Magazine'' is the creative industries magazine from 4Talent, which launched in 2005 as ''TEN4'' magazine under the editorship of Dan Jones.",
"''4Talent Magazine'' is currently edited by Nick Carson.",
"Other staff include deputy editor Catherine Bray and production editor Helen Byrne.",
"The magazine covers rising and established figures of interest in the creative industries, a remit including film, radio, TV, comedy, music, new media and design.Subjects are usually UK-based, with contributing editors based in Northern Ireland, Scotland, London and Birmingham, but the publication has been known to source international content from Australia, America, continental Europe and the Middle East.",
"The magazine is frequently organised around a theme for the issue, for instance giving half of November 2007's pages over to profiling winners of the annual 4Talent Awards.An unusual feature of the magazine's credits is the equal prominence given to the names of writers, photographers, designers and illustrators, contradicting standard industry practice of more prominent writer bylines.",
"It is also recognisable for its 'wraparound' covers, which use the front and back as a continuous canvas – often produced by guest artists.Although ''4Talent Magazine'' is technically a newsstand title, a significant proportion of its readers are subscribers.",
"It started life as a quarterly 100-page title, but has since doubled in size and is now published bi-annually.===Scheduling===Since the 2010s, Channel 4 has become the public service broadcaster most likely to amend their schedule at short notice, if programmes are not gaining sufficient viewers in their intended slots.",
"Programmes which have been heavily promoted by the channel before launch and then have lost their slot a week later include ''Sixteen: Class of 2021''.",
"This was a fly-on-the-wall school documentary which lost its prime 9pm slot after one episode on 31 August 2021, even with a 4 star review in ''The Guardian''.",
"Channel 4 moved the next episode to a late night (post-primetime) slot on a different day and continued to broadcast the remainder of the four-part series in this timeslot.Also in 2021, the channel launched ''Epic Wales: Valleys, Mountains and Coast'', a version of their More4 documentaries ''The Pennines: Backbone of Britain'', ''The Yorkshire Dales and The Lakes'' and ''Devon and Cornwall''.",
"set in Wales.",
"''Epic Wales: Valleys, Mountains and Coast''.",
"was initially broadcast in a prime Friday night slot at 8pm, in the hour before their comedy shows, but was dumped by the channel before the series was completed and replaced by repeats.",
"In February 2022, the channel scheduled a new version of the show under the title ''Wonderous Wales'' with a Saturday night slot at 8pm but after one episode, they decided to take this series out of their schedule, moving up a repeat of ''Matt Baker: Our Farm in the Dales'' to 8pm and putting an episode of ''Escape to the Chateau'' in Baker's slot at 7pm.",
"Other programmes moved out of primetime in 2022, include ''Mega Mansion Hunters'', Channel 4's answer to ''Selling Sunset'', which saw its third and final episode moved past midnight with repeats put in the schedule before it, and ''Richard Hammond's Crazy Contraptions'', a primetime Friday night competitive engineering show which saw its grand final moved to 11pm on a Sunday night.",
"Instead of Hammond's competition, Channel 4 decided to schedule the fifth series of ''Devon and Cornwall'' in its place at 8pm on Friday nights, with this documentary being put up against Channel 5's ''World's Most Scenic Railway Journeys'' in the same timeslot.A new series of ''Unreported World'' was due to start on 18 February 2022 with a report by Seyi Rhodes in South Sudan, but was dropped due to an extended storm report on ''Channel 4 News''.",
"When the programme was rescheduled for following Fridays, it was dropped again as ''Channel 4 News'' was extended due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.",
"''Winter Paralympics: Today in Beijing'' is due to take the ''Unreported World'' slot from 11 March 2022 though this sports programme may also be moved around the schedule to continue the extended news programmes reporting on the conflict.",
"The invasion of Ukraine has also prompted Channel 4 to acquire and schedule the comedy series ''Servant of the People'' as a last minute replacement.",
"The programme stars the current President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy as an ordinary man who gets elected to run the country, and will be shown on 6 March 2022 along with the documentary ''Zelenskyy: The Man Who Took on Putin''.In addition to these shows, O.T.",
"Fagbenle's sitcom ''Maxxx'' was pulled from their youth TV channel E4, after one episode from the series had been broadcast on 2 April 2020, with Channel 4 deciding to keep the series off-air until Black History Month, with the series now going out on the main channel from October 2020.In May 2022, the reality dating show ''Let's Make a Love Scene'' was scrapped after one episode with the second programme in the series, hosted by Ellie Taylor, pulled from the May 20 schedule and replaced with an episode of ''8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown''.",
"The first edition was negatively received, with Anita Singh, the Arts and Entertainments Editor for ''The Telegraph'' writing that the show was \"the most ill-conceived programme idea since Prince Edward dreamt up ''It's a Royal Knockout''\"."
],
[
"Presentation",
"Since its launch in 1982, Channel 4 has used the same logo which consists of a stylised numeral \"4\" made up of nine differently-shaped blocks.",
"The original version was designed by Martin Lambie-Nairn and his partner Colin Robinson and was the first UK channel ident made using advanced computer generation (the first electronically-generated ident was on BBC2 in 1979, but this was two-dimensional).",
"It was designed in conjunction with Bo Gehring Aviation of Los Angeles and originally depicted the \"4\" in red, yellow, green, blue and purple.",
"The music accompanying the ident was called \"Fourscore\" and was composed by David Dundas; it was later released as a single alongside a B-side, \"Fourscore Two\", although neither reached the UK charts.",
"In November 1992, \"Fourscore\" was replaced by new music.In 1996, Channel 4 commissioned Tomato Films to revamp the \"4\", which resulted in the \"Circles\" idents showing four white circles forming up transparently over various scenes, with the \"4\" logo depicted in white in one of the circles.In 1999, Spin redesigned the logo to feature in a single square that sat on the right-hand side of the screen, whilst various stripes would move along from left to right, often lighting the squared \"4\" up.",
"Like the previous \"Circles\" idents from 1996 (which was made by Tomato Films), the stripes would be interspersed with various scenes potentially related to the upcoming programme.The logo was made three-dimensional again in 2004 when it was depicted in filmed scenes that show the blocks forming the \"4\" logo for less than a second before the action moves away again.In 2015, the logo was disassembled completely to allow the blocks to appear as parts of a nature scene, sometimes featuring a strange dancing creature and sometimes being excavated for scientific study, one being studied under a microscope and showing a tardigrade.",
"The second wave of these idents, launched in 2017, depict a giant creature made of the \"4\" blocks (made to look almost like a person) interacting with everyday life, sometimes shouting the \"Fourscore\" theme as a foghorn.The original 1982 ident was given a one-off revival on 28 December 2020, as a tribute to Lambie-Nairn after his death three days earlier.",
"It was also used on 22 January 2021 as part of the 80s-themed \"takeover\" to promote the premiere of ''It's a Sin'', which was set during the 1980s AIDS crisis.The Channel 4 logo was reassembled in 2023 in an all-lime green colour to promote the network's new digital-first strategy, which included its streaming service All 4 being renamed under the Channel 4 brand.",
"This was then followed by the launch of a new idents package on 14 June 2023."
],
[
"Regions/international",
"===Regions===Channel 4 has, since its inception, broadcast identical programmes and continuity throughout the United Kingdom (excluding Wales where it did not operate on analogue transmitters).",
"At launch this made it unique, as both the BBC and ITV had long-established traditions of providing regional variations in their programming in different areas of the country.",
"Since the launch of subsequent British television channels, Channel 4 has become typical in its lack of regional programming variations.A few exceptions exist to this rule for programming and continuity:* Some of Channel 4's schools' programming (1980s-early 1990s) was regionalised due to differences in curricula between different regions.",
"* Advertising on Channel 4 does contain regular variation: prior to 1993, when ITV was responsible for selling Channel 4's advertising, each regional ITV company would provide the content of advertising breaks, covering the same transmitter area as themselves, and these breaks were often unique to that area.",
"After Channel 4 became responsible for its own advertising, it continued to offer advertisers the ability to target particular audiences and divided its coverage area into six regions: London, South, Midlands, North, Northern Ireland and Scotland.",
"Wales does not have its own advertising region; instead, its viewers receive the southern region on digital platforms intentionally broadcast to the area or the neighbouring region where terrestrial transmissions spill over into Wales.",
"Channel 5 and ITV Breakfast use a similar model to Channel 4 for providing their own advertising regions, despite also having a single national output of programming.Part of Channel 4's remit covers the commissioning of programmes from outside London.",
"Channel 4 has a dedicated director of nations and regions, Stuart Cosgrove, who is based in a regional office in Glasgow.",
"As his job title suggests, it is his responsibility to foster relations with independent producers based in areas of the United Kingdom (including Wales) outside London.===International===Channel 4 is available in Ireland, with adverts tailored to the Irish market.",
"The channel is registered with the broadcasting regulators in Luxembourg for terms of conduct and business within the EU/EEA while observing guidelines outlined by Ireland's BAI code.",
"Irish advertising sales are managed by Media Link in Dublin.",
"Where Channel 4 does not hold broadcasting rights within the Republic of Ireland such programming is unavailable.",
"For example, the series ''Glee'' was not available on Channel 4 on Sky in Ireland due to it broadcasting on TV3 within Ireland.",
"Currently, programming available on Channel 4 is available within the Republic of Ireland without restrictions.",
"Elsewhere in Europe, the UK version of the channel is available.===Future possibility of regional news===With ITV plc pushing for much looser requirements on the amount of regional news and other programming it is obliged to broadcast in its ITV regions, the idea of Channel 4 taking on a regional news commitment has been considered, with the corporation in talks with Ofcom and ITV over the matter.",
"Channel 4 believe that a scaling-back of such operations on ITV's part would be detrimental to Channel 4's national news operation, which shares much of its resources with ITV through their shared news contractor ITN.",
"At the same time, Channel 4 also believe that such an additional public service commitment would bode well in on-going negotiations with Ofcom in securing additional funding for its other public service commitments."
],
[
"Channel 4 HD",
"Channel 4 HD logo (2007–2015)In mid-2006 Channel 4 ran a six-month closed trial of HDTV, as part of the wider Freeview HD experiment via the Crystal Palace transmitter to London and parts of the home counties, including the use of ''Lost'' and ''Desperate Housewives'' as part of the experiment, as US broadcasters such as ABC already have an HDTV back catalogue.On 10 December 2007, Channel 4 launched a high-definition television simulcast of Channel 4 on Sky's digital satellite platform, after Sky agreed to contribute toward the channel's satellite distribution costs.",
"It was the first full-time high-definition channel from a terrestrial UK broadcaster.On 31 July 2009, Virgin Media added Channel 4 HD on channel 146 (later on channel 142, now on channel 141) as part of the M pack.",
"On 25 March 2010 Channel 4 HD appeared on Freeview channel 52 with a placeholding caption, ahead of a commercial launch on 30 March 2010, coinciding with the commercial launch of Freeview HD.",
"On 19 April 2011, Channel 4 HD was added to Freesat on channel 126.As a consequence, the channel moved from being free-to-view to free-to-air on satellite during March 2011.With the closure of S4C Clirlun in Wales on 1 December 2012, on Freeview, Channel 4 HD launched in Wales on 2 December 2012.The channel carries the same schedule as Channel 4, broadcasting programmes in HD when available, acting as a simulcast.",
"Therefore, SD programming is broadcast upscaled to HD.",
"The first true HD programme to be shown was the 1996 Adam Sandler film ''Happy Gilmore''.",
"From launch until 2016 the presence of the 4HD logo on screen denoted true HD content.On 1 July 2014, Channel 4 +1 HD, an HD simulcast of Channel 4 +1, launched on Freeview channel 110.It closed on 22 June 2020 to help make room on COM7 following the closure of COM8 on Freeview.",
"4Seven HD were removed from Freeview also.",
"On 20 February 2018, Channel 4 announced that Channel 4 HD and All 4 would no longer be supplied on Freesat from 22 February 2018.Channel 4 HD returned to the platform on 8 December 2021, along with the music channel portfolio of The Box Plus Network.On 27 September 2022, the other 6 advertising regions of Channel 4 (South, Midlands, North, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Rep of Ireland) were made available in HD on Sky and Virgin Media.",
"Prior to this, Channel 4 HD was only available in the London advertising region."
],
[
"Video on demand",
"Channel 4's video on demand service, known simply as \"Channel 4\" since April 2023, launched in November 2006 as \"4oD\", and was renamed \"All 4\" in March 2015.The service offers a variety of programmes recently shown on Channel 4, E4, More4 or from their archives, though some programmes and movies are not available due to rights issues."
],
[
"Teletext services",
"===4-Tel/FourText===Channel 4 originally licensed an ancillary teletext service to provide schedules, programme information and features.",
"The original service was called 4-Tel, and was produced by Intelfax, a company set up especially for the purpose.",
"It was carried in the 400s on Oracle.",
"In 1993, with Oracle losing its franchise to Teletext Ltd, 4-Tel found a new home in the 300s, and had its name shown in the header row.",
"Intelfax continued to produce the service and in 2002 it was renamed FourText.===Teletext on 4===In 2003, Channel 4 awarded Teletext Ltd a ten-year contract to run the channel's ancillary teletext service, named Teletext on 4.The service closed in 2008, and Teletext is no longer available on Channel 4, ITV and Channel 5."
],
[
"Awards and nominations",
" Year Association Category Nominee(s) Result Diversity in Media Awards Broadcaster of the Year ''Channel 4'' 2023DIVA AwardsBrand of Organisation of the YearChannel 4 Won"
],
[
"See also",
"* Annan Committee* ''Big 4''* Channel 4 Banned season* Channel 4 Sheffield Pitch competition* List of Channel 4 television programmes* List of television stations in the United Kingdom* Renowned Films* ''3 Minute Wonder''"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Carolina parakeet"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Carolina parakeet''' ('''''Conuropsis carolinensis'''''), or '''Carolina conure''', is an extinct species of small green neotropical parrot with a bright yellow head, reddish orange face, and pale beak that was native to the Eastern, Midwest, and Plains states of the United States.",
"It was the only indigenous parrot within its range, as well as one of only three parrot species native to the United States (the others being the thick-billed parrot, now extirpated, and the green parakeet, still present in Texas; a fourth parrot species, the red-crowned amazon, is debated).",
"It was called ''puzzi la née'' (\"head of yellow\") or ''pot pot chee'' by the Seminole and ''kelinky'' in Chickasaw.",
"Though formerly prevalent within its range, the bird had become rare by the middle of the 19th century.",
"The last confirmed sighting in the wild was of the ''C.",
"c. ludovicianus'' subspecies in 1910.The last known specimen, a male named Incas, perished in captivity at the Cincinnati Zoo in 1918, and the species was declared extinct in 1939.The earliest reference to these parrots was in 1583 in Florida reported by Sir George Peckham in ''A True Report of the Late Discoveries of the Newfound Lands'' of expeditions conducted by English explorer Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who notes that explorers in North America \"doe testifie that they have found in those countryes; ...",
"parrots.\"",
"They were first scientifically described in English naturalist Mark Catesby's two-volume ''Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands'' published in London in 1731 and 1743.Carolina parakeets were probably poisonous—French-American naturalist and painter John J. Audubon noted that cats apparently died from eating them, and they are known to have eaten the toxic seeds of cockleburs."
],
[
"Taxonomy",
"''C.",
"c. ludovicianus'' by John James Audubon ''Carolinensis'' is a species of the genus ''Conuropsis'', one of numerous genera of New World Neotropical parrots in family Psittacidae of true parrots.The binomial ''Psittacus carolinensis'' was assigned by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' published in 1758.The species was given its own genus, ''Conuropsis'', by Italian zoologist and ornithologist Tommaso Salvadori in 1891 in his ''Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum'', volume 20.The name is derived from the Greek-ified ''conure'' (\"parrot of the genus ''Conurus''\" an obsolete name of genus ''Aratinga'') + ''-opsis'' (\"likeness of\") and Latinized ''Carolina'' (from Carolana, an English colonial province) + ''-ensis'' (of or \"from a place\"), therefore a bird \"like a conure from Carolina.",
"\"Two subspecies are recognized: The Louisiana subspecies of the Carolina parakeet, ''C.",
"c. ludovicianus'', was slightly different in color from the nominate subspecies, being more bluish-green and generally of a somewhat subdued coloration, and became extinct in much the same way, but at a somewhat earlier date (early 1910s).",
"The Appalachian Mountains separated these birds from the eastern ''C. c.",
"carolinensis''.===Evolution===According to a study of mitochondrial DNA recovered from museum specimens, their closest living relatives include some of the South American ''Aratinga'' parakeets: The Nanday parakeet, the sun parakeet, and the golden-capped parakeet.",
"The authors note the bright yellow and orange plumage and blue wing feathers found in ''C.",
"carolinensis'' are traits shared by another species, the jandaya parakeet (''A.",
"jandaya''), that was not sampled in the study, but is generally thought to be closely related.",
"To help resolve the divergence time a whole genome of a preserved specimen has now been sequenced.",
"The Carolina parakeet colonized North America about 5.5 million years ago.",
"This was well before North America and South America were joined by the formation of the Panama land bridge about 3.5 mya.",
"Since the Carolina parakeets' more distant relations are geographically closer to its own historic range while its closest relatives are more geographically distant to it, these data are consistent with the generally accepted hypothesis that Central and North America were colonized at different times by distinct lineages of parrots – parrots that originally invaded South America from Antarctica some time after the breakup of Gondwana, where Neotropical parrots originated approximately 50 mya.Illustration by John James AudubonThe following cladogram shows the placement of the Carolina parakeet among its closest relatives, after a DNA study by Kirchman ''et al''.",
"(2012):A fossil parrot, designated ''Conuropsis fratercula'', was described based on a single humerus from the Miocene Sheep Creek Formation (possibly late Hemingfordian, c. 16 mya, possibly later) of Snake River, Nebraska.",
"It was a smaller bird, three-quarters the size of the Carolina parakeet.",
"\"The present ''species'' is of peculiar interest as it represents the first known parrot-like bird to be described as a fossil from North America.\"",
"(Wetmore 1926; italics added) However, it is not completely certain that the species is correctly assigned to ''Conuropsis'', but some authors consider it a paleosubspecies of the Carolina parakeet."
],
[
"Description",
"Turnaround video of a ''C.",
"c. carolinensis'' specimen at Naturalis Biodiversity CenterThe Carolina parakeet was a small, green parrot very similar in size and coloration to the extant jenday parakeet and sun conure - the sun conure being its closest living relative.",
"The majority of the plumage was green with lighter green underparts, a bright yellow head and orange forehead and face extending to behind the eyes and upper cheeks (lores).",
"The shoulders were yellow, continuing down the outer edge of the wings.",
"The primary feathers were mostly green, but with yellow edges on the outer primaries.",
"Thighs were green towards the top and yellow towards the feet.",
"Male and female adults were identical in plumage, however males were slightly larger than females (sexually dimorphic).",
"The legs and feet were light brown.",
"They share the zygodactyl feet of the parrot family.",
"The skin around the eyes was white and the beak was pale flesh colored.",
"These birds weigh about 3.5 oz., are 13 in.",
"long, and have wingspans of 2123 in.Young Carolina parakeets differed slightly in coloration from adults.",
"The face and entire body were green, with paler underparts.",
"They lacked yellow or orange plumage on the face, wings, and thighs.",
"Hatchlings were covered in mouse-gray down, until about 39–40 days old, when green wings and tails appeared.",
"Fledglings had full adult plumage around 1 year of age.These birds were fairly long-lived, at least in captivity; a pair was kept at the Cincinnati Zoo for over 35 years."
],
[
"Distribution and habitat",
"Photo of a live pet specimen, 1906 The Carolina parakeet had the northernmost range of any known parrot.",
"It was found from southern New York and Wisconsin to Kentucky, Tennessee, and the Gulf of Mexico, from the Atlantic Seaboard to as far west as eastern Colorado.",
"It lived in old-growth forests along rivers and in swamps.",
"Its range was described by early explorers thus: the 43rd parallel as the northern limit, the 26th as the most southern, the 73rd and 106th meridians as the eastern and western boundaries, respectively, the range included all or portions of at least 28 states.",
"Its habitats were old-growth wetland forests along rivers and in swamps, especially in the Mississippi-Missouri drainage basin with large hollow trees including cypress and sycamore to use as roosting and nesting sites.Only very rough estimates of the birds' former prevalence can be made, with an estimated range of 20,000 to 2.5 million km2, and population density of 0.5 to 2.0 parrots per km2, population estimates range from tens of thousands to a few million birds (though the densest populations occurred in Florida covering 170,000 km2, so hundreds of thousands of the birds may have been in that state alone).The species may have appeared as a very rare vagrant in places as far north as southern Ontario in Canada.",
"A few bones, including a pygostyle found at the Calvert Site in southern Ontario, came from the Carolina parakeet.",
"The possibility remains open that this specimen was taken there for ceremonial purposes."
],
[
"Behavior and diet",
"Live captive bird photographed by Robert Wilson Shufeldt around 1900 The bird lived in huge, noisy flocks of as many as 300 birds.",
"It built its nest in a hollow tree, laying two to five (most accounts say two) round white eggs.",
"Reportedly, multiple female parakeets could deposit their eggs into one nest, similar to nesting behavior described in the monk parakeet (''Myiopsitta monachus'').It mostly ate the seeds of forest trees and shrubs, including those of cypress, hackberry, beech, sycamore, elm, pine, maple, oak, and other plants such as thistles and sandspurs (''Cenchrus'' species).",
"It also ate fruits, including apples, grapes, and figs (often from orchards by the time of its decline), as well as flower buds, and occasionally, insects.",
"It was especially noted for its predilection for cockleburs (''Xanthium strumarium''), a plant which contains a toxic glucoside, and it was considered to be an agricultural pest of grain crops."
],
[
"Extinction",
"Turnaround video of a ''C.",
"c. ludovicianus'' specimen, NaturalisThe last captive Carolina parakeet, Incas, died at the Cincinnati Zoo on February 21, 1918, in the same cage as Martha, the last passenger pigeon, which died in 1914.There are no scientific studies or surveys of this bird by American naturalists; most information about it is from anecdotal accounts and museum specimens, so details of its prevalence and decline are unverified or speculative.Extensive accounts of the precolonial and early colonial have been given for prevalence of this bird.",
"The existence of flocks of gregarious, very colorful and raucous parrots could hardly have gone unnoted by European explorers, as parrots were virtually unknown in seafaring European nations in the 16th and 17th centuries.",
"Later accounts in the latter half of the 19th century onward noted the birds' sparseness and absence.Genetic evidence suggests that while populations had been in decline since the last glacial maximum, the lack of evidence of inbreeding suggests that the birds declined very quickly.The birds' range collapsed from east to west with settlement and clearing of the eastern and southern deciduous forests.",
"John J. Audubon commented as early as 1832 on the decline of the birds.",
"The bird was rarely reported outside Florida after 1860.The last reported sighting east of the Mississippi River (except Florida) was in 1878 in Kentucky.",
"By the turn of the century, it was restricted to the swamps of central Florida.",
"The last known wild specimen was killed in Okeechobee County, Florida, in 1904, and the last captive bird died at the Cincinnati Zoo on February 21, 1918.This was the male specimen, Incas, that died within a year of his mate, Lady Jane.",
"Additional reports of the bird were made in Okeechobee County, Florida, until the late 1920s, but these are not supported by specimens.",
"Not until 1939, however, did the American Ornithologists' Society declare the Carolina parakeet to be extinct.",
"The IUCN has listed the species as extinct since 1920.In 1937, three parakeets resembling this species were sighted and filmed in the Okefenokee Swamp of Georgia.",
"However, the American Ornithologists' Union analyzed the film and concluded that they had probably filmed feral parakeets.",
"A year later, in 1938, a flock of parakeets was apparently sighted by a group of experienced ornithologists in the swamps of the Santee River basin in South Carolina, but this sighting was doubted by most other ornithologists.",
"The birds were never seen again after this sighting, and shortly after a portion of the area was destroyed to make way for power lines, making the species' continued existence unlikely.About 720 skins and 16 skeletons are housed in museums around the world, and analyzable DNA has been extracted from them.===Reasons for extinction===Turnaround video of a mounted skeleton, NaturalisThe evidence is indicative that humans had at least a contributory role in the extinction of the Carolina parakeet, through a variety of means.",
"Chief was deforestation in the 18th and 19th centuries.",
"Hunting played a significant role, both for decorative use of their colorful feathers, for example, adornment of women's hats, and for reduction of crop predation.",
"This was partially offset by the recognition of their value in controlling invasive cockleburs.",
"Minor roles were played by capture for the pet trade and, as noted in ''Pacific Standard'', by the introduction for crop pollination of European honeybees that competed for nest sites.A factor that exacerbated their decline to extinction was the flocking behavior that led them to return to the vicinity of dead and dying birds (e.g., birds downed by hunting), enabling wholesale slaughter.The final extinction of the species in the early years of the 20th century is somewhat of a mystery, as it happened so rapidly.",
"Vigorous flocks with many juveniles and reproducing pairs were noted as late as 1896, and the birds were long-lived in captivity, but they had virtually disappeared by 1904.Sufficient nest sites remained intact, so deforestation was not the final cause.",
"American ornithologist Noel F. Snyder speculates that the most likely cause seems to be that the birds succumbed to poultry disease, although no recent or historical records exist of New World parrot populations being afflicted by domestic poultry diseases.",
"The modern poultry scourge Newcastle disease was not detected until 1926 in Indonesia, and only a subacute form of it was reported in the United States in 1938.As well, genetic research on samples did not show any significant presence of bird viruses (though this does not solely rule out disease)."
],
[
"See also",
"* Green parakeet, the other living U.S. parrot, found in southern Texas* Monk parakeet, a prevalent feral parrot in the United States, often incorrectly presumed to be native* Feral parrots, other non-native parrots in the United States"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Cokinos, Christopher (2009) ''Hope Is the Thing with Feathers: A Personal Chronicle of Vanished Birds'' (Chapter 1: Carolina Parakeet), Tarcher * Snyder, Noel (2004) ''The Carolina Parakeet: Glimpses of a Vanished Bird'', Princeton University Press * Julian P. Hume, Michael Walters (2012) ''Extinct Birds'' (p. 186), Poyser Monographs"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Species profile - World Parrot Trust* Fact file – ARKive* \"Carolina Parakeet (''Conuropsis carolinensis'') and Passenger Pigeon (''Ectopistes migratorius'')\" - Carolina Nature* \"Carolina Parakeet: Removal of a Menace\" - Cornell Lab of Ornithology* \"The Extinct Carolina Parakeet\" - Ivory Bill* News - City Parrots"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Collective trauma"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The term '''collective trauma''' calls attention to the \"psychological reactions to a traumatic event that affects an entire society.\"",
"Collective trauma does not only represent a historical fact or event, but is a collective memory of an awful event that happened to that group of people."
],
[
"Definition",
"American sociologist Kai Erikson was one of the first to document collective trauma in his book ''Everything in Its Path'', which documented the aftermath of a catastrophic flood in 1972.Gilad Hirschberger of Interdisciplinary Center, Herzliya, Israel, defines the term:Clarifying the term collective, Ursula König (2018) focused on two different levels of collective trauma:*'''Identity group level''': Traumatisation can occur amongst various identity groups i.e.",
"age, class, caste, religious and/or ethnic groups.",
"Both size and group coherence may differ and different identity markers may overlap (intersectionality), influencing inter and intra-group dynamics.",
"*'''Society-level''': At the societal level, societies may be affected by traumatisation within a nation state or at a sub/transnational level, influencing the fabric of society as well as the interactions within and between societies.According to these two distinctions, a collective trauma can only be defined as such if affects can be clearly defined at either level.",
"For example, the traumatisation of many individuals may not be considered collective, unless their traumatic experiences are used as key identity markers in public discourses and/or as a way of self-expression/-definition.",
"Once trauma of many individuals is framed and used as a collective identity marker we can speak of it as such.Furthermore, a distinction can be made between collective identity markers which in practice are all highly interwoven:*Collective narratives*Collective emotions*Collective mental models/norms and values."
],
[
"Global impacts",
"Traumatic events witnessed by an entire society can stir up collective sentiment, often resulting in a shift in that society's culture and mass actions.Well known collective traumas include: the Holocaust, the Armenian genocide, slavery in the United States, the Nanjing Massacre, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Trail of Tears, the Great Irish Famine, attack on Pearl Harbor, the MS Estonia in Sweden, the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, the Halabja chemical attack, the Palestinian Nakba, the COVID-19 pandemic, and various others.Collective traumas have been shown to play a key role in group identity formation (see: Law of Common Fate).",
"During World War II, a US submarine, the USS ''Puffer'' (SS-268), came under several hours of depth charge attack by a Japanese surface vessel until the ship became convinced the submarine had somehow escaped.",
"Psychological studies later showed that crewmen transferred to the submarine after the event were never accepted as part of the team.",
"Later, US naval policy was changed so that after events of such psychological trauma, the crew would be dispersed to new assignments.Rehabilitation of survivors becomes extremely difficult when an entire nation has experienced such severe traumas as war, genocide, torture, massacre, etc.",
"Treatment of individuals is less effective when society itself is traumatized.",
"Trauma remains chronic and can potentially reproduce itself as long as social causes are not addressed and perpetrators continue to enjoy impunity.",
"Society as a whole may suffer from a form of chronic trauma.",
"However, ways to heal collective trauma have recently been created (see section on Healing Collective Trauma below).During the Algerian War, Frantz Omar Fanon found his practice of treatment of native Algerians ineffective due to the continuation of the horror of a colonial war.",
"He emphasized about the social origin of traumas, joined the liberation movement and urged oppressed people to purge themselves of their degrading traumas through their collective liberation struggle.",
"He made the following remarks in his letter of resignation, as the Head of the Psychiatry Department at the Blida-Joinville Hospital in Algeria: Inculcation of horror and anxiety, through widespread torture, massacre, genocide and similar coercive measures has happened frequently in human history.",
"There are plenty of examples in our modern history.",
"Tyrants have always used their technique of \"psychological artillery\" in an attempt to cause havoc and confusion in the minds of people and hypnotize them with intimidation and cynicism.",
"The result is a collective trauma that will pass through generations.",
"There is no magic formula of rehabilitation.",
"Collective trauma can be alleviated through cohesive and collective efforts such as recognition, remembrance, solidarity, communal therapy and massive cooperation.Multiple international scientific studies have shown how the emotional states of a mother has a direct impact on the developing nervous system of their child and the ensuing development of their brain systems over time.A study conducted in the aftermath of the Six day war in Israel in 1967 for example, found that women who were pregnant during the wars occurrence were statistically more likely to have had children with schizophrenia.",
"What happened at the collective level of the country, was directly reflected in the individual neurobiological systems of the infants in the womb.",
"Due to the direct correlation/connection between the nervous system and every other organ in our bodies, collective trauma is also evident at the cellular level.",
"Trauma can thus not be understood in purely individual terms.Collective trauma does not merely reflect a historical fact or the recollection of a traumatic event that happened to a group of people.",
"Collective trauma suggests that the tragedy is represented in the collective memory of the group, and like all forms of memory it comprises not only a reproduction of the events, but also an ongoing reconstruction of the trauma in an attempt to make sense of it.",
"Collective memory of a trauma is different from individual memory because collective memory persists beyond the lives of the direct survivors of the events, and is remembered by group members that may be far removed from the traumatic events in time and space."
],
[
"Links to mental health",
"Reliving traumatic experiences as a collective can lead to a vast range on mental health problems, including Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), depression, and disassociation.",
"With collective traumas including events like natural disasters and even historical traumas like The Holocaust, the psychological impact of these vary based on direct and indirect experience.",
"These traumas can result in psychological conditions to prevail, for example we see how PTSD and Alexithymia was developed by survivors of the earthquakes in L'Aquila, Italy.",
"PTSD symptoms can include re-experiencing your traumatic event, avoidance, and emotional numbing such as alexithymia, and many more emotional and physical symptoms .",
"These symptoms and the condition of PTSD are not limited to the victims themselves, but generations after traumatic events as well, usually up to two generations, which can be attributed to a combination of epigenetics and collective cultural trauma (see these sections below).",
"The mental health conditions due to collective trauma are not limited to PTSD, with studies showing higher levels of low self esteem in the children of holocaust survivors and higher levels of anxiety and depression in those who have experienced a collective historical trauma, like the Native Americans.",
"Therefore, experiencing a collective trauma directly or indirectly can result in many mental health conditions for the collective."
],
[
"Neurological effects",
"When collective trauma is experienced, there are neurological and neurophysiological impacts on the victims and those affected.",
"With most collective trauma accompanied by PTSD, there are two responses that victims are most likely to adopt: reexperiencing and/or hyperarousal and dissociation.",
"These play a part in dictating what neural pathways the brain will form.",
"PTSD and collective trauma have an impact on limbic function, and impact parts of the brain, like the right amygdala, hippocampus, parahippocampal, and temporopolar areas, where survivors of collective trauma experience a lower intensity, which has impact on mood in a negative way.",
"As studies from the L'Aquila earthquake survivors show, the lower intensity of limbic regions in the survivors represents a defensive approach when tasked with emotional involvement, suggesting coping strategies in the form of distancing and disassociation, and a dysfunctional emotional regulating system."
],
[
"Epigenetics",
"Epigenetics is the influence your environment and behaviours have on how your genes work, and with more studies exploring how the epigenome is changed: collective trauma can also be considered.",
"The epigenome is shaped by both genetic variation and environmental experiences, and we see how survivors of collective trauma can alter their epigenome.",
"Exposure to trauma and stressors can alter gene regulation and expression leading to altered patterns of biology and health.",
"Studies show that both mental and physical health outcomes suffer due to epigenetic reasons because of collective trauma.",
"Studies show that through intrauterine signalling, the experience of negative maternal mood or stress during pregnancy can manifest in alterations in epigenetic patterns of offspring, with potential long-term effects on health outcomes, which can continue for generations to come Further links of parental care and breastfeeding composition also indicate to changes in genetic makeup in offspring, for example if the mother experiences higher levels of the stress hormone cortisol, this will be experienced also by the offspring either in utero or through breastfeeding."
],
[
"Collective cultural trauma",
"Cultural trauma is a form of collective trauma that is seen on a societal and macro-level.",
"With collective trauma being experienced communally- psychological, and mental health consequences of cultural trauma can be explored from individual and community-level perspectives, factoring in family dynamics and geopolitical factors that can amplify the trauma experienced.",
"The Holocaust provides an example of how survivors and their children experienced impaired functioning and poor adjustment to their environments.",
"Studies around refugees and immigrants also indicate how cultural trauma as a collective has vast negative mental health affects and how that is transmitted throughout communities and then generations through epigenetic transmission, but also through parental care that is dictated by family dynamics set by communities.",
"An example of this can be witnessed through Sri Lanka, where a war and tsunami caused collective trauma to be experienced.",
"On multiple levels, Sri Lankans who were affected by the war and tsunami saw changed in the dynamics of family relations, a lack of trust between community members and child rearing changed as well.",
"These changed the cultural norms in Sri Lankan society, and created a negative environment where communities tended to be more dependent, passive, silent, without leadership, mistrustful, and suspicious.",
"As a collectivist culture, this shared trauma changed the dynamic of communities in a significant way, and changed the cultural identities of many Sri Lankans.",
"This highlights how collective trauma has an impact on cultural identity on a large scale"
],
[
"Influence of technology on collective trauma",
"Technology provides many opportunities and potential for creative connection and collaboration, such as for example through commons based peer production, see for example commons-based peer production - Wikipedia itself is an example for this."
],
[
"Healing collective trauma",
"In the Stanford Social Innovation Review, authors Ijeoma Njaka & Duncan Peacock examine trauma in the context of social change, arguing that trauma inhibits and limits our sustained attention to the complex crises we currently face.",
"They write:"
],
[
"See also",
"* Historical trauma* ''Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome''* Transgenerational trauma* National trauma"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Church (building)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Milan Cathedral is a Gothic church in ItalyA village church in South SudanA '''church''', '''church building''', or '''church house''' is a building used for Christian worship services and other Christian religious activities.",
"The earliest identified Christian church is a house church founded between 233 and 256.Sometimes, the word ''church'' is used by analogy and simplicity for the buildings of other religions, such as mosques and synagogues.",
"''Church'' is also used to describe a body or an assembly of Christian believers, while \"the Church\" may be used to refer to the worldwide Christian religious community as a whole.In traditional Christian architecture, the plan view of a church often forms a Christian cross with the center aisle and seating representing the vertical beam and the bema and altar forming the horizontal.",
"Towers or domes may inspire contemplation of the heavens.",
"Modern churches have a variety of architectural styles and layouts.",
"Some buildings designed for other purposes have been converted to churches, while many original church buildings have been put to other uses.",
"From the 11th through the 14th centuries, there was a wave of church construction in Western Europe."
],
[
"Etymology",
" is an Old English word for churches and church propertyThe word ''church'' is derived from Old English , \"place of assemblage set aside for Christian worship\", from the Proto-Germanic ''kirika''.",
"This was probably borrowed via the Gothic from the Greek , , \"the Lord's (house)\", from , \"ruler, lord\".",
"in turn comes from the Proto-Indo-European language root meaning \"to swell\".The Greek , \"of the Lord\", was used of houses of Christian worship since , especially in the East, although it was less common in this sense than or ."
],
[
"History",
"===Antiquity===South facade of the Church of Saint Simeon Stylites in Aleppo, Syria, is considered to be one of the oldest surviving church buildings in the worldThe earliest archeologically identified Christian church is a house church (''domus ecclesiae''), the Dura-Europos church, founded between 233 and 256.In the second half of the 3rd century AD, the first purpose-built halls for Christian worship (''aula ecclesiae'') began to be constructed.",
"Although many of these were destroyed early in the next century during the Diocletianic Persecution.",
"Even larger and more elaborate churches began to appear during the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great.===Medieval times===From the 11th through the 14th centuries, a wave of cathedral building and the construction of smaller parish churches occurred across Western Europe.",
"Besides serving as a place of worship, the cathedral or parish church was frequently employed as a general gathering place by the communities in which they were located, hosting such events as guild meetings, banquets, mystery plays, and fairs.",
"Church grounds and buildings were also used for the threshing and storage of grain.==== Romanesque architecture ====Between 1000 and 1200, the Romanesque style became popular across Europe.",
"The Romanesque style is defined by large and bulky edifices typically composed of simple, compact, sparsely decorated geometric structures.",
"Frequent features of the Romanesque church include circular arches, round or octagonal towers, and cushion capitals on pillars.",
"In the early Romanesque era, coffering on the ceiling was fashionable, while later in the same era, groined vaults gained popularity.",
"Interiors widened, and the motifs of sculptures took on more epic traits and themes.==== Gothic architecture ====The Cathedral of Ani, one of the founders of the Gothic style of architecture.Frauenkirche in Munich is a largely Gothic, medieval church.The Gothic style emerged around 1140 in Île-de-France and subsequently spread throughout Europe.",
"Gothic churches lost the compact qualities of the Romanesque era, and decorations often contained symbolic and allegorical features.",
"The first pointed arches, rib vaults, and buttresses began to appear, all possessing geometric properties that reduced the need for large, rigid walls to ensure structural stability.",
"This also permitted the size of windows to increase, producing brighter and lighter interiors.",
"Nave ceilings rose, and pillars and steeples heightened.",
"Many architects used these developments to push the limits of structural possibility, an inclination that resulted in the collapse of several towers whose designs that had unwittingly exceeded the boundaries of soundness.",
"In Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain, it became popular to build hall churches, a style in which every vault would be built to the same height.Gothic cathedrals were lavishly designed, as in the Romanesque era, and many share Romanesque traits.",
"However, several also exhibit unprecedented degrees of detail and complexity in decoration.",
"The Notre-Dame de Paris and Notre-Dame de Reims in France, as well as the San Francesco d’Assisi in Palermo, the Salisbury Cathedral and Wool Church in England, and Santhome Church in Chennai, India, show the elaborate stylings characteristic of Gothic cathedrals.Some of the most well-known gothic churches remained unfinished for centuries after the style fell out of popularity.",
"One such example is the construction of the Cologne Cathedral, which began in 1248, was halted in 1473, and was not resumed until 1842.=== Renaissance ===In the 15th and 16th centuries, the changes in ethics and society due to the Renaissance and the Reformation also influenced the building of churches.",
"The common style was much like the Gothic style but simplified.",
"The basilica was not the most popular type of church anymore, but instead, hall churches were built.",
"Typical features are columns and classical capitals.In Protestant churches, where the proclamation of God's Word is of particular importance, the visitor's line of sight is directed towards the pulpit.=== Baroque architecture ===Central nave of the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, Vilnius, Lithuania, an example of a Baroque church interiorThe Baroque style was first used in Italy around 1575.From there, it spread to the rest of Europe and the European colonies.",
"The building industry increased heavily during the Baroque era.",
"Buildings, even churches, were used to indicate wealth, authority, and influence.",
"The use of forms known from the Renaissance was extremely exaggerated.",
"Domes and capitals were decorated with moulding, and the former stucco sculptures were replaced by fresco paintings on the ceilings.",
"For the first time, churches were seen as one connected work of art, and consistent artistic concepts were developed.",
"Instead of long buildings, more central-plan buildings were created.",
"The sprawling decoration with floral ornamentation and mythological motives lasted until about 1720 in the Rococo era.The Protestant parishes preferred lateral churches, in which all the visitors could be as close as possible to the pulpit and the altar."
],
[
"Architecture",
"The view of the spire of Norwich Cathedral from the cloisters, in Norfolk, EnglandA common trait of the architecture of many churches is the shape of a cross (a long central rectangle, with side rectangles and a rectangle in front for the altar space or sanctuary).",
"These churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens.",
"Other common shapes for churches include a circle, to represent eternity, or an octagon or similar star shape, to represent the church's bringing light to the world.",
"Another common feature is the spire, a tall tower at the \"west\" end of the church or over the crossing.Another common feature of many Christian churches is the eastwards orientation of the front altar.",
"Often, the altar will not be oriented due east but toward the sunrise.",
"This tradition originated in Byzantium in the 4th century and became prevalent in the West in the 8th and 9th centuries.",
"The old Roman custom of having the altar at the west end and the entrance at the east was sometimes followed as late as the 11th century, even in areas of northern Europe under Frankish rule, as seen in Petershausen (Constance), Bamberg Cathedral, Augsburg Cathedral, Regensburg Cathedral, and Hildesheim Cathedral."
],
[
"Types",
"===Basilica===The Latin word ''basilica'' was initially used to describe a Roman public building usually located in the forum of a Roman town.",
"After the Roman Empire became officially Christian, the term came by extension to refer to a large and influential church that has been given special ceremonial rights by the Pope.",
"The word thus retains two senses today, one architectural and the other ecclesiastical.===Cathedral===Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow, Russia (today a museum) is a famous and characteristic example of a Russian Orthodox Church building.A cathedral is a church, usually Catholic, Anglican, Oriental Orthodox or Eastern Orthodox, housing the seat of a bishop.",
"The word cathedral takes its name from ''cathedra'', or Bishop's Throne (In ).",
"The term is sometimes (improperly) used to refer to any church of great size.A church with a cathedral function is not necessarily a large building.",
"It might be as small as Christ Church Cathedral in Oxford, England, Porvoo Cathedral in Porvoo, Finland, Sacred Heart Cathedral in Raleigh, United States, or Chur Cathedral in Switzerland.",
"However, frequently, the cathedral, along with some of the abbey churches, was the largest building in any region.St.",
"Martin's Cathedral, Utrecht, Netherlands===Pilgrimage church===A pilgrimage church is a church to which pilgrimages are regularly made, or a church along a pilgrimage route, often located at the tomb of a saints, or holding icons or relics to which miraculous properties are ascribed, the site of Marian apparitions, etc.===Conventual church===A conventual church (or monastery church, minster, ''katholikon'') is the main church in a Christian monastery or abbey.===Chapel======Proprietary church===During the Middle Ages, a proprietary church was a church, abbey, or cloister built on the private grounds of a feudal lord, over which he retained proprietary interests.===Collegiate church===A collegiate church is a church where the daily office of worship is maintained by a college of canons, which may be presided over by a dean or provost.Collegiate churches were often supported by extensive lands held by the church, or by tithe income from appropriated benefices.",
"They commonly provide distinct spaces for congregational worship and for the choir offices of their clerical community.===Evangelical church structures===The architecture of evangelical places of worship is mainly characterized by its sobriety.",
"The Latin cross is a well known Christian symbol that can usually be seen on the building of an evangelical church and that identifies the place's belonging.",
"Some services take place in theaters, schools or multipurpose rooms, rented for Sunday only.",
"There is usually a baptistery at the front of the church (in what is known as the chancel in historic traditions) or in a separate room for baptisms by immersion.",
"Worship service at Christ's Commission Fellowship Pasig affiliated to the Christ's Commission Fellowship in 2014, in Pasig, PhilippinesWorship services take on impressive proportions in the megachurches (churches where more than 2,000 people gather every Sunday).",
"In some of these megachurches, more than 10,000 people gather every Sunday.",
"The term gigachurch is sometimes used.",
"For example, Lakewood Church (United States) or Yoido Full Gospel Church (South Korea).===House church===In some countries of the world which apply sharia or communism, government authorizations for worship are complex for Christians.",
"Because of persecution of Christians, Evangelical house churches have thus developed.",
"For example, there is the Evangelical house churches in China movement.",
"The meetings thus take place in private houses, in secret and in \"illegality\".===Alternative buildings===Old and disused church buildings can be seen as an interesting proposition for developers as the architecture and location often provide for attractive homes or city centre entertainment venues.",
"On the other hand, many newer churches have decided to host meetings in public buildings such as schools, universities, cinemas or theatres.There is another trend to convert old buildings for worship rather than face the construction costs and planning difficulties of a new build.",
"Unusual venues in the UK include a former tram power station, a former bus garage, a former cinema and bingo hall, a former Territorial Army drill hall, and a former synagogue.",
"served as a floating church for mariners at Liverpool from 1827 until she sank in 1872.A windmill has also been converted into a church at Reigate Heath.There have been increased partnerships between church management and private real estate companies to redevelop church properties into mixed uses.",
"While it has garnered criticism, the partnership allows congregations to increase revenue while preserving the property."
],
[
"See also",
"* Dedication* List of largest church buildings* Pub church* Shrine* Tabernacle (Methodist)* Temple"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*** Erlande-Brandenburg, Alain, Qu'est-ce qu'une église ?, Gallimard, Paris, 333 p., 2010.",
"* Gendry Mickael, L'église, un héritage de Rome, Essai sur les principes et méthodes de l'architecture chrétienne, Religions et Spiritualité, collection Beaux-Arts architecture religion, édition Harmattan 2009, 267 p."
],
[
"External links",
"* New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia – Ecclesiastical Buildings* New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia – The Church* Prairie Churches Documentary produced by Prairie Public Television* Iowa Places of Worship Documentary produced by Iowa Public Television*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Childe's Tomb"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Childe's Tomb todayChilde's Tomb before its destruction in 1812'''Childe's Tomb''' is a granite cross on Dartmoor, Devon, England.",
"Although not in its original form, it is more elaborate than most of the crosses on Dartmoor, being raised upon a constructed base, and it is known that a kistvaen is underneath.A well-known legend attached to the site, first recorded in 1630 by Tristram Risdon, concerns a wealthy hunter, Childe, who became lost in a snow storm and supposedly died there despite disembowelling his horse and climbing into its body for protection.",
"The legend relates that Childe left a note of some sort saying that whoever found and buried his body would inherit his lands at Plymstock.",
"After a race between the monks of Tavistock Abbey and the men of Plymstock, the Abbey won.The tomb was virtually destroyed in 1812 by a man who stole most of the stones to build a house nearby, but it was partly reconstructed in 1890."
],
[
"Description",
"Childe's Tomb is a reconstructed granite cross on the south-east edge of Foxtor Mires, about 500 metres north of Fox Tor on Dartmoor, Devon, England at .",
"According to William Burt, in his notes to ''Dartmoor, a Descriptive Poem'' by N. T. Carrington (1826), the original tomb consisted of a pedestal of three steps, the lowest of which was built of four stones each six feet long and twelve inches square.",
"The two upper steps were made of eight shorter but similarly shaped stones, and on top was an octagonal block about three feet high with a cross fixed upon it.The tomb lies on the line of several cairns that marked the east-west route of the ancient Monks' Path between Buckfast Abbey and Tavistock Abbey and it was no doubt erected here as part of that route: it would have been particularly useful in this part of the moor with few landmarks where a traveller straying from the path could easily end up in Foxtor Mires.",
"Tristram Risdon, writing in about 1630, said that Childe's Tomb was one of three remarkable things in the Forest of Dartmoor (the others being Crockern Tor and Wistman's Wood).",
"Risdon also stated that the original tomb bore an inscription: \"They fyrste that fyndes and bringes mee to my grave, The priorie of Plimstoke they shall have\", but no sign of this has ever been found.Today the cross, which is a replacement, is about tall and across at the crosspiece, and it has its base in a socket stone which rests on a pedestal of granite blocks that raises the total height of the cross to .",
"The original, now broken, socket stone for the cross lies nearby.",
"The whole is surrounded by a circle of granite stones set on their edge which once surrounded the cairn—the rocks of which are now scattered around—that was originally built over a large kistvaen that still exists beneath the pedestal."
],
[
"Destruction",
"All that remains of Fox Tor FarmIn the early 19th century there was much interest in enclosing and \"improving\" the open moorland on Dartmoor, encouraged by Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt's early successes at Tor Royal near Princetown.",
"Enclosure was aided by the greatly enhanced access provided by the construction of the first turnpike roads over the moor: the road between Ashburton and Two Bridges opened in around 1800, for instance.",
"In February 1809 one Thomas Windeatt, from Bridgetown, Totnes, took over the lease of a plot of land (a \"newtake\") of about 582 acres in the valley of the River Swincombe.",
"In 1812 Windeatt started to build a farmhouse, Fox Tor Farm, on his land and his workmen robbed the nearby Childe's Tomb of most of its stones for the building and its doorsteps.In 1902 William Crossing wrote that he had been told by an old moorman that some of the granite blocks from the tomb's pedestal had also been used to make a clapper bridge across a stream flowing into the River Swincombe near the farm.",
"The moorman also said that they had lettering on their undersides.",
"This encouraged Crossing to arrange to lift the clapper bridge, but no inscription was found.",
"However, he did locate nine out of the twelve stones that had made up the pedestal, as well as the broken socket stone for the cross."
],
[
"Reconstruction",
"Crossing rediscovered the original site of the tomb in 1882 and said that all that remained was a small mound and some half buried stones.",
"He cleared out the kistvaen, reporting that it was long by wide and that unlike most kistvaens found on the moor, the stones lining it had apparently been shaped by man, which led him to suggest that it was less old than most.",
"Having located most of the stones of the original tomb, Crossing thought that it could be rebuilt in its original form with little effort, but it was not to be.J.",
"Brooking Rowe, writing in 1895, states that the tomb was re-erected in 1890 under the direction of Mr. E. Fearnley Tanner, who said that he was dissatisfied with the result because several stones were missing and it was difficult to recreate the original character of the monument.",
"Tanner was the honourable secretary of the Dartmoor Preservation Association, and this reconstruction was one of the first acts of that organisation.",
"The replacement base and cross were made in Holne in 1885."
],
[
"Childe the Hunter",
"View of the setting of Childe's TombAccording to legend, the cross was erected over the kistvaen ('chest-stone' i.e.",
"burial chamber) of Childe the Hunter, who was Ordulf, son of Ordgar, an Anglo-Saxon Earl of Devon in the 11th century.",
"The name ''Childe'' is probably derived from the Old English word ''cild'' which was used as a title of honour.Legend has it that Childe was in a party hunting on the moor when they were caught in some changeable weather.",
"Childe became separated from the main party and was lost.",
"In order to save himself from dying of exposure, he killed his horse, disembowelled it and crept inside the warm carcass for shelter.",
"He nevertheless froze to death, but before he died, he wrote a note to the effect that whoever should find him and bury him in their church should inherit his Plymstock estate.His body was found by the monks of Tavistock Abbey, who started to carry it back.",
"However, they heard of a plot to ambush them by the people of Plymstock, at a bridge over the River Tavy.",
"They took a detour and built a new bridge over the river, just outside Tavistock.",
"They were successful in burying the body in the grounds of the Abbey and inherited the Plymstock estate.The first account of this story is to be found in Risdon's ''Survey of Devon'' which was completed in around 1632:Finberg pointed out, however, that a document of 1651 refers to Tavistock's guildhall as ''Guilehall'', so ''Guilebridge'' is more likely to be ''guild bridge'', probably because it was built or maintained by one of the town guilds.===In popular culture===Devon folk singer Seth Lakeman sang about Childe the Hunter on his 2006 album ''Freedom Fields''."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* * * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cognate"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Diagram showing relationships between etymologically related wordsIn historical linguistics, '''cognates''' or '''lexical cognates''' are sets of words that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language.",
"Because language change can have radical effects on both the sound and the meaning of a word, cognates may not be obvious, and often it takes rigorous study of historical sources and the application of the comparative method to establish whether lexemes are cognate.",
"Cognates are distinguished from loanwords, where a word has been borrowed from another language."
],
[
"Name",
"The English term ''cognate'' derives from Latin , meaning \"blood relative\"."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"An example of cognates from the same Indo-European root are: ''night'' (English), ''Nacht'' (German), ''nacht'' (Dutch, Frisian), ''nag'' (Afrikaans), ''Naach'' (Colognian), ''natt'' (Swedish, Norwegian), ''nat'' (Danish), ''nátt'' (Faroese), ''nótt'' (Icelandic), ''noc'' (Czech, Slovak, Polish), ночь, ''noch'' (Russian), ноќ, ''noć'' (Macedonian), нощ, ''nosht'' (Bulgarian), ''ніч'', ''nich'' (Ukrainian), ''ноч'', ''noch''/''noč'' (Belarusian), ''noč'' (Slovene), ''noć'' (Serbo-Croatian), ''nakts'' (Latvian), ''naktis'' (Lithuanian), ''nos'' (Welsh/Cymraeg), νύξ, ''nyx'' (Ancient Greek), ''νύχτα'' / ''nychta'' (Modern Greek), ''nakt-'' (Sanskrit), ''natë'' (Albanian), ''nox'', gen. sg.",
"''noctis'' (Latin), ''nuit'' (French), ''noche'' (Spanish), ''nueche'' (Asturian), ''noite'' (Portuguese and Galician), ''notte'' (Italian), ''nit'' (Catalan), ''nuet/nit/nueit'' (Aragonese), ''nuèch'' / ''nuèit'' (Occitan) and ''noapte'' (Romanian).",
"These all mean 'night' and derive from the Proto-Indo-European 'night'.",
"The Indo-European languages have hundreds of such cognate sets, though few of them are as neat as this.The Arabic ''salām'', the Hebrew ''shalom'', the Assyrian Neo-Aramaic ''shlama'' and the Amharic ''selam'' 'peace' are cognates, derived from the Proto-Semitic *šalām- 'peace'.Cognates need not have the same meaning, as they may have undergone semantic change as the languages developed independently.",
"For example English ''starve'' and Dutch ''sterven'' 'to die' or German ''sterben'' 'to die' all descend from the same Proto-Germanic verb, ''*sterbaną'' 'to die'.Cognates also do not need to look or sound similar: English ''father'', French ''père'', and Armenian հայր (''hayr'') all descend directly from Proto-Indo-European ''*ph₂tḗr''.",
"An extreme case is Armenian երկու (''erku'') and English ''two'', which descend from Proto-Indo-European ''*dwóh₁''; the sound change ''*dw'' > ''erk'' in Armenian is regular."
],
[
"False cognates",
"False cognates are pairs of words that appear to have a common origin, but which in fact do not.",
"For example, Latin and German both mean 'to have' and are phonetically similar.",
"However, the words evolved from different Proto-Indo-European (PIE) roots: , like English ''have'', comes from PIE ''*kh₂pyé-'' 'to grasp', and has the Latin cognate ''capere'' 'to seize, grasp, capture'.",
", on the other hand, is from PIE ''*gʰabʰ'' 'to give, to receive', and hence cognate with English ''give'' and German .Likewise, English ''much'' and Spanish look similar and have a similar meaning, but are not cognates: ''much'' is from Proto-Germanic ''*mikilaz'' < PIE ''*meǵ-'' and is from Latin ''multum'' < PIE ''*mel-''.",
"A true cognate of ''much'' is the archaic Spanish 'big'."
],
[
"Distinctions",
"Cognates are distinguished from other kinds of relationships.",
"*Loanwords are words borrowed from one language into another, for example English ''beef'' is borrowed from Old French ''boef'' (meaning \"ox\").",
"Although they are part of a single etymological stemma, they are not cognates.",
"*Doublets are pairs of words in the same language which are derived from a single etymon, which may have similar but distinct meanings and uses.",
"Often one is a loanword and the other is the native form, or they have developed in different dialects and then found themselves together in a modern standard language.",
"For example, Old French ''boef'' is cognate with English ''cow'', so English ''cow'' and ''beef'' are doublets.",
"*Translations, or semantic equivalents, are words in two different languages that have similar or practically identical meanings.",
"They may be cognate, but usually they are not.",
"For example, the German equivalent of the English word ''cow'' is ''Kuh'', which is also cognate, but the French equivalent is ''vache'', which is unrelated."
],
[
"Related terms",
"=== Etymon (ancestor word) and descendant words ===An '''etymon''', or ancestor word, is the ultimate source word from which one or more cognates derive.In other words, it is the source of related words in different languages.",
"For example, the etymon of both Welsh ''ceffyl'' and Irish ''capall'' is the Proto-Celtic *''kaballos'' (all meaning ''horse'').",
"'''Descendants''' are words inherited across a language barrier, coming from a particular etymon in an ancestor language.",
"For example, Russian ''мо́ре'' and Polish ''morze'' are both descendants of Proto-Slavic *''moře'' (meaning ''sea'').=== Root and derivatives ===A '''root''' is the source of related words within a single language (no language barrier is crossed).Similar to the distinction between ''etymon'' and ''root'', a nuanced distinction can sometimes be made between a ''descendant'' and a ''derivative''.",
"A '''derivative''' is one of the words which have their source in a root word, and were at some time created from the root word using morphological constructs such as suffixes, prefixes, and slight changes to the vowels or to the consonants of the root word.",
"For example ''unhappy'', ''happily'', and ''unhappily'' are all derivatives of the root word ''happy''.The terms ''root'' and ''derivative'' are used in the analysis of morphological derivation within a language, in studies that are not concerned with historical linguistics, and that do not cross the language barrier."
],
[
"See also",
"*Homology (biology)*Indo-European vocabulary*False friend*False etymology*Folk etymology"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chromatography"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Thin-layer chromatography is used to separate components of a plant extract, illustrating the experiment with plant pigments which gave chromatography its nameIn chemical analysis, '''chromatography''' is a laboratory technique for the separation of a mixture into its components.",
"The mixture is dissolved in a fluid solvent (gas or liquid) called the ''mobile phase'', which carries it through a system (a column, a capillary tube, a plate, or a sheet) on which a material called the ''stationary phase'' is fixed.",
"Because the different constituents of the mixture tend to have different affinities for the stationary phase and are retained for different lengths of time depending on their interactions with its surface sites, the constituents travel at different apparent velocities in the mobile fluid, causing them to separate.",
"The separation is based on the differential partitioning between the mobile and the stationary phases.",
"Subtle differences in a compound's partition coefficient result in differential retention on the stationary phase and thus affect the separation.Chromatography may be ''preparative'' or ''analytical''.",
"The purpose of preparative chromatography is to separate the components of a mixture for later use, and is thus a form of purification.",
"This process is associated with higher costs due to its mode of production.",
"Analytical chromatography is done normally with smaller amounts of material and is for establishing the presence or measuring the relative proportions of analytes in a mixture.",
"The two types are not mutually exclusive."
],
[
"Etymology and pronunciation",
"Chromatography, pronounced , is derived from Greek χρῶμα ''chroma'', which means \"color\", and γράφειν ''graphein'', which means \"to write\".",
"The combination of these two terms was directly inherited from the invention of the technique first used to separate pigments."
],
[
"History",
"Chromatography was first devised at the University of Kazan by the Italian-born Russian scientist Mikhail Tsvet in 1900.He developed the technique and coined the term ''chromatography'' in the first decade of the 20th century, primarily for the separation of plant pigments such as chlorophyll, carotenes, and xanthophylls.",
"Since these components separate in bands of different colors (green, orange, and yellow, respectively) they directly inspired the name of the technique.",
"New types of chromatography developed during the 1930s and 1940s made the technique useful for many separation processes.Chromatography technique developed substantially as a result of the work of Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence Millington Synge during the 1940s and 1950s, for which they won the 1952 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.",
"They established the principles and basic techniques of partition chromatography, and their work encouraged the rapid development of several chromatographic methods: paper chromatography, gas chromatography, and what would become known as high-performance liquid chromatography.",
"Since then, the technology has advanced rapidly.",
"Researchers found that the main principles of Tsvet's chromatography could be applied in many different ways, resulting in the different varieties of chromatography described below.",
"Advances are continually improving the technical performance of chromatography, allowing the separation of increasingly similar molecules."
],
[
"Terms",
"*'''Analyte''' – the substance to be separated during chromatography.",
"It is also normally what is needed from the mixture.",
"*'''Analytical chromatography''' – the use of chromatography to determine the existence and possibly also the concentration of analyte(s) in a sample.",
"*'''Bonded phase''' – a stationary phase that is covalently bonded to the support particles or to the inside wall of the column tubing.",
"*'''Chromatogram''' – the visual output of the chromatograph.",
"In the case of an optimal separation, different peaks or patterns on the chromatogram correspond to different components of the separated mixture.Chromatogram with unresolved peaks Chromatogram with two resolved peaksPlotted on the x-axis is the retention time and plotted on the y-axis a signal (for example obtained by a spectrophotometer, mass spectrometer or a variety of other detectors) corresponding to the response created by the analytes exiting the system.",
"In the case of an optimal system the signal is proportional to the concentration of the specific analyte separated.",
"*'''Chromatograph''' – an instrument that enables a sophisticated separation, e.g.",
"gas chromatographic or liquid chromatographic separation.",
"*'''Chromatography''' – a physical method of separation that distributes components to separate between two phases, one stationary (stationary phase), the other (the mobile phase) moving in a definite direction.",
"*'''Eluent''' (sometimes spelled ''eluant'') – the solvent or solvent fixure used in elution chromatography and is synonymous with ''mobile phase''.",
"*'''Eluate''' – the mixture of ''solute'' (see Eluite) and ''solvent'' (see Eluent) exiting the column.",
"*'''Effluent''' – the stream flowing out of a chromatographic column.",
"In practise, it is used synonymously with ''eluate'', but the term more precisely refers to the stream independent of separation taking place.",
"*'''Eluite''' – a more precise term for ''solute'' or ''analyte''.",
"It is a sample component leaving the chromatographic column.",
"*'''Eluotropic series''' – a list of solvents ranked according to their eluting power.",
"*'''Immobilized phase''' – a stationary phase that is immobilized on the support particles, or on the inner wall of the column tubing.",
"*'''Mobile phase''' – the phase that moves in a definite direction.",
"It may be a liquid (LC and capillary electrochromatography, CEC), a gas (GC), or a supercritical fluid (supercritical-fluid chromatography, SFC).",
"The mobile phase consists of the sample being separated/analyzed and the solvent that moves the sample through the column.",
"In the case of HPLC the mobile phase consists of a non-polar solvent(s) such as hexane in normal phase or a polar solvent such as methanol in reverse phase chromatography and the sample being separated.",
"The mobile phase moves through the chromatography column (the stationary phase) where the sample interacts with the stationary phase and is separated.",
"*'''Preparative chromatography''' – the use of chromatography to purify sufficient quantities of a substance for further use, rather than analysis.",
"*'''Retention time''' – the characteristic time it takes for a particular analyte to pass through the system (from the column inlet to the detector) under set conditions.",
"See also: Kovats' retention index*'''Sample''' – the matter analyzed in chromatography.",
"It may consist of a single component or it may be a mixture of components.",
"When the sample is treated in the course of an analysis, the phase or the phases containing the analytes of interest is/are referred to as the sample whereas everything out of interest separated from the sample before or in the course of the analysis is referred to as waste.",
"*'''Solute''' – the sample components in partition chromatography.",
"*'''Solvent''' – any substance capable of solubilizing another substance, and especially the liquid mobile phase in liquid chromatography.",
"*'''Stationary phase''' – the substance fixed in place for the chromatography procedure.",
"Examples include the silica layer in thin-layer chromatography*'''Detector''' – the instrument used for qualitative and quantitative detection of analytes after separation.",
"Chromatography is based on the concept of partition coefficient.",
"Any solute partitions between two immiscible solvents.",
"When we make one solvent immobile (by adsorption on a solid support matrix) and another mobile it results in most common applications of chromatography.",
"If the matrix support, or stationary phase, is polar (e.g.",
"paper, silica etc.)",
"it is forward phase chromatography, and if it is non-polar (C-18) it is reverse phase."
],
[
"Techniques by chromatographic bed shape",
"===Column chromatography===File:Column chromatography sequence.pngColumn chromatography is a separation technique in which the stationary bed is within a tube.",
"The particles of the solid stationary phase or the support coated with a liquid stationary phase may fill the whole inside volume of the tube (packed column) or be concentrated on or along the inside tube wall leaving an open, unrestricted path for the mobile phase in the middle part of the tube (open tubular column).",
"Differences in rates of movement through the medium are calculated to different retention times of the sample.In 1978, W. Clark Still introduced a modified version of column chromatography called ''flash column chromatography'' (flash).",
"The technique is very similar to the traditional column chromatography, except that the solvent is driven through the column by applying positive pressure.",
"This allowed most separations to be performed in less than 20 minutes, with improved separations compared to the old method.",
"Modern flash chromatography systems are sold as pre-packed plastic cartridges, and the solvent is pumped through the cartridge.",
"Systems may also be linked with detectors and fraction collectors providing automation.",
"The introduction of gradient pumps resulted in quicker separations and less solvent usage.In expanded bed adsorption, a fluidized bed is used, rather than a solid phase made by a packed bed.",
"This allows omission of initial clearing steps such as centrifugation and filtration, for culture broths or slurries of broken cells.Phosphocellulose chromatography utilizes the binding affinity of many DNA-binding proteins for phosphocellulose.",
"The stronger a protein's interaction with DNA, the higher the salt concentration needed to elute that protein.===Planar chromatography===''Planar chromatography'' is a separation technique in which the stationary phase is present as or on a plane.",
"The plane can be a paper, serving as such or impregnated by a substance as the stationary bed (paper chromatography) or a layer of solid particles spread on a support such as a glass plate (thin-layer chromatography).",
"Different compounds in the sample mixture travel different distances according to how strongly they interact with the stationary phase as compared to the mobile phase.",
"The specific Retention factor (Rf) of each chemical can be used to aid in the identification of an unknown substance.====Paper chromatography====Paper chromatography in progressPaper chromatographyPaper chromatography is a technique that involves placing a small dot or line of sample solution onto a strip of ''chromatography paper''.",
"The paper is placed in a container with a shallow layer of solvent and sealed.",
"As the solvent rises through the paper, it meets the sample mixture, which starts to travel up the paper with the solvent.",
"This paper is made of cellulose, a polar substance, and the compounds within the mixture travel further if they are less polar.",
"More polar substances bond with the cellulose paper more quickly, and therefore do not travel as far====Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) ====Thin layer chromatographyThin-layer chromatography (TLC) is a widely employed laboratory technique used to separate different biochemicals on the basis of their relative attractions to the stationary and mobile phases.",
"It is similar to paper chromatography.",
"However, instead of using a stationary phase of paper, it involves a stationary phase of a thin layer of adsorbent like silica gel, alumina, or cellulose on a flat, inert substrate.",
"TLC is very versatile; multiple samples can be separated simultaneously on the same layer, making it very useful for screening applications such as testing drug levels and water purity.",
"Possibility of cross-contamination is low since each separation is performed on a new layer.",
"Compared to paper, it has the advantage of faster runs, better separations, better quantitative analysis, and the choice between different adsorbents.",
"For even better resolution and faster separation that utilizes less solvent, high-performance TLC can be used.",
"An older popular use had been to differentiate chromosomes by observing distance in gel (separation of was a separate step)."
],
[
"Displacement chromatography",
"The basic principle of displacement chromatography is:A molecule with a high affinity for the chromatography matrix (the displacer) competes effectively for binding sites, and thus displaces all molecules with lesser affinities.There are distinct differences between displacement and elution chromatography.",
"In elution mode, substances typically emerge from a column in narrow, Gaussian peaks.",
"Wide separation of peaks, preferably to baseline, is desired for maximum purification.",
"The speed at which any component of a mixture travels down the column in elution mode depends on many factors.",
"But for two substances to travel at different speeds, and thereby be resolved, there must be substantial differences in some interaction between the biomolecules and the chromatography matrix.",
"Operating parameters are adjusted to maximize the effect of this difference.",
"In many cases, baseline separation of the peaks can be achieved only with gradient elution and low column loadings.",
"Thus, two drawbacks to elution mode chromatography, especially at the preparative scale, are operational complexity, due to gradient solvent pumping, and low throughput, due to low column loadings.",
"Displacement chromatography has advantages over elution chromatography in that components are resolved into consecutive zones of pure substances rather than \"peaks\".",
"Because the process takes advantage of the nonlinearity of the isotherms, a larger column feed can be separated on a given column with the purified components recovered at significantly higher concentrations."
],
[
"Techniques by physical state of mobile phase",
"===Gas chromatography===Gas chromatography (GC), also sometimes known as gas-liquid chromatography, (GLC), is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a gas.",
"Gas chromatographic separation is always carried out in a column, which is typically \"packed\" or \"capillary\".",
"Packed columns are the routine work horses of gas chromatography, being cheaper and easier to use and often giving adequate performance.",
"Capillary columns generally give far superior resolution and although more expensive are becoming widely used, especially for complex mixtures.",
"Further, capillary columns can be split into three classes: porous layer open tubular (PLOT), wall-coated open tubular (WCOT) and support-coated open tubular (SCOT) columns.",
"PLOT columns are unique in a way that the stationary phase is adsorbed to the column walls, while WCOT columns have a stationary phase that is chemically bonded to the walls.",
"SCOT columns are in a way the combination of the two types mentioned in a way that they have support particles adhered to column walls, but those particles have liquid phase chemically bonded onto them.",
"Both types of column are made from non-adsorbent and chemically inert materials.",
"Stainless steel and glass are the usual materials for packed columns and quartz or fused silica for capillary columns.Gas chromatography is based on a partition equilibrium of analyte between a solid or viscous liquid stationary phase (often a liquid silicone-based material) and a mobile gas (most often helium).",
"The stationary phase is adhered to the inside of a small-diameter (commonly 0.53 – 0.18mm inside diameter) glass or fused-silica tube (a capillary column) or a solid matrix inside a larger metal tube (a packed column).",
"It is widely used in analytical chemistry; though the high temperatures used in GC make it unsuitable for high molecular weight biopolymers or proteins (heat denatures them), frequently encountered in biochemistry, it is well suited for use in the petrochemical, environmental monitoring and remediation, and industrial chemical fields.",
"It is also used extensively in chemistry research.===Liquid chromatography===Preparative HPLC apparatusLiquid chromatography (LC) is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a liquid.",
"It can be carried out either in a column or a plane.",
"Present day liquid chromatography that generally utilizes very small packing particles and a relatively high pressure is referred to as high-performance liquid chromatography.In HPLC the sample is forced by a liquid at high pressure (the mobile phase) through a column that is packed with a stationary phase composed of irregularly or spherically shaped particles, a porous monolithic layer, or a porous membrane.",
"Monoliths are \"sponge-like chromatographic media\" and are made up of an unending block of organic or inorganic parts.",
"HPLC is historically divided into two different sub-classes based on the polarity of the mobile and stationary phases.",
"Methods in which the stationary phase is more polar than the mobile phase (e.g., toluene as the mobile phase, silica as the stationary phase) are termed normal phase liquid chromatography (NPLC) and the opposite (e.g., water-methanol mixture as the mobile phase and C18 () as the stationary phase) is termed reversed phase liquid chromatography (RPLC).===Supercritical fluid chromatography===Supercritical fluid chromatography is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a fluid above and relatively close to its critical temperature and pressure.Specific techniques under this broad heading are listed below."
],
[
"Affinity chromatography",
"Affinity chromatography is based on selective non-covalent interaction between an analyte and specific molecules.",
"It is very specific, but not very robust.",
"It is often used in biochemistry in the purification of proteins bound to tags.",
"These fusion proteins are labeled with compounds such as His-tags, biotin or antigens, which bind to the stationary phase specifically.",
"After purification, these tags are usually removed and the pure protein is obtained.Affinity chromatography often utilizes a biomolecule's affinity for a metal (Zn, Cu, Fe, etc.).",
"Columns are often manually prepared and could be designed specifically for the proteins of interest.",
"Traditional affinity columns are used as a preparative step to flush out unwanted biomolecules, or as a primary step in analyzing a protein with unknown physical properties.However, liquid chromatography techniques exist that do utilize affinity chromatography properties.",
"Immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) is useful to separate the aforementioned molecules based on the relative affinity for the metal.",
"Often these columns can be loaded with different metals to create a column with a targeted affinity."
],
[
"Techniques by separation mechanism",
"===Ion exchange chromatography===Ion exchange chromatography (usually referred to as ion chromatography) uses an ion exchange mechanism to separate analytes based on their respective charges.",
"It is usually performed in columns but can also be useful in planar mode.",
"Ion exchange chromatography uses a charged stationary phase to separate charged compounds including anions, cations, amino acids, peptides, and proteins.",
"In conventional methods the stationary phase is an ion-exchange resin that carries charged functional groups that interact with oppositely charged groups of the compound to retain.",
"There are two types of ion exchange chromatography: Cation-Exchange and Anion-Exchange.",
"In the Cation-Exchange Chromatography the stationary phase has negative charge and the exchangeable ion is a cation, whereas, in the Anion-Exchange Chromatography the stationary phase has positive charge and the exchangeable ion is an anion.",
"Ion exchange chromatography is commonly used to purify proteins using FPLC.===Size-exclusion chromatography===Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) is also known as ''gel permeation chromatography'' (GPC) or ''gel filtration chromatography'' and separates molecules according to their size (or more accurately according to their hydrodynamic diameter or hydrodynamic volume).Smaller molecules are able to enter the pores of the media and, therefore, molecules are trapped and removed from the flow of the mobile phase.",
"The average residence time in the pores depends upon the effective size of the analyte molecules.",
"However, molecules that are larger than the average pore size of the packing are excluded and thus suffer essentially no retention; such species are the first to be eluted.",
"It is generally a low-resolution chromatography technique and thus it is often reserved for the final, \"polishing\" step of a purification.",
"It is also useful for determining the tertiary structure and quaternary structure of purified proteins, especially since it can be carried out under native solution conditions.===Expanded bed adsorption chromatographic separation===An expanded bed chromatographic adsorption (EBA) column for a biochemical separation process comprises a pressure equalization liquid distributor having a self-cleaning function below a porous blocking sieve plate at the bottom of the expanded bed, an upper part nozzle assembly having a backflush cleaning function at the top of the expanded bed, a better distribution of the feedstock liquor added into the expanded bed ensuring that the fluid passed through the expanded bed layer displays a state of piston flow.",
"The expanded bed layer displays a state of piston flow.",
"The expanded bed chromatographic separation column has advantages of increasing the separation efficiency of the expanded bed.Expanded-bed adsorption (EBA) chromatography is a convenient and effective technique for the capture of proteins directly from unclarified crude sample.",
"In EBA chromatography, the settled bed is first expanded by upward flow of equilibration buffer.",
"The crude feed, a mixture of soluble proteins, contaminants, cells, and cell debris, is then passed upward through the expanded bed.",
"Target proteins are captured on the adsorbent, while particulates and contaminants pass through.",
"A change to elution buffer while maintaining upward flow results in desorption of the target protein in expanded-bed mode.",
"Alternatively, if the flow is reversed, the adsorbed particles will quickly settle and the proteins can be desorbed by an elution buffer.",
"The mode used for elution (expanded-bed versus settled-bed) depends on the characteristics of the feed.",
"After elution, the adsorbent is cleaned with a predefined cleaning-in-place (CIP) solution, with cleaning followed by either column regeneration (for further use) or storage."
],
[
"Special techniques",
"===Reversed-phase chromatography===Reversed-phase chromatography (RPC) is any liquid chromatography procedure in which the mobile phase is significantly more polar than the stationary phase.",
"It is so named because in normal-phase liquid chromatography, the mobile phase is significantly less polar than the stationary phase.",
"Hydrophobic molecules in the mobile phase tend to adsorb to the relatively hydrophobic stationary phase.",
"Hydrophilic molecules in the mobile phase will tend to elute first.",
"Separating columns typically comprise a C8 or C18 carbon-chain bonded to a silica particle substrate.===Hydrophobic interaction chromatography===Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography (HIC) is a purification and analytical technique that separates analytes, such as proteins, based on hydrophobic interactions between that analyte and the chromatographic matrix.",
"It can provide a non-denaturing orthogonal approach to reversed phase separation, preserving native structures and potentially protein activity.",
"In hydrophobic interaction chromatography, the matrix material is lightly substituted with hydrophobic groups.",
"These groups can range from methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, octyl, or phenyl groups.",
"At high salt concentrations, non-polar sidechains on the surface on proteins \"interact\" with the hydrophobic groups; that is, both types of groups are excluded by the polar solvent (hydrophobic effects are augmented by increased ionic strength).",
"Thus, the sample is applied to the column in a buffer which is highly polar, which drives an association of hydrophobic patches on the analyte with the stationary phase.",
"The eluent is typically an aqueous buffer with decreasing salt concentrations, increasing concentrations of detergent (which disrupts hydrophobic interactions), or changes in pH.",
"Of critical importance is the type of salt used, with more kosmotropic salts as defined by the Hofmeister series providing the most water structuring around the molecule and resulting hydrophobic pressure.",
"Ammonium sulfate is frequently used for this purpose.",
"The addition of organic solvents or other less polar constituents may assist in improving resolution.",
"In general, Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography (HIC) is advantageous if the sample is sensitive to pH change or harsh solvents typically used in other types of chromatography but not high salt concentrations.",
"Commonly, it is the amount of salt in the buffer which is varied.",
"In 2012, Müller and Franzreb described the effects of temperature on HIC using Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) with four different types of hydrophobic resin.",
"The study altered temperature as to effect the binding affinity of BSA onto the matrix.",
"It was concluded that cycling temperature from 50 to 10 degrees would not be adequate to effectively wash all BSA from the matrix but could be very effective if the column would only be used a few times.",
"Using temperature to effect change allows labs to cut costs on buying salt and saves money.If high salt concentrations along with temperature fluctuations want to be avoided you can use a more hydrophobic to compete with your sample to elute it.",
"source This so-called salt independent method of HIC showed a direct isolation of Human Immunoglobulin G (IgG) from serum with satisfactory yield and used Beta-cyclodextrin as a competitor to displace IgG from the matrix.",
"This largely opens up the possibility of using HIC with samples which are salt sensitive as we know high salt concentrations precipitate proteins.=== Hydrodynamic chromatography ===Hydrodynamic chromatography (HDC) is derived from the observed phenomenon that large droplets move faster than small ones.",
"In a column, this happens because the center of mass of larger droplets is prevented from being as close to the sides of the column as smaller droplets because of their larger overall size.",
"Larger droplets will elute first from the middle of the column while smaller droplets stick to the sides of the column and elute last.",
"This form of chromatography is useful for separating analytes by molar mass, size, shape, and structure when used in conjunction with light scattering detectors, viscometers, and refractometers.",
"The two main types of HDC are open tube and packed column.",
"Open tube offers rapid separation times for small particles, whereas packed column HDC can increase resolution and is better suited for particles with an average molecular mass larger than daltons.",
"HDC differs from other types of chromatography because the separation only takes place in the interstitial volume, which is the volume surrounding and in between particles in a packed column.HDC shares the same order of elution as Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC) but the two processes still vary in many ways.",
"In a study comparing the two types of separation, Isenberg, Brewer, Côté, and Striegel use both methods for polysaccharide characterization and conclude that HDC coupled with multiangle light scattering (MALS) achieves more accurate molar mass distribution when compared to off-line MALS than SEC in significantly less time.",
"This is largely due to SEC being a more destructive technique because of the pores in the column degrading the analyte during separation, which tends to impact the mass distribution.",
"However, the main disadvantage of HDC is low resolution of analyte peaks, which makes SEC a more viable option when used with chemicals that are not easily degradable and where rapid elution is not important.HDC plays an especially important role in the field of microfluidics.",
"The first successful apparatus for HDC-on-a-chip system was proposed by Chmela, et al.",
"in 2002.Their design was able to achieve separations using an 80 mm long channel on the timescale of 3 minutes for particles with diameters ranging from 26 to 110 nm, but the authors expressed a need to improve the retention and dispersion parameters.",
"In a 2010 publication by Jellema, Markesteijn, Westerweel, and Verpoorte, implementing HDC with a recirculating bidirectional flow resulted in high resolution, size based separation with only a 3 mm long channel.",
"Having such a short channel and high resolution was viewed as especially impressive considering that previous studies used channels that were 80 mm in length.",
"For a biological application, in 2007, Huh, et al.",
"proposed a microfluidic sorting device based on HDC and gravity, which was useful for preventing potentially dangerous particles with diameter larger than 6 microns from entering the bloodstream when injecting contrast agents in ultrasounds.",
"This study also made advances for environmental sustainability in microfluidics due to the lack of outside electronics driving the flow, which came as an advantage of using a gravity based device.Chemical Faculty of GUT Gdańsk, Poland, 2016===Two-dimensional chromatography===In some cases, the selectivity provided by the use of one column can be insufficient to provide resolution of analytes in complex samples.",
"Two-dimensional chromatography aims to increase the resolution of these peaks by using a second column with different physico-chemical (chemical classification) properties.",
"Since the mechanism of retention on this new solid support is different from the first dimensional separation, it can be possible to separate compounds by two-dimensional chromatography that are indistinguishable by one-dimensional chromatography.",
"Furthermore, the separation on the second dimension occurs faster than the first dimension.",
"An example of a two-dimensional TLC separation is where the sample is spotted at one corner of a square plate, developed, air-dried, then rotated by 90° and usually redeveloped in a second solvent system.",
"Two-dimensional chromatography can be applied to GC or LC separations.",
"This separation method can also be used in a heart-cutting approach, where specific regions of interest on the first dimension are selected for separation by the second dimension, or in a comprehensive approach, where all the analytes from the first dimension undergo the second dimension separation.===Simulated moving-bed chromatography===The simulated moving bed (SMB) technique is a variant of high performance liquid chromatography; it is used to separate particles and/or chemical compounds that would be difficult or impossible to resolve otherwise.",
"This increased separation is brought about by a valve-and-column arrangement that is used to lengthen the stationary phase indefinitely.In the moving bed technique of preparative chromatography the feed entry and the analyte recovery are simultaneous and continuous, but because of practical difficulties with a continuously moving bed, simulated moving bed technique was proposed.",
"In the simulated moving bed technique instead of moving the bed, the sample inlet and the analyte exit positions are moved continuously, giving the impression of a moving bed.True moving bed chromatography (TMBC) is only a theoretical concept.",
"Its simulation, SMBC is achieved by the use of a multiplicity of columns in series and a complex valve arrangement, which provides for sample and solvent feed, and also analyte and waste takeoff at appropriate locations of any column, whereby it allows switching at regular intervals the sample entry in one direction, the solvent entry in the opposite direction, whilst changing the analyte and waste takeoff positions appropriately as well.===Pyrolysis gas chromatography===Pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry is a method of chemical analysis in which the sample is heated to decomposition to produce smaller molecules that are separated by gas chromatography and detected using mass spectrometry.Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of materials in an inert atmosphere or a vacuum.",
"The sample is put into direct contact with a platinum wire, or placed in a quartz sample tube, and rapidly heated to 600–1000 °C.",
"Depending on the application even higher temperatures are used.",
"Three different heating techniques are used in actual pyrolyzers: Isothermal furnace, inductive heating (Curie Point filament), and resistive heating using platinum filaments.",
"Large molecules cleave at their weakest points and produce smaller, more volatile fragments.",
"These fragments can be separated by gas chromatography.",
"Pyrolysis GC chromatograms are typically complex because a wide range of different decomposition products is formed.",
"The data can either be used as fingerprints to prove material identity or the GC/MS data is used to identify individual fragments to obtain structural information.",
"To increase the volatility of polar fragments, various methylating reagents can be added to a sample before pyrolysis.Besides the usage of dedicated pyrolyzers, pyrolysis GC of solid and liquid samples can be performed directly inside Programmable Temperature Vaporizer (PTV) injectors that provide quick heating (up to 30 °C/s) and high maximum temperatures of 600–650 °C.",
"This is sufficient for some pyrolysis applications.",
"The main advantage is that no dedicated instrument has to be purchased and pyrolysis can be performed as part of routine GC analysis.",
"In this case, quartz GC inlet liners have to be used.",
"Quantitative data can be acquired, and good results of derivatization inside the PTV injector are published as well.===Fast protein liquid chromatography===Fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC), is a form of liquid chromatography that is often used to analyze or purify mixtures of proteins.",
"As in other forms of chromatography, separation is possible because the different components of a mixture have different affinities for two materials, a moving fluid (the \"mobile phase\") and a porous solid (the stationary phase).",
"In FPLC the mobile phase is an aqueous solution, or \"buffer\".",
"The buffer flow rate is controlled by a positive-displacement pump and is normally kept constant, while the composition of the buffer can be varied by drawing fluids in different proportions from two or more external reservoirs.",
"The stationary phase is a resin composed of beads, usually of cross-linked agarose, packed into a cylindrical glass or plastic column.",
"FPLC resins are available in a wide range of bead sizes and surface ligands depending on the application.===Countercurrent chromatography===Countercurrent chromatography (CCC) is a type of liquid-liquid chromatography, where both the stationary and mobile phases are liquids and the liquid stationary phase is held stagnant by a strong centrifugal force.==== Hydrodynamic countercurrent chromatography (CCC) ====The operating principle of CCC instrument requires a column consisting of an open tube coiled around a bobbin.",
"The bobbin is rotated in a double-axis gyratory motion (a cardioid), which causes a variable gravity (G) field to act on the column during each rotation.",
"This motion causes the column to see one partitioning step per revolution and components of the sample separate in the column due to their partitioning coefficient between the two immiscible liquid phases used.",
"There are many types of CCC available today.",
"These include HSCCC (High Speed CCC) and HPCCC (High Performance CCC).",
"HPCCC is the latest and best-performing version of the instrumentation available currently.==== Centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) ====In the CPC (centrifugal partition chromatography or hydrostatic countercurrent chromatography) instrument, the column consists of a series of cells interconnected by ducts attached to a rotor.",
"This rotor rotates on its central axis creating the centrifugal field necessary to hold the stationary phase in place.",
"The separation process in CPC is governed solely by the partitioning of solutes between the stationary and mobile phases, which mechanism can be easily described using the partition coefficients (''KD'') of solutes.",
"CPC instruments are commercially available for laboratory, pilot, and industrial-scale separations with different sizes of columns ranging from some 10 milliliters to 10 liters volume.===Periodic counter-current chromatography===In contrast to Counter current chromatography (see above), periodic counter-current chromatography (PCC) uses a solid stationary phase and only a liquid mobile phase.",
"It thus is much more similar to conventional affinity chromatography than to counter current chromatography.",
"PCC uses multiple columns, which during the loading phase are connected in line.",
"This mode allows for overloading the first column in this series without losing product, which already breaks through the column before the resin is fully saturated.",
"The breakthrough product is captured on the subsequent column(s).",
"In a next step the columns are disconnected from one another.",
"The first column is washed and eluted, while the other column(s) are still being loaded.",
"Once the (initially) first column is re-equilibrated, it is re-introduced to the loading stream, but as last column.",
"The process then continues in a cyclic fashion.===Chiral chromatography===Chiral chromatography involves the separation of stereoisomers.",
"In the case of enantiomers, these have no chemical or physical differences apart from being three-dimensional mirror images.",
"To enable chiral separations to take place, either the mobile phase or the stationary phase must themselves be made chiral, giving differing affinities between the analytes.",
"Chiral chromatography HPLC columns (with a chiral stationary phase) in both normal and reversed phase are commercially available.Conventional chromatography are incapable of separating racemic mixtures of enantiomers.",
"However, in some cases ''nonracemic'' mixtures of enantiomers may be separated unexpectedly by conventional liquid chromatography (e. g. HPLC without chiral mobile phase or stationary phase ).===Aqueous normal-phase chromatography===Aqueous normal-phase (ANP) chromatography is characterized by the elution behavior of classical normal phase mode (i.e.",
"where the mobile phase is significantly less polar than the stationary phase) in which water is one of the mobile phase solvent system components.",
"It is distinguished from hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) in that the retention mechanism is due to adsorption rather than partitioning."
],
[
"Applications",
"Chromatography is used in many fields including the pharmaceutical industry, the food and beverage industry, the chemical industry, forensic science, environment analysis, and hospitals."
],
[
"See also",
"*Affinity chromatography*Aqueous normal-phase chromatography*Binding selectivity*Chiral analysis*Chromatofocusing*Chromatography in blood processing*Chromatography software*Glowmatography*Multicolumn countercurrent solvent gradient purification (MCSGP)*Purnell equation*Van Deemter equation"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* IUPAC Nomenclature for Chromatography* Overlapping Peaks Program – Learning by Simulations* Chromatography Videos – MIT OCW – Digital Lab Techniques Manual* Chromatography Equations Calculators – MicroSolv Technology Corporation"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Clement Martyn Doke"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Clement Martyn Doke''' (16 May 1893 in Bristol, United Kingdom – 24 February 1980 in East London, South Africa) was a South African linguist working mainly on African languages.",
"Realizing that the grammatical structures of Bantu languages are quite different from those of European languages, he was one of the first African linguists of his time to abandon the Euro-centric approach to language description for a more locally grounded one.",
"A most prolific writer, he published a string of grammars, several dictionaries, comparative work, and a history of Bantu linguistics."
],
[
"Early life and career",
"The Doke family had been engaged in missionary activity for the Baptist Church for some generations.",
"His father, Reverend Joseph J. Doke, left England and travelled to South Africa in 1882, where he met and married Agnes Biggs.",
"They returned to England, where Clement was born as the third of four children.",
"The family moved to New Zealand and eventually returned to South Africa in 1903, where it later settled in Johannesburg.At the age of 18, Clement received a bachelor's degree from Transvaal University College in Pretoria (now the University of Pretoria).",
"He decided to devote his life to missionary activity.",
"In 1913, he accompanied his father on a tour of north-western Rhodesia, to an area called Lambaland, now known as Ilamba.",
"It is at the watershed of the Congo and Zambesi rivers.",
"Part of the district lay in Northern Rhodesia and part of the Belgian Congo.",
"The Cape-Cairo Railway threaded through its eastern portion; otherwise, most travel had to be on foot.The Reverend William Arthur Phillips of the Nyasa Industrial Mission in Blantyre had established a Baptist mission there in 1905; it served an area of and 50,000 souls.",
"The Dokes were supposed to investigate whether the mission in Lambaland could be taken over by the Baptist Union of South Africa.",
"It was on that trip that Doke's father contracted enteric fever and died soon afterwards.",
"Mahatma Gandhi attended the memorial service and addressed the congregation.",
"Clement assumed his father's role.The South African Baptists decided to take over Kafulafuta Mission, and its founder, Reverend Phillips, remained as superintendent.",
"Clement Doke returned to Kafulafuta as missionary in 1914, followed by his sister Olive two years later."
],
[
"Study of Lamba",
"At first, Clement Doke was frustrated by his inability to communicate with the Lamba.",
"The only written material available at the time was a translation of Jonah and a collection of 47 hymns.",
"Soon, however, he mastered the language and published his first book, ''Ifintu Fyakwe Lesa'' (\"The Things of God, a Primer of Scripture Knowledge\") in 1917.He enrolled in Johannesburg as the extension of Transvaal University College for an MA degree.",
"His thesis was published as ''The Grammar of the Lamba language''.",
"The book is couched in traditional grammatical terms, as Doke had not yet established his innovative method to analyse and describe the Bantu languages.",
"His later ''Textbook of Lamba Grammar'' is far superior in that respect.Doke was also interested in ethnology.",
"In 1931 he compiled ''The Lambas of Northern Rhodesia'', which remains one of the outstanding ethnographic descriptions of the peoples of Central Africa.",
"For Doke, literacy was part of evangelisation since it was required so that people to appreciate the Bible's message, but it was only after his retirement that he completed the translation of the Bible into Lamba.",
"It was published under the title of ''Amasiwi AwaLesa'' (\"The Words of God\") in 1959."
],
[
"University of the Witwatersrand",
"In 1919, Doke married Hilda Lehmann, who accompanied him back to Lambaland.",
"Both contracted malaria during their work, and she was forbidden to return to Lambaland.",
"Clement Doke also realised that his field work could not continue much longer, and he left in 1921.He was recruited by the newly-founded University of the Witwatersrand.",
"So that he could secure a qualification as a lecturer, the family moved to England, where he registered at the School of Oriental and African Studies.",
"His major languages were Lamba and Luba, but as no suitable examiner was available, he eventually had to change his language to Zulu.Doke took up his appointment in the new Department of Bantu Studies at the University of Witwatersrand in 1923.In 1925 he received his D. Litt.",
"for his doctoral thesis ''The Phonetics of the Zulu Language'' and was promoted to Senior Lecturer.",
"In 1931 he was appointed to the Chair of Bantu Studies and thus headed the Department of Bantu Studies.",
"The Department acted as a catalyst for the admission of Africans to the university.",
"As early as 1925 a limited number were admitted to the vacation course in African Studies.",
"Doke supported the appointment of Benedict Wallet Vilakazi as member of the staff, as he believed a native speaker was essential for acquiring a language.",
"That provoked a storm of criticism and controversy from the public.",
"Both of them collaborated on the ''Zulu-English Dictionary''.",
"First published in 1948, it is still one of the best examples of lexicography for any Bantu language.At the request of the government of Southern Rhodesia, Doke investigated the range of dialect diversity among the languages of the country and made recommendations for ''Unified Shona'', which formed the basis for Standard Shona.",
"He devised a unified orthography based on the Zezuru, Karanga and Manyika dialects.",
"However, Doke's orthography was never fully accepted, and the South African government introduced an alternative, which left Shona with two competing orthographies between 1935 and 1955.During his tenure, Doke developed and promoted a method of linguistic analysis and description of the Bantu languages that was based upon the structure of these languages.",
"The \"Dokean model\" continues to be one of the dominant models of linguistic description in Southern and Central Africa.",
"His classification of the Bantu languages was for many years the dominant view of the interrelations among the African languages.",
"He was also an early describer of Khoisan and Bantu click consonants, devising phonetic symbols for a number of them.Doke served the University of the Witwatersrand until his retirement in 1953.He was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by Rhodes University and the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws by the University of the Witwatersrand in 1972.The former missionary always remained devoted to the Baptist Church.",
"He was elected President of the South African Baptist Union in 1949 and spent a year visiting churches and mission stations.",
"He used his presidential address in condemning the recently established apartheid policy: ''I solemnly warn the Government that the spirit behind their apartheid legislation, and the way in which they are introducing discriminatory measures of all types today, will bring disaster upon this fair land of ours.''"
],
[
"Selected publications",
"*''Ifintu Fyakwe Lesa'' (The Things of God, a Primer of Scripture Knowledge in Lamba), 1917.",
"*An outline of the phonetics of the language of the ʗhũ̬꞉ Bushman of the North-West Kalahari.",
"''Bantu Studies''.",
"2: 129–166, 1925.",
"*''The phonetics of the Zulu language''.",
"University of the Witwatersrand Press, 1969 1926.",
"*''The Lambas of Northern Rhodesia: A Study of their Customs and Beliefs''.",
"London: George G. Harrap, 1931.",
"*''Report on the Unification of the Shona Dialects''.",
"Government of Southern Rhodesia: Government Blue Book, 1931.",
"*''Bantu linguistic terminology''.",
"London; New York Longmans, Green, 1935.",
"*''Textbook of Lamba Grammar''.",
"Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1938.",
"*''Outline grammar of Bantu''.",
"Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 1943.",
"*''Zulu–English Dictionary''.",
"Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1948.",
"(with Benedict Wallet Vilakazi)*''The Southern Bantu languages''.",
"London; New York: Oxford University Press, 1954.",
"*''Amasiwi AwaLesa'' (The Words of God in Lamba), 1959.",
"*''Contributions to the history of Bantu linguistics''.",
"Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1961 (with D. T.",
"Cole).",
"*''Trekking in South Central Africa 1913–1919''.",
"Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1993."
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Carl Meinhof"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Carl Friedrich Michael Meinhof''' (23 July 1857 – 11 February 1944) was a German linguist and one of the first linguists to study African languages."
],
[
"Early years and career",
"Meinhof was born in Barzwitz near Rügenwalde in the Province of Pomerania, Kingdom of Prussia.",
"He studied at the University of Tübingen and at the University of Greifswald.",
"In 1905 he became professor at the School of Oriental Studies in Berlin.",
"On 5 May 1933 he became a member of the Nazi Party."
],
[
"Works",
"His most notable work was developing comparative grammar studies of the Bantu languages, building on the pioneering work of Wilhelm Bleek.",
"In his work, Meinhof looked at the common Bantu languages such as Swahili and Zulu to determine similarities and differences.In his work, Meinhof looked at noun classes with all Bantu languages having at least 10 classes and with 22 classes of nouns existing throughout the Bantu languages, though his definition of noun class differs slightly from the accepted one, considering the plural form of a word as belonging to a different class from the singular form (thus leading, for example, to consider a language like French as having four classes instead of two).",
"While no language has all 22 (later: 23) classes active, Venda has 20, Lozi has 18, and Ganda has 16 or 17 (depending on whether the locative class 23 ''e-'' is included).",
"All Bantu languages have a noun class specifically for humans (sometimes including other animate beings).Meinhof also examined other African languages, including groups classified at the time as Kordofanian, Bushman, Khoikhoi, and Hamitic.Meinhof developed a comprehensive classification scheme for African languages.",
"His classification was the standard one for many years (Greenberg 1955:3).",
"It was replaced by those of Joseph Greenberg in 1955 and in 1963.In 1902, Meinhof made recordings of East African music.",
"These are among the first recordings made of traditional African music."
],
[
"Controversial views",
"In 1912, Carl Meinhof published ''Die Sprachen der Hamiten'' (The Languages of the Hamites).",
"He used the term Hamitic.",
"Meinhof's system of classification of the Hamitic languages was based on a belief that \"speakers of Hamitic became largely coterminous with cattle herding peoples with essentially Caucasian origins, intrinsically different from and superior to the 'Negroes of Africa'.\"",
"However, in the case of the so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages (a concept he introduced), it was based on the typological feature of gender and a \"fallacious theory of language mixture.\"",
"Meinhof did this in spite of earlier work by scholars such as Lepsius and Johnston demonstrating that the languages which he would later dub \"Nilo-Hamitic\" were in fact Nilotic languages with numerous similarities in vocabulary with other Nilotic languages."
],
[
"Family",
"Carl Meinhof was the great-uncle (the brother of the grandfather) of Ulrike Meinhof, a founding member of the German Red Army Faction (RAF), a left-wing militant group, which operated in West Germany in the 1970s and 1980s."
],
[
"See also",
"*Ernst Dammann, Africanist and Nazi, employed by Meinhof"
],
[
"References",
"*Greenberg, Joseph H.",
"1955.",
"''Studies in African Linguistic Classification.''",
"New Haven: Compass Publishing Company.",
"*Greenberg, Joseph H.",
"1963.",
"''The Languages of Africa.''",
"Bloomington: Indiana University Press.",
"*Meinhof, Carl.",
"1906.",
"''Grundzüge einer vergleichenden Grammatik der Bantusprachen.''",
"Berlin: Reimer.",
"* Pugach, Sara.",
"2004.",
"\"Images of race and redemption: The Protestant missionary contribution to Carl Meinhof's ''Zeitschrift für Kolonialsprachen''\", '' Le Fait Missionaire: Social Sciences and Missions'' 15 (December 2004), 59–96."
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cucurbitaceae"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Cucurbitaceae''' (), also called '''cucurbits''' or the '''gourd family''', are a plant family consisting of about 965 species in around 95 genera.",
"Those most important to humans are the following:*''Cucurbita'' – squash, pumpkin, zucchini or courgette, some gourds*''Lagenaria'' – calabash, and others that are inedible*''Citrullus'' – watermelon (''C.",
"lanatus'', ''C.",
"colocynthis'') and others*''Cucumis'' – cucumber (''C.",
"sativus''), various melons and vines*''Momordica'' – bitter melon*''Luffa'' – the common name is also luffa, sometimes spelled loofah (when fully ripened, two species of this fibrous fruit are the source of the loofah scrubbing sponge)*''Cyclanthera'' – CaiguaThe plants in this family are grown around the tropics and in temperate areas, where those with edible fruits were among the earliest cultivated plants in both the Old and New Worlds.",
"The family Cucurbitaceae ranks among the highest of plant families for number and percentage of species used as human food.",
"The name ''Cucurbitaceae'' comes to international scientific vocabulary from Neo-Latin, from ''Cucurbita'', the type genus, + ''-aceae'', a standardized suffix for plant family names in modern taxonomy.",
"The genus name comes from the Classical Latin word '''', meaning \"gourd\"."
],
[
"Description",
"Flower of ''Lagenaria'' captured at nightMost of the plants in this family are annual vines, but some are woody lianas, thorny shrubs, or trees (''Dendrosicyos'').",
"Many species have large, yellow or white flowers.",
"The stems are hairy and pentangular.",
"Tendrils are present at 90° to the leaf petioles at nodes.",
"Leaves are exstipulate, alternate, simple palmately lobed or palmately compound.",
"The flowers are unisexual, with male and female flowers on different plants (dioecious) or on the same plant (monoecious).",
"The female flowers have inferior ovaries.",
"The fruit is often a kind of modified berry called a pepo."
],
[
"Fossil history",
"One of the oldest fossil cucurbits so far is †''Cucurbitaciphyllum lobatum'' from the Paleocene epoch, found at Shirley Canal, Montana.",
"It was described for the first time in 1924 by the paleobotanist Frank Hall Knowlton.",
"The fossil leaf is palmate, trilobed with rounded lobal sinuses and an entire or serrate margin.",
"It has a leaf pattern similar to the members of the genera ''Kedrostis'', ''Melothria'' and ''Zehneria''."
],
[
"Classification",
"===Tribal classification===Pumpkins and squashes displayed in a show competitionSouth Korean Genebank in SuwonCucurbits on display at the Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid, with the title \"Variedades de calabaza\"The most recent classification of Cucurbitaceae delineates 15 tribes:* '''Tribe Gomphogyneae Benth.",
"& Hook.f.",
"'''** ''Alsomitra'' (Blume) Spach (1 sp.",
")** ''Bayabusua'' (1 sp.",
")** ''Gomphogyne'' Griff.",
"(2 spp.",
")** ''Gynostemma'' Blume (10 spp.",
")** ''Hemsleya'' Cogn.",
"ex F.B.Forbes & Hemsl.",
"(30 spp.",
")** ''Neoalsomitra'' Hutch.",
"(12 spp.",
")* '''Tribe Triceratieae A.Rich.'''",
"** ''Anisosperma'' Silva Manso (1 sp.",
")** ''Cyclantheropsis'' Harms (3 spp.",
")** ''Fevillea'' L. (8 spp.",
")** ''Pteropepon'' (Cogn.)",
"Cogn.",
"(5 spp.",
")** ''Sicydium'' Schltdl.",
"(7 spp.",
")* '''Tribe Zanonieae Benth.",
"& Hook.f.",
"'''** ''Gerrardanthus'' Harvey in Hook.f.",
"(3–5 spp.",
")** ''Siolmatra'' Baill.",
"(1 sp.",
")** ''Xerosicyos'' Humbert (5 spp.",
")** ''Zanonia'' L. (1 sp.",
")* '''Tribe Actinostemmateae H.Schaef.",
"& S.S.Renner'''** ''Actinostemma'' Griff.",
"(3 spp.",
")* '''Tribe Indofevilleeae H.Schaef.",
"& S.S.Renner'''** ''Indofevillea'' Chatterjee (2 sp.",
")* '''Tribe Thladiantheae H.Schaef.",
"& S.S.Renner'''** ''Baijiania'' A.M.Lu & J.Q.Li (30 spp.",
")** ''Thladiantha'' Bunge 1833 (5 spp.",
")* '''Tribe Siraitieae H. Schaef.",
"& S.S. Renner'''** ''Siraitia'' Merr.",
"(3–4 spp.",
")* '''Tribe Momordiceae H.Schaef.",
"& S.S.Renner'''** ''Momordica'' L. (60 spp.",
")* '''Tribe Joliffieae Schrad.'''",
"** ''Ampelosicyos'' Thouars (5 spp.",
")** ''Cogniauxia'' Baill.",
"(2 spp.",
")** ''Telfairia'' Hook.",
"(3 spp.",
")* '''Tribe Bryonieae Dumort.",
"'''** ''Austrobryonia'' H.Schaef.",
"(4 spp.",
")** ''Bryonia'' L. (10 spp.",
")** ''Ecballium'' A.Rich.",
"(1 sp.",
")* '''Tribe Schizopeponeae C.Jeffrey'''** ''Herpetospermum'' Wall.",
"ex Hook.f.",
"(3 spp.",
")** ''Schizopepon'' Maxim.",
"(6–8 spp.",
")* '''Tribe Sicyoeae Schrad.",
"'''** ''Cyclanthera'' Schrad.",
"(40 spp.",
")** ''Echinocystis'' Torr.",
"& A.Gray (1 sp.",
")** ''Echinopepon'' Naudin (20 spp., including ''Brandegea'' Cogn.",
")** ''Frantzia'' Pittier (5 spp.",
")** ''Hanburia'' Seem.",
"(7 spp.",
")** ''Hodgsonia'' Hook.f.",
"& Thomson (2 spp.",
")** ''Linnaeosicyos'' H.Schaef.",
"& Kocyan (1 sp.",
")** ''Luffa'' Mill.",
"(5–7 spp.",
")** ''Marah'' Kellogg (7 spp.",
")** ''Nothoalsomitra'' Hutch.",
"(1 sp.",
")** ''Sicyos'' L. (75 spp., including ''Sechium'' P.Browne)** ''Trichosanthes'' L. (≤100 spp.",
")* '''Tribe Coniandreae Endl.",
"'''** ''Apodanthera'' Arn.",
"(16 spp.",
")** ''Bambekea'' Cogn.",
"(1 sp.",
")** ''Ceratosanthes'' Adans.",
"(4 spp.",
")** ''Corallocarpus'' Welw.",
"ex Benth.",
"& Hook.f.",
"(17 spp.",
")** ''Cucurbitella'' Walp.",
"(1 sp.",
")** ''Dendrosicyos'' Balf.f.",
"(1 sp.",
")** ''Doyerea'' Grosourdy (1 sp.",
")** ''Eureiandra'' Hook.f.",
"(8 spp.",
")** ''Gurania'' (Schltdl.)",
"Cogn.",
"(37 spp.",
")** ''Halosicyos'' Mart.Crov (1 sp.",
")** ''Helmontia'' Cogn.",
"(2–4 spp.",
")** ''Ibervillea'' Greene (9–10 spp.",
")** ''Kedrostis'' Medik.",
"(28 spp.",
")** ''Melotrianthus'' M.Crovetto (1–3 spp.",
")** ''Psiguria'' Neck.",
"ex Arn.",
"(6–12 spp.",
")** ''Seyrigia'' Keraudren (6 spp.",
")** ''Trochomeriopsis'' Cogn.",
"(1 sp.",
")** ''Tumamoca'' Rose (2 spp.",
")** ''Wilbrandia'' Silva Manso (5 spp.",
")* '''Tribe Benincaseae Ser.",
"'''** ''Acanthosicyos'' Welw.",
"ex Hook.f.",
"(1 sp.",
")** ''Benincasa'' Savi (2 spp., including ''Praecitrullus'' Pangalo)** ''Borneosicyos'' (1–2 spp.",
")** ''Cephalopentandra'' Chiov.",
"(1 sp.",
")** ''Citrullus'' Schrad.",
"(4 spp.",
")** ''Coccinia'' Wight & Arn.",
"(30 spp.",
")** ''Ctenolepis'' Hook.",
"f. 1867 (3 spp.",
")** ''Cucumis'' L. (65 spp.",
")** ''Dactyliandra'' Hook.f.",
"(2 spp.",
")** ''Diplocyclos'' (Endl.)",
"T.Post & Kuntze (4 spp.",
")** ''Indomelothria'' (2 spp.",
")** ''Khmeriosicyos'' (1 sp.",
")** ''Lagenaria'' Ser.",
"(6 spp.",
")** ''Lemurosicyos'' Keraudren (1 sp.",
")** ''Melothria'' L. (12 spp., including ''M.",
"scabra'')** ''Muellerargia'' Cogn.",
"(2 sp.",
")** ''Papuasicyos'' (8 spp.",
")** ''Peponium'' Engl.",
"(20 spp.",
")** ''Raphidiocystis'' Hook.f.",
"(5 spp.",
")** ''Ruthalicia'' C.Jeffrey (2 spp.",
")** ''Scopellaria'' W.J.de Wilde & Duyfjes (2 spp.",
")** ''Solena'' Lour.",
"(3 spp.",
")** ''Trochomeria'' Hook.f.",
"(8 spp.",
")** ''Zehneria'' Endl.",
"(''ca.''",
"60 spp.",
")* '''Tribe Cucurbiteae Ser.",
"'''** ''Abobra'' Naudin (1 sp.",
")** ''Calycophysum'' H.Karst.",
"& Triana (5 spp.",
")** ''Cayaponia'' Silva Manso (50–59 spp., including ''Selysia'' Cogn.",
")** ''Cionosicys'' Griseb.",
"(4–5 spp.",
")** ''Cucurbita'' L. (15 spp.",
")** ''Penelopeia'' Urb.",
"(2 spp.",
")** ''Peponopsis'' Naudin (1 sp.",
")** ''Polyclathra'' Bertol.",
"(6 spp.",
")** ''Schizocarpum'' Schrad.",
"(11 spp.",
")** ''Sicana'' Naudin (4 spp.",
")** ''Tecunumania'' Standl.",
"& Steyerm.",
"(1 sp.",
")===Systematics===Modern molecular phylogenetics suggest the following relationships:Detailed Cladogram showing Cucurbitaceae phylogeny"
],
[
"Pests and diseases",
"Sweet potato whitefly is the vector of a number of cucurbit viruses that cause yellowing symptoms throughout the southern United States."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Cucurbitaceae in T.C.",
"Andres (1995 onwards).",
"* Cucurbitaceae in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards).",
"The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chorded keyboard"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A Microwriter MW4 (circa 1980)A '''keyset''' or '''chorded keyboard''' (also called a chorded keyset, ''chord keyboard'' or ''chording keyboard'') is a computer input device that allows the user to enter characters or commands formed by pressing several keys together, like playing a \"chord\" on a piano.",
"The large number of combinations available from a small number of keys allows text or commands to be entered with one hand, leaving the other hand free.",
"A secondary advantage is that it can be built into a device (such as a pocket-sized computer or a bicycle handlebar) that is too small to contain a normal-sized keyboard.A chorded keyboard minus the board, typically designed to be used while held in the hand, is called a keyer.",
"Douglas Engelbart introduced the chorded keyset as a computer interface in 1968 at what is often called \"The Mother of All Demos\"."
],
[
"Principles of operation",
"An ergonomic chorded keyboard without the board is known as a keyer.Each key is mapped to a number and then can be mapped to a corresponding letter or command.",
"By pressing two or more keys together the user can generate many combinations.",
"In Engelbart's original mapping, he used five keys: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16.The keys were mapped as follows: a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, d = 4, and so on.",
"If the user pressed keys 1 and 2 simultaneously, and then released the keys, 1 and 2 would be added to 3, and since C is the 3rd letter of the alphabet, and the letter \"c\" appeared.",
"Unlike pressing a chord on a piano, the chord is recognized only after all the keys or mouse buttons are released.",
"Since Engelbart introduced the keyset, several different designs have been developed based on similar concepts.As a crude example, each finger might control one key which corresponds to one bit in a byte, so that using seven keys and seven fingers, one could enter any character in the ASCII set—if the user could remember the binary codes.",
"Due to the small number of keys required, chording is easily adapted from a desktop to mobile environment.Practical devices generally use simpler chords for common characters (''e.g.,'' Baudot), or may have ways to make it easier to remember the chords (''e.g.,'' Microwriter), but the same principles apply.",
"These portable devices first became popular with the wearable computer movement in the 1980s.Thad Starner from Georgia Institute of Technology and others published numerous studies showing that two-handed chorded text entry was faster and yielded fewer errors than on a QWERTY keyboard.",
"Currently stenotype machines hold the record for fastest word entry.",
"Many stenotype users can reach 300 words per minute.",
"However, stenographers typically train for three years before reaching professional levels of speed and accuracy."
],
[
"History",
"The earliest known chord keyboard was part of the \"five-needle\" telegraph operator station, designed by Wheatstone and Cooke in 1836, in which any two of the five needles could point left or right to indicate letters on a grid.",
"It was designed to be used by untrained operators (who would determine which keys to press by looking at the grid), and was not used where trained telegraph operators were available.The first widespread use of a chord keyboard was in the stenotype machine used by court reporters, which was invented in 1868 and is still in use.",
"The output of the stenotype was originally a phonetic code that had to be transcribed later (usually by the same operator who produced the original output), rather than arbitrary text—automatic conversion software is now commonplace.In 1874, the five-bit Baudot telegraph code and a matching 5-key chord keyboard was designed to be used with the operator forming the codes manually.",
"The code is optimized for speed and low wear: chords were chosen so that the most common characters used the simplest chords.",
"But telegraph operators were already using typewriters with QWERTY keyboards to \"copy\" received messages, and at the time it made more sense to build a typewriter that could generate the codes automatically, rather than making them learn to use a new input device.IBM 026 commercial card code Some early keypunch machines used a keyboard with 12 labeled keys to punch the correct holes in paper cards.",
"The numbers 0 through 9 were represented by one punch; 26 letters were represented by combinations of two punches, and symbols were represented by combinations of two or three punches.A braille keyboardBraille (a writing system for the blind) uses either 6 or 8 tactile 'points' from which all letters and numbers are formed.",
"When Louis Braille invented it, it was produced with a needle holing successively all needed points in a cardboard sheet.",
"In 1892, Frank Haven Hall, superintendent of the Illinois Institute for the Education of the Blind, created the Hall Braille Writer, which was like a typewriter with 6 keys, one for each dot in a braille cell.",
"The Perkins Brailler, first manufactured in 1951, uses a 6-key chord keyboard (plus a spacebar) to produce braille output, and has been very successful as a mass market affordable product.",
"Braille, like Baudot, uses a number symbol and a shift symbol, which may be repeated for shift lock, to fit numbers and upper case into the 63 codes that 6 bits offer.After World War II, with the arrival of electronics for reading chords and looking in tables of \"codes\", the postal sorting offices started to research chordic solutions to be able to employ people other than trained and expensive typists.",
"In 1954, an important concept was discovered: chordic production is easier to master when the production is done at the release of the keys instead of when they are pressed.Researchers at IBM investigated chord keyboards for both typewriters and computer data entry as early as 1959, with the idea that it might be faster than touch-typing if some chords were used to enter whole words or parts of words.",
"A 1975 design by IBM Fellow Nat Rochester had 14 keys that were dimpled on the edges as well as the top, so one finger could press two adjacent keys for additional combinations.",
"Their results were inconclusive, but research continued until at least 1978.Doug Engelbart began experimenting with keysets to use with the mouse in the mid 1960s.",
"In a famous 1968 demonstration, Engelbart introduced a computer human interface that included the QWERTY keyboard, a three button mouse, and a five key keyset.",
"Engelbart used the keyset with his left hand and the mouse with his right to type text and enter commands.",
"The mouse buttons marked selections and confirmed or aborted commands.Users in Engelbart's Augmentation Research Center at SRI became proficient with the mouse and keyset.",
"In the 1970s the funding Engelbart's group received from the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was cut and many key members of Engelbart's team went to work for Xerox PARC where they continued to experiment with the mouse and keyset.",
"Keychord sets were used at Xerox PARC in the early 1980s, along with mice, GUIs, on the Xerox Star and Alto workstations.",
"A one-button version of the mouse was incorporated into the Apple Macintosh but Steve Jobs decided against incorporating the chorded keyset.Xerox Alto keyset, ca.",
"1973.In the early 1980s, Philips Research labs at Redhill, Surrey did a brief study into small, cheap keyboards for entering text on a telephone.",
"One solution used a grid of hexagonal keys with symbols inscribed into dimples in the keys that were either in the center of a key, across the boundary of two keys, or at the joining of three keys.",
"Pressing down on one of the dimples would cause either one, two or three of the hexagonal buttons to be depressed at the same time, forming a chord that would be unique to that symbol.",
"With this arrangement, a nine button keyboard with three rows of three hexagonal buttons could be fitted onto a telephone and could produce up to 33 different symbols.",
"By choosing widely separated keys, one could employ one dimple as a 'shift' key to allow both letters and numbers to be produced.",
"With eleven keys in a 3/4/4 arrangement, 43 symbols could be arranged allowing for lowercase text, numbers and a modest number of punctuation symbols to be represented along with a 'shift' function for accessing uppercase letters.",
"While this had the advantage of being usable by untrained users via 'hunt and peck' typing and requiring one less key switch than a conventional 12 button keypad, it had the disadvantage that some symbols required three times as much force to depress them as others which made it hard to achieve any speed with the device.",
"That solution is still alive and proposed by Fastap and Unitap among others, and a commercial phone has been produced and promoted in Canada during 2006."
],
[
"Standards",
"Historically, the baudot and braille keyboards were standardized to some extent, but they are unable to replicate the full character set of a modern keyboard.",
"Braille comes closest, as it has been extended to eight bits.The only proposed modern standard, GKOS (or Global Keyboard Open Standard) can support most characters and functions found on a computer keyboard but has had little commercial development.",
"There is, however, a GKOS keyboard application available for iPhone since May 8, 2010, for Android since October 3, 2010 and for MeeGo Harmattan since October 27, 2011."
],
[
"Stenography",
"Stenotype machines, sometimes used by court reporters, use a chording keyboard to represent sounds: on the standard keyboard, the U represents the sound and word, 'you', and the three-key trigraph KAT represents the sound and word 'cat'.",
"The stenotype keyboard is explicitly ordered: in KAT, K, on the left, is the starting sound.",
"P, S, and T, which are common starting sounds and also common ending sounds, are available on both sides of the keyboard: POP is a 3-key chord, using both P keys.",
"."
],
[
"Open-source designs",
"A 104-key USB keyboard adapted into a chording keyboard.",
"All phonetic keystrokes may be accomplished by one and two-key chords of the home keys on the top row.Multiple open-source keyer/keyset designs are available, such as the pickey, a PS/2 device based on the PIC microcontroller; the spiffchorder, a USB device based on the Atmel AVR family of microcontrollers; the FeatherChorder, a BLE chorder based on the Adafruit Feather, an all-in-one board incorporating an Arduino-compatible microcontroller; and the GKOS keypad driver for Linux as well as the Gkos library for the Atmel/Arduino open-source board.Plover is a free, open-source, cross-platform program intended to bring real-time stenographic technology not just to stenographers, but also to hobbyists using anything from professional Stenotype machines to low-cost NKRO gaming keyboards.",
"It is available for Linux, Windows, and macOS.Joy2chord is a chorded keyboard driver for Linux.",
"With a configuration file, any joystick or gamepad can be turned into a chorded keyboard.",
"This design philosophy was decided on to lower the cost of building devices, and in turn lower the entry barrier to becoming familiar with chorded keyboards.",
"Macro keys, and multiple modes are also easily implemented with a user space driver."
],
[
"Commercial devices",
"One minimal chordic keyboard example is Edgar Matias' Half-Qwerty keyboard described in patent circa 1992 that produces the letters of the missing half when the user simultaneously presses the space bar along with the mirror key.",
"INTERCHI '93 published a study by Matias, MacKenzie and Buxton showing that people who have already learned to touch-type can quickly recover 50 to 70% of their two-handed typing speed.",
"The loss contributes to the speed discussion above.",
"It is implemented on two popular mobile phones, each provided with software disambiguation, which allows users to avoid using the space-bar.",
"\"Multiambic\" keyers for use with wearable computers were invented in Canada in the 1970s.",
"Multiambic keyers are similar to chording keyboards but without the board, in that the keys are grouped in a cluster for being handheld, rather than for sitting on a flat surface.Chording keyboards are also used as portable but two handed input devices for the visually impaired (either combined with a refreshable braille display or vocal synthesis).",
"Such keyboards use a minimum of seven keys, where each key corresponds to an individual braille point, except one key which is used as a spacebar.",
"In some applications, the spacebar is used to produce additional chords which enable the user to issue editing commands, such as moving the cursor, or deleting words.",
"Note that the number of points used in braille computing is not 6, but 8, as this allows the user, among other things, to distinguish between small and capital letters, as well as identify the position of the cursor.",
"As a result, most newer chorded keyboards for braille input include at least nine keys.Touch screen chordic keyboards are available to smartphone users as an optional way of entering text.",
"As the number of keys is low, the button areas can be made bigger and easier to hit on the small screen.",
"The most common letters do not necessarily require chording as is the case with the GKOS keyboard optimised layouts (Android app) where the twelve most frequent characters only require single keys.The CharaChorder One KeyboardThe company CharaChorder commerially sells chorded entry devices.",
"Their first commercially available device is the CharaChorder One, which features a split design with each having access to 9 switches that can be moved in five directions (up, down, left, right, and pressed) in contrast to typical keyboards.",
"This device allows for both chorded entry as well as traditional character entry.",
"The set of words that can be chorded can be dynamically changed by the user in real time, but by default includes the 300 most common words in the English language.",
"This chorded entry feature allows for potentially extremely fast typing speeds, so much so the founder of the company has been banned from online typing competitions.",
"Additionally, they create the Charachorder Lite with a more traditional keyboard design.",
"The manufacturer claimed that users of the Charachorder One can reach speeds of 300 words per minute, while users of the Charachorder Lite can reach 250 words per minute.",
"===Historical===The WriteHander, a 12-key chord keyboard from NewO Company, appeared in 1978 issues of ROM Magazine, an early microcomputer applications magazine.Another early commercial model was the six-button Microwriter, designed by Cy Endfield and Chris Rainey, and first sold in 1980.Microwriting is the system of chord keying and is based on a set of mnemonics.",
"It was designed only for right-handed use.In 1982 the Octima 8 keys cord keyboard was presented by Ergoplic Kebords Ltd an Israeli Startup that was founded by Israeli researcher with intensive experience in Man Machine Interface design.",
"The keyboard had 8 keys one for each finger and additional 3 keys that enabled the production of numbers, punctuations and control functions.",
"The keyboard was fully compatible with the IBM PC and AT keyboards and had an Apple IIe version as well.",
"Its key combinations were based on a mnemonic system that enabled fast and easy touch type learning.",
"Within a few hours the user could achieve a typing speed similar to hand writing speed.",
"The unique design also gave a relief from hand stress (Carpal Tunnel Syndrome) and allowed longer typing sessions than traditional keyboards.",
"It was multi-lingual supporting English, German, French and Hebrew.The BAT is a 7-key hand-sized device from Infogrip, and has been sold since 1985.It provides one key for each finger and three for the thumb.",
"It is proposed for the hand which does not hold the mouse, in an exact continuation of Engelbart's vision."
],
[
"See also",
"*BAT keyboard*FrogPad*Keyer*Microwriter*Palantype*Stenotype*Velotype syllable-chord keyboard"
],
[
"References",
"*Bardini, Thierry, ''Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing'' (2000), Chapters 2 & 3, , *Engelbart and English, \"A Research Center for Augmenting Human Intellect\", ''AFIPS Conf.",
"Proc.",
"'', Vol 33, 1968 Fall Joint Computer Conference, p395-410*Lockhead and Klemmer, ''An Evaluation of an 8-Key Word-Writing Typewriter'', IBM Research Report RC-180, IBM Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY, Nov 1959.",
"*Rochester, Bequaert, and Sharp, \"The Chord Keyboard\", ''IEEE Computer'', December 1978, p57-63*Seibel, \"Data Entry Devices and Procedures\", in ''Human Engineering Guide to Equipment Design'', Van Cott and Kinkade (Eds), 1963"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Carolyn Beug"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Carolyn Ann Mayer-Beug''' (December 11, 1952 – September 11, 2001) was a filmmaker and video producer from Santa Monica, California.",
"She died in the September 11 attacks as a passenger of the American Airlines Flight 11."
],
[
"Career",
"In addition to her work as video producer, Beug also directed three music videos for country singer Dwight Yoakam: \"Ain't That Lonely Yet\", \"A Thousand Miles from Nowhere\" and \"Fast as You.\"",
"Beug co-directed the former two videos with Yoakam and was the sole director of the latter video.",
"She won an MTV Video Music award for the Van Halen music video of the song \"Right Now\", which she produced.",
"She also served as senior vice president of Walt Disney Records."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Beug lived in a Tudor-style home in the North 25th Street neighborhood.",
"She hosted an annual backyard barbecue for the Santa Monica High School cross country and track team, which her daughters captained.",
"Beug was a Latter-day Saint."
],
[
"Death and legacy",
"Beug's name is located on Panel N-1 of the National September 11 Memorial’s North Pool, with those of other passengers of Flight 11.Beug was killed at the age of 48 in the crash of American Airlines Flight 11 in the September 11, 2001 attacks.",
"At the time of her death, Carolyn Beug was working on a children's book about Noah's Ark which was to be told from Noah's wife's point of view.",
"On the plane with her was her mother, Mary Alice Wahlstrom.",
"Beug was survived by her twin eighteen-year-old daughters Lauren and Lindsey Mayer-Beug, her 13-year-old son, Nick, and her husband, John Beug, a senior vice president in charge of filmed production for Warner Brothers' record division.",
"She was returning home from taking her daughters to college at the Rhode Island School of Design.At the National 9/11 Memorial, Beug is memorialized at the North Pool, on Panel N-1."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"** Van Halen News Desk article*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cell biology"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cell biology''' (also '''cellular biology''' or '''cytology''') is a branch of biology that studies the structure, function, and behavior of cells.",
"All living organisms are made of cells.",
"A cell is the basic unit of life that is responsible for the living and functioning of organisms.",
"Cell biology is the study of the structural and functional units of cells.",
"Cell biology encompasses both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and has many subtopics which may include the study of cell metabolism, cell communication, cell cycle, biochemistry, and cell composition.",
"The study of cells is performed using several microscopy techniques, cell culture, and cell fractionation.",
"These have allowed for and are currently being used for discoveries and research pertaining to how cells function, ultimately giving insight into understanding larger organisms.",
"Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences while also being essential for research in biomedical fields such as cancer, and other diseases.",
"Research in cell biology is interconnected to other fields such as genetics, molecular genetics, molecular biology, medical microbiology, immunology, and cytochemistry."
],
[
"History",
"Cells were first seen in 17th-century Europe with the invention of the compound microscope.",
"In 1665, Robert Hooke referred to the building blocks of all living organisms as \"cells\" (published in ''Micrographia'') after looking at a piece of cork and observing a cell-like structure; however, the cells were dead.",
"They gave no indication to the actual overall components of a cell.",
"A few years later, in 1674, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to analyze live cells in his examination of algae.",
"All of this preceded the cell theory which states that all living things are made up of cells and that cells are organisms' functional and structural units.",
"This was ultimately concluded by plant scientist Matthias Schleiden and animal scientist Theodor Schwann in 1838, who viewed live cells in plant and animal tissue, respectively.",
"19 years later, Rudolf Virchow further contributed to the cell theory, adding that all cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.",
"Viruses are not considered in cell biology – they lack the characteristics of a living cell and instead are studied in the microbiology subclass of virology."
],
[
"Techniques",
"Cell biology research looks at different ways to culture and manipulate cells outside of a living body to further research in human anatomy and physiology, and to derive medications.The techniques by which cells are studied have evolved.",
"Due to advancements in microscopy, techniques and technology have allowed scientists to hold a better understanding of the structure and function of cells.",
"Many techniques commonly used to study cell biology are listed below:* Cell culture: Utilizes rapidly growing cells on media which allows for a large amount of a specific cell type and an efficient way to study cells.",
"Cell culture is one of the major tools used in cellular and molecular biology, providing excellent model systems for studying the normal physiology and biochemistry of cells (e.g., metabolic studies, aging), the effects of drugs and toxic compounds on the cells, and mutagenesis and carcinogenesis.",
"It is also used in drug screening and development, and large scale manufacturing of biological compounds (e.g., vaccines, therapeutic proteins).",
"* Fluorescence microscopy: Fluorescent markers such as GFP, are used to label a specific component of the cell.",
"Afterwards, a certain light wavelength is used to excite the fluorescent marker which can then be visualized.",
"* Phase-contrast microscopy: Uses the optical aspect of light to represent the solid, liquid, and gas-phase changes as brightness differences.",
"* Confocal microscopy: Combines fluorescence microscopy with imaging by focusing light and snap shooting instances to form a 3-D image.",
"* Transmission electron microscopy: Involves metal staining and the passing of electrons through the cells, which will be deflected upon interaction with metal.",
"This ultimately forms an image of the components being studied.",
"* Cytometry: The cells are placed in the machine which uses a beam to scatter the cells based on different aspects and can therefore separate them based on size and content.",
"Cells may also be tagged with GFP-fluorescence and can be separated that way as well.",
"* Cell fractionation: This process requires breaking up the cell using high temperature or sonification followed by centrifugation to separate the parts of the cell allowing for them to be studied separately."
],
[
"Cell types",
"A drawing of a prokaryotic cellThere are two fundamental classifications of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.",
"Prokaryotic cells are distinguished from eukaryotic cells by the absence of a cell nucleus or other membrane-bound organelle.",
"Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, making them the smallest form of life.",
"Prokaryotic cells include Bacteria and Archaea, and lack an enclosed cell nucleus.",
"Eukaryotic cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists.",
"They range from 10 to 100 μm in diameter, and their DNA is contained within a membrane-bound nucleus.",
"Eukaryotes are organisms containing eukaryotic cells.",
"The four eukaryotic kingdoms are '''Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista.",
"'''They both reproduce through binary fission.",
"Bacteria, the most prominent type, have several different shapes, although most are spherical or rod-shaped.",
"Bacteria can be classed as either gram-positive or gram-negative depending on the cell wall composition.",
"Gram-positive bacteria have a thicker peptidoglycan layer than gram-negative bacteria.",
"Bacterial structural features include a flagellum that helps the cell to move, ribosomes for the translation of RNA to protein, and a nucleoid that holds all the genetic material in a circular structure.",
"There are many processes that occur in prokaryotic cells that allow them to survive.",
"In prokaryotes, '''mRNA synthesis''' is initiated at a promoter sequence on the DNA template comprising two consensus sequences that recruit RNA polymerase.",
"The prokaryotic polymerase consists of a core enzyme of four protein subunits and a σ protein that assists only with initiation.",
"For instance, in a process termed conjugation, the fertility factor allows the bacteria to possess a pilus which allows it to transmit DNA to another bacteria which lacks the F factor, permitting the transmittance of resistance allowing it to survive in certain environments."
],
[
"Structure and function",
"=== Structure of eukaryotic cells ===A diagram of an animal cellEukaryotic cells are composed of the following organelles:* Nucleus: The nucleus of the cell functions as the genome and genetic information storage for the cell, containing all the DNA organized in the form of chromosomes.",
"It is surrounded by a nuclear envelope, which includes nuclear pores allowing for the transportation of proteins between the inside and outside of the nucleus.",
"This is also the site for replication of DNA as well as transcription of DNA to RNA.",
"Afterwards, the RNA is modified and transported out to the cytosol to be translated to protein.",
"* Nucleolus: This structure is within the nucleus, usually dense and spherical in shape.",
"It is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is needed for ribosomal assembly.",
"* Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): This functions to synthesize, store, and secrete proteins to the Golgi apparatus.",
"Structurally, the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes found throughout the cell and connected to the nucleus.",
"The membranes are slightly different from cell to cell and a cell's function determines the size and structure of the ER.",
"* Mitochondria: Commonly known as the powerhouse of the cell is a double membrane bound cell organelle.",
"This functions for the production of energy or ATP within the cell.",
"Specifically, this is the place where the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle for the production of NADH and FADH occurs.",
"Afterwards, these products are used within the electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation for the final production of ATP.",
"* Golgi apparatus: This functions to further process, package, and secrete the proteins to their destination.",
"The proteins contain a signal sequence that allows the Golgi apparatus to recognize and direct it to the correct place.",
"Golgi apparatus also produce glycoproteins and glycolipids.",
"* Lysosome: The lysosome functions to degrade material brought in from the outside of the cell or old organelles.",
"This contains many acid hydrolases, proteases, nucleases, and lipases, which break down the various molecules.",
"Autophagy is the process of degradation through lysosomes which occurs when a vesicle buds off from the ER and engulfs the material, then, attaches and fuses with the lysosome to allow the material to be degraded.",
"* Ribosomes: Functions to translate RNA to protein.",
"it serves as a site of protein synthesis.",
"* Cytoskeleton: Cytoskeleton is a structure that helps to maintain the shape and general organization of the cytoplasm.",
"It anchors organelles within the cells and makes up the structure and stability of the cell.",
"The cytoskeleton is composed of three principal types of protein filaments: actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules, which are held together and linked to subcellular organelles and the plasma membrane by a variety of accessory proteins.",
"* Cell membrane: The cell membrane can be described as a phospholipid bilayer and is also consisted of lipids and proteins.",
"Because the inside of the bilayer is hydrophobic and in order for molecules to participate in reactions within the cell, they need to be able to cross this membrane layer to get into the cell via osmotic pressure, diffusion, concentration gradients, and membrane channels.",
"* Centrioles: Function to produce spindle fibers which are used to separate chromosomes during cell division.Eukaryotic cells may also be composed of the following molecular components:* Chromatin: This makes up chromosomes and is a mixture of DNA with various proteins.",
"* Cilia: They help to propel substances and can also be used for sensory purposes.=== Cell metabolism ===Cell metabolism is necessary for the production of energy for the cell and therefore its survival and includes many pathways and also sustaining the main cell organelles such as the nucleus, the mitochondria, the cell membrane etc.",
"For cellular respiration, once glucose is available, glycolysis occurs within the cytosol of the cell to produce pyruvate.",
"Pyruvate undergoes decarboxylation using the multi-enzyme complex to form acetyl coA which can readily be used in the TCA cycle to produce NADH and FADH2.These products are involved in the electron transport chain to ultimately form a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane.",
"This gradient can then drive the production of ATP and during oxidative phosphorylation.",
"Metabolism in plant cells includes photosynthesis which is simply the exact opposite of respiration as it ultimately produces molecules of glucose.=== Cell signaling ===Cell signaling or cell communication is important for cell regulation and for cells to process information from the environment and respond accordingly.",
"Signaling can occur through direct cell contact or endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling.",
"Direct cell-cell contact is when a receptor on a cell binds a molecule that is attached to the membrane of another cell.",
"Endocrine signaling occurs through molecules secreted into the bloodstream.",
"Paracrine signaling uses molecules diffusing between two cells to communicate.",
"Autocrine is a cell sending a signal to itself by secreting a molecule that binds to a receptor on its surface.",
"Forms of communication can be through:* Ion channels: Can be of different types such as voltage or ligand gated ion channels.",
"They allow for the outflow and inflow of molecules and ions.",
"* G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR): Is widely recognized to contain seven transmembrane domains.",
"The ligand binds on the extracellular domain and once the ligand binds, this signals a guanine exchange factor to convert GDP to GTP and activate the G-α subunit.",
"G-α can target other proteins such as adenyl cyclase or phospholipase C, which ultimately produce secondary messengers such as cAMP, Ip3, DAG, and calcium.",
"These secondary messengers function to amplify signals and can target ion channels or other enzymes.",
"One example for amplification of a signal is cAMP binding to and activating PKA by removing the regulatory subunits and releasing the catalytic subunit.",
"The catalytic subunit has a nuclear localization sequence which prompts it to go into the nucleus and phosphorylate other proteins to either repress or activate gene activity.",
"* Receptor tyrosine kinases: Bind growth factors, further promoting the tyrosine on the intracellular portion of the protein to cross phosphorylate.",
"The phosphorylated tyrosine becomes a landing pad for proteins containing an SH2 domain allowing for the activation of Ras and the involvement of the MAP kinase pathway."
],
[
"Growth and development",
"=== Eukaryotic cell cycle ===The process of cell division in the animal cell cycleCells are the foundation of all organisms and are the fundamental units of life.",
"The growth and development of cells are essential for the maintenance of the host and survival of the organism.",
"For this process, the cell goes through the steps of the cell cycle and development which involves cell growth, DNA replication, cell division, regeneration, and cell death.The cell cycle is divided into four distinct phases: G1, S, G2, and M. The G phase – which is the cell growth phase – makes up approximately 95% of the cycle.",
"The proliferation of cells is instigated by progenitors.",
"All cells start out in an identical form and can essentially become any type of cells.",
"Cell signaling such as induction can influence nearby cells to determinate the type of cell it will become.",
"Moreover, this allows cells of the same type to aggregate and form tissues, then organs, and ultimately systems.",
"The G1, G2, and S phase (DNA replication, damage and repair) are considered to be the interphase portion of the cycle, while the M phase (mitosis) is the cell division portion of the cycle.",
"Mitosis is composed of many stages which include, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis, respectively.",
"The ultimate result of mitosis is the formation of two identical daughter cells.The cell cycle is regulated in cell cycle checkpoints, by a series of signaling factors and complexes such as cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinase, and p53.When the cell has completed its growth process and if it is found to be damaged or altered, it undergoes cell death, either by apoptosis or necrosis, to eliminate the threat it can cause to the organism's survival.===Cell mortality, cell lineage immortality===The ancestry of each present day cell presumably traces back, in an unbroken lineage for over 3 billion years to the origin of life.",
"It is not actually cells that are immortal but multi-generational cell lineages.",
"The immortality of a cell lineage depends on the maintenance of cell division potential.",
"This potential may be lost in any particular lineage because of cell damage, terminal differentiation as occurs in nerve cells, or programmed cell death (apoptosis) during development.",
"Maintenance of cell division potential over successive generations depends on the avoidance and the accurate repair of cellular damage, particularly DNA damage.",
"In sexual organisms, continuity of the germline depends on the effectiveness of processes for avoiding DNA damage and repairing those DNA damages that do occur.",
"Sexual processes in eukaryotes, as well as in prokaryotes, provide an opportunity for effective repair of DNA damages in the germ line by homologous recombination.=== Cell cycle phases ===The cell cycle is a four-stage process that a cell goes through as it develops and divides.",
"It includes Gap 1 (G1), synthesis (S), Gap 2 (G2), and mitosis (M).The cell either restarts the cycle from G1 or leaves the cycle through G0 after completing the cycle.",
"The cell can progress from G0 through terminal differentiation.The interphase refers to the phases of the cell cycle that occur between one mitosis and the next, and includes G1, S, and G2.==== G1 phase ====The size of the cell grows.The contents of cells are replicated.==== S phase ====Replication of DNAThe cell replicates each of the 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).==== G2 phase ====The cell multiplies.In preparation for cell division, organelles and proteins form.==== M phase ====After mitosis, cytokinesis occurs (cell separation)Formation of two daughter cells that are identical==== G0 phase ====These cells leave G1 and enter G0, a resting stage.",
"A cell in G0 is doing its job without actively preparing to divide."
],
[
"Pathology",
"The scientific branch that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level is called cytopathology.",
"Cytopathology is generally used on samples of free cells or tissue fragments, in contrast to the pathology branch of histopathology, which studies whole tissues.",
"Cytopathology is commonly used to investigate diseases involving a wide range of body sites, often to aid in the diagnosis of cancer but also in the diagnosis of some infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions.",
"For example, a common application of cytopathology is the Pap smear, a screening test used to detect cervical cancer, and precancerous cervical lesions that may lead to cervical cancer."
],
[
"Cell cycle checkpoints and DNA damage repair system",
"The cell cycle is composed of a number of well-ordered, consecutive stages that result in cellular division.",
"The fact that cells do not begin the next stage until the last one is finished, is a significant element of cell cycle regulation.",
"Cell cycle checkpoints are characteristics that constitute an excellent monitoring strategy for accurate cell cycle and divisions.",
"Cdks, associated cyclin counterparts, protein kinases, and phosphatases regulate cell growth and division from one stage to another.",
"The cell cycle is controlled by the temporal activation of Cdks, which is governed by cyclin partner interaction, phosphorylation by particular protein kinases, and de-phosphorylation by Cdc25 family phosphatases.",
"In response to DNA damage, a cell's DNA repair reaction is a cascade of signaling pathways that leads to checkpoint engagement, regulates, the repairing mechanism in DNA, cell cycle alterations, and apoptosis.",
"Numerous biochemical structures, as well as processes that detect damage in DNA, are ATM and ATR, which induce the DNA repair checkpointsThe cell cycle is a sequence of activities in which cell organelles are duplicated and subsequently separated into daughter cells with precision.",
"There are major events that happen during a cell cycle.",
"The processes that happen in the cell cycle include cell development, replication and segregation of chromosomes.",
"The cell cycle checkpoints are surveillance systems that keep track of the cell cycle's integrity, accuracy, and chronology.",
"Each checkpoint serves as an alternative cell cycle endpoint, wherein the cell's parameters are examined and only when desirable characteristics are fulfilled does the cell cycle advance through the distinct steps.",
"The cell cycle's goal is to precisely copy each organism's DNA and afterwards equally split the cell and its components between the two new cells.",
"Four main stages occur in the eukaryotes.",
"In G1, the cell is usually active and continues to grow rapidly, while in G2, the cell growth continues while protein molecules become ready for separation.",
"These are not dormant times; they are when cells gain mass, integrate growth factor receptors, establish a replicated genome, and prepare for chromosome segregation.",
"DNA replication is restricted to a separate Synthesis in eukaryotes, which is also known as the S-phase.",
"During mitosis, which is also known as the M-phase, the segregation of the chromosomes occur.",
"DNA, like every other molecule, is capable of undergoing a wide range of chemical reactions.",
"Modifications in DNA's sequence, on the other hand, have a considerably bigger impact than modifications in other cellular constituents like RNAs or proteins because DNA acts as a permanent copy of the cell genome.",
"When erroneous nucleotides are incorporated during DNA replication, mutations can occur.",
"The majority of DNA damage is fixed by removing the defective bases and then re-synthesizing the excised area.",
"On the other hand, some DNA lesions can be mended by reversing the damage, which may be a more effective method of coping with common types of DNA damage.",
"Only a few forms of DNA damage are mended in this fashion, including pyrimidine dimers caused by ultraviolet (UV) light changed by the insertion of methyl or ethyl groups at the purine ring's O6 position."
],
[
"Mitochondrial membrane dynamics",
"Mitochondria are commonly referred to as the cell's \"powerhouses\" because of their capacity to effectively produce ATP which is essential to maintain cellular homeostasis and metabolism.",
"Moreover, researchers have gained a better knowledge of mitochondria's significance in cell biology because of the discovery of cell signaling pathways by mitochondria which are crucial platforms for cell function regulation such as apoptosis.",
"Its physiological adaptability is strongly linked to the cell mitochondrial channel's ongoing reconfiguration through a range of mechanisms known as mitochondrial membrane dynamics, which include endomembrane fusion and fragmentation (separation) as well as ultrastructural membrane remodeling.",
"As a result, mitochondrial dynamics regulate and frequently choreograph not only metabolic but also complicated cell signaling processes such as cell pluripotent stem cells, proliferation, maturation, aging, and mortality.",
"Mutually, post-translational alterations of mitochondrial apparatus and the development of transmembrane contact sites among mitochondria and other structures, which both have the potential to link signals from diverse routes that affect mitochondrial membrane dynamics substantially, Mitochondria are wrapped by two membranes: an inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) and an outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM), each with a distinctive function and structure, which parallels their dual role as cellular powerhouses and signaling organelles.",
"The inner mitochondrial membrane divides the mitochondrial lumen into two parts: the inner border membrane, which runs parallel to the OMM, and the cristae, which are deeply twisted, multinucleated invaginations that give room for surface area enlargement and house the mitochondrial respiration apparatus.",
"The outer mitochondrial membrane, on the other hand, is soft and permeable.",
"It, therefore, acts as a foundation for cell signaling pathways to congregate, be deciphered, and be transported into mitochondria.",
"Furthermore, the OMM connects to other cellular organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), lysosomes, endosomes, and the plasma membrane.",
"Mitochondria play a wide range of roles in cell biology, which is reflected in their morphological diversity.",
"Ever since the beginning of the mitochondrial study, it has been well documented that mitochondria can have a variety of forms, with both their general and ultra-structural morphology varying greatly among cells, during the cell cycle, and in response to metabolic or cellular cues.",
"Mitochondria can exist as independent organelles or as part of larger systems; they can also be unequally distributed in the cytosol through regulated mitochondrial transport and placement to meet the cell's localized energy requirements.",
"Mitochondrial dynamics refers to the adaptive and variable aspect of mitochondria, including their shape and subcellular distribution."
],
[
"Autophagy",
"Autophagy is a self-degradative mechanism that regulates energy sources during growth and reaction to dietary stress.",
"Autophagy also cleans up after itself, clearing aggregated proteins, cleaning damaged structures including mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum and eradicating intracellular infections.",
"Additionally, autophagy has antiviral and antibacterial roles within the cell, and it is involved at the beginning of distinctive and adaptive immune responses to viral and bacterial contamination.",
"Some viruses include virulence proteins that prevent autophagy, while others utilize autophagy elements for intracellular development or cellular splitting.",
"Macro autophagy, micro autophagy, and chaperon-mediated autophagy are the three basic types of autophagy.",
"When macro autophagy is triggered, an exclusion membrane incorporates a section of the cytoplasm, generating the autophagosome, a distinctive double-membraned organelle.",
"The autophagosome then joins the lysosome to create an autolysosome, with lysosomal enzymes degrading the components.",
"In micro autophagy, the lysosome or vacuole engulfs a piece of the cytoplasm by invaginating or protruding the lysosomal membrane to enclose the cytosol or organelles.",
"The chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) protein quality assurance by digesting oxidized and altered proteins under stressful circumstances and supplying amino acids through protein denaturation.",
"Autophagy is the primary intrinsic degradative system for peptides, fats, carbohydrates, and other cellular structures.",
"In both physiologic and stressful situations, this cellular progression is vital for upholding the correct cellular balance.",
"Autophagy instability leads to a variety of illness symptoms, including inflammation, biochemical disturbances, aging, and neurodegenerative, due to its involvement in controlling cell integrity.",
"The modification of the autophagy-lysosomal networks is a typical hallmark of many neurological and muscular illnesses.",
"As a result, autophagy has been identified as a potential strategy for the prevention and treatment of various disorders.",
"Many of these disorders are prevented or improved by consuming polyphenol in the meal.",
"As a result, natural compounds with the ability to modify the autophagy mechanism are seen as a potential therapeutic option.",
"The creation of the double membrane (phagophore), which would be known as nucleation, is the first step in macro-autophagy.",
"The phagophore approach indicates dysregulated polypeptides or defective organelles that come from the cell membrane, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria.",
"With the conclusion of the autophagocyte, the phagophore's enlargement comes to an end.",
"The auto-phagosome combines with the lysosomal vesicles to formulate an auto-lysosome that degrades the encapsulated substances, referred to as phagocytosis."
],
[
"Notable cell biologists",
"* Jean Baptiste Carnoy* Peter Agre* Günter Blobel* Robert Brown* Geoffrey M. Cooper* Christian de Duve* Henri Dutrochet* Robert Hooke* H. Robert Horvitz* Marc Kirschner* Anton van Leeuwenhoek* Ira Mellman* Marta Miączyńska* Peter D. Mitchell* Rudolf Virchow* Paul Nurse* George Emil Palade* Keith R. Porter* Ray Rappaport* Michael Swann* Roger Tsien* Edmund Beecher Wilson* Kenneth R. Miller* Matthias Jakob Schleiden* Theodor Schwann* Yoshinori Ohsumi* Jan Evangelista Purkyně"
],
[
"See also",
"* The American Society for Cell Biology* Cell biophysics* Cell disruption* Cell physiology* Cellular adaptation* Cellular microbiology* Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (disambiguation)* Meiomitosis* Organoid* Outline of cell biology"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* electronic-book electronic-* Cell and Molecular Biology by Karp 5th Ed., *"
],
[
"External links",
"***'' Aging Cell''* \"Francis Harry Compton Crick (1916–2004)\" by A. Andrei at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia* \"Biology Resource By Professor Lin.\""
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Canadian English"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Canadian English''' ('''CanE''', '''CE''', '''en-CA''') encompasses the varieties of English used in Canada.",
"According to the 2016 census, English was the first language of 19.4 million Canadians or 58.1% of the total population; the remainder spoke French (20.8%) or other languages (21.1%).",
"In the Canadian province of Quebec, only 7.5% of the population are anglophone, as most of Quebec's residents are native speakers of Quebec French.The most widespread variety of Canadian English is Standard Canadian English, spoken in all the western and central provinces of Canada (varying little from Central Canada to British Columbia), plus in many other provinces among urban middle- or higher-class speakers from natively English-speaking families.",
"Standard Canadian English is distinct from Atlantic Canadian English, its most notable subset being Newfoundland English, and from Quebec English.",
"Accent differences can also be heard between those who live in urban centres versus those living in rural settings.While Canadian English tends to be close to American English in most regards, classifiable together as North American English, Canadian English also possesses elements from British English as well as some uniquely Canadian characteristics.",
"The precise influence of American English, British English, and other sources on Canadian English varieties has been the ongoing focus of systematic studies since the 1950s.",
"Standard Canadian and General American English share identical or near-identical phonemic inventories, though their exact phonetic realizations may sometimes differ.Canadians and Americans themselves often have trouble differentiating their own two accents, particularly since Standard Canadian and Western United States English have been undergoing a similar vowel shift since the 1980s."
],
[
"History",
"The term \"Canadian English\" is first attested in a speech by the Reverend A. Constable Geikie in an address to the Canadian Institute in 1857 (see DCHP-1 Online, s.v.",
"\"Canadian English\", Avis ''et al.,'' 1967).",
"Geikie, a Scottish-born Canadian, reflected the Anglocentric attitude that would be prevalent in Canada for the next hundred years when he referred to the language as \"a corrupt dialect\", in comparison with what he considered the proper English spoken by immigrants from Britain.One of the earliest influences on Canadian English was the French language, which was brought to Canada by the French colonists in the 17th century.",
"French words and expressions were adopted into Canadian English, especially in the areas of cuisine, politics, and social life.",
"For example, words like beavertail, and toque are uniquely Canadian French terms that have become part of the Canadian English lexicon.An important influence on Canadian English was British English, which was brought to Canada by British settlers in the 18th and 19th centuries.",
"Canadian English borrowed many words and expressions from British English, including words like lorry, flat, and lift.",
"However, Canadian English also developed its own unique vocabulary, including words like tuque, chesterfield, and double-double.",
"In the early 20th century, western Canada was largely populated by farmers from Central and Eastern Europe who were not anglophones.",
"At the time, most anglophones there were re-settlers from Ontario or Quebec who had British, Irish, or Loyalist ancestry, or some mixture of these.",
"Throughout the 20th century, the prairies underwent anglicization and linguistic homogenization through education and exposure to Canadian and American media.American English also had a significant impact on Canadian English's origins as well as again in the 20th century and since then as a result of increased cultural and economic ties between the two countries.",
"American English terms like gasoline, truck, and apartment are commonly used in Canadian English, and some Canadian English speakers have adopted American English pronunciation and grammar.The growth of Canadian media, including television, film, and literature, has also played a role in shaping Canadian English.",
"Chambers (1998) notes that Canadian media has helped to create new words and expressions that reflect Canadian culture and values.",
"Canadian institutions, such as the CBC and the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, have also played a role in promoting and defining Canadian English.In addition to these influences, Canadian English has also been minorly shaped by Indigenous languages.",
"Indigenous words like moose, toboggan, and moccasin have become part of the Canadian English lexicon.Canadian English is the product of five waves of immigration and settlement over a period of more than two centuries.",
"The first large wave of permanent English-speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the most important, was the influx of Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution, chiefly from the Mid-Atlantic States—as such, Canadian English is believed by some scholars to have derived from northern American English.",
"Canadian English has been developing features of its own since the early 19th century.",
"The second wave from Britain and Ireland was encouraged to settle in Canada after the War of 1812 by the governors of Canada, who were worried about American dominance and influence among its citizens.",
"Further waves of immigration from around the globe peaking in 1910, 1960, and at the present time had a lesser influence, but they did make Canada a multicultural country, ready to accept linguistic change from around the world during the current period of globalization.The languages of Aboriginal peoples in Canada started to influence European languages used in Canada even before widespread settlement took place, and the French of Lower Canada provided vocabulary, with words such as ''tuque'' and ''portage'', to the English of Upper Canada.Overall, the history of Canadian English is a reflection of the country's diverse linguistic and cultural heritage.",
"While Canadian English has borrowed many words and expressions from other languages, it has also developed its own unique vocabulary and pronunciation that reflects the country's distinct identity."
],
[
"Historical linguistics",
"Studies on earlier forms of English in Canada are rare, yet connections with other work to historical linguistics can be forged.",
"An overview of diachronic work on Canadian English, or diachronically relevant work, is Dollinger (2012, updated to 2017).",
"Until the 2000s, basically all commentators on the history of CanE have argued from the \"language-external\" history, i.e.",
"social and political history.",
"An exception has been in the area of lexis, where Avis ''et al.''",
"1967 ''Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles'' offered real-time historical data through its quotations.",
"Starting in the 2000s, historical linguists have started to study earlier Canadian English with historical linguistic data.",
"DCHP-1 is now available in open access.",
"Most notably, Dollinger (2008) pioneered the historical corpus linguistic approach for English in Canada with CONTE (Corpus of Early Ontario English, 1776–1849) and offers a developmental scenario for 18th- and 19th-century Ontario.",
"In 2015, Reuter confirmed the scenario laid out in Dollinger (2008), using a 19th-century newspaper corpus from Ontario.",
"Historically, Canadian English included a class-based sociolect known as ''Canadian dainty''.",
"Treated as a marker of upper-class prestige in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Canadian dainty was marked by the use of some features of British English pronunciation, resulting in an accent similar, but not identical, to the Mid-Atlantic accent known in the United States.",
"This accent faded in prominence following World War II, when it became stigmatized as pretentious, and is now almost never heard in modern Canadian life outside of archival recordings used in film, television or radio documentaries."
],
[
"Spelling",
"Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American conventions, the two dominant varieties, and adds some domestic idiosyncrasies.",
"For many words, American and British spelling are both acceptable.",
"Spelling in Canadian English co-varies with regional and social variables, somewhat more so, perhaps, than in the two dominant varieties of English, yet general trends have emerged since the 1970s.Canadian spelling in comparison with American, Australian and British spelling* Words such as ''reali'''z'''e'' and ''organi'''z'''ation'' are usually given their Oxford spellings with a ''z''.",
"* Words such as ''an'''e'''sthesia'' and ''gyn'''e'''cology'' are usually or more commonly spelled as in American English rather than ''an'''ae'''sthesia'' and ''gyn'''ae'''cology'' as in British English.",
"* French-derived words that in American English end with ''-or'', such as ''col'''or''''' or ''hon'''or''''', retain British spellings (''col'''our''''' and ''hon'''our''''').",
"* French-derived words that in American English end with ''-er'', such as ''fib'''er''''' or ''cent'''er''''', retain British spellings (''fib'''re''''' and ''cent'''re''''').",
"This rule is much more relaxed than the ''-our'' rule, with ''kilomet'''er''''' (''kilomet'''re''''') being quite acceptable while ''meag'''er''''' (''meag'''re''''') and ''somb'''er''''' (''somb'''re''''') may not even be noticed.",
"* While the United States uses the Anglo-French spelling ''defen'''se''''' and ''offen'''se''''' (noun), most Canadians use the British spellings ''defen'''ce''''' and ''offen'''ce'''''.",
"(But ''defen'''sive''''' and ''offen'''sive''''' are universal across all forms of English.",
")* Some nouns, as in British English, take ''-ce'' while corresponding verbs take ''-se'' – for example, ''practi'''ce''''' and ''licen'''ce''''' are nouns while ''practi'''se''''' and ''licen'''se''''' are the respective corresponding verbs.",
"(But ''advi'''ce''''' and ''advi'''se''''', which have distinct pronunciations, are universal.",
")* Canadian spelling sometimes retains the British practice of doubling the consonant ''-l-'' when adding suffixes to words even when the final syllable (before the suffix) is not stressed.",
"Compare Canadian (and British) ''cance'''ll'''ed'', ''counse'''ll'''or'', and ''trave'''ll'''ing'' (more often than not in Canadian while always doubled in British) to American ''cance'''l'''ed'', ''counse'''l'''or'', and ''trave'''l'''ing'' (''fue'''l'''ed'', ''fue'''ll'''ed'', ''due'''l'''ing'' and ''due'''ll'''ing'' are all common).",
"In American English, this consonant is only doubled when stressed; thus, for instance, ''contro'''ll'''able'' and ''enthra'''ll'''ing'' are universal.",
"(But both Canadian and British English use ''ballo'''t'''ed'' and ''profi'''t'''ing''.",
")* In other cases, Canadian and American usage differs from British spelling, such as in the case of nouns like ''curb'' and ''tire'' (of a wheel), which in British English are spelled ''kerb'' and ''tyre''.",
"(But ''tire'' in the sense of \"make or become weary\" is universal.)",
"Some other differences like Canadian and American ''aluminum'' versus ''aluminium'' elsewhere correspond to different pronunciations.",
"Canadian spelling conventions can be partly explained by Canada's trade history.",
"For instance, the British spelling of the word ''cheque'' probably relates to Canada's once-important ties to British financial institutions.",
"Canada's automobile industry, on the other hand, has been dominated by American firms from its inception, explaining why Canadians use the American spelling of ''tire'' (hence, \"Canadian Tire\") and American terminology for automobiles and their parts (for example, ''truck'' instead of ''lorry'', ''gasoline'' instead of ''petrol'', ''trunk'' instead of ''boot'').Canada's political history has also had an influence on Canadian spelling.",
"Canada's first prime minister, John A. Macdonald, once advised the Governor General of Canada to issue an order-in-council directing that government papers be written in the British style.A contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for Hansard transcripts of the Parliament of Canada .",
"Many Canadian editors, though, use the ''Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', often along with the chapter on spelling in ''Editing Canadian English'', and, where necessary (depending on context), one or more other references.",
"Throughout part of the 20th century, some Canadian newspapers adopted American spellings, for example, ''color'' as opposed to the British-based ''colour''.",
"Some of the most substantial historical spelling data can be found in Dollinger (2010) and Grue (2013).",
"The use of such spellings was the long-standing practice of the Canadian Press perhaps since that news agency's inception, but visibly the norm prior to World War II.",
"The practice of dropping the letter ''u'' in such words was also considered a labour-saving technique during the early days of printing in which movable type was set manually.",
"Canadian newspapers also received much of their international content from American press agencies, therefore it was much easier for editorial staff to leave the spellings from the wire services as provided.In the 1990s, Canadian newspapers began to adopt the British spelling variants such as ''-our'' endings, notably with ''The Globe and Mail'' changing its spelling policy in October 1990.Other Canadian newspapers adopted similar changes later that decade, such as the Southam newspaper chain's conversion in September 1998.The ''Toronto Star'' adopted this new spelling policy in September 1997 after that publication's ombudsman discounted the issue earlier in 1997.The ''Star'' had always avoided using recognized Canadian spelling, citing the ''Gage Canadian Dictionary'' in their defence.",
"Controversy around this issue was frequent.",
"When the ''Gage Dictionary'' finally adopted standard Canadian spelling, the ''Star'' followed suit.",
"Some publishers, e.g.",
"''Maclean's'', continue to prefer American spellings."
],
[
"Dictionaries",
"The first series of dictionaries of Canadian English was published by Gage Ltd.",
"The ''Beginner's Dictionary'' (1962), the ''Intermediate Dictionary'' (1964) and, finally, the ''Senior Dictionary'' (1967) were milestones in Canadian English lexicography.",
"In November 1967 A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles (DCHP) was published and completed the first edition of Gage's Dictionary of Canadian English Series.",
"The DCHP documents the historical development of Canadian English words that can be classified as \"Canadianisms\".",
"It therefore includes words such as mukluk, Canuck, and bluff, but does not list common core words such as desk, table or car.",
"Many secondary schools in Canada use the graded dictionaries.",
"The dictionaries have regularly been updated since: the ''Senior Dictionary,'' edited by Robert John Gregg, was renamed ''Gage Canadian Dictionary''.",
"Its fifth edition was printed beginning in 1997.Gage was acquired by Thomson Nelson around 2003.The latest editions were published in 2009 by HarperCollins.",
"On 17 March 2017 a second edition of DCHP, the online Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles 2 (DCHP-2), was published.",
"DCHP-2 incorporates the c. 10 000 lexemes from DCHP-1 and adds c. 1 300 novel meanings or 1 002 lexemes to the documented lexicon of Canadian English.In 1997, the ''ITP Nelson Dictionary of the Canadian English Language'' was another product, but has not been updated since.In 1998, Oxford University Press produced a Canadian English dictionary, after five years of lexicographical research, entitled ''The Oxford Canadian Dictionary''.",
"A second edition, retitled ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', was published in 2004.Just as the older dictionaries it includes uniquely Canadian words and words borrowed from other languages, and surveyed spellings, such as whether ''colour'' or ''color'' was the more popular choice in common use.",
"Paperback and concise versions (2005, 2006), with minor updates, are available."
],
[
"Phonology and phonetics",
"Pure vowels of a Standard Canadian English speaker in Toronto on a vowel chart, from .",
"It shows the Canadian Shift from towards as well as the cot-caught merger towards a rounded open back vowel .In terms of the major sound systems (phonologies) of English around the world, Canadian English aligns most closely to American English, though it does also possess certain elements of British English.",
"Both Canadian and American English are grouped together under a common North American English sound system; the mainstream Canadian accent (\"Standard Canadian\") is often compared to the similar and largely overlapping \"General American\" accent, an accent widely spoken throughout the United States and perceived there as being relatively lacking in any noticeable regional features.Western Canada (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba) shows the largest dialect diversity.",
"Northern Canada is, according to William Labov, a dialect region in formation where a homogeneous English dialect has not yet formed.",
"A homogeneous dialect exists in Western and Central Canada, a situation that is similar to that of the Western United States.",
"Labov identifies an \"Inland Canada\" region that concentrates all of the defining features of the dialect centred on the Prairies (a region in Western Canada that mainly includes Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba and is known for its grasslands and plains), with more variable patterns including the metropolitan areas of Vancouver and Toronto.",
"This dialect forms a dialect continuum with Western US English, sharply differentiated from Inland Northern US English of the central and eastern Great Lakes region.Canadian English raises the diphthong onsets of diphthongs and to or before voiceless segments.=== Standard ===Standard Canadian English is socially defined.",
"Standard Canadian English is spoken by those who live in urban Canada, in a middle-class job (or one of their parents holds such employment), who are second generation or later (born and raised in Canada) and speak English as (one of their) dominant language(s) (Dollinger 2019a, adapted from Chambers 1998).",
"It is the variety spoken, in Chambers' (1998: 252) definition, by Anglophone or multilingual residents, who are second generation or later (i.e.",
"born in Canada) and who live in urban settings.",
"Applying this definition, c. 36% of the Canadian population speak Standard Canadian English in the 2006 population, with 38% in the 2011 census.=== Regional variation ===The literature has for a long time conflated the notions of Standard Canadian English (StCE) and regional variation.",
"While some regional dialects are close to Standard Canadian English, they are not identical to it.",
"To the untrained ear, for instance, a BC middle-class speaker from a rural setting may seemingly be speaking Standard Canadian English, but, given Chambers' definition, such a person, because of the rural provenance, would not be included in the accepted definition (see the previous section).",
"The ''Atlas of North American English'', while being the best source for US regional variation, is not a good source for Canadian regional variation, as its analysis is based on only 33 Canadian speakers.",
"Boberg's (2005, 2008) studies offer the best data for the delimitation of dialect zones.",
"The results for vocabulary and phonetics overlap to a great extent, which has allowed the proposal of dialect zones.",
"Dollinger and Clarke distinguish between:* West (B.C., Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba; with B.C.",
"a sub-zone on the lexical level)* Ontario (with Northwestern Ontario a transition zone with the West)* Quebec (concerning the c. 500 000 Anglophone speakers in the province, not the Francophone speakers of English)* Maritimes (PEI, NS, NB, with PEI a subgroup on the lexical level)* Newfoundland==== Indigenous ====First Nations and Inuit from Northern Canada speak a version of Canadian English influenced by the phonology of their first languages.",
"European Canadians in these regions are relatively recent arrivals, and have not produced a dialect that is distinct from southern Canadian English.Overall, First Nations Canada English dialects rest between language loss and language revitalization.",
"British Columbia has the greatest linguistic diversity, as it is home to about half of the Indigenous languages spoken in Canada.",
"Most of the languages spoken in the province are endangered due to the small number of speakers.",
"To some extent, the dialects reflect the historical contexts where English has been a major colonizing language.",
"The dialects are also a result of the late stages of depidginization and decreolization, which resulted in linguistic markers of Indigenous identity and solidarity.",
"These dialects are observed to have developed a lingua francas due to the contact between English and Indigenous populations, and eventually, the various dialects began to converge with standard English.Certain First Nations English have also shown to have phonological standard Canadian English, thus resulting in a more distinct dialect formation.",
"Plains Cree, for instance, is a language that has less phonological contrasts compared to standard Canadian English.",
"Plains Cree has no voicing contrast.",
"The stops /p/, /t/, and /k/ are mostly voiceless and unaspirated, though they may vary in other phonetic environments from voiceless to voiced.",
"Plains Cree also does not have the liquids or fricatives found in the standard form.",
"Dene Suline, on the other hand, has more phonological contrasts, resulting from the use of features not seen in the standard form.",
"The language has 39 phonemic consonants and a higher proportion of glottalized consonants.==== Maritimes ====averaged F1/F2 means for speakers from N.S., N.B., N.L.Many in the Maritime provinces – Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island – have an accent that sounds more like Scottish English and, in some places, Irish English than General American.",
"Outside of major communities, dialects can vary markedly from community to community, as well as from province to province, reflecting ethnic origin as well as a past in which there were few roads and many communities, with some isolated villages.",
"Into the 1980s, residents of villages in northern Nova Scotia could identify themselves by dialects and accents distinctive to their village.",
"The dialects of Prince Edward Island are often considered the most distinct grouping.The phonology of Maritimer English has some unique features:* ''Cot–caught'' merger in effect, but toward a central vowel .",
"* No Canadian Shift of the short front vowels* Pre-consonantal is sometimes (though rarely) deleted.",
"* The flapping of intervocalic and to alveolar tap between vowels, as well as pronouncing it as a glottal stop , is less common in the Maritimes.",
"Therefore, ''battery'' is pronounced instead of .",
"* Especially among the older generation, and are not merged; that is, the beginning sound of ''why'', ''white'', and ''which'' is different from that of ''witch'', ''with'', and ''wear''.",
"* Like most varieties of CanE, Maritimer English contains Canadian raising.",
";Nova ScotiaAs with many other distinct dialects, vowels are a marker of Halifax English as a distinctive variant of Canadian English.",
"Typically, Canadian dialects have a merger of the low back vowels in palm, lot, thought and cloth.",
"The merged vowel in question is usually /ɑ/ or sometimes the rounded variant /ɒ/.",
"Meanwhile, in Halifax, the vowel is raised and rounded.",
"For example, body; popped; and gone.",
"In the homophones, caught-cot and stalk-stock, the rounding in the merged vowel is also much more pronounced here than in other Canadian varieties.",
"The Canadian Shift is also not as evident in the traditional dialect.",
"Instead, the front vowels are raised.",
"For example, the vowel in had is raised to hæed; and camera is raised to kæmra.Although it has not been studied extensively, the speech of Cape Breton specifically seems to bear many similarities with the nearby island of Newfoundland, which is often why Westerners can have a hard time differentiating the two accents.",
"For instance, they both use the fronting of the low back vowel.",
"These similarities can be attributed to geographic proximity, the fact that about one-quarter of the Cape Breton population descends from Irish immigrants - many of whom arrived via Newfoundland - and the Scottish and Irish influences on both provinces.",
"The speech of Cape Breton can almost be seen as a continuum between the two extremes of the Halifax variant and the Newfoundland variant.",
"In addition, there is heavy influence of standard varieties of Canadian English on Cape Breton English, especially in the diphthongization of the goat and goose vowels and the frequent use of Canadian raising.==== Newfoundland ====Compared to the commonly spoken English dominating neighbouring provinces, Newfoundland English is famously distinct in its dialects and accents.",
"Newfoundland English differs in vowel pronunciation, morphology, syntax, and preservation of archaic adverbial-intensifiers.",
"The dialect varies markedly from community to community, as well as from region to region.",
"Its distinctiveness partly results from a European settlement history that dates back centuries, which explains Newfoundland's most notable linguistic regions: an Irish-settled area in the southeast (the southern Avalon Peninsula) and an English-settled area in the southwest.A well-known phonetic feature many Newfoundland speakers possess is the kit-dress merger.",
"The mid lax /ɛ/ here is raised to the high lax stressed /ɪ/, particularly before oral stops and nasals, so consequently \"pen\" is pronounced more like \"pin\".Another phonetic feature more unique to Newfoundland English is TH-stopping.",
"Here, the voiceless dental fricative /θ/ in words like ''myth'' and ''width'' are pronounced more like ''t'' or the voiced dental fricative /ð/ in words like ''the'' and ''these''.",
"TH-stopping is more common for /ð/, especially in unstressed function words (e.g.",
"that, those, their, etc.",
").==== Ontario ====Canadian raising is quite strong throughout the province of Ontario, except within the Ottawa Valley.",
"The introduction of Canadian raising to Canada can be attributed to the Scottish and Irish immigrants who arrived in the 18th and 19th centuries.The origins of Canadian raising to Scotland and revealed that the Scottish dialects spoken by these immigrants had a probable impact on its development.",
"This feature impacts the pronunciation of the sound in \"right\" and the sound in \"lout\".",
"Canadian Raising indicates a scenario where the start of the diphthong is nearer to the destination of the glide before voiceless consonants than before voiced consonants.",
"The Canadian Shift is also a common vowel shift found in Ontario.",
"The retraction of was found to be more advanced for women in Ontario than for people from the Prairies or Atlantic Canada and men.In the southern part of Southwestern Ontario (roughly in the line south from Sarnia to St. Catharines), despite the existence of many characteristics of West/Central Canadian English, many speakers, especially those under 30, speak a dialect influenced by the Inland Northern American English dialect (in part due to proximity to cities like Detroit and Buffalo, New York) though there are minor differences such as Canadian raising (e.g.",
"\"ice\" vs \"my\").The north and northwestern parts of Southwestern Ontario, the area consisting of the Counties of Huron, Bruce, Grey, and Perth, referred to as the \"Queen's Bush\" in the 19th century, did not experience communication with the dialects of the southern part of Southwestern Ontario and Central Ontario until the early 20th century.",
"Thus, a strong accent similar to Central Ontarian is heard, yet many different phrasings exist.",
"It is typical in the area to drop phonetic sounds to make shorter contractions, such as: ''prolly'' (probably), ''goin''' (going), and \"Wuts goin' on tonight?",
"D'ya wanna do sumthin'?\"",
"It is particularly strong in the County of Bruce, so much that it is commonly referred to as being the Bruce Cownian (Bruce Countian) accent.",
"Also, merge with to , with \"were\" sounding more like \"wear\".Residents of the Golden Horseshoe (including the Greater Toronto Area) are known to merge the second with the in ''Toronto'', pronouncing the name variously as or .",
"This is not unique to Toronto; Atlanta is often pronounced \"Atlanna\" by residents.",
"Sometimes is elided altogether, resulting in \"Do you want this one er'iss one?\"",
"The word ''southern'' is often pronounced with .",
"In the area north of the Regional Municipality of York and south of Parry Sound, notably among those who were born in the surrounding communities, the cutting down of syllables and consonants often heard, e.g.",
"\"probably\" is reduced to \"prolly\" or \"probly\" when used as a response.",
"In Greater Toronto, the diphthong tends to be fronted (as a result the word ''about'' is pronounced as ).",
"The Greater Toronto Area is linguistically diverse, with 43 percent of its people having a mother tongue other than English.",
"As a result Toronto English has distinctly more variability than Inland Canada.In Eastern Ontario, Canadian raising is not as strong as it is in the rest of the province.",
"In Prescott and Russell, parts of Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry and Eastern Ottawa, French accents are often mixed with English ones due to the high Franco-Ontarian population there.",
"In Lanark County, Western Ottawa and Leeds-Grenville and the rest of Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry, the accent spoken is nearly identical to that spoken in Central Ontario and the Quinte area.A linguistic enclave has also formed in the Ottawa Valley, heavily influenced by original Scottish, Irish, and German settlers, and existing along the Ontario-Quebec boundary, which has its own distinct accent known as the Ottawa Valley twang (or brogue).",
"Phonetically, the Ottawa Valley twang is characterized by the lack of Canadian raising as well as the cot–caught merger, two common elements of mainstream Canadian English.",
"This accent is quite rare in the region today.==== Quebec ====English is a minority language in Quebec (with French the majority), but has many speakers in Montreal, the Eastern Townships and in the Gatineau-Ottawa region.",
"A person whose mother tongue is English and who still speaks English is called an ''Anglophone'', versus a ''Francophone'', or French speaker.Many people in Montreal distinguish between words like ''marry'' versus ''merry'' and ''parish'' versus ''perish'', which are homophones to most other speakers of Canadian English.",
"Quebec Anglophones generally pronounce French street names in Montreal as French words.",
"''Pie IX'' Boulevard is pronounced as in French: not as \"pie nine\" but as (compare French /pi.nœf/).",
"On the other hand, Anglophones pronounce the final ''d'' as in ''Bernard'' and ''Bouchard''; the word ''Montreal'' is pronounced as an English word and ''Rue Lambert-Closse'' is known as ''Clossy Street'' (vs French /klɔs/).",
"In the city of Montreal, especially in some of the western suburbs like Côte-St-Luc and Hampstead, there is a strong Jewish influence in the English spoken in those areas.",
"A large wave of Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union before and after World War II is also evident today.",
"Their English has a strong Yiddish influence, and there are some similarities to English spoken in New York.",
"Words used mainly in Quebec and especially in Montreal are: ''stage'' for \"apprenticeship\" or \"internship\", ''copybook'' for a notebook, ''dépanneur'' or ''dep'' for a convenience store, and ''guichet'' for an ABM/ATM.",
"It is also common for Anglophones, particularly those of Greek or Italian descent, to use translated French words instead of common English equivalents such as \"open\" and \"close\" for \"on\" and \"off\" or \"Open the lights, please\" for \"Turn on the lights, please\".==== West ====Western Canadian English describes the English spoken in the four most western provinces—British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba.",
"British Columbia, in particular is a sub-zone on the lexical level.",
"Phonetically, Western Canadian English has much more raising and much less than further east, and Canadian raised is further back.==== British Columbia ====British Columbia English shares dialect features with both Standard Canadian English and the American Pacific Northwest English.",
"In Vancouver, speakers exhibit more vowel retraction of before nasals than people from Toronto, and this retraction may become a regional marker of West Coast English.",
"raising (found in words such as beg, leg, and peg) and raising (found words such as bag, lag and rag), a prominent feature in Northwestern American speakers, is also found in Vancouver speakers, causing \"beg\" to sound like the first syllable of \"bagel\" and \"bag\" to be similar.",
"In the past, the ANAE reported that Vancouverites' participation in the Canadian raising of was questionable, but nowadays they tend to raise both and .",
"The \"o\" in such words as ''holy, goal, load, know,'' etc.",
"is pronounced as a close-mid back rounded vowel, , but not as rounded as in the Prairies where there are strong Scandinavian, Slavic and German influences, which can lend to a more stereotypical \"Canadian\" accent.Finally, there is also the /t/ sound which according to Gregg (2016), \"with many Vancouver speakers is intrusive between /l/ or /n/ and /s/ in words like sense , Wilson /wɪltsən/ and also /'ɒltsoʊ/ \".====Saskatchewan====English in Saskatchewan has its pool of phonetic features shared with other provinces used by certain demographics.",
"For instance, it has the consonant variables /ntV/ and /VtV/, the latter being a common feature of North American English and is defined as the intervoicing of /t/ between vowels.",
"Meanwhile, /ntV/ \"frequently occurs in words such as \"centre\" and \"twenty\" where /t/ follows the alveolar nasal /n/ and precedes an unstressed vowel\".",
"According to Nylvek (1992), both variables of /t/ are generally more often used by younger male over older female speakers."
],
[
"Grammar",
"There are a handful of syntactical practices unique to Canadian English.",
"When writing, Canadians may start a sentence with ''As well'', in the sense of \"in addition\"; this construction is a Canadianism.North American English prefers ''have got'' to ''have'' to denote possession or obligation (as in ''I've got a car'' vs. ''I have a car''); Canadian English differs from American English in tending to eschew plain ''got'' (''I got a car''), which is a common third option in informal US English.The grammatical construction \"''be done'' something\" means roughly \"''have/has finished'' something\".",
"For example, \"I am done my homework\" and \"The dog is done dinner\" are genuine sentences in this dialect, respectively meaning \"I have finished my homework\" and \"The dog has finished dinner\".",
"Another example, \"Let's start after you're done all the coffee\", means \"Let's start after you've finished all the coffee\".",
"This is not exactly the same as the standard construction \"''to be done with'' something\", since \"She is done the computer\" can only mean \"She is done with the computer\" in one sense: \"She has finished (building) the computer\".=== Date and time notation ===Canadian passport stamp from Queenston Bridge, showing the date 8 June 2014Date and time notation in Canadian English is a mixture of British and American practices.",
"The date can be written in the form of either \"\" or \"1 July 2017\"; the latter is common in more formal writing and bilingual contexts.",
"The Government of Canada only recommends writing all-numeric dates in the form of YYYY-MM-DD (e.g.",
"2017-07-01), following ISO 8601.Nonetheless, the traditional DD/MM/YY and MM/DD/YY systems remain in everyday use, which can be interpreted in multiple ways: 01/07/17 can mean either 1 July 2017 or 7 January 2017.Private members' bills have repeatedly attempted to clarify the situation.",
"In business communication and filing systems the YYMMDD is used to assist in automatic ordering of electronic files.The government also recommends use of the 24-hour clock, which is widely used in contexts such as transportation schedules, parking meters, and data transmission.",
"Many speakers of English use the 12-hour clock in everyday speech, even when reading from a 24-hour display, similar to the use of the 24-hour clock in the United Kingdom."
],
[
"Vocabulary",
"Where Canadian English shares vocabulary with other English dialects, it tends to share most with American English, but also has many non-American terms distinctively shared instead with Britain.",
"British and American terms also can coexist in Canadian English to various extents, sometimes with new nuances in meaning; a classic example is (British) often used interchangeably with (American), though, in Canadian speech, the latter can more narrowly mean a trip elsewhere and the former can mean general time off work.",
"In addition, the vocabulary of Canadian English also features some words that are seldom (if ever) found elsewhere.",
"A good resource for these and other words is ''A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles'', which is currently being revised at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia.",
"The Canadian public appears to take interest in unique \"Canadianisms\": words that are distinctively characteristic of Canadian English—though perhaps not exclusive to Canada; there is some disagreement about the extent to which \"Canadianism\" means a term actually unique to Canada, with such an understanding possibly overstated by the popular media.",
"As a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Canada shares many items of institutional terminology and professional designations with the countries of the former British Empire—for example, , for a police officer of the lowest rank, and .=== Regional variation ===While Canadian English has vocabulary that distinguishes it from other varieties of English across the world, there is significant regional variation in its lexis within Canada as well.",
"A balanced cross-continental sample of 1800 Canadians and 360 Americans the Canada and the USA is the result of Boberg's North American Regional Vocabulary Survey (NARVS), a questionnaire employed by Boberg from 1999-2007 that sought out lexical items that vary regionally within Canada.",
"Six regions were identified in the NARVS data collection: The West, which includes British Columbia and the Prairies; Ontario; Quebec, which represents data from Montreal mostly; New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; Prince Edward Island; and Newfoundland.",
"Many regional differences in the lexis are item-specific.",
"For example, one of these items has to do with the nationally enjoyed meal of pizza, and more specifically, the term used to refer to a pizza that features all available toppings.",
"While Atlantic Canada refers to this order as ‘the works,’ the majority term used from eastern Ontario to the West Coast is deluxe, and terms such as 'all-dressed' and 'everything-on-it' are used in Quebec and Toronto, respectively.",
"Other examples include the regionally varied usage of running shoes/runners/sneakers to describe athletic shoes, and notebook/scribbler/cahier to describe any type of plain note-pad.",
"Despite the regional variation of vocabulary items within Canada, the lexis of Canadian English still maintains greater commonality between its own regions than it does with American English or British English.==== Quebec ====Quebec recognizes French as its primary language.",
"As a result, English has no official status in Québec and is not used often in the public sphere.",
"Although, in more metropolitan area such as Montréal or Québec City, it is not uncommon to see English media in public, such as in advertisements and store-fronts.",
"Also, the provincial government must officially be referred to as the \"Gouvernement du Québec\", regardless of the language being by the speaker.",
"While the lexical catalog of Quebec English contains items influenced or borrowed by French, the influence of the dominant French language on Quebec English is marginal.",
"The francophone dominance in Quebec makes the province a linguistic anomaly within Canada, where English maintains a negligible role in government and public domains.",
"The French influence on Quebec English operates through five distinct processes, as identified by Charles Boberg: elective direct lexical transfer of non-English words (e.g., garderie for daycare), imposed direct lexical transfer of non-English words.",
"for example, SAQ for ''Société des alcools du Québec'', loan translation/calques such as 'all-dressed' for the French equivalent 'toute garnie'.",
"Semantic shifts of existing English words, like 'magasin' for 'store', in addition to syntactic influences; e.g, \"we're living here three years\" instead of the English \"we've been living here for three years\".",
"Although Quebec English differs from other Canadian regional lexes due to its special contact with French, it still shares some similarities with the lexis of other Canadian regions.",
"For instance, the use of lexical items such as all-dressed has been successfully transferred to most other Canadian regional lexes.==== Ontario ====Southern Ontario was initially settled by white Protestants, with the late 19th century witnessing the migration of white Protestant settlers from Ontario to western Canada following the suppression of the Métis opposition.",
"This migration facilitated the transplantation of the Ontario accent and the emergence of a homogeneous Canadian English dialect.",
"Distinctive to Ontario are Canadianisms such as concession roads, which refer to roads that transect a township, dew-worm, which refers to an earthworm, and fire-reel, which refers to a fire truck.",
"Walter S. Avis identified several linguistic features characteristic of Ontarians, including their preference for the word vacation, rather than holiday—which is considered more British English—and sack over paper bag.",
"While there may be numerous such lexical differences in the speech of provincial and national borderers, Avis asserts that these are relatively minor compared to the linguistic features held in common.",
"Furthermore, Avis suggests that the difference between American English and Ontario English is relatively small near the border due to their close proximity.",
"The historical settlement patterns of southern Ontario, coupled with linguistic research, indicate the existence of distinctively Ontarian lexical items.",
"However, Ontario maintains greater similarities with other Canadian regions than it does with the neighbouring American English and its regional variations.Northern Ontario English has several distinct qualities stemming from its large Franco-Ontarian population.",
"As a result several French and English words are used interchangeably.",
"A number of phrases and expressions may also be found in Northern Ontario that are not present in the rest of the province, such as the use of ''camp'' for a summer home where Southern Ontario speakers would idiomatically use cottage.In the mid to late 90s, certain words from Jamaican Patois, Arabic and Somali were incorporated into the local variety of English by Toronto youth, especially in immigrant communities, thus giving rise to Toronto slang.",
"These examples included words such as ''mandem'', ''styll'', ''wallahi'', ''wasteman'', and ''yute''.==== Prairies (Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta) ====The Prairies, consisting of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, have their own lexical features.",
"The linguistic legacy from the settlement patterns in these regions, along with the Indigenous communities, specifically the large Métis population in Saskatchewan and Manitoba also carry certain linguistic traits inherited from the French, Aboriginal and Celtic forebears.",
"The linguistic features brought by Ukrainian, German, and Mennonite populations in the Saskatchewan Valley of Saskatchewan and Red River Valley of Manitoba have also influenced the lexis of the Prairies.",
"Some terms are derived from these groups and some are formed within the region by locals throughout time.",
"An example of the former is the high-profile variable bunnyhug, a term for a hooded sweatshirt in Saskatchewan.",
"As discussed in The Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, bunnyhug is purposely and commonly used by young Saskatchewan speakers to indicate a sense of provincial identity, and is referred to as a Saskatchewanism.",
"It should be further noted that it is assumed based on circumstantial evidence that teenagers played a crucial and special role in the spread and adoption of the term bunnyhug for hooded sweatshirts.",
"Across Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Manitoba there are other terms consistent in or throughout the 3 provinces.",
"Biffed is a term for falling, such as \"John biffed it over there\".",
"Pickerel is Manitoba's official fish, also known as Walleye.",
"Play structure is used to describe a playground for children consisting of monkey bars, slides, etc.==== Atlantic Canada (New Brunswick & Nova Scotia, PEI, Newfoundland)====Canada's Atlantic provinces were the first part of North America to be discovered by Europeans.",
"The Atlantic provinces, historically and collectively called the Maritimes, consist of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island.",
"Newfoundland and Labrador, which is not part of the Maritimes, is also part of Atlantic Canada.",
"The historical immigrants from Europe have shaped cultures and lexical catalogs across the regions of Atlantic Canada that reflect British, Scottish, Gaelic, and French customs.",
"The vernacular variations of English spoken in the Atlantic region of Canada.",
"Newfoundland and Labrador English (NLE) possesses unique vocabulary compared to standard Canadian English.",
"The Dictionary of Newfoundland English covers the vocabulary common to Newfoundlanders, such as Newfoundland \"screech rum\", a Newfoundland-specific brand of rum; mummering, referring to a Christmas tradition; and gut-foundered, meaning starving or fastened.",
"Nova Scotia also is home to its own vocabulary.",
"The term \"Sobeys bag\", used to refer to a plastic grocery bag, originates from the Nova Scotian grocery store chain Sobeys.",
"Similarly, Prince Edward Island has its own vocabulary and dictionary.",
"For example, angishore refers to a fisherman who is too lazy to fish and likely is a lexical item originating from Irish Gaelic settlers in Newfoundland.",
"Sarah Sawler, a writer from Halifax, highlights terms that are common to Maritimes, such as dooryard for front yard, owly for when someone is angry or irritable, and biff for throw.=== Education ===The term ''college'', which refers to post-secondary education in general in the US, refers in Canada to either a post-secondary technical or vocational institution, or to one of the colleges that exist as federated schools within some Canadian universities.",
"Most often, a ''college'' is a community college, not a university.",
"It may also refer to a CEGEP in Quebec.",
"In Canada, might denote someone obtaining a diploma in business management, an equivalent of this would be an associate degree in the United States.",
"In contrast, is the term for someone earning a bachelor's degree, typically at a post-secondary university institution.",
"Hence, the term in Canada does not have the same meaning as , unless the speaker or context clarifies the specific level of post-secondary education that is meant.Within the public school system the chief administrator of a school is generally \"the principal\", as in the United States, but the term is not used preceding their name, i.e., \"Principal Smith\".",
"The assistant to the principal is not titled as \"assistant principal\", but rather as \"vice-principal\", although the former is not unknown.",
"This usage is identical to that in Northern Ireland.Canadian universities publish ''calendars'' or ''schedules'', not ''catalogs'' as in the US.",
"Canadian students ''write'' or ''take'' exams (in the US, students generally \"take\" exams while teachers \"write\" them); they rarely ''sit'' them (standard British usage).",
"Those who supervise students during an exam are sometimes called ''invigilators'' as in Britain, or sometimes ''proctors'' as in the US; usage may depend on the region or even the individual institution.Successive years of school are usually referred to as ''grade one'', ''grade two'', and so on.",
"In Quebec, Francophone speakers will often say ''primary one'', ''primary two'' as a direct translation from the French, and so on; while Anglophones will say ''grade one'', ''grade two''.",
"These terms are comparable with the American ''first grade, second grade'' (which is used in Canada, yet is rare), English/Welsh ''Year 1, Year 2'', Scottish/Northern Irish ''Primary 1, Primary 2'' or ''P1, P2'', and Southern Irish ''First Class, Second Class'' and so on.",
"The year of school before grade 1 is usually called \"Kindergarten\", with the exception of Nova Scotia, where it is called \"grade primary\".",
"In addition, children younger than the public school start age may attend 'pre-primary', although this is a newer addition to the Nova Scotian public-school system, and is not used frequently elsewhere.In parts of the US, the four years of high school are termed the freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (terms also used for college years); in Canada, the specific levels are used instead, such as \"grade nine\" in lieu of freshman.",
"As for higher education, only the term ''freshman'' (often reduced to ''frosh'') has some currency in Canada.",
"Moreover, some Canadian public-school systems have adolescents start high-school in 'Grade 10' or, the sophomore year, although, this can depend on the province and even vary within a school-district.",
"The American usages \"sophomore\", \"junior\" and \"senior\" are not used in Canadian university terminology, or in speech.",
"The specific high-school grades and university years are therefore stated and individualized; for example, 'Sarah is starting Grade 10 this year', which Americans would state as 'Sarah is going to be a sophomore this year'.",
"Similarly in the post-secondary education context, 'Francois is in second year of university' rather than the Americanism 'Francois is a sophomore in university'.Canadian students use the term ''marks'' (more common in England) or ''grades'' (more common in the US) to refer to their results.",
"Usage is mixed, although ''marks'' more commonly refer to a single score whereas ''grades'' often refers to the cumulative score in that class.=== Units of measurement ===Unlike in the United States, use of metric units within a majority of industries is standard in Canada, as a result of the partial national adoption of the metric system during the mid-to-late 1970s that was eventually stalled; this has spawned some colloquial usages such as ''klick'' for kilometre.Nonetheless, US units are still used in many situations.",
"Imperial volumes are also used, albeit rarely—although many Canadians and Americans mistakenly conflate the measurement systems despite their slight differences from each other (e.g.",
"US and metric cups are 237ml and 250ml, respectively).For example, most English Canadians state their weight and height in pounds and feet/inches, respectively.",
"This is also the case for many Quebec Francophones.",
"Distances while playing golf are always marked and discussed in yards, though official scorecards may also show metres.",
"Temperatures for cooking or pools are often given in Fahrenheit, while the weather is given in Celsius.",
"Directions in the Prairie provinces are sometimes given using miles, because the country roads generally follow the mile-based grid of the Dominion Land Survey.",
"Motor vehicle speed limits are measured in kilometres per hour.Canadians measure property, both residential and commercial, floor areas are in square feet or square metres, property is in square feet, square metres, acres or hectares.",
"Fuel efficiency is more often discussed in the metric L/100 km than miles per US gallon.",
"The Letter paper size of 8.5 inches × 11 inches is used instead of the international and metric equivalent A4 size of 210 mm × 297 mm.",
"Beer cans are 355 mL (12 US oz), while beer bottles are typically 341 mL (12 Imperial oz), and draft beer is sold in various units; US or Imperial oz, US or Imperial pint, or occasionally mL.Building materials are used in soft conversions of imperial sizes, but often purchased in relation to the imperial sizes.",
"For example, 8-inch concrete masonry units can be referred to as an 8-inch CMU or 190 CMU.",
"The actual material used in the US and Canada is the same.=== Transport ===* Although Canadian lexicon features both ''railway'' and ''railroad'', ''railway'' is the usual term in naming (witness Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway), though ''railroad'' can be heard fairly frequently in some regions; most rail terminology in Canada follows American usage (for example, ''ties'' and ''cars'' rather than ''sleepers'' and ''carriages'').",
"* A two-way ticket can be either a ''round-trip'' (American term) or a ''return'' (British term).",
"* The terms ''highway'' (for example, Trans-Canada Highway), ''expressway'' (Central Canada, as in the Gardiner Expressway) and ''freeway'' (Sherwood Park Freeway, Edmonton) are often used to describe various high-speed roads with varying levels of access control.",
"Generally, but not exclusively, ''highway'' refers to any provincially funded road regardless of its access control.",
"Often such roads will be numbered.",
"Similar to the US, the terms ''expressway'' and ''freeway'' are often used interchangeably to refer to controlled-access highways, that is, divided highways with access only at grade-separated interchanges (for example, a 400-Series Highway in Ontario).",
"''Expressway'' may also refer to a limited-access road that has control of access but has at-grade junctions, railway crossings (for example, the Harbour Expressway in Thunder Bay.)",
"Sometimes the term ''Parkway'' is also used (for example, the Hanlon Parkway in Guelph).",
"In Saskatchewan, the term 'grid road' is used to refer to minor highways or rural roads, usually gravel, referring to the 'grid' upon which they were originally designed.",
"In Quebec, freeways and expressways are called autoroutes.In Alberta, the generic ''Trail'' is often used to describe a freeway, expressway or major urban street (for example, Deerfoot Trail, Macleod Trail or Crowchild Trail in Calgary, Yellowhead Trail, Victoria Trail or Mark Messier/St.Albert Trail in Edmonton).",
"The British term ''motorway'' is not used.",
"The American terms ''turnpike'' and ''tollway'' for a toll road are not common.",
"The term ''throughway'' or ''thruway'' was used for first tolled limited-access highways (for example, the Deas Island Throughway, now Highway 99, from Vancouver, BC, to Blaine, Washington, USA or the Saint John Throughway (Highway 1) in Saint John, NB), but this term is not common anymore.",
"In everyday speech, when a particular roadway is not being specified, the term ''highway'' is generally or exclusively used.",
"* A railway at-grade junction can be called a ''level crossing,'' as well as the term ''grade crossing'', which is commonly used in the US.",
"* A railway or highway crossing overhead is an ''overpass'' or ''underpass'', depending on which part of the crossing is referred to (the two are used more or less interchangeably); the British term ''flyover'' is sometimes used in Ontario, and in the Maritimes as well as on occasion in the prairies (such as the 4th avenue flyover in Calgary, Alberta), ''subway'' is also used.",
"* In Quebec, English speakers often use the word \"metro\" to mean subway.",
"Non-native Anglophones of Quebec will also use the designated proper title \"Metro\" to describe the Montreal subway system.",
"* The term ''Texas gate'' refers to the type of metal grid called a ''cattle guard'' in American English or a ''cattle grid'' in British English.",
"* Depending on the region, large trucks used to transport and deliver goods are referred to as 'transport trucks' (e.g., used in Ontario and Alberta) or 'transfer trucks' (e.g., used in Prince Edward Island)=== Politics ===* While in standard usage the terms prime minister and premier are interchangeable terms for the head of an elected parliamentary government, Canadian English today generally follows a usage convention of reserving the title ''prime minister'' for the federal first minister and referring to provincial or territorial leaders as ''premiers''.",
"Because Canadian French does not have separate terms for the two positions, using for both, the title ''prime minister'' is sometimes seen in reference to a provincial leader when a Francophone is speaking or writing English.",
"Also, until the 1970s the leader of the Ontario provincial government was officially styled ''prime minister''.",
"* When a majority of the elected members of the House of Commons or a provincial legislature are not members of the same party as the government, the situation is referred to as a minority government rather than a hung Parliament.",
"* To ''table'' a document in Canadian, in parliamentary usage, is to introduce or present it (as in Britain), whereas in the US it means to postpone consideration until a later date, often indefinitely.",
"While the introduction meaning is the most common sense in non-parliamentary usage, the presentation meaning is also used in Canada.",
"The Canadian Oxford Dictionary simply recommends avoiding the term in non-parliamentary context.",
"* In Canada, a committee is ''struck'', whereas in the US committees are appointed, formed, or created, etc.",
"* Several political terms are more in use in Canada than elsewhere, including ''riding'' (as a general term for a parliamentary constituency or electoral district, this term is unique to Canada).",
"The term ''reeve'' was at one time common for the equivalent of a mayor in some smaller municipalities in British Columbia and Ontario, but is now falling into disuse.",
"The title is still used for the leader of a rural municipality in Saskatchewan, parts of Alberta, and Manitoba.",
"* The term ''Tory,'' used in Britain with a similar meaning, denotes a supporter of the present-day federal Conservative Party of Canada, the historic federal or provincial Progressive Conservative Party.",
"The term Red Tory is also used to denote the more socially liberal wings of the Tory parties.",
"Blue Tory is less commonly used, and refers to more strict fiscal (rather than social) conservatism.",
"The US use of ''Tory'' to mean the Loyalists in the time of the American Revolution is not used in Canada, where they are called United Empire Loyalists, or simply Loyalists.",
"* Members of the Liberal Party of Canada or a provincial Liberal party are sometimes referred to as ''Grits''.",
"Historically, the term comes from the phrase ''Clear Grit'', used in Victorian times in Canada to denote an object of quality or a truthful person.",
"The term was assumed as a nickname by Liberals by the 1850s.",
"* Members of the New Democratic Party (NDP) are sometimes nicknamed ''dippers'' (a clipped and altered form of ''NDPer'') or ''New Democrats''* Members of the Bloc Québécois are sometimes referred to as .",
"At the purely provincial level, members of Quebec's Parti Québécois are often referred to as , and members of the Quebec provincial Action démocratique du Québec as .",
"* The term \"Socred\" is no longer common due to its namesake party's decline, but referred to members of the Social Credit Party, and was particularly common in British Columbia.",
"It was not used for Social Credit members from Quebec, nor generally used for the federal caucus of that party; in both cases , the French term, was used in English.",
"* Members of the Senate are referred to by the title \"Senator\" preceding their name, as in the United States.",
"Members of the House of Commons of Canada, following British parliamentary nomenclature, are termed \"Members of Parliament\", and are referred to as \"Jennifer Jones, MP\" during their term of office only.",
"Senators and members of the Privy Council are styled \"The Honourable\" for life, and the Prime Minister of Canada is styled \"The Right Honourable\" for life, as is the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and the Governor General.",
"This honorific may also be bestowed by Parliament, as it was to retiring deputy prime minister Herb Gray in 1996.Members of provincial legislatures do not have a pre-nominal style, except in certain provinces, such as Nova Scotia where members of the King's Executive Council of Nova Scotia are styled \"The Honourable\" for life, and are entitled to the use of the post-nominal letters \"ECNS\".",
"The Cabinet of Ontario serves concurrently (and not for life) as the Executive Council of Ontario, while serving members are styled \"The Honourable\", but are not entitled to post-nominal letters.",
"* Members of provincial/territorial legislative assemblies are called MLAs in all provinces and territories except: Ontario, where they have been called Members of Provincial Parliament (MPPs) since 1938; Quebec, where they have been called Members of the National Assembly (MNAs) since 1968; and Newfoundland and Labrador, where they are called Members of the House of Assembly (MHAs).",
"Each abbreviation is used as a post-nominal during terms of office only.=== Law ===Lawyers in all parts of Canada, except Quebec, which has its own civil law system, are called \"barristers and solicitors\" because any lawyer licensed in any of the common law provinces and territories must pass bar exams for, and is permitted to engage in, both types of legal practice in contrast to other common-law jurisdictions such as England, Wales and Ireland where the two are traditionally separated (i.e., Canada has a fused legal profession).",
"The words ''lawyer'' and ''counsel'' (not ''counsellor'') predominate in everyday contexts; the word ''attorney'' refers to any personal representative.",
"Canadian lawyers generally do not refer to themselves as \"attorneys\", a term that is common in the United States.The equivalent of an American ''district attorney'', meaning the barrister representing the state in criminal proceedings, is called a ''crown attorney'' (in Ontario), ''crown counsel'' (in British Columbia), ''crown prosecutor'' or ''the crown'', on account of Canada's status as a constitutional monarchy in which the Crown is the locus of state power.The words ''advocate'' and ''notary'' – two distinct professions in Quebec civil law – are used to refer to that province's approximate equivalents of barrister and solicitor, respectively.",
"It is not uncommon for English-speaking advocates in Quebec to refer to themselves in English as \"barrister(s) and solicitor(s)\", as most advocates chiefly perform what would traditionally be known as \"solicitor's work\", while only a minority of advocates actually appear in court.",
"In Canada's common law provinces and territories, the word ''notary'' means strictly a notary public.Within the Canadian legal community itself, the word ''solicitor'' is often used to refer to any Canadian lawyer in general (much like the way the word ''attorney'' is used in the United States to refer to any American lawyer in general).",
"Despite the conceptual distinction between ''barrister'' and ''solicitor'', Canadian court documents would contain a phrase such as \"''John Smith, ''solicitor'' for the Plaintiff''\" even though \"John Smith\" may well himself be the barrister who argues the case in court.",
"In a letter introducing him/herself to an opposing lawyer, a Canadian lawyer normally writes something like \"''I am the ''solicitor\" for Mr. Tom Jones.",
"\"The word ''litigator'' is also used by lawyers to refer to a fellow lawyer who specializes in lawsuits even though the more traditional word ''barrister'' is still employed to denote the same specialization.Judges of Canada's superior courts, which exist at the provincial and territorial levels, are traditionally addressed as \"My Lord\" or \"My Lady\".",
"This varies by jurisdiction, and some superior court judges prefer the titles \"Mister Justice\" or \"Madam Justice\" to \"Lordship\".Masters are addressed as ''\"Mr. Master\"'' or simply ''\"Sir.\"''",
"In British Columbia, masters are addressed as ''\"Your Honour.",
"\"''Judges of provincial or inferior courts are traditionally referred to in person as ''\"Your Honour\"''.",
"Judges of the Supreme Court of Canada and of the federal-level courts prefer the use of ''\"Mister/Madam (Chief) Justice\"''.",
"Justices of The Peace are addressed as ''\"Your Worship\"''.",
"''\"Your Honour\"'' is also the correct form of address for a Lieutenant Governor.A serious crime is called an indictable offence, while a less-serious crime is called a summary conviction offence.",
"The older words felony and misdemeanour, which are still used in the United States, are not used in Canada's current ''Criminal Code'' (R.S.C.",
"1985, c. C-46) or by today's Canadian legal system.",
"As noted throughout the ''Criminal Code'', a person accused of a crime is called ''the accused'' and not ''the defendant'', a term used instead in civil lawsuits.In Canada, ''visible minority'' refers to a non-aboriginal person or group visibly not one of the majority race in a given population.",
"The term comes from the ''Canadian Employment Equity Act'', which defines such people as \"persons, other than Aboriginal people, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour.\"",
"The term is used as a demographic category by Statistics Canada.",
"The qualifier \"visible\" is used to distinguish such minorities from the \"invisible\" minorities determined by language (English vs. French) and certain distinctions in religion (Catholics vs. Protestants).A county in British Columbia means only a regional jurisdiction of the courts and justice system and is not otherwise connected to governance as with counties in other provinces and in the United States.",
"The rough equivalent to \"county\" as used elsewhere is a \"Regional District\".=== Places ===Distinctive Canadianisms are:* ''bachelor'': bachelor apartment, an apartment all in a single room, with a small bathroom attached (\"They have a bachelor for rent\").",
"The usual American term is ''studio''.",
"In Quebec, this is known as a ''one-and-a-half'' apartment; some Canadians, especially in Prince Edward Island, call it a ''loft''.",
"In other provinces ''loft'' refers to a second floor in a condo unit or bungalow usually with second floor bedrooms * ''bluff'': small group of trees isolated by prairie* ''camp'': in Northern Ontario, it refers to what is called a ''cottage'' in the rest of Ontario; often more specifically to a vacation home not directly adjacent to a body of water, and a ''cabin'' in the West.",
"It is also used, to a lesser extent, in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, as well as in parts of New England.",
"It generally refers to vacation houses in rural areas.",
"* ''fire hall'': fire station, firehouse.",
"* ''height of land'': a drainage divide.",
"Originally American.",
"* ''parkade'': a parking garage, especially in the West.",
"* ''washroom'': the general term for what is normally named ''public toilet'' or ''lavatory'' in Britain.",
"In the United States (where it originated) the word was mostly replaced by ''restroom'' in the 20th century.",
"Generally used only as a technical or commercial term outside of Canada.",
"The word ''bathroom'' is also used.",
"* ''Indian reserve'', rather than the US term ''federal Indian reservation''.",
"Often shortened to ''reserve'', especially when the meaning is clear from context; another slang variant of this term is the shortened ''res'' or (more commonly) ''rez''.",
"Not to be confused with ''res'', which in the context of universities refers strictly to ''residences'' or ''halls of residence'' (compare to the US American ''dorms'' or ''dormitories'').",
"Therefore, the sentences ''when I lived on rez'' and ''when I lived in res'' mean different things.",
"The territory of the particular band nation is usually referred to on a map as ''(Band name here) First Nations I.R.''",
"* ''rancherie'': the residential area of a First Nation reserve, used in BC only.",
"* ''quiggly hole'' and/or ''quiggly'': the depression in the ground left by a ''kekuli'' or pithouse.",
"Groups of them are called \"quiggly hole towns\".",
"Used in the BC Interior only.",
"* ''gas bar'': a filling station (gas station) with a central island, having pumps under a fixed metal or concrete awning.",
"* ''booze can'': an after-hours establishment where alcohol is served, often illegally.",
"* ''dépanneur'', or the diminutive form ''dep'', is often used by English speakers in Quebec.",
"This is because convenience stores are called ''dépanneurs'' in Canadian French.",
"* ''snye'', a side-stream channel that rejoins a larger river, creating an island.",
"* slough: pond – usually a pond on a farm=== Daily life ===Terms common in Canada, Britain and Ireland but less frequent or nonexistent in the United States are:* ''tin'' (as in ''tin of tuna''), for ''can'', especially among older speakers.",
"Among younger speakers, ''can'' is more common, with ''tin'' referring to a can which is wider than it is tall as in \"a tin of sardines\" as opposed to a \"can of soup\".",
"* ''cutlery'', for ''silverware'' or ''flatware'', where the material of which the utensil is made is not of consequence to the context in which it is used.",
"* ''serviette'', especially in Eastern Canada, for a paper table ''napkin''.",
"* ''tap'', conspicuously more common than ''faucet'' in everyday usage.The following are more or less distinctively Canadian:* ''ABM'', ''bank machine'': synonymous with ATM (which is also used, but much more widely than ABM by financial organizations in the country).",
"* ''BFI bin'': Dumpster, after a prominent Canadian waste management company, BFI Canada (which was eventually bought out and merged to become Waste Connections of Canada) in provinces where that company does business; compare to other generic trademarks such as Kleenex, Xerox, and even Dumpster itself.",
"* ''chesterfield'': originally British and internationally used (as in classic furnishing terminology) to refer to a sofa whose arms are the same height as the back, it is a term for ''any'' couch or sofa in Canada (and, to some extent, Northern California).",
"Once a hallmark of CanE, ''chesterfield'', as with ''settee'' and ''davenport'', is now largely in decline among younger generations in the western and central regions.",
"''Couch'' is now the most common term; ''sofa'' is also used.",
"* ''dart'': cigarette, used primarily by adolescents and young adults.",
"* ''dressing gown'' or ''housecoat or bathrobe'': a dressing gown and house coat can be of silk or cotton, usually an attractive outer layer, while a bathrobe is made of absorbent fabric like a towel.",
"in the United States, called a ''bathrobe''.",
"* ''eavestrough'': rain gutter.",
"Also used, especially in the past, in the Northern and Western United States; the first recorded usage is in Herman Melville's ''Moby-Dick'': \"The tails tapering down that way, serve to carry off the water, d'ye see.",
"Same with cocked hats; the cocks form gable-end eave-troughs , Flask.",
"\"* ''flush'': toilet, used primarily by older speakers throughout the Maritimes.",
"* ''garburator'': (rhymes with ''carburetor'') a garbage disposal.",
"* ''homogenized milk'' or ''homo milk'': milk containing 3.25% milk fat, typically called \"whole milk\" in the United States.",
"* ''hydro'': a common synonym for electrical service, used primarily in New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba and British Columbia.",
"Most of the power in these provinces is generated through hydroelectricity, and suppliers' company names incorporate the term \"Hydro\".",
"Usage: \"I didn't pay my hydro bill so they shut off my lights.\"",
"Hence ''hydrofield'' or ''hydro corridor'', a line of electricity transmission towers, usually in groups cutting across a city, and ''hydro lines/poles'', electrical transmission lines/poles.",
"These usages of ''hydro'' are also standard in the Australian state of Tasmania.",
"Also in slang usage can refer to hydroponically grown marijuana.",
"* ''loonie'': the Canadian one-dollar coin; derived from the use of the common loon on the reverse.",
"The ''toonie'' (less commonly spelled ''tooney'', ''twooney'', ''twoonie'') is the two-dollar coin.",
"''Loonie'' is also used to refer to the Canadian currency, particularly when discussing the exchange rate with the US dollar; ''loonie'' and ''toonie'' describe coinage specifically.",
"(for example, \"I have a dollar in pennies\" versus \"I have three loonies in my pocket\").",
"* ''pencil crayon'': coloured pencil.",
"* ''pogie'' or ''pogey'': term referring to unemployment insurance, which is now officially called ''Employment'' Insurance in Canada.",
"Derived from the use of ''pogey'' as a term for a poorhouse.",
"Not used for welfare, in which case the term is ''\"the dole\"'', as in ''\"he's on the dole, eh?\"''.",
"* ''parkade:'' multistorey parking garage.==== Apparel ====The following are common in Canada, but not in the United States or the United Kingdom.",
"* ''runners'': running shoes, especially in Western Canada.",
"Also used in Australian English and Irish English.",
"Atlantic Canada prefers ''sneakers'' while central Canada (including Quebec and Ontario) prefers ''running shoes''.",
"* ''touque'' (also spelled ''toque'' or ''tuque''): a knitted winter hat.",
"A similar hat would be called a ''beanie'' in the western United States and a ''watch cap'' in the eastern United States, though these forms are generally closer-fitting, and may lack a brim as well as a pompom.",
"There seems to be no exact equivalent outside Canada, since the tuque is of French Canadian origin.",
"* ''bunnyhug'': a hooded sweatshirt, with or without a zipper.",
"Used mainly in Saskatchewan.",
"* ''ginch/gonch/gitch/gotch'': underwear (usually men's or boys' underwear, more specifically briefs; whereas women's underwear are ''gotchies''), probably of Eastern European or Ukrainian origin.",
"''Gitch'' and ''gotch'' are primarily used in Saskatchewan and Manitoba while the variants with an ''n'' are common in Alberta and British Columbia.==== Food and beverage ====* Most Canadians as well as Americans in the Northwest, North Central, Prairie and Inland North prefer ''pop'' over ''soda'' to refer to a carbonated beverage, but ''soda'' is understood to mean the same thing, in contrast to British English where ''soda'' refers specifically to soda ''water'' (US/Canadian ''seltzer water'').",
"''Soft drink'' is also extremely common throughout Canada.",
"* What Americans call ''Canadian bacon'' is named ''back bacon'' in Canada, or, if it is coated in cornmeal or ground peas, ''cornmeal bacon'' or ''peameal bacon''.",
"* What most Americans call a ''candy bar'' is usually known as a ''chocolate bar'' (as in the United Kingdom).",
"In certain areas surrounding the Bay of Fundy, it is sometimes known as a ''nut bar''; this use is more popular in older generations.",
"Legally only bars made of solid chocolate may be labelled chocolate bars.",
"* Even though the terms ''French fries'' and ''fries'' are used by Canadians, some speakers use the word ''chips'' (and its diminutive, ''chippies'').",
"(Chips is always used when referring to ''fish and chips'', as elsewhere.",
")* ''brown bread'' refers to whole-wheat bread, as in \"Would you like white or brown bread for your toast?",
"\"* An ''expiry date'' is the term used for the date when a perishable product will go bad (similar to the UK ''Use By'' date).",
"The term ''expiration date'' is more common in the United States (where ''expiry date'' is seen mostly on the packaging of Asian food products).",
"The term ''Best Before'' also sees common use, where although not spoiled, the product may not taste \"as good\".",
"* ''double-double'': a cup of coffee with two measures of cream and two of sugar, most commonly associated with the Tim Hortons chain of coffee shops.",
"* Canadianisms relating to alcohol:** ''mickey'': a bottle of hard liquor (informally called a pint in the Maritimes and the United States).",
"In Newfoundland, this is almost exclusively referred to as a \"flask\".",
"In the United States, \"mickey\", or \"Mickey Finn\", refers to a drink laced with drugs.",
"** ''two-six'', ''twenty-sixer'', ''twixer'': a bottle of hard liquor (called a quart in the Maritimes).",
"The word ''handle'' is less common.",
"Similarly, a bottle of hard liquor is known as a ''forty'' and a bottle is known as a ''sixty'' or ''half gallon'' in Nova Scotia.",
"** ''Texas mickey'' (especially in Saskatchewan, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; more often a \"Saskatchewan mickey\" in western Canada): a bottle of hard liquor.",
"(Despite the name, Texas mickeys are generally unavailable outside of Canada.",
")** ''two-four'': a case of 24 beers, also known as a ''case'' in Eastern Canada, or a ''flat'' in Western Canada (referencing that cans of beer are often sold in packages of six, with four packages to a flat box for shipping and stacking purposes).",
"** ''six-pack'', ''half-sack'', ''half-case'', or ''poverty-pack'': a case of six beers* ''poutine'': a snack of french fries topped with cheese curds and hot gravy.",
"* There are also genericized trademarks used in Canada:** ''cheezies'': cheese puffs.",
"The name is a genericized trademark based on a brand of crunchy cheese snack sold in Canada.",
"** Kraft Dinner or \"KD\": for any packaged dry macaroni and cheese mix, even when it is not produced by Kraft.",
"* ''freezie'': A frozen flavoured sugar water snack common worldwide, but known by this name exclusively in Canada.",
"* ''dainty'': a fancy cookie, pastry, or square served at a social event (usually plural).",
"Used in western Canada.",
"* ''Smarties'': a bean-sized, small candy-covered chocolate, similar to plain M&M's.",
"This is also seen in British English.",
"Smarties in the United States refer to small tart powdered disc sold in rolls; in Canada these tart candies are sold as \"Rockets\".=== Informal speech ===One of the most distinctive Canadian phrases is the spoken interrogation or tag ''eh''.",
"The only usage of ''eh'' exclusive to Canada, according to the ''Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', is for \"ascertaining the comprehension, continued interest, agreement, etc., of the person or persons addressed\" as in, \"It's four kilometres away, eh, so I have to go by bike.\"",
"In that case, ''eh?''",
"is used to confirm the attention of the listener and to invite a supportive noise such as ''mm'' or ''oh'' or ''okay''.",
"This usage is also common in Queensland, Australia and New Zealand.",
"Other uses of ''eh'' – for instance, in place of ''huh?''",
"or ''what?''",
"meaning \"please repeat or say again\" – are also found in parts of the British Isles and Australia.",
"It is common in Northern/Central Ontario, the Maritimes and the Prairie provinces.",
"The word ''eh'' is used quite frequently in the North Central dialect, so a Canadian accent is often perceived in people from North Dakota, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.A ''rubber'' in the US and Canada is slang for a condom.",
"In Canada, it sometimes means an eraser (as in the United Kingdom and Ireland).The word ''bum'' can refer either to the buttocks (as in Britain), or to a homeless person (as in the US).",
"The \"buttocks\" sense does not have the indecent character it retains in British use, as it and \"butt\" are commonly used as a polite or childish euphemism for ruder words such as ''arse'' (commonly used in Atlantic Canada and among older people in Ontario and to the west) or ''ass'', or ''mitiss'' (used in the Prairie Provinces, especially in northern and central Saskatchewan; probably originally a Cree loanword).",
"Older Canadians may see \"bum\" as more polite than \"butt\", which before the 1980s was often considered rude.Similarly the word ''pissed'' can refer either to being drunk (as in Britain), or being angry (as in the US), though anger is more often said as ''pissed off'', while ''piss drunk'' or ''pissed up'' is said to describe inebriation (though ''piss drunk'' is sometimes also used in the US, especially in the northern states).A Canadian-built Curtiss JN-4C \"Canuck\" training biplane of 1918, with a differing vertical tail to the original US versionThe term ''Canuck'' simply means ''Canadian'' in its demonymic form, and, as a term used even by Canadians themselves, it is not considered derogatory.",
"(In the 19th century and early 20th century it tended to refer to French-Canadians.)",
"The only Canadian-built version of the popular World War I-era American Curtiss JN-4 ''Jenny'' training biplane aircraft, the JN-4C, 1,260 of which were built, got the \"Canuck\" nickname; so did another aircraft, the Fleet Model 80, built from the mid-1940s until the late 1950s.",
"The nickname Janey Canuck was used by Anglophone women's rights writer Emily Murphy in the 1920s and the ''Johnny Canuck'' comic book character of the 1940s.",
"Throughout the 1970s, Canada's winning World Cup men's downhill ski team was called the \"Crazy Canucks\" for their fearlessness on the slopes.",
"It is also the name of the Vancouver Canucks, the National Hockey League team of Vancouver, British Columbia.The term ''hoser'', popularized by Bob & Doug McKenzie, typically refers to an uncouth, beer-swilling male and is a euphemism for \"loser\" coming from the earlier days of hockey played on an outdoor rink and the losing team would have to hose down the ice after the game so it froze smooth.",
"Bob & Doug also popularized the use of ''Beauty, eh'', another western slang term which may be used to describe something as being of interest or note or deserving approval.",
"A ''Newf'' or ''Newfie'' is someone from Newfoundland and Labrador; sometimes considered derogatory.",
"In Newfoundland, the term ''Mainlander'' refers to any Canadian (sometimes American, occasionally Labradorian) not from the island of Newfoundland.",
"''Mainlander'' is also occasionally used derogatorily.In the Maritimes, a ''Caper'' or \"Cape Bretoner\" is someone from Cape Breton Island, a ''Bluenoser'' is someone with a thick, usually southern Nova Scotia accent or as a general term for a Nova Scotian (including Cape Bretoners), while an ''Islander'' is someone from Prince Edward Island (the same term is used in British Columbia for people from Vancouver Island, or the numerous islands along it).",
"A ''Haligonian'' refers to someone from the city of Halifax.Cape Bretoners and Newfies (from Newfoundland and Labrador) often have similar slang.",
"\"Barmp\" is often used as the sound a car horn makes, example: \"He cut me off so I barmped the horn at him\".",
"When saying \"B'y\", while sounds like the traditional farewell, it is a syncopated shortening of the word \"boy\", referring to a person, example: \"How's it goin, b'y?\".",
"Another slang that is commonly used is \"doohickey\" which means an object, example: \"Pass me that doohickey over there\".",
"When an individual uses the word \"biffed\", they mean that they threw something.",
"Example: \"I got frustrated so I biffed it across the room\".=== Survey and research methodology ===In language studies, there are three basic types of data collection: introspection, elicitation, and observation.",
"Introspection relies on the idea that native speakers are the best judges of sentence structure and can provide valuable data, but it can be limiting because it only requires one native speaker.",
"Elicitation requires more effort, but is a widespread technique used to gather linguistic structures by asking informants how they say certain things in their language.",
"Observation is considered the \"gold standard\" by many linguists because it involves collecting utterances after the fact and systematically analyzing them.",
"This can be done through corpora, which are collections of spoken or written text, but most corpus material today consists of written texts since they are more easily accessible.",
"Variationist sociolinguistics aim to elicit data that is as natural and informal as possible, using techniques such as sociolinguistic interviews to gather different speech styles.The use of written questionnaires (WQs) in dialectology were once popular for surveying language use, but fell out of favor before being re-examined in recent years.",
"While they were once considered less effective than other survey methods, scholars have started to recognize their potential in social dialectology and variation studies.",
"In the early 1950s, McDavid noted the value of using a lexical WQ for the Linguistic Atlas of Scotland, but later, Chambers and Trudgill stated that WQs were no longer the primary method of data-gathering.",
"However, within the past 15 years, WQs have experienced renewed interest in social dialectology and variation studies.",
"WQs can provide linguistic information about behavior and can be used for self-reporting or community reporting.Scholars have used five types of questionnaires in sociolinguistics.",
"Dollinger suggests a three-tiered WQ question typology.",
"The first tier covers questions about regional language variation and social language variation.",
"The second tier covers language perception and attitudes, while the third tier deals with acceptability judgments of grammaticality.",
"The questions can be classified by subject area, type of reporting, and the type of information sought.",
"This classification can help scholars better utilize WQs and understand their potential.Written surveys are commonly used in dialectology as regional differences are less socially sensitive.",
"However, they can still be used in sociolinguistics if handled properly.",
"A survey's advantage is its quantitative approach since it is capable of collecting large amounts of data within a relatively short time.",
"This would allow researchers to have a more robust statistical analysis and reliable or accurate conclusions about regional or social patterns.",
"Despite its advantages, there are still disadvantages using surveys for a research study particularly in capturing natural speech patterns due to the observer's paradox.",
"Through its unique format, surveys containing direct questions about language may not provide sufficient enough information on how often or in what social or linguistic contexts people use distinct language features.",
"Therefore, by relying on systematic observations, local participants may adhere to perceived norms or expectations.",
"While written surveys can provide valuable information about sociolinguistic variables in Canadian English, data gathered from surveys or questionnaires should not be perceived as equivalent to data gathered from the usage of actual speech.",
"William Labov, a linguist, suggests that in order to solve this problem is to change the style of approach of surveys.",
"Therefore, he suggests that researchers design sociolinguistic interviews that manipulate attention to speech.",
"By comparing the speech among research participants when they are being directly questioned about language with their speech when talking about their personal experience, Labov could observe how the usage of language within different contexts or environments.",
"This newly suggested approach allowed Labov to capture the \"vernacular\" which is the casual style of speech that people use within a day-to-day basis when they are not being observed.Canadian English dialectology examines Canadian English through the use of written surveys due to the vastness of the country and the difficulties of conducting face-to-face interviews on a nationwide level.",
"The historical overview of written surveys in Canadian-English dialectology includes Avis's study of speech differences among the Ontario-United States borders through the use of questionnaires.",
"Another example is the Survey of Canadian English directed by Scargill.",
"A more recent example would be Nylvek's survey of Saskatchewan English and Chambers' trans-Canada dialect questionnaires."
],
[
"Attitudes",
"An attitude study in the late 1970s revealed a positive attitude toward Canadian linguistic features.",
"Features include front vowel merger before/r/, low-back vowel merger, Canadian Raising, and Canadian lexical items.",
"Still, the sample group in British Columbia showed a preference for UK and US English.This attitude sees a change years later.",
"A survey about attitudes towards CE was conducted with a diverse sample group in Vancouver, BC, in 2009.Among 429 Vancouverites, 81.1% believe there is a Canadian way of speaking English, 72.9% can tell CanE speakers from American English speakers, 69.1% consider CanE a part of their Canadian identity, and 74.1% think CanE should be taught in schools.",
"Due to the unavailability of free and easy-to-access CanE dictionaries, many Canadian opt for other non-Canadian English dictionaries today.",
"Historically, American, British, and Irish texts are used in Canadian schools for the most part; even though Canadian reference work was written and became available in the 1960s, they were never preferred as teaching material.A preference change can be seen at the end of higher education in Canada.",
"At the University of Toronto's Graduate English department, \"Canadian English\" and a \"consistent spelling\" are officially \"the standard for all Ph.D. dissertations,\" with the ''Canadian Oxford English Dictionary'' as the official guideline.",
"However, there is no mention of which grammar guide was to be followed because there was never a solid standard developed for spelling and grammar.In 2011, just under 21.5 million Canadians, representing 65% of the population, spoke English most of the time at home, while 58% declared it their mother language.",
"English is the major language everywhere in Canada except Quebec, and most Canadians (85%) can speak English.",
"While English is not the preferred language in Quebec, 36.1% of the Québécois can speak English.",
"Nationally, Francophones are five times more likely to speak English than Anglophones are to speak French – 44% and 9% respectively.",
"Only 3.2% of Canada's English-speaking population resides in Quebec—mostly in Montreal.A study conducted in 2002 inquired Canadians from Ontario and Alberta about the \"pleasantness\" and \"correctness\" of different varieties of Canadian English based on province.",
"Albertans and Ontarians all seem to rate their English and BC English in the top three.",
"However, both hold a low opinion of Quebec English.",
"Unlike the assumption that Toronto or Ontario English would be the most prestigious considering these regions are the most economically robust, BC had the best public opinion regarding pleasantness and correctness among the participants.Jaan Lilles argues in an essay for ''English Today'' that there is no variety of \"Canadian English\".",
"According to Lilles, a former M.A.",
"student, Canadian English is simply not a \"useful fiction\".",
"He goes on to argue that too often supposedly unique features of Canadian speakers, such as certain lexical terms such as ''muskeg'' are artificially exaggerated to distinguish Canadian speech primarily from that found in the United States.",
"Lilles was heavily critiqued in the next issue of ''English Today'' by lexicographer Fraser Sutherland and others.",
"According to Stefan Dollinger, Lilles' paper \"is not a paper based on any data or other new information but more of a pamphlet – so much so that it should not have been published without a public critique\".",
"He continues: \"The paper is insightful for different reasons: it is a powerful testimony of personal anecdote and opinion .... As an opinion piece, it offers a good debating case.\"",
"As a linguistic account, however, it \"essentializes a prior state, before Canada was an independent political entity\"."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Canadian English dictionaries* Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, Second Edition* American and British English spelling differences* Bungi creole* Canadian Gaelic* Franglais* Regional accents of English*Canadian Language Museum"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * Barber, Katherine, editor (2004).",
"''Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', second edition.",
"Toronto: Oxford University Press.",
".",
"* Barber, Katherine. \"",
"11 Favourite Regionalisms Within Canada\", in David Vallechinsky and Amy Wallace (2005).",
"''The Book of Lists'', Canadian Edition.",
"Knopf.",
".",
"* Boberg, Charles (2005).",
"\"The North American Regional Vocabulary Survey: Renewing the study of lexical variation in North American English.\"",
"''American Speech'' 80/1.Dukejournals.org * Boberg, Charles, '' Sounding Canadian from Coast to Coast: Regional accents in Canadian English '', McGill University.",
"* Courtney, Rosemary, and others., senior editors (1998).",
"''The Gage Canadian Dictionary'', second edition.",
"Toronto: Gage Learning Corp.",
".",
"* Chambers, J.K. (1998).",
"\"Canadian English: 250 Years in the Making,\" in ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', 2nd ed., p.",
"xi.",
"* Clark, Joe (2008). ''",
"Organizing Our Marvellous Neighbours: How to Feel Good About Canadian English '' (e-book).",
".",
"* * * Peters, Pam (2004).",
"''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''.",
"Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
".",
"* * Canadian Raising: O'Grady and Dobrovolsky, ''Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: An Introduction'', 3rd ed., pp. 67–68.",
"* Canadian English: Editors' Association of Canada, ''Editing Canadian English: The Essential Canadian Guide'' , 2nd ed.",
"(Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2000).",
"* Canadian usage: Margery Fee and Janice McAlpine, ''Guide to Canadian English Usage'' (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2001).",
"* Hamilton, Sandra A. M. (1997) '' Canadianisms and their treatment in dictionaries'', Thesis (M.A.",
"), University of Ottawa, * Canadian newspaper and magazine style guides:** J.A.",
"McFarlane and Warren Clements, ''The Globe and Mail Style Book: A Guide to Language and Usage'', 9th ed.",
"(Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1998).",
"** The Canadian Press, ''The Canadian Press Stylebook'', 13th ed.",
"and its quick-reference companion ''CP Caps and Spelling'', 16th ed.",
"(both Toronto: Canadian Press, 2004).",
"* Barber, Katherine, editor (2004).",
"''Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', second edition.",
"Toronto: Oxford University Press.",
".",
"* Chambers, J.K. (1998).",
"\"Canadian English: 250 Years in the Making,\" in ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', 2nd ed., p.",
"xi.",
"* Clarke, Sandra, Ford Elms, and Amani Youssef (1995).",
"\"The third dialect of English: Some Canadian evidence\", in ''Language Variation and Change'', 7:209–228.Dollinger, Stefan (2015).",
"The Written Questionnaire in Social Dialectology: History, Theory, Practice.",
"Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins.",
"The book's examples are exclusive taken from Canadian English and represent one of the more extensive collections of variables for Canadian English.",
"* Dollinger, Stefan (2008).",
"New-Dialect Formation in Canada: Evidence from the English Modal Auxiliaries 1776–1849 .",
"Amsterdam & Philadelphia: Benjamins.",
"* Dollinger, Stefan, Laurel J. Brinton and Margery Fee (2013).",
"DCHP-1 Online: A Dictionary of Canadiansims on Historical Principles .",
"1st Edition.",
"Ed.",
"by Walter S. Avis et al.",
"(1967).",
"* Peters, Pam (2004).",
"''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''.",
"Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
".",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Termium Plus: the Government of Canada terminology and linguistic databank* Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's Words: Woe & Wonder* Dave VE7CNV's Truly Canadian Dictionary of Canadian Spelling – comparisons of Canadian English, American English, British English, French, and Spanish* 'Hover & Hear' pronunciations in a standard Canadian accent, and compare side by side with other English accents from around the world.",
"* Canadian Oxford Dictionaries (Oxford University Press – sales only)* Lexical, grammatical, orthographic and phonetic Canadianisms* Varieties of English: Canadian English from the University of Arizona* Dictionary of Newfoundland English* Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles Online* Second Edition of A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Czech language"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Czech''' (; ), historically also known as '''Bohemian''' (; ), is a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group, written in Latin script.",
"Spoken by over 10 million people, it serves as the official language of the Czech Republic.",
"Czech is closely related to Slovak, to the point of high mutual intelligibility, as well as to Polish to a lesser degree.",
"Czech is a fusional language with a rich system of morphology and relatively flexible word order.",
"Its vocabulary has been extensively influenced by Latin and German.The Czech–Slovak group developed within West Slavic in the high medieval period, and the standardization of Czech and Slovak within the Czech–Slovak dialect continuum emerged in the early modern period.",
"In the later 18th to mid-19th century, the modern written standard became codified in the context of the Czech National Revival.",
"The most widely spoken non-standard variety, known as Common Czech, is based on the vernacular of Prague, but is now spoken as an interdialect throughout most of Bohemia.",
"The dialects spoken in Moravia are considerably more varied than the dialects of Bohemia.",
"A popular misconception holds that eastern Moravian dialects are closer to Slovak than Czech, but this is incorrect; in fact, the opposite is true, and certain dialects in far western Slovakia exhibit features more akin to standard Czech than to standard Slovak.Czech has a moderately-sized phoneme inventory, comprising ten monophthongs, three diphthongs and 25 consonants (divided into \"hard\", \"neutral\" and \"soft\" categories).",
"Words may contain complicated consonant clusters or lack vowels altogether.",
"Czech has a raised alveolar trill, which is known to occur as a phoneme in only a few other languages, represented by the grapheme ''ř''."
],
[
"Classification",
"Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family.",
"Czech and Slovak make up a \"Czech–Slovak\" subgroup.Czech is a member of the West Slavic sub-branch of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family.",
"This branch includes Polish, Kashubian, Upper and Lower Sorbian and Slovak.",
"Slovak is the most closely related language to Czech, followed by Polish and Silesian.The West Slavic languages are spoken in Central Europe.",
"Czech is distinguished from other West Slavic languages by a more-restricted distinction between \"hard\" and \"soft\" consonants (see Phonology below)."
],
[
"History",
"===Medieval/Old Czech===The Bible of Kralice was the first complete translation of the Bible into the Czech language from the original languages.",
"Its six volumes were first published between 1579 and 1593.|alt=A Gothic-style book with ornate, flowery designs on the coverThe term \"Old Czech\" is applied to the period predating the 16th century, with the earliest records of the high medieval period also classified as \"early Old Czech\", but the term \"Medieval Czech\" is also used.",
"The function of the written language was initially performed by Old Slavonic written in Glagolitic, later by Latin written in Latin script.",
"Around the 7th century, the Slavic expansion reached Central Europe, settling on the eastern fringes of the Frankish Empire.",
"The West Slavic polity of Great Moravia formed by the 9th century.",
"The Christianization of Bohemia took place during the 9th and 10th centuries.",
"The diversification of the Czech-Slovak group within West Slavic began around that time, marked among other things by its use of the voiced velar fricative consonant (/ɣ/) and consistent stress on the first syllable.The Bohemian (Czech) language is first recorded in writing in glosses and short notes during the 12th to 13th centuries.",
"Literary works written in Czech appear in the late 13th and early 14th century and administrative documents first appear towards the late 14th century.",
"The first complete Bible translation, the Leskovec-Dresden Bible, also dates to this period.",
"Old Czech texts, including poetry and cookbooks, were also produced outside universities.Literary activity becomes widespread in the early 15th century in the context of the Bohemian Reformation.",
"Jan Hus contributed significantly to the standardization of Czech orthography, advocated for widespread literacy among Czech commoners (particularly in religion) and made early efforts to model written Czech after the spoken language.=== Early Modern Czech ===There was no standardization distinguishing between Czech and Slovak prior to the 15th century.",
"In the 16th century, the division between Czech and Slovak becomes apparent, marking the confessional division between Lutheran Protestants in Slovakia using Czech orthography and Catholics, especially Slovak Jesuits, beginning to use a separate Slovak orthography based on Western Slovak dialects.The publication of the Kralice Bible between 1579 and 1593 (the first complete Czech translation of the Bible from the original languages) became very important for standardization of the Czech language in the following centuries as it was used as a model for the standard language.In 1615, the Bohemian ''diet'' tried to declare Czech to be the only official language of the kingdom.",
"After the Bohemian Revolt (of predominantly Protestant aristocracy) which was defeated by the Habsburgs in 1620, the Protestant intellectuals had to leave the country.",
"This emigration together with other consequences of the Thirty Years' War had a negative impact on the further use of the Czech language.",
"In 1627, Czech and German became official languages of the Kingdom of Bohemia and in the 18th century German became dominant in Bohemia and Moravia, especially among the upper classes.=== Modern Czech ===alt=In a detailed pencil sketch, a middle-aged man in a suit looks idly into the distance.The modern standard Czech language originates in standardization efforts of the 18th century.",
"By then the language had developed a literary tradition, and since then it has changed little; journals from that period have no substantial differences from modern standard Czech, and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty.",
"Sometime before the 18th century, the Czech language abandoned a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/ which survives in Slovak.With the beginning of the national revival of the mid-18th century, Czech historians began to emphasize their people's accomplishments from the 15th through the 17th centuries, rebelling against the Counter-Reformation (the Habsburg re-catholization efforts which had denigrated Czech and other non-Latin languages).",
"Czech philologists studied sixteenth-century texts, advocating the return of the language to high culture.",
"This period is known as the Czech National Revival (or Renaissance).During the national revival, in 1809 linguist and historian Josef Dobrovský released a German-language grammar of Old Czech entitled ''Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache'' ('Comprehensive Doctrine of the Bohemian Language').",
"Dobrovský had intended his book to be descriptive, and did not think Czech had a realistic chance of returning as a major language.",
"However, Josef Jungmann and other revivalists used Dobrovský's book to advocate for a Czech linguistic revival.",
"Changes during this time included spelling reform (notably, ''í'' in place of the former ''j'' and ''j'' in place of ''g''), the use of ''t'' (rather than ''ti'') to end infinitive verbs and the non-capitalization of nouns (which had been a late borrowing from German).",
"These changes differentiated Czech from Slovak.",
"Modern scholars disagree about whether the conservative revivalists were motivated by nationalism or considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal, widespread use.Adherence to historical patterns was later relaxed and standard Czech adopted a number of features from Common Czech (a widespread, informally used interdialectal variety), such as leaving some proper nouns undeclined.",
"This has resulted in a relatively high level of homogeneity among all varieties of the language."
],
[
"Geographic distribution",
"Official use of Czech in Vojvodina, Serbia (in light blue)Czech is spoken by about 10 million residents of the Czech Republic.",
"A Eurobarometer survey conducted from January to March 2012 found that the first language of 98 percent of Czech citizens was Czech, the third-highest proportion of a population in the European Union (behind Greece and Hungary).As the official language of the Czech Republic (a member of the European Union since 2004), Czech is one of the EU's official languages and the 2012 Eurobarometer survey found that Czech was the foreign language most often used in Slovakia.",
"Economist Jonathan van Parys collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 European Day of Languages.",
"The five countries with the greatest use of Czech were the Czech Republic (98.77 percent), Slovakia (24.86 percent), Portugal (1.93 percent), Poland (0.98 percent) and Germany (0.47 percent).Czech speakers in Slovakia primarily live in cities.",
"Since it is a recognized minority language in Slovakia, Slovak citizens who speak only Czech may communicate with the government in their language to the extent that Slovak speakers in the Czech Republic may do so.===United States===Praha, TexasImmigration of Czechs from Europe to the United States occurred primarily from 1848 to 1914.Czech is a Less Commonly Taught Language in U.S. schools, and is taught at Czech heritage centers.",
"Large communities of Czech Americans live in the states of Texas, Nebraska and Wisconsin.",
"In the 2000 United States Census, Czech was reported as the commonest language spoken at home (besides English) in Valley, Butler and Saunders Counties, Nebraska and Republic County, Kansas.",
"With the exception of Spanish (the non-English language most commonly spoken at home nationwide), Czech was the most common home language in more than a dozen additional counties in Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, North Dakota and Minnesota.",
"70,500 Americans spoke Czech as their first language (49th place nationwide, after Turkish and before Swedish)."
],
[
"Phonology",
"Spoken Czech===Vowels===A Czech vowel chartStandard Czech contains ten basic vowel phonemes, and three diphthongs.",
"The vowels are , and their long counterparts .",
"The diphthongs are ; the last two are found only in loanwords such as \"car\" and \"euro\".In Czech orthography, the vowels are spelled as follows:*Short: *Long: *Diphthongs: The letter indicates that the previous consonant is palatalized (e.g.",
").",
"After a labial it represents (e.g.",
"); but is pronounced /mɲɛ/, cf.",
"().===Consonants===The consonant phonemes of Czech and their equivalent letters in Czech orthography are as follows: Labial Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal Plosive () Affricate () () Fricative Trill Approximant Czech consonants are categorized as \"hard\", \"neutral\", or \"soft\":*Hard: *Neutral: *Soft: Hard consonants may not be followed by ''i'' or ''í'' in writing, or soft ones by ''y'' or ''ý'' (except in loanwords such as ''kilogram'').",
"Neutral consonants may take either character.",
"Hard consonants are sometimes known as \"strong\", and soft ones as \"weak\".",
"This distinction is also relevant to the declension patterns of nouns, which vary according to whether the final consonant of the noun stem is hard or soft.Voiced consonants with unvoiced counterparts are unvoiced at the end of a word before a pause, and in consonant clusters voicing assimilation occurs, which matches voicing to the following consonant.",
"The unvoiced counterpart of /ɦ/ is /x/.The phoneme represented by the letter ''ř'' (capital ''Ř'') is very rare among languages and often claimed to be unique to Czech, though it also occurs in some dialects of Kashubian, and formerly occurred in Polish.",
"It represents the raised alveolar non-sonorant trill (IPA: ), a sound somewhere between Czech ''r'' and ''ž'' (example: ), and is present in ''Dvořák''.",
"In unvoiced environments, /r̝/ is realized as its voiceless allophone r̝̊, a sound somewhere between Czech ''r'' and ''š''.The consonants can be syllabic, acting as syllable nuclei in place of a vowel.",
"''Strč prst skrz krk'' (\"Stick your finger through your throat\") is a well-known Czech tongue twister using syllabic consonants but no vowels.===Stress===Each word has primary stress on its first syllable, except for enclitics (minor, monosyllabic, unstressed syllables).",
"In all words of more than two syllables, every odd-numbered syllable receives secondary stress.",
"Stress is unrelated to vowel length; both long and short vowels can be stressed or unstressed.",
"Vowels are never reduced in tone (e.g.",
"to schwa sounds) when unstressed.",
"When a noun is preceded by a monosyllabic preposition, the stress usually moves to the preposition, e.g.",
"\"to Prague\"."
],
[
"Grammar",
"Czech grammar, like that of other Slavic languages, is fusional; its nouns, verbs, and adjectives are inflected by phonological processes to modify their meanings and grammatical functions, and the easily separable affixes characteristic of agglutinative languages are limited.",
"Czech inflects for case, gender and number in nouns and tense, aspect, mood, person and subject number and gender in verbs.Parts of speech include adjectives, adverbs, numbers, interrogative words, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.",
"Adverbs are primarily formed from adjectives by taking the final ''ý'' or ''í'' of the base form and replacing it with ''e'', ''ě'', ''y'', or ''o''.",
"Negative statements are formed by adding the affix ''ne-'' to the main verb of a clause, with one exception: ''je'' (he, she or it is) becomes ''není''.===Sentence and clause structure===A Czech-language sign at the entrance to a children's playground+Czech pronouns, nominative casePersonSingularPlural1.",
"''já'' ''my''2.",
"''ty''''vy'' (formal) ''vy'' 3.",
"''on'' (masculine)''ona'' (feminine)''ono'' (neuter) ''oni'' (masculine animate)''ony'' (masculine inanimate, feminine)''ona'' (neuter)Because Czech uses grammatical case to convey word function in a sentence (instead of relying on word order, as English does), its word order is flexible.",
"As a pro-drop language, in Czech an intransitive sentence can consist of only a verb; information about its subject is encoded in the verb.",
"Enclitics (primarily auxiliary verbs and pronouns) appear in the second syntactic slot of a sentence, after the first stressed unit.",
"The first slot can contain a subject or object, a main form of a verb, an adverb, or a conjunction (except for the light conjunctions ''a'', \"and\", ''i'', \"and even\" or ''ale'', \"but\").Czech syntax has a subject–verb–object sentence structure.",
"In practice, however, word order is flexible and used to distinguish topic and focus, with the topic or theme (known referents) preceding the focus or rheme (new information) in a sentence; Czech has therefore been described as a topic-prominent language.",
"Although Czech has a periphrastic passive construction (like English), in colloquial style, word-order changes frequently replace the passive voice.",
"For example, to change \"Peter killed Paul\" to \"Paul was killed by Peter\" the order of subject and object is inverted: ''Petr zabil Pavla'' (\"Peter killed Paul\") becomes \"Paul, Peter killed\" (''Pavla zabil Petr'').",
"''Pavla'' is in the accusative case, the grammatical object of the verb.",
"A word at the end of a clause is typically emphasized, unless an upward intonation indicates that the sentence is a question:*''Pes jí bagetu.''",
"– The dog eats the baguette (rather than eating something else).",
"*''Bagetu jí pes.''",
"– The dog eats the baguette (rather than someone else doing so).",
"*''Pes bagetu jí.''",
"– The dog eats the baguette (rather than doing something else to it).",
"*''Jí pes bagetu?''",
"– Does the dog eat the baguette?",
"(emphasis ambiguous)In parts of Bohemia (including Prague), questions such as ''Jí pes bagetu?''",
"without an interrogative word (such as ''co'', \"what\" or ''kdo'', \"who\") are intoned in a slow rise from low to high, quickly dropping to low on the last word or phrase.In modern Czech syntax, adjectives precede nouns, with few exceptions.",
"Relative clauses are introduced by relativizers such as the adjective ''který'', analogous to the English relative pronouns \"which\", \"that\" and \"who\"/\"whom\".",
"As with other adjectives, it agrees with its associated noun in gender, number and case.",
"Relative clauses follow the noun they modify.",
"The following is a glossed example:===Declension===In Czech, nouns and adjectives are declined into one of seven grammatical cases which indicate their function in a sentence, two numbers (singular and plural) and three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter).",
"The masculine gender is further divided into animate and inanimate classes.====Case====A street named after Božena Němcová with her name declined in the genitive case (a sign probably from the time of the Protectorate).A nominative–accusative language, Czech marks subject nouns of transitive and intransitive verbs in the nominative case, which is the form found in dictionaries, and direct objects of transitive verbs are declined in the accusative case.",
"The vocative case is used to address people.",
"The remaining cases (genitive, dative, locative and instrumental) indicate semantic relationships, such as noun adjuncts (genitive), indirect objects (dative), or agents in passive constructions (instrumental).",
"Additionally prepositions and some verbs require their complements to be declined in a certain case.",
"The locative case is only used after prepositions.",
"An adjective's case agrees with that of the noun it modifies.",
"When Czech children learn their language's declension patterns, the cases are referred to by number: +Cases in CzechNo.",
"Ordinal name (Czech) Full name (Czech) Case Main usage1.",
"''první pád'' ''nominativ''nominative Subjects2.",
"''druhý pád'' ''genitiv''genitive Noun adjuncts, possession, prepositions of motion, time and location3.",
"''třetí pád'' ''dativ''dative Indirect objects, prepositions of motion4.",
"''čtvrtý pád'' ''akuzativ''accusative Direct objects, prepositions of motion and time5.",
"''pátý pád'' ''vokativ''vocative Addressing someone6.",
"''šestý pád'' ''lokál''locative Prepositions of location, time and topic7.",
"''sedmý pád'' ''instrumentál''instrumental Passive agents, instruments, prepositions of locationSome prepositions require the nouns they modify to take a particular case.",
"The cases assigned by each preposition are based on the physical (or metaphorical) direction, or location, conveyed by it.",
"For example, ''od'' (from, away from) and ''z'' (out of, off) assign the genitive case.",
"Other prepositions take one of several cases, with their meaning dependent on the case; ''na'' means \"onto\" or \"for\" with the accusative case, but \"on\" with the locative.This is a glossed example of a sentence using several cases:====Gender====Czech distinguishes three genders—masculine, feminine, and neuter—and the masculine gender is subdivided into animate and inanimate.",
"With few exceptions, feminine nouns in the nominative case end in ''-a'', ''-e'', or a consonant; neuter nouns in ''-o'', ''-e'', or ''-í'', and masculine nouns in a consonant.",
"Adjectives, participles, most pronouns, and the numbers \"one\" and \"two\" are marked for gender and agree with the gender of the noun they modify or refer to.",
"Past tense verbs are also marked for gender, agreeing with the gender of the subject, e.g.",
"''dělal'' (he did, or made); ''dělala'' (she did, or made) and ''dělalo'' (it did, or made).",
"Gender also plays a semantic role; most nouns that describe people and animals, including personal names, have separate masculine and feminine forms which are normally formed by adding a suffix to the stem, for example ''Čech'' (Czech man) has the feminine form ''Češka'' (Czech woman).Nouns of different genders follow different declension patterns.",
"Examples of declension patterns for noun phrases of various genders follow:+ Case Noun/adjective Big dog (m. anim.",
"sg.)",
"Black backpack (m. inanim.",
"sg.)",
"Small cat (f.",
"sg.)",
"Hard wood (n.",
"sg.)",
"Nom.",
"''velký pes''(big dog)''černý batoh''(black backpack) ''malá kočka''(small cat) ''tvrdé dřevo''(hard wood) Gen. ''bez velkého psa''(without the big dog) ''bez černého batohu''(without the black backpack) ''bez malé kočky''(without the small cat) ''bez tvrdého dřeva''(without the hard wood) Dat.",
"''k velkému psovi''(to the big dog) ''k černému batohu''(to the black backpack) ''k malé kočce''(to the small cat) ''ke tvrdému dřevu''(to the hard wood) Acc.",
"''vidím velkého psa''(I see the big dog) ''vidím černý batoh''(I see the black backpack) ''vidím malou kočku''(I see the small cat) ''vidím tvrdé dřevo''(I see the hard wood) Voc.",
"''velký pse!",
"''(big dog!)",
"''černý batohu!",
"''(black backpack!)",
"''malá kočko!",
"''(small cat!)",
"''tvrdé dřevo!",
"''(hard wood!)",
"Loc.",
"''o velkém psovi''(about the big dog) ''o černém batohu''(about the black backpack) ''o malé kočce''(about the small cat) ''o tvrdém dřevě''(about the hard wood) Inst.",
"''s velkým psem''(with the big dog) ''s černým batohem''(with the black backpack) ''s malou kočkou''(with the small cat) ''s tvrdým dřevem''(with the hard wood)====Number====Nouns are also inflected for number, distinguishing between singular and plural.",
"Typical of a Slavic language, Czech cardinal numbers one through four allow the nouns and adjectives they modify to take any case, but numbers over five require subject and direct object noun phrases to be declined in the genitive plural instead of the nominative or accusative, and when used as subjects these phrases take singular verbs.",
"For example:EnglishCzech one Czech crown was... ''jedna koruna česká byla...'' two Czech crowns were... ''dvě koruny české byly...'' three Czech crowns were... ''tři koruny české byly...'' four Czech crowns were... ''čtyři koruny české byly...'' five Czech crowns were... ''pět korun českých bylo...''Numbers decline for case, and the numbers one and two are also inflected for gender.",
"Numbers one through five are shown below as examples.",
"The number one has declension patterns identical to those of the demonstrative pronoun ''ten''.12345Nominative''jeden'' (masc)''jedna'' (fem)''jedno'' (neut)''dva'' (masc)''dvě'' (fem, neut)''tři''''čtyři''''pět''Genitive''jednoho'' (masc)''jedné'' (fem)''jednoho'' (neut)''dvou''''tří'' or ''třech''''čtyř'' or ''čtyřech''''pěti''Dative''jednomu'' (masc)''jedné'' (fem)''jednomu'' (neut)''dvěma''''třem''''čtyřem''''pěti''Accusative''jednoho'' (masc an.",
")''jeden'' (masc in.",
")''jednu'' (fem)''jedno'' (neut)''dva'' (masc)''dvě'' (fem, neut)''tři''''čtyři''''pět''Locative''jednom'' (masc)''jedné'' (fem)''jednom'' (neut)''dvou''''třech''''čtyřech''''pěti''Instrumental''jedním'' (masc)''jednou'' (fem)''jedním'' (neut)''dvěma''''třemi''''čtyřmi''''pěti''Although Czech's grammatical numbers are singular and plural, several residuals of dual forms remain, such as the words ''dva'' (\"two\") and ''oba'' (\"both\"), which decline the same way.",
"Some nouns for paired body parts use a historical dual form to express plural in some cases: ''ruka'' (hand)—''ruce'' (nominative); ''noha'' (leg)—''nohama'' (instrumental), ''nohou'' (genitive/locative); ''oko'' (eye)—''oči'', and ''ucho'' (ear)—''uši''.",
"While two of these nouns are neuter in their singular forms, all plural forms are considered feminine; their gender is relevant to their associated adjectives and verbs.",
"These forms are plural semantically, used for any non-singular count, as in ''mezi čtyřma očima'' (face to face, lit.",
"''among four eyes'').",
"The plural number paradigms of these nouns are a mixture of historical dual and plural forms.",
"For example, ''nohy'' (legs; nominative/accusative) is a standard plural form of this type of noun.===Verb conjugation===Czech verbs agree with their subjects in person (first, second or third), number (singular or plural), and in constructions involving participles, which includes the past tense, also in gender.",
"They are conjugated for tense (past, present or future) and mood (indicative, imperative or conditional).",
"For example, the conjugated verb ''mluvíme'' (we speak) is in the present tense and first-person plural; it is distinguished from other conjugations of the infinitive ''mluvit'' by its ending, ''-íme''.",
"The infinitive form of Czech verbs ends in ''-t'' (archaically, ''-ti'' or ''-ci'').",
"It is the form found in dictionaries and the form that follows auxiliary verbs (for example, ''můžu tě slyšet''—\"I can ''hear'' you\").====Aspect====Typical of Slavic languages, Czech marks its verbs for one of two grammatical aspects: perfective and imperfective.",
"Most verbs are part of inflected aspect pairs—for example, ''koupit'' (perfective) and ''kupovat'' (imperfective).",
"Although the verbs' meaning is similar, in perfective verbs the action is completed and in imperfective verbs it is ongoing or repeated.",
"This is distinct from past and present tense.",
"Any verb of either aspect can be conjugated into either the past or present tense, but the future tense is only used with imperfective verbs.",
"Aspect describes the state of the action at the time specified by the tense.The verbs of most aspect pairs differ in one of two ways: by prefix or by suffix.",
"In prefix pairs, the perfective verb has an added prefix—for example, the imperfective ''psát'' (to write, to be writing) compared with the perfective ''napsat'' (to write down).",
"The most common prefixes are ''na-'', ''o-'', ''po-'', ''s-'', ''u-'', ''vy-'', ''z-'' and ''za-''.",
"In suffix pairs, a different infinitive ending is added to the perfective stem; for example, the perfective verbs ''koupit'' (to buy) and ''prodat'' (to sell) have the imperfective forms ''kupovat'' and ''prodávat''.",
"Imperfective verbs may undergo further morphology to make other imperfective verbs (iterative and frequentative forms), denoting repeated or regular action.",
"The verb ''jít'' (to go) has the iterative form ''chodit'' (to go regularly) and the frequentative form ''chodívat'' (to go occasionally; to tend to go).Many verbs have only one aspect, and verbs describing continual states of being—''být'' (to be), ''chtít'' (to want), ''moct'' (to be able to), ''ležet'' (to lie down, to be lying down)—have no perfective form.",
"Conversely, verbs describing immediate states of change—for example, ''otěhotnět'' (to become pregnant) and ''nadchnout se'' (to become enthusiastic)—have no imperfective aspect.====Tense====+Conjugation of ''být'' in future tensePersonSingularPlural1.",
"''budu'' ''budeme''2.",
"''budeš'' ''budete''3.",
"''bude'' ''budou''The present tense in Czech is formed by adding an ending that agrees with the person and number of the subject at the end of the verb stem.",
"As Czech is a null-subject language, the subject pronoun can be omitted unless it is needed for clarity.",
"The past tense is formed using a participle which ends in ''-l'' and a further ending which agrees with the gender and number of the subject.",
"For the first and second persons, the auxiliary verb ''být'' conjugated in the present tense is added.In some contexts, the present tense of perfective verbs (which differs from the English present perfect) implies future action; in others, it connotes habitual action.",
"The perfective present is used to refer to completion of actions in the future and is distinguished from the imperfective future tense, which refers to actions that will be ongoing in the future.",
"The future tense is regularly formed using the future conjugation of ''být'' (as shown in the table on the left) and the infinitive of an imperfective verb, for example, ''budu jíst''—\"I will eat\" or \"I will be eating\".",
"Where ''budu'' has a noun or adjective complement it means \"I will be\", for example, ''budu šťastný'' (I will be happy).",
"Some verbs of movement form their future tense by adding the prefix ''po-'' to the present tense forms instead, e.g.",
"''jedu'' (\"I go\") > ''pojedu'' (\"I will go\").====Mood====+Conditional form of ''koupit'' (to buy)PersonSingularPlural1.",
"''koupil/a bych'' ''koupili/y bychom''2.",
"''koupil/a bys'' ''koupili/y byste'' 3.",
"''koupil/a/o by'' ''koupili/y/a by''Czech verbs have three grammatical moods: indicative, imperative and conditional.",
"The imperative mood is formed by adding specific endings for each of three person–number categories: ''-Ø/-i/-ej'' for second-person singular, ''-te/-ete/-ejte'' for second-person plural and ''-me/-eme/-ejme'' for first-person plural.",
"Imperatives are usually expressed using perfective verbs if positive and imperfective verbs if negative.",
"The conditional mood is formed with a conditional auxiliary verb after the participle ending in -l which is used to form the past tense.",
"This mood indicates hypothetical events and can also be used to express wishes.====Verb classes====Most Czech verbs fall into one of five classes, which determine their conjugation patterns.",
"The future tense of ''být'' would be classified as a Class I verb because of its endings.",
"Examples of the present tense of each class and some common irregular verbs follow in the tables below:Class IClass IIClass IIIClass IVClass VDefinition to carryto printto wanderto sufferto do, to makeInfinitive''nést''''tisknout''''putovat''''trpět''''dělat''1st p.",
"sg.",
"''nesu''''tisknu''''putuji''''trpím''''dělám''2nd p.",
"sg.",
"''neseš''''tiskneš''''putuješ''''trpíš''''děláš''3rd p.",
"sg.",
"''nese''''tiskne''''putuje''''trpí''''dělá''1st p.",
"pl.",
"''neseme''''tiskneme''''putujeme''''trpíme''''děláme''2nd p.",
"pl.",
"''nesete''''tisknete''''putujete''''trpíte''''děláte''3rd p.",
"pl.",
"''nesou''''tisknou''''putují''''trpí''''dělají''+Irregular verbsDefinition to beto wantto eatto knowInfinitive''být''''chtít''''jíst''''vědět''1st p.",
"sg.",
"''jsem''''chci''''jím''''vím''2nd p.",
"sg.",
"''jsi''''chceš''''jíš''''víš''3rd p.",
"sg.",
"''je''''chce''''jí''''ví''1st p.",
"pl.",
"''jsme''''chceme''''jíme''''víme''2nd p.",
"pl.",
"''jste''''chcete''''jíte''''víte''3rd p.",
"pl.",
"''jsou''''chtějí''''jedí''''vědí''"
],
[
"Orthography",
"The handwritten Czech alphabet, without a Q, W and XCzech has one of the most phonemic orthographies of all European languages.",
"Its alphabet contains 42 graphemes, most of which correspond to individual phonemes, and only contains only one digraph: ''ch'', which follows ''h'' in the alphabet.",
"The characters ''q'', ''w'' and ''x'' appear only in foreign words.",
"The háček (ˇ) is used with certain letters to form new characters: ''š'', ''ž'', and ''č'', as well as ''ň'', ''ě'', ''ř'', ''ť'', and ''ď'' (the latter five uncommon outside Czech).",
"The last two letters are sometimes written with a comma above (ʼ, an abbreviated háček) because of their height.",
"Czech orthography has influenced the orthographies of other Balto-Slavic languages and some of its characters have been adopted for transliteration of Cyrillic.Czech orthography reflects vowel length; long vowels are indicated by an acute accent or, in the case of the character ''ů'', a ring.",
"Long ''u'' is usually written ''ú'' at the beginning of a word or morpheme (''úroda'', ''neúrodný'') and ''ů'' elsewhere, except for loanwords (''skútr'') or onomatopoeia (''bú'').",
"Long vowels and ''ě'' are not considered separate letters in the alphabetical order.",
"The character ''ó'' exists only in loanwords and onomatopoeia.Czech typographical features not associated with phonetics generally resemble those of most European languages that use the Latin script, including English.",
"Proper nouns, honorifics, and the first letters of quotations are capitalized, and punctuation is typical of other Latin European languages.",
"Ordinal numbers (1st) use a point, as in German (1.).",
"The Czech language uses a decimal comma instead of a decimal point.",
"When writing a long number, spaces between every three digits, including those in decimal places, may be used for better orientation in handwritten texts.",
"The number 1,234,567.89101 may be written as 1234567,89101 or 1 234 567,891 01.In proper noun phrases (except personal and settlement names), only the first word and proper nouns inside such phrases are capitalized (''Pražský hrad'', Prague Castle)."
],
[
"Varieties",
"Josef Jungmann, whose Czech–German dictionary laid the foundations for modern Standard Czech The modern literary standard and prestige variety, known as \"Standard Czech\" () is based on the standardization during the Czech National Revival in the 1830s, significantly influenced by Josef Jungmann's Czech–German dictionary published during 1834–1839.Jungmann used vocabulary of the Bible of Kralice (1579–1613) period and of the language used by his contemporaries.",
"He borrowed words not present in Czech from other Slavic languages or created neologisms.",
"Standard Czech is the formal register of the language which is used in official documents, formal literature, newspaper articles, education and occasionally public speeches.",
"It is codified by the Czech Language Institute, who publish occasional reforms to the codification.",
"The most recent reform took place in 1993.The term (lit.",
"\"Colloquial Czech\") is sometimes used to refer to the spoken variety of standard Czech.The most widely spoken vernacular form of the language is called \"Common Czech\" (), an interdialect influenced by spoken Standard Czech and the Central Bohemian dialects of the Prague region.",
"Other Bohemian regional dialects have become marginalized, while Moravian dialects remain more widespread and diverse, with a political movement for Moravian linguistic revival active since the 1990s.These varieties of the language (Standard Czech, spoken/colloquial Standard Czech, Common Czech, and regional dialects) form a stylistic continuum, in which contact between varieties of a similar prestige influences change within them.===Common Czech===Moravian, Lach, and Cieszyn Silesian spoken in the Czech Republic.",
"The border areas, where German was formerly spoken, are now mixed.The main Czech vernacular, spoken primarily in Bohemia including the capital Prague, is known as Common Czech (''obecná čeština'').",
"This is an academic distinction; most Czechs are unaware of the term or associate it with deformed or \"incorrect\" Czech.",
"Compared to Standard Czech, Common Czech is characterized by simpler inflection patterns and differences in sound distribution.Common Czech is distinguished from spoken/colloquial Standard Czech (), which is a stylistic variety within standard Czech.",
"Tomasz Kamusella defines the spoken variety of Standard Czech as a compromise between Common Czech and the written standard, while Miroslav Komárek calls Common Czech an intersection of spoken Standard Czech and regional dialects.Common Czech has become ubiquitous in most parts of the Czech Republic since the later 20th century.",
"It is usually defined as an interdialect used in common speech in Bohemia and western parts of Moravia (by about two thirds of all inhabitants of the Czech Republic).",
"Common Czech is not codified, but some of its elements have become adopted in the written standard.",
"Since the second half of the 20th century, Common Czech elements have also been spreading to regions previously unaffected, as a consequence of media influence.",
"Standard Czech is still the norm for politicians, businesspeople and other Czechs in formal situations, but Common Czech is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media.",
"The colloquial form of Standard Czech finds limited use in daily communication due to the expansion of the Common Czech interdialect.",
"It is sometimes defined as a theoretical construct rather than an actual tool of colloquial communication, since in casual contexts, the non-standard interdialect is preferred.Common Czech phonology is based on that of the Central Bohemian dialect group, which has a slightly different set of vowel phonemes to Standard Czech.",
"The phoneme /ɛː/ is peripheral and usually merges with /iː/, e.g.",
"in ''mal'''ý''' město'' (small town), ''plam'''í'''nek'' (little flame) and ''l'''í'''tat'' (to fly), and a second native diphthong /ɛɪ̯/ occurs, usually in places where Standard Czech has /iː/, e.g.",
"''mal'''ej''' dům'' (small house), ''ml'''ej'''n'' (mill), ''pl'''ej'''tvat'' (to waste), ''b'''ej'''t'' (to be).",
"In addition, a prothetic ''v-'' is added to most words beginning ''o-'', such as '''''v'''otevřít '''v'''okno'' (to open the window).Non-standard morphological features that are more or less common among all Common Czech speakers include:* unified plural endings of adjectives: ''mal'''ý''' lidi'' (small people), ''mal'''ý''' ženy'' (small women), ''mal'''ý''' města'' (small towns) – standard: ''malí lidé, malé ženy, malá města;''* unified instrumental ending ''-ma'' in plural: ''s tě'''ma''' dobrej'''ma''' lid'''ma''', žena'''ma''', chlapa'''ma''', města'''ma''''' (with the good people, women, guys, towns) – standard: ''s těmi dobrými lidmi, ženami, chlapy, městy.''",
"In essence, this form resembles the form of the dual, which was once a productive form, but now is almost extinct and retained in a lexically specific set of words.",
"In Common Czech the ending became productive again around the 17th century, but used as a substitute for a regular plural form.",
"* omission of the syllabic ''-l'' in the masculine ending of past tense verbs: ''řek'' (he said), ''moh'' (he could), ''pích'' (he pricked) – standard: ''řekl, mohl, píchl.",
"''* tendency of merging the locative singular masculine/neuter for adjectives with the instrumental by changing the locative ending ''-ém'' to ''-ým'' and then shortening the vowel: ''mladém'' (standard locative), ''mladým'' (standard instrumental) > ''mladým'' (Common Czech locative), ''mladym'' (Common Czech instrumental) > ''mladym'' (Common Czech locative/instrumental with shortening).Examples of declension (Standard Czech is added in italics for comparison): MasculineanimateMasculineinanimateFeminineNeuterSg.Nominativemlad'''ej''' člověk''mladý člověk''mlad'''ej''' stát''mladý stát''mladá žena''mladá žena''mlad'''ý''' zvíře''mladé zvíře''Genitivemlad'''ýho''' člověka''mladého člověka''mlad'''ýho''' státu''mladého státu''mlad'''ý''' ženy''mladé ženy''mlad'''ýho''' zvířete''mladého zvířete''Dativemlad'''ýmu''' člověkovi''mladému člověku''mlad'''ýmu''' státu''mladému státu''mlad'''ý''' ženě''mladé ženě''mlad'''ýmu''' zvířeti''mladému zvířeti''Accusativemlad'''ýho''' člověka''mladého člověka''mlad'''ej''' stát''mladý stát''mladou ženu''mladou ženu''mlad'''ý''' zvíře''mladé zvíře''Vocativemlad'''ej''' člověče!",
"''mladý člověče!",
"''mlad'''ej''' státe!",
"''mladý státe!",
"''mladá ženo!",
"''mladá ženo!",
"''mlad'''ý''' zvíře!",
"''mladé zvíře!",
"''Locativemlad'''ým''' člověkovi''mladém člověkovi''mlad'''ým''' státě''mladém státě''mlad'''ý''' ženě''mladé ženě''mlad'''ým''' zvířeti''mladém zvířeti''Instrumentalmlad'''ym''' člověkem''mladým člověkem''mlad'''ym''' státem''mladým státem''mladou ženou''mladou ženou''mlad'''ym''' zvířetem''mladým zvířetem''Pl.Nominativemlad'''ý''' lidi''mladí lidé''mlad'''ý''' státy''mladé státy''mlad'''ý''' ženy''mladé ženy''mlad'''ý''' zvířata''mladá zvířata''Genitivemlad'''ejch''' lidí''mladých lidí''mlad'''ejch''' států''mladých států''mlad'''ejch''' žen''mladých žen''mlad'''ejch''' zvířat''mladých zvířat''Dativemlad'''ejm''' lidem''mladým lidem''mlad'''ejm''' státům''mladým státům''mlad'''ejm''' ženám''mladým ženám''mlad'''ejm''' zvířatům''mladým zvířatům''Accusativemlad'''ý''' lidi''mladé lidi''mlad'''ý''' státy''mladé státy''mlad'''ý''' ženy''mladé ženy''mlad'''ý''' zvířata''mladá zvířata''Vocativemlad'''ý''' lidi!",
"''mladí lidé!",
"''mlad'''ý''' státy!",
"''mladé státy!",
"''mlad'''ý''' ženy!",
"''mladé ženy!",
"''mlad'''ý''' zvířata!",
"''mladá zvířata!",
"''Locativemlad'''ejch''' lidech''mladých lidech''mlad'''ejch''' státech''mladých státech''mlad'''ejch''' ženách''mladých ženách''mlad'''ejch''' zvířatech''mladých zvířatech''Instrumentalmlad'''ejma''' lidma''mladými lidmi''mlad'''ejma''' státama''mladými státy''mlad'''ejma''' ženama''mladými ženami''mlad'''ejma''' zvířatama''mladými zvířaty''''mladý člověk – young man/person, mladí lidé – young people, mladý stát – young state, mladá žena – young woman, mladé zvíře – young animal''===Bohemian dialects===A headstone in Český Krumlov from 1591.The inscription features the distinctive Bohemian diphthong , spelled .Apart from the Common Czech vernacular, there remain a variety of other Bohemian dialects, mostly in marginal rural areas.",
"Dialect use began to weaken in the second half of the 20th century, and by the early 1990s regional dialect use was stigmatized, associated with the shrinking lower class and used in literature or other media for comedic effect.",
"Increased travel and media availability to dialect-speaking populations has encouraged them to shift to (or add to their own dialect) Standard Czech.The Czech Statistical Office in 2003 recognized the following Bohemian dialects:*''Nářečí středočeská'' (Central Bohemian dialects)*''Nářečí jihozápadočeská'' (Southwestern Bohemian dialects):*''Podskupina chodská'' (Chod subgroup):*''Podskupina doudlebská'' (Doudleby subgroup)*''Nářečí severovýchodočeská'' (Northeastern Bohemian dialects):*''Podskupina podkrknošská'' (Krkonoše subgroup)===Moravian dialects===Lach (Silesian), Pink: Cieszyn Silesian, Orange: Bohemian–Moravian transitional dialects, Purple: Mixed areasThe Czech dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia are known as Moravian (''moravština'').",
"In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, \"Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak\" was a language citizens could register as speaking (with German, Polish and several others).",
"In the 2011 census, where respondents could optionally specify up to two first languages, 62,908 Czech citizens specified Moravian as their first language and 45,561 specified both Moravian and Czech.Beginning in the sixteenth century, some varieties of Czech resembled Slovak; the southeastern Moravian dialects, in particular, are sometimes considered dialects of Slovak rather than Czech.",
"These dialects form a continuum between the Czech and Slovak languages, using the same declension patterns for nouns and pronouns and the same verb conjugations as Slovak.The Czech Statistical Office in 2003 recognized the following Moravian dialects:*''Nářečí českomoravská'' (Bohemian–Moravian dialects)*''Nářečí středomoravská'' (Central Moravian dialects):*''Podskupina tišnovská'' (Tišnov subgroup)*''Nářečí východomoravská'' (Eastern Moravian dialects):*''Podskupina slovácká'' (Moravian Slovak subgroup):*''Podskupina valašská'' (Moravian Wallachian subgroup)*''Nářečí slezská'' (Silesian dialects)===Sample===In a 1964 textbook on Czech dialectology, Břetislav Koudela used the following sentence to highlight phonetic differences between dialects: Standard Czech: ''D'''ej''' m'''ou'''k'''u''' z'''e''' m'''lý'''na na voz'''í'''k.''",
"Common Czech: ''D'''ej''' m'''ou'''k'''u''' z'''e''' m'''lej'''na na voz'''ej'''k.''",
"Central Moravian: ''D'''é''' m'''ó'''k'''o''' z'''e''' m'''lé'''na na voz'''é'''k.''",
"Eastern Moravian: ''D'''aj''' m'''ú'''k'''u''' z'''e''' m'''łý'''na na voz'''í'''k.''",
"Silesian: ''D'''aj''' m'''u'''k'''u''' z'''e''' m'''ły'''na na voz'''i'''k.''",
"Slovak: ''D'''aj''' m'''ú'''k'''u''' z m'''ly'''na na voz'''í'''k.''",
"English: Put the flour from the mill into the cart.===Mutual intelligibility with Slovak===Czech and Slovak have been considered mutually intelligible; speakers of either language can communicate with greater ease than those of any other pair of West Slavic languages.",
"Following the 1993 dissolution of Czechoslovakia, mutual intelligibility declined for younger speakers, probably because Czech speakers began to experience less exposure to Slovak and vice versa.",
"A 2015 study involving participants with a mean age of around 23 nonetheless concluded that there remained a high degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages.",
"Grammatically, both languages share a common syntax.One study showed that Czech and Slovak lexicons differed by 80 percent, but this high percentage was found to stem primarily from differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation; Slovak morphology is more regular (when changing from the nominative to the locative case, ''Pra'''h'''a'' becomes ''Pra'''z'''e'' in Czech and ''Pra'''h'''e'' in Slovak).",
"The two lexicons are generally considered similar, with most differences found in colloquial vocabulary and some scientific terminology.",
"Slovak has slightly more borrowed words than Czech.The similarities between Czech and Slovak led to the languages being considered a single language by a group of 19th-century scholars who called themselves \"Czechoslavs\" (''Čechoslované''), believing that the peoples were connected in a way which excluded German Bohemians and (to a lesser extent) Hungarians and other Slavs.",
"During the First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938), although \"Czechoslovak\" was designated as the republic's official language, both Czech and Slovak written standards were used.",
"Standard written Slovak was partially modeled on literary Czech, and Czech was preferred for some official functions in the Slovak half of the republic.",
"Czech influence on Slovak was protested by Slovak scholars, and when Slovakia broke off from Czechoslovakia in 1938 as the Slovak State (which then aligned with Nazi Germany in World War II), literary Slovak was deliberately distanced from Czech.",
"When the Axis powers lost the war and Czechoslovakia reformed, Slovak developed somewhat on its own (with Czech influence); during the Prague Spring of 1968, Slovak gained independence from (and equality with) Czech, due to the transformation of Czechoslovakia from a unitary state to a federation.",
"Since the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, \"Czechoslovak\" has referred to improvised pidgins of the languages which have arisen from the decrease in mutual intelligibility."
],
[
"Vocabulary",
"Czech vocabulary derives primarily from Slavic, Baltic and other Indo-European roots.",
"Although most verbs have Balto-Slavic origins, pronouns, prepositions and some verbs have wider, Indo-European roots.",
"Some loanwords have been restructured by folk etymology to resemble native Czech words (e.g.",
"''hřbitov'', \"graveyard\" and ''listina'', \"list\").Most Czech loanwords originated in one of two time periods.",
"Earlier loanwords, primarily from German, Greek and Latin, arrived before the Czech National Revival.",
"More recent loanwords derive primarily from English and French, and also from Hebrew, Arabic and Persian.",
"Many Russian loanwords, principally animal names and naval terms, also exist in Czech.Although older German loanwords were colloquial, recent borrowings from other languages are associated with high culture.",
"During the nineteenth century, words with Greek and Latin roots were rejected in favor of those based on older Czech words and common Slavic roots; \"music\" is ''muzyka'' in Polish and ''музыка'' (''muzyka'') in Russian, but in Czech it is ''hudba''.",
"Some Czech words have been borrowed as loanwords into English and other languages—for example, ''robot'' (from ''robota'', \"labor\") and ''polka'' (from ''polka'', \"Polish woman\" or from \"půlka\" \"half\")."
],
[
"Example text",
"Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in Czech::''Všichni lidé rodí se svobodní a sobě rovní co do důstojnosti a práv.",
"Jsou nadáni rozumem a svědomím a mají spolu jednat v duchu bratrství.",
"''Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in English::''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.",
"They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''"
],
[
"See also",
"* Czech Centers* Czech name* Czech Sign Language* Swadesh list of Slavic words"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"**************************"
],
[
"External links",
"* Ústav pro jazyk český – Czech Language Institute, the regulatory body for the Czech language * Czech National Corpus* Czech Monolingual Online Dictionary* Online Translation Dictionaries* Czech Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)* Online Czech Grammar and Exercises"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Capsid"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Schematic of a cytomegalovirusIllustration of geometric model changing between two possible capsids.",
"A similar change of size has been observed as the result of a single amino-acid mutationA '''capsid''' is the protein shell of a virus, enclosing its genetic material.",
"It consists of several oligomeric (repeating) structural subunits made of protein called protomers.",
"The observable 3-dimensional morphological subunits, which may or may not correspond to individual proteins, are called capsomeres.",
"The proteins making up the capsid are called '''capsid proteins''' or '''viral coat proteins''' ('''VCP''').",
"The capsid and inner genome is called the '''nucleocapsid'''.Capsids are broadly classified according to their structure.",
"The majority of the viruses have capsids with either helical or icosahedral structure.",
"Some viruses, such as bacteriophages, have developed more complicated structures due to constraints of elasticity and electrostatics.",
"The icosahedral shape, which has 20 equilateral triangular faces, approximates a sphere, while the helical shape resembles the shape of a spring, taking the space of a cylinder but not being a cylinder itself.",
"The capsid faces may consist of one or more proteins.",
"For example, the foot-and-mouth disease virus capsid has faces consisting of three proteins named VP1–3.Some viruses are ''enveloped'', meaning that the capsid is coated with a lipid membrane known as the viral envelope.",
"The envelope is acquired by the capsid from an intracellular membrane in the virus' host; examples include the inner nuclear membrane, the Golgi membrane, and the cell's outer membrane.Once the virus has infected a cell and begins replicating itself, new capsid subunits are synthesized using the protein biosynthesis mechanism of the cell.",
"In some viruses, including those with helical capsids and especially those with RNA genomes, the capsid proteins co-assemble with their genomes.",
"In other viruses, especially more complex viruses with double-stranded DNA genomes, the capsid proteins assemble into empty precursor '''procapsids''' that include a specialized portal structure at one vertex.",
"Through this portal, viral DNA is translocated into the capsid.Structural analyses of major capsid protein (MCP) architectures have been used to categorise viruses into lineages.",
"For example, the bacteriophage PRD1, the algal virus ''Paramecium bursaria Chlorella virus-1'' (PBCV-1), mimivirus and the mammalian adenovirus have been placed in the same lineage, whereas tailed, double-stranded DNA bacteriophages (''Caudovirales'') and herpesvirus belong to a second lineage."
],
[
"Specific shapes",
"===Icosahedral===adenovirusVirus capsid T-numbersThe icosahedral structure is extremely common among viruses.",
"The icosahedron consists of 20 triangular faces delimited by 12 fivefold vertexes and consists of 60 asymmetric units.",
"Thus, an icosahedral virus is made of 60N protein subunits.",
"The number and arrangement of capsomeres in an icosahedral capsid can be classified using the \"quasi-equivalence principle\" proposed by Donald Caspar and Aaron Klug.",
"Like the Goldberg polyhedra, an icosahedral structure can be regarded as being constructed from pentamers and hexamers.",
"The structures can be indexed by two integers ''h'' and ''k'', with and ; the structure can be thought of as taking ''h'' steps from the edge of a pentamer, turning 60 degrees counterclockwise, then taking ''k'' steps to get to the next pentamer.",
"The triangulation number ''T'' for the capsid is defined as::In this scheme, icosahedral capsids contain 12 pentamers plus 10(''T'' − 1) hexamers.",
"The ''T''-number is representative of the size and complexity of the capsids.",
"Geometric examples for many values of ''h'', ''k'', and ''T'' can be found at List of geodesic polyhedra and Goldberg polyhedra.Many exceptions to this rule exist: For example, the polyomaviruses and papillomaviruses have pentamers instead of hexamers in hexavalent positions on a quasi T = 7 lattice.",
"Members of the double-stranded RNA virus lineage, including reovirus, rotavirus and bacteriophage φ6 have capsids built of 120 copies of capsid protein, corresponding to a T = 2 capsid, or arguably a T = 1 capsid with a dimer in the asymmetric unit.",
"Similarly, many small viruses have a pseudo T = 3 (or P = 3) capsid, which is organized according to a T = 3 lattice, but with distinct polypeptides occupying the three quasi-equivalent positions T-numbers can be represented in different ways, for example ''T'' = 1 can only be represented as an icosahedron or a dodecahedron and, depending on the type of quasi-symmetry, ''T'' = 3 can be presented as a truncated dodecahedron, an icosidodecahedron, or a truncated icosahedron and their respective duals a triakis icosahedron, a rhombic triacontahedron, or a pentakis dodecahedron.===Prolate===The prolate structure of a typical head on a bacteriophageAn elongated icosahedron is a common shape for the heads of bacteriophages.",
"Such a structure is composed of a cylinder with a cap at either end.",
"The cylinder is composed of 10 elongated triangular faces.",
"The Q number (or Tmid), which can be any positive integer, specifies the number of triangles, composed of asymmetric subunits, that make up the 10 triangles of the cylinder.",
"The caps are classified by the T (or Tend) number.The bacterium ''E.",
"coli'' is the host for bacteriophage T4 that has a prolate head structure.",
"The bacteriophage encoded gp31 protein appears to be functionally homologous to ''E.",
"coli'' chaperone protein GroES and able to substitute for it in the assembly of bacteriophage T4 virions during infection.",
"Like GroES, gp31 forms a stable complex with GroEL chaperonin that is absolutely necessary for the folding and assembly ''in vivo'' of the bacteriophage T4 major capsid protein gp23.===Helical===3D model of a helical capsid structure of a virusMany rod-shaped and filamentous plant viruses have capsids with helical symmetry.",
"The helical structure can be described as a set of ''n'' 1-D molecular helices related by an ''n''-fold axial symmetry.",
"The helical transformation are classified into two categories: one-dimensional and two-dimensional helical systems.",
"Creating an entire helical structure relies on a set of translational and rotational matrices which are coded in the protein data bank.",
"Helical symmetry is given by the formula ''P'' = ''μ'' x ''ρ'', where ''μ'' is the number of structural units per turn of the helix, ''ρ'' is the axial rise per unit and ''P'' is the pitch of the helix.",
"The structure is said to be open due to the characteristic that any volume can be enclosed by varying the length of the helix.",
"The most understood helical virus is the tobacco mosaic virus.",
"The virus is a single molecule of (+) strand RNA.",
"Each coat protein on the interior of the helix bind three nucleotides of the RNA genome.",
"Influenza A viruses differ by comprising multiple ribonucleoproteins, the viral NP protein organizes the RNA into a helical structure.",
"The size is also different; the tobacco mosaic virus has a 16.33 protein subunits per helical turn, while the influenza A virus has a 28 amino acid tail loop."
],
[
"Functions",
"The functions of the capsid are to:* protect the genome, * deliver the genome, and * interact with the host.",
"The virus must assemble a stable, protective protein shell to protect the genome from lethal chemical and physical agents.",
"These include extremes of pH or temperature and proteolytic and nucleolytic enzymes.",
"For non-enveloped viruses, the capsid itself may be involved in interaction with receptors on the host cell, leading to penetration of the host cell membrane and internalization of the capsid.",
"Delivery of the genome occurs by subsequent uncoating or disassembly of the capsid and release of the genome into the cytoplasm, or by ejection of the genome through a specialized portal structure directly into the host cell nucleus."
],
[
"Origin and evolution",
"It has been suggested that many viral capsid proteins have evolved on multiple occasions from functionally diverse cellular proteins.",
"The recruitment of cellular proteins appears to have occurred at different stages of evolution so that some cellular proteins were captured and refunctionalized prior to the divergence of cellular organisms into the three contemporary domains of life, whereas others were hijacked relatively recently.",
"As a result, some capsid proteins are widespread in viruses infecting distantly related organisms (e.g., capsid proteins with the jelly-roll fold), whereas others are restricted to a particular group of viruses (e.g., capsid proteins of alphaviruses).A computational model (2015) has shown that capsids may have originated before viruses and that they served as a means of horizontal transfer between replicator communities since these communities could not survive if the number of gene parasites increased, with certain genes being responsible for the formation of these structures and those that favored the survival of self-replicating communities.",
"The displacement of these ancestral genes between cellular organisms could favor the appearance of new viruses during evolution."
],
[
"See also",
"* Geodesic polyhedron* Goldberg–Coxeter construction* Fullerene#Other buckyballs"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* IRAM-Virus Capsid Database and Analysis Resource"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chloramphenicol"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Chloramphenicol''' is an antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections.",
"This includes use as an eye ointment to treat conjunctivitis.",
"By mouth or by injection into a vein, it is used to treat meningitis, plague, cholera, and typhoid fever.",
"Its use by mouth or by injection is only recommended when safer antibiotics cannot be used.",
"Monitoring both blood levels of the medication and blood cell levels every two days is recommended during treatment.Common side effects include bone marrow suppression, nausea, and diarrhea.",
"The bone marrow suppression may result in death.",
"To reduce the risk of side effects treatment duration should be as short as possible.",
"People with liver or kidney problems may need lower doses.",
"In young infants, a condition known as gray baby syndrome may occur which results in a swollen stomach and low blood pressure.",
"Its use near the end of pregnancy and during breastfeeding is typically not recommended.",
"Chloramphenicol is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that typically stops bacterial growth by stopping the production of proteins.Chloramphenicol was discovered after being isolated from ''Streptomyces venezuelae'' in 1947.Its chemical structure was identified and it was first synthesized in 1949.It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.",
"It is available as a generic medication."
],
[
"Medical uses",
"The original indication of chloramphenicol was in the treatment of typhoid, but the presence of multiple drug-resistant Salmonella typhi has meant it is seldom used for this indication except when the organism is known to be sensitive.In low-income countries, the WHO no longer recommends only chloramphenicol as first-line to treat meningitis, but recognises it may be used with caution if there are no available alternatives.During the last decade chloramphenicol has been re-evaluated as an old agent with potential against systemic infections due to multidrug-resistant gram positive microorganisms (including vancomycin resistant enterococci).",
"''In vitro'' data have shown an activity against the majority (> 80%) of vancomycin resistant ''E.",
"faecium'' strains.In the context of preventing endophthalmitis, a complication of cataract surgery, a 2017 systematic review found moderate evidence that using chloramphenicol eye drops in addition to an antibiotic injection (cefuroxime or penicillin) will likely lower the risk of endophthalmitis, compared to eye drops or antibiotic injections alone.===Spectrum===Chloramphenicol has a broad spectrum of activity and has been effective in treating ocular infections such as conjunctivitis, blepharitis etc.",
"caused by a number of bacteria including ''Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae'', and ''Escherichia coli''.",
"It is not effective against ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa''.",
"The following susceptibility data represent the minimum inhibitory concentration for a few medically significant organisms.",
"* ''Escherichia coli'': 0.015 – 10,000 μg/mL* ''Staphylococcus aureus'': 0.06 – 128 μg/mL* ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'': 2 – 16 μg/mLEach of these concentrations is dependent upon the bacterial strain being targeted.",
"Some strains of ''E.",
"coli'', for example, show spontaneous emergence of chloramphenicol resistance.===Resistance===Three mechanisms of resistance to chloramphenicol are known: reduced membrane permeability, mutation of the 50S ribosomal subunit, and elaboration of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase.",
"It is easy to select for reduced membrane permeability to chloramphenicol ''in vitro'' by serial passage of bacteria, and this is the most common mechanism of low-level chloramphenicol resistance.",
"High-level resistance is conferred by the ''cat''-gene; this gene codes for an enzyme called chloramphenicol acetyltransferase, which inactivates chloramphenicol by covalently linking one or two acetyl groups, derived from acetyl-''S''-coenzyme A, to the hydroxyl groups on the chloramphenicol molecule.",
"The acetylation prevents chloramphenicol from binding to the ribosome.",
"Resistance-conferring mutations of the 50S ribosomal subunit are rare.Chloramphenicol resistance may be carried on a plasmid that also codes for resistance to other drugs.",
"One example is the ACCoT plasmid (A=ampicillin, C=chloramphenicol, Co=co-trimoxazole, T=tetracycline), which mediates multiple drug resistance in typhoid (also called R factors).As of 2014 some ''Enterococcus faecium'' and'' Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' strains are resistant to chloramphenicol.",
"Some ''Veillonella'' spp.",
"and ''Staphylococcus capitis'' strains have also developed resistance to chloramphenicol to varying degrees."
],
[
"Adverse effects",
"===Aplastic anemia===The most serious side effect of chloramphenicol treatment is aplastic anaemia ('AA').",
"This effect is rare but sometimes fatal.",
"The risk of AA is high enough that alternatives should be strongly considered.",
"Treatments are available but expensive.",
"No way exists to predict who may or may not suffer this side effect.",
"The effect usually occurs weeks or months after treatment has been stopped, and a genetic predisposition may be involved.",
"It is not known whether monitoring the blood counts of patients can prevent the development of aplastic anaemia, but patients are recommended to have a baseline blood count with a repeat blood count every few days while on treatment.",
"Chloramphenicol should be discontinued if the complete blood count drops.",
"The highest risk is with oral chloramphenicol (affecting 1 in 24,000–40,000) and the lowest risk occurs with eye drops (affecting less than one in 224,716 prescriptions).Thiamphenicol, a related compound with a similar spectrum of activity, is available in Italy and China for human use, and has never been associated with aplastic anaemia.",
"Thiamphenicol is available in the U.S. and Europe as a veterinary antibiotic, but is not approved for use in humans.===Bone marrow suppression===Chloramphenicol may cause bone marrow suppression during treatment; this is a direct toxic effect of the drug on human mitochondria.",
"This effect manifests first as a fall in hemoglobin levels, which occurs quite predictably once a cumulative dose of 20 g has been given.",
"The anaemia is fully reversible once the drug is stopped and does not predict future development of aplastic anaemia.",
"Studies in mice have suggested existing marrow damage may compound any marrow damage resulting from the toxic effects of chloramphenicol.===Leukemia===Leukemia, a cancer of the blood or bone marrow, is characterized by an abnormal increase of immature white blood cells.",
"The risk of childhood leukemia is increased, as demonstrated in a Chinese case–control study, and the risk increases with length of treatment.===Gray baby syndrome===Intravenous chloramphenicol use has been associated with the so-called gray baby syndrome.This phenomenon occurs in newborn infants because they do not yet have fully functional liver enzymes (i.e.",
"UDP-glucuronyl transferase), so chloramphenicol remains unmetabolized in the body.This causes several adverse effects, including hypotension and cyanosis.",
"The condition can be prevented by using the drug at the recommended doses, and monitoring blood levels.===Hypersensitivity reactions===Fever, macular and vesicular rashes, angioedema, urticaria, and anaphylaxis may occur.",
"Herxheimer's reactions have occurred during therapy for typhoid fever.===Neurotoxic reactions===Headache, mild depression, mental confusion, and delirium have been described in patients receiving chloramphenicol.",
"Optic and peripheral neuritis have been reported, usually following long-term therapy.",
"If this occurs, the drug should be promptly withdrawn."
],
[
"Pharmacokinetics",
"Chloramphenicol is extremely lipid-soluble; it remains relatively unbound to protein and is a small molecule.",
"It has a large apparent volume of distribution and penetrates effectively into all tissues of the body, including the brain.",
"Distribution is not uniform, with highest concentrations found in the liver and kidney, with lowest in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid.",
"The concentration achieved in brain and cerebrospinal fluid is around 30 to 50% of the overall average body concentration, even when the meninges are not inflamed; this increases to as high as 89% when the meninges are inflamed.Chloramphenicol increases the absorption of iron.===Use in special populations===Chloramphenicol is metabolized by the liver to chloramphenicol glucuronate (which is inactive).",
"In liver impairment, the dose of chloramphenicol must therefore be reduced.",
"No standard dose reduction exists for chloramphenicol in liver impairment, and the dose should be adjusted according to measured plasma concentrations.The majority of the chloramphenicol dose is excreted by the kidneys as the inactive metabolite, chloramphenicol glucuronate.",
"Only a tiny fraction of the chloramphenicol is excreted by the kidneys unchanged.",
"Plasma levels should be monitored in patients with renal impairment, but this is not mandatory.",
"Chloramphenicol succinate ester (an intravenous prodrug form) is readily excreted unchanged by the kidneys, more so than chloramphenicol base, and this is the major reason why levels of chloramphenicol in the blood are much lower when given intravenously than orally.",
"Chloramphenicol passes into breast milk, so should therefore be avoided during breast feeding, if possible.===Dose monitoring===Plasma levels of chloramphenicol must be monitored in neonates and patients with abnormal liver function.",
"Plasma levels should be monitored in all children under the age of four, the elderly, and patients with kidney failure.Because efficacy and toxicity of chloramphenicol are associated with a maximum serum concentration, peak levels (one hour after the intravenous dose is given) should be 10–20 µg/ml with toxicity ; trough levels (taken immediately before a dose) should be 5–10 µg/ml.===Drug interactions===Administration of chloramphenicol concomitantly with bone marrow depressant drugs is contraindicated, although concerns over aplastic anaemia associated with ocular chloramphenicol have largely been discounted.Chloramphenicol is a potent inhibitor of the cytochrome P450 isoforms CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 in the liver.",
"Inhibition of CYP2C19 causes decreased metabolism and therefore increased levels of, for example, antidepressants, antiepileptics, proton-pump inhibitors, and anticoagulants if they are given concomitantly.",
"Inhibition of CYP3A4 causes increased levels of, for example, calcium channel blockers, immunosuppressants, chemotherapeutic drugs, benzodiazepines, azole antifungals, tricyclic antidepressants, macrolide antibiotics, SSRIs, statins, cardiac antiarrhythmics, antivirals, anticoagulants, and PDE5 inhibitors.===Drug antagonistic===Chloramphenicol is antagonistic with most cephalosporins and using both together should be avoided in the treatment of infections.===Drug synergism===Chloramphenicol has been demonstrated a synergistic effect when combined with fosfomycin against clinical isolates of ''Enterococcus faecium''."
],
[
"Mechanism of action",
"Chloramphenicol is a bacteriostatic agent, inhibiting protein synthesis.",
"It prevents protein chain elongation by inhibiting the peptidyl transferase activity of the bacterial ribosome.",
"It specifically binds to A2451 and A2452 residues in the 23S rRNA of the 50S ribosomal subunit, preventing peptide bond formation.",
"Chloramphenicol directly interferes with substrate binding in the ribosome, as compared to macrolides, which sterically block the progression of the growing peptide."
],
[
"History",
"Chloramphenicol was first isolated from ''Streptomyces venezuelae'' in 1947 and in 1949 a team of scientists at Parke-Davis including Mildred Rebstock published their identification of the chemical structure and their synthesis.In 1972, Senator Ted Kennedy combined the two examples of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and the 1958 Los Angeles Infant Chloramphenicol experiments as initial subjects of a Senate Subcommittee investigation into dangerous medical experimentation on human subjects.In 2007, the accumulation of reports associating aplastic anemia and blood dyscrasia with chloramphenicol eye drops led to the classification of “probable human carcinogen” according to World Health Organization criteria, based on the known published case reports and the spontaneous reports submitted to the National Registry of Drug-Induced Ocular Side Effects."
],
[
"Society and culture",
"===Names===Chloramphenicol is available as a generic worldwide under many brandnames and also under various generic names in eastern Europe and Russia, including chlornitromycin, levomycetin, and chloromycetin; the racemate is known as synthomycetin.===Formulations===Pure chloramphenicolChloramphenicol is available as a capsule or as a liquid.",
"In some countries, it is sold as chloramphenicol palmitate ester (CPE).",
"CPE is inactive, and is hydrolysed to active chloramphenicol in the small intestine.",
"No difference in bioavailability is noted between chloramphenicol and CPE.Manufacture of oral chloramphenicol in the U.S. stopped in 1991, because the vast majority of chloramphenicol-associated cases of aplastic anaemia are associated with the oral preparation.",
"No oral formulation of chloramphenicol is available in the U.S. for human use.In molecular biology, chloramphenicol is prepared in ethanol.====Intravenous====The intravenous (IV) preparation of chloramphenicol is the succinate ester.",
"This creates a problem: Chloramphenicol succinate ester is an inactive prodrug and must first be hydrolysed to chloramphenicol; however, the hydrolysis process is often incomplete, and 30% of the dose is lost and removed in the urine.",
"Serum concentrations of IV chloramphenicol are only 70% of those achieved when chloramphenicol is given orally.",
"For this reason, the dose needs to be increased to 75 mg/kg/day when administered IV to achieve levels equivalent to the oral dose.====Oily====Oily chloramphenicol (or chloramphenicol oil suspension) is a long-acting preparation of chloramphenicol first introduced by Roussel in 1954; marketed as Tifomycine, it was originally used as a treatment for typhoid.",
"Roussel stopped production of oily chloramphenicol in 1995; the International Dispensary Association Foundation has manufactured it since 1998, first in Malta and then in India from December 2004.Oily chloramphenicol was first used to treat meningitis in 1975 and numerous studies since have demonstrated its efficacy.",
"It is the cheapest treatment available for meningitis (US$5 per treatment course, compared to US$30 for ampicillin and US$15 for five days of ceftriaxone).",
"It has the great advantage of requiring only a single injection, whereas ceftriaxone is traditionally given daily for five days.",
"This recommendation may yet change, now that a single dose of ceftriaxone (cost US$3) has been shown to be equivalent to one dose of oily chloramphenicol.====Eye drops====Chloramphenicol is used in topical preparations (ointments and eye drops) for the treatment of bacterial conjunctivitis.",
"Isolated case reports of aplastic anaemia following use of chloramphenicol eyedrops exist, but the risk is estimated to be of the order of less than one in 224,716 prescriptions.",
"In Mexico, this is the treatment used prophylactically in newborns for neonatal conjunctivitis."
],
[
"Veterinary uses",
"Although its use in veterinary medicine is highly restricted, chloramphenicol still has some important veterinary uses.",
"It is currently considered the most useful treatment of chlamydial disease in koalas.",
"The pharmacokinetics of chloramphenicol have been investigated in koalas."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cut-up technique"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A text created from lines of a newspaper tourism articleThe '''cut-up technique''' (or ''découpé'' in French) is an aleatory literary technique in which a written text is cut up and rearranged to create a new text.",
"The concept can be traced to the Dadaists of the 1920s, but it was developed and popularized in the 1950s and early 1960s, especially by writer William S. Burroughs.",
"It has since been used in a wide variety of contexts."
],
[
"Technique",
"The cut-up and the closely associated fold-in are the two main techniques:*''Cut-up'' is performed by taking a finished and fully linear text and cutting it in pieces with a few or single words on each piece.",
"The resulting pieces are then rearranged into a new text, such as in poems by Tristan Tzara as described in his short text, ''TO MAKE A DADAIST POEM''.",
"*''Fold-in'' is the technique of taking two sheets of linear text (with the same linespacing), folding each sheet in half vertically and combining with the other, then reading across the resulting page, such as in ''The Third Mind''.",
"It is a joint development between Burroughs and Brion Gysin.William S. Burroughs, popularizer of the techniqueWilliam Burroughs cited T. S. Eliot's 1922 poem, ''The Waste Land'', and John Dos Passos' ''U.S.A.''",
"trilogy, which incorporated newspaper clippings, as early examples of the cut ups he popularized.Gysin introduced Burroughs to the technique at the Beat Hotel.",
"The pair later applied the technique to printed media and audio recordings in an effort to decode the material's implicit content, hypothesizing that such a technique could be used to discover the true meaning of a given text.",
"Burroughs also suggested cut-ups may be effective as a form of divination saying, \"When you cut into the present the future leaks out.\"",
"Burroughs also further developed the \"fold-in\" technique.",
"In 1977, Burroughs and Gysin published ''The Third Mind'', a collection of cut-up writings and essays on the form.",
"Jeff Nuttall's publication ''My Own Mag'' was another important outlet for the then-radical technique.In an interview, Alan Burns noted that for ''Europe After The Rain'' (1965) and subsequent novels he used a version of cut-ups: \"I did not actually use scissors, but I folded pages, read across columns, and so on, discovering for myself many of the techniques Burroughs and Gysin describe\"."
],
[
"History",
"===In literature===A precedent of the technique occurred during a Dadaist rally in the 1920s in which Tristan Tzara offered to create a poem on the spot by pulling words at random from a hat.",
"Collage, which was popularized roughly contemporaneously with the Surrealist movement, sometimes incorporated texts such as newspapers or brochures.",
"Prior to this event, the technique had been published in an issue of 391 in the poem by Tzara, ''dada manifesto on feeble love and bitter love'' under the sub-title, ''TO MAKE A DADAIST POEM''.In the 1950s, painter and writer Brion Gysin more fully developed the cut-up method after accidentally rediscovering it.",
"He had placed layers of newspapers as a mat to protect a tabletop from being scratched while he cut papers with a razor blade.",
"Upon cutting through the newspapers, Gysin noticed that the sliced layers offered interesting juxtapositions of text and image.",
"He began deliberately cutting newspaper articles into sections, which he randomly rearranged.",
"The book ''Minutes to Go'' resulted from his initial cut-up experiment: unedited and unchanged cut-ups which emerged as coherent and meaningful prose.",
"South African poet Sinclair Beiles also used this technique and co-authored ''Minutes To Go''.Argentine writer Julio Cortázar used cut ups in his 1963 novel ''Hopscotch''.In 1969, poets Howard W. Bergerson and J.",
"A. Lindon developed a cut-up technique known as vocabularyclept poetry, in which a poem is formed by taking all the words of an existing poem and rearranging them, often preserving the metre and stanza lengths.A drama scripted for five voices by performance poet Hedwig Gorski in 1977 originated the idea of creating poetry only for performance instead of for print publication.",
"The \"neo-verse drama\" titled ''Booby, Mama!''",
"written for \"guerilla theater\" performances in public places used a combination of newspaper cut-ups that were edited and choreographed for a troupe of non-professional street actors.Kathy Acker, a literary and intermedia artist, sampled external sources and reconfigured them into the creation of shifting versions of her own constructed identity.",
"In her late 1970s novel ''Blood and Guts in High School'', Acker explored literary cut-up and appropriation as an integral part of her method.===In film===Antony Balch and Burroughs created a collaboration film, ''The Cut-Ups'' that opened in London in 1967.This was part of an abandoned project called ''Guerrilla Conditions'' meant as a documentary on Burroughs and filmed throughout 1961–1965.Inspired by Burroughs' and Gysin's technique of cutting up text and rearranging it in random order, Balch had an editor cut his footage for the documentary into little pieces and impose no control over its reassembly.",
"The film opened at Oxford Street's Cinephone cinema and had a disturbing reaction.",
"Many audience members claimed the film made them ill, others demanded their money back, while some just stumbled out of the cinema ranting \"it's disgusting\".",
"Other cut-up films include ''Ghost at n°9 (Paris)'' (1963–1972), a posthumously released short film compiled from reels found at Balch's office after his death, and ''William Buys a Parrott'' (1982), ''Bill and Tony'' (1972), ''Towers Open Fire'' (1963) and ''The Junky's Christmas'' (1966).===In music===In 1962, the satirical comedy group Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band, got their name after using the cut-up technique, resulting in \"Bonzo Dog Dada\": \"Bonzo Dog\", after the cartoon Bonzo the Dog, and \"Dada\" after the Dada avant-garde art movement.",
"The group's eventual frontman, Vivian Stanshall, would quote about wanting to form a band with that name.",
"The \"Dada\" in the phrase was eventually changed to \"Doo-Dah\".From the early 1970s, David Bowie used cut-ups to create some of his lyrics.",
"In 1995, he worked with Ty Roberts to develop a program called ''Verbasizer'' for his Apple PowerBook that could automatically rearrange multiple sentences written into it.",
"Thom Yorke applied a similar method in Radiohead's ''Kid A'' (2000) album, writing single lines, putting them into a hat, and drawing them out at random while the band rehearsed the songs.",
"Perhaps indicative of Thom Yorke's influences, instructions for \"How to make a Dada poem\" appeared on Radiohead's website at this time.Stephen Mallinder of Cabaret Voltaire reported to ''Inpress'' magazine's Andrez Bergen that \"I do think the manipulation of sound in our early days – the physical act of cutting up tapes, creating tape loops and all that – has a strong reference to Burroughs and Gysin.\"",
"Another industrial music pioneer, Al Jourgensen of Ministry, named Burroughs and his cut-up technique as the most important influence on how he approached the use of samples.Many Elephant 6 bands used decoupe as well, one prominent example of this is seen in \"Pree-Sisters Swallowing A Donkey's Eye\" by Neutral Milk Hotel."
],
[
"See also",
"*Assemblage (composition)*Cento (poetry)*Dissociated press*Found poetry*Melitzah*Plunderphonics*Stochastic parrot*Surrealist techniques*Vocabularyclept poetry"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Ultimate Cut-Up Generator An online version that cuts-up the Internet, a specific URL, or your own text.",
"* iOS Cut-ups App An iOS app implementation of cut-ups which mimics the ability to manually rearrange lines of texts as well as input camera-captured, converted text into your cut-ups.",
"* UbuWeb: William S. Burroughs featuring a cut-up, ''K-9 Was in Combat with the Alien Mind-Screens'' (1965), made with Ian Sommerville* The Tristan Tzara Arcade is a collection of Cut-up pieces composed from text found in the public domain.",
"These pieces can be further arranged by the reader using an automated (jQuery script) reTypesetting function (which illustrates how possible variant compositions can be achieved using the Cut-up technique).",
"* This Unruly: a repository of video cut-ups featuring video cut-up examples with an accompanying literature review about the practice of video re-mixing, re-purposing, video collage and appropriation techniques.",
"* ReorderTV: a critical mixtape of video cut-ups of historically-ordered, annotated and curated collection designed to play sequentially from current video remixes to early experimental film examples."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Congenital iodine deficiency syndrome"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Congenital iodine deficiency syndrome''' ('''CIDS''') is a medical condition present at birth marked by impaired physical and mental development, due to insufficient thyroid hormone (hypothyroidism) often caused by insufficient dietary iodine during pregnancy.",
"It is one cause of underactive thyroid function at birth, called congenital hypothyroidism, historically referred to as '''cretinism''' (obsolete).",
"If untreated, it results in impairment of both physical and mental development.",
"Symptoms may include goiter, poor length growth in infants, reduced adult stature, thickened skin, hair loss, enlarged tongue, a protruding abdomen; delayed bone maturation and puberty in children; and mental deterioration, neurological impairment, impeded ovulation, and infertility in adults.In developed countries, thyroid function testing of newborns has assured that in those affected, treatment with the thyroid hormone thyroxine is begun promptly.",
"This screening and treatment have virtually eliminated the consequences of the disease."
],
[
"Signs and symptoms",
"Group of male and female patients of various ages with CIDSIodine deficiency causes gradual enlargement of the thyroid gland, referred to as a goiter.",
"Poor length growth is apparent as early as the first year of life.",
"Adult stature without treatment ranges from , depending on severity, sex, and other genetic factors.",
"Other signs include thickened skin, hair loss, enlarged tongue, and a protruding abdomen.",
"In children, bone maturation and puberty are severely delayed.",
"In adults, ovulation is impeded and infertility is common.Mental deterioration is common.",
"Neurological impairment may be mild, with reduced muscle tone and coordination, or so severe that the person cannot stand or walk.",
"Cognitive impairment may also range from mild to so severe that the person is nonverbal and dependent on others for basic care.",
"Thought and reflexes are slower."
],
[
"Cause",
"Disability-adjusted life years (DALY) lost from iodine deficiency in 2012 in proportion to a million peopleAround the world, the most common cause of congenital iodine deficiency syndrome (endemic cretinism) is dietary iodine deficiency.Iodine is an essential trace element, necessary for the synthesis of thyroid hormones.",
"Iodine deficiency is the most common preventable cause of neonatal and childhood brain damage worldwide.",
"Although iodine is found in many foods, it is not universally present in all soils in adequate amounts.",
"Most iodine, in iodide form, is in the oceans, where the iodide ions are reduced to elemental iodine, which then enters the atmosphere and falls to earth in rain, introducing iodine to soils.",
"Soil deficient in iodine is most common inland, in mountainous areas, and in areas of frequent flooding.",
"It can also occur in coastal regions, where iodine might have been removed from the soil by glaciation, as well as leaching by snow, water and heavy rainfall.",
"Plants and animals grown in iodine-deficient soils are correspondingly deficient.",
"Populations living in those areas without outside food sources are most at risk of iodine deficiency diseases."
],
[
"Diagnosis",
"===Differential diagnosis===Dwarfism may also be caused by malnutrition or other hormonal deficiencies, such as insufficient growth hormone secretion, hypopituitarism, decreased secretion of growth hormone-releasing hormone, deficient growth hormone receptor activity and downstream causes, such as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) deficiency."
],
[
"Prevention",
"There are public health campaigns in many countries which involve iodine administration.",
"As of December 2019, 122 countries have mandatory iodine food fortification programs."
],
[
"Treatment",
"Congenital iodine deficiency has been almost eliminated in developed countries through iodine supplementation of food and by newborn screening utilizing a blood test for thyroid function.Treatment consists of lifelong administration of thyroxine (T4).",
"Thyroxine must be dosed as tablets only, even to newborns, as the liquid oral suspensions and compounded forms cannot be depended on for reliable dosing.",
"For infants, the T4 tablets are generally crushed and mixed with breast milk, formula milk or water.",
"If the medication is mixed with formulas containing iron or soya products, larger doses may be required, as these substances may alter the absorption of thyroid hormone from the gut.",
"Monitoring TSH blood levels every 2–3 weeks during the first months of life is recommended to ensure that affected infants are at the high end of normal range."
],
[
"History",
"Cretinism (Styria), copper engraving, 1815A goiter is the most specific clinical marker of either the direct or indirect insufficient intake of iodine in the human body.",
"There is evidence of goiter, and its medical treatment with iodine-rich algae and burnt sponges, in Chinese, Egyptian, and Roman ancient medical texts.",
"In 1848, King Carlo Alberto of Sardinia commissioned the first epidemiological study of congenital iodine deficiency syndrome, in northern Savoy where it was frequent.",
"In past centuries, the well reported social diseases prevalent among the poorer social classes and farmers, caused by dietary and agricultural monocultures, were: pellagra, rickets, beriberi, scurvy in long-term sailors, and the endemic goiter caused by iodine deficiency.",
"However, this disease was less mentioned in medical books because it was erroneously considered to be an aesthetic rather than a clinical disorder.Congenital iodine-deficiency syndrome was especially common in areas of southern Europe around the Alps and was often described by ancient Roman writers and depicted by artists.",
"The earliest Alpine mountain climbers sometimes came upon whole villages affected by it.",
"The prevalence of the condition was described from a medical perspective by several travellers and physicians in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.",
"At that time the cause was not known and it was often attributed to \"stagnant air\" in mountain valleys or \"bad water\".",
"The proportion of people affected varied markedly throughout southern Europe and even within very small areas; it might be common in one valley and not another.",
"The number of severely affected persons was always a minority, and most persons were only affected to the extent of having a goitre and some degree of reduced cognition and growth.",
"The majority of such cases were still socially functional in their pastoral villages.More mildly affected areas of Europe and North America in the 19th century were referred to as \"goitre belts\".",
"The degree of iodine deficiency was milder and manifested primarily as thyroid enlargement rather than severe mental and physical impairment.",
"In Switzerland, for example, where soil does not contain a large amount of iodine, cases of congenital iodine deficiency syndrome were very abundant and even considered genetically caused.",
"As the variety of food sources dramatically increased in Europe and North America and the populations became less completely dependent on locally grown food, the prevalence of endemic goitre diminished.",
"This is supported by a 1979 WHO publication which concluded that \"changes in the origin of food supplies may account for the otherwise unexplained disappearance of endemic goitre from a number of localities during the past 50 years\".The early 20th century saw the discovery of the relationships of neurological impairment with hypothyroidism due to iodine deficiency.",
"Both have been largely eliminated in the developed world."
],
[
"Terminology",
"The term ''cretin'' was originally used to describe a person affected by this condition, but, as with words such as ''spastic'' and ''lunatic'', it underwent pejoration and is now considered derogatory and inappropriate.",
"''Cretin'' became a medical term in the 18th century, from an Occitan and an Alpine French expression, prevalent in a region where persons with such a condition were especially common (see below); it saw wide medical use in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and was a \"tick box\" category on Victorian-era census forms in the UK.",
"The term spread more widely in popular English as a markedly derogatory term for a person who behaves stupidly.",
"Because of its pejorative connotations in popular speech, current usage among health care professionals has abandoned the noun \"cretin\" referring to a person.",
"The noun ''cretinism'', referring to the condition, still occurs in medical literature and textbooks but its use is waning.The etymology of ''cretin'' is uncertain.",
"Several hypotheses exist.",
"The most common derivation provided in English dictionaries is from the Alpine French dialect pronunciation of the word ''Chrétien'' (\"(a) Christian\"), which was a greeting there.",
"According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the translation of the French term into \"human creature\" implies that the label \"Christian\" is a reminder of the humanity of the affected, in contrast to brute beasts.",
"Other sources suggest that ''Christian'' describes the person's \"Christ-like\" inability to sin, stemming, in such cases, from an incapacity to distinguish right from wrong.Other speculative etymologies have been offered:* From ''creta'', Latin for ''chalk'', because of the pallor of those affected.",
"* From ''cretira'', Grison-Romanche ''creature'', from Latin ''creatus''.",
"* From ''cretine'', French for ''alluvium'' (soil deposited by flowing water), an allusion to the condition's suspected origin in inadequate soil."
],
[
"See also",
"*Moron (psychology)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cretin"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cretin''' may refer to:* An archaic term for a patient with congenital iodine deficiency syndrome (cretinism)* A pejorative term, similar to idiot"
],
[
"People",
"* Guillaume Crétin (c. 1460–1525), a French poet* Joseph Crétin (1799–1857), an American bishop"
],
[
"Education",
"* Cretin Hall, a residence hall at the University of St. Thomas in Saint Paul, Minnesota* Cretin-Derham Hall High School, a co-educational Catholic high school in Minnesota"
],
[
"Other",
"* Cape Cretin, a headland in the Huon Gulf in Papua New Guinea* \"Cretin\", a song by Revocation from the album ''Chaos of Forms'', 2011"
],
[
"See also",
"* Parliamentary cretinism"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Council of Trent"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Council of Trent''' (), held between 1545 and 1563 in Trent (or Trento), now in northern Italy, was the 19th ecumenical council of the Catholic Church.",
"Prompted by the Protestant Reformation at the time, it has been described as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation.The Council issued key statements and clarifications of the Church's doctrine and teachings, including scripture, the biblical canon, sacred tradition, original sin, justification, salvation, the sacraments, the Mass, and the veneration of saints and also issued condemnations of what it defined to be heresies committed by proponents of Protestantism.",
"The consequences of the Council were also significant with regard to the Church's liturgy and censorship.The Council met for twenty-five sessions between 13 December 1545 and 4 December 1563.Pope Paul III, who convoked the Council, oversaw the first eight sessions (1545–47), while the twelfth to sixteenth sessions (1551–52) were overseen by Pope Julius III and the seventeenth to twenty-fifth sessions (1562–63) by Pope Pius IV.",
"More than three hundred years passed until the next ecumenical council, the First Vatican Council, was convened in 1869."
],
[
"Background information",
"=== Obstacles and events before the Council's problem area ===Pope Paul III, convener of the Council of TrentOn 15 March 1517, the Fifth Council of the Lateran closed its activities with a number of reform proposals (on the selection of bishops, taxation, censorship and preaching) but not on the new major problems that confronted the Church in Germany and other parts of Europe.",
"A few months later, on 31 October 1517, Martin Luther issued his ''95 Theses'' in Wittenberg.=== A general, free council in Germany ===Luther's position on ecumenical councils shifted over time, but in 1520 he appealed to the German princes to oppose the papal Church at the time, if necessary with a council in Germany, open and free of the Papacy.",
"After the Pope condemned in ''Exsurge Domine'' fifty-two of Luther's theses as heresy, German opinion considered a council the best method to reconcile existing differences.",
"German Catholics, diminished in number, hoped for a council to clarify matters.It took a generation for the council to materialise, partly due to papal fears over potentially renewing a schism over conciliarism; partly because Lutherans demanded the exclusion of the papacy from the Council; partly because of ongoing political rivalries between France and the Holy Roman Empire; and partly due to the Turkish dangers in the Mediterranean.",
"Under Pope Clement VII (1523–34), mutinous troops many whom were Lutheran belonging to the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked Papal Rome in 1527, \"raping, killing, burning, stealing, the like had not been seen since the Vandals\".",
"Saint Peter's Basilica and the Sistine Chapel were used for horses.",
"Pope Clement, fearful of the potential for more violence, delayed calling the Council.Charles V strongly favoured a council but needed the support of King Francis I of France, who attacked him militarily.",
"Francis I generally opposed a general council due to partial support of the Protestant cause within France.",
"Charles' younger brother Ferdinand of Austria, who ruled a huge swath of territory in central Europe, agreed in 1532 to the Nuremberg Religious Peace granting religious liberty to the Protestants, and in 1533 he further complicated matters when suggesting a general council to include both Catholic and Protestant rulers of Europe that would devise a compromise between the two theological systems.",
"This proposal met the opposition of the Pope for it gave recognition to Protestants and also elevated the secular Princes of Europe above the clergy on church matters.",
"Faced with a Turkish attack, Charles held the support of the Protestant German rulers, all of whom delayed the opening of the Council of Trent."
],
[
"Occasion, sessions, and attendance",
"The Council, depicted by Pasquale Cati (Cati da Iesi)In the to-and-fro of medieval politics, Pope Pius II, in his bull ''Execrabilis'' (1460) and his reply to the University of Cologne (1463), had set aside the theory of the supremacy of general councils laid down by the Council of Constance, which had also called for frequent ecumenical councils every ten years to cope with the backlog of reform and heresies.",
"Martin Luther had appealed for a general council, in response to the Papal bull ''Exsurge Domine'' of Pope Leo X (1520).",
"In 1522 German diets joined in the appeal, with Charles V seconding and pressing for a council as a means of reunifying the Church and settling the Reformation controversies.",
"Pope Clement VII (1523–1534) was vehemently against the idea of a council, agreeing with Francis I of France.=== Sessions ===The history of the council is divided into three distinct periods: 1545–1549, 1551–1552 and 1562–1563.The number of attending members in the three periods varied considerably.",
"The council was small to begin with, opening with only about 30 bishops.",
"It increased toward the close, but never reached the number of the First Council of Nicaea (which had 318 members) nor of the First Vatican Council (which numbered 744).",
"The decrees were signed in 1563 by 255 members, the highest attendance of the whole council, including four papal legates, two cardinals, three patriarchs, twenty-five archbishops, and 168 bishops, two-thirds of whom were Italians.",
"The Italian and Spanish prelates were vastly preponderant in power and numbers.",
"At the passage of the most important decrees, not more than sixty prelates were present.",
"Although most Protestants did not attend, ambassadors and theologians of Brandenburg, Württemberg, and Strasbourg attended having been granted an improved safe conduct.==== Pre-council ====Pope Paul III (1534–1549), seeing that the Protestant Reformation was no longer confined to a few preachers, but had won over various princes, especially in Germany, to its ideas, desired a council.",
"Yet when he proposed the idea to his cardinals, it was almost unanimously opposed.",
"Nonetheless, he sent nuncios throughout Europe to propose the idea.",
"Paul III issued a decree for a general council to be held in Mantua, Italy, to begin on 23 May 1537.Martin Luther wrote the Smalcald Articles in preparation for the general council.",
"The Smalcald Articles were designed to sharply define where the Lutherans could and could not compromise.",
"The council was ordered by the Emperor and Pope Paul III to convene in Mantua on 23 May 1537.It failed to convene after another war broke out between France and Charles V, resulting in a non-attendance of French prelates.",
"Protestants refused to attend as well.",
"Financial difficulties in Mantua led the Pope in the autumn of 1537 to move the council to Vicenza, where participation was poor.",
"The Council was postponed indefinitely on 21 May 1539.Pope Paul III then initiated several internal Church reforms while Emperor Charles V convened with Protestants and Cardinal Gasparo Contarini at the Diet of Regensburg, to reconcile differences.",
"Mediating and conciliatory formulations were developed on certain topics.",
"In particular, a two-part doctrine of justification was formulated that would later be rejected at Trent.",
"Unity failed between Catholic and Protestant representatives \"because of different concepts of ''Church'' and ''justification''\".==== First period ====However, the council was delayed until 1545 and, as it happened, convened right before Luther's death.",
"Unable, however, to resist the urging of Charles V, the pope, after proposing Mantua as the place of meeting, convened the council at Trent (at that time ruled by a prince-bishop under the Holy Roman Empire), on 13 December 1545; the Pope's decision to transfer it to Bologna in March 1547 on the pretext of avoiding a plague failed to take effect and the Council was indefinitely prorogued on 17 September 1549.None of the three popes reigning over the duration of the council ever attended, which had been a condition of Charles V. Papal legates were appointed to represent the Papacy.==== Second period ====Reopened at Trent on 1 May 1551 by the convocation of Pope Julius III (1550–1555), it was broken up by the sudden victory of Maurice, Elector of Saxony over Emperor Charles V and his march into surrounding state of Tirol on 28 April 1552.There was no hope of reassembling the council while the very anti-Protestant Paul IV was Pope.During the second period, the Protestants present asked for a renewed discussion on points already defined and for bishops to be released from their oaths of allegiance to the Pope.",
"When the last period began, all intentions of conciliating the Protestants was gone and the Jesuits had become a strong force.",
"This last period was begun especially as an attempt to prevent the formation of a general council including Protestants, as had been demanded by some in France.==== Third period ====The council was reconvened by Pope Pius IV (1559–1565) for the last time, meeting from 18 January 1562 at Santa Maria Maggiore, and continued until its final adjournment on 4 December 1563.It closed with a series of ritual acclamations honouring the reigning Pope, the Popes who had convoked the Council, the emperor and the kings who had supported it, the papal legates, the cardinals, the ambassadors present, and the bishops, followed by acclamations of acceptance of the faith of the Council and its decrees, and of anathema for all heretics.The French monarchy boycotted the entire council until the last minute when a delegation led by Charles de Guise, Cardinal of Lorraine finally arrived in November 1562.The first outbreak of the French Wars of Religion had occurred earlier in the year and the French Church, facing a significant and powerful Protestant minority in France, experienced iconoclasm violence regarding the use of sacred images.",
"Such concerns were not primary in the Italian and Spanish Churches.",
"The last-minute inclusion of a decree on sacred images was a French initiative, and the text, never discussed on the floor of the council or referred to council theologians, was based on a French draft."
],
[
"Objectives and overall results",
"The main objectives of the council were twofold:#To condemn the principles and doctrines of Protestantism and to clarify the doctrines of the Catholic Church on all disputed points.",
"This had not been done formally since the 1530 ''Confutatio Augustana''.",
"It is true that the emperor intended it to be a strictly general or truly ecumenical council, at which the Protestants should have a fair hearing.",
"He secured, during the council's second period, 1551–1553, an invitation, twice given, to the Protestants to be present and the council issued a letter of safe conduct (thirteenth session) and offered them the right of discussion, but denied them a vote.",
"Melanchthon and Johannes Brenz, with some other German Lutherans, actually started in 1552 on the journey to Trent.",
"Brenz offered a confession and Melanchthon, who got no farther than Nuremberg, took with him the ''Confessio Saxonica''.",
"But the refusal to give the Protestants the vote and the consternation produced by the success of Maurice in his campaign against Charles V in 1552 effectually put an end to Protestant cooperation.#To effect a reformation in discipline or administration.",
"This object had been one of the causes calling forth the reformatory councils and had been lightly touched upon by the Fifth Council of the Lateran under Pope Julius II.",
"The obvious corruption in the administration of the Church was one of the numerous causes of the Reformation.",
"Twenty-five public sessions were held, but nearly half of them were spent in solemn formalities.",
"The chief work was done in committees or congregations.",
"The entire management was in the hands of the papal legate.",
"The liberal elements lost out in the debates and voting.",
"The council abolished some of the most notorious abuses and introduced or recommended disciplinary reforms affecting the sale of indulgences, the morals of convents, the education of the clergy, the non-residence of bishops (also bishops having plurality of benefices, which was fairly common), and the careless fulmination of censures, and forbade duelling.",
"Although evangelical sentiments were uttered by some of the members in favour of the supreme authority of the Scriptures and justification by faith, no concession whatsoever was made to Protestantism, according to a Protestant source.Specific issues that were discussed included:* The Church as the ultimate interpreter of Scripture.",
"Also, the Bible and church tradition (the tradition that composed part of the Catholic faith) were equally and independently authoritative.",
"* The relationship of faith and works in salvation was defined, following controversy over Martin Luther's doctrine of \"justification by faith alone\".",
"* Other Catholic practices that had drawn the ire of reformers within the Church, such as indulgences, pilgrimages, the veneration of saints and relics, and the veneration of the Virgin Mary were strongly reaffirmed, though abuses of them were forbidden.",
"Decrees concerning sacred music and religious art, though inexplicit, were subsequently amplified by theologians and writers to condemn many types of Renaissance and medieval styles and iconographies, impacting heavily on the development of these art forms.The doctrinal decisions of the council were set forth in decrees (''decreta''), which are divided into chapters (''capita''), which contain the positive statement of the conciliar dogmas, and into short canons (''canones''), which condemn incorrect views (often a Protestant-associated notion stated in an extreme form) with the concluding ''anathema sit'' (\"let him be anathema\" i.e., excluded from the society of the faithful).The consequences of the Council were also significant with regard to the Church's liturgy and practices.",
"In its decrees, the Council made the Latin Vulgate the official biblical text of the Roman Church (without prejudice to the original texts in Hebrew and Greek, nor to other traditional translations of the Church, but favoring the Latin language over vernacular translations, such as the controversial English-language Tyndale Bible).",
"In doing so, they commissioned the creation of a revised and standardized Vulgate in light of textual criticism, although this was not achieved until the 1590s.",
"The Council also officially affirmed (for the second time at an ecumenical council) the traditional Catholic Canon of biblical books in response to the increasing Protestant exclusion of the deuterocanonical books.",
"The former dogmatic affirmation of the Canonical books was at the Council of Florence in the 1441 bull ''Cantate Domino'', as affirmed by Pope Leo XIII in his 1893 encyclical ''Providentissimus Deus'' (#20).",
"In 1565, a year after the Council finished its work, Pius IV issued the Tridentine Creed (after ''Tridentum'', Trent's Latin name) and his successor Pius V then issued the Roman Catechism and revisions of the Breviary and Missal in, respectively, 1566, 1568 and 1570.These, in turn, led to the codification of the Tridentine Mass, which remained the Church's primary form of the Mass for the next four hundred years."
],
[
"Decrees",
"The doctrinal acts are as follows: After reaffirming the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (third session), the decree was passed (fourth session) confirming that the deuterocanonical books were on a par with the other books of the canon (against Luther's placement of these books in the Apocrypha of his edition) and coordinating church tradition with the Scriptures as a rule of faith.",
"The Vulgate translation was affirmed to be authoritative for the text of Scripture.Justification (sixth session) was declared to be offered upon the basis of human cooperation with divine grace (synergism) as opposed to the typical Protestant doctrine of passive reception of grace (monergism).",
"Understanding the Protestant \"faith alone\" doctrine to be one of simple human confidence in Divine Mercy, the Council rejected the \"vain confidence\" of the Protestants, stating that no one can know who has received the grace of God.",
"Furthermore, the Council affirmed—against some Protestants—that the grace of God can be forfeited through mortal sin.The greatest weight in the Council's decrees is given to the sacraments.",
"The seven sacraments were reaffirmed and the Eucharist pronounced to be a true propitiatory sacrifice as well as a sacrament, in which the bread and wine were consecrated into the Eucharist (thirteenth and twenty-second sessions).",
"The term transubstantiation was used by the Council, but the specific Aristotelian explanation given by Scholasticism was not cited as dogmatic.",
"Instead, the decree states that Christ is \"really, truly, substantially present\" in the consecrated forms.",
"The sacrifice of the Mass was to be offered for dead and living alike and in giving to the apostles the command \"do this in remembrance of me,\" Christ conferred upon them a sacerdotal power.",
"The practice of withholding the cup from the laity was confirmed (twenty-first session) as one which the Church Fathers had commanded for good and sufficient reasons; yet in certain cases the Pope was made the supreme arbiter as to whether the rule should be strictly maintained.",
"Ordination (twenty-third session) was defined to imprint an indelible character on the soul.",
"The priesthood of the New Testament takes the place of the Levitical priesthood.",
"To the performance of its functions, the consent of the people is not necessary.In the decrees on marriage (twenty-fourth session) the excellence of the celibate state was reaffirmed, concubinage condemned and the validity of marriage made dependent upon the wedding taking place before a priest and two witnesses, although the lack of a requirement for parental consent ended a debate that had proceeded from the 12th century.",
"In the case of a divorce, the right of the innocent party to marry again was denied so long as the other party was alive, even if the other party had committed adultery.",
"However the council \"refused … to assert the necessity or usefulness of clerical celibacy\".In the twenty-fifth and last session, the doctrines of purgatory, the invocation of saints and the veneration of relics were reaffirmed, as was also the efficacy of indulgences as dispensed by the Church according to the power given her, but with some cautionary recommendations, and a ban on the sale of indulgences.",
"Short and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, were to have great impact on the development of Catholic Church art.",
"Much more than the Second Council of Nicaea (787), the Council fathers of Trent stressed the pedagogical purpose of Christian images.=== Practical ===On the language of the Mass, \"contrary to what is often said\", the council condemned the insistence that only vernacular languages must be used, while affirming on the use of Latin for the Roman rite.",
"However, elements of the Prône, the vernacular catechetical preaching service common in the medieval High Mass (and some extra-liturgical situations) became mandatory for Sundays and feast days (fifth session, chapter 2).The council appointed, in 1562 (eighteenth session), a commission to prepare a list of forbidden books (''Index Librorum Prohibitorum''), but it later left the matter to the Pope.",
"The preparation of a catechism and the revision of the Breviary and Missal were also left to the pope.",
"The catechism embodied the council's far-reaching results, including reforms and definitions of the sacraments, the Scriptures, church dogma, and duties of the clergy.===Ratification and promulgation===On adjourning, the Council asked the supreme pontiff to ratify all its decrees and definitions.",
"This petition was complied with by Pope Pius IV, on 26 January 1564, in the papal bull, ''Benedictus Deus'', which enjoins strict obedience upon all Catholics and forbids, under pain of ex-communication, all unauthorised interpretation, reserving this to the Pope alone and threatens the disobedient with \"the indignation of Almighty God and of his blessed apostles, Peter and Paul.\"",
"Pope Pius appointed a commission of cardinals to assist him in interpreting and enforcing the decrees.The ''Index Librorum Prohibitorum'' was announced in 1564 and the following books were issued with the papal imprimatur: the Profession of the Tridentine Faith and the Tridentine Catechism (1566), the Breviary (1568), the Missal (1570) and the Vulgate (1590 and then 1592).The decrees of the council were acknowledged in Italy, Portugal, Poland and by the Catholic princes of Germany at the Diet of Augsburg in 1566.Philip II of Spain accepted them for Spain, the Netherlands and Sicily inasmuch as they did not infringe the royal prerogative.",
"In France, they were officially recognised by the king only in their doctrinal parts.",
"Although the disciplinary or moral reformatory decrees were never published by the throne, they received official recognition at provincial synods and were enforced by the bishops.",
"Holy Roman Emperors Ferdinand I and Maximilian II never recognized the existence of any of the decrees.",
"No attempt was made to introduce it into England.",
"Pius IV sent the decrees to Mary, Queen of Scots, with a letter dated 13 June 1564, requesting that she publish them in Scotland, but she dared not do it in the face of John Knox and the Reformation.These decrees were later supplemented by the First Vatican Council of 1870."
],
[
"Publication of documents",
"A comprehensive history is found in Hubert Jedin's ''The History of the Council of Trent (Geschichte des Konzils von Trient)'' with about 2,500 pages in four volumes: ''The History of the Council of Trent: The fight for a Council'' (Vol I, 1951); ''The History of the Council of Trent: The first Sessions in Trent (1545–1547)'' (Vol II, 1957); ''The History of the Council of Trent: Sessions in Bologna 1547–1548 and Trento 1551–1552'' (Vol III, 1970, 1998); ''The History of the Council of Trent: Third Period and Conclusion'' (Vol IV, 1976).The canons and decrees of the council have been published very often and in many languages.",
"The first issue was by Paulus Manutius (Rome, 1564).",
"Commonly used Latin editions are by Judocus Le Plat (Antwerp, 1779) and by Johann Friedrich von Schulte and Aemilius Ludwig Richter (Leipzig, 1853).",
"Other editions are in vol.",
"vii.",
"of the ''Acta et decreta conciliorum recentiorum.",
"Collectio Lacensis'' (7 vols., Freiburg, 1870–90), reissued as independent volume (1892); ''Concilium Tridentinum: Diariorum, actorum, epistularum, … collectio'', ed.",
"Sebastianus Merkle (4 vols., Freiburg, 1901 sqq.",
"); as well as Mansi, ''Concilia'', xxxv.",
"345 sqq.",
"Note also Carl Mirbt, ''Quellen'', 2d ed, pp.",
"202–255.An English edition is by James Waterworth (London, 1848; ''With Essays on the External and Internal History of the Council'').The original acts and debates of the council, as prepared by its general secretary, Bishop Angelo Massarelli, in six large folio volumes, are deposited in the Vatican Library and remained there unpublished for more than 300 years and were brought to light, though only in part, by Augustin Theiner, priest of the oratory (d. 1874), in ''Acta genuina sancti et oecumenici Concilii Tridentini nunc primum integre edita'' (2 vols., Leipzig, 1874).Most of the official documents and private reports, however, which bear upon the council, were made known in the 16th century and since.",
"The most complete collection of them is that of J.",
"Le Plat, ''Monumentorum ad historicam Concilii Tridentini collectio'' (7 vols., Leuven, 1781–87).",
"New materials(Vienna, 1872); by JJI von Döllinger ''(Ungedruckte Berichte und Tagebücher zur Geschichte des Concilii von Trient)'' (2 parts, Nördlingen, 1876); and August von Druffel, ''Monumenta Tridentina'' (Munich, 1884–97)."
],
[
"List of doctrinal decrees",
"DecreeSession Date Canons Chapters The Holy Scriptures 4 8 April 1546 none 1 Original sin 5 7 June 1546 5 4 Justification 6 13 January 1547 33 16 Sacraments 7 3 March 1547 13 1 Baptism 7 3 March 1547 14 none Confirmation 7 4 March 1547 3 none Holy Eucharist 13 11 October 1551 11 8 Penance 14 15 November 1551 15 15 Extreme Unction 14 4 November 1551 4 3 Matrimony 24 11 November 1563 12 10 25 4 December 1563 none 3 Indulgences 25 4 December 1563 none 1"
],
[
"Protestant response",
"Andrada, a CatholicChemnitz, a LutheranOut of 87 books written between 1546 and 1564 attacking the Council of Trent, 41 were written by Pier Paolo Vergerio, a former papal nuncio turned Protestant Reformer.",
"The 1565–73 ''Examen decretorum Concilii Tridentini'' (''Examination of the Council of Trent'') by Martin Chemnitz was the main Lutheran response to the Council of Trent.",
"Making extensive use of scripture and patristic sources, it was presented in response to a polemical writing which Diogo de Payva de Andrada had directed against Chemnitz.",
"The ''Examen'' had four parts: Volume I examined sacred scripture, free will, original sin, justification, and good works.",
"Volume II examined the sacraments, including baptism, confirmation, the sacrament of the Eucharist, communion under both kinds, the Mass, penance, extreme unction, holy orders, and matrimony.",
"Volume III examined virginity, celibacy, purgatory, and the invocation of saints.",
"Volume IV examined the relics of the saints, images, indulgences, fasting, the distinction of foods, and festivals.In response, Andrada wrote the five-part ''Defensio Tridentinæ fidei'', which was published posthumously in 1578.However, the ''Defensio'' did not circulate as extensively as the ''Examen'', nor were any full translations ever published.",
"A French translation of the ''Examen'' by Eduard Preuss was published in 1861.German translations were published in 1861, 1884, and 1972.In English, a complete translation by Fred Kramer drawing from the original Latin and the 1861 German was published beginning in 1971."
],
[
"See also",
"* Nicolas Psaume, bishop of Verdun* Black Legend (Spain)* Popery"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* Bühren, Ralf van: ''Kunst und Kirche im 20.Jahrhundert.",
"Die Rezeption des Zweiten Vatikanischen Konzils'' (Konziliengeschichte, Reihe B: Untersuchungen), Paderborn 2008, * O'Malley, John W., in ''The Sensuous in the Counter-Reformation Church'', Eds: Marcia B.",
"Hall, Tracy E. Cooper, 2013, Cambridge University Press, , google books* James Waterworth (ed.",
"), ''The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent'' (1848)"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* (with ''imprimatur'' of cardinal Farley)* Paolo Sarpi, ''Historia del Concilio Tridentino'', London: John Bill,1619 (''History of the Council of Trent'', English translation by Nathaniel Brent, London 1620, 1629 and 1676)* Francesco Sforza Pallavicino, ''Istoria del concilio di Trento''.",
"In Roma, nella stamperia d'Angelo Bernabò dal Verme erede del Manelfi: per Giovanni Casoni libraro, 1656–57* John W. O'Malley: ''Trent: What Happened at the Council'', Cambridge (Massachusetts), The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2013, * Hubert Jedin: ''Entstehung und Tragweite des Trienter Dekrets über die Bilderverehrung'', in: Tübinger Theologische Quartalschrift 116, 1935, pp.",
"143–88, 404–429* Hubert Jedin: ''Geschichte des Konzils von Trient'', 4 vol., Freiburg im Breisgau 1949–1975 (A History of the Council of Trent, 2 vol., London 1957 and 1961)* Hubert Jedin: ''Konziliengeschichte'', Freiburg im Breisgau 1959* Mullett, Michael A.",
"\"The Council of Trent and the Catholic Reformation\", in his ''The Catholic Reformation'' (London: Routledge, 1999, , pbk.",
"), pp. 29–68.''N.B''.",
": The author also mentions the Council elsewhere in his book.",
"* Schroeder, H. J., ed.",
"and trans.",
"''The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent: English Translation'', trans.",
"and introduced by H. J. Schroeder.",
"Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers, 1978.''N.B''.",
": \"The original 1941 edition contained both the Latin text and the English translation.",
"This edition contains only the English translation...\"; comprises only the Council's dogmatic decrees, excluding the purely disciplinary ones.",
"* Mathias Mütel: ''Mit den Kirchenvätern gegen Martin Luther?",
"Die Debatten um Tradition und auctoritas patrum auf dem Konzil von Trient'', Paderborn 2017 (= Konziliengeschichte.",
"Reihe B., Untersuchungen)"
],
[
"External links",
"* * The text of the Council of Trent translated by J. Waterworth, 1848 ( also on Intratext)* Documents of the Council in Latin* ZIP version of the documents of the Council of Trent (archived 9 October 2012)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chloroplast"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Chloroplasts, containing thylakoids, visible in the cells of ''Ptychostomum capillare'', a type of mossA '''chloroplast''' () is a type of membrane-bound organelle known as a plastid that conducts photosynthesis mostly in plant and algal cells.",
"The photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight, converts it, and stores it in the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH while freeing oxygen from water in the cells.",
"The ATP and NADPH is then used to make organic molecules from carbon dioxide in a process known as the Calvin cycle.",
"Chloroplasts carry out a number of other functions, including fatty acid synthesis, amino acid synthesis, and the immune response in plants.",
"The number of chloroplasts per cell varies from one, in unicellular algae, up to 100 in plants like ''Arabidopsis'' and wheat.A chloroplast is characterized by its two membranes and a high concentration of chlorophyll.",
"Other plastid types, such as the leucoplast and the chromoplast, contain little chlorophyll and do not carry out photosynthesis.Chloroplasts are highly dynamic—they circulate and are moved around within plant cells, and occasionally pinch in two to reproduce.",
"Their behavior is strongly influenced by environmental factors like light color and intensity.",
"Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, contain their own DNA, which is thought to be inherited from their ancestor—a photosynthetic cyanobacterium that was engulfed by an early eukaryotic cell.",
"Chloroplasts cannot be made by the plant cell and must be inherited by each daughter cell during cell division.With one exception (the amoeboid ''Paulinella chromatophora''), all chloroplasts can probably be traced back to a single endosymbiotic event, when a cyanobacterium was engulfed by a eukaryote.",
"Despite this, chloroplasts can be found in an extremely wide set of organisms, some not directly related to each other—a consequence of many secondary and even tertiary endosymbiotic events.The word ''chloroplast'' is derived from the Greek words ''chloros'' (χλωρός), which means green, and ''plastes'' (πλάστης), which means \"the one who forms\"."
],
[
"Discovery",
"The first definitive description of a chloroplast (''Chlorophyllkörnen'', \"grain of chlorophyll\") was given by Hugo von Mohl in 1837 as discrete bodies within the green plant cell.",
"In 1883, Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper named these bodies as \"chloroplastids\" (''Chloroplastiden'').",
"In 1884, Eduard Strasburger adopted the term \"chloroplasts\" (''Chloroplasten'')."
],
[
"Lineages and evolution",
"Chloroplasts are one of many types of organelles in the plant cell.",
"They are considered to have evolved from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria.",
"Mitochondria are thought to have come from a similar endosymbiosis event, where an aerobic prokaryote was engulfed.",
"This origin of chloroplasts was first suggested by the Russian biologist Konstantin Mereschkowski in 1905 after Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper observed in 1883 that chloroplasts closely resemble cyanobacteria.",
"Chloroplasts are only found in plants, algae, and three species of amoeba – ''Paulinella chromatophora'', ''P.",
"micropora'', and marine ''P.",
"longichromatophora''.=== Parent group: Cyanobacteria ===Chloroplasts are considered endosymbiotic Cyanobacteria.",
"Cyanobacteria are sometimes called blue-green algae even though they are prokaryotes.",
"They are a diverse phylum of gram-negative bacteria capable of carrying out photosynthesis.",
"Cyanobacteria also contain a peptidoglycan cell wall, which is thicker than in other gram-negative bacteria, and which is located between their two cell membranes.",
"Like chloroplasts, they have thylakoids within them.",
"On the thylakoid membranes are photosynthetic pigments, including chlorophyll ''a''.",
"Phycobilins are also common cyanobacterial pigments, usually organized into hemispherical phycobilisomes attached to the outside of the thylakoid membranes (phycobilins are not shared with all chloroplasts though).=== Primary endosymbiosis ===Somewhere between 1 and 2 billion years ago,a free-living cyanobacterium entered an early eukaryotic cell, either as food or as an internal parasite, but managed to escape the phagocytic vacuole it was contained in.",
"The two innermost lipid-bilayer membranes that surround all chloroplasts correspond to the outer and inner membranes of the ancestral cyanobacterium's gram negative cell wall, and not the phagosomal membrane from the host, which was probably lost.The new cellular resident quickly became an advantage, providing food for the eukaryotic host, which allowed it to live within it.",
"Over time, the cyanobacterium was assimilated, and many of its genes were lost or transferred to the nucleus of the host.",
"From genomes that probably originally contained over 3000 genes only about 130 genes remain in the chloroplasts of contemporary plants.",
"Some of its proteins were then synthesized in the cytoplasm of the host cell, and imported back into the chloroplast (formerly the cyanobacterium).",
"Separately, somewhere about 90–140 million years ago, it happened again and led to the amoeboid ''Paulinella chromatophora''.This event is called ''endosymbiosis'', or \"cell living inside another cell with a mutual benefit for both\".",
"The external cell is commonly referred to as the ''host'' while the internal cell is called the ''endosymbiont''.Chloroplasts are believed to have arisen after mitochondria, since all eukaryotes contain mitochondria, but not all have chloroplasts.",
"This is called ''serial endosymbiosis''—an early eukaryote engulfing the mitochondrion ancestor, and some descendants of it then engulfing the chloroplast ancestor, creating a cell with both chloroplasts and mitochondria.Whether or not primary chloroplasts came from a single endosymbiotic event, or many independent engulfments across various eukaryotic lineages, has long been debated.",
"It is now generally held that organisms with primary chloroplasts share a single ancestor that took in a cyanobacterium 600–2000 million years ago.",
"It has been proposed this the closest living relative of this bacterium is ''Gloeomargarita lithophora.''",
"The exception is the amoeboid ''Paulinella chromatophora'', which descends from an ancestor that took in a ''Prochlorococcus'' cyanobacterium 90–500 million years ago.These chloroplasts, which can be traced back directly to a cyanobacterial ancestor, are known as ''primary plastids'' (''\"plastid\"'' in this context means almost the same thing as chloroplast).",
"All primary chloroplasts belong to one of four chloroplast lineages—the glaucophyte chloroplast lineage, the amoeboid ''Paulinella chromatophora'' lineage, the rhodophyte (red algal) chloroplast lineage, or the chloroplastidan (green) chloroplast lineage.",
"The rhodophyte and chloroplastidan lineages are the largest, with chloroplastidan (green) being the one that contains the land plants.==== Glaucophyta ====Usually the endosymbiosis event is considered to have occurred in the Archaeplastida, within which the glaucophyta being the possible earliest diverging lineage.",
"The glaucophyte chloroplast group is the smallest of the three primary chloroplast lineages, being found in only 13 species, and is thought to be the one that branched off the earliest.",
"Glaucophytes have chloroplasts that retain a peptidoglycan wall between their double membranes, like their cyanobacterial parent.",
"For this reason, glaucophyte chloroplasts are also known as 'muroplasts' (besides 'cyanoplasts' or 'cyanelles').",
"Glaucophyte chloroplasts also contain concentric unstacked thylakoids, which surround a carboxysome – an icosahedral structure that glaucophyte chloroplasts and cyanobacteria keep their carbon fixation enzyme RuBisCO in.",
"The starch that they synthesize collects outside the chloroplast.",
"Like cyanobacteria, glaucophyte and rhodophyte chloroplast thylakoids are studded with light collecting structures called phycobilisomes.",
"For these reasons, glaucophyte chloroplasts are considered a primitive intermediate between cyanobacteria and the more evolved chloroplasts in red algae and plants.==== Rhodophyceae (red algae) ====The rhodophyte, or red algae chloroplast group is another large and diverse chloroplast lineage.",
"Rhodophyte chloroplasts are also called ''rhodoplasts'', literally \"red chloroplasts\".Rhodoplasts have a double membrane with an intermembrane space and phycobilin pigments organized into phycobilisomes on the thylakoid membranes, preventing their thylakoids from stacking.",
"Some contain pyrenoids.",
"Rhodoplasts have chlorophyll ''a'' and phycobilins for photosynthetic pigments; the phycobilin phycoerythrin is responsible for giving many red algae their distinctive red color.",
"However, since they also contain the blue-green chlorophyll ''a'' and other pigments, many are reddish to purple from the combination.",
"The red phycoerytherin pigment is an adaptation to help red algae catch more sunlight in deep water—as such, some red algae that live in shallow water have less phycoerythrin in their rhodoplasts, and can appear more greenish.",
"Rhodoplasts synthesize a form of starch called floridean starch, which collects into granules outside the rhodoplast, in the cytoplasm of the red alga.==== Chloroplastida (green algae and plants) ====The chloroplastida chloroplasts, or green chloroplasts, are another large, highly diverse primary chloroplast lineage.",
"Their host organisms are commonly known as green algae and land plants.",
"They differ from glaucophyte and red algal chloroplasts in that they have lost their phycobilisomes, and contain chlorophyll ''b'' instead.",
"Most green chloroplasts are (obviously) green, though some aren't, like some forms of ''Hæmatococcus pluvialis'', due to accessory pigments that override the chlorophylls' green colors.",
"Chloroplastida chloroplasts have lost the peptidoglycan wall between their double membrane, leaving an intermembrane space.",
"Some plants seem to have kept the genes for the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer, though they've been repurposed for use in chloroplast division instead.Most of the chloroplasts depicted in this article are green chloroplasts.Green algae and plants keep their starch ''inside'' their chloroplasts, and in plants and some algae, the chloroplast thylakoids are arranged in grana stacks.",
"Some green algal chloroplasts contain a structure called a pyrenoid, which is functionally similar to the glaucophyte carboxysome in that it is where RuBisCO and CO are concentrated in the chloroplast.",
"''Helicosporidium'' is a genus of nonphotosynthetic parasitic green algae that is thought to contain a vestigial chloroplast.",
"Genes from a chloroplast and nuclear genes indicating the presence of a chloroplast have been found in ''Helicosporidium'' even if nobody's seen the chloroplast itself.==== ''Paulinella chromatophora'' ====While most chloroplasts originate from that first set of endosymbiotic events, ''Paulinella chromatophora'' is an exception that acquired a photosynthetic cyanobacterial endosymbiont more recently.",
"It is not clear whether that symbiont is closely related to the ancestral chloroplast of other eukaryotes.",
"Being in the early stages of endosymbiosis, ''Paulinella chromatophora'' can offer some insights into how chloroplasts evolved.",
"''Paulinella'' cells contain one or two sausage-shaped blue-green photosynthesizing structures called chromatophores, descended from the cyanobacterium ''Synechococcus''.",
"Chromatophores cannot survive outside their host.",
"Chromatophore DNA is about a million base pairs long, containing around 850 protein-encoding genes—far less than the three million base pair ''Synechococcus'' genome, but much larger than the approximately 150,000 base pair genome of the more assimilated chloroplast.",
"Chromatophores have transferred much less of their DNA to the nucleus of their host.",
"About 0.3–0.8% of the nuclear DNA in ''Paulinella'' is from the chromatophore, compared with 11–14% from the chloroplast in plants.=== Secondary and tertiary endosymbiosis ===Many other organisms obtained chloroplasts from the primary chloroplast lineages through secondary endosymbiosis—engulfing a red or green alga that contained a chloroplast.",
"These chloroplasts are known as secondary plastids.While primary chloroplasts have a double membrane from their cyanobacterial ancestor, secondary chloroplasts have additional membranes outside of the original two, as a result of the secondary endosymbiotic event, when a nonphotosynthetic eukaryote engulfed a chloroplast-containing alga but failed to digest it—much like the cyanobacterium at the beginning of this story.",
"The engulfed alga was broken down, leaving only its chloroplast, and sometimes its cell membrane and nucleus, forming a chloroplast with three or four membranes—the two cyanobacterial membranes, sometimes the eaten alga's cell membrane, and the phagosomal vacuole from the host's cell membrane.The genes in the phagocytosed eukaryote's nucleus are often transferred to the secondary host's nucleus.Cryptomonads and chlorarachniophytes retain the phagocytosed eukaryote's nucleus, an object called a nucleomorph, located between the second and third membranes of the chloroplast.All secondary chloroplasts come from green and red algae—no secondary chloroplasts from glaucophytes have been observed, probably because glaucophytes are relatively rare in nature, making them less likely to have been taken up by another eukaryote.==== Green algal derived chloroplasts ====Green algae have been taken up by the euglenids, chlorarachniophytes, a lineage of dinoflagellates, and possibly the ancestor of the CASH lineage (cryptomonads, alveolates, stramenopiles and haptophytes) in three or four separate engulfments.",
"Many green algal derived chloroplasts contain pyrenoids, but unlike chloroplasts in their green algal ancestors, storage product collects in granules outside the chloroplast.",
"''Euglena'', a euglenophyte, contains secondary chloroplasts from green algae.===== Euglenophytes =====Euglenophytes are a group of common flagellated protists that contain chloroplasts derived from a green alga.",
"Euglenophyte chloroplasts have three membranes—it is thought that the membrane of the primary endosymbiont was lost, leaving the cyanobacterial membranes, and the secondary host's phagosomal membrane.",
"Euglenophyte chloroplasts have a pyrenoid and thylakoids stacked in groups of three.",
"Photosynthetic product is stored in the form of paramylon, which is contained in membrane-bound granules in the cytoplasm of the euglenophyte.",
"''Chlorarachnion reptans'' is a chlorarachniophyte.",
"Chlorarachniophytes replaced their original red algal endosymbiont with a green alga.===== Chlorarachniophytes =====Chlorarachniophytes are a rare group of organisms that also contain chloroplasts derived from green algae, though their story is more complicated than that of the euglenophytes.",
"The ancestor of chlorarachniophytes is thought to have been a eukaryote with a ''red'' algal derived chloroplast.",
"It is then thought to have lost its first red algal chloroplast, and later engulfed a green alga, giving it its second, green algal derived chloroplast.Chlorarachniophyte chloroplasts are bounded by four membranes, except near the cell membrane, where the chloroplast membranes fuse into a double membrane.",
"Their thylakoids are arranged in loose stacks of three.",
"Chlorarachniophytes have a form of polysaccharide called chrysolaminarin, which they store in the cytoplasm, often collected around the chloroplast pyrenoid, which bulges into the cytoplasm.Chlorarachniophyte chloroplasts are notable because the green alga they are derived from has not been completely broken down—its nucleus still persists as a nucleomorph found between the second and third chloroplast membranes—the periplastid space, which corresponds to the green alga's cytoplasm.===== Prasinophyte-derived dinophyte chloroplast =====''Lepidodinium viride'' and its close relatives are dinophytes (see below) that lost their original peridinin chloroplast and replaced it with a green algal derived chloroplast (more specifically, a prasinophyte).",
"''Lepidodinium'' is the only dinophyte that has a chloroplast that's not from the rhodoplast lineage.",
"The chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes and has no nucleomorph—all the nucleomorph genes have been transferred to the dinophyte nucleus.",
"The endosymbiotic event that led to this chloroplast was serial secondary endosymbiosis rather than tertiary endosymbiosis—the endosymbiont was a green alga containing a primary chloroplast (making a secondary chloroplast).==== Red algal derived chloroplasts ========= Cryptophytes =====Cryptophytes, or cryptomonads are a group of algae that contain a red-algal derived chloroplast.",
"Cryptophyte chloroplasts contain a nucleomorph that superficially resembles that of the chlorarachniophytes.",
"Cryptophyte chloroplasts have four membranes, the outermost of which is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum.",
"They synthesize ordinary starch, which is stored in granules found in the periplastid space—outside the original double membrane, in the place that corresponds to the red alga's cytoplasm.",
"Inside cryptophyte chloroplasts is a pyrenoid and thylakoids in stacks of two.Their chloroplasts do not have phycobilisomes, but they do have phycobilin pigments which they keep in their thylakoid space, rather than anchored on the outside of their thylakoid membranes.Cryptophytes may have played a key role in the spreading of red algal based chloroplasts.Scanning electron micrograph of ''Gephyrocapsa oceanica'', a haptophyte.===== Haptophytes =====Haptophytes are similar and closely related to cryptophytes or heterokontophytes.",
"Their chloroplasts lack a nucleomorph, their thylakoids are in stacks of three, and they synthesize chrysolaminarin sugar, which they store completely outside of the chloroplast, in the cytoplasm of the haptophyte.===== Heterokontophytes (stramenopiles) =====The photosynthetic pigments present in their chloroplasts make diatoms greenish-brown.The heterokontophytes, also known as the stramenopiles, are a very large and diverse group of eukaryotes.",
"The photoautotrophic lineage, Ochrophyta, including the diatoms and the brown algae, golden algae, and yellow-green algae, also contains red algal derived chloroplasts.Heterokont chloroplasts are very similar to haptophyte chloroplasts, containing a pyrenoid, triplet thylakoids, and with some exceptions, having four layer plastidic envelope, the outermost epiplastid membrane connected to the endoplasmic reticulum.",
"Like haptophytes, heterokontophytes store sugar in chrysolaminarin granules in the cytoplasm.",
"Heterokontophyte chloroplasts contain chlorophyll ''a'' and with a few exceptions chlorophyll ''c'', but also have carotenoids which give them their many colors.===== Apicomplexans, chromerids, and dinophytes=====The alveolates are a major clade of unicellular eukaryotes of both autotrophic and heterotrophic members.",
"The most notable shared characteristic is the presence of cortical (outer-region) alveoli (sacs).",
"These are flattened vesicles (sacs) packed into a continuous layer just under the membrane and supporting it, typically forming a flexible pellicle (thin skin).",
"In dinoflagellates they often form armor plates.",
"Many members contain a red-algal derived plastid.",
"One notable characteristic of this diverse group is the frequent loss of photosynthesis.",
"However, a majority of these heterotrophs continue to process a non-photosynthetic plastid.",
";ApicomplexansApicomplexans are a group of alveolates.",
"Like the helicosproidia, they're parasitic, and have a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast.",
"They were once thought to be related to the helicosproidia, but it is now known that the helicosproida are green algae rather than part of the CASH lineage.",
"The apicomplexans include ''Plasmodium'', the malaria parasite.",
"Many apicomplexans keep a vestigial red algal derived chloroplast called an apicoplast, which they inherited from their ancestors.",
"Other apicomplexans like ''Cryptosporidium'' have lost the chloroplast completely.",
"Apicomplexans store their energy in amylopectin granules that are located in their cytoplasm, even though they are nonphotosynthetic.Apicoplasts have lost all photosynthetic function, and contain no photosynthetic pigments or true thylakoids.",
"They are bounded by four membranes, but the membranes are not connected to the endoplasmic reticulum.",
"The fact that apicomplexans still keep their nonphotosynthetic chloroplast around demonstrates how the chloroplast carries out important functions other than photosynthesis.",
"Plant chloroplasts provide plant cells with many important things besides sugar, and apicoplasts are no different—they synthesize fatty acids, isopentenyl pyrophosphate, iron-sulfur clusters, and carry out part of the heme pathway.",
"This makes the apicoplast an attractive target for drugs to cure apicomplexan-related diseases.",
"The most important apicoplast function is isopentenyl pyrophosphate synthesis—in fact, apicomplexans die when something interferes with this apicoplast function, and when apicomplexans are grown in an isopentenyl pyrophosphate-rich medium, they dump the organelle.",
";ChromeridsThe Chromerida is a newly discovered group of algae from Australian corals which comprises some close photosynthetic relatives of the apicomplexans.",
"The first member, ''Chromera velia'', was discovered and first isolated in 2001.The discovery of ''Chromera velia'' with similar structure to the apicomplexans, provides an important link in the evolutionary history of the apicomplexans and dinophytes.",
"Their plastids have four membranes, lack chlorophyll c and use the type II form of RuBisCO obtained from a horizontal transfer event.",
";DinophytesThe dinoflagellates are yet another very large and diverse group of protists, around half of which are (at least partially) photosynthetic.Most dinophyte chloroplasts are secondary red algal derived chloroplasts.",
"Many other dinophytes have lost the chloroplast (becoming the nonphotosynthetic kind of dinoflagellate), or replaced it though ''tertiary'' endosymbiosis—the engulfment of another eukaryotic algae containing a red algal derived chloroplast.",
"Others replaced their original chloroplast with a green algal derived one.Most dinophyte chloroplasts contain form II RuBisCO, at least the photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll ''a'', chlorophyll ''c2'', ''beta''-carotene, and at least one dinophyte-unique xanthophyll (peridinin, dinoxanthin, or diadinoxanthin), giving many a golden-brown color.",
"All dinophytes store starch in their cytoplasm, and most have chloroplasts with thylakoids arranged in stacks of three.",
"''Ceratium furca'', a peridinin-containing dinophyteThe most common dinophyte chloroplast is the peridinin-type chloroplast, characterized by the carotenoid pigment peridinin in their chloroplasts, along with chlorophyll ''a'' and chlorophyll ''c''2.Peridinin is not found in any other group of chloroplasts.",
"The peridinin chloroplast is bounded by three membranes (occasionally two), having lost the red algal endosymbiont's original cell membrane.",
"The outermost membrane is not connected to the endoplasmic reticulum.",
"They contain a pyrenoid, and have triplet-stacked thylakoids.",
"Starch is found outside the chloroplast.",
"An important feature of these chloroplasts is that their chloroplast DNA is highly reduced and fragmented into many small circles.",
"Most of the genome has migrated to the nucleus, and only critical photosynthesis-related genes remain in the chloroplast.The peridinin chloroplast is thought to be the dinophytes' \"original\" chloroplast, which has been lost, reduced, replaced, or has company in several other dinophyte lineages.===== Fucoxanthin-containing (haptophyte-derived) dinophyte chloroplasts =====''Karenia brevis'' is a fucoxanthin-containing dynophyte responsible for algal blooms called \"red tides\".The fucoxanthin dinophyte lineages (including ''Karlodinium'' and ''Karenia'') lost their original red algal derived chloroplast, and replaced it with a new chloroplast derived from a haptophyte endosymbiont.",
"''Karlodinium'' and ''Karenia'' probably took up different heterokontophytes.",
"Because the haptophyte chloroplast has four membranes, tertiary endosymbiosis would be expected to create a six membraned chloroplast, adding the haptophyte's cell membrane and the dinophyte's phagosomal vacuole.",
"However, the haptophyte was heavily reduced, stripped of a few membranes and its nucleus, leaving only its chloroplast (with its original double membrane), and possibly one or two additional membranes around it.Fucoxanthin-containing chloroplasts are characterized by having the pigment fucoxanthin (actually 19′-hexanoyloxy-fucoxanthin and/or 19′-butanoyloxy-fucoxanthin) and no peridinin.",
"Fucoxanthin is also found in haptophyte chloroplasts, providing evidence of ancestry.",
"''Dinophysis acuminata'' has chloroplasts taken from a cryptophyte.===== Diatom-derived dinophyte chloroplasts =====Some dinophytes, like ''Kryptoperidinium'' and ''Durinskia'', have a diatom (heterokontophyte)-derived chloroplast.",
"These chloroplasts are bounded by up to ''five'' membranes, (depending on whether the entire diatom endosymbiont is counted as the chloroplast, or just the red algal derived chloroplast inside it).",
"The diatom endosymbiont has been reduced relatively little—it still retains its original mitochondria, and has endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, a nucleus, and of course, red algal derived chloroplasts—practically a complete cell, all inside the host's endoplasmic reticulum lumen.",
"However the diatom endosymbiont can't store its own food—its storage polysaccharide is found in granules in the dinophyte host's cytoplasm instead.",
"The diatom endosymbiont's nucleus is present, but it probably can't be called a nucleomorph because it shows no sign of genome reduction, and might have even been ''expanded''.",
"Diatoms have been engulfed by dinoflagellates at least three times.The diatom endosymbiont is bounded by a single membrane, inside it are chloroplasts with four membranes.",
"Like the diatom endosymbiont's diatom ancestor, the chloroplasts have triplet thylakoids and pyrenoids.In some of these genera, the diatom endosymbiont's chloroplasts aren't the only chloroplasts in the dinophyte.",
"The original three-membraned peridinin chloroplast is still around, converted to an eyespot.=== Kleptoplasty ===In some groups of mixotrophic protists, like some dinoflagellates (e.g.",
"''Dinophysis''), chloroplasts are separated from a captured alga and used temporarily.",
"These klepto chloroplasts may only have a lifetime of a few days and are then replaced.==== Cryptophyte-derived dinophyte chloroplast ====Members of the genus ''Dinophysis'' have a phycobilin-containing chloroplast taken from a cryptophyte.",
"However, the cryptophyte is not an endosymbiont—only the chloroplast seems to have been taken, and the chloroplast has been stripped of its nucleomorph and outermost two membranes, leaving just a two-membraned chloroplast.",
"Cryptophyte chloroplasts require their nucleomorph to maintain themselves, and ''Dinophysis'' species grown in cell culture alone cannot survive, so it is possible (but not confirmed) that the ''Dinophysis'' chloroplast is a kleptoplast—if so, ''Dinophysis'' chloroplasts wear out and ''Dinophysis'' species must continually engulf cryptophytes to obtain new chloroplasts to replace the old ones."
],
[
"Chloroplast DNA",
"Chloroplasts, like other types of plastid, contain a genome separate from that in the cell nucleus.",
"The existence of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) was identified biochemically in 1959, and confirmed by electron microscopy in 1962.The discoveries that the chloroplast contains ribosomes and performs protein synthesis revealed that the chloroplast is genetically semi-autonomous.",
"Chloroplast DNA was first sequenced in 1986.Since then, hundreds of chloroplast DNAs from various species have been sequenced, but they are mostly those of land plants and green algae—glaucophytes, red algae, and other algal groups are extremely underrepresented, potentially introducing some bias in views of \"typical\" chloroplast DNA structure and content.=== Molecular structure ===With few exceptions, most chloroplasts have their entire chloroplast genome combined into a single large circular DNA molecule, typically 120,000–170,000 base pairs long.",
"They can have a contour length of around 30–60 micrometers, and have a mass of about 80–130 million daltons.While usually thought of as a circular molecule, there is some evidence that chloroplast DNA molecules more often take on a linear shape.==== Inverted repeats ====Many chloroplast DNAs contain two ''inverted repeats'', which separate a long single copy section (LSC) from a short single copy section (SSC).While a given pair of inverted repeats are rarely completely identical, they are always very similar to each other, apparently resulting from concerted evolution.The inverted repeats vary wildly in length, ranging from 4,000 to 25,000 base pairs long each and containing as few as four or as many as over 150 genes.",
"Inverted repeats in plants tend to be at the upper end of this range, each being 20,000–25,000 base pairs long.The inverted repeat regions are highly conserved among land plants, and accumulate few mutations.",
"Similar inverted repeats exist in the genomes of cyanobacteria and the other two chloroplast lineages (glaucophyta and rhodophyceae), suggesting that they predate the chloroplast, though some chloroplast DNAs have since lost or flipped the inverted repeats (making them direct repeats).",
"It is possible that the inverted repeats help stabilize the rest of the chloroplast genome, as chloroplast DNAs which have lost some of the inverted repeat segments tend to get rearranged more.==== Nucleoids ====New chloroplasts may contain up to 100 copies of their DNA, though the number of chloroplast DNA copies decreases to about 15–20 as the chloroplasts age.",
"They are usually packed into nucleoids, which can contain several identical chloroplast DNA rings.",
"Many nucleoids can be found in each chloroplast.In primitive red algae, the chloroplast DNA nucleoids are clustered in the center of the chloroplast, while in green plants and green algae, the nucleoids are dispersed throughout the stroma.Though chloroplast DNA is not associated with true histones, in red algae, similar proteins that tightly pack each chloroplast DNA ring into a nucleoid have been found.===DNA repair===In chloroplasts of the moss ''Physcomitrella patens'', the DNA mismatch repair protein Msh1 interacts with the recombinational repair proteins RecA and RecG to maintain chloroplast genome stability.",
"In chloroplasts of the plant ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' the RecA protein maintains the integrity of the chloroplast's DNA by a process that likely involves the recombinational repair of DNA damage.=== DNA replication ===Chloroplast DNA replication via multiple D-loop mechanisms.",
"Adapted from Krishnan NM, Rao BJ's paper \"A comparative approach to elucidate chloroplast genome replication.",
"\"The mechanism for chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) replication has not been conclusively determined, but two main models have been proposed.",
"Scientists have attempted to observe chloroplast replication via electron microscopy since the 1970s.",
"The results of the microscopy experiments led to the idea that chloroplast DNA replicates using a double displacement loop (D-loop).",
"As the D-loop moves through the circular DNA, it adopts a theta intermediary form, also known as a Cairns replication intermediate, and completes replication with a rolling circle mechanism.",
"Transcription starts at specific points of origin.",
"Multiple replication forks open up, allowing replication machinery to transcribe the DNA.",
"As replication continues, the forks grow and eventually converge.",
"The new cpDNA structures separate, creating daughter cpDNA chromosomes.In addition to the early microscopy experiments, this model is also supported by the amounts of deamination seen in cpDNA.",
"Deamination occurs when an amino group is lost and is a mutation that often results in base changes.",
"When adenine is deaminated, it becomes hypoxanthine.",
"Hypoxanthine can bind to cytosine, and when the XC base pair is replicated, it becomes a GC (thus, an A → G base change).Over time, base changes in the DNA sequence can arise from deamination mutations.",
"When adenine is deaminated, it becomes hypoxanthine, which can pair with cytosine.",
"During replication, the cytosine will pair with guanine, causing an A --> G base change.In cpDNA, there are several A → G deamination gradients.",
"DNA becomes susceptible to deamination events when it is single stranded.",
"When replication forks form, the strand not being copied is single stranded, and thus at risk for A → G deamination.",
"Therefore, gradients in deamination indicate that replication forks were most likely present and the direction that they initially opened (the highest gradient is most likely nearest the start site because it was single stranded for the longest amount of time).",
"This mechanism is still the leading theory today; however, a second theory suggests that most cpDNA is actually linear and replicates through homologous recombination.",
"It further contends that only a minority of the genetic material is kept in circular chromosomes while the rest is in branched, linear, or other complex structures.One of competing model for cpDNA replication asserts that most cpDNA is linear and participates in homologous recombination and replication structures similar to the linear and circular DNA structures of bacteriophage T4.It has been established that some plants have linear cpDNA, such as maize, and that more species still contain complex structures that scientists do not yet understand.",
"When the original experiments on cpDNA were performed, scientists did notice linear structures; however, they attributed these linear forms to broken circles.",
"If the branched and complex structures seen in cpDNA experiments are real and not artifacts of concatenated circular DNA or broken circles, then a D-loop mechanism of replication is insufficient to explain how those structures would replicate.",
"At the same time, homologous recombination does not expand the multiple A --> G gradients seen in plastomes.",
"Because of the failure to explain the deamination gradient as well as the numerous plant species that have been shown to have circular cpDNA, the predominant theory continues to hold that most cpDNA is circular and most likely replicates via a D loop mechanism.=== Gene content and protein synthesis ===The chloroplast genome most commonly includes around 100 genes that code for a variety of things, mostly to do with the protein pipeline and photosynthesis.",
"As in prokaryotes, genes in chloroplast DNA are organized into operons.",
"Unlike prokaryotic DNA molecules, chloroplast DNA molecules contain introns (plant mitochondrial DNAs do too, but not human mtDNAs).Among land plants, the contents of the chloroplast genome are fairly similar.==== Chloroplast genome reduction and gene transfer ====Over time, many parts of the chloroplast genome were transferred to the nuclear genome of the host, a process called ''endosymbiotic gene transfer''.",
"As a result, the chloroplast genome is heavily reduced compared to that of free-living cyanobacteria.",
"Chloroplasts may contain 60–100 genes whereas cyanobacteria often have more than 1500 genes in their genome.",
"Recently, a plastid without a genome was found, demonstrating chloroplasts can lose their genome during endosymbiotic the gene transfer process.Endosymbiotic gene transfer is how we know about the lost chloroplasts in many CASH lineages.",
"Even if a chloroplast is eventually lost, the genes it donated to the former host's nucleus persist, providing evidence for the lost chloroplast's existence.",
"For example, while diatoms (a heterokontophyte) now have a red algal derived chloroplast, the presence of many green algal genes in the diatom nucleus provide evidence that the diatom ancestor had a green algal derived chloroplast at some point, which was subsequently replaced by the red chloroplast.In land plants, some 11–14% of the DNA in their nuclei can be traced back to the chloroplast, up to 18% in ''Arabidopsis'', corresponding to about 4,500 protein-coding genes.",
"There have been a few recent transfers of genes from the chloroplast DNA to the nuclear genome in land plants.Of the approximately 3000 proteins found in chloroplasts, some 95% of them are encoded by nuclear genes.",
"Many of the chloroplast's protein complexes consist of subunits from both the chloroplast genome and the host's nuclear genome.",
"As a result, protein synthesis must be coordinated between the chloroplast and the nucleus.",
"The chloroplast is mostly under nuclear control, though chloroplasts can also give out signals regulating gene expression in the nucleus, called ''retrograde signaling''.",
"Recent research indicates that parts of the retrograde signaling network once considered characteristic for land plants emerged already in an algal progenitor, integrating into co-expressed cohorts of genes in the closest algal relatives of land plants.==== Protein synthesis ====Protein synthesis within chloroplasts relies on two RNA polymerases.",
"One is coded by the chloroplast DNA, the other is of nuclear origin.",
"The two RNA polymerases may recognize and bind to different kinds of promoters within the chloroplast genome.",
"The ribosomes in chloroplasts are similar to bacterial ribosomes.=== Protein targeting and import ===Because so many chloroplast genes have been moved to the nucleus, many proteins that would originally have been translated in the chloroplast are now synthesized in the cytoplasm of the plant cell.",
"These proteins must be directed back to the chloroplast, and imported through at least two chloroplast membranes.Curiously, around half of the protein products of transferred genes aren't even targeted back to the chloroplast.",
"Many became exaptations, taking on new functions like participating in cell division, protein routing, and even disease resistance.",
"A few chloroplast genes found new homes in the mitochondrial genome—most became nonfunctional pseudogenes, though a few tRNA genes still work in the mitochondrion.",
"Some transferred chloroplast DNA protein products get directed to the secretory pathway, though many secondary plastids are bounded by an outermost membrane derived from the host's cell membrane, and therefore topologically outside of the cell because to reach the chloroplast from the cytosol, the cell membrane must be crossed, which signifies entrance into the extracellular space.",
"In those cases, chloroplast-targeted proteins do initially travel along the secretory pathway.Because the cell acquiring a chloroplast already had mitochondria (and peroxisomes, and a cell membrane for secretion), the new chloroplast host had to develop a unique protein targeting system to avoid having chloroplast proteins being sent to the wrong organelle.In most, but not all cases, nuclear-encoded chloroplast proteins are translated with a ''cleavable transit peptide'' that's added to the N-terminus of the protein precursor.",
"Sometimes the transit sequence is found on the C-terminus of the protein, or within the functional part of the protein.==== Transport proteins and membrane translocons ====After a chloroplast polypeptide is synthesized on a ribosome in the cytosol, an enzyme specific to chloroplast proteins phosphorylates, or adds a phosphate group to many (but not all) of them in their transit sequences.Phosphorylation helps many proteins bind the polypeptide, keeping it from folding prematurely.",
"This is important because it prevents chloroplast proteins from assuming their active form and carrying out their chloroplast functions in the wrong place—the cytosol.",
"At the same time, they have to keep just enough shape so that they can be recognized by the chloroplast.",
"These proteins also help the polypeptide get imported into the chloroplast.From here, chloroplast proteins bound for the stroma must pass through two protein complexes—the TOC complex, or '''''t'''ranslocon on the '''o'''uter '''c'''hloroplast membrane'', and the TIC translocon, or '''''t'''ranslocon on the '''i'''nner '''c'''hloroplast membrane translocon''.",
"Chloroplast polypeptide chains probably often travel through the two complexes at the same time, but the TIC complex can also retrieve preproteins lost in the intermembrane space."
],
[
"Structure",
"Transmission electron microscope image of a chloroplast.",
"Grana of thylakoids and their connecting lamellae are clearly visible.In land plants, chloroplasts are generally lens-shaped, 3–10 μm in diameter and 1–3 μm thick.",
"Corn seedling chloroplasts are ≈20 µm3 in volume.",
"Greater diversity in chloroplast shapes exists among the algae, which often contain a single chloroplast that can be shaped like a net (e.g., ''Oedogonium''), a cup (e.g., ''Chlamydomonas''), a ribbon-like spiral around the edges of the cell (e.g., ''Spirogyra''), or slightly twisted bands at the cell edges (e.g., ''Sirogonium'').",
"Some algae have two chloroplasts in each cell; they are star-shaped in ''Zygnema'', or may follow the shape of half the cell in order Desmidiales.",
"In some algae, the chloroplast takes up most of the cell, with pockets for the nucleus and other organelles, for example, some species of ''Chlorella'' have a cup-shaped chloroplast that occupies much of the cell.All chloroplasts have at least three membrane systems—the outer chloroplast membrane, the inner chloroplast membrane, and the thylakoid system.",
"Chloroplasts that are the product of secondary endosymbiosis may have additional membranes surrounding these three.",
"Inside the outer and inner chloroplast membranes is the chloroplast stroma, a semi-gel-like fluid that makes up much of a chloroplast's volume, and in which the thylakoid system floats.There are some common misconceptions about the outer and inner chloroplast membranes.",
"The fact that chloroplasts are surrounded by a double membrane is often cited as evidence that they are the descendants of endosymbiotic cyanobacteria.",
"This is often interpreted as meaning the outer chloroplast membrane is the product of the host's cell membrane infolding to form a vesicle to surround the ancestral cyanobacterium—which is not true—both chloroplast membranes are homologous to the cyanobacterium's original double membranes.The chloroplast double membrane is also often compared to the mitochondrial double membrane.",
"This is not a valid comparison—the inner mitochondria membrane is used to run proton pumps and carry out oxidative phosphorylation across to generate ATP energy.",
"The only chloroplast structure that can considered analogous to it is the internal thylakoid system.",
"Even so, in terms of \"in-out\", the direction of chloroplast H ion flow is in the opposite direction compared to oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria.",
"In addition, in terms of function, the inner chloroplast membrane, which regulates metabolite passage and synthesizes some materials, has no counterpart in the mitochondrion.=== Outer chloroplast membrane ===The outer chloroplast membrane is a semi-porous membrane that small molecules and ions can easily diffuse across.",
"However, it is not permeable to larger proteins, so chloroplast polypeptides being synthesized in the cell cytoplasm must be transported across the outer chloroplast membrane by the TOC complex, or '''''t'''ranslocon on the '''o'''uter '''c'''hloroplast'' membrane.The chloroplast membranes sometimes protrude out into the cytoplasm, forming a stromule, or '''strom'''a-containing tub'''ule'''.",
"Stromules are very rare in chloroplasts, and are much more common in other plastids like chromoplasts and amyloplasts in petals and roots, respectively.",
"They may exist to increase the chloroplast's surface area for cross-membrane transport, because they are often branched and tangled with the endoplasmic reticulum.",
"When they were first observed in 1962, some plant biologists dismissed the structures as artifactual, claiming that stromules were just oddly shaped chloroplasts with constricted regions or dividing chloroplasts.",
"However, there is a growing body of evidence that stromules are functional, integral features of plant cell plastids, not merely artifacts.=== Intermembrane space and peptidoglycan wall ===Instead of an intermembrane space, glaucophyte algae have a peptidoglycan wall between their inner and outer chloroplast membranes.Usually, a thin intermembrane space about 10–20 nanometers thick exists between the outer and inner chloroplast membranes.Glaucophyte algal chloroplasts have a peptidoglycan layer between the chloroplast membranes.",
"It corresponds to the peptidoglycan cell wall of their cyanobacterial ancestors, which is located between their two cell membranes.",
"These chloroplasts are called ''muroplasts'' (from Latin ''\"mura\"'', meaning \"wall\").",
"Other chloroplasts were assumed to have lost the cyanobacterial wall, leaving an intermembrane space between the two chloroplast envelope membranes, but has since been found also in moss, lycophytes and ferns.=== Inner chloroplast membrane ===The inner chloroplast membrane borders the stroma and regulates passage of materials in and out of the chloroplast.",
"After passing through the TOC complex in the outer chloroplast membrane, polypeptides must pass through the TIC complex ''('''t'''ranslocon on the '''i'''nner '''c'''hloroplast membrane)'' which is located in the inner chloroplast membrane.In addition to regulating the passage of materials, the inner chloroplast membrane is where fatty acids, lipids, and carotenoids are synthesized.==== Peripheral reticulum ====Some chloroplasts contain a structure called the chloroplast peripheral reticulum.",
"It is often found in the chloroplasts of plants, though it has also been found in some angiosperms, and even some gymnosperms.",
"The chloroplast peripheral reticulum consists of a maze of membranous tubes and vesicles continuous with the inner chloroplast membrane that extends into the internal stromal fluid of the chloroplast.",
"Its purpose is thought to be to increase the chloroplast's surface area for cross-membrane transport between its stroma and the cell cytoplasm.",
"The small vesicles sometimes observed may serve as transport vesicles to shuttle stuff between the thylakoids and intermembrane space.=== Stroma ===The protein-rich, alkaline, aqueous fluid within the inner chloroplast membrane and outside of the thylakoid space is called the stroma, which corresponds to the cytosol of the original cyanobacterium.",
"Nucleoids of chloroplast DNA, chloroplast ribosomes, the thylakoid system with plastoglobuli, starch granules, and many proteins can be found floating around in it.",
"The Calvin cycle, which fixes CO into G3P takes place in the stroma.==== Chloroplast ribosomes ====Chloroplasts have their own ribosomes, which they use to synthesize a small fraction of their proteins.",
"Chloroplast ribosomes are about two-thirds the size of cytoplasmic ribosomes (around 17 nm vs 25 nm).",
"They take mRNAs transcribed from the chloroplast DNA and translate them into protein.",
"While similar to bacterial ribosomes, chloroplast translation is more complex than in bacteria, so chloroplast ribosomes include some chloroplast-unique features.Small subunit ribosomal RNAs in several Chlorophyta and euglenid chloroplasts lack motifs for Shine-Dalgarno sequence recognition, which is considered essential for translation initiation in most chloroplasts and prokaryotes.",
"Such loss is also rarely observed in other plastids and prokaryotes.",
"An additional 4.5S rRNA with homology to the 3' tail of 23S is found in \"higher\" plants.==== Plastoglobuli ====Plastoglobuli ('''singular''' ''plastoglobulus'', sometimes spelled ''plastoglobule(s)''), are spherical bubbles of lipids and proteins about 45–60 nanometers across.",
"They are surrounded by a lipid monolayer.",
"Plastoglobuli are found in all chloroplasts, but become more common when the chloroplast is under oxidative stress, or when it ages and transitions into a gerontoplast.",
"Plastoglobuli also exhibit a greater size variation under these conditions.",
"They are also common in etioplasts, but decrease in number as the etioplasts mature into chloroplasts.Plastoglobuli contain both structural proteins and enzymes involved in lipid synthesis and metabolism.",
"They contain many types of lipids including plastoquinone, vitamin E, carotenoids and chlorophylls.Plastoglobuli were once thought to be free-floating in the stroma, but it is now thought that they are permanently attached either to a thylakoid or to another plastoglobulus attached to a thylakoid, a configuration that allows a plastoglobulus to exchange its contents with the thylakoid network.",
"In normal green chloroplasts, the vast majority of plastoglobuli occur singularly, attached directly to their parent thylakoid.",
"In old or stressed chloroplasts, plastoglobuli tend to occur in linked groups or chains, still always anchored to a thylakoid.Plastoglobuli form when a bubble appears between the layers of the lipid bilayer of the thylakoid membrane, or bud from existing plastoglobuli—though they never detach and float off into the stroma.",
"Practically all plastoglobuli form on or near the highly curved edges of the thylakoid disks or sheets.",
"They are also more common on stromal thylakoids than on granal ones.==== Starch granules ====Starch granules are very common in chloroplasts, typically taking up 15% of the organelle's volume, though in some other plastids like amyloplasts, they can be big enough to distort the shape of the organelle.",
"Starch granules are simply accumulations of starch in the stroma, and are not bounded by a membrane.Starch granules appear and grow throughout the day, as the chloroplast synthesizes sugars, and are consumed at night to fuel respiration and continue sugar export into the phloem, though in mature chloroplasts, it is rare for a starch granule to be completely consumed or for a new granule to accumulate.Starch granules vary in composition and location across different chloroplast lineages.",
"In red algae, starch granules are found in the cytoplasm rather than in the chloroplast.",
"In plants, mesophyll chloroplasts, which do not synthesize sugars, lack starch granules.==== RuBisCO ====The chloroplast stroma contains many proteins, though the most common and important is RuBisCO, which is probably also the most abundant protein on the planet.",
"RuBisCO is the enzyme that fixes CO into sugar molecules.",
"In plants, RuBisCO is abundant in all chloroplasts, though in plants, it is confined to the bundle sheath chloroplasts, where the Calvin cycle is carried out in plants.=== Pyrenoids ===The chloroplasts of some hornworts and algae contain structures called pyrenoids.",
"They are not found in higher plants.",
"Pyrenoids are roughly spherical and highly refractive bodies which are a site of starch accumulation in plants that contain them.",
"They consist of a matrix opaque to electrons, surrounded by two hemispherical starch plates.",
"The starch is accumulated as the pyrenoids mature.",
"In algae with carbon concentrating mechanisms, the enzyme RuBisCO is found in the pyrenoids.",
"Starch can also accumulate around the pyrenoids when CO2 is scarce.",
"Pyrenoids can divide to form new pyrenoids, or be produced \"de novo\".=== Thylakoid system ==='''Scanning transmission electron microscope imaging of a chloroplast'''(Top) 10-nm-thick STEM tomographic slice of a lettuce chloroplast.",
"Grana stacks are interconnected by unstacked stromal thylakoids, called \"stroma lamellae\".",
"Round inclusions associated with the thylakoids are plastoglobules.",
"Scalebar=200 nm.",
"See.",
"(Bottom) Large-scale 3D model generated from segmentation of tomographic reconstructions by STEM.",
"grana=yellow; stroma lamellae=green; plastoglobules=purple; chloroplast envelope=blue.",
"See.",
"Thylakoids (sometimes spelled ''thylakoïds''), are small interconnected sacks which contain the membranes that the light reactions of photosynthesis take place on.",
"The word ''thylakoid'' comes from the Greek word ''thylakos'' which means \"sack\".Suspended within the chloroplast stroma is the thylakoid system, a highly dynamic collection of membranous sacks called thylakoids where chlorophyll is found and the light reactions of photosynthesis happen.In most vascular plant chloroplasts, the thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana, though in certain plant chloroplasts and some algal chloroplasts, the thylakoids are free floating.==== Thylakoid structure ===='''Granum-stroma assembly structure''' The prevailing model of the granum-stroma assembly is stacks of granal thylakoids wrapped by right-handed helical stromal thylakoids which are connected to large parallel sheets of stromal thylakoids and adjacent right-handed helices by left-handed helical structures.",
"(Based on).Using a light microscope, it is just barely possible to see tiny green granules—which were named grana.",
"With electron microscopy, it became possible to see the thylakoid system in more detail, revealing it to consist of stacks of flat thylakoids which made up the grana, and long interconnecting stromal thylakoids which linked different grana.In the transmission electron microscope, thylakoid membranes appear as alternating light-and-dark bands, 8.5 nanometers thick.The three-dimensional structure of the thylakoid membrane system haz been disputed.",
"Many models have been proposed, the most prevalent being the helical model, in which granum stacks of thylakoids are wrapped by helical stromal thylakoids.",
"Another model known as the 'bifurcation model', which was based on the first electron tomography study of plant thylakoid membranes, depicts the stromal membranes as wide lamellar sheets perpendicular to the grana columns which bifurcates into multiple parallel discs forming the granum-stroma assembly.",
"The helical model was supported by several additional works, but ultimately it was determined in 2019 that features from both the helical and bifurcation models are consolidated by newly discovered left-handed helical membrane junctions.",
"Likely for ease, the thylakoid system is still commonly depicted by older \"hub and spoke\" models where the grana are connected to each other by tubes of stromal thylakoids.Grana consist of a stacks of flattened circular granal thylakoids that resemble pancakes.",
"Each granum can contain anywhere from two to a hundred thylakoids, though grana with 10–20 thylakoids are most common.",
"Wrapped around the grana are multiple parallel right-handed helical stromal thylakoids, also known as frets or lamellar thylakoids.",
"The helices ascend at an angle of ~20°, connecting to each granal thylakoid at a bridge-like slit junction.The stroma lamellae extend as large sheets perpendicular to the grana columns.",
"These sheets are connected to the right-handed helices either directly or through bifurcations that form left-handed helical membrane surfaces.",
"The left-handed helical surfaces have a similar tilt angle to the right-handed helices (~20°), but ¼ the pitch.",
"Approximately 4 left-handed helical junctions are present per granum, resulting in a pitch-balanced array of right- and left-handed helical membrane surfaces of different radii and pitch that consolidate the network with minimal surface and bending energies.",
"While different parts of the thylakoid system contain different membrane proteins, the thylakoid membranes are continuous and the thylakoid space they enclose form a single continuous labyrinth.====Thylakoid composition====Embedded in the thylakoid membranes are important protein complexes which carry out the light reactions of photosynthesis.",
"Photosystem II and photosystem I contain light-harvesting complexes with chlorophyll and carotenoids that absorb light energy and use it to energize electrons.",
"Molecules in the thylakoid membrane use the energized electrons to pump hydrogen ions into the thylakoid space, decreasing the pH and turning it acidic.",
"ATP synthase is a large protein complex that harnesses the concentration gradient of the hydrogen ions in the thylakoid space to generate ATP energy as the hydrogen ions flow back out into the stroma—much like a dam turbine.There are two types of thylakoids—granal thylakoids, which are arranged in grana, and stromal thylakoids, which are in contact with the stroma.",
"Granal thylakoids are pancake-shaped circular disks about 300–600 nanometers in diameter.",
"Stromal thylakoids are helicoid sheets that spiral around grana.",
"The flat tops and bottoms of granal thylakoids contain only the relatively flat photosystem II protein complex.",
"This allows them to stack tightly, forming grana with many layers of tightly appressed membrane, called granal membrane, increasing stability and surface area for light capture.In contrast, photosystem I and ATP synthase are large protein complexes which jut out into the stroma.",
"They can't fit in the appressed granal membranes, and so are found in the stromal thylakoid membrane—the edges of the granal thylakoid disks and the stromal thylakoids.",
"These large protein complexes may act as spacers between the sheets of stromal thylakoids.The number of thylakoids and the total thylakoid area of a chloroplast is influenced by light exposure.",
"Shaded chloroplasts contain larger and more grana with more thylakoid membrane area than chloroplasts exposed to bright light, which have smaller and fewer grana and less thylakoid area.",
"Thylakoid extent can change within minutes of light exposure or removal.==== Pigments and chloroplast colors ====Inside the photosystems embedded in chloroplast thylakoid membranes are various photosynthetic pigments, which absorb and transfer light energy.",
"The types of pigments found are different in various groups of chloroplasts, and are responsible for a wide variety of chloroplast colorations.Paper chromatography of some spinach leaf extract shows the various pigments present in their chloroplasts.|100pxPaper chromatography of some spinach leaf extract shows the various pigments present in their chloroplasts.",
"'''Xanthophylls''''''Chlorophyll ''a''''''''Chlorophyll ''b'''''===== Chlorophylls =====Chlorophyll ''a'' is found in all chloroplasts, as well as their cyanobacterial ancestors.",
"Chlorophyll ''a'' is a blue-green pigment partially responsible for giving most cyanobacteria and chloroplasts their color.",
"Other forms of chlorophyll exist, such as the accessory pigments chlorophyll ''b'', chlorophyll ''c'', chlorophyll ''d'', and chlorophyll ''f''.Chlorophyll ''b'' is an olive green pigment found only in the chloroplasts of plants, green algae, any secondary chloroplasts obtained through the secondary endosymbiosis of a green alga, and a few cyanobacteria.",
"It is the chlorophylls ''a'' and ''b'' together that make most plant and green algal chloroplasts green.Chlorophyll ''c'' is mainly found in secondary endosymbiotic chloroplasts that originated from a red alga, although it is not found in chloroplasts of red algae themselves.",
"Chlorophyll ''c'' is also found in some green algae and cyanobacteria.Chlorophylls ''d'' and ''f'' are pigments found only in some cyanobacteria.===== Carotenoids =====In addition to chlorophylls, another group of yellow–orange pigments called carotenoids are also found in the photosystems.",
"There are about thirty photosynthetic carotenoids.",
"They help transfer and dissipate excess energy, and their bright colors sometimes override the chlorophyll green, like during the fall, when the leaves of some land plants change color.",
"β-carotene is a bright red-orange carotenoid found in nearly all chloroplasts, like chlorophyll ''a''.",
"Xanthophylls, especially the orange-red zeaxanthin, are also common.",
"Many other forms of carotenoids exist that are only found in certain groups of chloroplasts.===== Phycobilins =====Phycobilins are a third group of pigments found in cyanobacteria, and glaucophyte, red algal, and cryptophyte chloroplasts.",
"Phycobilins come in all colors, though phycoerytherin is one of the pigments that makes many red algae red.",
"Phycobilins often organize into relatively large protein complexes about 40 nanometers across called phycobilisomes.",
"Like photosystem I and ATP synthase, phycobilisomes jut into the stroma, preventing thylakoid stacking in red algal chloroplasts.",
"Cryptophyte chloroplasts and some cyanobacteria don't have their phycobilin pigments organized into phycobilisomes, and keep them in their thylakoid space instead.",
"'''Photosynthetic pigments''' Table of the presence of various pigments across chloroplast groups.",
"Colored cells represent pigment presence.",
"'''Chlorophyll ''a''''' '''Chlorophyll ''b''''' '''Chlorophyll ''c''''' '''Chlorophyll ''d'' and ''f''''' '''Xanthophylls''' '''α-carotene''' '''β-carotene''' '''Phycobilins''' '''Land plants''' '''Green algae''' '''Euglenophytes''' and '''Chlorarachniophytes''' '''Multicellular red algae''' '''Unicellular red algae''' '''Haptophytes''' and '''Dinophytes''' '''Cryptophytes''' '''Glaucophytes''' '''Cyanobacteria'''=== Specialized chloroplasts in plants ===To fix carbon dioxide into sugar molecules in the process of photosynthesis, chloroplasts use an enzyme called RuBisCO.",
"RuBisCO has trouble distinguishing between carbon dioxide and oxygen, so at high oxygen concentrations, RuBisCO starts accidentally adding oxygen to sugar precursors.",
"This has the result of ATP energy being wasted and being released, all with no sugar being produced.",
"This is a big problem, since O is produced by the initial light reactions of photosynthesis, causing issues down the line in the Calvin cycle which uses RuBisCO.",
"plants evolved a way to solve this—by spatially separating the light reactions and the Calvin cycle.",
"The light reactions, which store light energy in ATP and NADPH, are done in the mesophyll cells of a leaf.",
"The Calvin cycle, which uses the stored energy to make sugar using RuBisCO, is done in the bundle sheath cells, a layer of cells surrounding a vein in a leaf.As a result, chloroplasts in mesophyll cells and bundle sheath cells are specialized for each stage of photosynthesis.",
"In mesophyll cells, chloroplasts are specialized for the light reactions, so they lack RuBisCO, and have normal grana and thylakoids, which they use to make ATP and NADPH, as well as oxygen.",
"They store in a four-carbon compound, which is why the process is called '' photosynthesis''.",
"The four-carbon compound is then transported to the bundle sheath chloroplasts, where it drops off and returns to the mesophyll.",
"Bundle sheath chloroplasts do not carry out the light reactions, preventing oxygen from building up in them and disrupting RuBisCO activity.",
"Because of this, they lack thylakoids organized into grana stacks—though bundle sheath chloroplasts still have free-floating thylakoids in the stroma where they still carry out cyclic electron flow, a light-driven method of synthesizing ATP to power the Calvin cycle without generating oxygen.",
"They lack photosystem II, and only have photosystem I—the only protein complex needed for cyclic electron flow.",
"Because the job of bundle sheath chloroplasts is to carry out the Calvin cycle and make sugar, they often contain large starch grains.Both types of chloroplast contain large amounts of chloroplast peripheral reticulum, which they use to get more surface area to transport stuff in and out of them.",
"Mesophyll chloroplasts have a little more peripheral reticulum than bundle sheath chloroplasts."
],
[
"Location",
"=== Distribution in a plant ===Not all cells in a multicellular plant contain chloroplasts.",
"All green parts of a plant contain chloroplasts—the chloroplasts, or more specifically, the chlorophyll in them are what make the photosynthetic parts of a plant green.",
"The plant cells which contain chloroplasts are usually parenchyma cells, though chloroplasts can also be found in collenchyma tissue.",
"A plant cell which contains chloroplasts is known as a chlorenchyma cell.",
"A typical chlorenchyma cell of a land plant contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts.In some plants such as cacti, chloroplasts are found in the stems, though in most plants, chloroplasts are concentrated in the leaves.",
"One square millimeter of leaf tissue can contain half a million chloroplasts.",
"Within a leaf, chloroplasts are mainly found in the mesophyll layers of a leaf, and the guard cells of stomata.",
"Palisade mesophyll cells can contain 30–70 chloroplasts per cell, while stomatal guard cells contain only around 8–15 per cell, as well as much less chlorophyll.",
"Chloroplasts can also be found in the bundle sheath cells of a leaf, especially in C plants, which carry out the Calvin cycle in their bundle sheath cells.",
"They are often absent from the epidermis of a leaf.=== Cellular location ======= Chloroplast movement ====The chloroplasts of plant and algal cells can orient themselves to best suit the available light.",
"In low-light conditions, they will spread out in a sheet—maximizing the surface area to absorb light.",
"Under intense light, they will seek shelter by aligning in vertical columns along the plant cell's cell wall or turning sideways so that light strikes them edge-on.",
"This reduces exposure and protects them from photooxidative damage.",
"This ability to distribute chloroplasts so that they can take shelter behind each other or spread out may be the reason why land plants evolved to have many small chloroplasts instead of a few big ones.Chloroplast movement is considered one of the most closely regulated stimulus-response systems that can be found in plants.",
"Mitochondria have also been observed to follow chloroplasts as they move.In higher plants, chloroplast movement is run by phototropins, blue light photoreceptors also responsible for plant phototropism.",
"In some algae, mosses, ferns, and flowering plants, chloroplast movement is influenced by red light in addition to blue light, though very long red wavelengths inhibit movement rather than speeding it up.",
"Blue light generally causes chloroplasts to seek shelter, while red light draws them out to maximize light absorption.Studies of ''Vallisneria gigantea'', an aquatic flowering plant, have shown that chloroplasts can get moving within five minutes of light exposure, though they don't initially show any net directionality.",
"They may move along microfilament tracks, and the fact that the microfilament mesh changes shape to form a honeycomb structure surrounding the chloroplasts after they have moved suggests that microfilaments may help to anchor chloroplasts in place."
],
[
"Function and chemistry",
"=== Guard cell chloroplasts ===Unlike most epidermal cells, the guard cells of plant stomata contain relatively well-developed chloroplasts.",
"However, exactly what they do is controversial.=== Plant innate immunity ===Plants lack specialized immune cells—all plant cells participate in the plant immune response.",
"Chloroplasts, along with the nucleus, cell membrane, and endoplasmic reticulum, are key players in pathogen defense.",
"Due to its role in a plant cell's immune response, pathogens frequently target the chloroplast.Plants have two main immune responses—the hypersensitive response, in which infected cells seal themselves off and undergo programmed cell death, and systemic acquired resistance, where infected cells release signals warning the rest of the plant of a pathogen's presence.Chloroplasts stimulate both responses by purposely damaging their photosynthetic system, producing reactive oxygen species.",
"High levels of reactive oxygen species will cause the hypersensitive response.",
"The reactive oxygen species also directly kill any pathogens within the cell.",
"Lower levels of reactive oxygen species initiate systemic acquired resistance, triggering defense-molecule production in the rest of the plant.In some plants, chloroplasts are known to move closer to the infection site and the nucleus during an infection.Chloroplasts can serve as cellular sensors.",
"After detecting stress in a cell, which might be due to a pathogen, chloroplasts begin producing molecules like salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species which can serve as defense-signals.",
"As cellular signals, reactive oxygen species are unstable molecules, so they probably don't leave the chloroplast, but instead pass on their signal to an unknown second messenger molecule.",
"All these molecules initiate retrograde signaling—signals from the chloroplast that regulate gene expression in the nucleus.In addition to defense signaling, chloroplasts, with the help of the peroxisomes, help synthesize an important defense molecule, jasmonate.",
"Chloroplasts synthesize all the fatty acids in a plant cell—linoleic acid, a fatty acid, is a precursor to jasmonate.=== Photosynthesis ===One of the main functions of the chloroplast is its role in photosynthesis, the process by which light is transformed into chemical energy, to subsequently produce food in the form of sugars.",
"Water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are used in photosynthesis, and sugar and oxygen (O2) is made, using light energy.",
"Photosynthesis is divided into two stages—the light reactions, where water is split to produce oxygen, and the dark reactions, or Calvin cycle, which builds sugar molecules from carbon dioxide.",
"The two phases are linked by the energy carriers adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+).==== Light reactions ====The light reactions take place on the thylakoid membranes.",
"They take light energy and store it in NADPH, a form of NADP+, and ATP to fuel the dark reactions.===== Energy carriers =====ATP is the phosphorylated version of adenosine diphosphate (ADP), which stores energy in a cell and powers most cellular activities.",
"ATP is the energized form, while ADP is the (partially) depleted form.",
"NADP+ is an electron carrier which ferries high energy electrons.",
"In the light reactions, it gets reduced, meaning it picks up electrons, becoming NADPH.===== Photophosphorylation =====Like mitochondria, chloroplasts use the potential energy stored in an H+, or hydrogen ion, gradient to generate ATP energy.",
"The two photosystems capture light energy to energize electrons taken from water, and release them down an electron transport chain.",
"The molecules between the photosystems harness the electrons' energy to pump hydrogen ions into the thylakoid space, creating a concentration gradient, with more hydrogen ions (up to a thousand times as many) inside the thylakoid system than in the stroma.",
"The hydrogen ions in the thylakoid space then diffuse back down their concentration gradient, flowing back out into the stroma through ATP synthase.",
"ATP synthase uses the energy from the flowing hydrogen ions to phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate into adenosine triphosphate, or ATP.",
"Because chloroplast ATP synthase projects out into the stroma, the ATP is synthesized there, in position to be used in the dark reactions.===== NADP+ reduction =====Electrons are often removed from the electron transport chains to charge NADP+ with electrons, reducing it to NADPH.",
"Like ATP synthase, ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase, the enzyme that reduces NADP+, releases the NADPH it makes into the stroma, right where it is needed for the dark reactions.Because NADP+ reduction removes electrons from the electron transport chains, they must be replaced—the job of photosystem II, which splits water molecules (H2O) to obtain the electrons from its hydrogen atoms.===== Cyclic photophosphorylation =====While photosystem II photolyzes water to obtain and energize new electrons, photosystem I simply reenergizes depleted electrons at the end of an electron transport chain.",
"Normally, the reenergized electrons are taken by NADP+, though sometimes they can flow back down more H+-pumping electron transport chains to transport more hydrogen ions into the thylakoid space to generate more ATP.",
"This is termed cyclic photophosphorylation because the electrons are recycled.",
"Cyclic photophosphorylation is common in plants, which need more ATP than NADPH.==== Dark reactions ====The Calvin cycle, also known as the dark reactions, is a series of biochemical reactions that fixes CO2 into G3P sugar molecules and uses the energy and electrons from the ATP and NADPH made in the light reactions.",
"The Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast.While named ''\"the dark reactions\"'', in most plants, they take place in the light, since the dark reactions are dependent on the products of the light reactions.===== Carbon fixation and G3P synthesis =====The Calvin cycle starts by using the enzyme RuBisCO to fix CO2 into five-carbon Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) molecules.",
"The result is unstable six-carbon molecules that immediately break down into three-carbon molecules called 3-phosphoglyceric acid, or 3-PGA.The ATP and NADPH made in the light reactions is used to convert the 3-PGA into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, or G3P sugar molecules.",
"Most of the G3P molecules are recycled back into RuBP using energy from more ATP, but one out of every six produced leaves the cycle—the end product of the dark reactions.===== Sugars and starches =====Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate can double up to form larger sugar molecules like glucose and fructose.",
"These molecules are processed, and from them, the still larger sucrose, a disaccharide commonly known as table sugar, is made, though this process takes place outside of the chloroplast, in the cytoplasm.Alternatively, glucose monomers in the chloroplast can be linked together to make starch, which accumulates into the starch grains found in the chloroplast.Under conditions such as high atmospheric CO2 concentrations, these starch grains may grow very large, distorting the grana and thylakoids.",
"The starch granules displace the thylakoids, but leave them intact.Waterlogged roots can also cause starch buildup in the chloroplasts, possibly due to less sucrose being exported out of the chloroplast (or more accurately, the plant cell).",
"This depletes a plant's free phosphate supply, which indirectly stimulates chloroplast starch synthesis.While linked to low photosynthesis rates, the starch grains themselves may not necessarily interfere significantly with the efficiency of photosynthesis, and might simply be a side effect of another photosynthesis-depressing factor.===== Photorespiration =====Photorespiration can occur when the oxygen concentration is too high.",
"RuBisCO cannot distinguish between oxygen and carbon dioxide very well, so it can accidentally add O2 instead of CO2 to RuBP.",
"This process reduces the efficiency of photosynthesis—it consumes ATP and oxygen, releases CO2, and produces no sugar.",
"It can waste up to half the carbon fixed by the Calvin cycle.",
"Several mechanisms have evolved in different lineages that raise the carbon dioxide concentration relative to oxygen within the chloroplast, increasing the efficiency of photosynthesis.",
"These mechanisms are called carbon dioxide concentrating mechanisms, or CCMs.",
"These include Crassulacean acid metabolism, carbon fixation, and pyrenoids.",
"Chloroplasts in plants are notable as they exhibit a distinct chloroplast dimorphism.=== pH ===Because of the H+ gradient across the thylakoid membrane, the interior of the thylakoid is acidic, with a pH around 4, while the stroma is slightly basic, with a pH of around 8.The optimal stroma pH for the Calvin cycle is 8.1, with the reaction nearly stopping when the pH falls below 7.3.CO2 in water can form carbonic acid, which can disturb the pH of isolated chloroplasts, interfering with photosynthesis, even though CO2 is used in photosynthesis.",
"However, chloroplasts in living plant cells are not affected by this as much.Chloroplasts can pump K+ and H+ ions in and out of themselves using a poorly understood light-driven transport system.In the presence of light, the pH of the thylakoid lumen can drop up to 1.5 pH units, while the pH of the stroma can rise by nearly one pH unit.=== Amino acid synthesis ===Chloroplasts alone make almost all of a plant cell's amino acids in their stroma except the sulfur-containing ones like cysteine and methionine.",
"Cysteine is made in the chloroplast (the proplastid too) but it is also synthesized in the cytosol and mitochondria, probably because it has trouble crossing membranes to get to where it is needed.",
"The chloroplast is known to make the precursors to methionine but it is unclear whether the organelle carries out the last leg of the pathway or if it happens in the cytosol.=== Other nitrogen compounds ===Chloroplasts make all of a cell's purines and pyrimidines—the nitrogenous bases found in DNA and RNA.",
"They also convert nitrite (NO2−) into ammonia (NH3) which supplies the plant with nitrogen to make its amino acids and nucleotides.=== Other chemical products ===The plastid is the site of diverse and complex lipid synthesis in plants.",
"The carbon used to form the majority of the lipid is from acetyl-CoA, which is the decarboxylation product of pyruvate.",
"Pyruvate may enter the plastid from the cytosol by passive diffusion through the membrane after production in glycolysis.",
"Pyruvate is also made in the plastid from phosphoenolpyruvate, a metabolite made in the cytosol from pyruvate or PGA.",
"Acetate in the cytosol is unavailable for lipid biosynthesis in the plastid.",
"The typical length of fatty acids produced in the plastid are 16 or 18 carbons, with 0-3 cis double bonds.The biosynthesis of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA primarily requires two enzymes.",
"Acetyl-CoA carboxylase creates malonyl-CoA, used in both the first step and the extension steps of synthesis.",
"Fatty acid synthase (FAS) is a large complex of enzymes and cofactors including acyl carrier protein (ACP) which holds the acyl chain as it is synthesized.",
"The initiation of synthesis begins with the condensation of malonyl-ACP with acetyl-CoA to produce ketobutyryl-ACP.",
"2 reductions involving the use of NADPH and one dehydration creates butyryl-ACP.",
"Extension of the fatty acid comes from repeated cycles of malonyl-ACP condensation, reduction, and dehydration.Other lipids are derived from the methyl-erythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway and consist of gibberelins, sterols, abscisic acid, phytol, and innumerable secondary metabolites."
],
[
"Differentiation, replication, and inheritance",
"Chloroplasts are a special type of a plant cell organelle called a '''plastid''', though the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably.",
"There are many other types of plastids, which carry out various functions.",
"All chloroplasts in a plant are descended from undifferentiated proplastids found in the zygote, or fertilized egg.",
"Proplastids are commonly found in an adult plant's apical meristems.",
"Chloroplasts do not normally develop from proplastids in root tip meristems—instead, the formation of starch-storing amyloplasts is more common.In shoots, proplastids from shoot apical meristems can gradually develop into chloroplasts in photosynthetic leaf tissues as the leaf matures, if exposed to the required light.",
"This process involves invaginations of the inner plastid membrane, forming sheets of membrane that project into the internal stroma.",
"These membrane sheets then fold to form thylakoids and grana.If angiosperm shoots are not exposed to the required light for chloroplast formation, proplastids may develop into an etioplast stage before becoming chloroplasts.",
"An etioplast is a plastid that lacks chlorophyll, and has inner membrane invaginations that form a lattice of tubes in their stroma, called a prolamellar body.",
"While etioplasts lack chlorophyll, they have a yellow chlorophyll precursor stocked.",
"Within a few minutes of light exposure, the prolamellar body begins to reorganize into stacks of thylakoids, and chlorophyll starts to be produced.",
"This process, where the etioplast becomes a chloroplast, takes several hours.",
"Gymnosperms do not require light to form chloroplasts.Light, however, does not guarantee that a proplastid will develop into a chloroplast.",
"Whether a proplastid develops into a chloroplast some other kind of plastid is mostly controlled by the nucleus and is largely influenced by the kind of cell it resides in.=== Plastid interconversion ===Plastid differentiation is not permanent, in fact many interconversions are possible.",
"Chloroplasts may be converted to chromoplasts, which are pigment-filled plastids responsible for the bright colors seen in flowers and ripe fruit.",
"Starch storing amyloplasts can also be converted to chromoplasts, and it is possible for proplastids to develop straight into chromoplasts.",
"Chromoplasts and amyloplasts can also become chloroplasts, like what happens when a carrot or a potato is illuminated.",
"If a plant is injured, or something else causes a plant cell to revert to a meristematic state, chloroplasts and other plastids can turn back into proplastids.",
"Chloroplast, amyloplast, chromoplast, proplastid are not absolute; state—intermediate forms are common.=== Division ===Most chloroplasts in a photosynthetic cell do not develop directly from proplastids or etioplasts.",
"In fact, a typical shoot meristematic plant cell contains only 7–20 proplastids.",
"These proplastids differentiate into chloroplasts, which divide to create the 30–70 chloroplasts found in a mature photosynthetic plant cell.",
"If the cell divides, chloroplast division provides the additional chloroplasts to partition between the two daughter cells.In single-celled algae, chloroplast division is the only way new chloroplasts are formed.",
"There is no proplastid differentiation—when an algal cell divides, its chloroplast divides along with it, and each daughter cell receives a mature chloroplast.Almost all chloroplasts in a cell divide, rather than a small group of rapidly dividing chloroplasts.",
"Chloroplasts have no definite S-phase—their DNA replication is not synchronized or limited to that of their host cells.Much of what we know about chloroplast division comes from studying organisms like ''Arabidopsis'' and the red alga ''Cyanidioschyzon merolæ''.The division process starts when the proteins FtsZ1 and FtsZ2 assemble into filaments, and with the help of a protein ARC6, form a structure called a Z-ring within the chloroplast's stroma.",
"The Min system manages the placement of the Z-ring, ensuring that the chloroplast is cleaved more or less evenly.",
"The protein MinD prevents FtsZ from linking up and forming filaments.",
"Another protein ARC3 may also be involved, but it is not very well understood.",
"These proteins are active at the poles of the chloroplast, preventing Z-ring formation there, but near the center of the chloroplast, MinE inhibits them, allowing the Z-ring to form.Next, the two plastid-dividing rings, or PD rings form.",
"The inner plastid-dividing ring is located in the inner side of the chloroplast's inner membrane, and is formed first.",
"The outer plastid-dividing ring is found wrapped around the outer chloroplast membrane.",
"It consists of filaments about 5 nanometers across, arranged in rows 6.4 nanometers apart, and shrinks to squeeze the chloroplast.",
"This is when chloroplast constriction begins.",
"In a few species like ''Cyanidioschyzon merolæ'', chloroplasts have a third plastid-dividing ring located in the chloroplast's intermembrane space.Late into the constriction phase, dynamin proteins assemble around the outer plastid-dividing ring, helping provide force to squeeze the chloroplast.",
"Meanwhile, the Z-ring and the inner plastid-dividing ring break down.",
"During this stage, the many chloroplast DNA plasmids floating around in the stroma are partitioned and distributed to the two forming daughter chloroplasts.Later, the dynamins migrate under the outer plastid dividing ring, into direct contact with the chloroplast's outer membrane, to cleave the chloroplast in two daughter chloroplasts.A remnant of the outer plastid dividing ring remains floating between the two daughter chloroplasts, and a remnant of the dynamin ring remains attached to one of the daughter chloroplasts.Of the five or six rings involved in chloroplast division, only the outer plastid-dividing ring is present for the entire constriction and division phase—while the Z-ring forms first, constriction does not begin until the outer plastid-dividing ring forms.==== Regulation ====In species of algae that contain a single chloroplast, regulation of chloroplast division is extremely important to ensure that each daughter cell receives a chloroplast—chloroplasts can't be made from scratch.",
"In organisms like plants, whose cells contain multiple chloroplasts, coordination is looser and less important.",
"It is likely that chloroplast and cell division are somewhat synchronized, though the mechanisms for it are mostly unknown.Light has been shown to be a requirement for chloroplast division.",
"Chloroplasts can grow and progress through some of the constriction stages under poor quality green light, but are slow to complete division—they require exposure to bright white light to complete division.",
"Spinach leaves grown under green light have been observed to contain many large dumbbell-shaped chloroplasts.",
"Exposure to white light can stimulate these chloroplasts to divide and reduce the population of dumbbell-shaped chloroplasts.=== Chloroplast inheritance ===Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are usually inherited from a single parent.",
"Biparental chloroplast inheritance—where plastid genes are inherited from both parent plants—occurs in very low levels in some flowering plants.Many mechanisms prevent biparental chloroplast DNA inheritance, including selective destruction of chloroplasts or their genes within the gamete or zygote, and chloroplasts from one parent being excluded from the embryo.",
"Parental chloroplasts can be sorted so that only one type is present in each offspring.Gymnosperms, such as pine trees, mostly pass on chloroplasts paternally, while flowering plants often inherit chloroplasts maternally.",
"Flowering plants were once thought to only inherit chloroplasts maternally.",
"However, there are now many documented cases of angiosperms inheriting chloroplasts paternally.Angiosperms, which pass on chloroplasts maternally, have many ways to prevent paternal inheritance.",
"Most of them produce sperm cells that do not contain any plastids.",
"There are many other documented mechanisms that prevent paternal inheritance in these flowering plants, such as different rates of chloroplast replication within the embryo.Among angiosperms, paternal chloroplast inheritance is observed more often in hybrids than in offspring from parents of the same species.",
"This suggests that incompatible hybrid genes might interfere with the mechanisms that prevent paternal inheritance.==== Transplastomic plants ====Recently, chloroplasts have caught attention by developers of genetically modified crops.",
"Since, in most flowering plants, chloroplasts are not inherited from the male parent, transgenes in these plastids cannot be disseminated by pollen.",
"This makes plastid transformation a valuable tool for the creation and cultivation of genetically modified plants that are biologically contained, thus posing significantly lower environmental risks.",
"This biological containment strategy is therefore suitable for establishing the coexistence of conventional and organic agriculture.",
"While the reliability of this mechanism has not yet been studied for all relevant crop species, recent results in tobacco plants are promising, showing a failed containment rate of transplastomic plants at 3 in 1,000,000."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Chloroplast – Cell Centered Database* * Co-Extra research on chloroplast transformation* NCBI full chloroplast genome"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Camp David"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Camp David''' is a country retreat for the president of the United States.",
"It is located in the wooded hills of Catoctin Mountain Park, in Frederick County, Maryland, near the towns of Thurmont and Emmitsburg, about north-northwest of the national capital city of Washington, D.C.",
"It is code named '''Naval Support Facility Thurmont'''.",
"Technically a military installation, its staffing is primarily provided by the Seabees, Civil Engineer Corps (CEC), the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps.",
"Naval construction battalions are tasked with Camp David construction and send detachments as needed.Originally known as '''Hi-Catoctin''', Camp David was built as a retreat for federal government agents and their families by the Works Progress Administration.",
"Construction started in 1935 and was completed in 1938.In 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt converted it to a presidential retreat and renamed it \"'''Shangri-La'''\", after the fictional Himalayan paradise.",
"Camp David received its present name in 1953 from President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in honor of his father and his grandson, both named David.The Catoctin Mountain Park does not indicate the location of Camp David on park maps due to privacy and security concerns, although it can be seen through the use of publicly accessible satellite images."
],
[
"Presidential use",
"Winston Churchill and FDR at Shangri-La, May 1943Camp David has been used to host private diplomatic meetings with foreign leaders and heads of state since at least World War II.",
"Franklin D. Roosevelt hosted Sir Winston Churchill at Shangri-La in May 1943, during World War II.",
"Dwight Eisenhower held his first cabinet meeting there on November 22, 1955, following hospitalization and convalescence he required after a heart attack suffered in Denver, Colorado, on September 24.Eisenhower met Nikita Khrushchev there for two days of discussions in September 1959.John F. Kennedy and his family often enjoyed riding and other recreational activities there, and Kennedy often allowed White House staff and Cabinet members to use the retreat when he or his family were not there.",
"Lyndon B. Johnson met with advisors in this setting and hosted both Australian prime minister Harold Holt and Canadian prime minister Lester B. Pearson there.",
"Richard Nixon was a frequent visitor.",
"He personally directed the construction of a swimming pool and other improvements to Aspen Lodge.",
"Gerald Ford hosted Indonesian president Suharto at Camp David.Jimmy Carter initially favored closing Camp David in order to save money, but once he visited the retreat, he decided to keep it.",
"Carter brokered the Camp David Accords there in September 1978 between Egyptian president Anwar al-Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin.",
"Ronald Reagan visited the retreat more than any other president.",
"In 1984, Reagan hosted British prime minister Margaret Thatcher.",
"Reagan restored the nature trails that Nixon paved over so he could horseback ride at Camp David.",
"George H. W. Bush's daughter, Dorothy Bush Koch, was married there in 1992, in the first wedding held at Camp David.",
"During his tenure as president, Bill Clinton spent every Thanksgiving at Camp David with his family.",
"In July 2000, he hosted the 2000 Camp David Summit negotiations between Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority chairman Yasser Arafat there.In February 2001, George W. Bush held his first meeting with a European leader, UK prime minister Tony Blair, at Camp David, to discuss missile defense, Iraq, and NATO.",
"After the September 11 attacks, Bush held a Cabinet meeting at Camp David to prepare the United States invasion of Afghanistan.",
"During his two terms in office, Bush visited Camp David 149 times, for a total of 487 days, for hosting foreign visitors as well as a personal retreat.",
"He met Blair there four times.",
"Among the numerous other foreign leaders he hosted at Camp David were Russian president Vladimir Putin and President Musharraf of Pakistan in 2003, Danish prime minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen in June 2006, and British prime minister Gordon Brown in 2007.Barack Obama chose Camp David to host the 38th G8 summit in 2012.President Obama also hosted Russian prime minister Dmitry Medvedev at Camp David, as well as the GCC Summit there in 2015.Donald Trump hosted Senate majority leader Mitch McConnell and Speaker of the House Paul Ryan at Camp David while the Republican Party prepared to defend both houses of Congress in the 2018 midterm elections.",
"The 46th G7 summit was to be held at Camp David on June 10–12, 2020, but was cancelled due to health concerns during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.Joe Biden hosted the U.S.–Japan–Korea Summit with Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida and South Korean President Yoon Suk Yeol at Camp David in August 2023, resulting declaration of Camp David Principles on trilateral relationship among U.S., Japan and South Korea.=== Count of visits by each president ===+Presidential visits to Camp David President No.",
"of visitsYears in office Roosevelt Unknown1933–1945 Truman 101945–1953 Eisenhower 451953–1961 Kennedy 191961–1963 Johnson 301963–1969 Nixon 1601969–1974 Ford 291974–1977 Carter 991977–1981 Reagan 1891981–1989 G. H. W. Bush 1241989–1993 Clinton 601993–2001 G. W. Bush 1502001–2009 Obama 392009–2017 Trump 152017–2021 Biden 332021–present"
],
[
"Practice golf facility",
"To be able to play his favorite sport, President Eisenhower had golf course architect Robert Trent Jones design a practice golf facility at Camp David.",
"Around 1954, Jones built one golf hole—a par 3—with four different tees; Eisenhower added a driving range near the helicopter landing zone."
],
[
"Security incidents",
"Aviation chart showing restricted airspace in the Washington DC area.",
"Camp David is the light circle to the north.On July 2, 2011, an F-15 intercepted a civilian aircraft approximately from Camp David, when President Obama was in the residence.",
"The two-seater, which was out of radio communication, was escorted to nearby Hagerstown, Maryland, without incident.On July 10, 2011, an F-15 intercepted another small plane near Camp David when Obama was again in the residence; a total of three were intercepted that weekend."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of residences of presidents of the United States* Blair House, another official White House lodging for guests* Camp Misty Mount Historic District and Camp Greentop Historic District, built at the same time in Catoctin Mountain Park as Camps1 and2* Chequers, the country house of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom* Harrington Lake, the retreat of the Prime Minister of Canada* ''Night of Camp David'', a 1965 novel (political thriller)* Official residence* Orange One, a U.S. Navy-operated facility underneath Camp David* Presidential Townhouse, the official guest house for former U.S. presidents* Rapidan Camp, the predecessor of Camp David from 1929 to 1933* Site R, bunker and communications center near Camp David* Trowbridge House, adjacent to Blair House and the guest house for former presidents* White House, official residence of the president of the United States since 1800"
],
[
"References",
"===Works cited===*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Digital documents regarding Camp David from the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Crux"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Crux''' () is a constellation of the southern sky that is centred on four bright stars in a cross-shaped asterism commonly known as the '''Southern Cross'''.",
"It lies on the southern end of the Milky Way's visible band.",
"The name ''Crux'' is Latin for cross.",
"Even though it is the smallest of all 88 modern constellations, Crux is among the most easily distinguished as its four main stars each have an apparent visual magnitude brighter than +2.8.It has attained a high level of cultural significance in many Southern Hemisphere states and nations.Blue-white α Crucis (Acrux) is the most southerly member of the constellation and, at magnitude 0.8, the brightest.",
"The three other stars of the cross appear clockwise and in order of lessening magnitude: β Crucis (Mimosa), γ Crucis (Gacrux), and δ Crucis (Imai).",
"ε Crucis (Ginan) also lies within the cross asterism.",
"Many of these brighter stars are members of the Scorpius–Centaurus association, a large but loose group of hot blue-white stars that appear to share common origins and motion across the southern Milky Way.Crux contains four Cepheid variables, each visible to the naked eye under optimum conditions.",
"Crux also contains the bright and colourful open cluster known as the Jewel Box (NGC 4755) on its eastern border.",
"Nearby to the southeast is a large dark nebula spanning 7° by 5° known as the Coalsack Nebula, portions of which are mapped in the neighbouring constellations of Centaurus and Musca."
],
[
"History",
"The bright stars in Crux were known to the Ancient Greeks, where Ptolemy regarded them as part of the constellation Centaurus.",
"They were entirely visible as far north as Britain in the fourth millennium BC.",
"However, the precession of the equinoxes gradually lowered the stars below the European horizon, and they were eventually forgotten by the inhabitants of northern latitudes.",
"By 400 AD, the stars in the constellation now called Crux never rose above the horizon throughout most of Europe.",
"Dante may have known about the constellation in the 14th century, as he describes an asterism of four bright stars in the southern sky in his ''Divine Comedy''.",
"His description, however, may be allegorical, and the similarity to the constellation a coincidence.Depiction of the Crux by João Faras in May 1500The 15th century Venetian navigator Alvise Cadamosto made note of what was probably the Southern Cross on exiting the Gambia River in 1455, calling it the ''carro dell'ostro'' (\"southern chariot\").",
"However, Cadamosto's accompanying diagram was inaccurate.",
"Historians generally credit João Faras for being the first European to depict it correctly.",
"Faras sketched and described the constellation (calling it \"''las guardas''\") in a letter written on the beaches of Brazil on 1 May 1500 to the Portuguese monarch.Explorer Amerigo Vespucci seems to have observed not only the Southern Cross but also the neighboring Coalsack Nebula on his second voyage in 1501–1502.Another early modern description clearly describing Crux as a separate constellation is attributed to Andrea Corsali, an Italian navigator who from 1515–1517 sailed to China and the East Indies in an expedition sponsored by King Manuel I.",
"In 1516, Corsali wrote a letter to the monarch describing his observations of the southern sky, which included a rather crude map of the stars around the south celestial pole including the Southern Cross and the two Magellanic Clouds seen in an external orientation, as on a globe.Emery Molyneux and Petrus Plancius have also been cited as the first uranographers (sky mappers) to distinguish Crux as a separate constellation; their representations date from 1592, the former depicting it on his celestial globe and the latter in one of the small celestial maps on his large wall map.",
"Both authors, however, depended on unreliable sources and placed Crux in the wrong position.",
"Crux was first shown in its correct position on the celestial globes of Petrus Plancius and Jodocus Hondius in 1598 and 1600.Its stars were first catalogued separately from Centaurus by Frederick de Houtman in 1603.The constellation was later adopted by Jakob Bartsch in 1624 and Augustin Royer in 1679.Royer is sometimes wrongly cited as initially distinguishing Crux."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"Southern Cross from New ZealandCrux is bordered by the constellations Centaurus (which surrounds it on three sides) on the east, north and west, and Musca to the south.",
"Covering 68 square degrees and 0.165% of the night sky, it is the smallest of the 88 constellations.",
"The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is \"Cru\".",
"The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of four segments.",
"In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −55.68° and −64.70°.",
"Its totality figures at least part of the year south of the 25th parallel north.In tropical regions Crux can be seen in the sky from April to June.",
"Crux is exactly opposite to Cassiopeia on the celestial sphere, and therefore it cannot appear in the sky with the latter at the same time.",
"In this era, south of Cape Town, Adelaide, and Buenos Aires (the 34th parallel south), Crux is circumpolar and thus always appears in the sky.Crux is sometimes confused with the nearby False Cross asterism by stargazers.",
"The False Cross consists of stars in Carina and Vela, is larger and dimmer, does not have a fifth star, and lacks the two prominent nearby \"Pointer Stars\".",
"Between the two is the even larger and dimmer Diamond Cross."
],
[
"Visibility",
"Deep exposure of Crux, Coalsack Nebula, and IC 2944Crux is easily visible from the southern hemisphere, south of 35th parallel at practically any time of year as circumpolar.",
"It is also visible near the horizon from tropical latitudes of the northern hemisphere for a few hours every night during the northern winter and spring.",
"For instance, it is visible from Cancun or any other place at latitude 25° N or less at around 10 pm at the end of April.",
"There are 5 main stars.Due to precession, Crux will move closer to the South Pole in the next millennia, up to 67 degrees south declination for the middle of the constellation.",
"However, by the year 14,000 Crux will be visible for most parts of Europe and continental United States which will extend to North Europe by the year 18,000 as it will be less than 30 degrees south declination.===Use in navigation===Locating the south celestial poleIn the Southern Hemisphere, the Southern Cross is frequently used for navigation in much the same way that Polaris is used in the Northern Hemisphere.",
"Projecting a line from γ to α Crucis (the foot of the crucifix) approximately times beyond gives a point close to the Southern Celestial Pole which is also, coincidentally, where intersects a perpendicular line taken southwards from the east-west axis of Alpha Centauri to Beta Centauri, which are stars at an alike declination to Crux and of a similar width as the cross, but higher magnitude.",
"Argentine gauchos are documented as using Crux for night orientation in the Pampas and Patagonia.Alpha and Beta Centauri are of similar declinations (thus distance from the pole) and are often referred as the \"Southern Pointers\" or just \"The Pointers\", allowing people to easily identify the Southern Cross, the constellation of Crux.",
"Very few bright stars lie between Crux and the pole itself, although the constellation Musca is fairly easily recognised immediately south of Crux.===Bright stars===Down to apparent magnitude +2.5 are 92 stars that shine the brightest as viewed from the Earth.",
"Three of these stars are in Crux making it the most densely populated as to those stars (this being 3.26% of these 92 stars, and in turn being 19.2 times more than the expected 0.17% that would result on a homogenous distribution of all bright stars and a randomised drawing of all 88 constellations, given its area, 0.17% of the sky)."
],
[
"Features",
"===Stars===The constellation Crux as it can be seen by the naked eyeCrux with clouds, from Cape TownWithin the constellation's borders, there are 49 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5.The four main stars that form the asterism are Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta Crucis.",
"* α Crucis or Acrux is a triple star 321 light-years from Earth.",
"A rich blue in colour, with a visual magnitude 0.8 to the unaided eye, it has two close components of a similar magnitude, 1.3 and 1.8 respectively, plus another much wider component of the 5th magnitude.",
"The two close components are resolved in a small amateur telescope and the wide component is readily visible in a pair of binoculars.",
"* β Crucis or Mimosa is a blue-hued giant star of magnitude 1.3, and lies 353 light-years from Earth.",
"It is a Beta Cephei-type variable star with a variation of less than 0.1 magnitudes.",
"* γ Crucis or Gacrux is an optical double star.",
"The primary is a red-hued giant star of magnitude 1.6, 88 light-years from Earth, and is one of the closest red giants to Earth.",
"Its secondary component is magnitude 6.5, 264 light-years from Earth.",
"* δ Crucis (Imai) is a magnitude 2.8 blue-white hued star about 345 light-years from Earth.",
"Like Mimosa it is a Beta Cepheid variable.There is also a fifth star, that is often included with the Southern Cross.",
"* ε Crucis (Ginan) is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 3.6, 228 light-years from Earth.There are several other naked-eye stars within the borders of Crux, especially:* Iota Crucis is a visual double star 125 light-years from Earth.",
"The primary is an orange-hued giant of magnitude 4.6 and the secondary at magnitude 9.5.",
"* Mu Crucis or Mu1,2 Crucis is a wide double star where the components are about 370 light-years from Earth.",
"Equally blue-white in colour, the components are magnitude 4.0 and 5.1 respectively, and are easily divisible in small amateur telescopes or large binoculars.===Scorpius–Centaurus association===Unusually, a total of 15 of the 23 brightest stars in Crux are spectrally blue-white B-type stars.",
"Among the five main bright stars, Delta, and probably Alpha and Beta, are likely co-moving B-type members of the Scorpius–Centaurus association, the nearest OB association to the Sun.",
"They are among the highest-mass stellar members of the Lower Centaurus–Crux subgroup of the association, with ages of roughly 10 to 20 million years.",
"Other members include the blue-white stars Zeta, Lambda and both the components of the visual double star, Mu.===Variable stars===Crux contains many variable stars.",
"It boasts four Cepheid variables that may all reach naked eye visibility.",
"* BG Crucis ranges from magnitude 5.34 to 5.58 over 3.3428 days,* T Crucis ranges from 6.32 to 6.83 over 6.73331 days,* S Crucis ranges from 6.22 to 6.92 over 4.68997 days,* R Crucis ranges from 6.4 to 7.23 over 5.82575 days.Other well studied variable stars includes:* Lambda Crucis and Theta2 Crucis, that are both Beta Cepheid type variable stars.",
"* BH Crucis, also known as Welch's Red Variable, is a Mira variable that ranges from magnitude 6.6 to 9.8 over 530 days.",
"Discovered in October 1969, it has become redder and brighter (mean magnitude changing from 8.047 to 7.762) and its period lengthened by 25% in the first thirty years since its discovery.===Host star exoplanets in Crux===The star HD 106906 has been found to have a planet—HD 106906 b—that has one of the widest orbits of any currently known planetary-mass companions.===Objects beyond the Local Arm===Crux is backlit by the multitude of stars of the Scutum-Crux Arm (more commonly called the Scutum-Centaurus Arm) of the Milky Way.",
"This is the main inner arm in the local radial quarter of the galaxy.",
"Part-obscuring this is:* The Coalsack Nebula lies partially within Crux and partly in the neighboring constellations of Musca and Centaurus.",
"It is the most prominent dark nebula in the skies, and is easily visible to the naked eye as a prominent dark patch in the southern Milky Way.",
"It can be found 6.5° southeast from the centre of Crux or 3° east from α Crucis.",
"Its large area covers about 7° by 5°, and is away from Earth.A key feature of the Scutum-Crux Arm is:* The Jewel Box, κ Crucis Cluster or NGC 4755, is a small but bright open cluster that appears as a fuzzy star to the naked eye and is very close to the easternmost boundary of Crux: about 1° southeast of Beta Crucis.",
"The combined or total magnitude is 4.2 and it lies at a distance of from Earth.",
"The cluster was given its name by John Herschel, based on the range of colours visible throughout the star cluster in his telescope.",
"About seven million years old, it is one of the youngest open clusters in the Milky Way, and it appears to have the shape of a letter 'A'.",
"The Jewel Box Cluster is classified as Shapley class 'g' and Trumpler class 'I 3 r -' cluster; it is a very rich, centrally-concentrated cluster detached from the surrounding star field.",
"It has more than 100 stars that range significantly in brightness.",
"The brightest cluster stars are mostly blue supergiants, though the cluster contains at least one red supergiant.",
"Kappa Crucis is a true member of the cluster that bears its name, and is one of the brighter stars at magnitude 5.9."
],
[
"Cultural significance",
"The most prominent feature of Crux is the distinctive asterism known as the Southern Cross.",
"It has great significance in the cultures of the southern hemisphere, particularly of Australia, Brazil, Chile and New Zealand.===Flags and symbols===Crux, appearing on a number of flags and insigniaSeveral southern countries and organisations have traditionally used Crux as a national or distinctive symbol.",
"The four or five brightest stars of Crux appear, heraldically standardised in various ways, on the flags of Australia, Brazil, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and Samoa.",
"They also appear on the flags of the Australian state of Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory, the Northern Territory, as well as the flag of Magallanes Region of Chile, the flag of Londrina (Brazil) and several Argentine provincial flags and emblems (for example, ''Tierra del Fuego'' and ''Santa Cruz'').",
"The flag of the Mercosur trading zone displays the four brightest stars.",
"Crux also appears on the Brazilian coat of arms and, , on the cover of Brazilian passports.Five stars appear in the logo of the Brazilian football team Cruzeiro Esporte Clube and in the insignia of the Order of the Southern Cross, and the cross has featured as name of the Brazilian currency (the ''cruzeiro'' from 1942 to 1986 and again from 1990 to 1994).",
"All coins of the (1998) series of the Brazilian real display the constellation.Brazil's National Order of the Southern CrossSongs and literature reference the Southern Cross, including the Argentine epic poem ''Martín Fierro''.",
"The Argentinian singer Charly García says that he is \"from the Southern Cross\" in the song \"No voy en tren\".The Cross gets a mention in the lyrics of the Brazilian National Anthem (1909): \"''A imagem do Cruzeiro resplandece''\" (\"the image of the Cross shines\").The Southern Cross is mentioned in the Australian National Anthem, \"''Beneath our radiant Southern Cross we'll toil with hearts and hands''\"The Southern Cross features in the coat of arms of William Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood, the British officer who commanded the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps during the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War.The Southern Cross is also mentioned in the SamoanNational Anthem.",
"\"''Vaai 'i na fetu o lo'u a agiagia ai: Le faailoga lea o Iesu, na maliu ai mo Samoa.''\"",
"(\"Look at those stars that are waving on it: This is the symbol of Jesus, who died on it for Samoa.",
"\")The 1952-53 NBC Television Series ''Victory At Sea'' contained a musical number entitled \"Beneath the Southern Cross\".",
"\"Southern Cross\" is a single released by Crosby, Stills and Nash in 1981.It reached #18 on Billboard Hot 100 in late 1982.",
"\"The Sign of the Southern Cross\" is a song released by Black Sabbath in 1981.The song was released on the album \"Mob Rules\".The Order of the Southern Cross is a Brazilian order of chivalry awarded to \"those who have rendered significant service to the Brazilian nation\".In \"O Sweet Saint Martin's Land\", the lyrics mention the Southern Cross: ''Thy Southern Cross the night''.A stylized version of Crux appears on the Australian Eureka Flag.",
"The constellation was also used on the dark blue, shield-like patch worn by personnel of the U.S. Army's Americal Division, which was organized in the Southern Hemisphere, on the island of New Caledonia, and also on the blue diamond of the U.S. 1st Marine Division, which fought on the Southern Hemisphere islands of Guadalcanal and New Britain.The ''Petersflagge'' flag of the German East Africa Company of 1885–1920, which included a constellation of five white five-pointed Crux \"stars\" on a red ground, later served as the model for symbolism associated with generic German colonial-oriented organisations: the Reichskolonialbund of 1936–1943 and the (1956/1983 to the present).Southern Cross station is a major rail terminal in Melbourne, Australia.The Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of the Southern Cross is a personal ordinariate of the Roman Catholic Church primarily within the territory of the Australian Catholic Bishops Conference for groups of Anglicans who desire full communion with the Catholic Church in Australia and Asia.The Knights of the Southern Cross (KSC) is a Catholic fraternal order throughout Australia.===Various cultures===In India, there is a story related to the creation of Trishanku Swarga (त्रिशंकु), meaning ''Cross'' (Crux), created by Sage Vishwamitra.In Chinese, (), meaning ''Cross'', refers to an asterism consisting of γ Crucis, α Crucis, β Crucis and δ Crucis.In Australian Aboriginal astronomy, Crux and the Coalsack mark the head of the 'Emu in the Sky' (which is seen in the dark spaces rather than in the patterns of stars) in several Aboriginal cultures, while Crux itself is said to be a possum sitting in a tree (Boorong people of the Wimmera region of northwestern Victoria), a representation of the sky deity Mirrabooka (Quandamooka people of Stradbroke Island), a stingray (Yolngu people of Arnhem Land), or an eagle (Kaurna people of the Adelaide Plains).",
"Two Pacific constellations also included Gamma Centauri.",
"Torres Strait Islanders in modern-day Australia saw Gamma Centauri as the handle and the four stars as the left hand of Tagai, and the stars of Musca as the trident of the fishing spear he is holding.",
"In Aranda traditions of central Australia, the four Cross stars are the talon of an eagle and Gamma Centauri as its leg.Various peoples in the East Indies and Brazil viewed the four main stars as the body of a ray.",
"In both Indonesia and Malaysia, it is known as ''Bintang Pari'' and ''Buruj Pari'', respectively (\"ray stars\").",
"This aquatic theme is also shared by an archaic name of the constellation in Vietnam, where it was once known as ''sao Cá Liệt'' (the ponyfish star).Among Filipino people, the southern cross have various names pertaining to tops, including ''kasing'' (Visayan languages), ''paglong'' (Bikol), and ''pasil'' (Tagalog).",
"It is also called ''butiti'' (puffer fish) in Waray.The Javanese people of Indonesia called this constellation ''Gubug pèncèng'' (\"raking hut\") or ''lumbung'' (\"the granary\"), because the shape of the constellation was like that of a raking hut.The Southern Cross (α, β, γ and δ Crucis) together with μ Crucis is one of the asterisms used by Bugis sailors for navigation, called ''bintoéng bola képpang'', meaning \"incomplete house star\"The Māori name for the Southern Cross is ''Māhutonga'' and it is thought of as the anchor (''Te Punga'') of Tama-rereti's ''waka'' (the Milky Way), while the Pointers are its rope.",
"In Tonga it is known as ''Toloa'' (\"duck\"); it is depicted as a duck flying south, with one of his wings (δ Crucis) wounded because ''Ongo tangata'' (\"two men\", α and β Centauri) threw a stone at it.",
"The Coalsack is known as ''Humu'' (the \"triggerfish\"), because of its shape.",
"In Samoa the constellation is called ''Sumu'' (\"triggerfish\") because of its rhomboid shape, while α and β Centauri are called ''Luatagata'' (Two Men), just as they are in Tonga.",
"The peoples of the Solomon Islands saw several figures in the Southern Cross.",
"These included a knee protector and a net used to catch Palolo worms.",
"Neighboring peoples in the Marshall Islands saw these stars as a fish.",
"Peninsular Malays also see the likeness of a fish in the Crux, particularly the Scomberomorus or its local name ''Tohok''.In Mapudungun, the language of Patagonian Mapuches, the name of the Southern Cross is ''Melipal'', which means \"four stars\".",
"In Quechua, the language of the Inca civilization, Crux is known as \"Chakana\", which means literally \"stair\" (''chaka'', bridge, link; ''hanan'', high, above), but carries a deep symbolism within Quechua mysticism.",
"Alpha and Beta Crucis make up one foot of the Great Rhea, a constellation encompassing Centaurus and Circinus along with the two bright stars.",
"The Great Rhea was a constellation of the Bororo of Brazil.",
"The Mocoví people of Argentina also saw a rhea including the stars of Crux.",
"Their rhea is attacked by two dogs, represented by bright stars in Centaurus and Circinus.",
"The dogs' heads are marked by Alpha and Beta Centauri.",
"The rhea's body is marked by the four main stars of Crux, while its head is Gamma Centauri and its feet are the bright stars of Musca.",
"The Bakairi people of Brazil had a sprawling constellation representing a bird snare.",
"It included the bright stars of Crux, the southern part of Centaurus, Circinus, at least one star in Lupus, the bright stars of Musca, Beta and the optical double star Delta1,2 Chamaeleontis: and some of the stars of Volans, and Mensa.",
"The Kalapalo people of Mato Grosso state in Brazil saw the stars of Crux as ''Aganagi'' angry bees having emerged from the Coalsack, which they saw as the beehive.Among Tuaregs, the four most visible stars of Crux are considered ''iggaren'', i.e.",
"four ''Maerua crassifolia'' trees.",
"The Tswana people of Botswana saw the constellation as ''Dithutlwa'', two giraffes – Alpha and Beta Crucis forming a male, and Gamma and Delta forming the female."
],
[
"See also",
"* Trishanku* Crux (Chinese astronomy)"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
";Citations;Sources* * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Finding the South Pole in the sky* The clickable Crux* ''Southern Cross'' in Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand* Andrea Corsali – Letter to Giuliano de Medici, 1516 showing the Southern Cross at the State Library of NSW* Letter of Andrea Corsali 1516–1989: with additional material (\"the first description and illustration of the Southern Cross, with speculations about Australia ...\") digitised by the National Library of Australia.",
"* ‘The Southern Cross’: A Poem by Adam Sedia"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cepheus"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cepheus''' (Ancient Greek: Κηφεύς ''Kepheús'') may refer to:"
],
[
"In Greek mythology",
"* Cepheus (father of Andromeda), and King of Aethiopia* Cepheus (king of Tegea), the king of Tegea, Arcadia"
],
[
"In astronomy",
"* Cepheus (constellation), one of the 88 modern constellations* Cepheus (crater), a lunar impact crater"
],
[
"In Computing",
"* Cepheus (poker bot)"
],
[
"In modern fiction",
"* Cepheus Daidalos, a fictional character in the manga and anime, Saint Seiya* Cepheus, the FM king in Mega Man Star Force* In the Galaxy Railways, one of the squads is named the Cepheus Platoon."
],
[
"Other uses",
"* USS Cepheus (AKA-18), an ''Andromeda'' class attack cargo ship"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cassiopeia"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cassiopeia''' or Cassiopea may refer to:"
],
[
"Greek mythology",
"* Cassiopeia (mother of Andromeda), queen of Aethiopia and mother of Andromeda* Cassiopeia (wife of Phoenix), wife of Phoenix, king of Phoenicia* Cassiopeia, wife of Epaphus, king of Egypt, the son of Zeus and Io; mother of Libya"
],
[
"Science",
"* Cassiopeia (constellation), a northern constellation representing the queen of Ethiopia** Cassiopeia A, a supernova remnant in that constellation* ''Cassiopea'', the genus of the \"upside-down\" jellyfish"
],
[
"Arts and entertainment",
"===Film===* ''Cassiopeia'' (1996 film), a Brazilian CGI film* ''Cassiopeia'' (2022 film), a South Korean film===Music===* Cassiopeia (TVXQ), the fan club of South Korean boy band TVXQ* \"Cassiopeia\", a song by Shabütie (now known as Coheed and Cambria) from their 1999 EP ''The Penelope EP''* \"Cassiopeia\", a song by Joanna Newsom from her 2004 album ''The Milk-Eyed Mender''* \"Cassiopeia\", a song by Dragonland from their 2006 album ''Astronomy''* \"Cassiopeia\", a song by Sunny Lax from his 2006 EP ''P.U.M.A./Cassiopeia''* \"Cassiopeia\", a song by Rain from his 2006 album ''Rain's World''* \"Cassiopeia\", a song by Sara Bareilles from her 2013 album ''The Blessed Unrest''===Fictional characters===* Cassiopeia \"Cassie\" Sullivan, in ''The 5th Wave'' series written by Rick Yancey* Cassiopeia, a magical tortoise in Michael Ende's fantasy novel ''Momo''* Cassiopeia (''Battlestar Galactica''), from the television series ''Battlestar Galactica''* Cassiopea (''Encantadia''), the first Queen of Lireo in the ''Encantadia'' fantasy series of GMA Network* Cassiopeia, the mother of Octavian in ''The Astonishing Life of Octavian Nothing''* Cassiopeia, the secret identity of Penny from ''Pokémon Scarlet'' and ''Violet''"
],
[
"Other",
"* Casio Cassiopeia, a series of pocket PCs* ''Cassiopeia'' (train), an overnight rail service in Japan* USS ''Cassiopeia'' (AK-75), a cargo ship used by the United States Navy in World War II"
],
[
"See also",
"* Boast of Cassiopeia* Casiopea, Japanese jazz fusion group** ''Casiopea'' (album), the group's 1979 debut album* Kassiopi, a village in Corfu"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cetus"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cetus''' () is a constellation, sometimes called 'the whale' in English.",
"The Cetus was a sea monster in Greek mythology which both Perseus and Heracles needed to slay.",
"Cetus is in the region of the sky that contains other water-related constellations: Aquarius, Pisces and Eridanus."
],
[
"Features",
"Cetus annotated with lines (a \"stick figure\") from a latitude further north (north of its declination), above a horizon, in conditions ideal for observation.===Ecliptic===Cetus is not among the 12 true zodiac constellations in the J2000 epoch, nor classical 12-part zodiac.",
"The ecliptic passes less than 0.25° from one of its corners.",
"Thus the moon and planets will enter Cetus (occulting any stars as a foreground object) in 50% of their successive orbits briefly and the southern part of the sun appears in Cetus for about one day each year.",
"Many asteroids in belts have longer phases occulting the north-western part of Cetus, those with a slightly greater inclination to the ecliptic than the moon and planets.As seen from Mars, the ecliptic (apparent plane of the sun and also the average plane of the planets which is almost the same) passes into it.===Stars===Mira (\"wonderful\", named by Bayer: Omicron Ceti, a star of the neck of the asterism) was the first variable star to be discovered and the prototype of its class, Mira variables.",
"Over a period of 332 days, it reaches a maximum apparent magnitude of 3 - visible to the naked eye - and dips to a minimum magnitude of 10, invisible to the unaided eye.",
"Its seeming appearance and disappearance gave it its name.",
"Mira pulsates with a minimum size of 400 solar diameters and a maximum size of 500 solar diameters.",
"420 light-years from Earth, it was discovered by David Fabricius in 1596.α Ceti, traditionally called Menkar (\"the nose\"), is a red-hued giant star of magnitude 2.5, 220 light-years from Earth.",
"It is a wide double star; the secondary is 93 Ceti, a blue-white hued star of magnitude 5.6, 440 light-years away.",
"β Ceti, also called Deneb Kaitos and Diphda is the brightest star in Cetus.",
"It is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 2.0, 96 light-years from Earth.",
"The traditional name \"Deneb Kaitos\" means \"the whale's tail\".",
"γ Ceti, Kaffaljidhma (\"head of the whale\") is a very close double star.",
"The primary is a yellow-hued star of magnitude 3.5, 82 light-years from Earth, and the secondary is a blue-hued star of magnitude 6.6.Tau Ceti is noted for being a near Sun-like star at a distance of 11.9 light-years.",
"It is a yellow-hued main-sequence star of magnitude 3.5.AA Ceti is a triple star system; the brightest member has a magnitude of 6.2.The primary and secondary are separated by 8.4 arcseconds at an angle of 304 degrees.",
"The tertiary is not visible in telescopes.",
"AA Ceti is an eclipsing variable star; the tertiary star passes in front of the primary and causes the system's apparent magnitude to decrease by 0.5 magnitudes.",
"UV Ceti is an unusual binary variable star.",
"8.7 light-years from Earth, the system consists of two red dwarfs.",
"Both of magnitude 13.One of the stars is a flare star, which are prone to sudden, random outbursts that last several minutes; these increase the pair's apparent brightness significantly - as high as magnitude 7.===Deep-sky objects===Messier 77 spiral galaxy - HST (Hubble Space Telescope).Cetus by Willem Blaeu, 1602.Cetus lies far from the galactic plane, so that many distant galaxies are visible, unobscured by dust from the Milky Way.",
"Of these, the brightest is Messier 77 (NGC 1068), a 9th magnitude spiral galaxy near Delta Ceti.",
"It appears face-on and has a clearly visible nucleus of magnitude 10.About 50 million light-years from Earth, M77 is also a Seyfert galaxy and thus a bright object in the radio spectrum.",
"Recently, the galactic cluster JKCS 041 was confirmed to be the most distant cluster of galaxies yet discovered.The massive cD galaxy Holmberg 15A is also found in Cetus.",
"As is spiral galaxy NGC 1042 and ultra-diffuse galaxy NGC 1052-DF2.IC 1613 (Caldwell 51) is an irregular dwarf galaxy near the star 26 Ceti and is a member of the Local Group.NGC 246 (Caldwell 56), also called the Cetus Ring, is a planetary nebula with a magnitude of 8.0, 1600 light-years from Earth.",
"Among some amateur astronomers, NGC 246 has garnered the nickname \"Pac-Man Nebula\" because of the arrangement of its central stars and the surrounding star field.The Wolf–Lundmark–Melotte (WLM) is a barred irregular galaxy discovered in 1909 by Max Wolf, located on the outer edges of the Local Group.",
"The discovery of the nature of the galaxy was accredited to Knut Lundmark and Philibert Jacques Melotte in 1926.UGC 1646 spiral galaxy also lies between the borders of the constellation.",
"It is about 150 million light-years away from us.",
"It can be seen near TYC 43-234-1 star.The spiral galaxy NGC 298 basks in this image from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.",
"NGC 298 lies around 89 million light-years away in the constellation Cetus, and appears isolated in this image — only a handful of distant galaxies and foreground stars accompany the lonely galaxy."
],
[
"History and mythology",
"Cetus dominates this card from ''Urania's Mirror'' (1825) as if looking up towards the celestial sphere (east is left of frame).",
"Uses the modern custom: celestial maps to be held skywards while facing south.An alike depiction from ''Celestial Atlas'' (A. Jamieson) (1822)Cetus may have originally been associated with a whale, which would have had mythic status amongst Mesopotamian cultures.",
"It is often now called the Whale, though it is most strongly associated with Cetus the sea-monster, who was slain by Perseus as he saved the princess Andromeda from Poseidon's wrath.",
"It is in the middle of \"The Sea\" recognised by mythologists, a set of water-associated constellations, its other members being Eridanus, Pisces, Piscis Austrinus and Aquarius.Cetus has been depicted in many ways throughout its history.",
"In the 17th century, Cetus was depicted as a \"dragon fish\" by Johann Bayer.",
"Both Willem Blaeu and Andreas Cellarius depicted Cetus as a whale-like creature in the same century.",
"However, Cetus has also been variously depicted with animal heads attached to a piscine body.===In global astronomy===In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Cetus are found among two areas: the Black Tortoise of the North (北方玄武, ''Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ'') and the White Tiger of the West (西方白虎, ''Xī Fāng Bái Hǔ'').The Tukano and Kobeua people of the Amazon used the stars of Cetus to create a jaguar, representing the god of hurricanes and other violent storms.",
"Lambda, Mu, Xi, Nu, Gamma, and Alpha Ceti represented its head; Omicron, Zeta, and Chi Ceti represented its body; Eta Eri, Tau Cet, and Upsilon Cet marked its legs and feet; and Theta, Eta, and Beta Ceti delineated its tail.In Hawaii, the constellation was called ''Na Kuhi'', and Mira (Omicron Ceti) may have been called ''Kane''."
],
[
"Namesakes",
"USS Cetus (AK-77) was a United States Navy Crater class cargo ship named after the constellation.",
"\"Cetus\" is the title of a ragtime piano composition by Tom Brier on the album ''Constellations'' and a 1967 electronic composition by Olly Wilson."
],
[
"See also",
"* Cetus (Chinese astronomy)* Book of Jonah"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007).",
"''Stars and Planets Guide'', Collins, London.",
".",
"Princeton University Press, Princeton.",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Cetus* The clickable Cetus* Ian Ridpath's Star Tales – Cetus* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Cetus)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Carina (constellation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Carina''' ( ) is a constellation in the southern sky.",
"Its name is Latin for the keel of a ship, and it was the southern foundation of the larger constellation of Argo Navis (the ship ''Argo'') until it was divided into three pieces, the other two being Puppis (the poop deck), and Vela (the sails of the ship)."
],
[
"History and mythology",
"Carina was once a part of Argo Navis, the great ship of the mythical Jason and the Argonauts who searched for the Golden Fleece.",
"The constellation of Argo was introduced in ancient Greece.",
"However, due to the massive size of Argo Navis and the sheer number of stars that required separate designation, Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille divided Argo into three sections in 1763, including Carina (the hull or keel).",
"In the 19th century, these three became established as separate constellations, and were formally included in the list of 88 modern IAU constellations in 1930.Lacaille kept a single set of Greek letters for the whole of Argo, and separate sets of Latin letter designations for each of the three sections.",
"Therefore, Carina has the α, β and ε, Vela has γ and δ, Puppis has ζ, and so on."
],
[
"Notable features",
"The constellation Carina as it can be seen by the naked eye=== Stars ===Carina contains Canopus, a white-hued supergiant that is the second-brightest star in the night sky at magnitude −0.72.Alpha Carinae, as Canopus is formally designated, is 313 light-years from Earth.",
"Its traditional name comes from the mythological Canopus, who was a navigator for Menelaus, king of Sparta.There are several other stars above magnitude 3 in Carina.",
"Beta Carinae, traditionally called Miaplacidus, is a blue-white-hued star of magnitude 1.7, 111 light-years from Earth.",
"Epsilon Carinae is an orange-hued giant star similarly bright to Miaplacidus at magnitude 1.9; it is 630 light-years from Earth.",
"Another fairly bright star is the blue-white-hued Theta Carinae; it is a magnitude 2.7 star 440 light-years from Earth.",
"Theta Carinae is also the most prominent member of the cluster IC 2602.Iota Carinae is a white-hued supergiant star of magnitude 2.2, 690 light-years from Earth.Eta Carinae is the most prominent variable star in Carina, with a mass of approximately 100 solar masses and 4 million times as bright as the Sun.",
"It was first discovered to be unusual in 1677, when its magnitude suddenly rose to 4, attracting the attention of Edmond Halley.",
"Eta Carinae is inside NGC 3372, commonly called the Carina Nebula.",
"It had a long outburst in 1827, when it brightened to magnitude 1, only fading to magnitude 1.5 in 1828.Its most prominent outburst made Eta Carinae the equal of Sirius; it brightened to magnitude −1.5 in 1843.In the decades following 1843 it appeared relatively placid, having a magnitude between 6.5 and 7.9.However, in 1998, it brightened again, though only to magnitude 5.0, a far less drastic outburst.",
"Eta Carinae is a binary star, with a companion that has a period of 5.5 years; the two stars are surrounded by the Homunculus Nebula, which is composed of gas that was ejected in 1843.There are several less prominent variable stars in Carina.",
"l Carinae is a Cepheid variable noted for its brightness; it is the brightest Cepheid that is variable to the unaided eye.",
"It is a yellow-hued supergiant star with a minimum magnitude of 4.2 and a maximum magnitude of 3.3; it has a period of 35.5 days.Two bright Mira variable stars are in Carina: R Carinae and S Carinae; both stars are red giants.",
"R Carinae has a minimum magnitude of 10.0 and a maximum magnitude of 4.0.Its period is 309 days and it is 416 light-years from Earth.",
"S Carinae is similar, with a minimum magnitude of 10.0 and a maximum magnitude of 5.0.However, S Carinae has a shorter period—150 days, though it is much more distant at 1,300 light-years from Earth.Carina is home to several double stars and binary stars.",
"Upsilon Carinae is a binary star with two blue-white-hued giant components, 1,600 light-years from Earth.",
"The primary is of magnitude 3.0 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0; the two components are distinguishable in a small amateur telescope.The Diamond Cross as highlighted in the constellation of Carina.Two asterisms are prominent in Carina.",
"The 'Diamond Cross' is composed of the stars Beta, Theta, Upsilon and Omega Carinae.",
"The Diamond Cross is visible south of 20ºN latitude, and is larger but fainter than the Southern Cross in Crux.",
"Flanking the Diamond Cross is the False cross, composed of four stars - two stars in Carina, Iota Carinae and Epsilon Carinae, and two stars in Vela, Kappa Velorum and Delta Velorum - and is often mistaken for the Southern Cross, causing errors in astronavigation.=== Deep-sky objects ===Carina is known for its namesake nebula, NGC 3372, discovered by French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in 1751, which contains several nebulae.",
"The Carina Nebula overall is an extended emission nebula approximately 8,000 light-years away and 300 light-years wide that includes vast star-forming regions.",
"It has an overall magnitude of 8.0 and an apparent diameter of over 2 degrees.",
"Its central region is called the Keyhole, or the Keyhole Nebula.",
"This was described in 1847 by John Herschel, and likened to a keyhole by Emma Converse in 1873.The Keyhole is about seven light-years wide and is composed mostly of ionized hydrogen, with two major star-forming regions.",
"The Homunculus Nebula is a planetary nebula visible to the naked eye that is being ejected by the erratic luminous blue variable star Eta Carinae, the most massive visible star known.",
"Eta Carinae is so massive that it has reached the theoretical upper limit for the mass of a star and is therefore unstable.",
"It is known for its outbursts; in 1840 it briefly became one of the brightest stars in the sky due to a particularly massive outburst, which largely created the Homunculus Nebula.",
"Because of this instability and history of outbursts, Eta Carinae is considered a prime supernova candidate for the next several hundred thousand years because it has reached the end of its estimated million-year life span.NGC 2516 is an open cluster that is both quite large (approximately half a degree square) and bright, visible to the unaided eye.",
"It is located 1,100 light-years from Earth and has approximately 80 stars, the brightest of which is a red giant star of magnitude 5.2.NGC 3114 is another open cluster approximately of the same size, though it is more distant at 3,000 light-years from Earth.",
"It is more loose and dim than NGC 2516, as its brightest stars are only 6th magnitude.",
"The most prominent open cluster in Carina is IC 2602, also called the \"Southern Pleiades\".",
"It contains Theta Carinae, along with several other stars visible to the unaided eye.",
"In total, the cluster possesses approximately 60 stars.",
"The Southern Pleiades is particularly large for an open cluster, with a diameter of approximately one degree.",
"Like IC 2602, NGC 3532 is visible to the unaided eye and is of comparable size.",
"It possesses approximately 150 stars that are arranged in an unusual shape, approximating an ellipse with a dark central area.",
"Several prominent orange giants are among the cluster's bright stars, of the 7th magnitude.",
"Superimposed on the cluster is Chi Carinae, a yellow-white-hued star of magnitude 3.9, far more distant than NGC 3532.Carina also contains the naked-eye globular cluster NGC 2808.Epsilon Carinae and Upsilon Carinae are double stars visible in small telescopes.One noted galaxy cluster is 1E 0657-56, the Bullet Cluster.",
"At a distance of 4 billion light-years (redshift 0.296), this galaxy cluster is named for the shock wave seen in the intracluster medium, which resembles the shock wave of a supersonic bullet.",
"The bow shock visible is thought to be due to the smaller galaxy cluster moving through the intracluster medium at a relative speed of 3,000–4,000 kilometers per second to the larger cluster.",
"Because this gravitational interaction has been ongoing for hundreds of millions of years, the smaller cluster is being destroyed and will eventually merge with the larger cluster.=== Meteors ===Carina contains the radiant of the Eta Carinids meteor shower, which peaks around January 21 each year."
],
[
"Equivalents",
"From China (especially northern China), the stars of Carina can barely be seen.",
"The star Canopus (the south polar star in Chinese astronomy) was located by Chinese astronomers in the Vermilion Bird of the South (南方朱雀, ''Nán Fāng Zhū Què'').",
"The rest of the stars were first classified by Xu Guanggi during the Ming dynasty, based on the knowledge acquired from western star charts, and placed among The Southern Asterisms (近南極星區, ''Jìnnánjíxīngōu'').Polynesian peoples had no name for the constellation in particular, though they had many names for Canopus.The Māori name ''Ariki'' (\"High-born\"), and the Hawaiian ''Ke Alii-o-kona-i-ka-lewa'', \"The Chief of the southern expanse\" both attest to the star's prominence in the southern sky, while the Māori ''Atutahi'', \"First-light\" or \"Single-light\", and the Tuamotu ''Te Tau-rari'' and ''Marere-te-tavahi'', \"He who stands alone\".",
"refer to the star's solitary nature.It was also called ''Kapae-poto'' (\"Short horizon\"), because it rarely sets from the vantage point of New Zealand, and ''Kauanga'' (\"Solitary\"), when it was the last star visible before sunrise."
],
[
"Future",
"The Southern Celestial Pole migrates through the constellation Carina.Carina is in the southern sky quite near the south celestial pole, making it never set (circumpolar) for most of the southern hemisphere.",
"Due to precession of Earth's axis, by the year 4700 the south celestial pole will be in Carina.",
"Three bright stars in Carina will come within 1 degree of the southern celestial pole and take turns as the southern pole star: Omega Carinae (mag 3.29) in 5600, Upsilon Carinae (mag 2.97) in 6700, and Iota Carinae (mag 2.21) in 7900.About 13,860 CE, the bright Canopus (−0.7) will have a greater declination than −82°."
],
[
"Namesakes",
" was a United States Navy ''Crater''-class cargo ship named after the constellation.the Toyota Carina was named after it."
],
[
"See also",
"* Carina in Chinese astronomy* List of brightest stars"
],
[
"References",
";Secondary sources* * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Carina* Starry Night Photography: Carina* Eta Carina Nebula by Thomas Willig* Star Tales – Carina* The clickable Carina* Huge gamma-ray blast seen 12.2 billion light-years from Earth"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Camelopardalis"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Camelopardalis''' is a large but faint constellation of the northern sky representing a giraffe.",
"The constellation was introduced in 1612 or 1613 by Petrus Plancius.",
"Some older astronomy books give '''Camelopardalus''' or '''Camelopardus''' as alternative forms of the name, but the version recognized by the International Astronomical Union matches the genitive form, seen suffixed to most of its key stars."
],
[
"Etymology",
"First attested in English in 1785, the word ''camelopardalis'' comes from Latin, and it is the romanization of the Greek \"καμηλοπάρδαλις\" meaning \"giraffe\", from \"κάμηλος\" (''kamēlos''), \"camel\" + \"πάρδαλις\" (''pardalis''), \"spotted\", because it has a long neck like a camel and spots like a leopard."
],
[
"Features",
"The constellation Camelopardalis as it can be seen by the naked eye.===Stars===Although Camelopardalis is the 18th largest constellation, it is not a particularly bright constellation, as the brightest stars are only of fourth magnitude.",
"In fact, it only contains four stars brighter than magnitude 5.0.",
"*α Cam is a blue-hued supergiant star of magnitude 4.3, over 6,000 light-years from Earth.",
"It is one of the most distant stars easily visible with the naked eye.",
"*β Cam is the brightest star in Camelopardalis with an apparent magnitude of 4.03.This star is a double star, with components of magnitudes 4.0 and 8.6.The primary is a yellow-hued supergiant 1000 light-years from Earth.",
"*11 Cam is a star of magnitude 5.2, 650 light-years from Earth.",
"It appears without intense magnification very close to magnitude 6.1 12 Cam, at about the same distance from us, but the two are not a true double star; they have considerable separation.",
"*Σ 1694 (Struve 1694, 32 Cam) is a binary star 300 light-years from Earth.",
"Both components have a blue-white hue; the primary is of magnitude 5.4 and the secondary is of magnitude 5.9.",
"*CS Cam is the second brightest star, though it has neither a Bayer nor a Flamsteed designation.",
"It is of magnitude 4.21 and is slightly variable.",
"*Z Cam (varying from amateur telescope visibility to extremely faint) is frequently observed as part of a program of AAVSO.",
"It is the prototype of Z Camelopardalis variable stars.Other variable stars are U Camelopardalis, VZ Camelopardalis, and Mira variables T Camelopardalis, X Camelopardalis, and R Camelopardalis.",
"RU Camelopardalis is one of the brighter Type II Cepheids visible in the night sky.In 2011 a supernova was discovered in the constellation.===Deep-sky objects===Camelopardalis is in the part of the celestial sphere facing away from the galactic plane.",
"Accordingly, many distant galaxies are visible within its borders.",
"* NGC 2403 is a galaxy in the M81 group of galaxies, located approximately 12 million light-years from Earth with a redshift of 0.00043.It is classified as being between an elliptical and a spiral galaxy because it has faint arms and a large central bulge.",
"NGC 2403 was first discovered by the 18th century astronomer William Herschel, who was working in England at the time.",
"It has an integrated magnitude of 8.0 and is approximately 0.25° long.",
"* NGC 1502 is a magnitude 6.9 open cluster about 3,000 light years from Earth.",
"It has about 45 bright members, and features also a double star of magnitude 7.0 at its center.",
"NGC 1502 is also associated with Kemble's Cascade, a simple but beautiful asterism appearing in the sky as a chain of stars 2.5° long that is parallel to the Milky Way and is pointed towards Cassiopeia.",
"* NGC 1501 is a planetary nebula located roughly 1.4° south of NGC 1502.",
"* Stock 23 is an open star cluster at the southern part of the border between Camelopardalis and Cassiopeia.",
"It is also known as ''Pazmino's Cluster''.",
"It could be categorized as an ''asterism'' because of the small number of stars in it (a small telescopic ''constellation'').",
"* IC 342 is one of the brightest two galaxies in the IC 342/Maffei Group of galaxies.",
"* The dwarf irregular galaxy NGC 1569 is a magnitude 11.9 starburst galaxy, about 11 million light years away.",
"* NGC 2655 is a large lenticular galaxy with visual magnitude 10.1.",
"* UGC 3697 is known as the ''Integral Sign Galaxy'' (its location is 7:11:4 / +71°50').",
"* MS0735.6+7421 is a galaxy cluster with a redshift of 0.216, located 2.6 billion light-years from Earth.",
"It is unique for its intracluster medium, which emits X-rays at a very high rate.",
"This galaxy cluster features two cavities 600,000 light-years in diameter, caused by its central supermassive black hole, which emits jets of matter.",
"MS0735.6+7421 is one of the largest and most distant examples of this phenomenon.",
"* Tombaugh 5 is a fairly dim open cluster in Camelopardalis.",
"It has an overall magnitude of 8.4 and is located 5,800 light-years from Earth.",
"It is a Shapley class c and Trumpler class III 1 r cluster, meaning that it is irregularly shaped and appears loose.",
"Though it is detached from the star field, it is not concentrated at its center at all.",
"It has more than 100 stars which do not vary widely in brightness, mostly being of the 15th and 16th magnitude.",
"* NGC 2146 is an 11th magnitude barred spiral starburst galaxy conspicuously warped by interaction with a neighbour.",
"* MACS0647-JD, one of the possible candidates for the farthest known galaxies in the universe (z= 10.7), is also in Camelopardalis.=== Meteor showers ===The annual May meteor shower Camelopardalids from comet 209P/LINEAR have a radiant in Camelopardalis."
],
[
"History",
"Camelopardalis as depicted in ''Urania's Mirror'', a set of constellation cards published in London c.1823.Above it are shown the now-abandoned constellations of Tarandus and Custos Messium.Camelopardalis is not one of Ptolemy's 48 constellations in the ''Almagest''.",
"It was created by Petrus Plancius in 1613.It first appeared in a globe designed by him and produced by Pieter van den Keere.",
"One year later, Jakob Bartsch featured it in his atlas.",
"Johannes Hevelius depicted this constellation in his works which were so influential that it was referred to as Camelopardali Hevelii or abbreviated as Camelopard.",
"Hevel.Part of the constellation was hived off to form the constellation Sciurus Volans, the Flying Squirrel, by William Croswell in 1810.However this was not taken up by later cartographers."
],
[
"Equivalents",
"In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Camelopardalis are located within a group of circumpolar stars called the Purple Forbidden Enclosure (紫微垣 ''Zǐ Wēi Yuán'')."
],
[
"See also",
"*Camelopardalis (Chinese astronomy)"
],
[
"References",
";Citations;References* * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Camelopardalis* Star Tales – Camelopardalis* NASA – Voyager Interstellar Mission Characteristics"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Convention of Kanagawa"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Convention of Kanagawa''', also known as the '''Kanagawa Treaty''' (, ''Kanagawa Jōyaku'') or the '''Japan–US Treaty of Peace and Amity''' (, ''Nichibei Washin Jōyaku''), was a treaty signed between the United States and the Tokugawa Shogunate on March 31, 1854.Signed under threat of force, it effectively meant the end of Japan's 220-year-old policy of national seclusion (''sakoku'') by opening the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American vessels.",
"It also ensured the safety of American castaways and established the position of an American consul in Japan.",
"The treaty precipitated the signing of similar treaties establishing diplomatic relations with other Western powers."
],
[
"Isolation of Japan",
"Since the beginning of the 17th century, the Tokugawa Shogunate pursued a policy of isolating the country from outside influences.",
"Foreign trade was maintained only with the Dutch and the Chinese and was conducted exclusively at Nagasaki under a strict government monopoly.",
"This \"Pax Tokugawa\" period is largely associated with domestic peace, social stability, commercial development, and expanded literacy.",
"This policy had two main objectives:#To suppress the spread of Christianity.",
"By the early 17th century, Catholicism had spread throughout the world.",
"Tokugawa feared that trade with western powers would cause further instability in the nation.",
"Thus, the isolation policy expelled foreigners and did not allow international travel.#The Japanese feared that foreign trade and the wealth developed would lead to the rise of a ''daimyō'' powerful enough to overthrow the ruling Tokugawa clan, especially after seeing what happened to China during the Opium Wars.By the early 19th century, this policy of isolation was increasingly under challenge.",
"In 1844, King William II of the Netherlands sent a letter urging Japan to end the isolation policy on its own before change would be forced from the outside.",
"In 1846, an official American expedition led by Commodore James Biddle arrived in Japan asking for ports to be opened for trade but was sent away."
],
[
"Perry expedition",
"In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry was sent with a fleet of warships by U.S. President Millard Fillmore to force the opening of Japanese ports to American trade, through the use of gunboat diplomacy if necessary.",
"President Fillmore's letter shows the U.S. sought trade with Japan to open export markets for American goods like gold from California, enable U.S. ships to refuel in Japanese ports, and secure protections and humane treatment for any American sailors shipwrecked on Japan's shores.",
"The growing commerce between America and China, the presence of American whalers in waters offshore Japan, and the increasing monopolization of potential coaling stations by the British and French in Asia were all contributing factors.",
"The Americans were also driven by concepts of manifest destiny and the desire to impose the \"benefits\" of western civilization and the Christian religion on what they perceived as backward Asian nations.",
"From the Japanese perspective, increasing contacts with foreign warships and the increasing disparity between western military technology and the Japanese feudal armies created growing concern.",
"The Japanese had been keeping abreast of world events via information gathered from Dutch traders in Dejima and had been forewarned by the Dutch of Perry's voyage.",
"There was a considerable internal debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan's economic and political sovereignty in light of events occurring in China with the Opium Wars.Perry arrived with four warships at Uraga, at the mouth of Edo Bay on July 8, 1853.He blatantly refused Japanese demands that he proceed to Nagasaki, which was the designated port for foreign contact.",
"After threatening to continue directly on to Edo, the nation's capital, and to burn it to the ground if necessary, he was allowed to land at nearby Kurihama on July 14 and to deliver his letter.",
"Such refusal was intentional, as Perry wrote in his journal: “To show these princes how little I regarded their order for me to depart, on getting on board I immediately ordered the whole squadron underway, not to leave the bay… but to go higher up… would produce a decided influence upon the pride and conceit of the government, and cause a more favorable consideration of the President’s letter.\"",
"Perry's power front did not stop with refusing to land in Uraga, but he continued to push the boundaries of the Japanese.",
"He ordered the squadron to survey Edo bay, which led to a stand-off between Japanese officers with swords and Americans with guns.",
"By firing the guns into the water, Perry demonstrated their military might, which greatly affected Japanese perceptions of Perry and the United States.",
"Namely, a perception of fear and disrespect.Despite years of debate on the isolation policy, Perry's letter created great controversy within the highest levels of the Tokugawa shogunate.",
"The ''shōgun'' himself, Tokugawa Ieyoshi, died days after Perry's departure and was succeeded by his sickly young son, Tokugawa Iesada, leaving effective administration in the hands of the Council of Elders (''rōjū'') led by Abe Masahiro.",
"Abe felt that it was impossible for Japan to resist the American demands by military force and yet was reluctant to take any action on his own authority for such an unprecedented situation.",
"Attempting to legitimize any decision taken, Abe polled all of the ''daimyō'' for their opinions.",
"This was the first time that the Tokugawa shogunate had allowed its decision-making to be a matter of public debate and had the unforeseen consequence of portraying the shogunate as weak and indecisive.",
"The results of the poll also failed to provide Abe with an answer; of the 61 known responses, 19 were in favour of accepting the American demands and 19 were equally opposed.",
"Of the remainder, 14 gave vague responses expressing concern of possible war, 7 suggested making temporary concessions and 2 advised that they would simply go along with whatever was decided.Perry returned again on February 11, 1854, with an even larger force of eight warships and made it clear that he would not be leaving until a treaty was signed.",
"Perry continued his manipulation of the setting, such as keeping himself aloof from lower-ranking officials, implying the use of force, surveying the harbor, and refusing to meet in the designated negotiation sites.",
"Negotiations began on March 8 and proceeded for around one month.",
"Each party shared a performance when Perry arrived.",
"The Americans had a technology demonstration, and the Japanese had a sumo wrestling show.",
"While the new technology awed the Japanese people, Perry was unimpressed by the sumo wrestlers and perceived such performance as foolish and degrading: “This disgusting exhibition did not terminate until the whole twenty-five had, successively, in pairs, displayed their immense powers and savage qualities.\"",
"The Japanese side gave in to almost all of Perry's demands, with the exception of a commercial agreement modelled after previous American treaties with China, which Perry agreed to defer to a later time.",
"The main controversy centered on the selection of the ports to open, with Perry adamantly rejecting Nagasaki.The treaty, written in English, Dutch, Chinese and Japanese, was signed on March 31, 1854, at what is now Kaikō Hiroba (Port Opening Square) Yokohama, a site adjacent to the current Yokohama Archives of History.",
"The celebratory events for the signing ceremony included a Kabuki play from the Japanese side and, from the American side, U.S. military band music and blackface minstrelsy."
],
[
"Treaty of Peace and Amity (1854)",
"English text of the Kanagawa TreatyThe \"Japan-US Treaty of Peace and Amity\" has twelve articles: Article Summary § I Mutual peace between the United States and the Empire of Japan § II Opening of the ports of Shimoda & Hakodate § III Assistance to be provided to shipwrecked American sailors § IV Shipwrecked sailors not to be imprisoned or mistreated § V Freedom of movement for temporary foreign residents in treaty ports (with limitations) § VI Trade transactions to be permitted § VII Currency exchange to facilitate any trade transactions to be allowed § VIII Provisioning of American ships to be a Japanese government monopoly § IX Japan to give the United States any favourable advantages which might be negotiated by Japan with any other foreign government in the future § X Forbidding the United States from using any other ports aside from Shimoda and Hakodate § XI Opening of an American consulate at Shimoda § XII Treaty to be ratified within 18 months of signingAt the time, ''shōgun'' Tokugawa Iesada was the de facto ruler of Japan; for the Emperor of Japan to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question.",
"Perry concluded the treaty with representatives of the shogun, led by plenipotentiary and the text was endorsed subsequently, albeit reluctantly, by Emperor Kōmei.The treaty was ratified on February 21, 1855."
],
[
"Consequences of the treaty",
"In the short term, the U.S. was content with the agreement since Perry had achieved his primary objective of breaking Japan's ''sakoku'' policy and setting the grounds for protection of American citizens and an eventual commercial agreement.",
"On the other hand, the Japanese were forced into this trade, and many saw it as a sign of weakness.",
"The Tokugawa shogunate could point out that the treaty was not actually signed by the shogun, or indeed any of his ''rōjū'', and that it had at least temporarily averted the possibility of immediate military confrontation.Externally, the treaty led to the United States-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce, the \"Harris Treaty\" of 1858, which allowed the establishment of foreign concessions, extraterritoriality for foreigners, and minimal import taxes for foreign goods.",
"The Japanese chafed under the \"unequal treaty system\" which characterized Asian and western relations during this period.",
"The Kanagawa treaty was also followed by similar agreements with the United Kingdom (Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty, October 1854), Russia (Treaty of Shimoda, February 7, 1855), and France (Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan, October 9, 1858).Internally, the treaty had far-reaching consequences.",
"Decisions to suspend previous restrictions on military activities led to re-armament by many domains and further weakened the position of the shogun.",
"Debate over foreign policy and popular outrage over perceived appeasement to the foreign powers was a catalyst for the ''sonnō jōi'' movement and a shift in political power from Edo back to the Imperial Court in Kyoto.",
"The opposition of Emperor Kōmei to the treaties further lent support to the ''tōbaku'' (overthrow the shogunate) movement, and eventually to the Meiji Restoration, which affected all realms of Japanese life.",
"Following this period came an increase in foreign trade, the rise of Japanese military might, and the later rise of Japanese economic and technological advancement.",
"Westernization at the time was a defense mechanism, but Japan has since found a balance between Western modernity and Japanese tradition."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * Auslin, Michael R., ''Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy.''",
"Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004.; ** Cullen, L. M., ''A History of Japan, 1582–1941: Internal and External Worlds.''",
"Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.",
"* Edström, Bert, ''The Japanese and Europe: Images and Perceptions.''",
"London: Routledge, 2000.",
"** Kitahara, M., \"Popular Culture in Japan: A Psychoanalytic Interpretation,\" ''The Journal of Popular Culture'', XVII, 1983.",
"* * Perry, Matthew Calbraith, ''Narrative of the expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, 1856.''",
"New York: D. Appleton and Company.",
"1856.Digitized by University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, \"China Through Western Eyes.",
"\"* Taylor, Bayard, A visit to India, China, and Japan in the year 1853 New York: G.P.",
"Putnam's Sons, 1855.Digitized by University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, \"China Through Western Eyes\"."
],
[
"External links",
"* The Convention of Kanagawa, 1854 (full text)* Kitahara, Michio.",
"Commodore Perry and the Japanese: A Study in the Dramaturgy of Power, 1986* Perry Visits Japan: A Visual History; Brown University collection"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Canis Major"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Canis Major''' is a constellation in the southern celestial hemisphere.",
"In the second century, it was included in Ptolemy's 48 constellations, and is counted among the 88 modern constellations.",
"Its name is Latin for \"greater dog\" in contrast to Canis Minor, the \"lesser dog\"; both figures are commonly represented as following the constellation of Orion the hunter through the sky.",
"The Milky Way passes through Canis Major and several open clusters lie within its borders, most notably M41.Canis Major contains Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, known as the \"dog star\".",
"It is bright because of its proximity to the Solar System.",
"In contrast, the other bright stars of the constellation are stars of great distance and high luminosity.",
"At magnitude 1.5, Epsilon Canis Majoris (Adhara) is the second-brightest star of the constellation and the brightest source of extreme ultraviolet radiation in the night sky.",
"Next in brightness are the yellow-white supergiant Delta (Wezen) at 1.8, the blue-white giant Beta (Mirzam) at 2.0, blue-white supergiants Eta (Aludra) at 2.4 and Omicron2 at 3.0, and white spectroscopic binary Zeta (Furud), also at 3.0.The red hypergiant VY CMa is one of the largest stars known, while the neutron star RX J0720.4-3125 has a radius of a mere 5 km."
],
[
"History and mythology",
"=== In western astronomy ===In ancient Mesopotamia, Sirius, named KAK.SI.SA2 by the Babylonians, was seen as an arrow aiming towards Orion, while the southern stars of Canis Major and a part of Puppis were viewed as a bow, named BAN in the ''Three Stars Each'' tablets, dating to around 1100 BC.",
"In the later compendium of Babylonian astronomy and astrology titled ''MUL.APIN'', the arrow, Sirius, was also linked with the warrior Ninurta, and the bow with Ishtar, daughter of Enlil.",
"Ninurta was linked to the later deity Marduk, who was said to have slain the ocean goddess Tiamat with a great bow, and worshipped as the principal deity in Babylon.",
"The Ancient Greeks replaced the bow and arrow depiction with that of a dog.Sirius A, the brightest star in the night sky, lies in Canis Major.In Greek Mythology, Canis Major represented the dog Laelaps, a gift from Zeus to Europa; or sometimes the hound of Procris, Diana's nymph; or the one given by Aurora to Cephalus, so famed for its speed that Zeus elevated it to the sky.",
"It was also considered to represent one of Orion's hunting dogs, pursuing Lepus the Hare or helping Orion fight Taurus the Bull; and is referred to in this way by Aratos, Homer and Hesiod.",
"The ancient Greeks refer only to one dog, but by Roman times, Canis Minor appears as Orion's second dog.",
"Alternative names include Canis Sequens and Canis Alter.",
"Canis Syrius was the name used in the 1521 ''Alfonsine tables''.The Roman myth refers to Canis Major as ''Custos Europae'', the dog guarding Europa but failing to prevent her abduction by Jupiter in the form of a bull, and as ''Janitor Lethaeus'', \"the watchdog\".",
"In medieval Arab astronomy, the constellation became ''al-Kalb al-Akbar'', \"the Greater Dog\", transcribed as ''Alcheleb Alachbar'' by 17th century writer Edmund Chilmead.",
"Islamic scholar Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī referred to Orion as ''Kalb al-Jabbār'', \"the Dog of the Giant\".",
"Among the Merazig of Tunisia, shepherds note six constellations that mark the passage of the dry, hot season.",
"One of them, called ''Merzem'', includes the stars of Canis Major and Canis Minor and is the herald of two weeks of hot weather.Manuchihr Globe made in Mashhad 1632–33 AD.",
"Adilnor Collection, Sweden.=== In non-western astronomy ===Canis Major, observed above Kuantan (north is towards top right)In Chinese astronomy, the modern constellation of Canis Major is located in the Vermilion Bird (), where the stars were classified in several separate asterisms of stars.",
"The Military Market () was a circular pattern of stars containing Nu3, Beta, Xi1 and Xi2, and some stars from Lepus.",
"The Wild Cockerel () was at the centre of the Military Market, although it is uncertain which stars depicted what.",
"Schlegel reported that the stars Omicron and Pi Canis Majoris might have been them, while Beta or Nu2 have also been proposed.",
"Sirius was '''' (), the Celestial Wolf, denoting invasion and plunder.",
"Southeast of the Wolf was the asterism '''' (), the celestial Bow and Arrow, which was interpreted as containing Delta, Epsilon, Eta and Kappa Canis Majoris and Delta Velorum.",
"Alternatively, the arrow was depicted by Omicron2 and Eta and aiming at Sirius (the Wolf), while the bow comprised Kappa, Epsilon, Sigma, Delta and 164 Canis Majoris, and Pi and Omicron Puppis.Both the Māori people and the people of the Tuamotus recognized the figure of Canis Major as a distinct entity, though it was sometimes absorbed into other constellations.",
"'''', also called '''' and '''', (\"The Assembly of \" or \"The Assembly of Sirius\") was a Māori constellation that included both Canis Minor and Canis Major, along with some surrounding stars.",
"Related was '''', also called '''', the Mirror of , formed from an undefined group of stars in Canis Major.",
"They called Sirius '''' and '''', corresponding to two of the names for the constellation, though '''' was a name applied to other stars in various Māori groups and other Polynesian cosmologies.",
"The Tuamotu people called Canis Major '''', \"the abiding assemblage of \".The Tharumba people of the Shoalhaven River saw three stars of Canis Major as '''' (Bat) and his two wives '''' (Mrs Brown Snake) and '''' (Mrs Black Snake); bored of following their husband around, the women try to bury him while he is hunting a wombat down its hole.",
"He spears them and all three are placed in the sky as the constellation ''''.",
"To the Boorong people of Victoria, Sigma Canis Majoris was '''' (which has become the official name of this star), and its flanking stars Delta and Epsilon were his two wives.",
"The moon ('''', \"native cat\") sought to lure the further wife (Epsilon) away, but assaulted him and he has been wandering the sky ever since."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"Canis Major is a constellation in the Southern Hemisphere's summer (or northern hemisphere's winter) sky, bordered by Monoceros (which lies between it and Canis Minor) to the north, Puppis to the east and southeast, Columba to the southwest, and Lepus to the west.",
"The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is \"CMa\".",
"The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a quadrilateral; in the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −11.03° and −33.25°.",
"Covering 380 square degrees or 0.921% of the sky, it ranks 43rd of the 88 currently-recognized constellations in size."
],
[
"Features",
"The stars of Canis Major as they can be seen by the naked eye; lines have been added for clarity.=== Stars ===Canis Major is a prominent constellation because of its many bright stars.",
"These include Sirius (Alpha Canis Majoris), the brightest star in the night sky, as well as three other stars above magnitude 2.0.Furthermore, two other stars are thought to have previously outshone all others in the night sky—Adhara (Epsilon Canis Majoris) shone at −3.99 around 4.7 million years ago, and Mirzam (Beta Canis Majoris) peaked at −3.65 around 4.42 million years ago.",
"Another, NR Canis Majoris, will be brightest at magnitude −0.88 in about 2.87 million years' time.The German cartographer Johann Bayer used the Greek letters Alpha through Omicron to label the most prominent stars in the constellation, including three adjacent stars as Nu and two further pairs as Xi and Omicron, while subsequent observers designated further stars in the southern parts of the constellation that were hard to discern from Central Europe.",
"Bayer's countryman Johann Elert Bode later added Sigma, Tau and Omega; the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille added lettered stars a to k (though none are in use today).",
"John Flamsteed numbered 31 stars, with 3 Canis Majoris being placed by Lacaille into Columba as Delta Columbae (Flamsteed had not recognised Columba as a distinct constellation).",
"He also labelled two stars—his 10 and 13 Canis Majoris—as Kappa1 and Kappa2 respectively, but subsequent cartographers such as Francis Baily and John Bevis dropped the fainter former star, leaving Kappa2 as the sole Kappa.",
"Flamsteed's listing of Nu1, Nu2, Nu3, Xi1, Xi2, Omicron1 and Omicron2 have all remained in use.Canis Major as depicted in ''Urania's Mirror'', a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825.Next to it are Lepus and Columba (partly cut off).Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky at apparent magnitude −1.46 and one of the closest stars to Earth at a distance of 8.6 light-years.",
"Its name comes from the Greek word for \"scorching\" or \"searing\".",
"Sirius is also a binary star; its companion Sirius B is a white dwarf with a magnitude of 8.4–10,000 times fainter than Sirius A to observers on Earth.",
"The two orbit each other every 50 years.",
"Their closest approach last occurred in 1993 and they will be at their greatest separation between 2020 and 2025.Sirius was the basis for the ancient Egyptian calendar.",
"The star marked the Great Dog's mouth on Bayer's star atlas.Flanking Sirius are Beta and Gamma Canis Majoris.",
"Also called Mirzam or Murzim, Beta is a blue-white Beta Cephei variable star of magnitude 2.0, which varies by a few hundredths of a magnitude over a period of six hours.",
"Mirzam is 500 light-years from Earth, and its traditional name means \"the announcer\", referring to its position as the \"announcer\" of Sirius, as it rises a few minutes before Sirius does.",
"Gamma, also known as Muliphein, is a fainter star of magnitude 4.12, in reality a blue-white bright giant of spectral type B8IIe located 441 light-years from earth.",
"Iota Canis Majoris, lying between Sirius and Gamma, is another star that has been classified as a Beta Cephei variable, varying from magnitude 4.36 to 4.40 over a period of 1.92 hours.",
"It is a remote blue-white supergiant star of spectral type B3Ib, around 46,000 times as luminous as the sun and, at 2500 light-years distant, 300 times further away than Sirius.Epsilon, Omicron2, Delta, and Eta Canis Majoris were called ''Al Adzari'' \"the virgins\" in medieval Arabic tradition.",
"Marking the dog's right thigh on Bayer's atlas is Epsilon Canis Majoris, also known as Adhara.",
"At magnitude 1.5, it is the second-brightest star in Canis Major and the 23rd-brightest star in the sky.",
"It is a blue-white supergiant of spectral type B2Iab, around 404 light-years from Earth.",
"This star is one of the brightest known extreme ultraviolet sources in the sky.",
"It is a binary star; the secondary is of magnitude 7.4.Its traditional name means \"the virgins\", having been transferred from the group of stars to Epsilon alone.",
"Nearby is Delta Canis Majoris, also called Wezen.",
"It is a yellow-white supergiant of spectral type F8Iab and magnitude 1.84, around 1605 light-years from Earth.",
"With a traditional name meaning \"the weight\", Wezen is 17 times as massive and 50,000 times as luminous as the Sun.",
"If located in the centre of the Solar System, it would extend out to Earth as its diameter is 200 times that of the Sun.",
"Only around 10 million years old, Wezen has stopped fusing hydrogen in its core.",
"Its outer envelope is beginning to expand and cool, and in the next 100,000 years it will become a red supergiant as its core fuses heavier and heavier elements.",
"Once it has a core of iron, it will collapse and explode as a supernova.",
"Nestled between Adhara and Wezen lies Sigma Canis Majoris, known as Unurgunite to the Boorong and Wotjobaluk people, a red supergiant of spectral type K7Ib that varies irregularly between magnitudes 3.43 and 3.51.Also called Aludra, Eta Canis Majoris is a blue-white supergiant of spectral type B5Ia with a luminosity 176,000 times and diameter around 80 times that of the Sun.",
"Classified as an Alpha Cygni type variable star, Aludra varies in brightness from magnitude 2.38 to 2.48 over a period of 4.7 days.",
"It is located 1120 light-years away.",
"To the west of Adhara lies 3.0-magnitude Zeta Canis Majoris or Furud, around 362 light-years distant from Earth.",
"It is a spectroscopic binary, whose components orbit each other every 1.85 years, the combined spectrum indicating a main star of spectral type B2.5V.Between these stars and Sirius lie Omicron1, Omicron2, and Pi Canis Majoris.",
"Omicron2 is a massive supergiant star about 21 times as massive as the Sun.",
"Only 7 million years old, it has exhausted the supply of hydrogen at its core and is now processing helium.",
"It is an Alpha Cygni variable that undergoes periodic non-radial pulsations, which cause its brightness to cycle from magnitude 2.93 to 3.08 over a 24.44-day interval.",
"Omicron1 is an orange K-type supergiant of spectral type K2.5Iab that is an irregular variable star, varying between apparent magnitudes 3.78 and 3.99.Around 18 times as massive as the Sun, it shines with 65,000 times its luminosity.North of Sirius lie Theta and Mu Canis Majoris, Theta being the most northerly star with a Bayer designation in the constellation.",
"Around 8 billion years old, it is an orange giant of spectral type K4III that is around as massive as the Sun but has expanded to 30 times the Sun's diameter.",
"Mu is a multiple star system located around 1244 light-years distant, its components discernible in a small telescope as a 5.3-magnitude yellow-hued and 7.1-magnitude bluish star.",
"The brighter star is a giant of spectral type K2III, while the companion is a main sequence star of spectral type B9.5V.",
"Nu1 Canis Majoris is a yellow-hued giant star of magnitude 5.7, 278 light-years away; it is at the threshold of naked-eye visibility.",
"It has a companion of magnitude 8.1.At the southern limits of the constellation lie Kappa and Lambda Canis Majoris.",
"Although of similar spectra and nearby each other as viewed from Earth, they are unrelated.",
"Kappa is a Gamma Cassiopeiae variable of spectral type B2Vne, which brightened by 50% between 1963 and 1978, from magnitude 3.96 or so to 3.52.It is around 659 light-years distant.",
"Lambda is a blue-white B-type main sequence dwarf with an apparent magnitude of 4.48 located around 423 light-years from Earth.",
"It is 3.7 times as wide as and 5.5 times as massive as the Sun, and shines with 940 times its luminosity.Very Large Telescope image of the surroundings of VY Canis MajorisCanis Major is also home to many variable stars.",
"EZ Canis Majoris is a Wolf–Rayet star of spectral type WN4 that varies between magnitudes 6.71 and 6.95 over a period of 3.766 days; the cause of its variability is unknown but thought to be related to its stellar wind and rotation.",
"VY Canis Majoris is a remote red hypergiant located approximately 3,800 light-years away from Earth.",
"It is one of largest stars known (sometimes described as the largest known) and is also one of the most luminous with a radius varying from 1,420 to 2,200 times the Sun's radius, and a luminosity around 300,000 times greater than the Sun.",
"Its current mass is about 17 ± 8 solar masses, having shed material from an initial mass of 25–32 solar masses.",
"VY CMa is also surrounded by a red reflection nebula that has been made by the material expelled by the strong stellar winds of its central star.",
"W Canis Majoris is a type of red giant known as a carbon star—a semiregular variable, it ranges between magnitudes 6.27 and 7.09 over a period of 160 days.",
"A cool star, it has a surface temperature of around 2,900 K and a radius 234 times that of the Sun, its distance estimated at 1,444–1,450 light-years from Earth.",
"At the other extreme in size is RX J0720.4-3125, a neutron star with a radius of around 5 km.",
"Exceedingly faint, it has an apparent magnitude of 26.6.Its spectrum and temperature appear to be mysteriously changing over several years.",
"The nature of the changes are unclear, but it is possible they were caused by an event such as the star's absorption of an accretion disc.Tau Canis Majoris is a Beta Lyrae-type eclipsing multiple star system that varies from magnitude 4.32 to 4.37 over 1.28 days.",
"Its four main component stars are hot O-type stars, with a combined mass 80 times that of the Sun and shining with 500,000 times its luminosity, but little is known of their individual properties.",
"A fifth component, a magnitude 10 star, lies at a distance of .",
"The system is only 5 million years old.",
"UW Canis Majoris is another Beta Lyrae-type star 3000 light-years from Earth; it is an eclipsing binary that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 5.3 to a maximum of 4.8.It has a period of 4.4 days; its components are two massive hot blue stars, one a blue supergiant of spectral type O7.5–8 Iab, while its companion is a slightly cooler, less evolved and less luminous supergiant of spectral type O9.7Ib.",
"The stars are 200,000 and 63,000 times as luminous as the Sun.",
"However the fainter star is the more massive at 19 solar masses to the primary's 16.R Canis Majoris is another eclipsing binary that varies from magnitude 5.7 to 6.34 over 1.13 days, with a third star orbiting these two every 93 years.",
"The shortness of the orbital period and the low ratio between the two main components make this an unusual Algol-type system.Seven star systems have been found to have planets.",
"Nu2 Canis Majoris is an ageing orange giant of spectral type K1III of apparent magnitude 3.91 located around 64 light-years distant.",
"Around 1.5 times as massive and 11 times as luminous as the Sun, it is orbited over a period of 763 days by a planet 2.6 times as massive as Jupiter.",
"HD 47536 is likewise an ageing orange giant found to have a planetary system—echoing the fate of the Solar System in a few billion years as the Sun ages and becomes a giant.",
"Conversely, HD 45364 is a star 107 light-years distant that is a little smaller and cooler than the Sun, of spectral type G8V, which has two planets discovered in 2008.With orbital periods of 228 and 342 days, the planets have a 3:2 orbital resonance, which helps stabilise the system.",
"HD 47186 is another sunlike star with two planets; the inner—HD 47186 b—takes four days to complete an orbit and has been classified as a Hot Neptune, while the outer—HD 47186 c—has an eccentric 3.7-year period orbit and has a similar mass to Saturn.",
"HD 43197 is a sunlike star around 183 light-years distant that has two planets: a hot Jupiter-size planet with an eccentric orbit.",
"The other planet, HD 43197 c, is another massive Jovian planet with a slightly oblong orbit outside of its habitable zone.",
"Z Canis Majoris is a star system a mere 300,000 years old composed of two pre-main-sequence stars—a FU Orionis star and a Herbig Ae/Be star, which has brightened episodically by two magnitudes to magnitude 8 in 1987, 2000, 2004 and 2008.The more massive Herbig Ae/Be star is enveloped in an irregular roughly spherical cocoon of dust that has an inner diameter of and outer diameter of .",
"The cocoon has a hole in it through which light shines that covers an angle of 5 to 10 degrees of its circumference.",
"Both stars are surrounded by a large envelope of in-falling material left over from the original cloud that formed the system.",
"Both stars are emitting jets of material, that of the Herbig Ae/Be star being much larger—11.7 light-years long.",
"Meanwhile, FS Canis Majoris is another star with infra-red emissions indicating a compact shell of dust, but it appears to be a main-sequence star that has absorbed material from a companion.",
"These stars are thought to be significant contributors to interstellar dust.=== Deep-sky objects ===The band of the Milky Way goes through Canis Major, with only patchy obscurement by interstellar dust clouds.",
"It is bright in the northeastern corner of the constellation, as well as in a triangular area between Adhara, Wezen and Aludra, with many stars visible in binoculars.",
"Canis Major boasts several open clusters.",
"The only Messier object is M41 (NGC 2287), an open cluster with a combined visual magnitude of 4.5, around 2300 light-years from Earth.",
"Located 4 degrees south of Sirius, it contains contrasting blue, yellow and orange stars and covers an area the apparent size of the full moon—in reality around 25 light-years in diameter.",
"Its most luminous stars have already evolved into giants.",
"The brightest is a 6.3-magnitude star of spectral type K3.Located in the field is 12 Canis Majoris, though this star is only 670 light-years distant.",
"NGC 2360, known as Caroline's Cluster after its discoverer Caroline Herschel, is an open cluster located 3.5 degrees west of Muliphein and has a combined apparent magnitude of 7.2.Around 15 light-years in diameter, it is located 3700 light-years away from Earth, and has been dated to around 2.2 billion years old.",
"NGC 2362 is a small, compact open cluster, 5200 light-years from Earth.",
"It contains about 60 stars, of which Tau Canis Majoris is the brightest member.",
"Located around 3 degrees northeast of Wezen, it covers an area around 12 light-years in diameter, though the stars appear huddled around Tau when seen through binoculars.",
"It is a very young open cluster as its member stars are only a few million years old.",
"Lying 2 degrees southwest of NGC 2362 is NGC 2354 a fainter open cluster of magnitude 6.5, with around 15 member stars visible with binoculars.",
"Located around 30' northeast of NGC 2360, NGC 2359 (Thor's Helmet or the Duck Nebula) is a relatively bright emission nebula in Canis Major, with an approximate magnitude of 10, which is 10,000 light-years from Earth.",
"The nebula is shaped by HD 56925, an unstable Wolf–Rayet star embedded within it.ESO 489-056 is an irregular dwarf galaxy, located 16 million light-years distant.",
"In 2003, an overdensity of stars in the region was announced to be the Canis Major Dwarf, the closest satellite galaxy to Earth.",
"However, there remains debate over whether it represents a disrupted dwarf galaxy or in fact a variation in the thin and thick disk and spiral arm populations of the Milky Way.",
"Investigation of the area yielded only ten RR Lyrae variables—consistent with the Milky Way's halo and thick disk populations rather than a separate dwarf spheroidal galaxy.",
"On the other hand, a globular cluster in Puppis, NGC 2298—which appears to be part of the Canis Major dwarf system—is extremely metal-poor, suggesting it did not arise from the Milky Way's thick disk, and instead is of extragalactic origin.NGC 2207 and IC 2163 are a pair of face-on interacting spiral galaxies located 125 million light-years from Earth.",
"About 40 million years ago, the two galaxies had a close encounter and are now moving farther apart; nevertheless, the smaller IC 2163 will eventually be incorporated into NGC 2207.As the interaction continues, gas and dust will be perturbed, sparking extensive star formation in both galaxies.",
"Supernovae have been observed in NGC 2207 in 1975 (type Ia SN 1975a), 1999 (the type Ib SN 1999ec), 2003 (type 1b supernova SN 2003H), and 2013 (type II supernova SN 2013ai).",
"Located 16 million light-years distant, ESO 489-056 is an irregular dwarf- and low-surface-brightness galaxy that has one of the lowest metallicities known."
],
[
"References",
"===Citations====== Bibliography ===* * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Canis Major* The clickable Canis Major* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Canis Major)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Canis Minor"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Canis Minor''' is a small constellation in the northern celestial hemisphere.",
"In the second century, it was included as an asterism, or pattern, of two stars in Ptolemy's 48 constellations, and it is counted among the 88 modern constellations.",
"Its name is Latin for \"lesser dog\", in contrast to Canis Major, the \"greater dog\"; both figures are commonly represented as following the constellation of Orion the hunter.Canis Minor contains only two stars brighter than the fourth magnitude, Procyon (Alpha Canis Minoris), with a magnitude of 0.34, and Gomeisa (Beta Canis Minoris), with a magnitude of 2.9.The constellation's dimmer stars were noted by Johann Bayer, who named eight stars including Alpha and Beta, and John Flamsteed, who numbered fourteen.",
"Procyon is the eighth-brightest star in the night sky, as well as one of the closest.",
"A yellow-white main-sequence star, it has a white dwarf companion.",
"Gomeisa is a blue-white main-sequence star.",
"Luyten's Star is a ninth-magnitude red dwarf and the Solar System's next closest stellar neighbour in the constellation after Procyon.",
"Additionally, Procyon and Luyten's Star are only 1.12 light-years away from each other, and Procyon would be the brightest star in Luyten's Star's sky.",
"The fourth-magnitude HD 66141, which has evolved into an orange giant towards the end of its life cycle, was discovered to have a planet in 2012.There are two faint deep-sky objects within the constellation's borders.",
"The 11 Canis-Minorids are a meteor shower that can be seen in early December."
],
[
"History and mythology",
"Canis Minor, as depicted by Johann Bode in his 1801 work ''Uranographia''Though strongly associated with the Classical Greek uranographic tradition, Canis Minor originates from ancient Mesopotamia.",
"Procyon and Gomeisa were called ''MASH.TAB.BA'' or \"twins\" in the ''Three Stars Each'' tablets, dating to around 1100 BC.",
"In the later ''MUL.APIN'', this name was also applied to the pairs of Pi3 and Pi4 Orionis and Zeta and Xi Orionis.",
"The meaning of ''MASH.TAB.BA'' evolved as well, becoming the twin deities Lulal and Latarak, who are on the opposite side of the sky from ''Papsukkal'', the True Shepherd of Heaven in Babylonian mythology.",
"Canis Minor was also given the name ''DAR.LUGAL'', its position defined as \"the star which stands behind it Orion\", in the ''MUL.APIN''; the constellation represents a rooster.",
"This name may have also referred to the constellation Lepus.",
"''DAR.LUGAL'' was also denoted ''DAR.MUŠEN'' and ''DAR.LUGAL.MUŠEN'' in Babylonia.",
"Canis Minor was then called ''tarlugallu'' in Akkadian astronomy.Canis Minor was one of the original 48 constellations formulated by Ptolemy in his second-century Almagest, in which it was defined as a specific pattern (asterism) of stars; Ptolemy identified only two stars and hence no depiction was possible.",
"The Ancient Greeks called the constellation προκυων/''Procyon'', \"coming before the dog\", transliterated into Latin as ''Antecanis'', ''Praecanis'', or variations thereof, by Cicero and others.",
"Roman writers also appended the descriptors ''parvus'', ''minor'' or ''minusculus'' (\"small\" or \"lesser\", for its faintness), ''septentrionalis'' (\"northerly\", for its position in relation to Canis Major), ''primus'' (rising \"first\") or ''sinister'' (rising to the \"left\") to its name ''Canis''.In Greek mythology, Canis Minor was sometimes connected with the Teumessian Fox, a beast turned into stone with its hunter, Laelaps, by Zeus, who placed them in heaven as Canis Major (Laelaps) and Canis Minor (Teumessian Fox).",
"Eratosthenes accompanied the Little Dog with Orion, while Hyginus linked the constellation with Maera, a dog owned by Icarius of Athens.",
"On discovering the latter's death, the dog and Icarius' daughter Erigone took their lives and all three were placed in the sky—Erigone as Virgo and Icarius as Boötes.",
"As a reward for his faithfulness, the dog was placed along the \"banks\" of the Milky Way, which the ancients believed to be a heavenly river, where he would never suffer from thirst.The medieval Arabic astronomers maintained the depiction of Canis Minor (''al-Kalb al-Asghar'' in Arabic) as a dog; in his Book of the Fixed Stars, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi included a diagram of the constellation with a canine figure superimposed.",
"There was one slight difference between the Ptolemaic vision of Canis Minor and the Arabic; al-Sufi claims Mirzam, now assigned to Orion, as part of both Canis Minor—the collar of the dog—and its modern home.",
"The Arabic names for both Procyon and Gomeisa alluded to their proximity and resemblance to Sirius, though they were not direct translations of the Greek; Procyon was called ''ash-Shi'ra ash-Shamiya'', the \"Syrian Sirius\" and Gomeisa was called ''ash-Shira al-Ghamisa'', the Sirius with bleary eyes.",
"Among the Merazig of Tunisia, shepherds note six constellations that mark the passage of the dry, hot season.",
"One of them, called ''Merzem'', includes the stars of Canis Minor and Canis Major and is the herald of two weeks of hot weather.The ancient Egyptians thought of this constellation as Anubis, the jackal god.The constellation Canis Minor can be seen alongside Monoceros and the obsolete constellation Atelier Typographique in this 1825 star chart from ''Urania's Mirror''.Alternative names have been proposed: Johann Bayer in the early 17th century termed the constellation ''Fovea'' \"The Pit\", and ''Morus'' \"Sycamine Tree\".",
"Seventeenth-century German poet and author Philippus Caesius linked it to the dog of Tobias from the Apocrypha.",
"Richard A. Proctor gave the constellation the name ''Felis'' \"the Cat\" in 1870 (contrasting with Canis Major, which he had abbreviated to ''Canis'' \"the Dog\"), explaining that he sought to shorten the constellation names to make them more manageable on celestial charts.",
"Occasionally, Canis Minor is confused with Canis Major and given the name ''Canis Orionis'' (\"Orion's Dog\").=== In non-Western astronomy ===In Chinese astronomy, the stars corresponding to Canis Minor lie in the Vermilion Bird of the South (南方朱雀, ''Nán Fāng Zhū Què'').",
"Procyon, Gomeisa and Eta Canis Minoris form an asterism known as Nánhé, the Southern River.",
"With its counterpart, the Northern River Beihe (Castor and Pollux), Nánhé was also associated with a gate or sentry.",
"Along with Zeta and 8 Cancri, 6 Canis Minoris and 11 Canis Minoris formed the asterism ''Shuiwei'', which literally means \"water level\".",
"Combined with additional stars in Gemini, Shuiwei represented an official who managed floodwaters or a marker of the water level.",
"Neighboring Korea recognized four stars in Canis Minor as part of a different constellation, \"the position of the water\".",
"This constellation was located in the Red Bird, the southern portion of the sky.Polynesian peoples often did not recognize Canis Minor as a constellation, but they saw Procyon as significant and often named it; in the Tuamotu Archipelago it was known as ''Hiro'', meaning \"twist as a thread of coconut fiber\", and ''Kopu-nui-o-Hiro'' (\"great paunch of Hiro\"), which was either a name for the modern figure of Canis Minor or an alternative name for Procyon.",
"Other names included ''Vena'' (after a goddess), on Mangaia and ''Puanga-hori'' (false ''Puanga'', the name for Rigel), in New Zealand.",
"In the Society Islands, Procyon was called ''Ana-tahua-vahine-o-toa-te-manava'', literally \"Aster the priestess of brave heart\", figuratively the \"pillar for elocution\".",
"The Wardaman people of the Northern Territory in Australia gave Procyon and Gomeisa the names ''Magum'' and ''Gurumana'', describing them as humans who were transformed into gum trees in the dreamtime.",
"Although their skin had turned to bark, they were able to speak with a human voice by rustling their leaves.The Aztec calendar was related to their cosmology.",
"The stars of Canis Minor were incorporated along with some stars of Orion and Gemini into an asterism associated with the day called \"Water\"."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"Lying directly south of Gemini's bright stars Castor and Pollux, Canis Minor is a small constellation bordered by Monoceros to the south, Gemini to the north, Cancer to the northeast, and Hydra to the east.",
"It does not border Canis Major; Monoceros is in between the two.",
"Covering 183 square degrees, Canis Minor ranks seventy-first of the 88 constellations in size.",
"It appears prominently in the southern sky during the Northern Hemisphere's winter.",
"The constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 14 sides.",
"In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between and .",
"Most visible in the evening sky from January to March, Canis Minor is most prominent at 10 p.m. during mid-February.",
"It is then seen earlier in the evening until July, when it is only visible after sunset before setting itself, and rising in the morning sky before dawn.",
"The constellation's three-letter abbreviation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is \"CMi\"."
],
[
"Features",
"=== Stars ===The constellation Canis Minor as it can be seen by the naked eyeCanis Minor contains only two stars brighter than fourth magnitude.",
"At magnitude 0.34, Procyon, or Alpha Canis Minoris, is the eighth-brightest star in the night sky, as well as one of the closest.",
"Its name means \"before the dog\" or \"preceding the dog\" in Greek, as it rises an hour before the \"Dog Star\", Sirius, of Canis Major.",
"It is a binary star system, consisting of a yellow-white main-sequence star of spectral type F5 IV-V, named Procyon A, and a faint white dwarf companion of spectral type DA, named Procyon B. Procyon B, which orbits the more massive star every 41 years, is of magnitude 10.7.Procyon A is 1.4 times the Sun's mass, while its smaller companion is 0.6 times as massive as the Sun.",
"The system is from Earth, the shortest distance to a northern-hemisphere star of the first magnitude.",
"Gomeisa, or Beta Canis Minoris, with a magnitude of 2.89, is the second-brightest star in Canis Minor.",
"Lying from the Solar System, it is a blue-white main-sequence star of spectral class B8 Ve.",
"Although fainter to Earth observers, it is much brighter than Procyon, and is 250 times as luminous and three times as massive as the Sun.",
"Although its variations are slight, Gomeisa is classified as a shell star (Gamma Cassiopeiae variable), with a maximum magnitude of 2.84 and a minimum magnitude of 2.92.It is surrounded by a disk of gas which it heats and causes to emit radiation.Johann Bayer used the Greek letters Alpha to Eta to label the most prominent eight stars in the constellation, designating two stars as Delta (named Delta1 and Delta2).",
"John Flamsteed numbered fourteen stars, discerning a third star he named Delta3; his star 12 Canis Minoris was not found subsequently.",
"In Bayer's 1603 work ''Uranometria'', Procyon is located on the dog's belly, and Gomeisa on its neck.",
"Gamma, Epsilon and Eta Canis Minoris lie nearby, marking the dog's neck, crown and chest, respectively.",
"Although it has an apparent magnitude of 4.34, Gamma Canis Minoris is an orange K-type giant of spectral class K3-III C, which lies away.",
"Its colour is obvious when seen through binoculars.",
"It is a multiple system, consisting of the spectroscopic binary Gamma A and three optical companions, Gamma B, magnitude 13; Gamma C, magnitude 12; and Gamma D, magnitude 10.The two components of Gamma A orbit each other every 389.2 days, with an eccentric orbit that takes their separation between 2.3 and 1.4 astronomical units (AU).",
"Epsilon Canis Minoris is a yellow bright giant of spectral class G6.5IIb of magnitude of 4.99.It lies from Earth, with 13 times the diameter and 750 times the luminosity of the Sun.",
"Eta Canis Minoris is a giant of spectral class F0III of magnitude 5.24, which has a yellowish hue when viewed through binoculars as well as a faint companion of magnitude 11.1.Located 4 arcseconds from the primary, the companion star is actually around 440 AU from the main star and takes around 5,000 years to orbit it.Near Procyon, three stars share the name Delta Canis Minoris.",
"Delta1 is a yellow-white F-type giant of magnitude 5.25 located around from Earth.",
"About 360 times as luminous and 3.75 times as massive as the Sun, it is expanding and cooling as it ages, having spent much of its life as a main sequence star of spectrum B6V.",
"Also known as 8 Canis Minoris, Delta2 is an F-type main-sequence star of spectral type F2V and magnitude 5.59 which is distant.",
"The last of the trio, Delta3 (also known as 9 Canis Minoris), is a white main sequence star of spectral type A0Vnn and magnitude 5.83 which is distant.",
"These stars mark the paws of the Lesser Dog's left hind leg, while magnitude 5.13 Zeta marks the right.",
"A blue-white bright giant of spectral type B8II, Zeta lies around away from the Solar System.Lying 222 ± 7 light-years away with an apparent magnitude of 4.39, HD 66141 is 6.8 billion years old and has evolved into an orange giant of spectral type K2III with a diameter around 22 times that of the Sun, and weighing 1.1 solar masses.",
"It is 174 times as luminous as the Sun, with an absolute magnitude of −0.15.HD 66141 was mistakenly named 13 Puppis, as its celestial coordinates were recorded incorrectly when catalogued and hence mistakenly thought to be in the constellation of Puppis; Bode gave it the name Lambda Canis Minoris, which is now obsolete.",
"The orange giant is orbited by a planet, HD 66141b, which was detected in 2012 by measuring the star's radial velocity.",
"The planet has a mass around 6 times that of Jupiter and a period of 480 days.A red giant of spectral type M4III, BC Canis Minoris lies around distant from the Solar System.",
"It is a semiregular variable star that varies between a maximum magnitude of 6.14 and minimum magnitude of 6.42.Periods of 27.7, 143.3 and 208.3 days have been recorded in its pulsations.",
"AZ, AD and BI Canis Minoris are Delta Scuti variables—short period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology.",
"AZ is of spectral type A5IV, and ranges between magnitudes 6.44 and 6.51 over a period of 2.3 hours.",
"AD has a spectral type of F2III, and has a maximum magnitude of 9.21 and minimum of 9.51, with a period of approximately 2.95 hours.",
"BI is of spectral type F2 with an apparent magnitude varying around 9.19 and a period of approximately 2.91 hours.At least three red giants are Mira variables in Canis Minor.",
"S Canis Minoris, of spectral type M7e, is the brightest, ranging from magnitude 6.6 to 13.2 over a period of 332.94 days.",
"V Canis Minoris ranges from magnitude 7.4 to 15.1 over a period of 366.1 days.",
"Similar in magnitude is R Canis Minoris, which has a maximum of 7.3, but a significantly brighter minimum of 11.6.An S-type star, it has a period of 337.8 days.YZ Canis Minoris is a red dwarf of spectral type M4.5V and magnitude 11.2, roughly three times the size of Jupiter and from Earth.",
"It is a flare star, emitting unpredictable outbursts of energy for mere minutes, which might be much more powerful analogues of solar flares.",
"Luyten's Star (GJ 273) is a red dwarf star of spectral type M3.5V and close neighbour of the Solar System.",
"Its visual magnitude of 9.9 renders it too faint to be seen with the naked eye, even though it is only away.",
"Fainter still is PSS 544-7, an eighteenth-magnitude red dwarf around 20 per cent the mass of the Sun, located from Earth.",
"First noticed in 1991, it is thought to be a cannonball star, shot out of a star cluster and now moving rapidly through space directly away from the galactic disc.The WZ Sagittae-type dwarf nova DY Canis Minoris (also known as VSX J074727.6+065050) flared up to magnitude 11.4 over January and February 2008 before dropping eight magnitudes to around 19.5 over approximately 80 days.",
"It is a remote binary star system where a white dwarf and low-mass star orbit each other close enough for the former star to draw material off the latter and form an accretion disc.",
"This material builds up until it erupts dramatically.=== Deep-sky objects ===Nebula Abell 24The Milky Way passes through much of Canis Minor, yet it has few deep-sky objects.",
"William Herschel recorded four objects in his 1786 work ''Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars'', including two he mistakenly believed were star clusters.",
"NGC 2459 is a group of five thirteenth- and fourteenth-magnitude stars that appear to lie close together in the sky but are not related.",
"A similar situation has occurred with NGC 2394, also in Canis Minor.",
"This is a collection of fifteen unrelated stars of ninth magnitude and fainter.Herschel also observed three faint galaxies, two of which are interacting with each other.",
"NGC 2508 is a lenticular galaxy of thirteenth magnitude, estimated at 205 million light-years' distance (63 million parsecs) with a diameter of .",
"Named as a single object by Herschel, NGC 2402 is actually a pair of near-adjacent galaxies that appear to be interacting with each other.",
"Only of fourteenth and fifteenth magnitudes, respectively, the elliptical and spiral galaxy are thought to be approximately 245 million light-years distant, and each measure 55,000 light-years in diameter.===Meteor showers===The 11 Canis-Minorids, also called the Beta Canis Minorids, are a meteor shower that arise near the fifth-magnitude star 11 Canis Minoris and were discovered in 1964 by Keith Hindley, who investigated their trajectory and proposed a common origin with the comet D/1917 F1 Mellish.",
"However, this conclusion has been refuted subsequently as the number of orbits analysed was low and their trajectories too disparate to confirm a link.",
"They last from 4 to 15 December, peaking over 10 and 11 December."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Canis Minor* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Canis Minor)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Centaurus"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Centaurus''' is a bright constellation in the southern sky.",
"One of the largest constellations, Centaurus was included among the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations.",
"In Greek mythology, Centaurus represents a centaur; a creature that is half human, half horse (another constellation named after a centaur is one from the zodiac: Sagittarius).",
"Notable stars include Alpha Centauri, the nearest star system to the Solar System, its neighbour in the sky Beta Centauri, and V766 Centauri, one of the largest stars yet discovered.",
"The constellation also contains Omega Centauri, the brightest globular cluster as visible from Earth and the largest identified in the Milky Way, possibly a remnant of a dwarf galaxy."
],
[
"Notable features",
"Centaurus in the southwestern sky, shortly after sunset.The two bright stars are (left) Alpha Centauri and (right) Beta Centauri.",
"The faint red star in the center of the red circle is Proxima Centauri.Centaurus in the ''Firmamentum Sobiescianum'' of Johannes Hevelius.",
"This image is reversed from what one sees looking at the sky — it is as though one is looking at the \"celestial sphere\" from the outside.===Stars===Centaurus contains several very bright stars.",
"Its alpha and beta stars are used as \"pointer stars\" to help observers find the constellation Crux.",
"Centaurus has 281 stars above magnitude 6.5, meaning that they are visible to the unaided eye, the most of any constellation.",
"Alpha Centauri, the closest star system to the Sun, has a high proper motion; it will be a mere half-degree from Beta Centauri in approximately 4000 years.Alpha Centauri is a triple star system composed of a binary system orbited by Proxima Centauri, currently the nearest star to the Sun.",
"Traditionally called Rigil Kentaurus (from Arabic رجل قنطورس, meaning \"foot of the centaur\") or Toliman (from Arabic الظليمين meaning \"two male ostriches\"), the system has an overall magnitude of −0.28 and is 4.4 light-years from Earth.",
"The primary and secondary are both yellow-hued stars; the first is of magnitude −0.01 and the second: 1.35.Proxima, the tertiary star, is a red dwarf of magnitude 11.0; it appears almost 2 degrees away from the close pairing of Alpha and has a period of approximately one million years.",
"Also a flare star, Proxima has minutes-long outbursts where it brightens by over a magnitude.",
"The Alpha couple revolve in 80-year periodicity and will next appear closest as seen from Earth's telescopes in 2037 and 2038, together as they appear to the naked eye they present the third-brightest \"star\" in the night sky.One other first magnitude star Beta Centauri is in the constellation in a position beyond Proxima and toward the narrow axis of Crux, thus with Alpha forming a far-south limb of the constellation.",
"Also called Hadar and Agena, it is a double star; the primary is a blue-hued giant star of magnitude 0.6, 525 light-years from Earth.",
"The secondary is of magnitude 4.0 and has a modest separation, appearing only under intense magnification due to its distance.The northerly star Theta Centauri, officially named Menkent, is an orange giant star of magnitude 2.06.It is the only bright star of Centaurus that is easily visible from mid-northern latitudes.The next bright object is Gamma Centauri, a binary star which appears to the naked eye at magnitude 2.2.The primary and secondary are both blue-white hued stars of magnitude 2.9; their period is 84 years.Centaurus also has many dimmer double stars and binary stars.",
"3 Centauri is a double star with a blue-white hued primary of magnitude 4.5 and a secondary of magnitude 6.0.The primary is 344 light-years away.Centaurus is home to many variable stars.",
"R Centauri is a Mira variable star with a minimum magnitude of 11.8 and a maximum magnitude of 5.3; it is about 1,250 light-years from Earth and has a period of 18 months.",
"V810 Centauri is a semiregular variable.BPM 37093 is a white dwarf star whose carbon atoms are thought to have formed a crystalline structure.",
"Since diamond also consists of carbon arranged in a crystalline lattice (though of a different configuration), scientists have nicknamed this star \"Lucy\" after the Beatles song \"''Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds''.",
"\"PDS 70, (V1032 Centauri) a low mass T Tauri star is found in the constellation Centaurus.",
"In July 2018 astronomers captured the first conclusive image of a protoplanetary disk containing a nascent exoplanet, named PDS 70b.===Deep-sky objects===ω Centauri (NGC 5139), despite being listed as the constellation's \"omega\" star, is in fact a naked-eye globular cluster, 17,000 light-years away with a diameter of 150 light-years.",
"It is the largest and brightest globular cluster in the Milky Way; at ten times the size of the next-largest cluster, it has a magnitude of 3.7.It is also the most luminous globular cluster in the Milky Way, at over one million solar luminosities.",
"Omega Centauri is classified as a Shapley class VIII cluster, which means that its center is loosely concentrated.",
"It is also one of two only globular clusters to be designated with a Bayer letter; the globular cluster 47 Tucanae (Xi Tucanae) is the only one designated with a Flamsteed number.",
"It contains several million stars, most of which are yellow dwarf stars, but also possesses red giants and blue-white stars; the stars have an average age of 12 billion years.",
"This has prompted suspicion that Omega Centauri was the core of a dwarf galaxy that had been absorbed by the Milky Way.",
"Omega Centauri was determined to be nonstellar in 1677 by the English astronomer Edmond Halley, though it was visible as a star to the ancients.",
"Its status as a globular cluster was determined by James Dunlop in 1827.To the unaided eye, Omega Centauri appears fuzzy and is obviously non-circular; it is approximately half a degree in diameter, the same size as the full Moon.Centaurus is also home to open clusters.",
"NGC 3766 is an open cluster 6,300 light-years from Earth that is visible to the unaided eye.",
"It contains approximately 100 stars, the brightest of which are 7th magnitude.",
"NGC 5460 is another naked-eye open cluster, 2,300 light-years from Earth, that has an overall magnitude of 6 and contains approximately 40 stars.There is one bright planetary nebula in Centaurus, NGC 3918, also known as the Blue Planetary.",
"It has an overall magnitude of 8.0 and a central star of magnitude 11.0; it is 2600 light-years from Earth.",
"The Blue Planetary was discovered by John Herschel and named for its color's similarity to Uranus, though the nebula is apparently three times larger than the planet.Centaurus is rich in galaxies as well.",
"NGC 4622 is a face-on spiral galaxy located 200 million light-years from Earth (redshift 0.0146).",
"Its spiral arms wind in both directions, which makes it nearly impossible for astronomers to determine the rotation of the galaxy.",
"Astronomers theorize that a collision with a smaller companion galaxy near the core of the main galaxy could have led to the unusual spiral structure.",
"NGC 5253, a peculiar irregular galaxy, is located near the border with Hydra and M83, with which it likely had a close gravitational interaction 1–2 billion years ago.",
"This may have sparked the galaxy's high rate of star formation, which continues today and contributes to its high surface brightness.",
"NGC 5253 includes a large nebula and at least 12 large star clusters.",
"In the eyepiece, it is a small galaxy of magnitude 10 with dimensions of 5 arcminutes by 2 arcminutes and a bright nucleus.",
"NGC 4945 is a spiral galaxy seen edge-on from Earth, 13 million light-years away.",
"It is visible with any amateur telescope, as well as binoculars under good conditions; it has been described as \"shaped like a candle flame\", being long and thin (16' by 3').",
"In the eyepiece of a large telescope, its southeastern dust lane becomes visible.",
"Another galaxy is NGC 5102, found by star-hopping from Iota Centauri.",
"In the eyepiece, it appears as an elliptical object 9 arcminutes by 2.5 arcminutes tilted on a southwest–northeast axis.One of the closest active galaxies to Earth is the Centaurus A galaxy, NGC 5128, at 11 million light-years away (redshift 0.00183).",
"It has a supermassive black hole at its core, which expels massive jets of matter that emit radio waves due to synchrotron radiation.",
"Astronomers posit that its dust lanes, not common in elliptical galaxies, are due to a previous merger with another galaxy, probably a spiral galaxy.",
"NGC 5128 appears in the optical spectrum as a fairly large elliptical galaxy with a prominent dust lane.",
"Its overall magnitude is 7.0 and it has been seen under perfect conditions with the naked eye, making it one of the most distant objects visible to the unaided observer.",
"In equatorial and southern latitudes, it is easily found by star hopping from Omega Centauri.",
"In small telescopes, the dust lane is not visible; it begins to appear with about 4 inches of aperture under good conditions.",
"In large amateur instruments, above about 12 inches in aperture, the dust lane's west-northwest to east-southeast direction is easily discerned.",
"Another dim dust lane on the east side of the 12-arcminute-by-15-arcminute galaxy is also visible.",
"ESO 270-17, also called the Fourcade-Figueroa Object, is a low-surface brightness object believed to be the remnants of a galaxy; it does not have a core and is very difficult to observe with an amateur telescope.",
"It measures 7 arcminutes by 1 arcminute.",
"It likely originated as a spiral galaxy and underwent a catastrophic gravitational interaction with Centaurus A around 500 million years ago, stopping its rotation and destroying its structure.NGC 4650A is a polar-ring galaxy 136 million light-years from Earth (redshift 0.01).",
"It has a central core made of older stars that resembles an elliptical galaxy, and an outer ring of young stars that orbits around the core.",
"The plane of the outer ring is distorted, which suggests that NGC 4650A is the result of a galaxy collision about a billion years ago.",
"This galaxy has also been cited in studies of dark matter, because the stars in the outer ring orbit too quickly for their collective mass.",
"This suggests that the galaxy is surrounded by a dark matter halo, which provides the necessary mass.One of the closest galaxy clusters to Earth is the Centaurus Cluster at 160 million light-years away, having redshift 0.0114.It has a cooler, denser central region of gas and a hotter, more diffuse outer region.",
"The intracluster medium in the Centaurus Cluster has a high concentration of metals (elements heavier than helium) due to a large number of supernovae.",
"This cluster also possesses a plume of gas whose origin is unknown."
],
[
"History",
"Centaurus, 1602While Centaurus now has a high southern latitude, at the dawn of civilization it was an equatorial constellation.",
"Precession has been slowly shifting it southward for millennia, and it is now close to its maximal southern declination.",
"In a little over 7000 years it will be at maximum visibility for those in the northern hemisphere, visible at times in the year up to quite a high northern latitude.The figure of Centaurus can be traced back to a Babylonian constellation known as the Bison-man (MUL.GUD.ALIM).",
"This being was depicted in two major forms: firstly, as a 4-legged bison with a human head, and secondly, as a being with a man's head and torso attached to the rear legs and tail of a bull or bison.",
"It has been closely associated with the Sun god Utu-Shamash from very early times.The Greeks depicted the constellation as a centaur and gave it its current name.",
"It was mentioned by Eudoxus in the 4th century BC and Aratus in the 3rd century BC.",
"In the 2nd century AD, Claudius Ptolemy catalogued 37 stars in Centaurus, including Alpha Centauri.",
"Large as it is now, in earlier times it was even larger, as the constellation Lupus was treated as an asterism within Centaurus, portrayed in illustrations as an unspecified animal either in the centaur's grasp or impaled on its spear.",
"The Southern Cross, which is now regarded as a separate constellation, was treated by the ancients as a mere asterism formed of the stars composing the centaur's legs.",
"Additionally, what is now the minor constellation Circinus was treated as undefined stars under the centaur's front hooves.According to the Roman poet Ovid (''Fasti'' v.379), the constellation honors the centaur Chiron, who was tutor to many of the earlier Greek heroes including Heracles (Hercules), Theseus, and Jason, the leader of the Argonauts.",
"It is not to be confused with the more warlike centaur represented by the zodiacal constellation Sagittarius.",
"The legend associated with Chiron says that he was accidentally poisoned with an arrow shot by Hercules, and was subsequently placed in the heavens."
],
[
"Equivalents",
"In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Centaurus are found in three areas: the Azure Dragon of the East (東方青龍, ''Dōng Fāng Qīng Lóng''), the Vermillion Bird of the South (南方朱雀, ''Nán Fāng Zhū Què''), and the Southern Asterisms (近南極星區, ''Jìnnánjíxīngōu'').",
"Not all of the stars of Centaurus can be seen from China, and the unseen stars were classified among the Southern Asterisms by Xu Guangqi, based on his study of western star charts.",
"However, most of the brightest stars of Centaurus, including α Centauri, θ Centauri (or Menkent), ε Centauri and η Centauri, can be seen in the Chinese sky.Some Polynesian peoples considered the stars of Centaurus to be a constellation as well.",
"On Pukapuka, Centaurus had two names: ''Na Mata-o-te-tokolua'' and ''Na Lua-mata-o-Wua-ma-Velo''.",
"In Tonga, the constellation was called by four names: ''O-nga-tangata'', ''Tautanga-ufi'', ''Mamangi-Halahu'', and ''Mau-kuo-mau''.",
"Alpha and Beta Centauri were not named specifically by the people of Pukapuka or Tonga, but they were named by the people of Hawaii and the Tuamotus.",
"In Hawaii, the name for Alpha Centauri was either ''Melemele'' or ''Ka Maile-hope'' and the name for Beta Centauri was either ''Polapola'' or ''Ka Maile-mua''.",
"In the Tuamotu islands, Alpha was called ''Na Kuhi'' and Beta was called ''Tere''.The Pointer (α Centauri and β Centauri) is one of the asterisms used by Bugis sailors for navigation, called ''bintoéng balué'', meaning \"the widowed-before-marriage\".",
"It is also called ''bintoéng sallatang'' meaning \"southern star\"."
],
[
"Namesakes",
"Two United States Navy ships, and , were named after Centaurus, the constellation."
],
[
"See also",
"* Centaurus (Chinese astronomy)* List of brightest stars"
],
[
"References",
";Citations;References* Centaurus, by Chris Dolan* C.S.",
"Constellations and Stars* Constellations, by Richard Dibon-Smith* * * * US edition by Princeton University Press, Princeton.",
".",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Centaurus* Starry Night Photography: Centaurus* Ian Ridpath's Star Tales – Centaurus* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Centaurus)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Impact crater"
],
[
"Introduction",
"An '''impact crater''' is a circular depression in the surface of a solid astronomical object formed by the hypervelocity impact of a smaller object.",
"In contrast to volcanic craters, which result from explosion or internal collapse, impact craters typically have raised rims and floors that are lower in elevation than the surrounding terrain.",
"Lunar impact craters range from microscopic craters on lunar rocks returned by the Apollo program and small, simple, bowl-shaped depressions in the lunar regolith to large, complex, multi-ringed impact basins.",
"Meteor Crater is a well-known example of a small impact crater on Earth.Impact craters are the dominant geographic features on many solid Solar System objects including the Moon, Mercury, Callisto, Ganymede and most small moons and asteroids.",
"On other planets and moons that experience more active surface geological processes, such as Earth, Venus, Europa, Io and Titan, visible impact craters are less common because they become eroded, buried or transformed by tectonics over time.",
"Where such processes have destroyed most of the original crater topography, the terms impact structure or astrobleme are more commonly used.",
"In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was widely recognised, the terms cryptoexplosion or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on Earth.The cratering records of very old surfaces, such as Mercury, the Moon, and the southern highlands of Mars, record a period of intense early bombardment in the inner Solar System around 3.9 billion years ago.",
"The rate of crater production on Earth has since been considerably lower, but it is appreciable nonetheless.",
"Earth experiences, on average, from one to three impacts large enough to produce a crater every million years.",
"This indicates that there should be far more relatively young craters on the planet than have been discovered so far.",
"The cratering rate in the inner solar system fluctuates as a consequence of collisions in the asteroid belt that create a family of fragments that are often sent cascading into the inner solar system.",
"Formed in a collision 80 million years ago, the Baptistina family of asteroids is thought to have caused a large spike in the impact rate.",
"The rate of impact cratering in the outer Solar System could be different from the inner Solar System.Although Earth's active surface processes quickly destroy the impact record, about 190 terrestrial impact craters have been identified.",
"These range in diameter from a few tens of meters up to about , and they range in age from recent times (e.g.",
"the Sikhote-Alin craters in Russia whose creation was witnessed in 1947) to more than two billion years, though most are less than 500 million years old because geological processes tend to obliterate older craters.",
"They are also selectively found in the stable interior regions of continents.",
"Few undersea craters have been discovered because of the difficulty of surveying the sea floor, the rapid rate of change of the ocean bottom, and the subduction of the ocean floor into Earth's interior by processes of plate tectonics.Impact craters are not to be confused with landforms that may appear similar, including calderas, sinkholes, glacial cirques, ring dikes, salt domes, and others."
],
[
"History",
"Daniel M. Barringer, a mining engineer, was convinced already in 1903 that the crater he owned, Meteor Crater, was of cosmic origin.",
"Most geologists at the time assumed it formed as the result of a volcanic steam eruption.Eugene Shoemaker, pioneer impact crater researcher, here at a crystallographic microscope used to examine meteoritesIn the 1920s, the American geologist Walter H. Bucher studied a number of sites now recognized as impact craters in the United States.",
"He concluded they had been created by some great explosive event, but believed that this force was probably volcanic in origin.",
"However, in 1936, the geologists John D. Boon and Claude C. Albritton Jr. revisited Bucher's studies and concluded that the craters that he studied were probably formed by impacts.Grove Karl Gilbert suggested in 1893 that the Moon's craters were formed by large asteroid impacts.",
"Ralph Baldwin in 1949 wrote that the Moon's craters were mostly of impact origin.",
"Around 1960, Gene Shoemaker revived the idea.",
"According to David H. Levy, Shoemaker \"saw the craters on the Moon as logical impact sites that were formed not gradually, in eons, but explosively, in seconds.\"",
"For his PhD degree at Princeton University (1960), under the guidance of Harry Hammond Hess, Shoemaker studied the impact dynamics of Meteor Crater.",
"Shoemaker noted that Meteor Crater had the same form and structure as two explosion craters created from atomic bomb tests at the Nevada Test Site, notably Jangle U in 1951 and Teapot Ess in 1955.In 1960, Edward C. T. Chao and Shoemaker identified coesite (a form of silicon dioxide) at Meteor Crater, proving the crater was formed from an impact generating extremely high temperatures and pressures.",
"They followed this discovery with the identification of coesite within suevite at Nördlinger Ries, proving its impact origin.Armed with the knowledge of shock-metamorphic features, Carlyle S. Beals and colleagues at the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada and Wolf von Engelhardt of the University of Tübingen in Germany began a methodical search for impact craters.",
"By 1970, they had tentatively identified more than 50.Although their work was controversial, the American Apollo Moon landings, which were in progress at the time, provided supportive evidence by recognizing the rate of impact cratering on the Moon.",
"Because the processes of erosion on the Moon are minimal, craters persist.",
"Since the Earth could be expected to have roughly the same cratering rate as the Moon, it became clear that the Earth had suffered far more impacts than could be seen by counting evident craters."
],
[
"Crater formation",
"A laboratory simulation of an impact event and crater formationImpact cratering involves high velocity collisions between solid objects, typically much greater than the speed of sound in those objects.",
"Such hyper-velocity impacts produce physical effects such as melting and vaporization that do not occur in familiar sub-sonic collisions.",
"On Earth, ignoring the slowing effects of travel through the atmosphere, the lowest impact velocity with an object from space is equal to the gravitational escape velocity of about 11 km/s.",
"The fastest impacts occur at about 72 km/s in the \"worst case\" scenario in which an object in a retrograde near-parabolic orbit hits Earth.",
"The median impact velocity on Earth is about 20 km/s.However, the slowing effects of travel through the atmosphere rapidly decelerate any potential impactor, especially in the lowest 12 kilometres where 90% of the Earth's atmospheric mass lies.",
"Meteorites of up to 7,000 kg lose all their cosmic velocity due to atmospheric drag at a certain altitude (retardation point), and start to accelerate again due to Earth's gravity until the body reaches its terminal velocity of 0.09 to 0.16 km/s.",
"The larger the meteoroid (i.e.",
"asteroids and comets) the more of its initial cosmic velocity it preserves.",
"While an object of 9,000 kg maintains about 6% of its original velocity, one of 900,000 kg already preserves about 70%.",
"Extremely large bodies (about 100,000 tonnes) are not slowed by the atmosphere at all, and impact with their initial cosmic velocity if no prior disintegration occurs.Impacts at these high speeds produce shock waves in solid materials, and both impactor and the material impacted are rapidly compressed to high density.",
"Following initial compression, the high-density, over-compressed region rapidly depressurizes, exploding violently, to set in train the sequence of events that produces the impact crater.",
"Impact-crater formation is therefore more closely analogous to cratering by high explosives than by mechanical displacement.",
"Indeed, the energy density of some material involved in the formation of impact craters is many times higher than that generated by high explosives.",
"Since craters are caused by explosions, they are nearly always circular – only very low-angle impacts cause significantly elliptical craters.This describes impacts on solid surfaces.",
"Impacts on porous surfaces, such as that of Hyperion, may produce internal compression without ejecta, punching a hole in the surface without filling in nearby craters.",
"This may explain the 'sponge-like' appearance of that moon.It is convenient to divide the impact process conceptually into three distinct stages: (1) initial contact and compression, (2) excavation, (3) modification and collapse.",
"In practice, there is overlap between the three processes with, for example, the excavation of the crater continuing in some regions while modification and collapse is already underway in others.===Contact and compression===Nested Craters on Mars, 40.104° N, 125.005° E. These nested craters are probably caused by changes in the strength of the target material.",
"This usually happens when a weaker material overlies a stronger material.In the absence of atmosphere, the impact process begins when the impactor first touches the target surface.",
"This contact accelerates the target and decelerates the impactor.",
"Because the impactor is moving so rapidly, the rear of the object moves a significant distance during the short-but-finite time taken for the deceleration to propagate across the impactor.",
"As a result, the impactor is compressed, its density rises, and the pressure within it increases dramatically.",
"Peak pressures in large impacts exceed 1 T Pa to reach values more usually found deep in the interiors of planets, or generated artificially in nuclear explosions.In physical terms, a shock wave originates from the point of contact.",
"As this shock wave expands, it decelerates and compresses the impactor, and it accelerates and compresses the target.",
"Stress levels within the shock wave far exceed the strength of solid materials; consequently, both the impactor and the target close to the impact site are irreversibly damaged.",
"Many crystalline minerals can be transformed into higher-density phases by shock waves; for example, the common mineral quartz can be transformed into the higher-pressure forms coesite and stishovite.",
"Many other shock-related changes take place within both impactor and target as the shock wave passes through, and some of these changes can be used as diagnostic tools to determine whether particular geological features were produced by impact cratering.As the shock wave decays, the shocked region decompresses towards more usual pressures and densities.",
"The damage produced by the shock wave raises the temperature of the material.",
"In all but the smallest impacts this increase in temperature is sufficient to melt the impactor, and in larger impacts to vaporize most of it and to melt large volumes of the target.",
"As well as being heated, the target near the impact is accelerated by the shock wave, and it continues moving away from the impact behind the decaying shock wave.===Excavation===Contact, compression, decompression, and the passage of the shock wave all occur within a few tenths of a second for a large impact.",
"The subsequent excavation of the crater occurs more slowly, and during this stage the flow of material is largely subsonic.",
"During excavation, the crater grows as the accelerated target material moves away from the point of impact.",
"The target's motion is initially downwards and outwards, but it becomes outwards and upwards.",
"The flow initially produces an approximately hemispherical cavity that continues to grow, eventually producing a paraboloid (bowl-shaped) crater in which the centre has been pushed down, a significant volume of material has been ejected, and a topographically elevated crater rim has been pushed up.",
"When this cavity has reached its maximum size, it is called the transient cavity.Herschel Crater on Saturn's moon MimasThe depth of the transient cavity is typically a quarter to a third of its diameter.",
"Ejecta thrown out of the crater do not include material excavated from the full depth of the transient cavity; typically the depth of maximum excavation is only about a third of the total depth.",
"As a result, about one third of the volume of the transient crater is formed by the ejection of material, and the remaining two thirds is formed by the displacement of material downwards, outwards and upwards, to form the elevated rim.",
"For impacts into highly porous materials, a significant crater volume may also be formed by the permanent compaction of the pore space.",
"Such compaction craters may be important on many asteroids, comets and small moons.In large impacts, as well as material displaced and ejected to form the crater, significant volumes of target material may be melted and vaporized together with the original impactor.",
"Some of this impact melt rock may be ejected, but most of it remains within the transient crater, initially forming a layer of impact melt coating the interior of the transient cavity.",
"In contrast, the hot dense vaporized material expands rapidly out of the growing cavity, carrying some solid and molten material within it as it does so.",
"As this hot vapor cloud expands, it rises and cools much like the archetypal mushroom cloud generated by large nuclear explosions.",
"In large impacts, the expanding vapor cloud may rise to many times the scale height of the atmosphere, effectively expanding into free space.Most material ejected from the crater is deposited within a few crater radii, but a small fraction may travel large distances at high velocity, and in large impacts it may exceed escape velocity and leave the impacted planet or moon entirely.",
"The majority of the fastest material is ejected from close to the center of impact, and the slowest material is ejected close to the rim at low velocities to form an overturned coherent flap of ejecta immediately outside the rim.",
"As ejecta escapes from the growing crater, it forms an expanding curtain in the shape of an inverted cone.",
"The trajectory of individual particles within the curtain is thought to be largely ballistic.Small volumes of un-melted and relatively un-shocked material may be spalled at very high relative velocities from the surface of the target and from the rear of the impactor.",
"Spalling provides a potential mechanism whereby material may be ejected into inter-planetary space largely undamaged, and whereby small volumes of the impactor may be preserved undamaged even in large impacts.",
"Small volumes of high-speed material may also be generated early in the impact by jetting.",
"This occurs when two surfaces converge rapidly and obliquely at a small angle, and high-temperature highly shocked material is expelled from the convergence zone with velocities that may be several times larger than the impact velocity.===Modification and collapse===Weathering may change the aspect of a crater drastically.",
"This mound on Mars' north pole may be the result of an impact crater that was buried by sediment and subsequently re-exposed by erosion.In most circumstances, the transient cavity is not stable and collapses under gravity.",
"In small craters, less than about 4 km diameter on Earth, there is some limited collapse of the crater rim coupled with debris sliding down the crater walls and drainage of impact melts into the deeper cavity.",
"The resultant structure is called a simple crater, and it remains bowl-shaped and superficially similar to the transient crater.",
"In simple craters, the original excavation cavity is overlain by a lens of collapse breccia, ejecta and melt rock, and a portion of the central crater floor may sometimes be flat.CallistoAbove a certain threshold size, which varies with planetary gravity, the collapse and modification of the transient cavity is much more extensive, and the resulting structure is called a complex crater.",
"The collapse of the transient cavity is driven by gravity, and involves both the uplift of the central region and the inward collapse of the rim.",
"The central uplift is not the result of elastic rebound, which is a process in which a material with elastic strength attempts to return to its original geometry; rather the collapse is a process in which a material with little or no strength attempts to return to a state of gravitational equilibrium.Complex craters have uplifted centers, and they have typically broad flat shallow crater floors, and terraced walls.",
"At the largest sizes, one or more exterior or interior rings may appear, and the structure may be labeled an impact basin rather than an impact crater.",
"Complex-crater morphology on rocky planets appears to follow a regular sequence with increasing size: small complex craters with a central topographic peak are called central peak craters, for example Tycho; intermediate-sized craters, in which the central peak is replaced by a ring of peaks, are called peak-ring craters, for example Schrödinger; and the largest craters contain multiple concentric topographic rings, and are called multi-ringed basins, for example Orientale.",
"On icy (as opposed to rocky) bodies, other morphological forms appear that may have central pits rather than central peaks, and at the largest sizes may contain many concentric rings.",
"Valhalla on Callisto is an example of this type."
],
[
"Identifying impact craters",
"Impact structure of craters: simple and complex cratersWells Creek crater in Tennessee, United States: a close-up of shatter cones developed in fine grained dolomiteDecorah crater: aerial electromagnetic resistivity map (USGS)Meteor Crater in the U.S. state of Arizona, was the world's first confirmed impact crater.Shoemaker Crater in Western Australia was renamed in memory of Gene Shoemaker.Non-explosive volcanic craters can usually be distinguished from impact craters by their irregular shape and the association of volcanic flows and other volcanic materials.",
"Impact craters produce melted rocks as well, but usually in smaller volumes with different characteristics.The distinctive mark of an impact crater is the presence of rock that has undergone shock-metamorphic effects, such as shatter cones, melted rocks, and crystal deformations.",
"The problem is that these materials tend to be deeply buried, at least for simple craters.",
"They tend to be revealed in the uplifted center of a complex crater, however.Impacts produce distinctive shock-metamorphic effects that allow impact sites to be distinctively identified.",
"Such shock-metamorphic effects can include:* A layer of shattered or \"brecciated\" rock under the floor of the crater.",
"This layer is called a \"breccia lens\".",
"* Shatter cones, which are chevron-shaped impressions in rocks.",
"Such cones are formed most easily in fine-grained rocks.",
"* High-temperature rock types, including laminated and welded blocks of sand, spherulites and tektites, or glassy spatters of molten rock.",
"The impact origin of tektites has been questioned by some researchers; they have observed some volcanic features in tektites not found in impactites.",
"Tektites are also drier (contain less water) than typical impactites.",
"While rocks melted by the impact resemble volcanic rocks, they incorporate unmelted fragments of bedrock, form unusually large and unbroken fields, and have a much more mixed chemical composition than volcanic materials spewed up from within the Earth.",
"They also may have relatively large amounts of trace elements that are associated with meteorites, such as nickel, platinum, iridium, and cobalt.",
"Note: scientific literature has reported that some \"shock\" features, such as small shatter cones, which are often associated only with impact events, have been found also in terrestrial volcanic ejecta.",
"* Microscopic pressure deformations of minerals.",
"These include fracture patterns in crystals of quartz and feldspar, and formation of high-pressure materials such as diamond, derived from graphite and other carbon compounds, or stishovite and coesite, varieties of shocked quartz.",
"* Buried craters, such as the Decorah crater, can be identified through drill coring, aerial electromagnetic resistivity imaging, and airborne gravity gradiometry."
],
[
"Economic importance of impacts",
"On Earth impact craters have resulted in useful minerals.",
"Some of the ores produced from impact related effects on Earth include ores of iron, uranium, gold, copper, and nickel.",
"It is estimated that the value of materials mined from impact structures is five billion dollars/year just for North America.",
"The eventual usefulness of impact craters depends on several factors especially the nature of the materials that were impacted and when the materials were affected.",
"In some cases the deposits were already in place and the impact brought them to the surface.",
"These are called \"progenetic economic deposits.\"",
"Others were created during the actual impact.",
"The great energy involved caused melting.",
"Useful minerals formed as a result of this energy are classified as \"syngenetic deposits.\"",
"The third type, called \"epigenetic deposits,\" is caused by the creation of a basin from the impact.",
"Many of the minerals that our modern lives depend on are associated with impacts in the past.",
"The Vredeford Dome in the center of the Witwatersrand Basin is the largest goldfield in the world which has supplied about 40% of all the gold ever mined in an impact structure (though the gold did not come from the bolide).",
"The asteroid that struck the region was wide.",
"The Sudbury Basin was caused by an impacting body over in diameter.",
"This basin is famous for its deposits of nickel, copper, and platinum group elements.",
"An impact was involved in making the Carswell structure in Saskatchewan, Canada; it contains uranium deposits.Hydrocarbons are common around impact structures.",
"Fifty percent of impact structures in North America in hydrocarbon-bearing sedimentary basins contain oil/gas fields."
],
[
"Martian craters",
"Because of the many missions studying Mars since the 1960s, there is good coverage of its surface which contains large numbers of craters.",
"Many of the craters on Mars differ from those on the Moon and other moons since Mars contains ice under the ground, especially in the higher latitudes.",
"Some of the types of craters that have special shapes due to impact into ice-rich ground are pedestal craters, rampart craters, expanded craters, and LARLE craters."
],
[
"Lists of craters",
"===Impact craters on Earth===On Earth, the recognition of impact craters is a branch of geology, and is related to planetary geology in the study of other worlds.",
"Out of many proposed craters, relatively few are confirmed.",
"The following twenty are a sample of articles of confirmed and well-documented impact sites.See the Earth Impact Database, a website concerned with 190 () scientifically-confirmed impact craters on Earth.===Some extraterrestrial craters===Balanchine crater in Caloris Basin, photographed by ''MESSENGER'', 2011* Caloris Basin (Mercury)* Hellas Basin (Mars)* Herschel crater (Mimas)* Mare Orientale (Moon)* Petrarch crater (Mercury)* South Pole – Aitken basin (Moon)===Largest named craters in the Solar System===Tirawa crater straddling the terminator on Rhea, lower right.# North Polar Basin/Borealis Basin (disputed) – Mars – Diameter: 10,600 km# South Pole-Aitken basin – Moon – Diameter: 2,500 km# Hellas Basin – Mars – Diameter: 2,100 km# Caloris Basin – Mercury – Diameter: 1,550 km# Imbrium Basin – Moon – Diameter: 1,100 km# Isidis Planitia – Mars – Diameter: 1,100 km# Mare Tranquilitatis – Moon – Diameter: 870 km# Argyre Planitia – Mars – Diameter: 800 km# Rembrandt – Mercury – Diameter: 715 km# Serenitatis Basin – Moon – Diameter: 700 km# Mare Nubium – Moon – Diameter: 700 km# Beethoven – Mercury – Diameter: 625 km# Valhalla – Callisto – Diameter: 600 km, with rings to 4,000 km diameter# Hertzsprung – Moon – Diameter: 590 km# Turgis – Iapetus – Diameter: 580 km# Apollo – Moon – Diameter: 540 km# Engelier – Iapetus – Diameter: 504 km# Mamaldi – Rhea – Diameter: 480 km# Huygens – Mars – Diameter: 470 km# Schiaparelli – Mars – Diameter: 470 km# Rheasilvia – 4 Vesta – Diameter: 460 km# Gerin – Iapetus – Diameter: 445 km# Odysseus – Tethys – Diameter: 445 km# Korolev – Moon – Diameter: 430 km# Falsaron – Iapetus – Diameter: 424 km# Dostoevskij – Mercury – Diameter: 400 km# Menrva – Titan – Diameter: 392 km# Tolstoj – Mercury – Diameter: 390 km# Goethe – Mercury – Diameter: 380 km# Malprimis – Iapetus – Diameter: 377 km# Tirawa – Rhea – Diameter: 360 km# Orientale Basin – Moon – Diameter: 350 km, with rings to 930 km diameter# Evander – Dione – Diameter: 350 km# Epigeus – Ganymede – Diameter: 343 km# Gertrude – Titania – Diameter: 326 km# Telemus – Tethys – Diameter: 320 km# Asgard – Callisto – Diameter: 300 km, with rings to 1,400 km diameter# Vredefort impact structure – Earth – Diameter: 300 km# Kerwan – Ceres – Diameter: 284 km# Powehiwehi – Rhea – Diameter: 271 kmThere are approximately twelve more impact craters/basins larger than 300 km on the Moon, five on Mercury, and four on Mars.",
"Large basins, some unnamed but mostly smaller than 300 km, can also be found on Saturn's moons Dione, Rhea and Iapetus."
],
[
"See also",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , 1998 book from Lunar and Planetary Institute – comprehensive reference on impact crater science"
],
[
"References",
"===Bibliography===* * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"** The Geological Survey of Canada Crater database, 172 impact structures* Aerial Explorations of Terrestrial Meteorite Craters* Impact Meteor Crater Viewer Google Maps Page with Locations of Meteor Craters around the world* Solarviews: Terrestrial Impact Craters* Lunar and Planetary Institute slidshow: contains pictures* Earth Impact Effects Program Estimates crater size and other effects of a specified body colliding with Earth."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Corvus (disambiguation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Corvus''''' is a genus of birds commonly known as crows and ravens.",
"'''Corvus''' may also refer to:"
],
[
"Companies",
"* Corvus Energy, a Norwegian supplier originally founded in Canada* Corvus Hungary, an aircraft manufacturer* Corvus Systems, an American defunct computer hardware manufacturer"
],
[
"Fictional characters",
"* Corvus, a main antagonist in movie Pompeii (film)* Corvus, a character in Satyajit Ray's Professor Shonku series* Corvus, a character in the video game ''Call of Duty: Black Ops III''* Corvus, a character in the video game ''Dragon Quest IX: Sentinels of the Starry Skies''* Corvus, a character in the video games ''Heretic'' and ''Heretic II''* Corvus Glaive, a Marvel comics character"
],
[
"Military",
"* ASM-N-8 Corvus, a United States Navy missile* Corvus (boarding device), used by ancient Roman warships* Corvus chaff launcher, a British shipborne chaff decoy system manufactured by Vickers* SS ''Corvus'', the name of two steamships, both put out of service in 1945* USS ''Corvus'', a U.S. Navy attack cargo ship of World War II"
],
[
"People",
"* Joannes Corvus (fl.",
"1512 – 1544), Flemish portrait painter* Marcus Valerius Corvus (c. 370–270 BC), Roman military commander and politician"
],
[
"Publishing",
"* Corvus (imprint), an imprint of Atlantic Books* ''Corvus: A Life with Birds'', a 2008 non-fiction book by Esther Woolfson"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* Corvus (constellation), a small constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere** Corvus in Chinese astronomy, the same constellation as considered in traditional Chinese uranography* Corvus (heraldry), crows and ravens in heraldry* ''Corvus'', a ship in the 2017 video game ''Star Wars Battlefront II''* Corvus Corax (band), a German band known for playing neo-Medieval music* Gibson Corvus, a guitar product line"
],
[
"See also",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Corona Borealis"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Corona Borealis''' is a small constellation in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere.",
"It is one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations.",
"Its brightest stars form a semicircular arc.",
"Its Latin name, inspired by its shape, means \"northern crown\".",
"In classical mythology Corona Borealis generally represented the crown given by the god Dionysus to the Cretan princess Ariadne and set by her in the heavens.",
"Other cultures likened the pattern to a circle of elders, an eagle's nest, a bear's den or a smokehole.",
"Ptolemy also listed a southern counterpart, Corona Australis, with a similar pattern.The brightest star is the magnitude 2.2 Alpha Coronae Borealis.",
"The yellow supergiant R Coronae Borealis is the prototype of a rare class of giant stars—the R Coronae Borealis variables—that are extremely hydrogen deficient, and thought to result from the merger of two white dwarfs.",
"T Coronae Borealis, also known as the Blaze Star, is another unusual type of variable star known as a recurrent nova.",
"Normally of magnitude 10, it last flared up to magnitude 2 in 1946.ADS 9731 and Sigma Coronae Borealis are multiple star systems with six and five components respectively.",
"Five star systems have been found to have Jupiter-sized exoplanets.",
"Abell 2065 is a highly concentrated galaxy cluster one billion light-years from the Solar System containing more than 400 members, and is itself part of the larger Corona Borealis Supercluster."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"Covering 179 square degrees and hence 0.433% of the sky, Corona Borealis ranks 90th of the 1987 modern constellations by area.",
"Its position in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers north of 50°S.",
"It is bordered by Boötes to the north and west, Serpens Caput to the south, and Hercules to the east.",
"The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 9879 BC, is \"CrB\".",
"The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of eight segments (''illustrated in infobox'').",
"In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between 39.71° and 25.54°.",
"It has a counterpart—Corona Australis—in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere."
],
[
"Features",
"=== Stars ===The seven stars that make up the constellation's distinctive crown-shaped pattern are all 4th-magnitude stars except for the brightest of them, Alpha Coronae Borealis.",
"The other six stars are Theta, Beta, Gamma, Delta, Epsilon and Iota Coronae Borealis.",
"The German cartographer Johann Bayer gave twenty stars in Corona Borealis Bayer designations from Alpha to Upsilon in his 1603 star atlas ''Uranometria''.",
"Zeta Coronae Borealis was noted to be a double star by later astronomers and its components designated Zeta1 and Zeta2.John Flamsteed did likewise with Nu Coronae Borealis; classed by Bayer as a single star, it was noted to be two close stars by Flamsteed.",
"He named them 20 and 21 Coronae Borealis in his catalogue, alongside the designations Nu1 and Nu2 respectively.",
"Chinese astronomers deemed nine stars to make up the asterism, adding Pi and Rho Coronae Borealis.",
"Within the constellation's borders, there are 37 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5.The constellation Corona Borealis as it can be seen by the naked eyeAlpha Coronae Borealis (officially named Alphecca by the IAU, but sometimes also known as Gemma) appears as a blue-white star of magnitude 2.2.In fact, it is an Algol-type eclipsing binary that varies by 0.1 magnitude with a period of 17.4 days.",
"The primary is a white main-sequence star of spectral type A0V that is 2.91 times the mass of the Sun () and 57 times as luminous (), and is surrounded by a debris disk out to a radius of around 60 astronomical units (AU).",
"The secondary companion is a yellow main-sequence star of spectral type G5V that is a little smaller (0.9 times) the diameter of the Sun.",
"Lying 75±0.5 light-years from Earth, Alphecca is believed to be a member of the Ursa Major Moving Group of stars that have a common motion through space.Located 112±3 light-years away, Beta Coronae Borealis or Nusakan is a spectroscopic binary system whose two components are separated by 10 AU and orbit each other every 10.5 years.",
"The brighter component is a rapidly oscillating Ap star, pulsating with a period of 16.2 minutes.",
"Of spectral type A5V with a surface temperature of around 7980 K, it has around , 2.6 solar radii (), and .",
"The smaller star is of spectral type F2V with a surface temperature of around 6750 K, and has around , , and between 4 and .",
"Near Nusakan is Theta Coronae Borealis, a binary system that shines with a combined magnitude of 4.13 located 380±20 light-years distant.",
"The brighter component, Theta Coronae Borealis A, is a blue-white star that spins extremely rapidly—at a rate of around 393 km per second.",
"A Be star, it is surrounded by a debris disk.Flanking Alpha to the east is Gamma Coronae Borealis, yet another binary star system, whose components orbit each other every 92.94 years and are roughly as far apart from each other as the Sun and Neptune.",
"The brighter component has been classed as a Delta Scuti variable star, though this view is not universal.",
"The components are main sequence stars of spectral types B9V and A3V.",
"Located 170±2 light-years away, 4.06-magnitude Delta Coronae Borealis is a yellow giant star of spectral type G3.5III that is around and has swollen to .",
"It has a surface temperature of 5180 K. For most of its existence, Delta Coronae Borealis was a blue-white main-sequence star of spectral type B before it ran out of hydrogen fuel in its core.",
"Its luminosity and spectrum suggest it has just crossed the Hertzsprung gap, having finished burning core hydrogen and just begun burning hydrogen in a shell that surrounds the core.Zeta Coronae Borealis is a double star with two blue-white components 6.3 arcseconds apart that can be readily separated at 100x magnification.",
"The primary is of magnitude 5.1 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0.Nu Coronae Borealis is an optical double, whose components are a similar distance from Earth but have different radial velocities, hence are assumed to be unrelated.",
"The primary, Nu1 Coronae Borealis, is a red giant of spectral type M2III and magnitude 5.2, lying 640±30 light-years distant, and the secondary, Nu2 Coronae Borealis, is an orange-hued giant star of spectral type K5III and magnitude 5.4, estimated to be 590±30 light-years away.",
"Sigma Coronae Borealis, on the other hand, is a true multiple star system divisible by small amateur telescopes.",
"It is actually a complex system composed of two stars around as massive as the Sun that orbit each other every 1.14 days, orbited by a third Sun-like star every 726 years.",
"The fourth and fifth components are a binary red dwarf system that is 14,000 AU distant from the other three stars.",
"ADS 9731 is an even rarer multiple system in the constellation, composed of six stars, two of which are spectroscopic binaries.Corona Borealis is home to two remarkable variable stars.",
"T Coronae Borealis is a cataclysmic variable star also known as the Blaze Star.",
"Normally placid around magnitude 10—it has a minimum of 10.2 and maximum of 9.9—it brightens to magnitude 2 in a period of hours, caused by a nuclear chain reaction and the subsequent explosion.",
"T Coronae Borealis is one of a handful of stars called recurrent novae, which include T Pyxidis and U Scorpii.",
"An outburst of T Coronae Borealis was first recorded in 1866; its second recorded outburst was in February 1946.T Coronae Borealis is a binary star with a red-hued giant primary and a white dwarf secondary, the two stars orbiting each other over a period of approximately 8 months.",
"R Coronae Borealis is a yellow-hued variable supergiant star, over 7000 light-years from Earth, and prototype of a class of stars known as R Coronae Borealis variables.",
"Normally of magnitude 6, its brightness periodically drops as low as magnitude 15 and then slowly increases over the next several months.",
"These declines in magnitude come about as dust that has been ejected from the star obscures it.",
"Direct imaging with the Hubble Space Telescope shows extensive dust clouds out to a radius of around 2000 AU from the star, corresponding with a stream of fine dust (composed of grains 5 nm in diameter) associated with the star's stellar wind and coarser dust (composed of grains with a diameter of around 0.14 µm) ejected periodically.There are several other variables of reasonable brightness for amateur astronomer to observe, including three Mira-type long period variables: S Coronae Borealis ranges between magnitudes 5.8 and 14.1 over a period of 360 days.",
"Located around 1946 light-years distant, it shines with a luminosity 16,643 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 3033 K. One of the reddest stars in the sky, V Coronae Borealis is a cool star with a surface temperature of 2877 K that shines with a luminosity 102,831 times that of the Sun and is a remote 8810 light-years distant from Earth.",
"Varying between magnitudes 6.9 and 12.6 over a period of 357 days, it is located near the junction of the border of Corona Borealis with Hercules and Bootes.",
"Located 1.5° northeast of Tau Coronae Borealis, W Coronae Borealis ranges between magnitudes 7.8 and 14.3 over a period of 238 days.",
"Another red giant, RR Coronae Borealis is a M3-type semiregular variable star that varies between magnitudes 7.3 and 8.2 over 60.8 days.",
"RS Coronae Borealis is yet another semiregular variable red giant, which ranges between magnitudes 8.7 to 11.6 over 332 days.",
"It is unusual in that it is a red star with a high proper motion (greater than 50 milliarcseconds a year).",
"Meanwhile, U Coronae Borealis is an Algol-type eclipsing binary star system whose magnitude varies between 7.66 and 8.79 over a period of 3.45 daysTY Coronae Borealis is a pulsating white dwarf (of ZZ Ceti) type, which is around 70% as massive as the Sun, yet has only 1.1% of its diameter.",
"Discovered in 1990, UW Coronae Borealis is a low-mass X-ray binary system composed of a star less massive than the Sun and a neutron star surrounded by an accretion disk that draws material from the companion star.",
"It varies in brightness in an unusually complex manner: the two stars orbit each other every 111 minutes, yet there is another cycle of 112.6 minutes, which corresponds to the orbit of the disk around the degenerate star.",
"The beat period of 5.5 days indicates the time the accretion disk—which is asymmetrical—takes to precess around the star.=== Extrasolar planetary systems ===Extrasolar planets have been confirmed in five star systems, four of which were found by the radial velocity method.",
"The spectrum of Epsilon Coronae Borealis was analysed for seven years from 2005 to 2012, revealing a planet around 6.7 times as massive as Jupiter () orbiting every 418 days at an average distance of around 1.3 AU.",
"Epsilon itself is a orange giant of spectral type K2III that has swollen to and .",
"Kappa Coronae Borealis is a spectral type K1IV orange subgiant nearly twice as massive as the Sun; around it lies a dust debris disk, and one planet with a period of 3.4 years.",
"This planet's mass is estimated at .",
"The dimensions of the debris disk indicate it is likely there is a second substellar companion.",
"Omicron Coronae Borealis is a K-type clump giant with one confirmed planet with a mass of that orbits every 187 days—one of the two least massive planets known around clump giants.",
"HD 145457 is an orange giant of spectral type K0III found to have one planet of .",
"Discovered by the Doppler method in 2010, it takes 176 days to complete an orbit.",
"XO-1 is a magnitude 11 yellow main-sequence star located approximately light-years away, of spectral type G1V with a mass and radius similar to the Sun.",
"In 2006 the hot Jupiter exoplanet XO-1b was discovered orbiting XO-1 by the transit method using the XO Telescope.",
"Roughly the size of Jupiter, it completes an orbit around its star every three days.The discovery of a Jupiter-sized planetary companion was announced in 1997 via analysis of the radial velocity of Rho Coronae Borealis, a yellow main sequence star and Solar analog of spectral type G0V, around 57 light-years distant from Earth.",
"More accurate measurement of data from the Hipparcos satellite subsequently showed it instead to be a low-mass star somewhere between 100 and 200 times the mass of Jupiter.",
"Possible stable planetary orbits in the habitable zone were calculated for the binary star Eta Coronae Borealis, which is composed of two stars—yellow main sequence stars of spectral type G1V and G3V respectively—similar in mass and spectrum to the Sun.",
"No planet has been found, but a brown dwarf companion about 63 times as massive as Jupiter with a spectral type of L8 was discovered at a distance of 3640 AU from the pair in 2001.=== Deep-sky objects ===X-ray image of galaxy cluster Abell 2142Corona Borealis contains few galaxies observable with amateur telescopes.",
"NGC 6085 and 6086 are a faint spiral and elliptical galaxy respectively close enough to each other to be seen in the same visual field through a telescope.",
"Abell 2142 is a huge (six million light-year diameter), X-ray luminous galaxy cluster that is the result of an ongoing merger between two galaxy clusters.",
"It has a redshift of 0.0909 (meaning it is moving away from us at 27,250 km/s) and a visual magnitude of 16.0.It is about 1.2 billion light-years away.",
"Another galaxy cluster in the constellation, RX J1532.9+3021, is approximately 3.9 billion light-years from Earth.",
"At the cluster's center is a large elliptical galaxy containing one of the most massive and most powerful supermassive black holes yet discovered.",
"Abell 2065 is a highly concentrated galaxy cluster containing more than 400 members, the brightest of which are 16th magnitude; the cluster is more than one billion light-years from Earth.",
"On a larger scale still, Abell 2065, along with Abell 2061, Abell 2067, Abell 2079, Abell 2089, and Abell 2092, make up the Corona Borealis Supercluster.",
"Another galaxy cluster, Abell 2162, is a member of the Hercules Superclusters."
],
[
"Mythology",
"Hercules and Corona Borealis, as depicted in ''Urania's Mirror'' ()In Greek mythology, Corona Borealis was linked to the legend of Theseus and the minotaur.",
"It was generally considered to represent a crown given by Dionysus to Ariadne, the daughter of Minos of Crete, after she had been abandoned by the Athenian prince Theseus.",
"When she wore the crown at her marriage to Dionysus, he placed it in the heavens to commemorate their wedding.",
"An alternative version has the besotted Dionysus give the crown to Ariadne, who in turn gives it to Theseus after he arrives in Crete to kill the minotaur that the Cretans have demanded tribute from Athens to feed.",
"The hero uses the crown's light to escape the labyrinth after disposing of the creature, and Dionysus later sets it in the heavens.",
"The Latin author Hyginus linked it to a crown or wreath worn by Bacchus (Dionysus) to disguise his appearance when first approaching Mount Olympus and revealing himself to the gods, having been previously hidden as yet another child of Jupiter's trysts with a mortal, in this case Semele.",
"Corona Borealis was one of the 48 constellations mentioned in the ''Almagest'' of classical astronomer Ptolemy.In Mesopotamia, Corona Borealis was associated with the goddess Nanaya.In Welsh mythology, it was called Caer Arianrhod, \"the Castle of the Silver Circle\", and was the heavenly abode of the Lady Arianrhod.",
"To the ancient Balts, Corona Borealis was known as ''Darželis'', the \"flower garden.",
"\"The Arabs called the constellation Alphecca (a name later given to Alpha Coronae Borealis), which means \"separated\" or \"broken up\" ( ''''), a reference to the resemblance of the stars of Corona Borealis to a loose string of jewels.",
"This was also interpreted as a broken dish.",
"Among the Bedouins, the constellation was known as '''' (), or \"the dish/bowl of the poor people\".The Skidi people of Native Americans saw the stars of Corona Borealis representing a council of stars whose chief was Polaris.",
"The constellation also symbolised the smokehole over a fireplace, which conveyed their messages to the gods, as well as how chiefs should come together to consider matters of importance.",
"The Shawnee people saw the stars as the ''Heavenly Sisters'', who descended from the sky every night to dance on earth.",
"Alphecca signifies the youngest and most comely sister, who was seized by a hunter who transformed into a field mouse to get close to her.",
"They married though she later returned to the sky, with her heartbroken husband and son following later.",
"The Mi'kmaq of eastern Canada saw Corona Borealis as ''Mskegwǒm'', the den of the celestial bear (Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta Ursae Majoris).Polynesian peoples often recognized Corona Borealis; the people of the Tuamotus named it ''Na Kaua-ki-tokerau'' and probably ''Te Hetu''.",
"The constellation was likely called ''Kaua-mea'' in Hawaii, ''Rangawhenua'' in New Zealand, and ''Te Wale-o-Awitu'' in the Cook Islands atoll of Pukapuka.",
"Its name in Tonga was uncertain; it was either called ''Ao-o-Uvea'' or ''Kau-kupenga''.In Australian Aboriginal astronomy, the constellation is called ''womera'' (\"the boomerang\") due to the shape of the stars.",
"The Wailwun people of northwestern New South Wales saw Corona Borealis as ''mullion wollai'' \"eagle's nest\", with Altair and Vega—each called ''mullion''—the pair of eagles accompanying it.",
"The Wardaman people of northern Australia held the constellation to be a gathering point for Men's Law, Women's Law and Law of both sexes come together and consider matters of existence.=== Later references ===Corona Borealis was renamed Corona Firmiana in honour of the Archbishop of Salzburg in the 1730 Atlas ''Mercurii Philosophicii Firmamentum Firminianum Descriptionem'' by Corbinianus Thomas, but this was not taken up by subsequent cartographers.",
"The constellation was featured as a main plot ingredient in the short story \"Hypnos\" by H. P. Lovecraft, published in 1923; it is the object of fear of one of the protagonists in the short story.",
"Finnish band Cadacross released an album titled ''Corona Borealis'' in 2002."
],
[
"See also",
"* Corona Borealis (Chinese astronomy)"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Cited texts ===*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 160 medieval and early modern images of Corona Borealis)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cygnus (constellation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cygnus''' is a northern constellation on the plane of the Milky Way, deriving its name from the Latinized Greek word for swan.",
"Cygnus is one of the most recognizable constellations of the northern summer and autumn, and it features a prominent asterism known as the Northern Cross (in contrast to the Southern Cross).",
"Cygnus was among the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations.Cygnus contains Deneb (ذنب, translit.",
"''ḏanab,'' tail)one of the brightest stars in the night sky and the most distant first-magnitude staras its \"tail star\" and one corner of the Summer Triangle the constellation forming an east pointing altitude of the triangle.",
"It also has some notable X-ray sources and the giant stellar association of Cygnus OB2.Cygnus is also known as the Northern Cross.",
"One of the stars of this association, NML Cygni, is one of the largest stars currently known.",
"The constellation is also home to Cygnus X-1, a distant X-ray binary containing a supergiant and unseen massive companion that was the first object widely held to be a black hole.",
"Many star systems in Cygnus have known planets as a result of the Kepler Mission observing one patch of the sky, an area around Cygnus.Most of the east has part of the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall in the deep sky, a giant galaxy filament that is the largest known structure in the observable universe, covering most of the northern sky."
],
[
"History and mythology",
"=== In Eastern and World Astronomy ===In Hinduism, the period of time (or Muhurta) between 4:24 AM to 5:12 AM is called the Brahmamuhurtha, which means \"the moment of the Universe\"; the star system in correlation is the Cygnus constellation.",
"This is believed to be a highly auspicious time to meditate, do any task, or start the day.",
"In Polynesia, Cygnus was often recognized as a separate constellation.",
"In Tonga it was called ''Tuula-lupe'', and in the Tuamotus it was called ''Fanui-tai''.",
"In New Zealand it was called ''Mara-tea'', in the Society Islands it was called ''Pirae-tea'' or ''Taurua-i-te-haapa-raa-manu'', and in the Tuamotus it was called ''Fanui-raro''.",
"Beta Cygni was named in New Zealand; it was likely called ''Whetu-kaupo''.",
"Gamma Cygni was called ''Fanui-runga'' in the Tuamotus.Deneb was also often a given name, in the Islamic world of astronomy.",
"The name ''Deneb'' comes from the Arabic name ''dhaneb'', meaning \"tail\", from the phrase ''Dhanab ad-Dajājah'', which means \"the tail of the hen\".=== In Western astronomy ===Cygnus as depicted in ''Urania's Mirror'', a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825.Surrounding it are Lacerta, Vulpecula and Lyra.In Greek mythology, Cygnus has been identified with several different legendary swans.",
"Zeus disguised himself as a swan to seduce Leda, Spartan king Tyndareus's wife, who gave birth to the Gemini, Helen of Troy, and Clytemnestra; Orpheus was transformed into a swan after his murder, and was said to have been placed in the sky next to his lyre (Lyra); and the King Cygnus was transformed into a swan.Later Romans also associated this constellation with the tragic story of Phaethon, the son of Helios the sun god, who demanded to ride his father's sun chariot for a day.",
"Phaethon, however, was unable to control the reins, forcing Zeus to destroy the chariot (and Phaethon) with a thunderbolt, causing it to plummet to the earth into the river Eridanus.",
"According to the myth, Phaethon's close friend or lover, Cygnus, grieved bitterly and spent many days diving into the river to collect Phaethon's bones to give him a proper burial.",
"The gods were so touched by Cygnus's devotion that they turned him into a swan and placed him among the stars.In Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'', there are three people named Cygnus, all of whom are transformed into swans.",
"Alongside Cygnus, noted above, he mentions a boy from Tempe who commits suicide when Phyllius refuses to give him a tamed bull that he demands, but is transformed into a swan and flies away.",
"He also mentions a son of Neptune who is an invulnerable warrior in the Trojan War who is eventually defeated by Achilles, but Neptune saves him by transforming him into a swan.Together with other avian constellations near the summer solstice, Vultur cadens and Aquila, Cygnus may be a significant part of the origin of the myth of the Stymphalian Birds, one of The Twelve Labours of Hercules."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"A very large constellation, Cygnus is bordered by Cepheus to the north and east, Draco to the north and west, Lyra to the west, Vulpecula to the south, Pegasus to the southeast and Lacerta to the east.",
"The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the IAU in 1922, is \"Cyg\".",
"The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined as a polygon of 28 segments.",
"In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between 27.73° and 61.36°.",
"Covering 804 square degrees and around 1.9% of the night sky, Cygnus ranks 16th of the 88 constellations in size.Cygnus culminates at midnight on 29 June, and is most visible in the evening from the early summer to mid-autumn in the Northern Hemisphere.Normally, Cygnus is depicted with Delta and Epsilon Cygni as its wings.",
"Deneb, the brightest in the constellation is at its tail, and Albireo as the tip of its beak.There are several asterisms in Cygnus.",
"In the 17th-century German celestial cartographer Johann Bayer's star atlas the ''Uranometria'', Alpha, Beta and Gamma Cygni form the pole of a cross, while Delta and Epsilon form the cross beam.",
"The nova P Cygni was then considered to be the body of Christ."
],
[
"Features",
"Cygnus is superimposed as main stars constellation over a photo of the according section of the night sky There is an abundance of deep-sky objects, with many open clusters, nebulae of various types and supernova remnants found in Cygnus due to its position on the Milky Way.Its molecular clouds form the apparent '''Cygnus Rift''' dark nebula constellation, which is one end of the apparent part of the apparent Great Rift along the Milky Way's galactic plane.",
"The rift begins around the Northern Coalsack which obscures the further away and large in apparent size Cygnus molecular cloud complex which the North America Nebula is part of.=== Stars ===Northern Cross in the middle.Bayer catalogued many stars in the constellation, giving them the Bayer designations from Alpha to Omega and then using lowercase Roman letters to g. John Flamsteed added the Roman letters h, i, k, l and m (these stars were considered ''informes'' by Bayer as they lay outside the asterism of Cygnus), but were dropped by Francis Baily.V1331 Cygni is located in the dark cloud LDN 981.There are several bright stars in Cygnus.",
"α Cygni, called Deneb, is the brightest star in Cygnus.",
"It is a white supergiant star of spectral type A2Iae that varies between magnitudes 1.21 and 1.29, one of the largest and most luminous A-class stars known.",
"It is located about 2600 light-years away.",
"Its traditional name means \"tail\" and refers to its position in the constellation.",
"Albireo, designated β Cygni, is a celebrated binary star among amateur astronomers for its contrasting hues.",
"The primary is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 3.1 and the secondary is a blue-green hued star of magnitude 5.1.The system is 430 light-years away and is visible in large binoculars and all amateur telescopes.",
"γ Cygni, traditionally named Sadr, is a yellow-tinged supergiant star of magnitude 2.2, 1800 light-years away.",
"Its traditional name means \"breast\" and refers to its position in the constellation.",
"δ Cygni (the proper name is Fawaris) is another bright binary star in Cygnus, 166 light-years with a period of 800 years.",
"The primary is a blue-white hued giant star of magnitude 2.9, and the secondary is a star of magnitude 6.6.The two components are visible in a medium-sized amateur telescope.",
"The fifth star in Cygnus above magnitude 3 is Aljanah, designated ε Cygni.",
"It is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 2.5, 72 light-years from Earth.There are several other dimmer double and binary stars in Cygnus.",
"μ Cygni is a binary star with an optical tertiary component.",
"The binary system has a period of 790 years and is 73 light-years from Earth.",
"The primary and secondary, both white stars, are of magnitude 4.8 and 6.2, respectively.",
"The unrelated tertiary component is of magnitude 6.9.Though the tertiary component is visible in binoculars, the primary and secondary currently require a medium-sized amateur telescope to split, as they will through the year 2020.The two stars will be closest between 2043 and 2050, when they will require a telescope with larger aperture to split.",
"The stars 30 and 31 Cygni form a contrasting double star similar to the brighter Albireo.",
"The two are visible in binoculars.",
"The primary, 31 Cygni, is an orange-hued star of magnitude 3.8, 1400 light-years from Earth.",
"The secondary, 30 Cygni, appears blue-green.",
"It is of spectral type A5IIIn and magnitude 4.83, and is around 610 light-years from Earth.",
"31 Cygni itself is a binary star; the tertiary component is a blue star of magnitude 7.0.ψ Cygni is a binary star visible in small amateur telescopes, with two white components.",
"The primary is of magnitude 5.0 and the secondary is of magnitude 7.5.61 Cygni is a binary star visible in large binoculars or a small amateur telescope.",
"It is 11.4 light-years from Earth and has a period of 750 years.",
"Both components are orange-hued dwarf (main sequence) stars; the primary is of magnitude 5.2 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.1.61 Cygni is significant because Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel determined its parallax in 1838, the first star to have a known parallax.Located near η Cygni is the X-ray source Cygnus X-1, which is now thought to be caused by a black hole accreting matter in a binary star system.",
"This was the first X-ray source widely believed to be a black hole.",
"It is located approximately 2.2 kiloparsecs from the Sun.",
"There is also supergiant variable star in the system which is known as HDE 226868.The two component stars of Albireo are easily distinguished, even in a small telescope.Cygnus also contains several other noteworthy X-ray sources.",
"Cygnus X-3 is a microquasar containing a Wolf–Rayet star in orbit around a very compact object, with a period of only 4.8 hours.",
"The system is one of the most intrinsically luminous X-ray sources observed.",
"The system undergoes periodic outbursts of unknown nature, and during one such outburst, the system was found to be emitting muons, likely caused by neutrinos.",
"While the compact object is thought to be a neutron star or possibly a black hole, it is possible that the object is instead a more exotic stellar remnant, possibly the first discovered quark star, hypothesized due to its production of cosmic rays that cannot be explained if the object is a normal neutron star.",
"The system also emits cosmic rays and gamma rays, and has helped shed insight on to the formation of such rays.",
"Cygnus X-2 is another X-ray binary, containing an A-type giant in orbit around a neutron star with a 9.8-day period.",
"The system is interesting due to the rather small mass of the companion star, as most millisecond pulsars have much more massive companions.",
"Another black hole in Cygnus is V404 Cygni, which consists of a K-type star orbiting around a black hole of around 12 solar masses.",
"The black hole, similar to that of Cygnus X-3, has been hypothesized to be a quark star.",
"4U 2129+ 47 is another X-ray binary containing a neutron star which undergoes outbursts, as is EXO 2030+ 375.Cygnus is also home to several variable stars.",
"SS Cygni is a dwarf nova which undergoes outbursts every 7–8 weeks.",
"The system's total magnitude varies from 12th magnitude at its dimmest to 8th magnitude at its brightest.",
"The two objects in the system are incredibly close together, with an orbital period of less than 0.28 days.",
"χ Cygni is a red giant and the second-brightest Mira variable star at its maximum.",
"It ranges between magnitudes 3.3 and 14.2, and spectral types S6,2e to S10,4e (MSe) over a period of 408 days; it has a diameter of 300 solar diameters and is 350 light-years from Earth.",
"P Cygni is a luminous blue variable that brightened suddenly to 3rd magnitude in 1600 AD.",
"Since 1715, the star has been of 5th magnitude, despite being more than 5000 light-years from Earth.",
"The star's spectrum is unusual in that it contains very strong emission lines resulting from surrounding nebulosity.",
"W Cygni is a semi-regular variable red giant star, 618 light-years from Earth.It has a maximum magnitude of 5.10 and a minimum magnitude 6.83; its period of 131 days.",
"It is a red giant ranging between spectral types M4e-M6e(Tc:)III, NML Cygni is a red hypergiant semi-regular variable star located at 5,300 light-years away from Earth.",
"It is one of largest stars currently known in the galaxy with a radius exceeding 1,000 solar radii.",
"Its magnitude is around 16.6, its period is about 940 days.The star KIC 8462852 (Tabby's Star) has received widespread press coverage because of unusual light fluctuations.=== Exoplanets ===Cygnus is one of the constellations that the Kepler satellite surveyed in its search for exoplanets, and as a result, there are about a hundred stars in Cygnus with known planets, the most of any constellation.",
"One of the most notable systems is the Kepler-11 system, containing six transiting planets, all within a plane of approximately one degree.",
"It was the system with six exoplanets to be discovered.",
"With a spectral type of G6V, the star is somewhat cooler than the Sun.",
"The planets are very close to the star; all but the last planet are closer to Kepler-11 than Mercury is to the Sun, and all the planets are more massive than Earth, and have low densities.",
"The planets have low densities.",
"The naked-eye star 16 Cygni, a triple star approximately 70 light-years from Earth composed two Sun-like stars and a red dwarf, contains a planet orbiting one of the sun-like stars, found due to variations in the star's radial velocity.",
"Gliese 777, another naked-eye multiple star system containing a yellow star and a red dwarf, also contains a planet.",
"The planet is somewhat similar to Jupiter, but with slightly more mass and a more eccentric orbit.",
"The Kepler-22 system is also notable for having the most Earth-like exoplanet when it was discovered in 2011.=== Star clusters ===The rich background of stars of Cygnus can make it difficult to make out open cluster.M39 (NGC 7092) is an open cluster 950 light-years from Earth that are visible to the unaided eye under dark skies.",
"It is loose, with about 30 stars arranged over a wide area; their conformation appears triangular.",
"The brightest stars of M39 are of the 7th magnitude.",
"Another open cluster in Cygnus is NGC 6910, also called the Rocking Horse Cluster, possessing 16 stars with a diameter of 5 arcminutes visible in a small amateur instrument; it is of magnitude 7.4.The brightest of these are two gold-hued stars, which represent the bottom of the toy it is named for.",
"A larger amateur instrument reveals 8 more stars, nebulosity to the east and west of the cluster, and a diameter of 9 arcminutes.",
"The nebulosity in this region is part of the Gamma Cygni Nebula.",
"The other stars, approximately 3700 light-years from Earth, are mostly blue-white and very hot.Other open clusters in Cygnus include Dolidze 9, Collinder 421, Dolidze 11, and Berkeley 90.Dolidze 9, 2800 light-years from Earth and relatively young at 20 million light-years old, is a faint open cluster with up to 22 stars visible in small and medium-sized amateur telescopes.",
"Nebulosity is visible to the north and east of the cluster, which is 7 arcminutes in diameter.",
"The brightest star appears in the eastern part of the cluster and is of the 7th magnitude; another bright star has a yellow hue.",
"Dolidze 11 is an open cluster 400 million years old, farthest away of the three at 3700 light-years.",
"More than 10 stars are visible in an amateur instrument in this cluster, of similar size to Dolidze 9 at 7 arcminutes in diameter, whose brightest star is of magnitude 7.5.It, too, has nebulosity in the east.",
"Collinder 421 is a particularly old open cluster at an age of approximately 1 billion years; it is of magnitude 10.1.3100 light-years from Earth, more than 30 stars are visible in a diameter of 8 arcseconds.",
"The prominent star in the north of the cluster has a golden color, whereas the stars in the south of the cluster appear orange.",
"Collinder 421 appears to be embedded in nebulosity, which extends past the cluster's borders to its west.",
"Berkeley 90 is a smaller open cluster, with a diameter of 5 arcminutes.",
"More than 16 members appear in an amateur telescope.===Molecular clouds===The North America Nebula (NGC 7000) is one of the most well-known nebulae in Cygnus.NGC 6826, the Blinking Planetary Nebula, is a planetary nebula with a magnitude of 8.5, 3200 light-years from Earth.",
"It appears to \"blink\" in the eyepiece of a telescope because its central star is unusually bright (10th magnitude).",
"When an observer focuses on the star, the nebula appears to fade away.",
"Less than one degree from the Blinking Planetary is the double star 16 Cygni.The North America Nebula (NGC 7000) is one of the most well-known nebulae in Cygnus, because it is visible to the unaided eye under dark skies, as a bright patch in the Milky Way.",
"However, its characteristic shape is only visible in long-exposure photographs – it is difficult to observe in telescopes because of its low surface brightness.",
"It has low surface brightness because it is so large; at its widest, the North America Nebula is 2 degrees across.",
"Illuminated by a hot embedded star of magnitude 6, NGC 7000 is 1500 light-years from Earth.NGC 6992 (Eastern Veil Nebula – center) and NGC 6960 (Western Veil Nebula – upper right) photographed from a dark siteTo the south of Epsilon Cygni is the Veil Nebula (NGC 6960, 6979, 6992, and 6995), a 5,000-year-old supernova remnant covering approximately 3 degrees of the sky - it is over 50 light-years long.",
"Because of its appearance, it is also called the Cygnus Loop.",
"The Loop is only visible in long-exposure astrophotographs.",
"However, the brightest portion, NGC 6992, is faintly visible in binoculars, and a dimmer portion, NGC 6960, is visible in wide-angle telescopes.The DR 6 cluster is also nicknamed the \"Galactic Ghoul\" because of the nebula's resemblance to a human face;Cygnus X, a large region of star-formation in CygnusThe Gamma Cygni Nebula (IC 1318) includes both bright and dark nebulae in an area of over 4 degrees.",
"DWB 87 is another of the many bright emission nebulae in Cygnus, 7.8 by 4.3 arcminutes.",
"It is in the Gamma Cygni area.",
"Two other emission nebulae include Sharpless 2-112 and Sharpless 2-115.When viewed in an amateur telescope, Sharpless 2–112 appears to be in a teardrop shape.",
"More of the nebula's eastern portion is visible with an O III (doubly ionized oxygen) filter.",
"There is an orange star of magnitude 10 nearby and a star of magnitude 9 near the nebula's northwest edge.",
"Further to the northwest, there is a dark rift and another bright patch.",
"The whole nebula measures 15 arcminutes in diameter.",
"Sharpless 2–115 is another emission nebula with a complex pattern of light and dark patches.",
"Two pairs of stars appear in the nebula; it is larger near the southwestern pair.",
"The open cluster Berkeley 90 is embedded in this large nebula, which measures 30 by 20 arcminutes.Also of note is the Crescent Nebula (NGC 6888), located between Gamma and Eta Cygni, which was formed by the Wolf–Rayet star HD 192163.In recent years, amateur astronomers have made some notable Cygnus discoveries.",
"The \"Soap bubble nebula\" (PN G75.5+1.7), near the Crescent nebula, was discovered on a digital image by Dave Jurasevich in 2007.In 2011, Austrian amateur Matthias Kronberger discovered a planetary nebula (Kronberger 61, now nicknamed \"The Soccer Ball\") on old survey photos, confirmed recently in images by the Gemini Observatory; both of these are likely too faint to be detected by eye in a small amateur scope.But a much more obscure and relatively 'tiny' object—one which is readily seen in dark skies by amateur telescopes, under good conditions—is the newly discovered nebula (likely reflection type) associated with the star 4 Cygni (HD 183056): an approximately fan-shaped glowing region of several arcminutes' diameter, to the south and west of the fifth-magnitude star.",
"It was first discovered visually near San Jose, California and publicly reported by amateur astronomer Stephen Waldee in 2007, and was confirmed photographically by Al Howard in 2010.California amateur astronomer Dana Patchick also says he detected it on the Palomar Observatory survey photos in 2005 but had not published it for others to confirm and analyze at the time of Waldee's first official notices and later 2010 paper.Cygnus X is the largest star-forming region in the solar neighborhood and includes not only some of the brightest and most massive stars known (such as Cygnus OB2-12), but also Cygnus OB2, a massive stellar association classified by some authors as a young globular cluster.=== Deep space objects ===Cygnus A is the first radio galaxy discovered; at a distance of 730 million light-years from Earth, it is the closest powerful radio galaxy.",
"In the visible spectrum, it appears as an elliptical galaxy in a small cluster.",
"It is classified as an active galaxy because the supermassive black hole at its nucleus is accreting matter, which produces two jets of matter from the poles.",
"The jets' interaction with the interstellar medium creates radio lobes, one source of radio emissions.===Other features===Cygnus is also the apparent source of the WIMP-wind due to the orientation of the solar system's rotation through the galactic halo.Diagram of the Milky Way's spiral armsThe local Orion-Cygnus Arm and the distant Cygnus Arm are two minor galactic arms named after Cygnus for lying in its background."
],
[
"See also",
"* Cygnus (Chinese astronomy)* Cygnus (spacecraft)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * * Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007).",
"''Stars and Planets Guide'', Collins, London.",
".",
"Princeton University Press, Princeton.",
"."
],
[
"External links",
"* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Cygnus* Northern Cygnus Mosaic Pan and Zoom in on deep sky objects in Cygnus (requires ''ShockwaveFlash'').",
"* The clickable Cygnus* Star Tales – Cygnus* 4 Cygni Nebula* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Cygnus)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Communion"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Communion''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Religion",
"* Eucharist (also called the Holy Communion or Lord's Supper), the Christian rite involving the eating of bread and drinking of wine, reenacting the Last Supper**Communion (chant), the Gregorian chant that accompanies this rite** First Communion, a ceremony in some Christian traditions during which a person receives the Eucharist for the first time* ''Koinonia'' (communion or fellowship), the relationship between Christians as individuals and as churches** Communion of Saints, a doctrine of Christianity mentioned in the Apostles' Creed** Full communion, recognition between churches"
],
[
"Arts, entertainment, and media",
"===Films and literature===* ''Communion'' (2016 film), a documentary* ''Communion'' (book), a book by Whitley Strieber about his purported abductions by aliens** Communion (1989 film), a film based on the book* ''Alice, Sweet Alice'' or ''Communion'', a 1976 horror film starring Brooke Shields===Music===* ''Communion'' (Roy Campbell album) (1995)* ''Communion'' (John Patitucci album) (2001)* ''Communion'' (Septic Flesh album) (2008)* ''Communion'' (The Soundtrack of Our Lives album) (2008)* ''Communion'' (Years & Years album) (2015)* ''Communion'' (Park Jiha album) (2016)* \"Communion\", a Raffi album (2009)* \"Communion\", a song by Debbie Harry from ''Debravation''* \"Communion\", a song by Third Day from ''Wherever You Are''* Communion Music, an artist-led music community"
],
[
"See also",
"* ''Communio'', a theological journal* Unmitigated communion, focusing on others to the exclusion of self"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Calorie"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A energy drink with 330 ''large'' caloriesThe '''calorie''' is a unit of energy that originated from the caloric theory of heat.",
"The '''large calorie''', '''food calorie''', '''dietary calorie''', or '''kilogram calorie''' is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one liter of water by one degree Celsius (or one kelvin).",
"The '''small calorie''' or '''gram calorie''' is defined as the amount of heat needed to cause the same increase in one milliliter of water.",
"Thus, 1 large calorie is equal to 1000 small calories.In nutrition and food science, the term ''calorie'' and the symbol ''cal'' may refer to the large unit or to the small unit in different regions of the world.",
"It is generally used in publications and package labels to express the energy value of foods in per serving or per weight, recommended dietary caloric intake, metabolic rates, etc.",
"Some authors recommend the spelling ''Calorie'' and the symbol ''Cal'' (both with a capital C) if the large calorie is meant, to avoid confusion; however, this convention is often ignored.In physics and chemistry the word ''calorie'' and its symbol usually refer to the small unit; the large one being called ''kilocalorie''.",
"However, the kcal is not officially part of SI, and is regarded as obsolete, having been replaced in many uses by the SI unit of energy, the joule (J).The precise equivalence between calories and joules has varied over the years, but in thermochemistry and nutrition it is now generally assumed that one (small) calorie ('''thermochemical calorie''') is equal to exactly 4.184 J, and therefore one kilocalorie (one large calorie) is 4184 J, or 4.184 kJ."
],
[
"History",
"The term \"calorie\" comes .",
"It was first introduced by Nicolas Clément, as a unit of heat energy, in lectures on experimental calorimetry during the years 1819–1824.This was the \"large\" calorie.",
"The term (written with lowercase \"c\") entered French and English dictionaries between 1841 and 1867.The same term was used for the \"small\" unit by Pierre Antoine Favre (chemist) and Johann T. Silbermann (physicist) in 1852.This unit was used by U.S. physician Joseph Howard Raymond, in his classic 1894 textbook ''A Manual of Human Physiology''.",
"He proposed calling the \"large\" unit \"kilocalorie\", but the term did not catch on until some years later.In 1879, Marcellin Berthelot distinguished between gram-calorie and kilogram-calorie, and proposed using \"Calorie\", with capital \"C\", for the large unit.",
"This usage was adopted by Wilbur Olin Atwater, a professor at Wesleyan University, in 1887, in an influential article on the energy content of food.The small calorie (cal) was recognized as a unit of the CGS system in 1896, alongside the already-existing CGS unit of energy, the erg (first suggested by Clausius in 1864, under the name ''ergon'', and officially adopted in 1882).Already in 1928 there were serious complaints about the possible confusion arising from the two main definitions of the calorie and whether the notion of using the capital letter to distinguish them was sound.The joule was the officially adopted SI unit of energy at the ninth General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1948.The calorie was mentioned in the 7th edition of the SI brochure as an example of a non-SI unit.The alternate spelling is considered nonstandard and dated."
],
[
"Definitions",
"The \"small\" calorie is broadly defined as the amount of energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 °C (or 1 K, which is the same increment, a gradation of one percent of the interval between the melting point and the boiling point of water).",
"The actual amount of energy required to accomplish this temperature increase depends on the atmospheric pressure and the starting temperature; different choices of these parameters have resulted in several different precise definitions of the unit.",
"Name Symbol Conversions Definition and notes Thermochemical calorie calth ≡ ≈ ≈ ≈ The amount of energy equal to exactly '''4.184 J''' (joules) and 1 kJ ≈ 0.239 kcal.",
"4 °C calorie cal4 ≈ 4.204 J≈ ≈ ≈ The amount of energy required to warm one gram of air-free water from 3.5 to 4.5 °C at standard atmospheric pressure.",
"15 °C calorie cal15 ≈ 4.1855 J≈ ≈ ≈ The amount of energy required to warm one gram of air-free water from 14.5 to 15.5 °C at standard atmospheric pressure.",
"Experimental values of this calorie ranged from 4.1852 to 4.1858 J.",
"The CIPM in 1950 published a mean experimental value of 4.1855 J, noting an uncertainty of 0.0005 J.",
"20 °C calorie cal20 ≈ 4.182 J≈ ≈ ≈ The amount of energy required to warm one gram of air-free water from 19.5 to 20.5 °C at standard atmospheric pressure.",
"Mean calorie calmean ≈ 4.190 J≈ ≈ ≈ Defined as of the amount of energy required to warm one gram of air-free water from 0 to 100 °C at standard atmospheric pressure.",
"International Steam Table calorie (1929) ≈ 4.1868 J≈ ≈ ≈ Defined as \"international\" watt hours = \"international\" joules exactly.",
"International Steam Table calorie (1956) calIT ≡ 4.1868 J≈ ≈ Defined as 1.163 mW⋅h = 4.1868 J exactly.",
"This definition was adopted by the Fifth International Conference on Properties of Steam (London, July 1956).The two definitions most common in older literature appear to be the ''15 °C calorie'' and the ''thermochemical calorie''.",
"Until 1948, the latter was defined as 4.1833 international joules; the current standard of 4.184 J was chosen to have the new thermochemical calorie represent the same quantity of energy as before."
],
[
"Usage",
"===Nutrition===In the United States, in a nutritional context, the \"large\" unit is used almost exclusively.",
"It is generally written \"calorie\" with lowercase \"c\" and symbol \"cal\", even in government publications.",
"The SI unit of energy kilojoule (kJ) may be used instead, in legal or scientific contexts.",
"Most nutritionists prefer the unit kilocalorie to the unit kilojoules, whereas most physiologists prefer to use kilojoules.",
"In the majority of other countries, nutritionists prefer the kilojoule to the kilocalorie.In the European Union, energy on nutrition facts labels is expressed in both kilojoules and kilocalories, abbreviated as \"kJ\" and \"kcal\" respectively.In China, only kilojoules are given.===Food energy===The unit is most commonly used to express food energy, namely the specific energy (energy per mass) of metabolizing different types of food.",
"For example, fat (lipids) contains 9 kilocalories per gram (kcal/g), while carbohydrates (sugar and starch) and protein contain approximately 4 kcal/g.",
"Alcohol in food contains 7 kcal/g.",
"The \"large\" unit is also used to express recommended nutritional intake or consumption, as in \"calories per day\".Dieting is the practice of eating food in a regulated way to decrease, maintain, or increase body weight, or to prevent and treat diseases such as diabetes and obesity.",
"As weight loss depends on reducing caloric intake, different kinds of calorie-reduced diets have been shown to be generally effective.===Chemistry and physics===In other scientific contexts, the term \"calorie\" and the symbol \"cal\" almost always refers to the small unit; the \"large\" unit being generally called \"kilocalorie\" with symbol \"kcal\".",
"It is mostly used to express the amount of energy released in a chemical reaction or phase change, typically per mole of substance, as in kilocalories per mole.",
"It is also occasionally used to specify other energy quantities that relate to reaction energy, such as enthalpy of formation and the size of activation barriers.",
"However, it is increasingly being superseded by the SI unit, the joule (J); and metric multiples thereof, such as the kilojoule (kJ).The lingering use in chemistry is largely due to the fact that the energy released by a reaction in aqueous solution, expressed in kilocalories per mole of reagent, is numerically close to the concentration of the reagent, in moles per liter, multiplied by the change in the temperature of the solution, in kelvin or degrees Celsius.",
"However, this estimate assumes that the volumetric heat capacity of the solution is 1 kcal/L/K, which is not exact even for pure water."
],
[
"See also",
"* Basal metabolic rate* Caloric theory* Conversion of units of energy* Empty calorie* Food energy* A calorie is a calorie* Nutrition facts label* British Thermal Unit"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Corona Australis"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Corona Australis''' is a constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere.",
"Its Latin name means \"southern crown\", and it is the southern counterpart of Corona Borealis, the northern crown.",
"It is one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations.",
"The Ancient Greeks saw Corona Australis as a wreath rather than a crown and associated it with Sagittarius or Centaurus.",
"Other cultures have likened the pattern to a turtle, ostrich nest, a tent, or even a hut belonging to a rock hyrax.Although fainter than its northern counterpart, the oval- or horseshoe-shaped pattern of its brighter stars renders it distinctive.",
"Alpha and Beta Coronae Australis are the two brightest stars with an apparent magnitude of around 4.1.Epsilon Coronae Australis is the brightest example of a W Ursae Majoris variable in the southern sky.",
"Lying alongside the Milky Way, Corona Australis contains one of the closest star-forming regions to the Solar System—a dusty dark nebula known as the Corona Australis Molecular Cloud, lying about 430 light years away.",
"Within it are stars at the earliest stages of their lifespan.",
"The variable stars R and TY Coronae Australis light up parts of the nebula, which varies in brightness accordingly."
],
[
"Name",
"The name of the constellation was entered as \"Corona Australis\" when the International Astronomical Union (IAU) established the 88 modern constellations in 1922.In 1932, the name was instead recorded as \"Corona Austrina\" when the IAU's commission on notation approved a list of four-letter abbreviations for the constellations.The four-letter abbreviations were repealed in 1955.The IAU presently uses \"Corona Australis\" exclusively."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"Corona Australis is a small constellation bordered by Sagittarius to the north, Scorpius to the west, Telescopium to the south, and Ara to the southwest.",
"The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is \"CrA\".",
"The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of four segments (''illustrated in infobox'').",
"In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −36.77° and −45.52°.",
"Covering 128 square degrees, Corona Australis culminates at midnight around the 30th of June and ranks 80th in area.",
"Only visible at latitudes south of 53° north, Corona Australis cannot be seen from the British Isles as it lies too far south, but it can be seen from southern Europe and readily from the southern United States."
],
[
"Features",
"The constellation Corona Australis as it can be seen by the naked eyeWhile not a bright constellation, Corona Australis is nonetheless distinctive due to its easily identifiable pattern of stars, which has been described as horseshoe- or oval-shaped.",
"Though it has no stars brighter than 4th magnitude, it still has 21 stars visible to the unaided eye (brighter than magnitude 5.5).",
"Nicolas Louis de Lacaille used the Greek letters Alpha through to Lambda to label the most prominent eleven stars in the constellation, designating two stars as Eta and omitting Iota altogether.",
"Mu Coronae Australis, a yellow star of spectral type G5.5III and apparent magnitude 5.21, was labelled by Johann Elert Bode and retained by Benjamin Gould, who deemed it bright enough to warrant naming.=== Stars ===The only star in the constellation to have received a name is Alfecca Meridiana or Alpha CrA.",
"The name combines the Arabic name of the constellation with the Latin for \"southern\".",
"In Arabic, ''Alfecca'' means \"break\", and refers to the shape of both Corona Australis and Corona Borealis.",
"Also called simply \"Meridiana\", it is a white main sequence star located 125 light years away from Earth, with an apparent magnitude of 4.10 and spectral type A2Va.",
"A rapidly rotating star, it spins at almost 200 km per second at its equator, making a complete revolution in around 14 hours.",
"Like the star Vega, it has excess infrared radiation, which indicates it may be ringed by a disk of dust.",
"It is currently a main-sequence star, but will eventually evolve into a white dwarf; currently, it has a luminosity 31 times greater, and a radius and mass of 2.3 times that of the Sun.",
"Beta Coronae Australis is an orange giant 474 light years from Earth.",
"Its spectral type is K0II, and it is of apparent magnitude 4.11.Since its formation, it has evolved from a B-type star to a K-type star.",
"Its luminosity class places it as a bright giant; its luminosity is 730 times that of the Sun, designating it one of the highest-luminosity K0-type stars visible to the naked eye.",
"100 million years old, it has a radius of 43 solar radii () and a mass of between 4.5 and 5 solar masses ().",
"Alpha and Beta are so similar as to be indistinguishable in brightness to the naked eye.Some of the more prominent double stars include Gamma Coronae Australis—a pair of yellowish white stars 58 light years away from Earth, which orbit each other every 122 years.",
"Widening since 1990, the two stars can be seen as separate with a 100 mm aperture telescope; they are separated by 1.3 arcseconds at an angle of 61 degrees.",
"They have a combined visual magnitude of 4.2; each component is an F8V dwarf star with a magnitude of 5.01.Epsilon Coronae Australis is an eclipsing binary belonging to a class of stars known as W Ursae Majoris variables.",
"These star systems are known as contact binaries as the component stars are so close together they touch.",
"Varying by a quarter of a magnitude around an average apparent magnitude of 4.83 every seven hours, the star system lies 98 light years away.",
"Its spectral type is F4VFe-0.8+.",
"At the southern end of the crown asterism are the stars Eta1 and Eta2 CrA, which form an optical double.",
"Of magnitude 5.1 and 5.5, they are separable with the naked eye and are both white.",
"Kappa Coronae Australis is an easily resolved optical double—the components are of apparent magnitudes 6.3 and 5.6 and are about 1000 and 150 light years away respectively.",
"They appear at an angle of 359 degrees, separated by 21.6 arcseconds.",
"Kappa2 is actually the brighter of the pair and is more bluish white, with a spectral type of B9V, while Kappa1 is of spectral type A0III.",
"Lying 202 light years away, Lambda Coronae Australis is a double splittable in small telescopes.",
"The primary is a white star of spectral type A2Vn and magnitude of 5.1, while the companion star has a magnitude of 9.7.The two components are separated by 29.2 arcseconds at an angle of 214 degrees.Zeta Coronae Australis is a rapidly rotating main sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 4.8, 221.7 light years from Earth.",
"The star has blurred lines in its hydrogen spectrum due to its rotation.",
"Its spectral type is B9V.",
"Theta Coronae Australis lies further to the west, a yellow giant of spectral type G8III and apparent magnitude 4.62.Corona Australis harbours RX J1856.5-3754, an isolated neutron star that is thought to lie 140 (±40) parsecs, or 460 (±130) light years, away, with a diameter of 14 km.",
"It was once suspected to be a strange star, but this has been discounted.===Corona Australis Molecular Cloud===The Milky Way as seen by Gaia, with prominent dark features labeled in white, as well as prominent star clouds labeled in black.",
"Corona Australis is on the left bottom center.A starchart of night sky towards the Galactic Central area, with the Corona Australis Molecular Cloud at the bottom left marked green.The Corona Australis Molecular Cloud is a dark molecular cloud just north of Beta Coronae Australis.",
"Illuminated by a number of embedded reflection nebulae the cloud fans out from Epsilon Coronae Australis eastward along the constellation border with Sagittarius.",
"It contains , Herbig–Haro objects (protostars) and some very young stars, being one of the closest star-forming regions, 430 light years (130 parsecs) to the Solar System, at the surface of the Local Bubble.",
"The first nebulae of the cloud were recorded in 1865 by Johann Friedrich Julius Schmidt.The R Coronae Australis region.",
"The dust of the cloud is illuminated blue by starlight.",
"Stars that are forming inside the cloud could only be detected by observing at longer wavelengths.Detail of the star-forming region and Coronet Cluster, with the distinct Herbig–Haro object HH 100/Bernes 158 to the left.Between Epsilon and Gamma Coronae Australis the cloud consists of the particular dark nebula and star forming region Bernes 157.It is 55 by 18 arcminutes wide and possesses several stars around magnitude 13.These stars are dimmed by up to 8 magnitudes because of the obscuring dust clouds.",
"At the center of the active star-forming region lies the Coronet cluster (also called R CrA Cluster), which is used in studying star and protoplanetary disk formation.",
"R Coronae Australis (R CrA) is an irregular variable star ranging from magnitudes 9.7 to 13.9.Blue-white, it is of spectral type B5IIIpe.",
"A very young star, it is still accumulating interstellar material.",
"It is obscured by, and illuminates, the surrounding nebula, NGC 6729, which brightens and darkens with it.",
"The nebula is often compared to a comet for its appearance in a telescope, as its length is five times its width.",
"Other stars of the cluster include S Coronae Australis, a G-class dwarf and T Tauri star.Nearby north, another young variable star, TY Coronae Australis, illuminates another nebula: reflection nebula NGC 6726/NGC 6727.TY Coronae Australis ranges irregularly between magnitudes 8.7 and 12.4, and the brightness of the nebula varies with it.",
"Blue-white, it is of spectral type B8e.",
"The largest young stars in the region, R, S, T, TY and VV Coronae Australis, are all ejecting jets of material which cause surrounding dust and gas to coalesce and form Herbig–Haro objects, many of which have been identified nearby.Not part of it is the globular cluster known as NGC 6723, which can be seen adjacent to the nebulosity in the neighbouring constellation of Sagittarius, but is much much further away.Corona Australis inside the Local Bubble.=== Deep sky objects ===IC 1297 is a planetary nebula of apparent magnitude 10.7, which appears as a green-hued roundish object in higher-powered amateur instruments.",
"The nebula surrounds the variable star RU Coronae Australis, which has an average apparent magnitude of 12.9 and is a WC class Wolf–Rayet star.",
"IC 1297 is small, at only 7 arcseconds in diameter; it has been described as \"a square with rounded edges\" in the eyepiece, elongated in the north–south direction.",
"Descriptions of its color encompass blue, blue-tinged green, and green-tinged blue.Corona Australis' location near the Milky Way means that galaxies are uncommonly seen.",
"NGC 6768 is a magnitude 11.2 object 35′ south of IC 1297.It is made up of two galaxies merging, one of which is an elongated elliptical galaxy of classification E4 and the other a lenticular galaxy of classification S0.IC 4808 is a galaxy of apparent magnitude 12.9 located on the border of Corona Australis with the neighbouring constellation of Telescopium and 3.9 degrees west-southwest of Beta Sagittarii.",
"However, amateur telescopes will only show a suggestion of its spiral structure.",
"It is 1.9 arcminutes by 0.8 arcminutes.",
"The central area of the galaxy does appear brighter in an amateur instrument, which shows it to be tilted northeast–southwest.Southeast of Theta and southwest of Eta lies the open cluster ESO 281-SC24, which is composed of the yellow 9th magnitude star GSC 7914 178 1 and five 10th to 11th magnitude stars.",
"Halfway between Theta Coronae Australis and Theta Scorpii is the dense globular cluster NGC 6541.Described as between magnitude 6.3 and magnitude 6.6, it is visible in binoculars and small telescopes.",
"Around 22000 light years away, it is around 100 light years in diameter.",
"It is estimated to be around 14 billion years old.",
"NGC 6541 appears 13.1 arcminutes in diameter and is somewhat resolvable in large amateur instruments; a 12-inch telescope reveals approximately 100 stars but the core remains unresolved.=== Meteor showers ===The Corona Australids are a meteor shower that takes place between 14 and 18 March each year, peaking around 16 March.",
"This meteor shower does not have a high peak hourly rate.",
"In 1953 and 1956, observers noted a maximum of 6 meteors per hour and 4 meteors per hour respectively; in 1955 the shower was \"barely resolved\".",
"However, in 1992, astronomers detected a peak rate of 45 meteors per hour.",
"The Corona Australids' rate varies from year to year.",
"At only six days, the shower's duration is particularly short, and its meteoroids are small; the stream is devoid of large meteoroids.",
"The Corona Australids were first seen with the unaided eye in 1935 and first observed with radar in 1955.Corona Australid meteors have an entry velocity of 45 kilometers per second.",
"In 2006, a shower originating near Beta Coronae Australis was designated as the Beta Coronae Australids.",
"They appear in May, the same month as a nearby shower known as the May Microscopids, but the two showers have different trajectories and are unlikely to be related."
],
[
"History",
"Corona Australis on The Manuchihr Globe, Adilnor Collection, Sweden.Corona Australis may have been recorded by ancient Mesopotamians in the MUL.APIN, as a constellation called MA.GUR (\"The Bark\").",
"However, this constellation, adjacent to SUHUR.MASH (\"The Goat-Fish\", modern Capricornus), may instead have been modern Epsilon Sagittarii.",
"As a part of the southern sky, MA.GUR was one of the fifteen \"stars of Ea\".In the 3rd century BC, the Greek didactic poet Aratus wrote of, but did not name the constellation, instead calling the two crowns Στεφάνοι (''Stephanoi'').",
"The Greek astronomer Ptolemy described the constellation in the 2nd century AD, though with the inclusion of Alpha Telescopii, since transferred to Telescopium.",
"Ascribing 13 stars to the constellation, he named it Στεφάνος νοτιος (), \"Southern Wreath\", while other authors associated it with either Sagittarius (having fallen off his head) or Centaurus; with the former, it was called ''Corona Sagittarii''.",
"Similarly, the Romans called Corona Australis the \"Golden Crown of Sagittarius\".",
"It was known as ''Parvum Coelum'' (\"Canopy\", \"Little Sky\") in the 5th century.",
"The 18th-century French astronomer Jérôme Lalande gave it the names ''Sertum Australe'' (\"Southern Garland\") and ''Orbiculus Capitis'', while German poet and author Philippus Caesius called it ''Corolla'' (\"Little Crown\") or ''Spira Australis'' (\"Southern Coil\"), and linked it with the Crown of Eternal Life from the New Testament.",
"Seventeenth-century celestial cartographer Julius Schiller linked it to the Diadem of Solomon.",
"Sometimes, Corona Australis was not the wreath of Sagittarius but arrows held in his hand.Corona Australis depicted in the ''Uranographia'' of Johann BodeCorona Australis has been associated with the myth of Bacchus and Stimula.",
"Jupiter had impregnated Stimula, causing Juno to become jealous.",
"Juno convinced Stimula to ask Jupiter to appear in his full splendor, which the mortal woman could not handle, causing her to burn.",
"After Bacchus, Stimula's unborn child, became an adult and the god of wine, he honored his deceased mother by placing a wreath in the sky.In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Corona Australis are located within the Black Tortoise of the North (北方玄武, ''Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ'').",
"The constellation itself was known as ''ti'en pieh'' (\"Heavenly Turtle\") and during the Western Zhou period, marked the beginning of winter.",
"However, precession over time has meant that the \"Heavenly River\" (Milky Way) became the more accurate marker to the ancient Chinese and hence supplanted the turtle in this role.",
"Arabic names for Corona Australis include ''Al Ķubbah'' \"the Tortoise\", ''Al Ĥibā'' \"the Tent\" or ''Al Udḥā al Na'ām'' \"the Ostrich Nest\".",
"It was later given the name ''Al Iklīl al Janūbiyyah'', which the European authors Chilmead, Riccioli and Caesius transliterated as Alachil Elgenubi, Elkleil Elgenubi and Aladil Algenubi respectively.The ǀXam speaking San people of South Africa knew the constellation as ''≠nabbe ta !nu'' \"house of branches\"—owned originally by the Dassie (rock hyrax), and the star pattern depicting people sitting in a semicircle around a fire.The indigenous Boorong people of northwestern Victoria saw it as ''Won'', a boomerang thrown by ''Totyarguil'' (Altair).",
"The Aranda people of Central Australia saw Corona Australis as a coolamon carrying a baby, which was accidentally dropped to earth by a group of sky-women dancing in the Milky Way.",
"The impact of the coolamon created Gosses Bluff crater, 175 km west of Alice Springs.",
"The Torres Strait Islanders saw Corona Australis as part of a larger constellation encompassing part of Sagittarius and the tip of Scorpius's tail; the Pleiades and Orion were also associated.",
"This constellation was Tagai's canoe, crewed by the Pleiades, called the ''Usiam'', and Orion, called the ''Seg''.",
"The myth of Tagai says that he was in charge of this canoe, but his crewmen consumed all of the supplies onboard without asking permission.",
"Enraged, Tagai bound the Usiam with a rope and tied them to the side of the boat, then threw them overboard.",
"Scorpius's tail represents a suckerfish, while Eta Sagittarii and Theta Coronae Australis mark the bottom of the canoe.",
"On the island of Futuna, the figure of Corona Australis was called ''Tanuma'' and in the Tuamotus, it was called ''Na Kaua-ki-Tonga''.Main dark nebulae of the Solar apex half of the galactic plane, with the Corona Australis on the right|center"
],
[
"See also",
"* Corona Australis (Chinese astronomy)* Chamaeleon complex"
],
[
"References",
"=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ; Online sources* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ''SIMBAD''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Corona Australis* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Corona Australis)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Corcovado"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Corcovado''' () which means \"hunchback\" in Portuguese, is a mountain in central Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.",
"It is a 710-metre (2,329 ft) granite peak located in the Tijuca Forest, a national park.Corcovado hill lies just west of the city center but is wholly within the city limits and visible from great distances.",
"It is known worldwide for the statue of Jesus atop its peak, entitled ''Christ the Redeemer''."
],
[
"Access",
"The peak and statue can be accessed via a narrow road, by the Corcovado Rack Railway, which was opened in 1884 and refurbished in 1980, or by the walking trail on the south side of the mountain that starts from Parque Lage.",
"The railway uses three electrically powered trains, with a capacity of 540 passengers per hour.",
"The rail trip takes approximately 20 minutes and departs every 20 minutes.",
"Due to its limited passenger capacity, the wait to board at the entry station can take several hours.",
"The year-round schedule is 8:30 to 18:30.From the train terminus and road, the observation deck at the foot of the statue is reached by 223 steps, or by elevators and escalators.",
"Among the most popular year-round tourist attractions in Rio de Janeiro, the Corcovado railway, access roads, and statue platform are commonly crowded."
],
[
"Attractions",
"Corcovado's most popular attraction is the statue depicting Jesus at its peak, entitled ''Christ the Redeemer'' (''),'' and the viewing platform at its peak, drawing over 300,000 visitors per year.",
"The statue was constructed from 1922 to 1931.From the peak's platform the panoramic view includes downtown Rio de Janeiro, Sugarloaf Mountain, the Rodrigo de Freitas lagoon, Copacabana and Ipanema beaches, Maracanã Stadium, and several of Rio de Janeiro's favelas.",
"Cloud cover is common in Rio and the view from the platform is often obscured.",
"Sunny days are recommended for optimal viewing.Notable past visitors to the mountain peak include Charles Darwin, Pope Pius XII, Pope John Paul II, Alberto Santos-Dumont, Albert Einstein, Diana, Princess of Wales, and General Sherman, among others.",
"An additional attraction of the mountain is rock climbing.",
"The south face had 54 climbing routes in 1992.The easiest way starts from Parque Lage."
],
[
"Geology",
"The peak of Corcovado is a big granite dome, which describes a generally vertical rocky formation.",
"It is claimed to be the highest such formation in Brazil, the second highest being Pedra Agulha, situated near the town of Pancas in Espírito Santo."
],
[
"References in Brazilian culture",
"Corcovado is considered an icon of Brazilian culture.",
"''Corcovado'' is a 1960 bossa nova song and jazz standard by Antônio Carlos Jobim whose lyrics draw on images of the hill.",
"Corcovado has also been referenced in other artistic works (e.g.",
"the lyrics of Ben Harper, literary works, films, etc.",
")."
],
[
"Gallery",
"Image:Marc Ferrez - IMS 007A6P4FP15-015.jpg|Corcovado before the construction of ''Christ the Redeemer'', 19th centuryFile:Corcovado_visto_pela_Urca_-_panoramio.jpg|Corcovado seen from UrcaImage:A_lua_e_o_Cristo.jpg|The statue of ''Christ the Redeemer'' atop CorcovadoFile:Corcovado_sunset_silhouette.jpg|Corcovado seen from Sugarloaf Mountain during sunsetFile:Rio_de_Janeiro,_Pão_de_Açúcar_from_Cristo_Redentor_(15744316848).jpg|Botafogo bay seen from CorcovadoImage:Trem do Corcovado na Estação Paineiras 01.jpg|Corcovado Rack Railway"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * 'back to Rio'.",
"RGSSA blog post contains image of Corcovada taken in 1914* Practical information about Corcovado mountain on WikiRio* Virtual Pictour up the Corcovado Mountain"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cheddar, Somerset"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cheddar''' is a large village and civil parish in the English county of Somerset.",
"It is situated on the southern edge of the Mendip Hills, north-west of Wells, south-east of Weston-super-Mare and south-west of Bristol.",
"The civil parish includes the hamlets of '''Nyland''' and '''Bradley Cross'''.",
"The parish had a population of 5,755 in 2011 and an acreage of as of 1961.Cheddar Gorge, on the northern edge of the village, is the largest gorge in the United Kingdom and includes several show caves, including Gough's Cave.",
"The gorge has been a centre of human settlement since Neolithic times, including a Saxon palace.",
"It has a temperate climate and provides a unique geological and biological environment that has been recognised by the designation of several Sites of Special Scientific Interest.",
"It is also the site of several limestone quarries.",
"The village gave its name to Cheddar cheese and has been a centre for strawberry growing.",
"The crop was formerly transported on the Cheddar Valley rail line, which closed in the late 1960s and is now a cycle path.",
"The village is now a major tourist destination with several cultural and community facilities, including the Cheddar Show Caves Museum.The village supports a variety of community groups including religious, sporting and cultural organisations.",
"Several of these are based on the site of the Kings of Wessex Academy, which is the largest educational establishment."
],
[
"History",
"The name Cheddar comes from the Old English word ''ceodor'', meaning deep dark cavity or pouch.There is evidence of occupation from the Neolithic period in Cheddar.",
"Britain's oldest complete human skeleton, Cheddar Man, estimated to be 9,000 years old, was found in Cheddar Gorge in 1903.Older remains from the Upper Late Palaeolithic era (12,000–13,000 years ago) have been found.",
"There is some evidence of a Bronze Age field system at the Batts Combe quarry site.",
"There is also evidence of Bronze Age barrows at the mound in the Longwood valley, which if man-made it is likely to be a field system.",
"The remains of a Roman villa have been excavated in the grounds of the current vicarage.Reconstruction of the Saxon royal palace at Cheddar around 1000 ADThe village of Cheddar had been important during the Roman and Saxon eras.",
"There was a royal palace at Cheddar during the Saxon period, which was used on three occasions in the 10th century to host the Witenagemot.",
"The ruins of the palace were excavated in the 1960s.",
"They are located on the grounds of the Kings of Wessex Academy, together with a 14th-century chapel dedicated to St. Columbanus.",
"Roman remains have also been uncovered at the site.",
"Cheddar was listed in the Domesday Book of 1086 as ''Ceder'', meaning \"Shear Water\", from the Old English ''scear'' and Old Welsh ''dŵr''.",
"An alternative spelling in earlier documents, common through the 1850s is ''Chedder''.As early as 1130 AD, the Cheddar Gorge was recognised as one of the \"Four wonders of England\".",
"Historically, Cheddar's source of wealth was farming and cheese making for which it was famous as early as 1170 AD.",
"The parish was part of the Winterstoke Hundred.The manor of Cheddar was deforested in 1337 and Bishop Ralph was granted a licence by the King to create a hunting forest.As early as 1527 there are records of watermills on the river.",
"In the 17th and 18th centuries, there were several watermills which ground corn and made paper, with 13 mills on the Yeo at the peak, declining to seven by 1791 and just three by 1915.In the Victorian era it also became a centre for the production of clothing.",
"The last mill, used as a shirt factory, closed in the early 1950s.William Wilberforce saw the poor conditions of the locals when he visited Cheddar in 1789.He inspired Hannah More in her work to improve the conditions of the Mendip miners and agricultural workers.",
"In 1801, of common land were enclosed under the Inclosure Acts.Tourism of the Cheddar gorge and caves began with the opening of the Cheddar Valley Railway in 1869.Cheddar, its surrounding villages and specifically the gorge has been subject to flooding.",
"In the Chew Stoke flood of 1968 the flow of water washed large boulders down the gorge, washed away cars, and damaged the cafe and the entrance to Gough's Cave."
],
[
"Government",
"Cheddar is recognised as a village.",
"The adjacent settlement of Axbridge, although only about a third the population of Cheddar, is a town.",
"This apparently illogical situation is explained by the relative importance of the two places in historic times.",
"While Axbridge grew in importance as a centre for cloth manufacturing in the Tudor period and gained a charter from King John, Cheddar remained a more dispersed mining and dairy-farming village.",
"Its population grew with the arrival of the railways in the Victorian era and the advent of tourism.The parish council, which has 15 members who are elected for four years, is responsible for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny.",
"The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic.",
"The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning.",
"Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council.The village is in the 'Cheddar and Shipham' electoral ward.",
"After including Shipham the total population of the ward taken at the 2011 census is 6,842.Cheddar Fire Station has a crew of retained firefightersFor local government purposes, since 1 April 2023, the village comes under the unitary authority of Somerset Council.",
"Prior to this, it was part of the non-metropolitan district of Sedgemoor, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Axbridge Rural District.",
"Fire, police and ambulance services are provided jointly with other authorities through the Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service, Avon and Somerset Constabulary and the South Western Ambulance Service.It is also part of the Wells county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.",
"It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election.",
"Prior to Brexit in 2020, it was part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament."
],
[
"International relations",
"Cheddar is twinned with Felsberg, Germany and Vernouillet, France, and it has an active programme of exchange visits.",
"Initially, Cheddar twinned with Felsberg in 1984.In 2000, Cheddar twinned with Vernouillet, which had also been twinned with Felsberg.",
"Cheddar also has a friendship link with Ocho Rios in Saint Ann Parish, Jamaica.It is also twinned with the commune of Descartes in the Indre-et-Loire department."
],
[
"Geography",
"Cheddar Gorge c. 1907The area is underlain by Black Rock slate, Burrington Oolite and Clifton Down Limestone of the Carboniferous Limestone Series, which contain ooliths and fossil debris on top of Old Red Sandstone, and by Dolomitic Conglomerate of the Keuper.",
"Evidence for Variscan orogeny is seen in the sheared rock and cleaved shales.",
"In many places weathering of these strata has resulted in the formation of immature calcareous soils.=== Gorge and caves ===Cheddar Gorge, which is located on the edge of the village, is the largest gorge in the United Kingdom.The gorge is the site of the Cheddar Caves, where Cheddar Man was found in 1903.Older remains from the Upper Late Palaeolithic era (12,000–13,000 years ago) have been found.",
"The caves, produced by the activity of an underground river, contain stalactites and stalagmites.",
"Gough's Cave, which was discovered in 1903, leads around into the rock-face, and contains a variety of large rock chambers and formations.",
"Cox's Cave, discovered in 1837, is smaller but contains many intricate formations.",
"A further cave houses a children's entertainment walk known as the \"Crystal Quest\".Cheddar Gorge, including Cox's Cave, Gough's Cave and other attractions, has become a tourist destination, attracting about 500,000 visitors per year.In a 2005 poll of ''Radio Times'' readers, following its appearance on the 2005 television programme ''Seven Natural Wonders'', Cheddar Gorge was named as the second greatest natural wonder in Britain, surpassed only by the Dan yr Ogof caves.=== Sites of Special Scientific Interest ===Cheddar Reservoir at dusk, looking towards the western edge of the Mendip Hills and Crook PeakThere are several large and unique Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) around the village.Cheddar Reservoir is a near-circular artificial reservoir operated by Bristol Water.",
"Dating from the 1930s, it has a capacity of 135 million gallons (614,000 cubic metres).",
"The reservoir is supplied with water taken from the Cheddar Yeo, which rises in Gough's Cave in Cheddar Gorge and is a tributary of the River Axe.",
"The inlet grate for the water pipe that is used to transport the water can be seen next to the sensory garden in Cheddar Gorge.",
"It has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) due to its wintering waterfowl populations.Cheddar Wood and the smaller Macall's Wood form a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest from what remains of the wood of the Bishops of Bath and Wells in the 13th century and of King Edmund the Magnificent's wood in the 10th.",
"During the 19th century, its lower fringes were grubbed out to make strawberry fields.",
"Most of these have been allowed to revert to woodland.",
"The wood was coppiced until 1917.This site compromises a wide range of habitats which include ancient and secondary semi-natural broadleaved woodland, unimproved neutral grassland, and a complex mosaic of calcareous grassland and acidic dry dwarf-shrub heath.",
"Cheddar Wood is one of only a few English stations for starved wood-sedge (''Carex depauperata'').",
"Purple gromwell (''Lithospermum purpurocaeruleum''), a nationally rare plant, also grows in the wood.",
"Butterflies include silver-washed fritillary (''Argynnis paphia''), dark green fritillary (''Argynnis aglaja''), pearl-bordered fritillary (''Boloria euphrosyne''), holly blue (''Celastrina argiolus'') and brown argus (''Aricia agestis'').",
"The slug ''Arion fasciatus'', which has a restricted distribution in the south of England, and the soldier beetle ''Cantharis fusca'' also occur.By far the largest of the SSSIs is called Cheddar Complex and covers of the gorge, caves and the surrounding area.",
"It is important because of both biological and geological features.",
"It includes four SSSIs, formerly known as Cheddar Gorge SSSI, August Hole/Longwood Swallet SSSI, GB Cavern Charterhouse SSSI and Charterhouse on-Mendip SSSI.",
"It is partly owned by the National Trust who acquired it in 1910 and partly managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust.=== Quarries ===Batts Combe Quarry from the lookout tower above Cheddar GorgeClose to the village and gorge are Batts Combe quarry and Callow Rock quarry, two of the active Quarries of the Mendip Hills where limestone is still extracted.",
"Operating since the early 20th century, Batts Combe is owned and operated by Hanson Aggregates.",
"The output in 2005 was around 4,000 tonnes of limestone per day, one third of which was supplied to an on-site lime kiln, which closed in 2009; the remainder was sold as coated or dusted aggregates.",
"The limestone at this site is close to 99 percent carbonate of calcium and magnesium (dolomite).The Chelmscombe Quarry finished its work as a limestone quarry in the 1950s and was then used by the Central Electricity Generating Board as a tower testing station.",
"During the 1970s and 1980s it was also used to test the ability of containers of radioactive material to withstand impacts and other accidents.=== Climate ===Along with the rest of South West England, Cheddar has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country.",
"The annual mean temperature is approximately .",
"Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea, which moderates temperature.",
"The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately .",
"In winter mean minimum temperatures of or are common.",
"In the summer the Azores high-pressure system affects the south-west of England.",
"Convective cloud sometimes forms inland, reducing the number of hours of sunshine; annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1,600 hours.",
"Most of the rainfall in the south-west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection.",
"Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions, which are most active during those seasons.",
"In summer, a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms.",
"Average rainfall is around .",
"About 8–15 days of snowfall per year is typical.",
"November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, and June to August have the lightest winds.",
"The predominant wind direction is from the south-west."
],
[
"Demography",
"The parish has a population in 2011 of 5,093, with a mean age of 43 years.",
"Residents lived in 2,209 households.",
"The vast majority of households (2,183) gave their ethnic status at the 2001 census as white."
],
[
"Economy",
"Cheddar Youth HostelThe village gave its name to Cheddar cheese, which is the most popular type of cheese in the United Kingdom.",
"The cheese is now made and consumed worldwide, and only one producer remains in the village.Since the 1880s, Cheddar's other main produce has been the strawberry,which is grown on the south-facing lower slopes of the Mendip hills.",
"As a consequence of its use for transporting strawberries to market, the since-closed Cheddar Valley line became known as ''The Strawberry Line'' after it opened in 1869.The line ran from Yatton to Wells.",
"When the rest of the line was closed and all passenger services ceased, the section of the line between Cheddar and Yatton remained open for goods traffic.",
"It provided a fast link with the main markets for the strawberries in Birmingham and London, but finally closed in 1964, becoming part of the Cheddar Valley Railway Nature Reserve.Cheddar Ales is a small brewery based in the village, producing beer for local public houses.",
"Tourism is a significant source of employment.",
"Around 15 percent of employment in Sedgemoor is provided by tourism, but within Cheddar it is estimated to employ as many as 1,000 people.The village also has a youth hostel, and a number of camping and caravan sites."
],
[
"Culture and community",
"Cheddar has a number of active service clubs including Cheddar Vale Lions Club, Mendip Rotary and Mendip Inner Wheel Club.",
"The clubs raise money for projects in the local community and hold annual events such as a fireworks display, duck races in the Gorge, a dragon boat race on the reservoir and concerts on the grounds of the nearby St Michael's Cheshire Home.Several notable people have been born or lived in Cheddar.",
"Musician Jack Bessant, the bass guitarist with the band Reef grew up on his parents' strawberry farm, and Matt Goss and Luke Goss, former members of Bros, lived in Cheddar for nine months as children.",
"Trina Gulliver, ten-time World Professional Darts Champion, previously lived in Cheddar until 2017.The comedian Richard Herring grew up in Cheddar.",
"His 2008 Edinburgh Festival Fringe show, ''The Headmaster's Son'' is based on his time at The Kings of Wessex School, where his father Keith was the headmaster.",
"The final performance of this show was held at the school in November 2009.He also visited the school in March 2010 to perform his show ''Hitler Moustache''.",
"In May 2013, a community radio station called Pulse was launched."
],
[
"Landmarks",
"Photochrom of Cheddar Market Cross in the 1890sThe market cross in Bath Street dates from the 15th century, with the shelter having been rebuilt in 1834.It has a central octagonal pier, a socket raised on four steps, a hexagonal shelter with six arched four-centred openings, shallow two-stage buttresses at each angle, and an embattled parapet.",
"The shaft is crowned by an abacus with figures in niches, probably from the late 19th century, although the cross is now missing.",
"It was rebuilt by Thomas, Marquess of Bath.",
"It is a scheduled monument (Somerset County No 21) and Grade II* listed building.In January 2000, the cross was seriously damaged in a traffic accident.",
"By 2002, the cross had been rebuilt and the area around it was redesigned to protect and enhance its appearance.The cross was badly damaged again in March 2012, when a taxi crashed into it late at night demolishing two sides.Repair work, which included the addition of wooden-clad steel posts to protect against future crashes, was completed in November 2012 at a cost of £60,000.Hannah More, a philanthropist and educator, founded a school in the village in the late 18th century for the children of miners.",
"Her first school was located in a 17th-century house.",
"Now named \"Hannah More's Cottage\", the Grade II-listed building is used by the local community as a meeting place."
],
[
"Transport",
"First Somerset & Avon bus picks up passengers at the Market cross on service 126 from Weston-super-Mare to Wells, the principal bus service through Cheddar.The village is situated on the A371 road which runs from Wincanton, to Weston-super-Mare.",
"It is approximately from the route of the M5 motorway with around a drive to junction 22.It was on the Cheddar Valley line, a railway line that was opened in 1869 and closed in 1963.It became known as The Strawberry Line because of the large volume of locally-grown strawberries that it carried.",
"It ran from Yatton railway station through to Wells (Tucker Street) railway station and joined the East Somerset Railway to make a through route via Shepton Mallet (High Street) railway station to Witham.",
"Sections of the now-disused railway have been opened as the Strawberry Line Trail, which currently runs from Yatton to Cheddar.",
"The Cheddar Valley line survived until the \"Beeching Axe\".",
"Towards the end of its life there were so few passengers that diesel railcars were sometimes used.",
"The Cheddar branch closed to passengers on 9 September 1963 and to goods in 1964.The line closed in the 1960s, when it became part of the Cheddar Valley Railway Nature Reserve, and part of the National Cycle Network route 26.The cycle route also intersects with the West Mendip Way and various other footpaths.The principal bus route is hourly service 126 between Weston-super-Mare and Wells operated by First West of England.",
"Other bus routes include the service 668 from Shipham to Street which runs every couple of hours operated by Libra Travel, as well as the college bus service 66 which runs from Axbridge to the Bridgwater Campus of Bridgwater and Taunton College in the mornings and evenings of college term times and is operated by Bakers Dolphin."
],
[
"Education",
"The Kings of Wessex Academy seen from the tower of St. Andrew's Church (looking north-west)The first school in Cheddar was set up by Hannah More during the 18th Century, however now Cheddar has three schools belonging to the Cheddar Valley Group of Schools, twelve schools that provide Cheddar Valley's three-tier education system.",
"Cheddar First School has ten classes for children between 4 and 9 years.",
"Fairlands Middle School, a middle school categorised as a middle-deemed-secondary school, has 510 pupils between 9 and 13.Fairlands takes children moving up from Cheddar First School as well as other first schools in the Cheddar Valley.",
"The Kings of Wessex Academy, a coeducational comprehensive school, has been rated as \"good\" by Ofsted.",
"It has 1,176 students aged 13 to 18, including 333 in the sixth form.",
"Kings is a faith school linked to the Church of England.",
"It was awarded the specialist status of Technology College in 2001, enabling it to develop its Information Technology (IT) facilities and improve courses in science, mathematics and design technology.",
"In 2007 it became a foundation school, giving it more control over its own finances.",
"The academy owns and runs a sports centre and swimming pool, Kings Fitness & Leisure, with facilities that are used by students as well as residents.",
"It has since November 2016 been a part of the Wessex Learning Trust which incorporates eight academies from the surrounding area."
],
[
"Religious sites",
"Church of St AndrewThe Church of St Andrew dates from the 14th century.",
"It was restored in 1873 by William Butterfield.",
"It is a Grade I listed building and contains some 15th-century stained glass and an altar table of 1631.The chest tomb in the chancel is believed to contain the remains of Sir Thomas Cheddar and is dated 1442.The tower, which rises to , contains a bell dating from 1759 made by Thomas Bilbie of the Bilbie family.",
"The graveyard contains the grave of the hymn writer William Chatterton Dix.There are also churches for Roman Catholic, Methodist and other denominations, including Cheddar Valley Community Church, who not only meet at the Kings of Wessex School on Sunday, but also have their own site on Tweentown for meeting during the week.",
"The Baptist chapel was built in 1831."
],
[
"Sport",
"Kings Fitness & Leisure, situated on the grounds of the Kings of Wessex School, provides a venue for various sports and includes a 20-metre swimming pool, racket sport courts, a sports hall, dance studios and a gym.",
"A youth sports festival was held on Sharpham Road Playing Fields in 2009.In 2010 a skatepark was built in the village, funded by the Cheddar Local Action Team.Cheddar A.F.C., founded in 1892 and nicknamed \"The Cheesemen\", play in the Western Football League Division One.",
"In 2009 plans were revealed to move the club from its present home at Bowdens Park on Draycott Road to a new larger site.Cheddar Cricket Club was formed in the late 19th century and moved to Sharpham Road Playing Fields in 1964.They now play in the West of England Premier League Somerset Division.",
"Cheddar Rugby Club, who own part of the Sharpham playing fields, was formed in 1836.The club organises an annual Cheddar Rugby Tournament.",
"Cheddar Lawn Tennis Club, was formed in 1924, and play in the North Somerset League and also has social tennis and coaching.",
"Cheddar Running Club organised an annual half marathon until 2009.The village is both on the route of the West Mendip Way and Samaritans Way South West."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Compact disc"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''compact disc''' ('''CD''') is a digital optical disc data storage format that was co-developed by Philips and Sony to store and play digital audio recordings.",
"In August 1982, the first compact disc was manufactured.",
"It was then released in October 1982 in Japan and branded as ''Digital Audio Compact Disc''.The format was later adapted (as CD-ROM) for general-purpose data storage.",
"Several other formats were further derived, including write-once audio and data storage (CD-R), rewritable media (CD-RW), Video CD (VCD), Super Video CD (SVCD), Photo CD, Picture CD, Compact Disc-Interactive (CD-i), Enhanced Music CD, and Super Audio CD (SACD) which may have a CD-DA layer.Standard CDs have a diameter of and are designed to hold up to 74 minutes of uncompressed stereo digital audio or about 650 MiB of data.",
"Capacity is routinely extended to 80 minutes and 700 MiB by arranging data more closely on the same-sized disc.",
"The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from ; they are sometimes used for CD singles, storing up to 24 minutes of audio, or delivering device drivers.At the time of the technology's introduction in 1982, a CD could store much more data than a personal computer hard disk drive, which would typically hold 10 MiB.",
"By 2010, hard drives commonly offered as much storage space as a thousand CDs, while their prices had plummeted to commodity levels.",
"In 2004, worldwide sales of audio CDs, CD-ROMs, and CD-Rs reached about 30 billion discs.",
"By 2007, 200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide."
],
[
"Physical details",
"alt=A CD is made from thick, polycarbonate plastic, and weighs 14–33 grams.",
"From the center outward, components are: the center spindle hole (15 mm), the first-transition area (clamping ring), the clamping area (stacking ring), the second-transition area (mirror band), the program (data) area, and the rim.",
"The inner program area occupies a radius from 25 to 58 mm.A thin layer of aluminum or, more rarely, gold is applied to the surface, making it reflective.",
"The metal is protected by a film of lacquer normally spin coated directly on the reflective layer.",
"The label is printed on the lacquer layer, usually by screen printing or offset printing.",
"''Pits'' and ''Lands'' of a compact disc under a microscope CD data is represented as tiny indentations known as ''pits'', encoded in a spiral track molded into the top of the polycarbonate layer.",
"The areas between pits are known as ''lands''.",
"Each pit is approximately 100 nm deep by 500 nm wide, and varies from 850 nm to 3.5 µm in length.",
"The distance between the tracks (the ''pitch'') is 1.6 µm.When playing an audio CD, a motor within the CD player spins the disc to a scanning velocity of 1.2–1.4 m/s (constant linear velocity, CLV)—equivalent to approximately 500 RPM at the inside of the disc, and approximately 200 RPM at the outside edge.",
"The track on the CD begins at the inside and spirals outward so a disc played from beginning to end slows its rotation rate during playback.Comparison of various optical storage mediaThe program area is 86.05 cm2 and the length of the recordable spiral is With a scanning speed of 1.2 m/s, the playing time is 74 minutes or 650 MiB of data on a CD-ROM.",
"A disc with data packed slightly more densely is tolerated by most players (though some old ones fail).",
"Using a linear velocity of 1.2 m/s and a narrower track pitch of 1.5 µm increases the playing time to 80 minutes, and data capacity to 700 MiB.",
"Also increases the playing time to 90 minutes, and data capacity to 800 MiB and 99 minutes, and data capacity to 870 MiB.nm wide, between 830 nm and 3,000 nm long and 150 nm deep.A CD is read by focusing a 780 nm wavelength (near infrared) semiconductor laser through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer.",
"The change in height between pits and lands results in a difference in the way the light is reflected.",
"Because the pits are indented into the top layer of the disc and are read through the transparent polycarbonate base, the pits form bumps when read.",
"The laser hits the disc, casting a circle of light wider than the modulated spiral track reflecting partially from the lands and partially from the top of any bumps where they are present.",
"As the laser passes over a pit (bump), its height means that the part of the light reflected from its peak is 1/2 wavelength out of phase with the light reflected from the land around it.",
"This causes partial cancellation of the laser's reflection from the surface.",
"By measuring the reflected intensity change with a photodiode, a modulated signal is read back from the disc.To accommodate the spiral pattern of data, the laser is placed on a mobile mechanism within the disc tray of any CD player.",
"This mechanism typically takes the form of a sled that moves along a rail.",
"The sled can be driven by a worm gear or linear motor.",
"Where a worm gear is used, a second shorter-throw linear motor, in the form of a coil and magnet, makes fine position adjustments to track eccentricities in the disk at high speed.",
"Some CD drives (particularly those manufactured by Philips during the 1980s and early 1990s) use a swing arm similar to that seen on a gramophone.",
"This mechanism allows the laser to read information from the center to the edge of a disc without having to interrupt the spinning of the disc itself.Philips CDM210 CD DriveThe pits and lands do ''not'' directly represent the 0s and 1s of binary data.",
"Instead, non-return-to-zero, inverted encoding is used: a change from either pit to land or land to pit indicates a 1, while no change indicates a series of 0s.",
"There must be at least two, and no more than ten 0s between each 1, which is defined by the length of the pit.",
"This, in turn, is decoded by reversing the eight-to-fourteen modulation used in mastering the disc, and then reversing the cross-interleaved Reed–Solomon coding, finally revealing the raw data stored on the disc.",
"These encoding techniques (defined in the ''Red Book'') were originally designed for CD Digital Audio, but they later became a standard for almost all CD formats (such as CD-ROM).=== Integrity ===CDs are susceptible to damage during handling and from environmental exposure.",
"Pits are much closer to the label side of a disc, enabling defects and contaminants on the clear side to be out of focus during playback.",
"Consequently, CDs are more likely to suffer damage on the label side of the disc.",
"Scratches on the clear side can be repaired by refilling them with similar refractive plastic or by careful polishing.",
"The edges of CDs are sometimes incompletely sealed, allowing gases and liquids to enter the CD and corrode the metal reflective layer and/or interfere with the focus of the laser on the pits, a condition known as disc rot.",
"The fungus ''Geotrichum candidum'' has been found—under conditions of high heat and humidity—to consume the polycarbonate plastic and aluminium found in CDs.The data integrity of compact discs can be measured using surface error scanning, which can measure the rates of different types of data errors, known as ''C1'', ''C2'', ''CU'' and extended (finer-grain) error measurements known as ''E11'', ''E12'', ''E21'', ''E22'', ''E31'' and ''E32'', of which higher rates indicate a possibly damaged or unclean data surface, low media quality, deteriorating media and recordable media written to by a malfunctioning CD writer.Error scanning can reliably predict data losses caused by media deterioration.",
"Support of error scanning differs between vendors and models of optical disc drives, and ''extended'' error scanning (known as ''\"advanced error scanning\"'' in Nero DiscSpeed) has only been available on Plextor and some BenQ optical drives so far, as of 2020.=== Disc shapes and diameters ===Comparison of several forms of disk storage showing tracks (not to scale); green denotes start and red denotes end.",
"Some CD-R(W) and DVD-R(W)/DVD+R(W) recorders operate in ZCLV, CAA or CAV modes.The digital data on a CD begins at the center of the disc and proceeds toward the edge, which allows adaptation to the different sizes available.",
"Standard CDs are available in two sizes.",
"By far, the most common is in diameter, with a 74-, 80, 90, or 99-minute audio capacity and a 650, 700, 800, or 870 MiB (737,280,000-byte) data capacity.",
"Discs are thick, with a center hole.",
"The size of the hole was chosen by Joop Sinjou and based on a Dutch 10-cent coin: a dubbeltje.",
"Philips/Sony patented the physical dimensions.The official Philips history says the capacity was specified by Sony executive Norio Ohga to be able to contain the entirety of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony on one disc.",
"Kees Schouhamer Immink received a personal technical Emmy award for his contributions to the coding technologies of the Compact Disc, DVD, and Blu-ray disc.",
"This is a myth according to Kees Immink, as the EFM code format had not yet been decided in December 1979, when the 120 mm size was adopted.",
"The adoption of EFM in June 1980 allowed 30 percent more playing time that would have resulted in 97 minutes for 120 mm diameter or 74 minutes for a disc as small as .",
"Instead, the information density was lowered by 30 percent to keep the playing time at 74 minutes.",
"The 120 mm diameter has been adopted by subsequent formats, including Super Audio CD, DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray Disc.",
"The diameter discs (\"Mini CDs\") can hold up to 24 minutes of music or 210 MiB.",
"Physical size Audio capacity CD-ROM data capacity Definition 120 mm 74–80 min 650–700 MB Standard size 80 mm 21–24 min 185–210 MB Mini-CD size 80×54 mm – 80×64 mm ~6 min 10–65 MB \"Business card\" size"
],
[
"Logical format",
"=== Audio CD ===The logical format of an audio CD (officially Compact Disc Digital Audio or CD-DA) is described in a document produced in 1980 by the format's joint creators, Sony and Philips.",
"The document is known colloquially as the ''Red Book'' CD-DA after the color of its cover.",
"The format is a two-channel 16-bit PCM encoding at a 44.1 kHz sampling rate per channel.",
"Four-channel sound was to be an allowable option within the ''Red Book'' format, but has never been implemented.",
"Monaural audio has no existing standard on a ''Red Book'' CD; thus, the mono source material is usually presented as two identical channels in a standard ''Red Book'' stereo track (i.e., mirrored mono); an MP3 CD, can have audio file formats with mono sound.CD-Text is an extension of the ''Red Book'' specification for an audio CD that allows for the storage of additional text information (e.g., album name, song name, artist) on a standards-compliant audio CD.",
"The information is stored either in the lead-in area of the CD, where there are roughly five kilobytes of space available or in the subcode channels R to W on the disc, which can store about 31 megabytes.Compact Disc + Graphics is a special audio compact disc that contains graphics data in addition to the audio data on the disc.",
"The disc can be played on a regular audio CD player, but when played on a special CD+G player, it can output a graphics signal (typically, the CD+G player is hooked up to a television set or a computer monitor); these graphics are almost exclusively used to display lyrics on a television set for karaoke performers to sing along with.",
"The CD+G format takes advantage of the channels R through W. These six bits store the graphics information.CD + Extended Graphics (CD+EG, also known as CD+XG) is an improved variant of the Compact Disc + Graphics (CD+G) format.",
"Like CD+G, CD+EG uses basic CD-ROM features to display text and video information in addition to the music being played.",
"This extra data is stored in subcode channels R-W.",
"Very few, if any, CD+EG discs have been published.=== Super Audio CD ===Super Audio CD (SACD) is a high-resolution, read-only optical audio disc format that was designed to provide higher-fidelity digital audio reproduction than the ''Red Book''.",
"Introduced in 1999, it was developed by Sony and Philips, the same companies that created the ''Red Book''.",
"SACD was in a format war with DVD-Audio, but neither has replaced audio CDs.",
"The SACD standard is referred to as the ''Scarlet Book'' standard.Titles in the SACD format can be issued as hybrid discs; these discs contain the SACD audio stream as well as a standard audio CD layer which is playable in standard CD players, thus making them backward compatible.=== CD-MIDI ===CD-MIDI is a format used to store music-performance data, which upon playback is performed by electronic instruments that synthesize the audio.",
"Hence, unlike the original ''Red Book'' CD-DA, these recordings are not digitally sampled audio recordings.",
"The CD-MIDI format is defined as an extension of the original ''Red Book''.=== CD-ROM ===For the first few years of its existence, the CD was a medium used purely for audio.",
"In 1988, the ''Yellow Book'' CD-ROM standard was established by Sony and Philips, which defined a non-volatile optical data computer data storage medium using the same physical format as audio compact discs, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive.=== Video CD ===Video CD (VCD, View CD, and Compact Disc digital video) is a standard digital format for storing video media on a CD.",
"VCDs are playable in dedicated VCD players, most modern DVD-Video players, personal computers, and some video game consoles.",
"The VCD standard was created in 1993 by Sony, Philips, Matsushita, and JVC and is referred to as the ''White Book'' standard.Overall picture quality is intended to be comparable to VHS video.",
"Poorly compressed VCD video can sometimes be of lower quality than VHS video, but VCD exhibits block artifacts rather than analog noise and does not deteriorate further with each use.",
"352×240 (or SIF) resolution was chosen because it is half the vertical and half the horizontal resolution of the NTSC video.",
"352×288 is a similarly one-quarter PAL/SECAM resolution.",
"This approximates the (overall) resolution of an analog VHS tape, which, although it has double the number of (vertical) scan lines, has a much lower horizontal resolution.=== Super Video CD ===Super Video CD (Super Video Compact Disc or SVCD) is a format used for storing video media on standard compact discs.",
"SVCD was intended as a successor to VCD and an alternative to DVD-Video and falls somewhere between both in terms of technical capability and picture quality.SVCD has two-thirds the resolution of DVD, and over 2.7 times the resolution of VCD.",
"One CD-R disc can hold up to 60 minutes of standard-quality SVCD-format video.",
"While no specific limit on SVCD video length is mandated by the specification, one must lower the video bit rate, and therefore quality, to accommodate very long videos.",
"It is usually difficult to fit much more than 100 minutes of video onto one SVCD without incurring a significant quality loss, and many hardware players are unable to play a video with an instantaneous bit rate lower than 300 to 600 kilobits per second.=== Photo CD ===Photo CD is a system designed by Kodak for digitizing and storing photos on a CD.",
"Launched in 1992, the discs were designed to hold nearly 100 high-quality images, scanned prints, and slides using special proprietary encoding.",
"Photo CDs are defined in the ''Beige Book'' and conform to the CD-ROM XA and CD-i Bridge specifications as well.",
"They are intended to play on CD-i players, Photo CD players, and any computer with suitable software (irrespective of operating system).",
"The images can also be printed out on photographic paper with a special Kodak machine.",
"This format is not to be confused with Kodak Picture CD, which is a consumer product in CD-ROM format.=== CD-i ===The Philips ''Green Book'' specifies a standard for interactive multimedia compact discs designed for CD-i players (1993).",
"CD-i discs can contain audio tracks that can be played on regular CD players, but CD-i discs are not compatible with most CD-ROM drives and software.",
"The CD-i Ready specification was later created to improve compatibility with audio CD players, and the CD-i Bridge specification was added to create CD-i-compatible discs that can be accessed by regular CD-ROM drives.=== CD-i Ready ===Philips defined a format similar to CD-i called CD-i Ready, which puts CD-i software and data into the pregap of track 1.This format was supposed to be more compatible with older audio CD players.=== Enhanced Music CD (CD+) ===Enhanced Music CD, also known as CD Extra or CD Plus, is a format that combines audio tracks and data tracks on the same disc by putting audio tracks in a first session and data in a second session.",
"It was developed by Philips and Sony, and it is defined in the ''Blue Book''.=== VinylDisc ===VinylDisc is the hybrid of a standard audio CD and the vinyl record.",
"The vinyl layer on the disc's label side can hold approximately three minutes of music."
],
[
"Manufacture, cost, and pricing",
"Individual pits are visible on the micrometer scale.In 1995, material costs were 30 cents for the jewel case and 10 to 15 cents for the CD.",
"The wholesale cost of CDs was $0.75 to $1.15, while the typical retail price of a prerecorded music CD was $16.98.On average, the store received 35 percent of the retail price, the record company 27 percent, the artist 16 percent, the manufacturer 13 percent, and the distributor 9 percent.",
"When 8-track cartridges, compact cassettes, and CDs were introduced, each was marketed at a higher price than the format they succeeded, even though the cost to produce the media was reduced.",
"This was done because the perceived value increased.",
"This continued from phonograph records to CDs, but was broken when Apple marketed MP3s for $0.99, and albums for $9.99.The incremental cost, though, to produce an MP3 is negligible."
],
[
"Writable compact discs",
"=== Recordable CD ===MiB CD-R next to a mechanical pencil for scaleRecordable Compact Discs, CD-Rs, are injection-molded with a \"blank\" data spiral.",
"A photosensitive dye is then applied, after which the discs are metalized and lacquer-coated.",
"The write laser of the CD recorder changes the color of the dye to allow the read laser of a standard CD player to see the data, just as it would with a standard stamped disc.",
"The resulting discs can be read by most CD-ROM drives and played in most audio CD players.",
"CD-Rs follow the ''Orange Book'' standard.CD-R recordings are designed to be permanent.",
"Over time, the dye's physical characteristics may change causing read errors and data loss until the reading device cannot recover with error correction methods.",
"Errors can be predicted using surface error scanning.",
"The design life is from 20 to 100 years, depending on the quality of the discs, the quality of the writing drive, and storage conditions.",
"Testing has demonstrated such degradation of some discs in as little as 18 months under normal storage conditions.",
"This failure is known as disc rot, for which there are several, mostly environmental, reasons.The recordable audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder.",
"These consumer audio CD recorders use SCMS (Serial Copy Management System), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act).",
"The Recordable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-R due to lower production volume and a 3 percent AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy.High-capacity recordable CD is a higher-density recording format that can hold 20% more data than conventional discs.",
"The higher capacity is incompatible with some recorders and recording software.=== ReWritable CD ===CD-RW is a re-recordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead of a dye.",
"The write laser, in this case, is used to heat and alter the properties (amorphous vs. crystalline) of the alloy, and hence change its reflectivity.",
"A CD-RW does not have as great a difference in reflectivity as a pressed CD or a CD-R, and so many earlier CD audio players cannot read CD-RW discs, although most later CD audio players and stand-alone DVD players can.",
"CD-RWs follow the ''Orange Book'' standard.The ReWritable Audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder, which will not (without modification) accept standard CD-RW discs.",
"These consumer audio CD recorders use the Serial Copy Management System (SCMS), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the United States' Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA).",
"The ReWritable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-R due to (a) lower volume and (b) a 3 percent AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy."
],
[
"Copy protection",
"The ''Red Book'' audio specification, except for a simple \"anti-copy\" statement in the subcode, does not include any copy protection mechanism.",
"Known at least as early as 2001, attempts were made by record companies to market \"copy-protected\" non-standard compact discs, which cannot be ripped, or copied, to hard drives or easily converted to other formats (like FLAC, MP3 or Vorbis).",
"One major drawback to these copy-protected discs is that most will not play on either computer CD-ROM drives or some standalone CD players that use CD-ROM mechanisms.",
"Philips has stated that such discs are not permitted to bear the trademarked ''Compact Disc Digital Audio'' logo because they violate the ''Red Book'' specifications.",
"Numerous copy-protection systems have been countered by readily available, often free, software, or even by simply turning off automatic AutoPlay to prevent the running of the DRM executable program."
],
[
"See also"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Ecma International.",
"''Standard ECMA-130: Data Interchange on Read-only 120 mm Optical Data Disks (CD-ROM)'', 2nd edition (June 1996).",
"* Pohlmann, Kenneth C. (1992).",
"''The Compact Disc Handbook''.",
"Middleton, Wisconsin: A-R Editions.",
".",
"* Peek, Hans et al.",
"(2009) ''Origins and Successors of the Compact Disc''.",
"Springer Science+Business Media B.V.",
".",
"* Peek, Hans B., ''The emergence of the compact disc'', IEEE Communications Magazine, Jan. 2010, pp. 10–17.",
"* Nakajima, Heitaro; Ogawa, Hiroshi (1992) ''Compact Disc Technology'', Tokyo, Ohmsha Ltd.",
".",
"* Barry, Robert (2020).",
"''Compact Disc (Object Lessons)''.",
"New York: Bloomsbury.",
"."
],
[
"External links",
"* Video How Compact Discs are Manufactured* CD-Recordable FAQ Exhaustive basics on CD-Recordable's* Philips history of the CD (cache)* Patent History (CD Player) – published by Philips in 2005* Patent History CD Disc – published by Philips in 2003* Sony History, Chapter 8, This is the replacement of Gramophone record !",
"(第8章 レコードに代わるものはこれだ) – Sony website in Japanese* Popularized History on Soundfountain* A Media History of the Compact Disc (1-hour podcast interview)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Charles Farrar Browne"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Charles Farrar Browne''' (April 26, 1834 – March 6, 1867) was an American humor writer, better known under his ''nom de plume'', '''Artemus Ward''', which as a character, an illiterate rube with \"Yankee common sense\", Browne also played in public performances.",
"He is considered to be America's first stand-up comedian.",
"His birth name was Brown but he added the \"e\" after he became famous."
],
[
"Biography",
"Browne was born in Waterford, Maine.",
"He began his career as a compositor and occasional contributor to the daily and weekly journals.",
"In 1858, in ''The Plain Dealer'' newspaper (Cleveland, Ohio), he published the first of the \"Artemus Ward\" series, which, in collected form, achieved great popularity in both America and England.Browne's companion at the ''Plain Dealer'', George Hoyt, wrote: \"his desk was a rickety table which had been whittled and gashed until it looked as if it had been the victim of lightning.",
"His chair was a fit companion thereto, a wabbling, unsteady affair, sometimes with four and sometimes with three legs.",
"But Browne saw neither the table, nor the chair, nor any person who might be near, nothing, in fact, but the funny pictures which were tumbling out of his brain.",
"When writing, his gaunt form looked ridiculous enough.",
"One leg hung over the arm of his chair like a great hook, while he would write away, sometimes laughing to himself, and then slapping the table in the excess of his mirth.",
"\"File:Artemus Ward - DPLA - a2d2bc227680446aabe10b6ad459bdd3 (page 1).jpg|alt=Photograph of Artemus Ward, sitting with his right leg crossed over his left, a top hat and books sitting on the table to his right.",
"A typed caption at the bottom of the image reads \"H. Hering Photo\" and his name is written at the bottom.|thumb|Artemus Ward, ca.",
"1859–1867.Carte de Visite Collection, Boston Public Library.In 1860, he became editor of the first ''Vanity Fair'', a humorous New York weekly that failed in 1863.At about the same time, he began to appear as a lecturer who, by his droll and eccentric humor, attracted large audiences.",
"Browne was also known as a member of the New York bohemian set which included leader Henry Clapp Jr., Walt Whitman, Fitz Hugh Ludlow, and actress Adah Isaacs Menken.In 1863, Browne came to San Francisco to perform as Artemus Ward.",
"An early expert at show business publicity, Browne sent his manager ahead by several weeks to buy advertising in the local papers and promote the show among prominent citizens for endorsements.",
"On November 13, 1863, Browne stood before a packed crowd at Platt's Music Hall, playing the part of Artemus Ward as an illiterate rube but with \"Yankee common sense.\"",
"Writer Bret Harte was in the audience that night and he described it in ''the Golden Era'' as capturing American speech: \"humor that belongs to the country of boundless prairies, limitless rivers, and stupendous cataracts—that fun which overlies the surface of our national life, which is met in the stage, rail-car, canal and flat-boat, which bursts out over camp-fires and around bar-room stoves.",
"\"\"Artemus Ward\" was a favorite author of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln.",
"Before presenting \"The Emancipation Proclamation\" to his Cabinet, Lincoln read to them the latest episode, \"Outrage in Utiky\", also known as \"High-Handed Outrage at Utica\".When Browne performed in Virginia City, Nevada, he met Mark Twain and the two became friends.",
"In his correspondence with Twain, Browne called him \"My Dearest Love.\"",
"Legend has it that, following a stage performance there, Browne, Twain, and Dan De Quille were trekking on a (drunken) rooftop tour of Virginia City until a town constable threatened to blast all three with a shotgun loaded with rock salt.",
"Browne recommended Twain to the editors of the ''New York Press'' and urged him to journey to New York.In 1866, Browne visited England and attracted a large following to his playing Artemus Ward, both as lecturer and for his literary contributions to ''Punch''.",
"But within a year his health gave way and he died of tuberculosis at Southampton on March 6, 1867.In England Browne was buried at Kensal Green Cemetery, but his remains were removed to the United States in 1868 and buried at Elm Vale Cemetery in Waterford, Maine."
],
[
"Legacy",
"In Cleveland, where Browne started his comedy career, an elementary school is named after him, known as '''Artemus Ward Elementary''' on W. 140th Street.",
"In the American Garden of the Cleveland Cultural Gardens in Rockefeller Park, a monument of him was erected, next to Mark Twain."
],
[
"Stories",
"* A Visit to Brigham Young* Women's Rights* One of Mr Ward's Business Letters* On \"Forts\"* Fourth of July Oration* High-Handed Outrage at Utica* Artemus Ward and the Prince of Wales* Interview with Lincoln* Letters to his Wife"
],
[
"Books",
"* Artemus Ward His Book (1862) (full text online)* Artemus Ward His Travels (1865) (full text online)* Artemus Ward Among the Mormons (1865) (full text online)* Artemus Ward in London (1867) (full text online)* Artemus Ward's Panorama (1869) (full text online)* Artemus Ward's Lecture (1869) (full text online)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * * * The Vault at Pfaff's: Artemus Ward (a project of Lehigh University)* Photos from the Maine Historical Society* 3 short radio episodes of Ward's writing from California Legacy Project.",
"* Seitz, Don Caros.",
"Artemus Ward (Charles Farrar Browne): a biography and bibliography (1919) (full text online)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Caelum"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Caelum''' is a faint constellation in the southern sky, introduced in the 1750s by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille and counted among the 88 modern constellations.",
"Its name means \"chisel\" in Latin, and it was formerly known as '''Caelum Sculptorium''' (\"Engraver's Chisel\"); it is a rare word, unrelated to the far more common Latin ''caelum'', meaning \"sky\", \"heaven\", or \"atmosphere\".",
"It is the eighth-smallest constellation, and subtends a solid angle of around 0.038 steradians, just less than that of Corona Australis.Due to its small size and location away from the plane of the Milky Way, Caelum is a rather barren constellation, with few objects of interest.",
"The constellation's brightest star, Alpha Caeli, is only of magnitude 4.45, and only one other star, (Gamma) γ1 Caeli, is brighter than magnitude 5 .",
"Other notable objects in Caelum are RR Caeli, a binary star with one known planet approximately away; X Caeli, a Delta Scuti variable that forms an optical double with γ1 Caeli; and HE0450-2958, a Seyfert galaxy that at first appeared as just a jet, with no host galaxy visible."
],
[
"History",
"Caelum was incepted as one of fourteen southern constellations in the 18th century by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, a French astronomer and celebrated of the Age of Enlightenment.It retains its name ''Burin'' among French speakers, latinized in his catalogue of 1763 as ''Caelum Sculptoris'' (“''Engraver's Chisel''”).Seen as “Cela Sculptoris” in the lower right of this 1825 star chart from ''alt=Caelum depicted in ''Urania's Mirror''Francis Baily shortened this name to ''Caelum'', as suggested by John Herschel.",
"In Lacaille's original chart, it was shown as a pair of engraver's tools: a standard burin and more specific shape-forming échoppe tied by a ribbon, but came to be ascribed a simple chisel.",
"Johann Elert Bode stated the name as plural with a singular possessor, ''Caela Scalptoris'' – in German (''die'' ) ''Grabstichel'' (“''the Engraver’s Chisels''”) – but this did not stick."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"Caelum is bordered by Dorado and Pictor to the south, Horologium and Eridanus to the east, Lepus to the north, and Columba to the west.",
"Covering only 125 square degrees, it ranks 81st of the 88 modern constellations in size.Its main asterism consists of four stars, and twenty stars in total are brighter than magnitude 6.5 .The constellation's boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are a 12-sided polygon.",
"In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and and declinations of to .",
"The International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted the three-letter abbreviation “Cae” for the constellation in 1922.Its main stars are visible in favourable conditions and with a clear southern horizon, for part of the year as far as about the 41st parallel northThese stars avoid being engulfed by daylight for some of every day (when above the horizon) to viewers in mid- and well-inhabited higher latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere.",
"Caelum shares with (to the north) Taurus, Eridanus and Orion midnight culmination in December (high summer), resulting in this fact.",
"In winter (such as June) the constellation can be observed sufficiently inset from the horizons during its rising before dawn and/or setting after dusk as it culminates then at around mid-day, well above the sun.",
"In South Africa, Argentina, their sub-tropical neighbouring areas and some of Australia in high June the key stars may be traced before dawn in the east; near the equator the stars lose night potential in May to June; they ill-compete with the Sun in northern tropics and sub-tropics from late February to mid-September with March being unfavorable as to post-sunset due to the light of the Milky Way."
],
[
"Notable features",
"=== Stars ===Caelum is a faint constellation: It has no star brighter than magnitude 4 and only two stars brighter than magnitude 5.Lacaille gave six stars Bayer designations, labeling them Alpha (α ) to Zeta (ζ ) in 1756, but omitted Epsilon (ε ) and designated two adjacent stars as Gamma (γ ).",
"Bode extended the designations to Rho (ρ ) for other stars, but most of these have fallen out of use.",
"Caelum is too far south for any of its stars to bear Flamsteed designations.The constellation Caelum as it can be seen by the alt=Image of the constellation Caelum, showing the pattern of its stars as seen in the night skyThe brightest star, (Alpha) α Caeli, is a double star, containing an F-type main-sequence star of magnitude 4.45 and a red dwarf of magnitude 12.5 , from Earth.",
"(Beta) β Caeli, another F-type star of magnitude 5.05 , is further away, being located from Earth.",
"Unlike α, β Caeli is a subgiant star, slightly evolved from the main sequence.",
"(Delta) δ Caeli, also of magnitude 5.05 , is a B-type subgiant and is much farther from Earth, at .",
"(Gamma) γ1Caeli is a double-star with a red giant primary of magnitude 4.58 and a secondary of magnitude 8.1 .",
"The primary is from Earth.",
"The two components are difficult to resolve with small amateur telescopes because of their difference in visual magnitude and their close separation.",
"This star system forms an optical double with the unrelated X Caeli (previously named γ2Caeli), a Delta Scuti variable located from Earth.",
"These are a class of short-period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology.",
"X Caeli itself is also a binary star, specifically a contact binary, meaning that the stars are so close that they share envelopes.",
"The only other variable star in Caelum visible to the naked eye is RV Caeli, a pulsating red giant of spectral type M1III, which varies between magnitudes 6.44 and 6.56 .Three other stars in Caelum are still occasionally referred to by their Bayer designations, although they are only on the edge of naked-eye visibility.",
"(Nu) ν Caeli is another double star, containing a white giant of magnitude 6.07 and a star of magnitude 10.66, with unknown spectral type.",
"The system is approximately away.",
"(Lambda) λ Caeli, at magnitude 6.24, is much redder and farther away, being a red giant around from Earth.",
"(Zeta) ζ Caeli is even fainter, being only of magnitude 6.36 .",
"This star, located away, is a K-type subgiant of spectral type K1.The other twelve naked-eye stars in Caelum are not referred to by Bode's Bayer designations anymore, including RV Caeli.The Seyfert galaxy HE0450-2958, an unusual active galaxy in Caelum|alt=An image of the Seyfert galaxy HE0450-2958, showing the active nucleusOne of the nearest stars in Caelum is the eclipsing binary star RR Caeli, at a distance of .",
"This star system consists of a dim red dwarf and a white dwarf.",
"Despite its closeness to the Earth, the system's apparent magnitude is only 14.40 due to the faintness of its components, and thus it cannot be easily seen with amateur equipment.",
"In 2012, the system was found to contain a giant planet, and there is evidence for a second substellar body.",
"The system is a post-common-envelope binary and is losing angular momentum over time, which will eventually cause mass transfer from the red dwarf to the white dwarf.",
"In approximately 9–20 billion years, this will cause the system to become a cataclysmic variable.=== Deep-sky objects ===Due to its small size and location away from the plane of the Milky Way, Caelum is rather devoid of deep-sky objects, and contains no Messier objects.",
"The only deep-sky object in Caelum to receive much attention is HE0450-2958, an unusual Seyfert galaxy.",
"Originally, the jet's host galaxy proved elusive to find, and this jet appeared to be emanating from nothing.",
"Although it has been suggested that the object is an ejected supermassive black hole, the host is now agreed to be a small galaxy that is difficult to see due to light from the jet and a nearby starburst galaxy.The 13th magnitude planetary nebula PN G243-37.1 is also in the eastern regions of the constellation.",
"It is one of only a few planetary nebulae found in the galactic halo, being light-years below the Milky Way's 1000 light-year-thick disk.Galaxies NGC 1595, NGC 1598, and the Carafe galaxy are known as the Carafe group.",
"The Carafe galaxy is a Seyfert galaxy with ring.",
"Its location is 4:28 / -47°54' (2000.0)."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Starry Night Photography – Caelum Constellation"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Clarinet"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''clarinet''' is a single-reed musical instrument in the woodwind family, with a nearly cylindrical bore and a flared bell.Clarinets comprise a family of instruments of differing sizes and pitches.",
"The clarinet family is the largest woodwind family, ranging from the BB♭ contrabass to the E♭ soprano.",
"The B soprano clarinet is the most common type, and is the instrument usually indicated by the word \"clarinet\".German instrument maker Johann Christoph Denner is generally credited with inventing the clarinet sometime around the year 1700 by adding a register key to the chalumeau, an earlier single-reed instrument.",
"Over time, additional keywork and airtight pads were added to improve the tone and playability.",
"Today the clarinet is a standard fixture of the orchestra and concert band and is used in classical music, military bands, klezmer, jazz, and other styles."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The word ''clarinet'' may have entered the English language via the French ''clarinette'' (the feminine diminutive of Old French ''clarin''), or from Provençal ''clarin'' (\"oboe\"), originating from the Latin root ''clarus'' (\"clear\").",
"The word is related to Middle English ''clarion'', a type of trumpet, the name of which derives from the same root.The earliest mention of the word ''clarinette'' being used for the instrument dates to a 1710 order placed by the Duke of Gronsfeld for two instruments made by Jacob Denner.",
"The English form ''clarinet'' is found as early as 1733, and the now-archaic ''clarionet'' appears from 1784 until the early 20th century.A person who plays the clarinet is called a ''clarinetist'' (in North American English), a ''clarinettist'' (in British English), or simply a clarinet player."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"The clarinet's cylindrical bore is the main reason for its distinctive timbre, which varies between the three main registers (the ''chalumeau'', ''clarion'', and ''altissimo'').",
"The A and B clarinets have nearly the same bore and nearly identical tonal quality, although the A typically has a slightly warmer sound.",
"The tone of the E clarinet is brighter and can be heard through loud orchestral textures.",
"The bass clarinet has a characteristically deep, mellow sound, and the alto clarinet sounds similar to the bass, though not as dark.===Range===Clarinets have the largest pitch range of common woodwinds.",
"Nearly all soprano and piccolo clarinets have keywork enabling them to play the E below middle C as their lowest written note.",
"The concert pitch that sounds depends on the individual instrument's transposition (this low E sounds as a concert D3 on a B soprano clarinet, a whole tone lower than the written note).",
"Some B clarinets go to a written E to match the range of the A clarinet.",
"Bass clarinets have keywork extending the low range to a written E and some have additional keys to enable a written C. Among the less common members of the clarinet family, contrabass clarinets may have keywork to written D, C, or B; the basset clarinet and basset horn generally go to low C. Defining the top end of a clarinet's range is difficult, since many advanced players can produce notes well above the highest notes commonly found in method books.",
"G is usually the highest note encountered in classical repertoire, but fingerings as high as A exist.The range of a clarinet can be divided into three distinct registers:* The low ''chalumeau'' register, from the written low E to the written B above middle C (B) (named after the instrument that was the clarinet's immediate predecessor):*The bridging ''throat'' tones, from written G to B, are sometimes treated as a separate register* The middle ''clarion'' register, which spans just over an octave (from a written B above middle C (B) to the C two octaves above middle C (C))* The high ''altissimo'' register, consisting of the notes above the written C two octaves above middle C (C)The three registers have characteristically different sounds—the chalumeau is rich and dark, the clarion is brighter and sweet, like a trumpet heard from afar, and the altissimo can be piercing and sometimes shrill.===Acoustics===Sound wave propagation in the soprano clarinetThe production of sound by a clarinet follows these steps:# The mouthpiece and reed are surrounded by the player's lips, which put light, even pressure on the reed and form an airtight seal.",
"Air is blown past the reed and down the instrument.",
"In the same way a flag flaps in the breeze, the air rushing past the reed causes it to vibrate.",
"As air pressure from the mouth increases, the amount the reed vibrates increases until the reed hits the mouthpiece.The reed stays pressed against the mouthpiece until either the springiness of the reed forces it to open or a returning pressure wave 'bumps' into the reed and opens it.",
"Each time the reed opens, a puff of air goes through the gap, after which the reed swings shut again.",
"When played loudly, the reed can spend up to 50% of the time shut.",
"The 'puff of air' or compression wave (at around 3% greater pressure than the surrounding air) travels down the cylindrical tube and escapes at the point where the tube opens out.",
"This is either at the closest open hole or at the end of the tube (see diagram: image 1).# More than a 'neutral' amount of air escapes from the instrument, which creates a slight vacuum or rarefaction in the clarinet tube.",
"This rarefaction wave travels back up the tube (image 2).# The rarefaction is reflected off the sloping end wall of the clarinet mouthpiece.",
"The opening between the reed and the mouthpiece makes very little difference to the reflection of the rarefaction wave.",
"This is because the opening is very small compared to the size of the tube, so almost the entire wave is reflected back down the tube even if the reed is completely open at the time the wave hits (image 3).# When the rarefaction wave reaches the other (open) end of the tube, air rushes in to fill the slight vacuum.",
"A little more than a 'neutral' amount of air enters the tube and causes a compression wave to travel back up the tube (image 4).",
"Once the compression wave reaches the mouthpiece end of the 'tube', it is reflected again back down the pipe.",
"However at this point, either because the compression wave 'bumped' the reed or because of the natural vibration cycle of the reed, the gap opens and another 'puff' of air is sent down the pipe.# The original compression wave, now greatly reinforced by the second 'puff' of air, sets off on another two trips down the pipe (travelling four pipe lengths in total) before the cycle is repeated again.In addition to this primary compression wave, other waves, known as harmonics, are created.",
"Harmonics are caused by factors including the imperfect wobbling and shaking of the reed, the reed sealing the mouthpiece opening for part of the wave cycle (which creates a flattened section of the sound wave), and imperfections (bumps and holes) in the bore.",
"A wide variety of compression waves are created, but only some (primarily the odd harmonics) are reinforced.",
"This in combination with the cut-off frequency (where a significant drop in resonance occurs) results in the characteristic tone of the clarinet.The bore is cylindrical for most of the tube with an inner bore diameter between , but there is a subtle hourglass shape, with the thinnest part below the junction between the upper and lower joint.",
"This hourglass shape, although invisible to the naked eye, helps to correct the pitch and responsiveness of the instrument.",
"The diameter of the bore affects the instrument's sound characteristics.",
"The bell at the bottom of the clarinet flares out to improve the tone and tuning of the lowest notes.",
"The fixed reed and fairly uniform diameter of the clarinet result in an acoustical performance approximating that of a cylindrical stopped pipe.",
"Recorders use a tapered internal bore to overblow at the octave when the thumb/register hole is pinched open, while the clarinet, with its cylindrical bore, overblows at the twelfth.Most modern clarinets have \"undercut\" tone holes that improve intonation and sound.",
"Undercutting means chamfering the bottom edge of tone holes inside the bore.",
"Acoustically, this makes the tone hole function as if it were larger, but its main function is to allow the air column to follow the curve up through the tone hole (surface tension) instead of \"blowing past\" it under the increasingly directional frequencies of the upper registers.",
"Covering or uncovering the tone holes varies the length of the pipe, changing the resonant frequencies of the enclosed air column and hence the pitch.",
"The player moves between the chalumeau and clarion registers through use of the register key.",
"The open register key stops the fundamental frequency from being reinforced, making the reed vibrate at three times the frequency, which produces a note a twelfth above the original note.Most woodwind instruments have a second register that begins an octave above the first (with notes at twice the frequency of the lower notes).",
"With the aid of an 'octave' or 'register' key, the notes sound an octave higher as the fingering pattern repeats.",
"These instruments are said to overblow at the octave.",
"The clarinet differs, since it acts as a closed-pipe system.",
"The low chalumeau register plays fundamentals, but the clarion (second) register plays the third harmonics, a perfect twelfth higher than the fundamentals.",
"The clarinet is therefore said to overblow at the twelfth.",
"The first several notes of the altissimo (third) range, aided by the register key and venting with the first left-hand hole, play the fifth harmonics, a perfect twelfth plus a major sixth above the fundamentals.",
"The fifth and seventh harmonics are also available, sounding a further sixth and fourth (a flat, diminished fifth) higher respectively; these are the notes of the altissimo register.The lip position and pressure, shaping of the vocal tract, choice of reed and mouthpiece, amount of air pressure created, and evenness of the airflow account for most of the player's ability to control the tone of a clarinet.",
"Their vocal tract will be shaped to resonate at frequencies associated with the tone being produced.",
"Vibrato, a pulsating change of pitch, is rare in classical literature; however, certain performers, such as Richard Stoltzman, use vibrato in classical music.",
"Special fingerings and lip-bending may be used to play microtonal intervals.",
"There have also been efforts to create a quarter tone clarinet.Fritz Schüller's quarter-tone clarinet"
],
[
"Construction",
"===Materials===Clarinet bodies have been made from a variety of materials including wood, plastic, hard rubber or Ebonite, metal, and ivory.",
"The vast majority of wooden clarinets are made from African blackwood (grenadilla), or, more uncommonly, Honduran rosewood or cocobolo.",
"Historically other woods, particularly boxwood and ebony, were used.",
"Since the mid-20th century, clarinets (particularly student or band models) are also made from plastics, such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS).",
"One of the first such blends of plastic was Resonite, a term originally trademarked by Selmer.",
"The Greenline model by Buffet Crampon is made from a composite of resin and the African blackwood powder left over from the manufacture of wooden clarinets.Metal soprano clarinets were popular in the late 19th century, particularly for military use.",
"Metal is still used for the bodies of some contra-alto and contrabass clarinets and the necks and bells of nearly all alto and larger clarinets.Mouthpieces are generally made of hard rubber, although some inexpensive mouthpieces may be made of plastic.",
"Other materials such as glass, wood, ivory, and metal have also been used.",
"Ligatures are often made of metal and tightened using one or more adjustment screws; other materials include plastic, string, or fabric.===Reed===The clarinet uses a single reed made from the cane of ''Arundo donax''.",
"Reeds may also be manufactured from synthetic materials.",
"The ligature fastens the reed to the mouthpiece.",
"When air is blown through the opening between the reed and the mouthpiece facing, the reed vibrates and produces the clarinet's sound.Most players buy manufactured reeds, although many make adjustments to these reeds, and some make their own reeds from cane \"blanks\".",
"Reeds come in varying degrees of hardness, generally indicated on a scale from one (soft) through five (hard).",
"This numbering system is not standardized—reeds with the same number often vary in hardness across manufacturers and models.",
"Reed and mouthpiece characteristics work together to determine ease of playability and tonal characteristics.===Components===Boehm system clarinetMouthpiece with conical ring ligature, made from hard rubberThe reed is attached to the mouthpiece by the ligature, and the top half-inch or so of this assembly is held in the player's mouth.",
"In the past, string was used to bind the reed to the mouthpiece.",
"The formation of the mouth around the mouthpiece and reed is called the embouchure.",
"The reed is on the underside of the mouthpiece, pressing against the player's lower lip, while the top teeth normally contact the top of the mouthpiece (some players roll the upper lip under the top teeth to form what is called a 'double-lip' embouchure).",
"Adjustments in the strength and shape of the embouchure change the tone and intonation.",
"Players sometimes relieve the pressure on the upper teeth and inner lower lip by attaching a pad to the top of the mouthpiece or putting temporary cushioning on the lower teeth.The mouthpiece attaches to the barrel.",
"Tuning can be adjusted by using barrels of varying lengths or by pulling out the barrel to increase the instrument's length.",
"On basset horns and lower clarinets, there is a curved metal neck instead of a barrel.The main body of most clarinets has an upper joint, whose mechanism is mostly operated by the left hand, and a lower joint, mostly operated by the right hand.",
"Some clarinets have a one-piece body.",
"The modern soprano clarinet has numerous tone holes—seven are covered with the fingertips and the rest are operated using a set of 17 keys.",
"The most common system of keys was named the Boehm system by its designer Hyacinthe Klosé after flute designer Theobald Boehm, but it is not the same as the Boehm system used on flutes.",
"The other main key system is the Oehler system, which is used mostly in Germany and Austria.",
"The related Albert system is used by some jazz, klezmer, and eastern European folk musicians.",
"The Albert and Oehler systems are both based on the early Mueller system.The cluster of keys at the bottom of the upper joint (protruding slightly beyond the cork of the joint) are known as the trill keys and are operated by the right hand.",
"The entire weight of the smaller clarinets is supported by the right thumb behind the lower joint on what is called the thumb rest.",
"Larger clarinets are supported with a neck strap or a floor peg.Below the main body is a flared end known as the bell.",
"The bell does not amplify the sound but improves the uniformity of the instrument's tone for the lowest notes in each register.",
"For the other notes, the sound is produced almost entirely at the tone holes, and the bell is irrelevant.",
"On basset horns and larger clarinets, the bell curves up and forward and is usually made of metal."
],
[
"History",
"The clarinet has its roots in early single-reed instruments used in Ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt.",
"The modern clarinet developed from a Baroque instrument called the chalumeau.",
"This instrument was similar to a recorder, but with a single-reed mouthpiece and a cylindrical bore.",
"Lacking a register key, it was played mainly in its fundamental register, with a limited range of about one and a half octaves.",
"It had eight finger holes, like a recorder, and a written pitch range from F3 to G4.At this time, contrary to modern practice, the reed was placed in contact with the upper lip.Denner clarinetAround the beginning of the 18th century the German instrument maker Johann Christoph Denner (or possibly his son Jacob Denner) equipped a chalumeau in the alto register with two keys, one of which enabled access to a higher register.",
"This second register did not begin an octave above the first, as with other woodwind instruments, but started an octave and a perfect fifth higher than the first.",
"A second key, at the top, extended the range of the first register to A4 and, together with the register key, to B4.Later, Denner lengthened the bell and provided it with a third key to extend the pitch range down to E3.Sketch of the basset clarinet used by Anton Stadler since 1789After Denner's innovations, other makers added keys to improve tuning and facilitate fingerings and the chalumeau fell into disuse.",
"The clarinet of the Classical period, as used by Mozart, typically had five keys.",
"Mozart suggested extending the clarinet downwards by four semitones to C, which resulted in the basset clarinet that was about longer, made first by Theodor Lotz.",
"In 1791 Mozart composed the Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra in A major for this instrument, with passages ranging down to C3.By the time of Beethoven (), the clarinet was a fixed member in the orchestra.Two-key clarinet with fingering chart, from Museum musicum theoreticalo practicum, 1732The number of keys was limited because their felt pads did not seal tightly.",
"Baltic-German clarinetist and master clarinet maker Iwan Müller remedied this by countersinking the tone holes for the keys and covering the pads with soft leather.",
"These leather pads sealed the holes better than felt, making it possible to equip the instrument with considerably more keys.",
"In 1812 Müller presented a clarinet with seven finger holes and thirteen keys, which he called \"clarinet omnitonic\" since it was capable of playing in all keys.",
"It was no longer necessary to use differently tuned clarinets for a different keys.",
"Müller is also considered the inventor of the metal ligature and the thumb rest.",
"During this period the typical embouchure also changed, orienting the mouthpiece with the reed facing downward.",
"This was first recommended in 1782 and became standard by the 1830s.In the late 1830s, German flute maker Theobald Böhm invented a ring and axle key system for the flute.",
"This key system was first used on the clarinet between 1839 and 1843 by French clarinetist Hyacinthe Klosé in collaboration with instrument maker Louis Auguste Buffet.",
"Their design introduced needle springs for the axles, and the ring keys simplified some complicated fingering patterns.",
"The inventors called this the Boehm clarinet, although Böhm was not involved in its development and the system differed from the one used on the flute.",
"Other key systems have been developed, many built around modifications to the basic Boehm system, including the Full Boehm, Mazzeo, McIntyre, the Benade NX, and the Reform Boehm system, which combined Boehm-system keywork with a German mouthpiece and bore.The Albert clarinet was developed by Eugène Albert in 1848.This model was based on the Müller clarinet with some changes to keywork, and was also known as the \"simple system\".",
"It included a \"spectacle key\" patented by Adolphe Sax and rollers to improve little-finger movement.",
"After 1861, a \"patent C sharp\" key developed by Joseph Tyler was added to other clarinet models.",
"Improved versions of Albert clarinets were built in Belgium and France for export to the UK and the US.Around 1860, clarinettist Carl Baermann and instrument maker Georg Ottensteiner developed the patented Baermann/Ottensteiner clarinet.",
"This instrument had new connecting levers, allowing multiple fingering options to operate some of the pads.",
"The Brahms clarinetist Richard Mühlfeld used this clarinet, and the American clarinet soloist Charles Neidich has used a Baermann-Ottensteiner instrument for playing compositions by Brahms.In the early 20th century, the German clarinetist and clarinet maker presented a clarinet using similar fingerings to the Baermann instrument, with significantly more toneholes than the Böhm model.",
"The new clarinet was called the Oehler system clarinet or German clarinet, while the Böhm clarinet has since been called the French clarinet.",
"The French clarinet differs from the German not only in fingering but also in sound.",
"Richard Strauss noted that \"French clarinets have a flat, nasal tone, while German ones approximate the singing voice\".",
"Among modern instruments the difference is smaller, although intonation differences persist.",
"The use of Oehler clarinets has continued in German and Austrian orchestras.Today the Boehm system is standard everywhere except in Germany and Austria, where the Oehler clarinet is still used.",
"Some contemporary Dixieland players continue to use Albert system clarinets.",
"The Reform Boehm system is also popular in the Netherlands."
],
[
"Usage and repertoire",
"===Use of multiple clarinets===The modern orchestral standard of using soprano clarinets in B and A has to do partly with the history of the instrument and partly with acoustics, aesthetics, and economics.",
"Before about 1800, due to the lack of airtight pads, practical woodwinds could have only a few keys to control accidentals (notes outside their diatonic home scales).",
"The low (chalumeau) register of the clarinet spans a twelfth (an octave plus a perfect fifth) before overblowing, so the clarinet needs keys/holes to produce all nineteen notes in this range.",
"This involves more keywork than on instruments that \"overblow\" at the octave—oboes, flutes, bassoons, and saxophones need only twelve notes before overblowing.",
"Since clarinets with few keys cannot play chromatically, they are limited to playing in closely related keys.",
"For example, an eighteenth-century clarinet in C could play music in F, C, and G (and their relative minors) with good intonation, but with progressive difficulty and poorer intonation as the key moved away from this range.",
"With the advent of airtight pads and improved key technology, more keys were added to woodwinds and the need for clarinets in multiple keys was reduced.",
"The use of instruments in C, B, and A persisted, with each used as specified by the composer.The lower-pitched clarinets sound \"mellower\" (less bright), and the C clarinet—the highest and brightest sounding of these three—fell out of favor as the other two could cover its range and their sound was considered better.",
"While the clarinet in C began to fall out of general use around 1850, some composers continued to write C parts, e.g., Bizet's Symphony in C (1855), Tchaikovsky's Symphony No.",
"2 (1872), Smetana's overture to ''The Bartered Bride'' (1866) and ''Má Vlast'' (1874), Dvořák's ''Slavonic Dance'' Op.",
"46, No.",
"1 (1878), Brahms' Symphony No.",
"4 (1885), Mahler's Symphony No.",
"6 (1906), and Strauss' ''Der Rosenkavalier'' (1911).While technical improvements and an equal-tempered scale reduced the need for two clarinets, the technical difficulty of playing in remote keys persisted, and the A has remained a standard orchestral instrument.",
"By the late 19th century the orchestral clarinet repertoire contained so much music for clarinet in A that it has remained in use.===Classical music===The orchestra frequently includes two clarinetists, each usually equipped with a B and an A clarinet, and clarinet parts commonly alternate between the instruments.",
"In the 20th century, Igor Stravinsky, Richard Strauss, and Gustav Mahler employed many different clarinets, including the E or D soprano clarinets, basset horn, bass clarinet, and/or contrabass clarinet.",
"The practice of using different clarinets to achieve tonal variety was common in 20th-century classical music.The E clarinet, B clarinet, alto clarinet, bass clarinet, and contra-alto/contrabass clarinet are commonly used in concert bands, which generally have multiple B clarinets; there are commonly three or even four B clarinet parts with two to three players per part.The clarinet is widely used as a solo instrument.",
"The clarinet evolved later than other orchestral woodwind instruments, leaving solo repertoire from the Classical period onward, but few works from the Baroque era.",
"Many clarinet concertos and clarinet sonatas have been written to showcase the instrument, for example those by Mozart and Weber.Many works of chamber music have been written for the clarinet.",
"Common combinations are:* Clarinet and piano* Clarinet trio: clarinet, piano, and another instrument (for example, a string instrument)* Clarinet quartet: three B clarinets and bass clarinet; two B clarinets, alto clarinet, and bass; and other possibilities such as the use of a basset horn, especially in European classical works* Clarinet quintet: a clarinet plus a string quartet or, in more contemporary music, a configuration of five clarinets* Wind quintet: flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn.Groups of clarinets playing together have become increasingly popular among clarinet enthusiasts in recent years.",
"Common forms are:* Clarinet choir: This ensemble contains many clarinets playing together, usually including several members of the clarinet family.",
"The homogeneity of tone across the different members of the clarinet family produces an effect with some similarities to a human choir.",
"* Clarinet quartet: usually three B sopranos and one B bass, or two B, an E alto clarinet, and a B bass clarinet, or sometimes four B sopranos===Jazz===uprightThe clarinet was a central instrument in jazz, beginning with early jazz players in the 1910s.",
"It remained a signature instrument of the genre through much of the big band era into the 1940s.",
"American players Alphonse Picou, Larry Shields, Jimmie Noone, Johnny Dodds, and Sidney Bechet were all prominent early jazz clarinet players.",
"Swing performers such as Benny Goodman and Artie Shaw rose to prominence in the late 1930s.Beginning in the 1940s, the clarinet faded from its prominent position in jazz.",
"By that time, an interest in Dixieland, a revival of traditional New Orleans jazz, had begun.",
"Pete Fountain was one of the best known performers in this genre.",
"The clarinet's place in the jazz ensemble was usurped by the saxophone, which projects a more powerful sound and uses a less complicated fingering system.",
"The clarinet did not entirely disappear from jazz—prominent players since the 1950s include Stan Hasselgård, Jimmy Giuffre, Eric Dolphy (on bass clarinet), Perry Robinson, and John Carter.",
"In the US, the prominent players on the instrument since the 1980s have included Eddie Daniels, Don Byron, Marty Ehrlich, Ken Peplowski, and others playing in both traditional and contemporary styles.===Other genres===The clarinet is uncommon, but not unheard of, in rock music.",
"Jerry Martini played clarinet on Sly and the Family Stone's 1968 hit, \"Dance to the Music\".",
"The Beatles included a trio of clarinets in \"When I'm Sixty-Four\" from their ''Sgt.",
"Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' album.",
"A clarinet is prominently featured in what a ''Billboard'' reviewer termed a \"Benny Goodman-flavored clarinet solo\" in \"Breakfast in America\", the title song from the Supertramp album of the same name.Turkish clarinetClarinets feature prominently in klezmer music, which employs a distinctive style of playing.",
"The popular Brazilian music style of choro uses the clarinet, as does Albanian ''saze'' and Greek ''kompania'' folk music, and Bulgarian wedding music.",
"In Turkish folk music, the Albert system clarinet in G is often used, commonly called a \"Turkish clarinet\"."
],
[
"Clarinet family",
" Name Key Commentary Range(sounding) A clarinet (Piccolo clarinet in A) A This instrument is rare, although it was once frequently used in wind ensembles, especially in Spain and Italy.",
"E clarinet (Sopranino or piccolo clarinet in E) E The E clarinet has a characteristic \"hard and biting\" tone and is used in the orchestra when a brighter, or sometimes more comical, sound is called for.",
"D clarinet (Sopranino or piccolo clarinet in D) D This was largely replaced by the F and later the E clarinet.",
"While a few early pieces were written for it, its repertoire is now very limited in Western music.",
"Stravinsky included both the D and E clarinets in his instrumentation for ''The Rite of Spring''.",
"C clarinet (Soprano clarinet in C) C This clarinet was very common in the instrument's earliest period but its use dwindled, and by the end of the 1920s it had become practically obsolete.",
"From the time of Mozart, many composers began to prefer the mellower lower-pitched instruments, and the timbre of the C instrument may have been considered too bright.",
"To avoid having to carry an extra instrument that required another reed and mouthpiece, orchestral players preferred to play parts for this instrument on B clarinets, transposing up a tone.",
"B clarinet (Soprano clarinet in B) B♭ The B clarinet is the most common type.",
"Usually, the term \"clarinet\" on its own refers to this instrument.",
"A clarinet (Soprano clarinet in A) A The A clarinet is frequently used in orchestral and chamber music, especially of the nineteenth century.",
"Basset clarinet A The basset clarinet is a clarinet in A with keywork that extends to a written low C. It is used primarily to play Classical-era music.",
"Mozart's Clarinet Concerto was written for this instrument.",
"Basset clarinets in C and B also exist.",
"Basset horn F Similar in appearance to the alto, the basset horn is instead pitched in F, with a narrower bore on most models.",
"Mozart's Clarinet Concerto was originally sketched out as a concerto for basset horn in G. Little material for this instrument has been published.",
"Alto clarinet E Sometimes referred to as the tenor clarinet in Europe, the alto clarinet is used in military and concert bands and occasionally, if rarely, in orchestras.",
"The alto clarinet in F was used in military bands during the early 19th century and was a favorite instrument of Iwan Müller.",
"It fell out of use and, if called for, is commonly substituted with the basset horn.",
"Bass clarinet B Developed in the late 18th century, the bass clarinet began featuring in orchestral music in the 1830s after its redesign by Adolphe Sax.",
"It has since become a mainstay of the modern orchestra.",
"It is also used in concert bands and enjoys (along with the B clarinet) a considerable role in jazz, especially through jazz musician Eric Dolphy.",
"The bass clarinet in A, which had a vogue among certain composers from the mid-19th to the mid-20th centuries, is now so rare as to usually be considered obsolete.",
"E contrabass clarinet (also called Contra-alto or Contralto clarinet) EE This instrument is used in wind ensembles and occasionally in cinematic scores.",
"Contrabass clarinet (also called double-bass clarinet) BB The BB contrabass is used in clarinet ensembles, concert bands, and sometimes in orchestras.",
"Arnold Schoenberg calls for a contrabass clarinet in A in his ''Five Pieces for Orchestra'', but no such instrument ever existed.",
"Subcontrabass clarinet (also called octocontralto clarinet or octocontrabass clarinet)EEE or BBBThe subcontrabass clarinet is a largely experimental instrument with little repertoire.",
"Three versions in EEE♭ (an octave below the contra-alto clarinet) were made, and a version in BBB (an octave below the contrabass clarinet) was built by Leblanc in 1939.Clarinets in A-flat, E-flat and B-flat, basset clarinet in A, alto clarinet range to low E, basset horn, bass clarinet range to low E, bass clarinet range to low C, contra alto clarinet and contrabass clarinet"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of clarinet concerti* List of clarinetists* List of clarinet makers* Double clarinet* International Clarinet Association"
],
[
"References",
"=== Citations ====== Cited sources ===* * * * * * ** * * ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* The International Clarinet Association*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chojnów"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Chojnów''' (, Silesian German: Hoyn, Silesian language: ''Chojnůw'') is a small town in Legnica County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland.",
"It is located on the Skora river, a tributary of the Kaczawa at an average altitude of above sea level.",
"Chojnów is the administrative seat of the rural gmina called Gmina Chojnów, although the town is not part of its territory and forms a separate urban gmina.",
"As of December 2021, the town has 13,002 inhabitants.Chojnów is located west of Legnica, east from Bolesławiec and north of Złotoryja, from the A4 motorway.",
"It has railroad connections to Bolesławiec and Legnica."
],
[
"Heraldry",
"The Chojnów coat of arms is a blue escutcheon featuring a white castle with three towers.",
"To the right side of the central tower is a silver crescent moon and to its left side a golden sun.",
"In the gate of the castle is a Silesian Eagle on a yellow background.",
"Chojnów's motto is \"Friendly City\"."
],
[
"Geography",
"Chojnów is located in the Central-Western part of the Lower Silesia region.",
"The Skora (Leather) River flows through the town in a westerly direction.",
"The city of Chojnów is in area, including 41% agricultural land.Chojnów has a connection with the major cities of the country (road and rail) and located south of Chojnów has the A4 Autostrada.",
"To the South of the town is the surrounding Chojnowska Plain."
],
[
"History",
"Piast Castle in ChojnówThe town is first mentioned in a Latin mediaeval document issued in Wrocław on February 26, 1253, stating, the Silesian Duke Henry III when the town is mentioned under the name Honowo.",
"Possible the name of nearby Hainau Island.",
"The name is of Polish origin, and in more modern records from the 19th century, the Polish name appears as ''Hajnów'', while ''Haynau'' is the Germanized version of the original Polish name.The settlement of ''Haynow'' was mentioned in a 1272 deed.",
"It was already called a ''civitas'' in a 1288 document issued by the Piast duke Henry V of Legnica, and officially received town privileges in 1333 from Duke Bolesław III the Generous.",
"It was part of the duchies of Wrocław, Głogów and Legnica of fragmented Poland and remained under the rule of the Piast dynasty until 1675.Its population was predominantly Polish.",
"In 1292 the first castellan of Chojnów, Bronisław Budziwojowic, was mentioned.",
"In the 14th and early 15th centuries Chojnów was granted various privileges, including staple right and gold mining right, thanks to which it flourished.The town survived the Hussites, who burned almost the entire town center and castle, but it quickly helped recover its former glory.",
"The largest boom Chojnów experienced was in the 16th century, however by the end of that century began to decline due to fires and epidemic, which claimed many victims in 1613.During the Thirty Years War (1618–1648), there was another outbreak in the city, it was occupied by the Austrians and Swedes and in 1642 it was also plundered by the Swedes.",
"It remained part of the Piast-ruled Duchy of Legnica until its dissolution in 1675, when it was incorporated to Habsburg-ruled Bohemia.Early 20th-century view of the Piast ParkIn the 18th century, cloth production developed and a clothmaking school was established in the town.",
"One of two main routes connecting Warsaw and Dresden ran through the town in the 18th century and Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland traveled that route numerous times.",
"In 1740 the town was captured by Prussia and subsequently annexed in 1742.In 1804 it suffered a flood.",
"During the Napoleonic wars there were more epidemics.",
"In 1813 in Chojnów, Napoleon Bonaparte issued instructions regarding the reorganization of the 8th Polish Corps of Prince Józef Poniatowski.",
"The event is commemorated by a plaque in the facade of the Piast Castle.",
"A railway line was opened in the 19th century.",
"Sewer, Gas lighting a Newspaper and a hospital soon followed as the towns economy improved.The city was not spared in World War II, with 30% of the town being destroyed on February 10, 1945, when Soviet Red Army troops took the abandoned town.",
"After World War II and the implementation of the Oder-Neisse line in 1945, the town passed to the Republic of Poland.",
"It was repopulated by Poles, expelled from former eastern Poland annexed by the Soviet Union.",
"In 1946 it was renamed ''Chojnów'', a more modern version of the old Polish ''Hajnów''.",
"Also Greeks, refugees of the Greek Civil War, settled in Chojnów."
],
[
"Population",
"* 1428 – 15 inhabitants* 1633 – 500* 1657 – 180* 1742 – 400* 1788 – 20,176* 1801 – 2,314* 1890 – 8,115* 1910 – 10,500* 2005 – 14,510* 2011 – 14,367"
],
[
"Economy",
"Chojnów is an industrial and agricultural town.",
"Among local products are: paper, agricultural machinery, chains, metal furniture for hospitals, equipment for the meat industry, beer, wine, leather clothing, and clothing for infants, children and adults."
],
[
"Sights and nature",
"Among the interesting monuments of Chojnów are the 13th-century castle of the Dukes of Legnica (currently used as a museum), two old churches, the ''Baszta Tkaczy'' (''Weavers' Tower'') and preserved fragments of city walls.The biggest green area in Chojnów is small forest ''Park Piastowski'' (''Piast's Park''), named after Piast dynasty.",
"Wild animals that can be found in the Chojnów area are roe deer, foxes, rabbits and wild domestic animals, especially cats."
],
[
"Culture and sport",
"Miejski Dom Kultury (\"Municipal House of Culture\")Every year in the first days of June, the ''Days of Chojnów'' (''Dni Chojnowa'') are celebrated.",
"The Whole-Poland bike race ''Masters'' has been organized yearly in Chojnów for the past few years.Chojnów has a Municipal sports and recreation center formed in 2008 holding various events, festivals, reviews, exhibitions, and competitions.",
"The regional Museum is housed in the old Piast era castle.",
"The collections include tiles, relics, and the castle garden.",
"Next to the Museum there is a municipal library.",
"In śródmiejskim Park, near the Town Hall is the amphitheatre.The local government-run weekly newspaper is Gazeta Chojnowska, which has been published since 1992.It is published biweekly.",
"Editions have a run of 900 copies and it is one of the oldest newspapers in Poland issued without interruption.",
"The ''Chojnów'' is the official newspaper of Chojnów with copy run of 750 copies."
],
[
"Education",
"Education Centre in ChojnówIn Chojnów, there are two kindergartens, two elementary schools and two middle schools.",
"*Mary Konopnickiej is the smallest elementary school in Chojnów, and is located in the northern part of the city, close to the train station and founded in 1962.",
"*Janusz Korczak is the largest primary school in Chojnów in the southern part of the town.",
"*Middle School No.",
"(Pope John Paul II), it is situated in the north-western part of the city next to the \"Small Church\".",
"*Gimnazjum nr 2 im.",
"Nicolaus Copernicus is the largest high school in Chojnów.",
"*Liceum Ogólnokształcące im.",
"Nicolaus Copernicus"
],
[
"Religion",
"Chojnów is in the Catholic deanery of Chojnów and has two parishes, Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary and also the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul.",
"Both parishes have active congregations.There are also two Congregations of Jehovah's witnesses."
],
[
"Notable people",
"* Johann Wilhelm Ritter (1776–1810), chemist and physicist* Georg Michaelis (1857–1936), politician, Chancellor of Germany (1917).",
"* Edith Jacobson (1897–1978), German psychoanalyst* Oswald Lange (1912–2000), German–American aerospace engineer * Horst Mahler (born 1936), German lawyer, former Red Army Faction militant, now Neo-Nazi activist"
],
[
"Twin towns – sister cities",
"Chojnów is twinned with:* Commentry, France* Egelsbach, Germany* Mnichovo Hradiště, Czech Republic"
],
[
"Gallery",
"Chojnow(js).jpg|Entrance to the Piast CastleSM Chojnów Rynek (0) ID 593382.jpg|Market SquareChojnów, Ab-047.JPG|Flower beds in ChojnówChojnow 067 duzy kosciol.jpg|Gothic Saints Peter and Paul ChurchChojnów, Wzgórze Chmielowe.jpg|Park PiastowskiChojnów, Ab-058.JPG|Town hallSM Chojnów kościół Niepokalanego Poczęcia NMP (5) ID 593383.jpg|Immaculate Conception ChurchSM Chojnów Konarskiego4 (0).jpg|Nicolaus Copernicus Gymnasium No.",
"2Chojnów, Ab-057.JPG|Monument to Polish soldiers killed in World War II and murdered in labour camps and exiled to SiberiaŁabędzi Staw.jpg|Swan's Pond (''Łabędzi Staw'') in winterSM Chojnów Dworzec (2) ID 593398.jpg|Chojnów Railway StationChojnow 055 most kolejowy.jpg|Railway bridge"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * City hall homepage * Chojnow social news portal * Chojnow Online * E-info about Chojnow * Chojnow social news portal * * Jewish Community in Chojnów on Virtual Shtetl"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Canes Venatici"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Canes Venatici''' () is one of the 88 constellations designated by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).",
"It is a small northern constellation that was created by Johannes Hevelius in the 17th century.",
"Its name is Latin for 'hunting dogs', and the constellation is often depicted in illustrations as representing the dogs of Boötes the Herdsman, a neighboring constellation.Cor Caroli is the constellation's brightest star, with an apparent magnitude of 2.9.La Superba (Y CVn) is one of the reddest naked-eye stars and one of the brightest carbon stars.",
"The Whirlpool Galaxy is a spiral galaxy tilted face-on to observers on Earth, and was the first galaxy whose spiral nature was discerned.",
"In addition, quasar Ton 618 is one of the most massive black holes with the mass of 66 billion solar masses."
],
[
"History",
"Canes Venatici as depicted in Hevelius's star atlas.",
"Note that, per the conventions of the time, the image is mirrored.Canes Venatici can be seen in the orientation it appears to the eyes in this 1825 star chart from ''Urania's Mirror''.The stars of Canes Venatici are not bright.",
"In classical times, they were listed by Ptolemy as unfigured stars below the constellation Ursa Major in his star catalogue.In medieval times, the identification of these stars with the dogs of Boötes arose through a mistranslation: some of Boötes's stars were traditionally described as representing the club (, ) of Boötes.",
"When the Greek astronomer Ptolemy's ''Almagest'' was translated from Greek to Arabic, the translator Hunayn ibn Ishaq did not know the Greek word and rendered it as a similar-sounding compound Arabic word for a kind of weapon, writing , which means 'the staff having a hook'.When the Arabic text was later translated into Latin, the translator, Gerard of Cremona, mistook ('hook') for ('dogs').",
"Both written words look the same in Arabic text without diacritics, leading Gerard to write it as ('spearshaft-having dogs').In 1533, the German astronomer Peter Apian depicted Boötes as having two dogs with him.These spurious dogs floated about the astronomical literature until Hevelius decided to make them a separate constellation in 1687.Hevelius chose the name ''Asterion'' for the northern dog and ''Chara'' for the southern dog, as , 'the hunting dogs', in his star atlas.In his star catalogue, the Czech astronomer Antonín Bečvář assigned the names ''Asterion'' to β CVn and ''Chara'' to α CVn.Although the International Astronomical Union dropped several constellations in 1930 that were medieval and Renaissance innovations, Canes Venatici survived to become one of the 88 IAU designated constellations."
],
[
"Neighbors and borders",
"Canes Venatici is bordered by Ursa Major to the north and west, Coma Berenices to the south, and Boötes to the east.",
"The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is \"CVn\".",
"The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 14 sides.In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between +27.84° and +52.36°.",
"Covering 465 square degrees, it ranks 38th of the 88 constellations in size."
],
[
"Prominent stars and deep-sky objects",
"The constellation Canes Venatici as it is seen by the naked eye in twilight===Stars===Canes Venatici contains no very bright stars.",
"The Bayer designation stars, Alpha and Beta Canum Venaticorum are only of third and fourth magnitude respectively.",
"Flamsteed catalogued 25 stars in the constellation, labelling them 1 to 25 Canum Venaticorum (CVn); however, 1CVn turned out to be in Ursa Major, 13CVn was in Coma Berenices, and 22CVn did not exist.",
"* Alpha Canum Venaticorum, also known as ('heart of Charles'), is the constellation's brightest star, named by Sir Charles Scarborough in memory of King Charles I, the executed king of Britain.",
"The English astronomer William Henry Smyth wrote in 1844 that α CVn was brighter than usual during the Restoration, as Charles II returned to England to take the throne, but gave no source for this statement, which seems to be apocryphal.",
"Cor Caroli is a wide double star, with a primary of magnitude 2.9 and a secondary of magnitude 5.6; the primary is 110 light-years from Earth.",
"The primary also has an unusually strong variable magnetic field.",
"* Beta Canum Venaticorum, or Chara, is a yellow-hued main sequence star of magnitude 4.25, 27 light-years from Earth.",
"Its common name comes from the word for joy.",
"It has been listed as an astrobiologically interesting star because of its proximity and similarity to the Sun.",
"However, no exoplanets have been discovered around it so far.",
"* Y Canum Venaticorum (La Superba) is a semiregular variable star that varies between magnitudes 5.0 and 6.5 over a period of around 158 days.",
"It is a carbon star and is deep red in color, with a spectral type of C54J(N3).",
"* AM Canum Venaticorum, a very blue star of magnitude 14, is the prototype of a special class of cataclysmic variable stars, in which the companion star is a white dwarf, rather than a main sequence star.",
"It is 143 parsecs distant from the Sun.",
"* RS Canum Venaticorum is the prototype of a special class of binary stars of chromospherically active and optically variable components.",
"* R Canum Venaticorum is a Mira variable that ranges between magnitudes 6.5 and 12.9 over a period of approximately 329 days.===Supervoid===The Giant Void, an extremely large void (part of the universe containing very few galaxies), is within the vicinity of this constellation.",
"It is regarded to be the second largest void ever discovered, slightly larger than the Eridanus Supervoid and smaller than the proposed KBC Void and 1,200 times the volume of expected typical voids.",
"It was discovered in 1988 in a deep-sky survey.",
"Its centre is approximately 1.5 billion light-years away.===Deep-sky objects===Canes Venatici contains five Messier objects, including four galaxies.",
"One of the more significant galaxies in Canes Venatici is the Whirlpool Galaxy (M51, NGC 5194) and NGC 5195, a small barred spiral galaxy that is seen face-on.",
"This was the first galaxy recognised as having a spiral structure, this structure being first observed by Lord Rosse in 1845.It is a face-on spiral galaxy 37 million light-years from Earth.",
"Widely considered to be one of the most beautiful galaxies visible, M51 has many star-forming regions and nebulae in its arms, coloring them pink and blue in contrast to the older yellow core.",
"M 51 has a smaller companion, NGC 5195, that has very few star-forming regions and thus appears yellow.",
"It is passing behind M 51 and may be the cause of the larger galaxy's prodigious star formation.Messier51 sRGB.jpg| Messier 51, the Whirlpool Galaxy, photographed by the Hubble Space Telescope.A cosmic atlas NGC 4248.jpg| NGC 4248 is located about 24 million light-years away.Dim and diffuse.jpg| NGC 4242 is a dim galaxy in Canes Venatici.NGC 4631 HST.jpg| NGC 4631 photographed by the Hubble Space Telescope.NGC 4707 - HST - Potw1651a.tif| NGC 4707 is a spiral galaxy roughly 22 million light-years from Earth.Other notable spiral galaxies in Canes Venatici are the Sunflower Galaxy (M63, NGC 5055), M94 (NGC 4736), and M106 (NGC 4258).",
"* M63, the Sunflower Galaxy, was named for its appearance in large amateur telescopes.",
"It is a spiral galaxy with an integrated magnitude of 9.0.",
"* M94 (NGC 4736) is a small face-on spiral galaxy with approximate magnitude 8.0, about 15 million light-years from Earth.",
"* NGC 4631 is a barred spiral galaxy, which is one of the largest and brightest edge-on galaxies in the sky.",
"* M3 (NGC 5272) is a globular cluster 32,000 light-years from Earth.",
"It is 18′ in diameter, and at magnitude 6.3 is bright enough to be seen with binoculars.",
"It can even be seen with the naked eye under particularly dark skies.",
"* M94, also cataloged as NGC 4736, is a face-on spiral galaxy 15 million light-years from Earth.",
"It has very tight spiral arms and a bright core.",
"The outskirts of the galaxy are incredibly luminous in the ultraviolet because of a ring of new stars surrounding the core 7,000 light-years in diameter.",
"Though astronomers are not sure what has caused this ring of new stars, some hypothesize that it is from shock waves caused by a bar that is thus far invisible.Ton 618 is a hyperluminous quasar and blazar in this constellation, near its border with the neighboring Coma Berenices.",
"It possesses a black hole with a mass 66 billion times that of the Sun, making it one of the most massive black holes ever measured.",
"There is also a Lyman-alpha blob."
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"References",
"===Bibliography===* * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Photos of Canes Venatici and the star clusters and galaxies found within it on AllTheSky.com* Clickable map of Canes Venatici* Photographic catalogue of deep sky objects in Canes Venatici (PDF)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chamaeleon"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Chamaeleon''' () is a small constellation in the deep southern sky.",
"It is named after the chameleon, a kind of lizard.",
"It was first defined in the 16th century."
],
[
"History",
"The constellation Camaeleon (Chamaeleon) as depicted in Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr's ''Atlas Coelestis'', ca.",
"1742.Chamaeleon was one of twelve constellations created by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman.",
"It first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius and Jodocus Hondius.",
"Johann Bayer was the first uranographer to put Chamaeleon in a celestial atlas.",
"It was one of many constellations created by European explorers in the 15th and 16th centuries out of unfamiliar Southern Hemisphere stars."
],
[
"Features",
"The constellation Chamaeleon as it can be seen by the naked eye.=== Stars ===There are four bright stars in Chamaeleon that form a compact diamond-shape approximately 10 degrees from the south celestial pole and about 15 degrees south of Acrux, along the axis formed by Acrux and Gamma Crucis.",
"Alpha Chamaeleontis is a white-hued star of magnitude 4.1, 63 light-years from Earth.",
"Beta Chamaeleontis is a blue-white hued star of magnitude 4.2, 271 light-years from Earth.",
"Gamma Chamaeleontis is a red-hued giant star of magnitude 4.1, 413 light-years from Earth.",
"The other bright star in Chamaeleon is Delta Chamaeleontis, a wide double star.",
"The brighter star is Delta2 Chamaeleontis, a blue-hued star of magnitude 4.4.Delta1 Chamaeleontis, the dimmer component, is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 5.5.They both lie about 350 light years away.Chamaeleon is also the location of Cha 110913, a unique dwarf star or proto solar system.=== Deep-sky objects ===Spiral galaxy ESO 021-G004.In 1999, a nearby open cluster was discovered centered on the star η Chamaeleontis.",
"The cluster, known as eitherthe Eta Chamaeleontis cluster or Mamajek 1, is 8 million years old, and lies 316 light years from Earth.The constellation contains a number of molecular clouds (the Chamaeleon dark clouds) that are forming low-mass T Tauri stars.",
"The cloud complex lies some 400 to 600 light years from Earth, and contains tens of thousands of solar masses of gas and dust.",
"The most prominent cluster of T Tauri stars and young B-type stars are in the Chamaeleon I cloud, and are associated with the reflection nebula IC 2631.Chamaeleon contains one planetary nebula, NGC 3195, which is fairly faint.",
"It appears in a telescope at about the same apparent size as Jupiter."
],
[
"Equivalents",
"In Chinese astronomy, the stars that form Chamaeleon were classified as the Little Dipper () among the Southern Asterisms () by Xu Guangqi.",
"Chamaeleon is sometimes also called the Frying Pan in Australia."
],
[
"See also",
"* Chamaeleon (Chinese astronomy)* IAU-recognized constellations"
],
[
"Citations"
],
[
"References",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Chamaeleon* The clickable Chamaeleon* \"The eta Chamaeleontis Cluster: A Remarkable New Nearby Young Open Cluster\" (Mamajek, Lawson, & Feigelson 1999)* \"WEBDA open cluster database entry for Mamajek 1\"* Ian Ridpath's Star Tales – Chamaeleon* NGC 3620 Barred spiral galaxy"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cholesterol"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cholesterol''' is the principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils.Cholesterol is biosynthesized by all animal cells and is an essential structural component of animal cell membranes.",
"In vertebrates, hepatic cells typically produce the greatest amounts.",
"In the brain astrocytes produce cholesterol and transport it to neurons.",
"It is absent among prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea), although there are some exceptions, such as ''Mycoplasma'', which require cholesterol for growth.",
"Cholesterol also serves as a precursor for the biosynthesis of steroid hormones, bile acid and vitamin D.Elevated levels of cholesterol in the blood, especially when bound to low-density lipoprotein (LDL, often referred to as \"bad cholesterol\"), may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.François Poulletier de la Salle first identified cholesterol in solid form in gallstones in 1769.In 1815, chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul named the compound \"cholesterine\"."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The word ''cholesterol'' comes from Ancient Greek ''chole-'' 'bile' and ''stereos'' 'solid', followed by the chemical suffix ''-ol'' for an alcohol."
],
[
"Physiology",
"Cholesterol is essential for all animal life.",
"While most cells are capable of synthesizing it, the majority of cholesterol is ingested or synthesized by hepatocytes and transported in the blood to peripheral cells.",
"The levels of cholesterol in peripheral tissues is dictated by a balance of uptake and export.",
"Under normal conditions, brain cholesterol is separate from peripheral cholesterol, i.e., the dietary and hepatic cholesterol do not cross the blood brain barrier.",
"Rather, astrocytes produce and distribute cholesterol in the brain.De novo synthesis, both in astrocytes and hepatocytes, occurs by a complex 37-step process.",
"This begins with the mevalonate or HMG-CoA reductase pathway, the target of statin drugs, which encompasses the first 18 steps.",
"This is followed by 19 additional steps to convert the resulting lanosterol into cholesterol.",
"A human male weighing 68 kg (150 lb) normally synthesizes about 1 gram (1,000 mg) of cholesterol per day, and his body contains about 35 g, mostly contained within the cell membranes.Typical daily cholesterol dietary intake for a man in the United States is 307 mg.",
"Most ingested cholesterol is esterified, which causes it to be poorly absorbed by the gut.",
"The body also compensates for absorption of ingested cholesterol by reducing its own cholesterol synthesis.",
"For these reasons, cholesterol in food, seven to ten hours after ingestion, has little, if any effect on concentrations of cholesterol in the blood.",
"Surprisingly, in rats, blood cholesterol is inversely correlated with cholesterol consumption.",
"The more cholesterol a rat eats the lower the blood cholesterol.",
"During the first seven hours after ingestion of cholesterol, as absorbed fats are being distributed around the body within extracellular water by the various lipoproteins (which transport all fats in the water outside cells), the concentrations increase.Plants make cholesterol in very small amounts.",
"In larger quantities they produce phytosterols, chemically similar substances which can compete with cholesterol for reabsorption in the intestinal tract, thus potentially reducing cholesterol reabsorption.",
"When intestinal lining cells absorb phytosterols, in place of cholesterol, they usually excrete the phytosterol molecules back into the GI tract, an important protective mechanism.",
"The intake of naturally occurring phytosterols, which encompass plant sterols and stanols, ranges between ≈200–300 mg/day depending on eating habits.",
"Specially designed vegetarian experimental diets have been produced yielding upwards of 700 mg/day.===Function=======Membranes====Cholesterol is present in varying degrees in all animal cell membranes, but is absent in prokaryotes.",
"It is required to build and maintain membranes and modulates membrane fluidity over the range of physiological temperatures.",
"The hydroxyl group of each cholesterol molecule interacts with water molecules surrounding the membrane, as do the polar heads of the membrane phospholipids and sphingolipids, while the bulky steroid and the hydrocarbon chain are embedded in the membrane, alongside the nonpolar fatty-acid chain of the other lipids.",
"Through the interaction with the phospholipid fatty-acid chains, cholesterol increases membrane packing, which both alters membrane fluidity and maintains membrane integrity so that animal cells do not need to build cell walls (like plants and most bacteria).",
"The membrane remains stable and durable without being rigid, allowing animal cells to change shape and animals to move.The structure of the tetracyclic ring of cholesterol contributes to the fluidity of the cell membrane, as the molecule is in a ''trans'' conformation making all but the side chain of cholesterol rigid and planar.",
"In this structural role, cholesterol also reduces the permeability of the plasma membrane to neutral solutes, hydrogen ions, and sodium ions.====Substrate presentation====Cholesterol regulates the biological process of substrate presentation and the enzymes that use substrate presentation as a mechanism of their activation.",
"Phospholipase D2 (PLD2) is a well-defined example of an enzyme activated by substrate presentation.",
"The enzyme is palmitoylated causing the enzyme to traffic to cholesterol dependent lipid domains sometimes called \"lipid rafts\".",
"The substrate of phospholipase D is phosphatidylcholine (PC) which is unsaturated and is of low abundance in lipid rafts.",
"PC localizes to the disordered region of the cell along with the polyunsaturated lipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2).",
"PLD2 has a PIP2 binding domain.",
"When PIP2 concentration in the membrane increases, PLD2 leaves the cholesterol-dependent domains and binds to PIP2 where it then gains access to its substrate PC and commences catalysis based on substrate presentation.",
"'''Substrate presentation'''; PLD (blue oval) is sequestered into cholesterol-dependent lipid domains (green lipids) by palmitoylation.",
"PLD also binds PIP2(red hexagon) domains (grey shading) located in the disordered region of the cell with phosphatidylcholine (PC).",
"When cholesterol decreases or PIP2 increases in the cell, PLD translocates to PIP2 where it is exposed to and hydrolizes PC to phosphatidic acid (red spherical lipid).====Signaling====Cholesterol is also implicated in cell signaling processes, assisting in the formation of lipid rafts in the plasma membrane, which brings receptor proteins in close proximity with high concentrations of second messenger molecules.",
"In multiple layers, cholesterol and phospholipids, both electrical insulators, can facilitate speed of transmission of electrical impulses along nerve tissue.",
"For many neuron fibers, a myelin sheath, rich in cholesterol since it is derived from compacted layers of Schwann cell or oligodendrocyte membranes, provides insulation for more efficient conduction of impulses.",
"Demyelination (loss of myelin) is believed to be part of the basis for multiple sclerosis.Cholesterol binds to and affects the gating of a number of ion channels such as the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, GABAA receptor, and the inward-rectifier potassium channel.",
"Cholesterol also activates the estrogen-related receptor alpha (ERRα), and may be the endogenous ligand for the receptor.",
"The constitutively active nature of the receptor may be explained by the fact that cholesterol is ubiquitous in the body.",
"Inhibition of ERRα signaling by reduction of cholesterol production has been identified as a key mediator of the effects of statins and bisphosphonates on bone, muscle, and macrophages.",
"On the basis of these findings, it has been suggested that the ERRα should be de-orphanized and classified as a receptor for cholesterol.==== As a chemical precursor ====Within cells, cholesterol is also a precursor molecule for several biochemical pathways.",
"For example, it is the precursor molecule for the synthesis of vitamin D in the calcium metabolism and all steroid hormones, including the adrenal gland hormones cortisol and aldosterone, as well as the sex hormones progesterone, estrogens, and testosterone, and their derivatives.====Epidermis====The stratum corneum is the outermost layer of the epidermis.",
"It is composed of terminally differentiated and enucleated corneocytes that reside within a lipid matrix, like \"bricks and mortar.\"",
"Together with ceramides and free fatty acids, cholesterol forms the lipid mortar, a water-impermeable barrier that prevents evaporative water loss.",
"As a rule of thumb, the epidermal lipid matrix is composed of an equimolar mixture of ceramides (≈50% by weight), cholesterol (≈25% by weight), and free fatty acids (≈15% by weight), with smaller quantities of other lipids also being present.",
"Cholesterol sulfate reaches its highest concentration in the granular layer of the epidermis.",
"Steroid sulfate sulfatase then decreases its concentration in the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the epidermis.",
"The relative abundance of cholesterol sulfate in the epidermis varies across different body sites with the heel of the foot having the lowest concentration.=== Metabolism ===Cholesterol is recycled in the body.",
"The liver excretes cholesterol into biliary fluids, which are then stored in the gallbladder, which then excretes them in a non-esterified form (via bile) into the digestive tract.",
"Typically, about 50% of the excreted cholesterol is reabsorbed by the small intestine back into the bloodstream."
],
[
"Biosynthesis and regulation",
"===Biosynthesis===Almost all animal tissues synthesize cholesterol from acetyl-CoA.",
"All animal cells (exceptions exist within the invertebrates) manufacture cholesterol, for both membrane structure and other uses, with relative production rates varying by cell type and organ function.",
"About 80% of total daily cholesterol production occurs in the liver and the intestines; other sites of higher synthesis rates include the brain, the adrenal glands, and the reproductive organs.Synthesis within the body starts with the mevalonate pathway where two molecules of acetyl CoA condense to form acetoacetyl-CoA.",
"This is followed by a second condensation between acetyl CoA and acetoacetyl-CoA to form 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA (HMG-CoA).500pxThis molecule is then reduced to mevalonate by the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase.",
"Production of mevalonate is the rate-limiting and irreversible step in cholesterol synthesis and is the site of action for statins (a class of cholesterol-lowering drugs).500pxMevalonate is finally converted to isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) through two phosphorylation steps and one decarboxylation step that requires ATP.500pxThree molecules of isopentenyl pyrophosphate condense to form farnesyl pyrophosphate through the action of geranyl transferase.500px500pxTwo molecules of farnesyl pyrophosphate then condense to form squalene by the action of squalene synthase in the endoplasmic reticulum.500px500pxOxidosqualene cyclase then cyclizes squalene to form lanosterol.500px500px500pxFinally, lanosterol is converted to cholesterol via either of two pathways, the Bloch pathway, or the Kandutsch-Russell pathway.The final 19 steps to cholesterol contain NADPH and oxygen to help oxidize methyl groups for removal of carbons, mutases to move alkene groups, and NADH to help reduce ketones.700px700pxKonrad Bloch and Feodor Lynen shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1964 for their discoveries concerning some of the mechanisms and methods of regulation of cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism.===Regulation of cholesterol synthesis===Biosynthesis of cholesterol is directly regulated by the cholesterol levels present, though the homeostatic mechanisms involved are only partly understood.",
"A higher intake of food leads to a net decrease in endogenous production, whereas a lower intake of food has the opposite effect.",
"The main regulatory mechanism is the sensing of intracellular cholesterol in the endoplasmic reticulum by the protein SREBP (sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 and 2).",
"In the presence of cholesterol, SREBP is bound to two other proteins: SCAP (SREBP cleavage-activating protein) and INSIG-1.When cholesterol levels fall, INSIG-1 dissociates from the SREBP-SCAP complex, which allows the complex to migrate to the Golgi apparatus.",
"Here SREBP is cleaved by S1P and S2P (site-1 protease and site-2 protease), two enzymes that are activated by SCAP when cholesterol levels are low.The cleaved SREBP then migrates to the nucleus and acts as a transcription factor to bind to the sterol regulatory element (SRE), which stimulates the transcription of many genes.",
"Among these are the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor and HMG-CoA reductase.",
"The LDL receptor scavenges circulating LDL from the bloodstream, whereas HMG-CoA reductase leads to an increase in endogenous production of cholesterol.",
"A large part of this signaling pathway was clarified by Dr. Michael S. Brown and Dr. Joseph L. Goldstein in the 1970s.",
"In 1985, they received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work.",
"Their subsequent work shows how the SREBP pathway regulates the expression of many genes that control lipid formation and metabolism and body fuel allocation.Cholesterol synthesis can also be turned off when cholesterol levels are high.",
"HMG-CoA reductase contains both a cytosolic domain (responsible for its catalytic function) and a membrane domain.",
"The membrane domain senses signals for its degradation.",
"Increasing concentrations of cholesterol (and other sterols) cause a change in this domain's oligomerization state, which makes it more susceptible to destruction by the proteasome.",
"This enzyme's activity can also be reduced by phosphorylation by an AMP-activated protein kinase.",
"Because this kinase is activated by AMP, which is produced when ATP is hydrolyzed, it follows that cholesterol synthesis is halted when ATP levels are low.===Plasma transport and regulation of absorption===Lipid logistics: transport of triglycerides and cholesterol in organisms in form of lipoproteins as chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, IDL, HDL.As an isolated molecule, cholesterol is only minimally soluble in water, or hydrophilic.",
"Because of this, it dissolves in blood at exceedingly small concentrations.",
"To be transported effectively, cholesterol is instead packaged within lipoproteins, complex discoidal particles with exterior amphiphilic proteins and lipids, whose outward-facing surfaces are water-soluble and inward-facing surfaces are lipid-soluble.",
"This allows it to travel through the blood via emulsification.",
"Unbound cholesterol, being amphipathic, is transported in the monolayer surface of the lipoprotein particle along with phospholipids and proteins.",
"Cholesterol esters bound to fatty acid, on the other hand, are transported within the fatty hydrophobic core of the lipoprotein, along with triglyceride.There are several types of lipoproteins in the blood.",
"In order of increasing density, they are chylomicrons, very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL).",
"Lower protein/lipid ratios make for less dense lipoproteins.",
"Cholesterol within different lipoproteins is identical, although some is carried as its native \"free\" alcohol form (the cholesterol-OH group facing the water surrounding the particles), while others as fatty acyl esters, known also as cholesterol esters, within the particles.Lipoprotein particles are organized by complex apolipoproteins, typically 80–100 different proteins per particle, which can be recognized and bound by specific receptors on cell membranes, directing their lipid payload into specific cells and tissues currently ingesting these fat transport particles.",
"These surface receptors serve as unique molecular signatures, which then help determine fat distribution delivery throughout the body.Chylomicrons, the least dense cholesterol transport particles, contain apolipoprotein B-48, apolipoprotein C, and apolipoprotein E (the principal cholesterol carrier in the brain) in their shells.",
"Chylomicrons carry fats from the intestine to muscle and other tissues in need of fatty acids for energy or fat production.",
"Unused cholesterol remains in more cholesterol-rich chylomicron remnants, and taken up from here to the bloodstream by the liver.VLDL particles are produced by the liver from triacylglycerol and cholesterol which was not used in the synthesis of bile acids.",
"These particles contain apolipoprotein B100 and apolipoprotein E in their shells, and can be degraded by lipoprotein lipase on the artery wall to IDL.",
"This arterial wall cleavage allows absorption of triacylglycerol and increases the concentration of circulating cholesterol.",
"IDL particles are then consumed in two processes: half is metabolized by HTGL and taken up by the LDL receptor on the liver cell surfaces, while the other half continues to lose triacylglycerols in the bloodstream until they become cholesterol-laden LDL particles.LDL particles are the major blood cholesterol carriers.",
"Each one contains approximately 1,500 molecules of cholesterol ester.",
"LDL particle shells contain just one molecule of apolipoprotein B100, recognized by LDL receptors in peripheral tissues.",
"Upon binding of apolipoprotein B100, many LDL receptors concentrate in clathrin-coated pits.",
"Both LDL and its receptor form vesicles within a cell via endocytosis.",
"These vesicles then fuse with a lysosome, where the lysosomal acid lipase enzyme hydrolyzes the cholesterol esters.",
"The cholesterol can then be used for membrane biosynthesis or esterified and stored within the cell, so as to not interfere with the cell membranes.LDL receptors are used up during cholesterol absorption, and its synthesis is regulated by SREBP, the same protein that controls the synthesis of cholesterol ''de novo'', according to its presence inside the cell.",
"A cell with abundant cholesterol will have its LDL receptor synthesis blocked, to prevent new cholesterol in LDL particles from being taken up.",
"Conversely, LDL receptor synthesis proceeds when a cell is deficient in cholesterol.When this process becomes unregulated, LDL particles without receptors begin to appear in the blood.",
"These LDL particles are oxidized and taken up by macrophages, which become engorged and form foam cells.",
"These foam cells often become trapped in the walls of blood vessels and contribute to atherosclerotic plaque formation.",
"Differences in cholesterol homeostasis affect the development of early atherosclerosis (carotid intima-media thickness).",
"These plaques are the main causes of heart attacks, strokes, and other serious medical problems, leading to the association of so-called LDL cholesterol (actually a lipoprotein) with \"bad\" cholesterol.HDL particles are thought to transport cholesterol back to the liver, either for excretion or for other tissues that synthesize hormones, in a process known as reverse cholesterol transport (RCT).",
"Large numbers of HDL particles correlates with better health outcomes, whereas low numbers of HDL particles is associated with atheromatous disease progression in the arteries.===Metabolism, recycling and excretion===Cholesterol is susceptible to oxidation and easily forms oxygenated derivatives called oxysterols.",
"Three different mechanisms can form these: autoxidation, secondary oxidation to lipid peroxidation, and cholesterol-metabolizing enzyme oxidation.",
"A great interest in oxysterols arose when they were shown to exert inhibitory actions on cholesterol biosynthesis.",
"This finding became known as the \"oxysterol hypothesis\".",
"Additional roles for oxysterols in human physiology include their participation in bile acid biosynthesis, function as transport forms of cholesterol, and regulation of gene transcription.In biochemical experiments radiolabelled forms of cholesterol, such as tritiated-cholesterol are used.",
"These derivatives undergo degradation upon storage and it is essential to purify cholesterol prior to use.",
"Cholesterol can be purified using small Sephadex LH-20 columns.Cholesterol is oxidized by the liver into a variety of bile acids.",
"These, in turn, are conjugated with glycine, taurine, glucuronic acid, or sulfate.",
"A mixture of conjugated and nonconjugated bile acids, along with cholesterol itself, is excreted from the liver into the bile.",
"Approximately 95% of the bile acids are reabsorbed from the intestines, and the remainder are lost in the feces.",
"The excretion and reabsorption of bile acids forms the basis of the enterohepatic circulation, which is essential for the digestion and absorption of dietary fats.",
"Under certain circumstances, when more concentrated, as in the gallbladder, cholesterol crystallises and is the major constituent of most gallstones (lecithin and bilirubin gallstones also occur, but less frequently).",
"Every day, up to 1 g of cholesterol enters the colon.",
"This cholesterol originates from the diet, bile, and desquamated intestinal cells, and can be metabolized by the colonic bacteria.",
"Cholesterol is converted mainly into coprostanol, a nonabsorbable sterol that is excreted in the feces.Although cholesterol is a steroid generally associated with mammals, the human pathogen ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' is able to completely degrade this molecule and contains a large number of genes that are regulated by its presence.",
"Many of these cholesterol-regulated genes are homologues of fatty acid β-oxidation genes, but have evolved in such a way as to bind large steroid substrates like cholesterol."
],
[
"Dietary sources",
"Animal fats are complex mixtures of triglycerides, with lesser amounts of both the phospholipids and cholesterol molecules from which all animal (and human) cell membranes are constructed.",
"Since all animal cells manufacture cholesterol, all animal-based foods contain cholesterol in varying amounts.",
"Major dietary sources of cholesterol include red meat, egg yolks and whole eggs, liver, kidney, giblets, fish oil, and butter.",
"Human breast milk also contains significant quantities of cholesterol.Plant cells synthesize cholesterol as a precursor for other compounds, such as phytosterols and steroidal glycoalkaloids, with cholesterol remaining in plant foods only in minor amounts or absent.",
"Some plant foods, such as avocado, flax seeds and peanuts, contain phytosterols, which compete with cholesterol for absorption in the intestines, and reduce the absorption of both dietary and bile cholesterol.",
"A typical diet contributes on the order of 0.2 gram of phytosterols, which is not enough to have a significant impact on blocking cholesterol absorption.",
"Phytosterols intake can be supplemented through the use of phytosterol-containing functional foods or dietary supplements that are recognized as having potential to reduce levels of LDL-cholesterol.===Medical guidelines and recommendations===In 2015, the scientific advisory panel of U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture for the 2015 iteration of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans dropped the previously recommended limit of consumption of dietary cholesterol to 300 mg per day with a new recommendation to \"eat as little dietary cholesterol as possible\" and acknowledging an association between a diet low in cholesterol and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.A 2013 report by the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology recommended focusing on healthy dietary patterns rather than specific cholesterol limits, as they are hard for clinicians and consumers to implement.",
"They recommend the DASH and Mediterranean diet, which are low in cholesterol.",
"A 2017 review by the American Heart Association recommends switching saturated fats for polyunsaturated fats to reduce cardiovascular disease risk.Some supplemental guidelines have recommended doses of phytosterols in the 1.6–3.0 grams per day range (Health Canada, EFSA, ATP III, FDA).",
"A meta-analysis demonstrated a 12% reduction in LDL-cholesterol at a mean dose of 2.1 grams per day.",
"The benefits of a diet supplemented with phytosterols have also been questioned."
],
[
"Clinical significance",
"===Hypercholesterolemia===Cholesterolemia and mortality for men and women 60 yearsAccording to the lipid hypothesis, elevated levels of cholesterol in the blood lead to atherosclerosis which may increase the risk of heart attack, stroke, and peripheral artery disease.",
"Since higher blood LDL – especially higher LDL concentrations and smaller LDL particle size – contributes to this process more than the cholesterol content of the HDL particles, LDL particles are often termed \"bad cholesterol\".",
"High concentrations of functional HDL, which can remove cholesterol from cells and atheromas, offer protection and are commonly referred to as \"good cholesterol\".",
"These balances are mostly genetically determined, but can be changed by body composition, medications, diet, and other factors.",
"A 2007 study demonstrated that blood total cholesterol levels have an exponential effect on cardiovascular and total mortality, with the association more pronounced in younger subjects.",
"Because cardiovascular disease is relatively rare in the younger population, the impact of high cholesterol on health is larger in older people.Elevated levels of the lipoprotein fractions, LDL, IDL and VLDL, rather than the total cholesterol level, correlate with the extent and progress of atherosclerosis.",
"Conversely, the total cholesterol can be within normal limits, yet be made up primarily of small LDL and small HDL particles, under which conditions atheroma growth rates are high.",
"A ''post hoc'' analysis of the IDEAL and the EPIC prospective studies found an association between high levels of HDL cholesterol (adjusted for apolipoprotein A-I and apolipoprotein B) and increased risk of cardiovascular disease, casting doubt on the cardioprotective role of \"good cholesterol\".About one in 250 individuals can have a genetic mutation for the LDL cholesterol receptor that causes them to have familial hypercholesterolemia.",
"Inherited high cholesterol can also include genetic mutations in the PCSK9 gene and the gene for apolipoprotein B.Elevated cholesterol levels are treatable by a diet that reduces or eliminates saturated fat, trans fats, and high cholesterol foods, often followed by one of various hypolipidemic agents, such as statins, fibrates, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, monoclonal antibody therapy (PCSK9 inhibitors), nicotinic acid derivatives or bile acid sequestrants.",
"There are several international guidelines on the treatment of hypercholesterolemia.Human trials using HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, known as statins, have repeatedly confirmed that changing lipoprotein transport patterns from unhealthy to healthier patterns significantly lowers cardiovascular disease event rates, even for people with cholesterol values currently considered low for adults.",
"Studies have shown that reducing LDL cholesterol levels by about 38.7 mg/dL with the use of statins can reduce cardiovascular disease and stroke risk by about 21%.",
"Studies have also found that statins reduce atheroma progression.",
"As a result, people with a history of cardiovascular disease may derive benefit from statins irrespective of their cholesterol levels (total cholesterol below 5.0 mmol/L 193 mg/dL), and in men without cardiovascular disease, there is benefit from lowering abnormally high cholesterol levels (\"primary prevention\").",
"Primary prevention in women was originally practiced only by extension of the findings in studies on men, since, in women, none of the large statin trials conducted prior to 2007 demonstrated a significant reduction in overall mortality or in cardiovascular endpoints.",
"Meta-analyses have demonstrated significant reductions in all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, without significant heterogeneity by sex.+Risk for heart disease Level Interpretation mg/dL mmol/L (lower risk) 200–240 5.2–6.2 Borderline high risk > 240 > 6.2 High riskThe 1987 report of National Cholesterol Education Program, Adult Treatment Panels suggests the total blood cholesterol level should be: 240 mg/dL high cholesterol.",
"The American Heart Association provides a similar set of guidelines for total (fasting) blood cholesterol levels and risk for heart disease: Statins are effective in lowering LDL cholesterol and widely used for primary prevention in people at high risk of cardiovascular disease, as well as in secondary prevention for those who have developed cardiovascular disease.More current testing methods determine LDL (\"bad\") and HDL (\"good\") cholesterol separately, allowing cholesterol analysis to be more nuanced.",
"The desirable LDL level is considered to be less than 100 mg/dL (2.6 mmol/L).Reference ranges for blood tests, showing usual, as well as optimal, levels of HDL, LDL, and total cholesterol in mass and molar concentrations, is found in orange color at right, that is, among the blood constituents with the highest concentration.Total cholesterol is defined as the sum of HDL, LDL, and VLDL.",
"Usually, only the total, HDL, and triglycerides are measured.",
"For cost reasons, the VLDL is usually estimated as one-fifth of the triglycerides and the LDL is estimated using the Friedewald formula (or a variant): estimated LDL = total cholesterol − total HDL − estimated VLDL.",
"Direct LDL measures are used when triglycerides exceed 400 mg/dL.",
"The estimated VLDL and LDL have more error when triglycerides are above 400 mg/dL.In the Framingham Heart Study, each 10 mg/dL (0.6 mmol/L) increase in total cholesterol levels increased 30-year overall mortality by 5% and CVD mortality by 9%.",
"While subjects over the age of 50 had an 11% increase in overall mortality, and a 14% increase in cardiovascular disease mortality per 1 mg/dL (0.06 mmol/L) year drop in total cholesterol levels.",
"The researchers attributed this phenomenon to a different correlation, whereby the disease itself increases risk of death, as well as changes a myriad of factors, such as weight loss and the inability to eat, which lower serum cholesterol.",
"This effect was also shown in men of all ages and women over 50 in the Vorarlberg Health Monitoring and Promotion Programme.",
"These groups were more likely to die of cancer, liver diseases, and mental diseases with very low total cholesterol, of 186 mg/dL (10.3 mmol/L) and lower.",
"This result indicates the low-cholesterol effect occurs even among younger respondents, contradicting the previous assessment among cohorts of older people that this is a marker for frailty occurring with age.===Hypocholesterolemia===Abnormally low levels of cholesterol are termed ''hypocholesterolemia''.",
"Research into the causes of this state is relatively limited, but some studies suggest a link with depression, cancer, and cerebral hemorrhage.",
"In general, the low cholesterol levels seem to be a consequence, rather than a cause, of an underlying illness.",
"A genetic defect in cholesterol synthesis causes Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome, which is often associated with low plasma cholesterol levels.",
"Hyperthyroidism, or any other endocrine disturbance which causes upregulation of the LDL receptor, may result in hypocholesterolemia.===Testing===The American Heart Association recommends testing cholesterol every 4–6 years for people aged 20 years or older.",
"A separate set of American Heart Association guidelines issued in 2013 indicates that people taking statin medications should have their cholesterol tested 4–12 weeks after their first dose and then every 3–12 months thereafter.",
"For men ages 45 to 65 and women ages 55 to 65, a cholesterol test should occur every 1–2 years, and for seniors over age 65, an annual test should be performed.A blood sample after 12-hours of fasting is taken by a healthcare professional from an arm vein to measure a lipid profile for a) total cholesterol, b) HDL cholesterol, c) LDL cholesterol, and d) triglycerides.",
"Results may be expressed as \"calculated\", indicating a calculation of total cholesterol, HDL, and triglycerides.Cholesterol is tested to determine for \"normal\" or \"desirable\" levels if a person has a total cholesterol of 5.2 mmol/L or less (200 mg/dL), an HDL value of more than 1 mmol/L (40 mg/dL, \"the higher, the better\"), an LDL value of less than 2.6 mmol/L (100 mg/dL), and a triglycerides level of less than 1.7 mmol/L (150 mg/dL).",
"Blood cholesterol in people with lifestyle, aging, or cardiovascular risk factors, such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, family history of coronary artery disease, or angina, are evaluated at different levels."
],
[
"Interactive pathway map"
],
[
"Cholesteric liquid crystals",
"Some cholesterol derivatives (among other simple cholesteric lipids) are known to generate the liquid crystalline \"cholesteric phase\".",
"The cholesteric phase is, in fact, a chiral nematic phase, and it changes colour when its temperature changes.",
"This makes cholesterol derivatives useful for indicating temperature in liquid-crystal display thermometers and in temperature-sensitive paints."
],
[
"Stereoisomers",
"Natural cholesterol (top) and ''ent''-cholesterol (bottom)Cholesterol has 256 stereoisomers that arise from its eight stereocenters, although only two of the stereoisomers have biochemical significance (''nat''-cholesterol and ''ent''-cholesterol, for ''natural'' and ''enantiomer'', respectively), and only one occurs naturally (''nat''-cholesterol)."
],
[
"Additional images",
"File:ConversColest.png|Cholesterol units conversionFile:Steroidogenesis.svg|Steroidogenesis, using cholesterol as building materialFile:Cholesterol Spacefill.jpeg|Space-filling model of the Cholesterol moleculeFile:Steroid numbering.svg|Numbering of the steroid nuclei"
],
[
"See also",
"* Arcus senilis \"Cholesterol ring\" in the eyes* Cardiovascular disease* Cholesterol embolism* Cholesterol total synthesis* Familial hypercholesterolemia* Hypercholesterolemia \"High Cholesterol\"* Hypocholesterolemia \"Low Cholesterol\"* Janus-faced molecule* List of cholesterol in foods* Niemann–Pick disease Type C* Oxycholesterol* Remnant cholesterol"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chromosome"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Diagram of a replicated and condensed metaphase eukaryotic chromosome: A '''chromosome''' is a package of DNA with part or all of the genetic material of an organism.",
"In most chromosomes, the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with nucleosome forming packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells the most important of these proteins are the histones.",
"These proteins, aided by chaperone proteins, bind to and condense the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity.",
"These chromosomes display a complex three-dimensional structure, which plays a significant role in transcriptional regulation.Chromosomes are normally visible under a light microscope only during the metaphase of cell division (where all chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell in their condensed form).",
"Before this happens, each chromosome is duplicated (S phase), and both copies are joined by a centromere, resulting either in an X-shaped structure (pictured above), if the centromere is located equatorially, or a two-arm structure, if the centromere is located distally.",
"The joined copies are now called sister chromatids.",
"During metaphase the X-shaped structure is called a metaphase chromosome, which is highly condensed and thus easiest to distinguish and study.",
"In animal cells, chromosomes reach their highest compaction level in anaphase during chromosome segregation.Chromosomal recombination during meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction play a significant role in genetic diversity.",
"If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe.",
"Usually, this will make the cell initiate apoptosis leading to its own death, but sometimes mutations in the cell hamper this process and thus cause progression of cancer.Some use the term chromosome in a wider sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin in cells, either visible or not under light microscopy.",
"Others use the concept in a narrower sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell division, visible under light microscopy due to high condensation."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The word ''chromosome'' () comes from the Greek (''chroma'', \"colour\") and (''soma'', \"body\"), describing their strong staining by particular dyes.",
"The term was coined by the German anatomist Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer, referring to the term chromatin, which was introduced by Walther Flemming.Some of the early karyological terms have become outdated.",
"For example, Chromatin (Flemming 1880) and Chromosom (Waldeyer 1888), both ascribe color to a non-colored state."
],
[
"History of discovery",
"Otto Bütschli was the first scientist to recognize the structures now known as chromosomes.In a series of experiments beginning in the mid-1880s, Theodor Boveri gave definitive contributions to elucidating that chromosomes are the vectors of heredity, with two notions that became known as 'chromosome continuity' and 'chromosome individuality'.Wilhelm Roux suggested that each chromosome carries a different genetic configuration, and Boveri was able to test and confirm this hypothesis.",
"Aided by the rediscovery at the start of the 1900s of Gregor Mendel's earlier work, Boveri was able to point out the connection between the rules of inheritance and the behaviour of the chromosomes.",
"Boveri influenced two generations of American cytologists: Edmund Beecher Wilson, Nettie Stevens, Walter Sutton and Theophilus Painter were all influenced by Boveri (Wilson, Stevens, and Painter actually worked with him).In his famous textbook ''The Cell in Development and Heredity'', Wilson linked together the independent work of Boveri and Sutton (both around 1902) by naming the chromosome theory of inheritance the Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory (the names are sometimes reversed).",
"Ernst Mayr remarks that the theory was hotly contested by some famous geneticists: William Bateson, Wilhelm Johannsen, Richard Goldschmidt and T.H.",
"Morgan, all of a rather dogmatic turn of mind.",
"Eventually, complete proof came from chromosome maps in Morgan's own lab.The number of human chromosomes was published in 1923 by Theophilus Painter.",
"By inspection through the microscope, he counted 24 pairs, which would mean 48 chromosomes.",
"His error was copied by others and it was not until 1956 that the true number, 46, was determined by Indonesia-born cytogeneticist Joe Hin Tjio."
],
[
"Prokaryotes",
"The prokaryotes – bacteria and archaea – typically have a single circular chromosome, but many variations exist.",
"The chromosomes of most bacteria, which some authors prefer to call genophores, can range in size from only 130,000 base pairs in the endosymbiotic bacteria ''Candidatus Hodgkinia cicadicola'' and ''Candidatus Tremblaya princeps'', to more than 14,000,000 base pairs in the soil-dwelling bacterium ''Sorangium cellulosum''.",
"Spirochaetes of the genus ''Borrelia'' are a notable exception to this arrangement, with bacteria such as ''Borrelia burgdorferi'', the cause of Lyme disease, containing a single ''linear'' chromosome.=== Structure in sequences ===Prokaryotic chromosomes have less sequence-based structure than eukaryotes.",
"Bacteria typically have a one-point (the origin of replication) from which replication starts, whereas some archaea contain multiple replication origins.",
"The genes in prokaryotes are often organized in operons, and do not usually contain introns, unlike eukaryotes.=== DNA packaging ===Prokaryotes do not possess nuclei.",
"Instead, their DNA is organized into a structure called the nucleoid.",
"The nucleoid is a distinct structure and occupies a defined region of the bacterial cell.",
"This structure is, however, dynamic and is maintained and remodeled by the actions of a range of histone-like proteins, which associate with the bacterial chromosome.",
"In archaea, the DNA in chromosomes is even more organized, with the DNA packaged within structures similar to eukaryotic nucleosomes.Certain bacteria also contain plasmids or other extrachromosomal DNA.",
"These are circular structures in the cytoplasm that contain cellular DNA and play a role in horizontal gene transfer.",
"In prokaryotes (see nucleoids) and viruses, the DNA is often densely packed and organized; in the case of archaea, by homology to eukaryotic histones, and in the case of bacteria, by histone-like proteins.Bacterial chromosomes tend to be tethered to the plasma membrane of the bacteria.",
"In molecular biology application, this allows for its isolation from plasmid DNA by centrifugation of lysed bacteria and pelleting of the membranes (and the attached DNA).Prokaryotic chromosomes and plasmids are, like eukaryotic DNA, generally supercoiled.",
"The DNA must first be released into its relaxed state for access for transcription, regulation, and replication."
],
[
"Eukaryotes",
"Organization of DNA in a eukaryotic cellEach eukaryotic chromosome consists of a long linear DNA molecule associated with proteins, forming a compact complex of proteins and DNA called ''chromatin.''",
"Chromatin contains the vast majority of the DNA of an organism, but a small amount inherited maternally can be found in the mitochondria.",
"It is present in most cells, with a few exceptions, for example, red blood cells.Histones are responsible for the first and most basic unit of chromosome organization, the nucleosome.Eukaryotes (cells with nuclei such as those found in plants, fungi, and animals) possess multiple large linear chromosomes contained in the cell's nucleus.",
"Each chromosome has one centromere, with one or two arms projecting from the centromere, although, under most circumstances, these arms are not visible as such.",
"In addition, most eukaryotes have a small circular mitochondrial genome, and some eukaryotes may have additional small circular or linear cytoplasmic chromosomes.The major structures in DNA compaction: DNA, the nucleosome, the 10 nm \"beads-on-a-string\" fibre, the 30 nm fibre and the metaphase chromosome.In the nuclear chromosomes of eukaryotes, the uncondensed DNA exists in a semi-ordered structure, where it is wrapped around histones (structural proteins), forming a composite material called chromatin.=== Interphase chromatin ===The packaging of DNA into nucleosomes causes a 10 nanometer fibre which may further condense up to 30 nm fibres Most of the euchromatin in interphase nuclei appears to be in the form of 30-nm fibers.",
"Chromatin structure is the more decondensed state, i.e.",
"the 10-nm conformation allows transcription.398x398pxDuring interphase (the period of the cell cycle where the cell is not dividing), two types of chromatin can be distinguished:* Euchromatin, which consists of DNA that is active, e.g., being expressed as protein.",
"* Heterochromatin, which consists of mostly inactive DNA.",
"It seems to serve structural purposes during the chromosomal stages.",
"Heterochromatin can be further distinguished into two types:** ''Constitutive heterochromatin'', which is never expressed.",
"It is located around the centromere and usually contains repetitive sequences.",
"** ''Facultative heterochromatin'', which is sometimes expressed.=== Metaphase chromatin and division ===Human chromosomes during metaphaseStages of early mitosis in a vertebrate cell with micrographs of chromatidsIn the early stages of mitosis or meiosis (cell division), the chromatin double helix become more and more condensed.",
"They cease to function as accessible genetic material (transcription stops) and become a compact transportable form.",
"The loops of 30-nm chromatin fibers are thought to fold upon themselves further to form the compact metaphase chromosomes of mitotic cells.",
"The DNA is thus condensed about 10,000 fold.The chromosome scaffold, which is made of proteins such as condensin, TOP2A and KIF4, plays an important role in holding the chromatin into compact chromosomes.",
"Loops of 30 nm structure further condense with scaffold into higher order structures.This highly compact form makes the individual chromosomes visible, and they form the classic four-arm structure, a pair of sister chromatids attached to each other at the centromere.",
"The shorter arms are called ''p arms'' (from the French ''petit'', small) and the longer arms are called ''q arms'' (''q'' follows ''p'' in the Latin alphabet; q-g \"grande\"; alternatively it is sometimes said q is short for ''queue'' meaning tail in French).",
"This is the only natural context in which individual chromosomes are visible with an optical microscope.Mitotic metaphase chromosomes are best described by a linearly organized longitudinally compressed array of consecutive chromatin loops.During mitosis, microtubules grow from centrosomes located at opposite ends of the cell and also attach to the centromere at specialized structures called kinetochores, one of which is present on each sister chromatid.",
"A special DNA base sequence in the region of the kinetochores provides, along with special proteins, longer-lasting attachment in this region.",
"The microtubules then pull the chromatids apart toward the centrosomes, so that each daughter cell inherits one set of chromatids.",
"Once the cells have divided, the chromatids are uncoiled and DNA can again be transcribed.",
"In spite of their appearance, chromosomes are structurally highly condensed, which enables these giant DNA structures to be contained within a cell nucleus.=== Human chromosomes ===Chromosomes in humans can be divided into two types: autosomes (body chromosome(s)) and allosome (sex chromosome(s)).",
"Certain genetic traits are linked to a person's sex and are passed on through the sex chromosomes.",
"The autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary information.",
"All act in the same way during cell division.",
"Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes), giving a total of 46 per cell.",
"In addition to these, human cells have many hundreds of copies of the mitochondrial genome.",
"Sequencing of the human genome has provided a great deal of information about each of the chromosomes.",
"Below is a table compiling statistics for the chromosomes, based on the Sanger Institute's human genome information in the Vertebrate Genome Annotation (VEGA) database.",
"Number of genes is an estimate, as it is in part based on gene predictions.",
"Total chromosome length is an estimate as well, based on the estimated size of unsequenced heterochromatin regions.+ Chromosome Genes Total base pairs % of bases Sequenced base pairs% sequenced base pairs 1 2000 247,199,719 8.0 224,999,719 91.02% 2 1300 242,751,149 7.9 237,712,649 97.92% 3 1000 199,446,827 6.5 194,704,827 97.62% 4 1000 191,263,063 6.2 187,297,063 97.93% 5 900 180,837,866 5.9 177,702,766 98.27% 6 1000 170,896,993 5.5 167,273,993 97.88% 7 900 158,821,424 5.2 154,952,424 97.56% 8 700 146,274,826 4.7 142,612,826 97.50% 9 800 140,442,298 4.6 120,312,298 85.67% 10 700 135,374,737 4.4 131,624,737 97.23% 11 1300 134,452,384 4.4 131,130,853 97.53% 12 1100 132,289,534 4.3 130,303,534 98.50% 13 300 114,127,980 3.7 95,559,980 83.73% 14 800 106,360,585 3.5 88,290,585 83.01% 15 600 100,338,915 3.3 81,341,915 81.07% 16 800 88,822,254 2.9 78,884,754 88.81% 17 1200 78,654,742 2.6 77,800,220 98.91% 18 200 76,117,153 2.5 74,656,155 98.08% 19 1500 63,806,651 2.1 55,785,651 87.43% 20 500 62,435,965 2.0 59,505,254 95.31% 21 200 46,944,323 1.5 34,171,998 72.79% 22 500 49,528,953 1.6 34,893,953 70.45% X (sex chromosome) 800 154,913,754 5.0 151,058,754 97.51% Y (sex chromosome) 200 57,741,652 1.9 25,121,65243.51% Total 21,000 3,079,843,747 100.0 2,857,698,560'''92.79%'''Based on the micrographic characteristics of size, position of the centromere and sometimes the presence of a chromosomal satellite, the human chromosomes are classified into the following groups: Group Chromosomes Features '''A''' 1–3 Large, metacentric or submetacentric '''B''' 4–5 Large, submetacentric '''C''' 6–12, X Medium-sized, submetacentric '''D''' 13–15 Medium-sized, acrocentric, with satellite '''E''' 16–18 Small, metacentric or submetacentric '''F''' 19–20 Very small, metacentric '''G''' 21–22, Y Very small, acrocentric (and 21, 22 with satellite)"
],
[
"Karyotype",
"Karyogram of a human malekaryogram of a human, with annotated bands and sub-bands.",
"It is a graphical representation of the idealized human diploid karyotype.",
"It shows dark and white regions on G banding.",
"Each row is vertically aligned at centromere level.",
"It shows 22 homologous chromosomes, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the sex chromosome (bottom right), as well as the mitochondrial genome (at bottom left).",
"In general, the karyotype is the characteristic chromosome complement of a eukaryote species.",
"The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of cytogenetics.Although the replication and transcription of DNA is highly standardized in eukaryotes, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are often highly variable.",
"There may be variation between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization.In some cases, there is significant variation within species.",
"Often there is::1.variation between the two sexes:2.variation between the germline and soma (between gametes and the rest of the body):3.variation between members of a population, due to balanced genetic polymorphism:4.geographical variation between races:5.mosaics or otherwise abnormal individuals.Also, variation in karyotype may occur during development from the fertilized egg.The technique of determining the karyotype is usually called ''karyotyping''.",
"Cells can be locked part-way through division (in metaphase) in vitro (in a reaction vial) with colchicine.",
"These cells are then stained, photographed, and arranged into a ''karyogram'', with the set of chromosomes arranged, autosomes in order of length, and sex chromosomes (here X/Y) at the end.Like many sexually reproducing species, humans have special gonosomes (sex chromosomes, in contrast to autosomes).",
"These are XX in females and XY in males.",
"=== History and analysis techniques ===Investigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question: ''How many chromosomes does a normal diploid human cell contain?''",
"In 1912, Hans von Winiwarter reported 47 chromosomes in spermatogonia and 48 in oogonia, concluding an XX/XO sex determination mechanism.",
"Painter in 1922 was not certain whether the diploid number of man is 46 or 48, at first favouring 46.He revised his opinion later from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on humans having an XX/XY system.New techniques were needed to definitively solve the problem:# Using cells in culture# Arresting mitosis in metaphase by a solution of colchicine# Pretreating cells in a hypotonic solution 0.075 M KCl, which swells them and spreads the chromosomes# Squashing the preparation on the slide forcing the chromosomes into a single plane# Cutting up a photomicrograph and arranging the result into an indisputable karyogram.It took until 1954 before the human diploid number was confirmed as 46.Considering the techniques of Winiwarter and Painter, their results were quite remarkable.",
"Chimpanzees, the closest living relatives to modern humans, have 48 chromosomes as do the other great apes: in humans two chromosomes fused to form chromosome 2."
],
[
"Aberrations",
"In Down syndrome, there are three copies of chromosome 21.Chromosomal aberrations are disruptions in the normal chromosomal content of a cell and are a major cause of genetic conditions in humans, such as Down syndrome, although most aberrations have little to no effect.",
"Some chromosome abnormalities do not cause disease in carriers, such as translocations, or chromosomal inversions, although they may lead to a higher chance of bearing a child with a chromosome disorder.",
"Abnormal numbers of chromosomes or chromosome sets, called aneuploidy, may be lethal or may give rise to genetic disorders.",
"Genetic counseling is offered for families that may carry a chromosome rearrangement.The gain or loss of DNA from chromosomes can lead to a variety of genetic disorders.",
"Human examples include:* Cri du chat, which is caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5.",
"\"Cri du chat\" means \"cry of the cat\" in French; the condition was so-named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like those of a cat.",
"Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw, moderate to severe mental health problems, and are very short.",
"* Down syndrome, the most common trisomy, usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21).",
"Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate developmental disability.",
"* Edwards syndrome, or trisomy-18, the second most common trisomy.",
"Symptoms include motor retardation, developmental disability and numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems.",
"Ninety percent of those affected die in infancy.",
"They have characteristic clenched hands and overlapping fingers.",
"* Isodicentric 15, also called idic(15), partial tetrasomy 15q, or inverted duplication 15 (inv dup 15).",
"* Jacobsen syndrome, which is very rare.",
"It is also called the 11q terminal deletion disorder.",
"Those affected have normal intelligence or mild developmental disability, with poor expressive language skills.",
"Most have a bleeding disorder called Paris-Trousseau syndrome.",
"* Klinefelter syndrome (XXY).",
"Men with Klinefelter syndrome are usually sterile and tend to be taller and have longer arms and legs than their peers.",
"Boys with the syndrome are often shy and quiet and have a higher incidence of speech delay and dyslexia.",
"Without testosterone treatment, some may develop gynecomastia during puberty.",
"* Patau Syndrome, also called D-Syndrome or trisomy-13.Symptoms are somewhat similar to those of trisomy-18, without the characteristic folded hand.",
"* Small supernumerary marker chromosome.",
"This means there is an extra, abnormal chromosome.",
"Features depend on the origin of the extra genetic material.",
"Cat-eye syndrome and isodicentric chromosome 15 syndrome (or Idic15) are both caused by a supernumerary marker chromosome, as is Pallister–Killian syndrome.",
"* Triple-X syndrome (XXX).",
"XXX girls tend to be tall and thin and have a higher incidence of dyslexia.",
"* Turner syndrome (X instead of XX or XY).",
"In Turner syndrome, female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped.",
"Females with Turner syndrome often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye features and bone development and a \"caved-in\" appearance to the chest.",
"* Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome, which is caused by partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4.It is characterized by growth retardation, delayed motor skills development, \"Greek Helmet\" facial features, and mild to profound mental health problems.",
"* XYY syndrome.",
"XYY boys are usually taller than their siblings.",
"Like XXY boys and XXX girls, they are more likely to have learning difficulties.===Sperm aneuploidy===Exposure of males to certain lifestyle, environmental and/or occupational hazards may increase the risk of aneuploid spermatozoa.",
"In particular, risk of aneuploidy is increased by tobacco smoking, and occupational exposure to benzene, insecticides, and perfluorinated compounds.",
"Increased aneuploidy is often associated with increased DNA damage in spermatozoa."
],
[
"Number in various organisms",
"=== In eukaryotes ===The number of chromosomes in eukaryotes is highly variable (see table).",
"In fact, chromosomes can fuse or break and thus evolve into novel karyotypes.",
"Chromosomes can also be fused artificially.",
"For example, the 16 chromosomes of yeast have been fused into one giant chromosome and the cells were still viable with only somewhat reduced growth rates.The tables below give the total number of chromosomes (including sex chromosomes) in a cell nucleus.",
"For example, most eukaryotes are diploid, like humans who have 22 different types of autosomes, each present as two homologous pairs, and two sex chromosomes.",
"This gives 46 chromosomes in total.",
"Other organisms have more than two copies of their chromosome types, such as bread wheat, which is ''hexaploid'' and has six copies of seven different chromosome types – 42 chromosomes in total.",
"+ Chromosome numbers in some plants Plant species # ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' (diploid) 10 Rye (diploid) 14 Einkorn wheat (diploid) 14 Maize (diploid or palaeotetraploid) 20 Durum wheat (tetraploid) 28 Bread wheat (hexaploid) 42 Cultivated tobacco (tetraploid) 48 Adder's tongue fern (polyploid) approx.",
"1,200+ Chromosome numbers (2n) in some animals Species # Indian muntjac 7 Common fruit fly 8 Pill millipede (''Arthrosphaera fumosa'') 30 Earthworm (''Octodrilus complanatus'') 36 Tibetan fox 36 Domestic cat 38 Domestic pig 38 Laboratory mouse 40 Laboratory rat 42 Rabbit (''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') 44 Syrian hamster 44 Guppy (''poecilia reticulata'') 46 Human 46 Hares 48 Gorillas, chimpanzees 48 Domestic sheep 54 Garden snail 54 Silkworm 56 Elephant 56 Cow 60 Donkey 62 Guinea pig 64 Horse 64 Dog 78 Hedgehog 90 Goldfish 100–104 Kingfisher 132+ Chromosome numbers in other organisms Species Largechromosomes Intermediatechromosomes Microchromosomes ''Trypanosoma brucei'' 11 6 ≈100Domestic pigeon (''Columba livia domestica'') 18 – 59–63 Chicken 8 2 sex chromosomes 60Normal members of a particular eukaryotic species all have the same number of nuclear chromosomes (see the table).",
"Other eukaryotic chromosomes, i.e., mitochondrial and plasmid-like small chromosomes, are much more variable in number, and there may be thousands of copies per cell.The 23 human chromosome territories during prometaphase in fibroblast cellsAsexually reproducing species have one set of chromosomes that are the same in all body cells.",
"However, asexual species can be either haploid or diploid.Sexually reproducing species have somatic cells (body cells), which are diploid 2n having two sets of chromosomes (23 pairs in humans), one set from the mother and one from the father.",
"Gametes, reproductive cells, are haploid n: They have one set of chromosomes.",
"Gametes are produced by meiosis of a diploid germline cell.",
"During meiosis, the matching chromosomes of father and mother can exchange small parts of themselves (crossover), and thus create new chromosomes that are not inherited solely from either parent.",
"When a male and a female gamete merge (fertilization), a new diploid organism is formed.Some animal and plant species are polyploid Xn: They have more than two sets of homologous chromosomes.",
"Plants important in agriculture such as tobacco or wheat are often polyploid, compared to their ancestral species.",
"Wheat has a haploid number of seven chromosomes, still seen in some cultivars as well as the wild progenitors.",
"The more-common pasta and bread wheat types are polyploid, having 28 (tetraploid) and 42 (hexaploid) chromosomes, compared to the 14 (diploid) chromosomes in the wild wheat.=== In prokaryotes ===Prokaryote species generally have one copy of each major chromosome, but most cells can easily survive with multiple copies.",
"For example, ''Buchnera'', a symbiont of aphids has multiple copies of its chromosome, ranging from 10–400 copies per cell.",
"However, in some large bacteria, such as ''Epulopiscium fishelsoni'' up to 100,000 copies of the chromosome can be present.",
"Plasmids and plasmid-like small chromosomes are, as in eukaryotes, highly variable in copy number.",
"The number of plasmids in the cell is almost entirely determined by the rate of division of the plasmid – fast division causes high copy number."
],
[
"See also",
"* Aneuploidy* Chromomere* Chromosome segregation* Cohesin* Condensin* DNA* Genetic deletion* Epigenetics* For information about chromosomes in genetic algorithms, see chromosome (genetic algorithm)* Genetic genealogy** Genealogical DNA test* Lampbrush chromosome* List of number of chromosomes of various organisms* Locus (explains gene location nomenclature)* Maternal influence on sex determination* Microchromosome* Minichromosome* Non-disjunction* Secondary chromosome* Sex-determination system** XY sex-determination system*** X-chromosome**** X-inactivation*** Y-chromosome**** Y-chromosomal Aaron**** Y-chromosomal Adam** ZO sex-determination system** ZW sex-determination system** XO sex-determination system** Temperature-dependent sex determination** Haplodiploid sex-determination system* Polytene chromosome* Protamine* Neochromosome* Parasitic chromosome"
],
[
"Notes and references"
],
[
"External links",
"* An Introduction to DNA and Chromosomes from HOPES: Huntington's Outreach Project for Education at Stanford* Chromosome Abnormalities at AtlasGeneticsOncology* On-line exhibition on chromosomes and genome (SIB)* What Can Our Chromosomes Tell Us?, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center* Try making a karyotype yourself, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center* Kimballs Chromosome pages* Chromosome News from Genome News Network* Eurochromnet, European network for Rare Chromosome Disorders on the Internet* Ensembl.org, Ensembl project, presenting chromosomes, their genes and syntenic loci graphically via the web* Genographic Project * Home reference on Chromosomes from the U.S. National Library of Medicine* Visualisation of human chromosomes and comparison to other species* Unique – The Rare Chromosome Disorder Support Group Support for people with rare chromosome disorders"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Charge"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Charge''' or '''charged''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Arts, entertainment, and media",
"===Films===* ''Charge, Zero Emissions/Maximum Speed'', a 2011 documentary===Music===* ''Charge'' (David Ford album)* ''Charge'' (Machel Montano album)* ''Charge'', an album by The Aquabats* ''Charged'' (Nebula album)* ''Charged'' (Toshinori Kondo, Eraldo Bernocchi and Bill Laswell album)===Television===* ''Charge'' (TV series)* Charge!",
"(TV network)* \"Charged\" (''Reaper''), episode 2 of season one of ''Reaper''"
],
[
"Companies",
"* Charge Automotive Limited, an electric-vehicle manufacturer* Charged Productions, an animation studio* Charged Records, a record label"
],
[
"Finance",
"* Equitable charge, confers a right on the secured party to look to a particular asset in the event of the debtor's default* Floating charge, a security interest over the assets of a company"
],
[
"Law",
"* Criminal charge, a formal accusation made before a court by a prosecuting authority* Legal charge, information or indictment through a formal legal process"
],
[
"Mathematics, science, and technology",
"* Charge (physics), the susceptibility (state of being affected) of a body to one of the fundamental forces** Color charge, a property of quarks and gluons, related to their strong interactions** Electric charge, a property which determines the electromagnetic interaction of subatomic particles** Magnetic charge, a property of theoretical magnetic monopoles* Charge, the air and fuel mixture fed into an internal combustion engine* CHARGE syndrome, a specific set of birth defects in children* Explosive charge, a measured quantity of explosive material* Signed, finitely additive measure in mathematics"
],
[
"Military and iconography",
"* Charge (bugle call)* Charge (warfare), a military manoeuvre* Charges (military), ranks used in German-speaking armies* Charge (heraldry), any object depicted on a shield"
],
[
"Sports",
"* Charge (basketball), illegal contact by pushing or moving into another player's torso* Charge (ice hockey), illegal contact by taking three or more strides or jumping before hitting an opponent* Charge (fanfare), played at sporting events* Guangzhou Charge, a Chinese esports team in the Overwatch League"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* Charge of the Goddess, a text often used in the religion Wicca* Charge (student associations), the executive of German student fraternities* Charge (youth), an underage person placed in the care of a medieval nobleman* Charge, a type of pen spinning trick* , two classes of diplomatic agents* Pastoral charge, a group of congregants in some Protestant churches"
],
[
"See also",
"* Charger (disambiguation)* Supercharge (disambiguation)* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Colonna family"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''House of Colonna''', also known as ''Sciarrillo'' or ''Sciarra'', is an Italian noble family, forming part of the papal nobility.",
"It was powerful in medieval and Renaissance Rome, supplying one pope (Martin V) and many other church and political leaders.",
"The family is notable for its bitter feud with the Orsini family over influence in Rome, until it was stopped by papal bull in 1511.In 1571, the heads of both families married nieces of Pope Sixtus V. Thereafter, historians recorded that \"no peace had been concluded between the princes of Christendom, in which they had not been included by name\"."
],
[
"History",
"===Origins===According to tradition, the Colonna family is a branch of the Counts of Tusculum — by Peter (1099–1151) son of Gregory III, called Peter \"de Columna\" from his property the Columna Castle in Colonna, in the Alban Hills.",
"Further back, they trace their lineage past the Counts of Tusculum via Lombard and Italo-Roman nobles, merchants, and clergy through the Early Middle Ages — ultimately claiming origins from the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the gens Julia whose origin is lost in the mists of time but which entered the annals for the first time in 489 BC with the consulship of Gaius Julius Iulus.The first cardinal from the family was appointed in 1206, when Giovanni Colonna di Carbognano was made Cardinal Deacon of SS.",
"Cosma e Damiano.",
"For many years, Cardinal Giovanni di San Paolo (elevated in 1193) was identified as a member of the Colonna family and therefore its first representative in the College of Cardinals, but modern scholars have established that this was based on false information from the beginning of the 16th century.Giovanni Colonna (born c. 1206) nephew of Cardinal Giovanni Colonna di Carbognano, made his solemn vows as a Dominican around 1228 and received his theological and philosophical training at the Roman ''studium'' of Santa Sabina, the forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, ''Angelicum''.",
"He served as the Provincial of the Roman province of the Dominican Order and led the provincial chapter of 1248 at Anagni.",
"Colonna was appointed as Archbishop of Messina in 1255.Margherita Colonna (died 1248) was a member of the Franciscan Order.",
"She was beatified by Pope Pius IX in 1848.Princely arms of the Gravina line of the house of OrsiniAt this time, a rivalry began with the pro-papal Orsini family, leaders of the Guelph faction.",
"This reinforced the pro-Emperor Ghibelline course that the Colonna family followed throughout the period of conflict between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire.",
"Ironically according to their own family legend, the Orsini are also descended from the Julio-Claudian dynasty of ancient Rome.===Colonna versus Papacy===In 1297, Cardinal Jacopo disinherited his brothers Ottone, Matteo, and Landolfo of their lands.",
"The latter three appealed to Pope Boniface VIII, who ordered Jacopo to return the land, and furthermore hand over the family's strongholds of Colonna, Palestrina, and other towns to the Papacy.",
"Jacopo refused; in May, Boniface removed him from the College of Cardinals and excommunicated him and his followers.The Colonna family (aside from the three brothers allied with the Pope) declared that Boniface had been elected illegally following the unprecedented abdication of Pope Celestine V. The dispute led to open warfare, and in September, Boniface appointed Landolfo to the command of his army, to put down the revolt of Landolfo's own Colonna relatives.",
"By the end of 1298, Landolfo had captured Colonna, Palestrina and other towns, and razed them to the ground.",
"The family's lands were distributed among Landolfo and his loyal brothers; the rest of the family fled Italy.The exiled Colonnas allied with the Pope's other great enemy, Philip IV of France, who in his youth had been tutored by Cardinal Egidio Colonna.",
"In September 1303, Sciarra and Philipp's advisor, Guillaume de Nogaret, led a small force into Anagni to arrest Boniface VIII and bring him to France, where he was to stand trial.",
"The two managed to apprehend the pope, and Sciarra reportedly slapped the pope in the face in the process, which was accordingly dubbed the \"Outrage of Anagni\".",
"The attempt eventually failed after a few days, when locals freed the pope.",
"However, Boniface VIII died on 11 October, allowing France to dominate his weaker successors during the Avignon papacy.===Late Middle Ages===The family remained at the centre of civic and religious life throughout the late Middle Ages.",
"Cardinal Egidio Colonna died at the papal court in Avignon in 1314.An Augustinian, he had studied theology in Paris under St. Thomas of Aquinas to become one of the most authoritative thinkers of his time.In the 14th century, the family sponsored the decoration of the Church of San Giovanni, most notably the floor mosaics.In 1328, Louis IV of Germany marched into Italy for his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor.",
"As Pope John XXII was residing in Avignon and had publicly declared that he would not crown Louis, the King decided to be crowned by a member of the Roman aristocracy, who proposed Sciarra Colonna.",
"In honor of this event, the Colonna family was granted the privilege of using the imperial pointed crown on top of their coat of arms.The celebrated poet Petrarch, was a great friend of the family, in particular of Giovanni Colonna and often lived in Rome as a guest of the family.",
"He composed a number of sonnets for special occasions within the Colonna family, including \"Colonna the Glorious, the great Latin name upon which all our hopes rest\".",
"In this period, the Colonna started claiming they were descendants of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.Palazzo Colonna in Rome (begun by Pope Martin V, to this day residence of the family)At the Council of Constance, the Colonna finally succeeded in their papal ambitions when Oddone Colonna was elected on 14 November 1417.As Martin V, he reigned until his death on 20 February 1431.===Early modern period===Vittoria Colonna became famous in the sixteenth century as a poet and a figure in literate circles.In 1627 Anna Colonna, daughter of Filippo I Colonna, married Taddeo Barberini of the family Barberini; nephew of Pope Urban VIII.In 1728, the Carbognano branch (Colonna di Sciarra) of the Colonna family added the name Barberini to its family name when Giulio Cesare Colonna di Sciarra married Cornelia Barberini, daughter of the last male Barberini to hold the name and granddaughter of Maffeo Barberini (son of Taddeo Barberini).===Current status===The Colonna family have been Prince Assistants to the Papal Throne since 1710, though their papal princely title only dates from 1854.The family residence in Rome, the Palazzo Colonna, is open to the public every Saturday morning.The main 'Colonna di Paliano' line is represented today by Prince Marcantonio Colonna di Paliano, Prince and Duke of Paliano (b.",
"1948), whose heir is Don Giovanni Andrea Colonna di Paliano (b.",
"1975), and by Don Prospero Colonna di Paliano, Prince of Avella (b.",
"1956), whose heir is Don Filippo Colonna di Paliano (b.",
"1995).The 'Colonna di Stigliano' line is represented by Don Prospero Colonna di Stigliano, Prince of Stigliano (b.",
"1938), whose heir is his nephew Don Stefano Colonna di Stigliano (b.",
"1975) principe frederico giuseppe born 1954"
],
[
"Notable members",
"Oddo Colonna (1368–1431), Pope Martin V 1417-1431Prospero Colonna (1452–1523), papal condottiere* Blessed Margherita Colonna (c. 1255 – 1280).",
"* Stefano Colonna (1265 – c. 1348), an influential noble in Medieval Rome and Imperial vicar in the early 14th century.",
"* Jacopo Colonna (1250 – 1318), cardinal.",
"* Giacomo Colonna (1270–1329), who took part in the Outrage of Anagni against Pope Boniface VIII.",
"* Giovanni Colonna (1295–1348), influential cardinal during the Avignon papacy.",
"* Oddone Colonna (1369–1431), whose election as Pope Martin V in 1417 ended the Western Schism.",
"* Ludovico Colonna (1390-1436), condottiero* Prospero I Colonna (1410–1463), cardinal* Fabrizio Colonna (c. 1450 – 1520), who was the father of Vittoria Colonna, and a general in the Holy League.",
"* Prospero Colonna (1452–1523), who fought alongside his cousin Fabrizio Colonna.",
"* Francesco Colonna (1453?",
"– 1517?)",
"La \"Pugna d'amore in sogno\" di Francesco Colonna Romano, 1996, Maurizio Calvesi, who was credited, along with the monk Francesco Colonna, with the authorship of the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili by an acrostic in the text.",
"Also believed to have written the story.",
"* Marcantonio I Colonna (1478–1522), condottiero of the 15th-16th century.",
"* Pompeo Colonna (1479–1532), cardinal.",
"A nephew of Prospero Colonna, mentioned above.",
"Viceroy of Naples from 1530 to 1532.",
"* Vittoria Colonna (1490–1547), friend of Michelangelo.",
"Married in 1507 the Spanish-Italian Fernando d'Avalos, marquis of Pescara, deceased 1525, adopting on becoming a widow, Alfonso d'Avalos, also marquis del Vasto, a nephew of her former husband.",
"* Pirro Colonna (1500–1552), 16th century captain under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor* Marco Antonio Colonna (1523–1597), cardinal* Marcantonio II Colonna the Younger (1535–1584), Duke of Tagliacozzo.",
"Son of Ascanio Colonna and Juana de Aragón.",
"He participated in the naval Battle of Lepanto against the Turks, 7 October 1571 and was Viceroy of Sicily in 1577–1584.Prince of Paliano.",
"* Ascanio Colonna (1560–1608), cardinal* Federico Colonna y Tomacelli, Prince of Butera (1601–1641), Viceroy of Valencia, in Spain, 1640–1641, Viceroy of Catalonia, 1641.He was Great Constable of the kingdom of Naples (1639-1641) as had been his father Filippo I Colonna, (1578 – 11 April 1639).",
"* Marcantonio V Colonna (1606/1610–1659), Prince of Paliano.",
"* Lorenzo Onofrio Colonna, Viceroy of Aragon, 1678–1681, in Spain.",
"* Prospero II Colonna (1662–1743), cardinal* Carlo Colonna (1665–1739), cardinal, created by Clement XI in 1706.",
"* Marcantonio Colonna (1724-1793), cardinal * Giovanni Antonio Colonna (1878–1940), politician.",
"* Guido Colonna di Paliano (1908–1982), diplomat and European Commissioner."
],
[
"See also",
"*Medieval Rome*Orsini family*Palestrina*Prösels Castle*Palazzo Colonna (Marino)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* Original 1922 Almanach de Gotha (edited by Justice Perthes) entry for the Colonna family, link to the original universally-recognised genealogical reference document, with details of family honours"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Palazzo Colonna website"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Ceuta"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Ceuta''' (, , ; ) is an autonomous city of Spain on the north coast of Africa.Bordered by Morocco, it lies along the boundary between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.",
"Ceuta is one of the special member state territories of the European Union and it is one of several Spanish territories in Africa, along with Melilla and the Canary Islands, one of only a few that are permanently inhabited by a civilian population.",
"It was a regular municipality belonging to the province of Cádiz prior to the passing of its Statute of Autonomy in March 1995, as provided by the Spanish Constitution, henceforth becoming an autonomous city.Ceuta, like Melilla and the Canary Islands, was classified as a free port before Spain joined the European Union.",
"Its population is predominantly Christians and Muslims, with a small minority of Sephardic Jews and Sindhi Hindus, the latter originating in Pakistan.Spanish is the official language.",
"Spanish and Darija Arabic are the two main spoken languages."
],
[
"Names",
"The name '''Abyla''' has been said to have been a Punic name (\"Lofty Mountain\" or \"Mountain of God\") for Jebel Musa, the southern Pillar of Hercules.",
"The name of the mountain was in fact ''Habenna'' (, , \"Stone\" or \"Stele\") or ''ʾAbin-ḥīq'' (, , \"Rock of the Bay\"), about the nearby Bay of Benzú.",
"The name was hellenized variously as ''Ápini'' (), ''Abýla'' (), ''Abýlē'' (), ''Ablýx'' (), and ''Abilē Stḗlē'' (, \"Pillar of Abyla\") and in Latin as '''' (\"Mount Abyla\") or '''' (\"the Pillar of Abyla\").The settlement below Jebel Musa was later renamed for the seven hills around the site, collectively referred to as the \"Seven Brothers\" (; ).",
"In particular, the Roman stronghold at the site took the name \"Fort at the Seven Brothers\" ().",
"This was gradually shortened to Septem ( ''Sépton'') or, occasionally, '''Septum''' or '''Septa'''.",
"These clipped forms continued as Berber ''Sebta'' and Arabic ''Sabtan'' or ''Sabtah'' (), which themselves became in Portuguese () and Spanish (locally )."
],
[
"History",
"===Ancient===Phoenician archeological site, dated to the 7th centuryBC, next to the Cathedral of CeutaControlling access between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, the Strait of Gibraltar is an important military and commercial chokepoint.",
"The Phoenicians realized the extremely narrow isthmus joining the Peninsula of Almina to the African mainland makes Ceuta eminently defensible and established an outpost there early in the 1st millenniumBC.",
"The Greek geographers record it by variations of ''Abyla'', the ancient name of nearby Jebel Musa.",
"Beside Calpe, the other Pillar of Hercules now known as the Rock of Gibraltar, the Phoenicians established Kart at what is now San Roque, Spain.",
"Other good anchorages nearby became Phoenician and then Carthaginian ports at what are now Tangiers and Cádiz.After Carthage's destruction in the Punic Wars, most of northwest Africa was left to the Roman client states of Numidia andaround AbylaMauretania.",
"Punic culture continued to thrive in what the Romans knew as \"Septem\".",
"After the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC, Caesar and his heirs began annexing north Africa directly as Roman provinces but, as late as Augustus, most of Septem's Berber residents continued to speak and write in Punic.Caligula assassinated the Mauretanian king Ptolemy in AD40 and seized his kingdom, which Claudius organized in AD 42, placing Septem in the province of Tingitana and raising it to the level of a colony.",
"It subsequently was romanized and thrived into the late 3rd century, trading heavily with Roman Spain and becoming well known for its salted fish.",
"Roads connected it overland with Tingis (Tangiers) and Volubilis.",
"Under in the late 4th century, Septem still had 10,000 inhabitants, nearly all Christian citizens speaking African Romance, a local dialect of Latin.===Medieval===Arab Baths of Ceuta, built between the 11th and 13th centuriesMarinid Walls, built by Abu Sa'id Uthman II in 1328Vandals, probably invited by Count Boniface as protection against the empress dowager, crossed the strait near Tingis around 425 and swiftly overran Roman North Africa.",
"Their king Gaiseric focused his attention on the rich lands around Carthage; although the Romans eventually accepted his conquests and he continued to raid them anyway, he soon lost control of Tingis and Septem in a series of Berber revolts.",
"When Justinian decided to reconquer the Vandal lands, his victorious general Belisarius continued along the coast, making Septem a westernmost outpost of the Byzantine Empire around 533.Unlike the former ancient Roman administration, however, Eastern Rome did not push far into the hinterland and made the more defensible Septem their regional capital in place of Tingis.Epidemics, less capable successors and overstretched supply lines forced a retrenchment and left Septem isolated.",
"It is likely that its count ('''') was obliged to pay homage to the Visigoth Kingdom in Spain in the early 7th century.",
"There are no reliable contemporary accounts of the end of the Islamic conquest of the Maghreb around 710.Instead, the rapid Muslim conquest of Spain produced romances concerning Count Julian of Septem and his betrayal of Christendom in revenge for the dishonor that befell his daughter at King Roderick's court.",
"Allegedly with Julian's encouragement and instructions, the Berber convert and freedman Tariq ibn Ziyad took his garrison from Tangiers across the strait and overran the Spanish so swiftly that both he and his master Musa bin Nusayr fell afoul of a jealous caliph, who stripped them of their wealth and titles.After the death of Julian, sometimes also described as a king of the Ghomara Berbers, Berber converts to Islam took direct control of what they called Sebta.",
"It was then destroyed during their great revolt against the Umayyad Caliphate around 740.Sebta subsequently remained a small village of Muslims and Christians surrounded by ruins until its resettlement in the 9th century by Mâjakas, chief of the Majkasa Berber tribe, who started the short-lived Banu Isam dynasty.",
"His great-grandson briefly allied his tribe with the Idrisids, but Banu Isam rule ended in 931 when he abdicated in favor of Abd ar-Rahman III, the Umayyad ruler of Córdoba.Chaos ensued with the fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031.Following this, Ceuta and Muslim Iberia were controlled by successive North African dynasties.",
"Starting in 1084, the Almoravid Berbers ruled the region until 1147, when the Almohads conquered the land.",
"Apart from Ibn Hud's rebellion in 1232, they ruled until the Tunisian Hafsids established control.",
"The Hafsids' influence in the west rapidly waned, and Ceuta's inhabitants eventually expelled them in 1249.After this, a period of political instability persisted, under competing interests from the Marinids and Granada as well as autonomous rule under the native Banu al-Azafi.",
"The Fez finally conquered the region in 1387, with assistance from Aragon.===Portuguese===Prince Henry the Navigator during the Conquest of Ceuta in ''azulejos'' at the São Bento railway station1572 depiction of CeutaThe Royal Walls of Ceuta, built from 962 to the 18th century, and navigable moatsHouse of the Dragons, built in 1905On the morning of 21 August 1415, King John I of Portugal led his sons and their assembled forces in a surprise assault that would come to be known as the Conquest of Ceuta.",
"The battle was almost anticlimactic, because the 45,000 men who traveled on 200 Portuguese ships caught the defenders of Ceuta off guard and suffered only eight casualties.",
"By nightfall the town was captured.",
"On the morning of 22 August, Ceuta was in Portuguese hands.",
"Álvaro Vaz de Almada, 1st Count of Avranches was asked to hoist what was to become the flag of Ceuta, which is identical to the flag of Lisbon, but in which the coat of arms derived from that of the Kingdom of Portugal was added to the center; the original Portuguese flag and coat of arms of Ceuta remained unchanged, and the modern-day Ceuta flag features the configuration of the Portuguese shield.John's son Henry the Navigator distinguished himself in the battle, being wounded during the conquest.",
"The looting of the city proved to be less profitable than expected for John I; he decided to keep the city to pursue further enterprises in the area.From 1415 to 1437, Pedro de Meneses became the first governor of Ceuta.The Marinid Sultanate started the 1419 siege but was defeated by the first governor of Ceuta before reinforcements arrived in the form of John, Constable of Portugal and his brother Henry the Navigator who were sent with troops to defend Ceuta.Under King John I's son, Duarte, the colony at Ceuta rapidly became a drain on the Portuguese treasury.",
"Trans-Saharan trade journeyed instead to Tangier.",
"It was soon realized that without the city of Tangier, possession of Ceuta was worthless.",
"In 1437, Duarte's brothers Henry the Navigator and Fernando, the Saint Prince persuaded him to launch an attack on the Marinid sultanate.",
"The resulting Battle of Tangier (1437), led by Henry, was a debacle.",
"In the resulting treaty, Henry promised to deliver Ceuta back to the Marinids in return for allowing the Portuguese army to depart unmolested, which he reneged on.Possession of Ceuta would indirectly lead to further Portuguese expansion.",
"The main area of Portuguese expansion, at this time, was the coast of the Maghreb, where there was grain, cattle, sugar, and textiles, as well as fish, hides, wax, and honey.Ceuta had to endure alone for 43 years, until the position of the city was consolidated with the taking of Ksar es-Seghir (1458), Arzila and Tangier (1471) by the Portuguese.The city was recognized as a Portuguese possession by the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1479) and by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494).In the 1540s the Portuguese began building the Royal Walls of Ceuta as they are today including bastions, a navigable moat and a drawbridge.",
"Some of these bastions are still standing, like the bastions of Coraza Alta, Bandera and Mallorquines.Luís de Camões lived in Ceuta between 1549 and 1551, losing his right eye in battle, which influenced his work of poetry ''Os Lusíadas''.===Iberian Union===In 1578 King Sebastian of Portugal died at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir (known as the Battle of Three Kings) in what is today northern Morocco, without descendants, triggering the 1580 Portuguese succession crisis.",
"His granduncle, the elderly Cardinal Henry, succeeded him as King, but Henry also had no descendants, having taken holy orders.",
"When the cardinal-king died two years after Sebastian's death, three grandchildren of King Manuel I of Portugal claimed the throne: Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza; António, Prior of Crato; and Philip II of Spain (Uncle of former King Sebastian of Portugal), who would prevail and be crowned King Philip I of Portugal in 1581, uniting the two crowns and overseas empires in what is historically referred to as the \"Iberian Union\".During the Iberian Union 1580 to 1640, Ceuta attracted many settlers of Spanish origin.",
"Ceuta became the only city of the Portuguese Empire that sided with Spain, when Portugal regained its independence in the Portuguese Restoration War of 1640.===Spanish===Fort of the Desnarigado, built in the 19th century.",
"It houses a museum.Bastion of la Coraza Alta on the shore of the Playa del Chorrillo beachOn 1 January 1668, King Afonso VI of Portugal recognised the formal allegiance of Ceuta to Spain and ceded Ceuta to King Carlos II of Spain by the Treaty of Lisbon.The city was attacked by Moroccan forces under Moulay Ismail during the Siege of Ceuta (1694–1727).",
"During the longest siege in history, the city underwent changes leading to the loss of its Portuguese character.",
"While most of the military operations took place around the Royal Walls of Ceuta, there were also small-scale penetrations by Spanish forces at various points on the Moroccan coast, and seizure of shipping in the Strait of Gibraltar.During the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815), Spain allowed Britain to occupy Ceuta.",
"Occupation began in 1810, with Ceuta being returned at the conclusion of the Wars.Disagreements regarding the border of Ceuta resulted in the Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–60), which ended at the Battle of Tetuán.A street in Ceuta, –1910In July 1936, General Francisco Franco took command of the Spanish Army of Africa and rebelled against the Spanish republican government; his military uprising led to the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939.Franco transported troops to mainland Spain in an airlift using transport aircraft supplied by Germany and Italy.",
"Ceuta became one of the first battlegrounds of the uprising: General Franco's rebel nationalist forces seized Ceuta, while at the same time the city came under fire from the air and sea forces of the official republican government.The Llano Amarillo monument was erected to honor Francisco Franco, it was inaugurated on 13 July 1940.The tall obelisk has since been abandoned, but the shield symbols of the Falange and Imperial Eagle remain visible.Following the 1947 Partition of India, a substantial number of Sindhi Hindus from current-day Pakistan settled in Ceuta, adding up to a small Hindu community that had existed in Ceuta since 1893, connected to Gibraltar's.When Spain recognized the independence of Spanish Morocco in 1956, Ceuta and the other remained under Spanish rule.",
"Spain considered them integral parts of the Spanish state, but Morocco has disputed this point.Culturally, modern Ceuta is part of the Spanish region of Andalusia.",
"It was attached to the province of Cádiz until 1925, the Spanish coast being only 20 km (12.5 miles) away.",
"It is a cosmopolitan city, with a large ethnic Arab-Berber Muslim minority as well as Sephardic Jewish and Hindu minorities.On 5 November 2007, King Juan Carlos I visited the city, sparking great enthusiasm from the local population and protests from the Moroccan government.",
"It was the first time a Spanish head of state had visited Ceuta in 80 years.Since 2010, Ceuta (and Melilla) have declared the Muslim holiday of Eid al-Adha, or Feast of the Sacrifice, an official public holiday.",
"It is the first time a non-Christian religious festival has been officially celebrated in Spanish ruled territory since the Reconquista."
],
[
"Geography",
"Ceuta is separated by from the province of Cádiz on the Spanish mainland by the Strait of Gibraltar and it shares a land border with M'diq-Fnideq Prefecture in the Kingdom of Morocco.",
"It has an area of .",
"It is dominated by Monte Anyera, a hill along its western frontier with Morocco, which is guarded by a Spanish military fort.",
"Monte Hacho on the Peninsula of Almina overlooking the port is one of the possible locations of the southern pillar of the Pillars of Hercules of Greek legend (the other possibility being Jebel Musa).===Important Bird Area===The Ceuta Peninsula has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because the site is part of a migratory bottleneck, or choke point, at the western end of the Mediterranean for large numbers of raptors, storks and other birds flying between Europe and Africa.",
"These include European honey buzzards, black kites, short-toed snake eagles, Egyptian vultures, griffon vultures, black storks, white storks and Audouin's gulls.===Climate===Ceuta has a maritime-influenced Mediterranean climate, similar to nearby Spanish and Moroccan cities such as Tarifa, Algeciras or Tangiers.",
"The average diurnal temperature variation is relatively low; the average annual temperature is with average yearly highs of and lows of though the Ceuta weather station has only been in operation since 2003.Ceuta has relatively mild winters for the latitude, while summers are warm yet milder than in the interior of Southern Spain, due to the moderating effect of the Straits of Gibraltar.",
"Summers are very dry, but yearly precipitation is still at , which could be considered a humid climate if the summers were not so arid."
],
[
"Government and administration",
"The Palacio de la Asamblea de Ceuta is the seat of the Assembly of Ceuta.Since 1995, Ceuta is, along with Melilla, one of the two autonomous cities of Spain.Ceuta is known officially in Spanish as (English: ''Autonomous City of Ceuta''), with a rank between a standard municipality and an autonomous community.",
"Ceuta is part of the territory of the European Union.",
"The city was a free port before Spain joined the European Union in 1986.Now it has a low-tax system within the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union.Since 1979, Ceuta has held elections to its 25-seat assembly every four years.",
"The leader of its government was the Mayor until the Autonomy Statute provided for the new title of Mayor-President.",
", the People's Party (PP) won 18 seats, keeping Juan Jesús Vivas as Mayor-President, which he has been since 2001.The remaining seats are held by the regionalist Caballas Coalition (4) and the Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE, 3).Owing to its small population, Ceuta elects only one member of the Congress of Deputies, the lower house of the Spanish legislature.",
"election, this post is held by María Teresa López of Vox.Ceuta is subdivided into 63 (\"neighborhoods\"), such as Barriada de Berizu, Barriada de P. Alfonso, Barriada del Sarchal, and El Hacho.Ceuta maintains its own police force."
],
[
"Defence and Civil Guard",
"The defence of the enclave is the responsibility of the Spanish Armed Forces' General Command of Ceuta (COMGECEU).",
"The Spanish Army's combat components of the command include:* 54th ''Regulares'' Infantry Regiment based in ''González Tablas'' barracks;* 2nd Tercio ''Duke of Alba'' Regiment of the Spanish Legion based in the Seraglio-Recarga cantonment;* 3rd \"Montesa\" Cavalry Regiment (RC-3) located in the ''Colonel Galindo'' barracks and equipped with Leopard 2 main battle tanks and Pizarro infantry fighting vehicles* 30th Mixed Artillery Regiment, one group equipped with 155/52mm towed howitzers and the other with Mistral short-range SAMs and 35/90 SKYDOR/35/90 GDF-007 anti-aircraft guns fulfilling an air defence role; and,* 7th Engineer RegimentThe command also includes its headquarters battalion as well as logistics elements.In 2023, the Spanish Navy replaced the ''Aresa''-class patrol boat ''P-114'' in the territory with the ''Rodman''-class patrol boat ''Isla de León''.Ceuta itself is only distant from the main Spanish naval base at Rota on the Spanish mainland.",
"The Spanish Air Force's Morón Air Base is also within proximity.The Civil Guard is responsible for border security and protects both the territory's fortified land border as well as its maritime approaches against frequent, and sometimes significant, migrant incursions."
],
[
"Economy",
"Ceuta products treemap, 2020Jebel Musa, as viewed from Benzú.",
"It is also known as the 'Dead Woman' because of its silhouette.The official currency of Ceuta is the euro.",
"It is part of a special low tax zone in Spain.",
"Ceuta is one of two Spanish port cities on the northern shore of Africa, along with Melilla.",
"They are historically military strongholds, free ports, oil ports, and also fishing ports.",
"Today the economy of the city depends heavily on its port (now in expansion) and its industrial and retail centres.",
"Ceuta Heliport is now used to connect the city to mainland Spain by air.",
"Lidl, Decathlon and El Corte Inglés have branches in Ceuta.",
"There is also a casino.Border trade between Ceuta and Morocco is active because of advantage of tax-free status.",
"Thousands of Moroccan women are involved in the cross-border porter trade daily, as porteadoras.",
"The Moroccan dirham is used in such trade, even though prices are marked in euros.===Transport===The city's Port of Ceuta receives high numbers of ferries each day from Algeciras in Andalusia in the south of Spain.",
"The closest airport is Sania Ramel Airport in Morocco.A single road border checkpoint to the south of Ceuta near Fnideq allows for cars and pedestrians to travel between Morocco and Ceuta.",
"An additional border crossing for pedestrians exists between Benzú and Belyounech on the northern coast.",
"The rest of the border is closed and inaccessible.There is a bus service throughout the city, and while it does not pass into neighbouring Morocco, it services both frontier crossings.===Hospitals===The following hospitals are located within Ceuta:* University Hospital of Ceuta, established in 2010, 252 beds* Primary Care Emergency Services Jose Lafont* Ceuta Medical Centre* Spanish Military Hospital (500 beds in 1929, 2020 listed as a clinic)"
],
[
"Demographics",
"Ceuta population pyramid in 2022As of 2018, its population was 85,144.Due to its location, Ceuta is home to a mixed ethnic and religious population.",
"The two main religious groups are Christians and Muslims.",
"As of 2006 approximately 50% of the population was Christian and approximately 48% Muslim.",
"As of a 2018 estimate, around 67.8% of the city's population were born in Ceuta.Spanish is the primary and official language of the enclave.",
"Moroccan Arabic (Darija) is widely spoken.",
"In 2021, the Council of Europe demanded that Spain formally recognize the language by 2023.===Religion===Remains of the Late Roman Christian Basilica and Necropolis of Ceuta, dated to the mid-4th century AD or the beginning of the 5th century ADCathedral of St. Mary of the Assumption, completed in 1726Christianity has been present in Ceuta continuously from late antiquity, as evidenced by the ruins of a basilica in downtown Ceuta and accounts of the martyrdom of St. Daniel Fasanella and his Franciscans in 1227 during the Almohad Caliphate.The town's Grand Mosque had been built over a Byzantine-era church.",
"In 1415, the year of the city's conquest, the Portuguese converted the Grand Mosque into Ceuta Cathedral.",
"The present form of the cathedral dates to refurbishments undertaken in the late 17th century, combining baroque and neoclassical elements.",
"It was dedicated to StMary of the Assumption in 1726.The Roman Catholic Diocese of Ceuta was established in 1417.It incorporated the suppressed Diocese of Tanger in 1570.The Diocese of Ceuta was a suffragan of Lisbon until 1675, when it became a suffragan of Seville.",
"In 1851, Ceuta's administration was notionally merged into the Diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta as part of a concordat between Spain and the Holy See; the union was not actually accomplished, however, until 1879.Small Jewish and Hindu minorities are also present in the city.Roman Catholicism is the largest religion in Ceuta.",
"In 2019, the proportion of Ceutans that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 60.0%.",
"The next largest religion was Islam (36.7%) and only 3.4% of people considered themselves as non-religious (1.5% atheist and 1.9% as non-religious) ===Migration===Like Melilla, Ceuta attracts African migrants both Christians (Pentecostals mostly) and Muslims who try to use it as an entry to Europe.",
"As a result, the enclave is surrounded by double fences that are high, and hundreds of migrants congregate near the fences waiting for a chance to cross them.",
"The fences are regularly stormed by migrants trying to claim asylum once they enter Ceuta."
],
[
"Education",
"The University of Granada offers undergraduate programs at their campus in Ceuta.",
"Like all areas of Spain, Ceuta is also served by the National University of Distance Education (UNED).While primary and secondary education are generally offered in Spanish only, a growing number of schools are entering the Bilingual Education Program."
],
[
"Notable people from Ceuta",
"=== up to 1800 ===* Qadi Ayyad (1083 in Ceuta 1149) born in Ceuta, then belonging to the Almoravids was the great imam of that city* Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100 in Ceuta 1165 in Ceuta) was a Muslim geographer, cartographer and Egyptologist.",
"He lived in Palermo at the court of King Roger II of Sicily, known for the .",
"* Abu al-Abbas as-Sabti (1129 in Ceuta 1204 in Marrakesh) the main Wali of Marrakesh* Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta ( 1226) a Jewish physician and poet, and disciple of Moses Maimonides* Abu al-Abbas al-Azafi (1162 in Ceuta 1236) a religious and legal scholar, member of the Banu al-Azafi who ruled Ceuta* Mohammed ibn Rushayd (1259 in Sabta 1321) a judge, writer and scholar of Hadith * Álvaro of Braganza (1440–1504) a president of Council of Castile.",
"* George Camocke (1666–1732) a Royal Navy captain and former admiral for Spain who was exiled to Ceuta to live out the last years of his life.",
"* Don Fernando de Leyba (1734 in Ceuta 1780) a Spanish officer who served as the third governor of Upper Louisiana from 1778 until his death.",
"* Brigadier General Francisco Antonio García Carrasco Díaz (1742 in Ceuta 1813 in Lima, Peru) a Spanish soldier and Royal Governor of Chile* Sebastián Kindelán y O'Regan (1757 in Ceuta 1826 in Santiago de Cuba) a colonel in the Spanish Army who served as governor of East Florida 1812/1815, of Santo Domingo 1818/1821 and was provisional governor of Cuba 1822/1823* Isidro de Alaix Fábregas Count of Vergara and Viscount of Villarrobledo, (1790 in Ceuta 1853 in Madrid) a Spanish general of the First Carlist War who backed Isabella II of Spain=== since 1800 ===* General Francisco Llano de la Encomienda (1879 in Ceuta 1963 in Mexico City), a Spanish soldier.",
"During the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) he remained loyal to the Second Spanish Republic* General Antonio Escobar Huertas (1879 in Ceuta executed 1940 in Barcelona), a Spanish military officer* África de las Heras Gavilán (1909 in Ceuta 1988 in Moscow), a Spanish Communist, naturalized Soviet citizen, and KGB spy who went by the code name ''Patria''* Eugenio Martín (born 1925 in Ceuta), a Spanish film director and screenwriter * Jacob Hassan, PhD (1936 in Ceuta 2006 in Madrid), a Spanish philologist of Sephardic Jewish descent* Manuel Chaves González (born 1945 in Ceuta), a Spanish politician of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party.",
"He served as the Third Vice President of the Spanish Government from 2009 to 2011* Ramón Castellano de Torres (born 1947 in Ceuta), a Spanish artist, thought by some to be an expressionist painter* Ignacio Velázquez Rivera (born 1953), first Mayor-President of Melilla* Juan Jesús Vivas Lara (born 1953 in Ceuta), became the Mayor-President of Ceuta in Spain in 2001 * Pedro Avilés Gutiérrez (born 1956 in Ceuta), a Spanish novelist from Madrid.",
"* Eva María Isanta Foncuberta (born 1971 in Ceuta), a Spanish actress * Mohamed Taieb Ahmed (born 1975 in Ceuta), a Spanish-Moroccan drug lord responsible for trafficking hashish across the Strait of Gibraltar and into Spain.",
"* Rakesh Narwani (born 1981 in Ceuta), a Spanish Filmmaker===Sport ===* Francisco Lesmes (1924–2005) and Rafael Lesmes (1926–2012), brothers and Spanish footballers.",
"* José Martínez Sánchez (born 1945 in Ceuta), nicknamed ''Pirri'', a retired Spanish footballer, mainly played for Real Madrid, appearing in 561 competitive games and scoring 172 goals* José Ramón López (born 1950), a sprint canoer, silver medallist at the 1976 Summer Olympics* Miguel Bernardo Bianquetti (born 1951 in Ceuta), known as ''Migueli'', a Spanish retired footballer, 391 caps for FC Barcelona and 32 for Spain* Nayim (born 1966 in Ceuta), a retired Spanish footballer; he scored a last-minute goal for Real Zaragoza in the 1995 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final.",
"* Lorena Miranda (born 1991 in Ceuta), a Spanish female water polo player, silver medallist at the 2012 Summer Olympics.",
"* Anuar Tuhami (born 1995 in Ceuta), a Spanish-Moroccan footballer, played one game for Morocco"
],
[
"Twin towns and sister cities",
"Ceuta is twinned with:* Aci Catena, Italy* Algeciras, Spain (since 1997)* Buenos Aires, Argentina* Cádiz, Spain (since 2007)* Melilla, Spain* Santarém, Portugal"
],
[
"Dispute with Morocco",
"The government of Morocco has repeatedly called for Spain to transfer the sovereignty of Ceuta and Melilla, along with uninhabited islets such as the islands of Alhucemas, Velez and the Perejil island, drawing comparisons with Spain's territorial claim to Gibraltar.",
"In both cases, the national governments and local populations of the disputed territories reject these claims by a large majority.",
"The Spanish position is that both Ceuta and Melilla are integral parts of Spain, and have been since the 16th century, centuries prior to Morocco's independence from Spain and France in 1956, whereas Gibraltar, being a British Overseas Territory, is not and never has been part of the United Kingdom.",
"Morocco has claimed the territories are colonies.",
"One of the chief arguments used by Morocco to reclaim Ceuta comes from geography, as this exclave, which is surrounded by Morocco and the Mediterranean Sea, has no territorial continuity with the rest of Spanish territory.",
"This argument was originally developed by one of the founders of the Moroccan Istiqlal Party, Alal-El Faasi, who openly advocated the Moroccan conquest of Ceuta and other territories under Spanish rule.In 1986, Spain entered the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.However Ceuta and Melilla are not under NATO protection since Article 6 of the treaty limits the coverage to Europe and North America and islands north of the Tropic of Cancer.This contrasts with French Algeria which was explicitly included in the treaty.Legal experts have interpreted that other articles could cover the Spanish North African cities but this interpretation has not been tested in practice.",
"On the occasion of NATO's Madrid Summit in 2022, the issue of the protection Ceuta and Melilla was a prominent one with NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg stating: \"On which territories NATO protects and Ceuta and Melilla, NATO is there to protect all Allies against any threats.",
"At the end of the day, it will always be a political decision to invoke Article 5, but rest assured NATO is there to protect and defend all Allies\".On 21 December 2020, following the affirmations of the Moroccan Prime Minister, Saadeddine Othmani, stating that Ceuta and Melilla \"are Moroccan as the Sahara is\", Spain urgently summoned the Moroccan ambassador to convey that Spain expects all its partners to respect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of its territory in Africa and asked for explanations of Othmani's words."
],
[
"See also",
"*AD Ceuta FC, football club*Arab Baths in Ceuta*Benzú*Hotel Tryp Ceuta*Ceuta border fence*Ceuta and Melilla (disambiguation)*''Plazas de soberanía'' – Spanish exclaves on the Moroccan coast*Porteadoras – mule ladies, bale workers*Royal Walls of Ceuta*Spanish Morocco*European enclaves in North Africa before 1830"
],
[
"References",
"===Citations======Bibliography===* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* ."
],
[
"External links",
"* * Official Ceuta government website* Ceuta tourism website"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cleopatra (disambiguation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cleopatra''' (69–30 BC) was the last active Ptolemaic ruler of Egypt before it became a Roman province.",
"'''Cleopatra''' may also refer to:"
],
[
"Given name",
"* Cleopatra (given name), a list of people and fictional characters* Cleopatra (Greek singer) (born 1963), who represented Greece in the 1992 Eurovision Song Contest* Cleopatra (Greek myth), a list of mythological figures"
],
[
"Arts and entertainment",
"=== Film ===* ''Cleopatra'' (1912 film), an American silent film* ''Cleopatra'' (1917 film), an American silent film* ''Cleopatra'' (1928 film), an American silent short film* ''Cleopatra'' (1934 film), an American film by Cecil B. DeMille* ''Cleopatra'' (1963 film), an American film by Joseph L. Mankiewicz starring Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton* ''Cleopatra'' (1970 film), a Japanese anime film* ''Cleopatra'' (2003 film), an Argentine film* ''Cleopatra'' (2005 film), an Indian Tamil-language film* ''Cleopatra'' (2007 film), a Brazilian film by Júlio Bressane* ''Cleopatra'' (2013 film), an Indian Malayalam-language film* Foxxy Cleopatra, a major character in the 2002 film ''Austin Powers in Goldmember''=== Literature ===* ''Cleopatra'' (Rider Haggard novel) (1889)* ''Cleopatra'' (Gardner novel), a 1962 novel by Jeffrey K. Gardner* ''La Cleopatra'' (poem), an epic poem by Girolamo Graziani* the title character of ''Cleopatra in Space'', an American graphic novel series for children by Mike Maihack=== Music ======= Classical music ====* ''Cleopatra'' (Cimarosa), a 1789 opera seria by Domenico Cimarosa* ''Cleopatra'' (Rossi), an 1876 opera by Lauro Rossi* ''Cleopatra'', an opera by Johann Mattheson* ''Cleopatra'', a composition by Luigi Mancinelli* ''Cleopatra'', a symphonic poem by George Whitefield Chadwick==== Popular music ====* Cleopatra Records, an American record label* Cleopatra (group), a British girl group===== Albums =====* ''Cleopatra'' (album), a 2016 album by The Lumineers* ''Cleopatra'' (1963 soundtrack), a soundtrack by Alex North* ''Cleopatra'', a 2004 album by Isabel Bayrakdarian* ''Handel: Cleopatra'', a 2011 album by Natalie Dessay===== Songs =====* \"Cleopatra\" (Frankie Avalon song) (1963)* \"Cleopatra\" (Jerome Kern song) (1917)* \"Cleopatra\" (Samira Efendi song), Azerbaijan's 2020 Eurovision song submission.",
"* \"Cleopatra\" (The Lumineers song) (2016)* \"Cleopatra\" (Weezer song) (2014)* \"Cleopatra (I've Got to Get You Off My Mind)\", a song by The Tennors* \"Cleopatra\", a song by Adam and the Ants from their 1979 album ''Dirk Wears White Sox''* \"Cleopatra\", a song by Nico Fidenco* \"Cleopatra\", a song by David Vendetta* \"Cleopatra\", a song by Train from ''AM Gold'' (album), 2022=== Paintings ===* ''Cleopatra'' (Artemisia Gentileschi, Ferrara), by Artemisia Gentileschi, c. 1620* ''Cleopatra'' (Artemisia Gentileschi, Milan), by Artemisia Gentileschi, 1613 or 1621–1622* ''Cleopatra'' (Artemisia Gentileschi, Rome), by Artemisia Gentileschi, c. 1633-5=== Television ===* ''Cleopatra'' (miniseries), a 1999 American miniseries produced by Hallmark Entertainment* ''Cleopatra 2525'', an American science fiction television series* ''The Cleopatras'', a 1983 British series"
],
[
"Places",
"* Cleopatra (neighborhood), a neighborhood of Alexandria, Egypt* Cleopatra, Kentucky, United States, an unincorporated community* Cleopatra, Missouri, United States, an unincorporated community* Cleopatra (crater), an impact crater on Venus"
],
[
"Plants and animals",
"* Cleopatra (horse), an American racehorse* ''Cleopatra'' (gastropod), a genus of freshwater snails* ''Gonepteryx cleopatra'' or cleopatra, a species of butterfly* ''Neoguillauminia cleopatra'', a species of tree from New Caledonia"
],
[
"Ships",
"* , various Royal Navy ships* , an East India Company paddle frigate built in 1839 and sunk by a tropical cyclone in 1847* ''Cleopatra'' (cylinder ship), a vessel constructed to convey Cleopatra's Needle from Alexandria to London in 1877* , originally named ''Cleopatra'', a mixed passenger liner and animal carrier which sank in 1898* , a World War II Victory cargo ship renamed ''Cleopatra'' in 1956"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* Cleopatra (cigarette), an Egyptian brand"
],
[
"See also",
"* Cleopatra Algemene Studentenvereniging Groningen, a student association in Groningen, the Netherlands* Cleopatra's Needle, a pair of Egyptian obelisks* Kleopatra (disambiguation)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Carcinogen"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''carcinogen''' () is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that promotes carcinogenesis (the formation of cancer).",
"This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes.",
"Several radioactive substances are considered carcinogens, but their carcinogenic activity is attributed to the radiation, for example gamma rays and alpha particles, which they emit.",
"Common examples of non-radioactive carcinogens are inhaled asbestos, certain dioxins, and tobacco smoke.",
"Although the public generally associates carcinogenicity with synthetic chemicals, it is equally likely to arise from both natural and synthetic substances.",
"Carcinogens are not necessarily immediately toxic; thus, their effect can be insidious.Carcinogens are agents in the environment capable of contributing to cancer growth.",
"Carcinogens can be categorized into two different types: activation-dependent and activation-independent, and each nature impacts their level and type of influence when it comes to promoting cancer growth.",
"Activation-dependent carcinogens require metabolic activation or modification to induce cancer, while activation-independents ones do not.",
"Examples of activation-dependent carcinogens range from certain viruses, such as HPV, to consumed alcohol, to excessive amounts of red and processed meats, impacting a person's health in ways they may not immediately associate with cancer.",
"Activation-independent carcinogens, such as ultraviolet rays or nitrosamines in tobacco products, possess characteristics enabling them to interact directly with DNA and other cellular components to cause harm.",
"These include not requiring metabolic action or molecular changes to act, which complements their ability to be electrically excited, permitting them to interact with oxygen and nitrogen atoms in negatively charged cellular environments.",
"This type of interaction leads to the alteration of DNA nucleotide bases, causing disarrangement of that genetic material.",
"This disarrangement is also responsible for the formation of DNA adducts, segments of DNA which bind to carcinogens, which furthers harm.",
"Eventually, failure in DNA repair mechanisms will lead to a buildup of DNA damage and potentially the development of cancer.There are many natural carcinogens.",
"Aflatoxin B1, which is produced by the fungus ''Aspergillus flavus'' growing on stored grains, nuts and peanut butter, is an example of a potent, naturally occurring microbial carcinogen.",
"Certain viruses such as hepatitis B and human papilloma virus have been found to cause cancer in humans.",
"The first one shown to cause cancer in animals is Rous sarcoma virus, discovered in 1910 by Peyton Rous.",
"Other infectious organisms which cause cancer in humans include some bacteria (e.g.",
"''Helicobacter pylori'') and helminths (e.g.",
"''Opisthorchis viverrini'' and ''Clonorchis sinensis'').Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, benzene, kepone, EDB, and asbestos have all been classified as carcinogenic.",
"As far back as the 1930s, industrial smoke and tobacco smoke were identified as sources of dozens of carcinogens, including benzo(a)pyrene|benzo''a''pyrene, tobacco-specific nitrosamines such as nitrosonornicotine, and reactive aldehydes such as formaldehyde, which is also a hazard in embalming and making plastics.",
"Vinyl chloride, from which PVC is manufactured, is a carcinogen and thus a hazard in PVC production."
],
[
"Radiation",
"CERCLA identifies all radionuclides as carcinogens, although the nature of the emitted radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, or neutron and the radioactive strength), its consequent capacity to cause ionization in tissues, and the magnitude of radiation exposure, determine the potential hazard.",
"Carcinogenicity of radiation depends on the type of radiation, type of exposure, and penetration.",
"For example, alpha radiation has low penetration and is not a hazard outside the body, but emitters are carcinogenic when inhaled or ingested.",
"For example, Thorotrast, a (incidentally radioactive) suspension previously used as a contrast medium in x-ray diagnostics, is a potent human carcinogen known because of its retention within various organs and persistent emission of alpha particles.",
"Low-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage (leading to replicational and transcriptional errors needed for neoplasia or may trigger viral interactions) leading to pre-mature aging and cancer.Not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic.",
"Low-energy waves on the electromagnetic spectrum including radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation and visible light are thought not to be, because they have insufficient energy to break chemical bonds.",
"Evidence for carcinogenic effects of non-ionizing radiation is generally inconclusive, though there are some documented cases of radar technicians with prolonged high exposure experiencing significantly higher cancer incidence.Higher-energy radiation, including ultraviolet radiation (present in sunlight), x-rays, and gamma radiation, generally ''is'' carcinogenic, if received in sufficient doses.",
"For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer.",
"In Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years.Substances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation (such as microwave, X-ray or gamma) are not carcinogenic.",
"In contrast, non-electromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation through nuclear transmutation."
],
[
"In prepared food",
"Chemicals used in processed and cured meat such as some brands of bacon, sausages and ham may produce carcinogens.",
"For example, nitrites used as food preservatives in cured meat such as bacon have also been noted as being carcinogenic with demographic links, but not causation, to colon cancer.",
"Cooking food at high temperatures, for example grilling or barbecuing meats, may also lead to the formation of minute quantities of many potent carcinogens that are comparable to those found in cigarette smoke (i.e., benzo(a)pyrene|benzo''a''pyrene).",
"Charring of food looks like coking and tobacco pyrolysis, and produces carcinogens.",
"There are several carcinogenic pyrolysis products, such as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, which are converted by human enzymes into epoxides, which attach permanently to DNA.",
"Pre-cooking meats in a microwave oven for 2–3 minutes before grilling shortens the time on the hot pan, and removes heterocyclic amine (HCA) precursors, which can help minimize the formation of these carcinogens.Baking, grilling or broiling food, especially starchy foods, until a toasted crust is formed generates significant concentrations of acrylamide.",
"This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns.",
"Subsequent research has however found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; Cancer Research UK categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a \"myth\"."
],
[
"In cigarettes",
"There is a strong association of smoking with lung cancer; the risk of developing lung cancer increases significantly in smokers.",
"A large number of known carcinogens are found in cigarette smoke.",
"Potent carcinogens found in cigarette smoke include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH, such as benzo(a)pyrene), benzene, and nitrosamine."
],
[
"Mechanisms of carcinogenicity",
"Carcinogens can be classified as genotoxic or nongenotoxic.",
"Genotoxins cause irreversible genetic damage or mutations by binding to DNA.",
"Genotoxins include chemical agents like N-nitroso-N-methylurea (NMU) or non-chemical agents such as ultraviolet light and ionizing radiation.",
"Certain viruses can also act as carcinogens by interacting with DNA.Nongenotoxins do not directly affect DNA but act in other ways to promote growth.",
"These include hormones and some organic compounds."
],
[
"Classification",
"+ Approximate equivalencesbetween classification schemes IARC GHS NTP ACGIH EU Group 1 Cat.",
"1A Known A1 Cat.",
"1A Group 2A Cat.",
"1B Reasonablysuspected A2 Cat.",
"1B Group 2B Cat.",
"2 A3 Cat.",
"2 Group 3 A4 Group 4 A5=== International Agency for Research on Cancer ===The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) is an intergovernmental agency established in 1965, which forms part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations.",
"It is based in Lyon, France.",
"Since 1971 it has published a series of ''Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans'' that have been highly influential in the classification of possible carcinogens.",
"* Group 1: the agent (mixture) is carcinogenic to humans.",
"The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are carcinogenic to humans.",
"* Group 2A: the agent (mixture) is most likely (''product more likely to be'') carcinogenic to humans.",
"The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are probably carcinogenic to humans.",
"* Group 2B: the agent (mixture) is possibly (''chance of product being'') carcinogenic to humans.",
"The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are possibly carcinogenic to humans.",
"* Group 3: the agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.",
"* Group 4: the agent (mixture) is most likely not carcinogenic to humans.=== Globally Harmonized System ===The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is a United Nations initiative to attempt to harmonize the different systems of assessing chemical risk which currently exist (as of March 2009) around the world.",
"It classifies carcinogens into two categories, of which the first may be divided again into subcategories if so desired by the competent regulatory authority:* Category 1: known or presumed to have carcinogenic potential for humans** Category 1A: the assessment is based primarily on human evidence** Category 1B: the assessment is based primarily on animal evidence* Category 2: suspected human carcinogens=== U.S. National Toxicology Program ===The National Toxicology Program of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services is mandated to produce a biennial ''Report on Carcinogens''.",
"As of June 2011, the latest edition was the 12th report (2011).",
"It classifies carcinogens into two groups:* Known to be a human carcinogen* Reasonably anticipated being a human carcinogen=== American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists ===The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) is a private organization best known for its publication of threshold limit values (TLVs) for occupational exposure and monographs on workplace chemical hazards.",
"It assesses carcinogenicity as part of a wider assessment of the occupational hazards of chemicals.",
"* Group A1: Confirmed human carcinogen* Group A2: Suspected human carcinogen* Group A3: Confirmed animal carcinogen with unknown relevance to humans* Group A4: Not classifiable as a human carcinogen* Group A5: Not suspected as a human carcinogen=== European Union ===The European Union classification of carcinogens is contained in the Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008.It consists of three categories:* Category 1A: Carcinogenic* Category 1B: May cause cancer* Category 2: Suspected of causing cancerThe former European Union classification of carcinogens was contained in the Dangerous Substances Directive and the Dangerous Preparations Directive.",
"It also consisted of three categories:* Category 1: Substances known to be carcinogenic to humans.",
"* Category 2: Substances which should be regarded as if they are carcinogenic to humans.",
"* Category 3: Substances which cause concern for humans, owing to possible carcinogenic effects but in respect of which the available information is not adequate for making a satisfactory assessment.This assessment scheme is being phased out in favor of the GHS scheme (see above), to which it is very close in category definitions.=== Safe Work Australia ===Under a previous name, the NOHSC, in 1999 Safe Work Australia published the Approved Criteria for Classifying Hazardous Substances NOHSC:1008(1999).Section 4.76 of this document outlines the criteria for classifying carcinogens as approved by the Australian government.",
"This classification consists of three categories:* Category 1: Substances known to be carcinogenic to humans.",
"* Category 2: Substances that should be regarded as if they were carcinogenic to humans.",
"* Category 3: Substances that have possible carcinogenic effects in humans but about which there is insufficient information to make an assessment."
],
[
"Common carcinogens",
"=== Occupational carcinogens ===Occupational carcinogens are agents that pose a risk of cancer in several specific work-locations:Disclaimer: ''The following list is far from being exhaustive.''",
"Carcinogen Associated cancer sites or types Occupational uses or sources Arsenic and its compounds* Lung* Skin* Hemangiosarcoma* Smelting byproduct* Component of:**Alloys**Electrical and semiconductor devices**Medications (e.g.",
"melarsoprol)**Herbicides**Fungicides**Animal dips**Drinking water from contaminated aquifers.",
"Asbestos* Lungs* Asbestosis* Gastrointestinal tract* Pleural mesothelioma* Peritoneal mesotheliomaNot in widespread use, but found in:* Constructions**Roofing papers**Floor tiles* Fire-resistant textiles* Friction linings (brake pads) (only outside Europe)** Replacement friction linings for automobiles still may contain asbestos Benzene* Leukemia* Hodgkin's lymphoma* Light fuel oil* Former use as solvent* commodity chemical Beryllium and its compounds* Lung* Lightweight alloys**Aerospace applications**Nuclear reactors Cadmium and its compounds* Prostate* Yellow pigments* Phosphors* Solders* Batteries* Metal paintings and coatings Hexavalent chromium(VI) compounds* Lung* Paints* Pigments* Preservatives Nitrosamines* Lung* Esophagus* Liver* cigarette smoke *nitrite-treated foods (cured meats) Ethylene oxide* Leukemia* commodity chemical* Sterilant for hospital equipment Nickel* Nose* Lung* Nickel plating* Ferrous alloys* Ceramics* Batteries* Stainless-steel welding byproduct Radon and its decay products* Lung* Uranium decay**Quarries and mines**Cellars and poorly ventilated places Vinyl chloride* Hemangiosarcoma* Liver* Production of polyvinyl chloride Shift work that involvescircadian disruption* Breast Involuntary smoking (Passive smoking)* Lung Radium-226, Radium-224, Plutonium-238, Plutonium-239 and other alpha particle emitters with high atomic weight* Bone (they are bone seekers)* Liver* Nuclear fuel processing* Radium dial manufacturing Unless otherwise specified, ref is:=== Others ===* Gasoline (contains aromatics)* Lead and its compounds* Alkylating antineoplastic agents (e.g., mechlorethamine)*Styrene*Other alkylating agents (e.g., dimethyl sulfate)* Ultraviolet radiation from the sun and UV lamps* Alcohol (causing head and neck cancers)* Other ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, etc.",
")* Low refining or unrefined mineral oils"
],
[
"Major carcinogens implicated in the four most common cancers worldwide",
"In this section, the carcinogens implicated as the main causative agents of the four most common cancers worldwide are briefly described.",
"These four cancers are lung, breast, colon, and stomach cancers.",
"Together they account for about 41% of worldwide cancer incidence and 42% of cancer deaths (for more detailed information on the carcinogens implicated in these and other cancers, see references).===Lung cancer===Lung cancer (pulmonary carcinoma) is the most common cancer in the world, both in terms of cases (1.6 million cases; 12.7% of total cancer cases) and deaths (1.4 million deaths; 18.2% of total cancer deaths).",
"Lung cancer is largely caused by tobacco smoke.",
"Risk estimates for lung cancer in the United States indicate that tobacco smoke is responsible for 90% of lung cancers.",
"Other factors are implicated in lung cancer, and these factors can interact synergistically with smoking so that total attributable risk adds up to more than 100%.",
"These factors include occupational exposure to carcinogens (about 9-15%), radon (10%) and outdoor air pollution (1-2%).",
"Tobacco smoke is a complex mixture of more than 5,300 identified chemicals.",
"The most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke have been determined by a \"Margin of Exposure\" approach.",
"Using this approach, the most important tumorigenic compounds in tobacco smoke were, in order of importance, acrolein, formaldehyde, acrylonitrile, 1,3-butadiene, cadmium, acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide, and isoprene.",
"Most of these compounds cause DNA damage by forming DNA adducts or by inducing other alterations in DNA.",
"DNA damages are subject to error-prone DNA repair or can cause replication errors.",
"Such errors in repair or replication can result in mutations in tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes leading to cancer.===Breast cancer===Breast cancer is the second most common cancer (1.4 million cases, 10.9%), but ranks 5th as cause of death (458,000, 6.1%).",
"Increased risk of breast cancer is associated with persistently elevated blood levels of estrogen.",
"Estrogen appears to contribute to breast carcinogenesis by three processes; (1) the metabolism of estrogen to genotoxic, mutagenic carcinogens, (2) the stimulation of tissue growth, and (3) the repression of phase II detoxification enzymes that metabolize ROS leading to increased oxidative DNA damage.",
"The major estrogen in humans, estradiol, can be metabolized to quinone derivatives that form adducts with DNA.",
"These derivatives can cause depurination, the removal of bases from the phosphodiester backbone of DNA, followed by inaccurate repair or replication of the apurinic site leading to mutation and eventually cancer.",
"This genotoxic mechanism may interact in synergy with estrogen receptor-mediated, persistent cell proliferation to ultimately cause breast cancer.",
"Genetic background, dietary practices and environmental factors also likely contribute to the incidence of DNA damage and breast cancer risk.Consumption of alcohol has also been linked to an increased risk for breast cancer.",
"===Colon cancer===Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer 1.2 million cases (9.4%), 608,000 deaths (8.0%).",
"Tobacco smoke may be responsible for up to 20% of colorectal cancers in the United States.",
"In addition, substantial evidence implicates bile acids as an important factor in colon cancer.",
"Twelve studies (summarized in Bernstein et al.)",
"indicate that the bile acids deoxycholic acid (DCA) or lithocholic acid (LCA) induce production of DNA-damaging reactive oxygen species or reactive nitrogen species in human or animal colon cells.",
"Furthermore, 14 studies showed that DCA and LCA induce DNA damage in colon cells.",
"Also 27 studies reported that bile acids cause programmed cell death (apoptosis).",
"Increased apoptosis can result in selective survival of cells that are resistant to induction of apoptosis.",
"Colon cells with reduced ability to undergo apoptosis in response to DNA damage would tend to accumulate mutations, and such cells may give rise to colon cancer.",
"Epidemiologic studies have found that fecal bile acid concentrations are increased in populations with a high incidence of colon cancer.",
"Dietary increases in total fat or saturated fat result in elevated DCA and LCA in feces and elevated exposure of the colon epithelium to these bile acids.",
"When the bile acid DCA was added to the standard diet of wild-type mice invasive colon cancer was induced in 56% of the mice after 8 to 10 months.",
"Overall, the available evidence indicates that DCA and LCA are centrally important DNA-damaging carcinogens in colon cancer.===Stomach cancer===Stomach cancer is the fourth most common cancer 990,000 cases (7.8%), 738,000 deaths (9.7%).",
"''Helicobacter pylori'' infection is the main causative factor in stomach cancer.",
"Chronic gastritis (inflammation) caused by ''H.",
"pylori'' is often long-standing if not treated.",
"Infection of gastric epithelial cells with ''H.",
"pylori'' results in increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS).",
"ROS cause oxidative DNA damage including the major base alteration 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG).",
"8-OHdG resulting from ROS is increased in chronic gastritis.",
"The altered DNA base can cause errors during DNA replication that have mutagenic and carcinogenic potential.",
"Thus ''H.",
"pylori''-induced ROS appear to be the major carcinogens in stomach cancer because they cause oxidative DNA damage leading to carcinogenic mutations.",
"Diet is thought to be a contributing factor in stomach cancer - in Japan where very salty pickled foods are popular, the incidence of stomach cancer is high.",
"Preserved meat such as bacon, sausages, and ham increases the risk while a diet high in fresh fruit and vegetables may reduce the risk.",
"The risk also increases with age."
],
[
"See also"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Camouflage"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The peacock flounder can change its pattern and colours to match its environment.disruptively patterned.|alt=photo of a soldier putting on camouflage face paint'''Camouflage''' is the use of any combination of materials, coloration, or illumination for concealment, either by making animals or objects hard to see, or by disguising them as something else.",
"Examples include the leopard's spotted coat, the battledress of a modern soldier, and the leaf-mimic katydid's wings.",
"A third approach, motion dazzle, confuses the observer with a conspicuous pattern, making the object visible but momentarily harder to locate, as well as making general aiming easier.",
"The majority of camouflage methods aim for crypsis, often through a general resemblance to the background, high contrast disruptive coloration, eliminating shadow, and countershading.",
"In the open ocean, where there is no background, the principal methods of camouflage are transparency, silvering, and countershading, while the ability to produce light is among other things used for counter-illumination on the undersides of cephalopods such as squid.",
"Some animals, such as chameleons and octopuses, are capable of actively changing their skin pattern and colours, whether for camouflage or for signalling.",
"It is possible that some plants use camouflage to evade being eaten by herbivores.Military camouflage was spurred by the increasing range and accuracy of firearms in the 19th century.",
"In particular the replacement of the inaccurate musket with the rifle made personal concealment in battle a survival skill.",
"In the 20th century, military camouflage developed rapidly, especially during the First World War.",
"On land, artists such as André Mare designed camouflage schemes and observation posts disguised as trees.",
"At sea, merchant ships and troop carriers were painted in dazzle patterns that were highly visible, but designed to confuse enemy submarines as to the target's speed, range, and heading.",
"During and after the Second World War, a variety of camouflage schemes were used for aircraft and for ground vehicles in different theatres of war.",
"The use of radar since the mid-20th century has largely made camouflage for fixed-wing military aircraft obsolete.Non-military use of camouflage includes making cell telephone towers less obtrusive and helping hunters to approach wary game animals.",
"Patterns derived from military camouflage are frequently used in fashion clothing, exploiting their strong designs and sometimes their symbolism.",
"Camouflage themes recur in modern art, and both figuratively and literally in science fiction and works of literature."
],
[
"History",
"Octopuses like this ''Octopus cyanea'' can change colour (and shape) for camouflageIn ancient Greece, Aristotle (384–322 BC) commented on the colour-changing abilities, both for camouflage and for signalling, of cephalopods including the octopus, in his ''Historia animalium'':Camouflage has been a topic of interest and research in zoology for well over a century.",
"According to Charles Darwin's 1859 theory of natural selection, features such as camouflage evolved by providing individual animals with a reproductive advantage, enabling them to leave more offspring, on average, than other members of the same species.",
"In his ''Origin of Species'', Darwin wrote:Poulton, 1890: swallowtailed moth pupae with camouflage they acquired as larvaeThe English zoologist Edward Bagnall Poulton studied animal coloration, especially camouflage.",
"In his 1890 book ''The Colours of Animals'', he classified different types such as \"special protective resemblance\" (where an animal looks like another object), or \"general aggressive resemblance\" (where a predator blends in with the background, enabling it to approach prey).",
"His experiments showed that swallow-tailed moth pupae were camouflaged to match the backgrounds on which they were reared as larvae.",
"Poulton's \"general protective resemblance\" was at that time considered to be the main method of camouflage, as when Frank Evers Beddard wrote in 1892 that \"tree-frequenting animals are often green in colour.",
"Among vertebrates numerous species of parrots, iguanas, tree-frogs, and the green tree-snake are examples\".",
"Beddard did however briefly mention other methods, including the \"alluring coloration\" of the flower mantis and the possibility of a different mechanism in the orange tip butterfly.",
"He wrote that \"the scattered green spots upon the under surface of the wings might have been intended for a rough sketch of the small flowerets of the plant an umbellifer, so close is their mutual resemblance.\"",
"He also explained the coloration of sea fish such as the mackerel: \"Among pelagic fish it is common to find the upper surface dark-coloured and the lower surface white, so that the animal is inconspicuous when seen either from above or below.",
"\"Abbott Thayer's 1907 painting ''Peacock in the Woods'' depicted a peacock as if it were camouflaged.The artist Abbott Handerson Thayer formulated what is sometimes called Thayer's Law, the principle of countershading.",
"However, he overstated the case in the 1909 book ''Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom'', arguing that \"All patterns and colors whatsoever of all animals that ever preyed or are preyed on are under certain normal circumstances obliterative\" (that is, cryptic camouflage), and that \"Not one 'mimicry' mark, not one 'warning color'... nor any 'sexually selected' color, exists anywhere in the world where there is not every reason to believe it the very best conceivable device for the concealment of its wearer\", and using paintings such as ''Peacock in the Woods'' (1907) to reinforce his argument.",
"Thayer was roundly mocked for these views by critics including Teddy Roosevelt.The English zoologist Hugh Cott's 1940 book ''Adaptive Coloration in Animals'' corrected Thayer's errors, sometimes sharply: \"Thus we find Thayer straining the theory to a fantastic extreme in an endeavour to make it cover almost every type of coloration in the animal kingdom.\"",
"Cott built on Thayer's discoveries, developing a comprehensive view of camouflage based on \"maximum disruptive contrast\", countershading and hundreds of examples.",
"The book explained how disruptive camouflage worked, using streaks of boldly contrasting colour, paradoxically making objects less visible by breaking up their outlines.",
"While Cott was more systematic and balanced in his view than Thayer, and did include some experimental evidence on the effectiveness of camouflage, his 500-page textbook was, like Thayer's, mainly a natural history narrative which illustrated theories with examples.Experimental evidence that camouflage helps prey avoid being detected by predators was first provided in 2016, when ground-nesting birds (plovers and coursers) were shown to survive according to how well their egg contrast matched the local environment."
],
[
"Evolution",
"As there is a lack of evidence for camouflage in the fossil record, studying the evolution of camouflage strategies is very difficult.",
"Furthermore, camouflage traits must be both adaptable (provide a fitness gain in a given environment) and heritable (in other words, the trait must undergo positive selection).",
"Thus, studying the evolution of camouflage strategies requires an understanding of the genetic components and various ecological pressures that drive crypsis.=== Fossil history ===Camouflage is a soft-tissue feature that is rarely preserved in the fossil record, but rare fossilised skin samples from the Cretaceous period show that some marine reptiles were countershaded.",
"The skins, pigmented with dark-coloured eumelanin, reveal that both leatherback turtles and mosasaurs had dark backs and light bellies.",
"There is fossil evidence of camouflaged insects going back over 100 million years, for example lacewings larvae that stick debris all over their bodies much as their modern descendants do, hiding them from their prey.",
"Dinosaurs appear to have been camouflaged, as a 120 million year old fossil of a ''Psittacosaurus'' has been preserved with countershading.=== Genetics ===Camouflage does not have a single genetic origin.",
"However, studying the genetic components of camouflage in specific organisms illuminates the various ways that crypsis can evolve among lineages.Many cephalopods have the ability to actively camouflage themselves, controlling crypsis through neural activity.",
"For example, the genome of the common cuttlefish includes 16 copies of the reflectin gene, which grants the organism remarkable control over coloration and iridescence.",
"The reflectin gene is thought to have originated through transposition from symbiotic ''Aliivibrio fischeri'' bacteria, which provide bioluminescence to its hosts.",
"While not all cephalopods use active camouflage, ancient cephalopods may have inherited the gene horizontally from symbiotic ''A.",
"fischeri'', with divergence occurred through subsequent gene duplication (such as in the case of ''Sepia officinalis'') or gene loss (as with cephalopods with no active camouflage capabilities).3 This is unique as an instance of camouflage arising as an instance of horizontal gene transfer from an endosymbiont.",
"However, other methods of horizontal gene transfer are common in the evolution of camouflage strategies in other lineages.",
"Peppered moths and walking stick insects both have camouflage-related genes that stem from transposition events.The Agouti genes are orthologous genes involved in camouflage across many lineages.",
"They produce yellow and red coloration (phaeomelanin), and work in competition with other genes that produce black (melanin) and brown (eumelanin) colours.",
"In eastern deer mice, over a period of about 8000 years the single agouti gene developed 9 mutations that each made expression of yellow fur stronger under natural selection, and largely eliminated melanin-coding black fur coloration.",
"On the other hand, all black domesticated cats have deletions of the agouti gene that prevent its expression, meaning no yellow or red color is produced.",
"The evolution, history and widespread scope of the agouti gene shows that different organisms often rely on orthologous or even identical genes to develop a variety of camouflage strategies.=== Ecology ===While camouflage can increase an organism's fitness, it has genetic and energetic costs.",
"There is a trade-off between detectability and mobility.",
"Species camouflaged to fit a specific microhabitat are less likely to be detected when in that microhabitat, but must spend energy to reach, and sometimes to remain in, such areas.",
"Outside the microhabitat, the organism has a higher chance of detection.",
"Generalized camouflage allows species to avoid predation over a wide range of habitat backgrounds, but is less effective.",
"The development of generalized or specialized camouflage strategies is highly dependent on the biotic and abiotic composition of the surrounding environment.There are many examples of the tradeoffs between specific and general cryptic patterning.",
"''Phestilla melanocrachia'', a species of nudibranch that feeds on stony coral, utilizes specific cryptic patterning in reef ecosystems.",
"The nudibranch syphons pigments from the consumed coral into the epidermis, adopting the same shade as the consumed coral.",
"This allows the nudibranch to change colour (mostly between black and orange) depending on the coral system that it inhabits.",
"However, ''P.",
"melanocrachia'' can only feed and lay eggs on the branches of host-coral, ''Platygyra carnosa'', which limits the geographical range and efficacy in nudibranch nutritional crypsis.",
"Furthermore, the nudibranch colour change is not immediate, and switching between coral hosts when in search for new food or shelter can be costly.The costs associated with distractive or disruptive crypsis are more complex than the costs associated with background matching.",
"Disruptive patterns distort the body outline, making it harder to precisely identify and locate.",
"However, disruptive patterns result in higher predation.",
"Disruptive patterns that specifically involve visible symmetry (such as in some butterflies) reduce survivability and increase predation.",
"Some researchers argue that because wing-shape and color pattern are genetically linked, it is genetically costly to develop asymmetric wing colorations that would enhance the efficacy of disruptive cryptic patterning.",
"Symmetry does not carry a high survival cost for butterflies and moths that their predators views from above on a homogeneous background, such as the bark of a tree.",
"On the other hand, natural selection drives species with variable backgrounds and habitats to move symmetrical patterns away from the centre of the wing and body, disrupting their predators' symmetry recognition."
],
[
"Principles",
"Camouflage can be achieved by different methods, described below.",
"Most of the methods help to hide against a background; but mimesis and motion dazzle protect without hiding.",
"Methods may be applied on their own or in combination.",
"Many mechanisms are visual, but some research has explored the use of techniques against olfactory (scent) and acoustic (sound) detection.",
"Methods may also apply to military equipment.===Resemblance to surroundings===Some animals' colours and patterns resemble a particular natural background.",
"This is an important component of camouflage in all environments.",
"For instance, tree-dwelling parakeets are mainly green; woodcocks of the forest floor are brown and speckled; reedbed bitterns are streaked brown and buff; in each case the animal's coloration matches the hues of its habitat.",
"Similarly, desert animals are almost all desert coloured in tones of sand, buff, ochre, and brownish grey, whether they are mammals like the gerbil or fennec fox, birds such as the desert lark or sandgrouse, or reptiles like the skink or horned viper.",
"Military uniforms, too, generally resemble their backgrounds; for example khaki uniforms are a muddy or dusty colour, originally chosen for service in South Asia.",
"Many moths show industrial melanism, including the peppered moth which has coloration that blends in with tree bark.",
"The coloration of these insects evolved between 1860 and 1940 to match the changing colour of the tree trunks on which they rest, from pale and mottled to almost black in polluted areas.",
"This is taken by zoologists as evidence that camouflage is influenced by natural selection, as well as demonstrating that it changes where necessary to resemble the local background.File:Lion-in-tall-grass.jpg|Lion in Kruger National Park, South Africa, blending in with the tall grassFile:Tanzania 0607 cropped Nevit.jpg|Black-faced sandgrouse is coloured like its desert background.File:Caprimulgus aegyptius.jpg|Egyptian nightjar nests in open sand with only its camouflaged plumage to protect it.File:Katydid camouflaged in basil plant.jpg|Bright green katydid has the colour of fresh vegetation.===Disruptive coloration===Illustration of the principle of \"maximum disruptive contrast\" by Hugh Cott, 1940Disruptive patterns use strongly contrasting, non-repeating markings such as spots or stripes to break up the outlines of an animal or military vehicle, or to conceal telltale features, especially by masking the eyes, as in the common frog.",
"Disruptive patterns may use more than one method to defeat visual systems such as edge detection.",
"Predators like the leopard use disruptive camouflage to help them approach prey, while potential prey use it to avoid detection by predators.",
"Disruptive patterning is common in military usage, both for uniforms and for military vehicles.",
"Disruptive patterning, however, does not always achieve crypsis on its own, as an animal or a military target may be given away by factors like shape, shine, and shadow.The presence of bold skin markings does not in itself prove that an animal relies on camouflage, as that depends on its behaviour.",
"For example, although giraffes have a high contrast pattern that could be disruptive coloration, the adults are very conspicuous when in the open.",
"Some authors have argued that adult giraffes are cryptic, since when standing among trees and bushes they are hard to see at even a few metres' distance.",
"However, adult giraffes move about to gain the best view of an approaching predator, relying on their size and ability to defend themselves, even from lions, rather than on camouflage.",
"A different explanation is implied by young giraffes being far more vulnerable to predation than adults.",
"More than half of all giraffe calves die within a year, and giraffe mothers hide their newly born calves, which spend much of the time lying down in cover while their mothers are away feeding.",
"The mothers return once a day to feed their calves with milk.",
"Since the presence of a mother nearby does not affect survival, it is argued that these juvenile giraffes must be very well camouflaged; this is supported by coat markings being strongly inherited.The possibility of camouflage in plants has been little studied until the late 20th century.",
"Leaf variegation with white spots may serve as camouflage in forest understory plants, where there is a dappled background; leaf mottling is correlated with closed habitats.",
"Disruptive camouflage would have a clear evolutionary advantage in plants: they would tend to escape from being eaten by herbivores.",
"Another possibility is that some plants have leaves differently coloured on upper and lower surfaces or on parts such as veins and stalks to make green-camouflaged insects conspicuous, and thus benefit the plants by favouring the removal of herbivores by carnivores.",
"These hypotheses are testable.File:Great male Leopard in South Afrika-JD.JPG|Leopard: a disruptively camouflaged predatorFile:T-90 main battle tank (2).jpg|Russian T-90 battle tank painted in bold disruptive pattern of sand and greenFile:Gaboon viper (4530693343).jpg|Gaboon viper's bold markings are powerfully disruptive.File:Ptarmigan and five chicks.JPG|A ptarmigan and five chicks exhibit exceptional disruptive camouflageFile:Jumping spider with prey.jpg|Jumping spider: a disruptively camouflaged invertebrate predatorFile:Saw Greenbriar - Smilax bona-nox, Colt Creek State Park, Lakeland, Florida.jpg|Many understory plants such as the saw greenbriar, ''Smilax bona-nox'' have pale markings, possibly disruptive camouflage.===Eliminating shadow===Camouflaged animals and vehicles are readily given away by their shapes and shadows.",
"A flange helps to hide the shadow and a pale fringe breaks up and averages out any shadow that remains.Some animals, such as the horned lizards of North America, have evolved elaborate measures to eliminate shadow.",
"Their bodies are flattened, with the sides thinning to an edge; the animals habitually press their bodies to the ground; and their sides are fringed with white scales which effectively hide and disrupt any remaining areas of shadow there may be under the edge of the body.",
"The theory that the body shape of the horned lizards which live in open desert is adapted to minimise shadow is supported by the one species which lacks fringe scales, the roundtail horned lizard, which lives in rocky areas and resembles a rock.",
"When this species is threatened, it makes itself look as much like a rock as possible by curving its back, emphasizing its three-dimensional shape.",
"Some species of butterflies, such as the speckled wood, ''Pararge aegeria'', minimise their shadows when perched by closing the wings over their backs, aligning their bodies with the sun, and tilting to one side towards the sun, so that the shadow becomes a thin inconspicuous line rather than a broad patch.",
"Similarly, some ground-nesting birds, including the European nightjar, select a resting position facing the sun.",
"Eliminating shadow was identified as a principle of military camouflage during the Second World War.File:Ibexes.jpg|Three countershaded and cryptically coloured ibex almost invisible in the Israeli desertFile:Armoured personnel carriers, Eriboll - geograph.org.uk - 1316295.jpg|\"Shape, shine, shadow\" make these 'camouflaged' military vehicles easily visible.File:Phrynosoma mcallii.jpg|The flat-tail horned lizard's body is flattened and fringed to minimise its shadow.File:Øvelse på Evjemoen Tropp 4.2 - camouflage nettings.jpg|Camouflage netting is draped away from a military vehicle to reduce its shadow.File:Perfect Camouflage (Caterpillar on teakwood branch).jpg|A caterpillar's fringe of bristles conceals its shadow.===Distraction===Many prey animals have conspicuous high-contrast markings which paradoxically attract the predator's gaze.",
"These distractive markings may serve as camouflage by distracting the predator's attention from recognising the prey as a whole, for example by keeping the predator from identifying the prey's outline.",
"Experimentally, search times for blue tits increased when artificial prey had distractive markings.===Self-decoration===Some animals actively seek to hide by decorating themselves with materials such as twigs, sand, or pieces of shell from their environment, to break up their outlines, to conceal the features of their bodies, and to match their backgrounds.",
"For example, a caddisfly larva builds a decorated case and lives almost entirely inside it; a decorator crab covers its back with seaweed, sponges, and stones.",
"The nymph of the predatory masked bug uses its hind legs and a 'tarsal fan' to decorate its body with sand or dust.",
"There are two layers of bristles (trichomes) over the body.",
"On these, the nymph spreads an inner layer of fine particles and an outer layer of coarser particles.",
"The camouflage may conceal the bug from both predators and prey.Similar principles can be applied for military purposes, for instance when a sniper wears a ghillie suit designed to be further camouflaged by decoration with materials such as tufts of grass from the sniper's immediate environment.",
"Such suits were used as early as 1916, the British army having adopted \"coats of motley hue and stripes of paint\" for snipers.",
"Cott takes the example of the larva of the blotched emerald moth, which fixes a screen of fragments of leaves to its specially hooked bristles, to argue that military camouflage uses the same method, pointing out that the \"device is ... essentially the same as one widely practised during the Great War for the concealment, not of caterpillars, but of caterpillar-tractors, gun battery positions, observation posts and so forth.",
"\"File:Hyastenus elatus.jpg|This decorator crab has covered its body with sponges.File:IDF-CombatEngineeringSniper001.jpg|Sniper in a Ghillie suit with plant materialsFile:Reduvius personatus, Masked Hunter Bug nymph camouflaged with sand grains.JPG|''Reduvius personatus'', masked hunter bug nymph, camouflaged with sand grainsFile:Battle of Lake Khasan-Camouflaged soviet tanks.jpg|Soviet tanks under netting dressed with vegetation, 1938===Cryptic behaviour===The leafy sea dragon sways like seaweeds to reinforce its camouflage.Movement catches the eye of prey animals on the lookout for predators, and of predators hunting for prey.",
"Most methods of crypsis therefore also require suitable cryptic behaviour, such as lying down and keeping still to avoid being detected, or in the case of stalking predators such as the tiger, moving with extreme stealth, both slowly and quietly, watching its prey for any sign they are aware of its presence.",
"As an example of the combination of behaviours and other methods of crypsis involved, young giraffes seek cover, lie down, and keep still, often for hours until their mothers return; their skin pattern blends with the pattern of the vegetation, while the chosen cover and lying position together hide the animals' shadows.",
"The flat-tail horned lizard similarly relies on a combination of methods: it is adapted to lie flat in the open desert, relying on stillness, its cryptic coloration, and concealment of its shadow to avoid being noticed by predators.",
"In the ocean, the leafy sea dragon sways mimetically, like the seaweeds amongst which it rests, as if rippled by wind or water currents.",
"Swaying is seen also in some insects, like Macleay's spectre stick insect, ''Extatosoma tiaratum''.",
"The behaviour may be motion crypsis, preventing detection, or motion masquerade, promoting misclassification (as something other than prey), or a combination of the two.===Motion camouflage===Comparison of motion camouflage and classical pursuitMost forms of camouflage are ineffective when the camouflaged animal or object moves, because the motion is easily seen by the observing predator, prey or enemy.",
"However, insects such as hoverflies and dragonflies use motion camouflage: the hoverflies to approach possible mates, and the dragonflies to approach rivals when defending territories.",
"Motion camouflage is achieved by moving so as to stay on a straight line between the target and a fixed point in the landscape; the pursuer thus appears not to move, but only to loom larger in the target's field of vision.Some insects sway while moving to appear to be blown back and forth by the breeze.The same method can be used for military purposes, for example by missiles to minimise their risk of detection by an enemy.",
"However, missile engineers, and animals such as bats, use the method mainly for its efficiency rather than camouflage.File:Hoverfly August 2007-8.jpg|Male ''Syritta pipiens'' hoverflies use motion camouflage to approach femalesFile:Australian Emperor mating and laying.jpg|Male Australian Emperor dragonflies use motion camouflage to approach rivals.File:Motion Camouflage.webm|thumbtime=2|Preying mantises exhibiting motion camouflage.===Changeable skin coloration===Animals such as chameleon, frog, flatfish such as the peacock flounder, squid, octopus and even the isopod idotea balthica actively change their skin patterns and colours using special chromatophore cells to resemble their current background, or, as in most chameleons, for signalling.",
"However, Smith's dwarf chameleon does use active colour change for camouflage.Each chromatophore contains pigment of only one colour.",
"In fish and frogs, colour change is mediated by a type of chromatophore known as melanophores that contain dark pigment.",
"A melanophore is star-shaped; it contains many small pigmented organelles which can be dispersed throughout the cell, or aggregated near its centre.",
"When the pigmented organelles are dispersed, the cell makes a patch of the animal's skin appear dark; when they are aggregated, most of the cell, and the animal's skin, appears light.",
"In frogs, the change is controlled relatively slowly, mainly by hormones.",
"In fish, the change is controlled by the brain, which sends signals directly to the chromatophores, as well as producing hormones.The skins of cephalopods such as the octopus contain complex units, each consisting of a chromatophore with surrounding muscle and nerve cells.",
"The cephalopod chromatophore has all its pigment grains in a small elastic sac, which can be stretched or allowed to relax under the control of the brain to vary its opacity.",
"By controlling chromatophores of different colours, cephalopods can rapidly change their skin patterns and colours.On a longer timescale, animals like the Arctic hare, Arctic fox, stoat, and rock ptarmigan have snow camouflage, changing their coat colour (by moulting and growing new fur or feathers) from brown or grey in the summer to white in the winter; the Arctic fox is the only species in the dog family to do so.",
"However, Arctic hares which live in the far north of Canada, where summer is very short, remain white year-round.The principle of varying coloration either rapidly or with the changing seasons has military applications.",
"''Active camouflage'' could in theory make use of both dynamic colour change and counterillumination.",
"Simple methods such as changing uniforms and repainting vehicles for winter have been in use since World War II.",
"In 2011, BAE Systems announced their Adaptiv infrared camouflage technology.",
"It uses about 1,000 hexagonal panels to cover the sides of a tank.",
"The Peltier plate panels are heated and cooled to match either the vehicle's surroundings (crypsis), or an object such as a car (mimesis), when viewed in infrared.File:Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus Muta).jpg|Rock ptarmigan, changing colour in springtime.",
"The male is still mostly in winter plumageFile:Norwegian Winter War Volunteers.jpg|Norwegian volunteer soldiers in Winter War, 1940, with white camouflage overalls over their uniformsFile:Arctic Hare.jpg|Arctic hares in the low arctic change from brown to white in winterFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 101III-Roth-173-01, Russland, Raum Charkow, Jagdpanzer.jpg|Snow-camouflaged German Marder III jagdpanzer and white-overalled crew and infantry in Russia, 1943File:Yemen Chameleon (cropped).jpg|Veiled chameleon, ''Chamaeleo calyptratus'', changes colour mainly in relation to mood and for signalling.File:Adaptiv infrared camouflage demo hiding tank as car.jpg|Adaptiv infrared camouflage lets an armoured vehicle mimic a car.===Countershading===Countershading acts as a form of camouflage by 'painting out' the self-shadowing of the body or object.",
"The result is a 'flat' appearance, instead of the 'solid' appearance of the body before countershading.Countershading uses graded colour to counteract the effect of self-shadowing, creating an illusion of flatness.",
"Self-shadowing makes an animal appear darker below than on top, grading from light to dark; countershading 'paints in' tones which are darkest on top, lightest below, making the countershaded animal nearly invisible against a suitable background.",
"Thayer observed that \"Animals are painted by Nature, darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky's light, and ''vice versa''\".",
"Accordingly, the principle of countershading is sometimes called ''Thayer's Law''.",
"Countershading is widely used by terrestrial animals, such as gazelles and grasshoppers; marine animals, such as sharks and dolphins; and birds, such as snipe and dunlin.Countershading is less often used for military camouflage, despite Second World War experiments that showed its effectiveness.",
"English zoologist Hugh Cott encouraged the use of methods including countershading, but despite his authority on the subject, failed to persuade the British authorities.",
"Soldiers often wrongly viewed camouflage netting as a kind of invisibility cloak, and they had to be taught to look at camouflage practically, from an enemy observer's viewpoint.",
"At the same time in Australia, zoologist William John Dakin advised soldiers to copy animals' methods, using their instincts for wartime camouflage.The term countershading has a second meaning unrelated to \"Thayer's Law\".",
"It is that the upper and undersides of animals such as sharks, and of some military aircraft, are different colours to match the different backgrounds when seen from above or from below.",
"Here the camouflage consists of two surfaces, each with the simple function of providing concealment against a specific background, such as a bright water surface or the sky.",
"The body of a shark or the fuselage of an aircraft is not gradated from light to dark to appear flat when seen from the side.",
"The camouflage methods used are the matching of background colour and pattern, and disruption of outlines.File:Gazella-dorcas.jpg|Countershaded Dorcas gazelle, ''Gazella dorcas''File:Tiburón.jpg|Countershaded grey reef shark, ''Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos''File:Thayers ships.jpg|Countershaded ship and submarine in Thayer's 1902 patent applicationFile:Abbott thayer countershading.jpg|Two model birds painted by Thayer: painted in background colours on the left, countershaded and nearly invisible on the rightFile:Focke-Wulf Fw 190D-9 outside USAF.jpg|Countershaded Focke-Wulf Fw 190D-9===Counter-illumination===Principle of counter-illumination in the firefly squidCounter-illumination means producing light to match a background that is brighter than an animal's body or military vehicle; it is a form of active camouflage.",
"It is notably used by some species of squid, such as the firefly squid and the midwater squid.",
"The latter has light-producing organs (photophores) scattered all over its underside; these create a sparkling glow that prevents the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen from below.",
"Counterillumination camouflage is the likely function of the bioluminescence of many marine organisms, though light is also produced to attract or to detect prey and for signalling.Counterillumination has rarely been used for military purposes.",
"\"Diffused lighting camouflage\" was trialled by Canada's National Research Council during the Second World War.",
"It involved projecting light on to the sides of ships to match the faint glow of the night sky, requiring awkward external platforms to support the lamps.",
"The Canadian concept was refined in the American Yehudi lights project, and trialled in aircraft including B-24 Liberators and naval Avengers.",
"The planes were fitted with forward-pointing lamps automatically adjusted to match the brightness of the night sky.",
"This enabled them to approach much closer to a target – within – before being seen.",
"Counterillumination was made obsolete by radar, and neither diffused lighting camouflage nor Yehudi lights entered active service.File:HMS Largs by night with incomplete Diffused Lighting Camouflage 1942.jpg|HMS ''Largs'' by night with incomplete diffused lighting camouflage, 1942, set to maximum brightnessFile:HMS Largs bulwark with Diffused Lighting Camouflage fittings.jpg|Bulwark of HMS ''Largs'' showing 4 (of about 60) diffused lighting fittings, 2 lifted, 2 deployedFile:Principle of Yehudi Lights with Avenger head-on view.jpg|Yehudi Lights raise the average brightness of the plane from a dark shape to the same as the sky.===Transparency===Many animals of the open sea, like this ''Aurelia labiata'' jellyfish, are largely transparent.Many marine animals that float near the surface are highly transparent, giving them almost perfect camouflage.",
"However, transparency is difficult for bodies made of materials that have different refractive indices from seawater.",
"Some marine animals such as jellyfish have gelatinous bodies, composed mainly of water; their thick mesogloea is acellular and highly transparent.",
"This conveniently makes them buoyant, but it also makes them large for their muscle mass, so they cannot swim fast, making this form of camouflage a costly trade-off with mobility.",
"Gelatinous planktonic animals are between 50 and 90 percent transparent.",
"A transparency of 50 percent is enough to make an animal invisible to a predator such as cod at a depth of ; better transparency is required for invisibility in shallower water, where the light is brighter and predators can see better.",
"For example, a cod can see prey that are 98 percent transparent in optimal lighting in shallow water.",
"Therefore, sufficient transparency for camouflage is more easily achieved in deeper waters.Glass frogs like ''Hyalinobatrachium uranoscopum'' use partial transparency for camouflage in the dim light of the rainforest.Some tissues such as muscles can be made transparent, provided either they are very thin or organised as regular layers or fibrils that are small compared to the wavelength of visible light.",
"A familiar example is the transparency of the lens of the vertebrate eye, which is made of the protein crystallin, and the vertebrate cornea which is made of the protein collagen.",
"Other structures cannot be made transparent, notably the retinas or equivalent light-absorbing structures of eyes – they must absorb light to be able to function.",
"The camera-type eye of vertebrates and cephalopods must be completely opaque.",
"Finally, some structures are visible for a reason, such as to lure prey.",
"For example, the nematocysts (stinging cells) of the transparent siphonophore ''Agalma okenii'' resemble small copepods.",
"Examples of transparent marine animals include a wide variety of larvae, including radiata (coelenterates), siphonophores, salps (floating tunicates), gastropod molluscs, polychaete worms, many shrimplike crustaceans, and fish; whereas the adults of most of these are opaque and pigmented, resembling the seabed or shores where they live.",
"Adult comb jellies and jellyfish obey the rule, often being mainly transparent.",
"Cott suggests this follows the more general rule that animals resemble their background: in a transparent medium like seawater, that means being transparent.",
"The small Amazon river fish ''Microphilypnus amazonicus'' and the shrimps it associates with, ''Pseudopalaemon gouldingi'', are so transparent as to be \"almost invisible\"; further, these species appear to select whether to be transparent or more conventionally mottled (disruptively patterned) according to the local background in the environment.===Silvering===The adult herring, ''Clupea harengus'', is a typical silvered fish of medium depths, camouflaged by reflection.The herring's reflectors are nearly vertical for camouflage from the side.Where transparency cannot be achieved, it can be imitated effectively by silvering to make an animal's body highly reflective.",
"At medium depths at sea, light comes from above, so a mirror oriented vertically makes animals such as fish invisible from the side.",
"Most fish in the upper ocean such as sardine and herring are camouflaged by silvering.The marine hatchetfish is extremely flattened laterally, leaving the body just millimetres thick, and the body is so silvery as to resemble aluminium foil.",
"The mirrors consist of microscopic structures similar to those used to provide structural coloration: stacks of between 5 and 10 crystals of guanine spaced about of a wavelength apart to interfere constructively and achieve nearly 100 per cent reflection.",
"In the deep waters that the hatchetfish lives in, only blue light with a wavelength of 500 nanometres percolates down and needs to be reflected, so mirrors 125 nanometres apart provide good camouflage.In fish such as the herring which live in shallower water, the mirrors must reflect a mixture of wavelengths, and the fish accordingly has crystal stacks with a range of different spacings.",
"A further complication for fish with bodies that are rounded in cross-section is that the mirrors would be ineffective if laid flat on the skin, as they would fail to reflect horizontally.",
"The overall mirror effect is achieved with many small reflectors, all oriented vertically.",
"Silvering is found in other marine animals as well as fish.",
"The cephalopods, including squid, octopus and cuttlefish, have multilayer mirrors made of protein rather than guanine.===Ultra-blackness===Blackdevil anglerfish is one of several deep-sea fishes camouflaged against very dark water with a black dermis.Some deep sea fishes have very black skin, reflecting under 0.5% of ambient light.",
"This can prevent detection by predators or prey fish which use bioluminescence for illumination.",
"''Oneirodes'' had a particularly black skin which reflected only 0.044% of 480 nm wavelength light.",
"The ultra-blackness is achieved with a thin but continuous layer of particles in the dermis, melanosomes.",
"These particles both absorb most of the light, and are sized and shaped so as to scatter rather than reflect most of the rest.",
"Modelling suggests that this camouflage should reduce the distance at which such a fish can be seen by a factor of 6 compared to a fish with a nominal 2% reflectance.",
"Species with this adaptation are widely dispersed in various orders of the phylogenetic tree of bony fishes (Actinopterygii), implying that natural selection has driven the convergent evolution of ultra-blackness camouflage independently many times.=== Mimesis ===In mimesis (also called ''masquerade''), the camouflaged object looks like something else which is of no special interest to the observer.",
"Mimesis is common in prey animals, for example when a peppered moth caterpillar mimics a twig, or a grasshopper mimics a dry leaf.",
"It is also found in nest structures; some eusocial wasps, such as ''Leipomeles dorsata'', build a nest envelope in patterns that mimic the leaves surrounding the nest.Mimesis is also employed by some predators and parasites to lure their prey.",
"For example, a flower mantis mimics a particular kind of flower, such as an orchid.",
"This tactic has occasionally been used in warfare, for example with heavily armed Q-ships disguised as merchant ships.The common cuckoo, a brood parasite, provides examples of mimesis both in the adult and in the egg.",
"The female lays her eggs in nests of other, smaller species of bird, one per nest.",
"The female mimics a sparrowhawk.",
"The resemblance is sufficient to make small birds take action to avoid the apparent predator.",
"The female cuckoo then has time to lay her egg in their nest without being seen to do so.",
"The cuckoo's egg itself mimics the eggs of the host species, reducing its chance of being rejected.File:Biston betularia.png|Peppered moth caterpillars mimic twigsFile:Insect camouflage PP08338.png|Flower mantis lures its insect prey by mimicking a ''Phalaenopsis'' orchid blossomFile:Hooded Grasshopper (Teratodus monticollis) W IMG 0525.jpg|Hooded grasshopper ''Teratodus monticollis'', superbly mimics a leaf with a bright orange borderFile:Gumleaf grasshopper.jpg|This grasshopper hides from predators by mimicking a dry leafFile:IWM-E-18461-Crusader-camouflaged-19421026.jpg|WWII tank concealed in Operation Bertram by mimicking a truckFile:HMS President - geograph.org.uk - 659583.jpg|Armed WW1 Q-ship lured enemy submarines by mimicking a merchantmanFile:European Cuckoo Mimics Sparrowhawk.jpg|Cuckoo adult mimics sparrowhawk, giving female time to lay eggs parasiticallyFile:Cuckoo Eggs Mimicking Reed Warbler Eggs.JPG|Cuckoo eggs mimicking smaller eggs, in this case of reed warblerFile:Wrap-around spider in the genus Dolophones (Family Araneidae) Camouflage View.JPG|Wrap-around spider ''Dolophones'' mimicking a stick===Motion dazzle===The zebra's bold pattern may induce motion dazzle in observersMost forms of camouflage are made ineffective by movement: a deer or grasshopper may be highly cryptic when motionless, but instantly seen when it moves.",
"But one method, motion dazzle, requires rapidly moving bold patterns of contrasting stripes.",
"Motion dazzle may degrade predators' ability to estimate the prey's speed and direction accurately, giving the prey an improved chance of escape.",
"Motion dazzle distorts speed perception and is most effective at high speeds; stripes can also distort perception of size (and so, perceived range to the target).",
"As of 2011, motion dazzle had been proposed for military vehicles, but never applied.",
"Since motion dazzle patterns would make animals more difficult to locate accurately when moving, but easier to see when stationary, there would be an evolutionary trade-off between motion dazzle and crypsis.An animal that is commonly thought to be dazzle-patterned is the zebra.",
"The bold stripes of the zebra have been claimed to be disruptive camouflage, background-blending and countershading.",
"After many years in which the purpose of the coloration was disputed, an experimental study by Tim Caro suggested in 2012 that the pattern reduces the attractiveness of stationary models to biting flies such as horseflies and tsetse flies.",
"However, a simulation study by Martin How and Johannes Zanker in 2014 suggests that when moving, the stripes may confuse observers, such as mammalian predators and biting insects, by two visual illusions: the wagon-wheel effect, where the perceived motion is inverted, and the barberpole illusion, where the perceived motion is in a wrong direction."
],
[
"Applications",
"===Military=======Before 1800====Roman ships, depicted on a 3rd-century AD sarcophagusShip camouflage was occasionally used in ancient times.",
"Philostratus () wrote in his ''Imagines'' that Mediterranean pirate ships could be painted blue-gray for concealment.",
"Vegetius () says that \"Venetian blue\" (sea green) was used in the Gallic Wars, when Julius Caesar sent his ''speculatoria navigia'' (reconnaissance boats) to gather intelligence along the coast of Britain; the ships were painted entirely in bluish-green wax, with sails, ropes and crew the same colour.",
"There is little evidence of military use of camouflage on land before 1800, but two unusual ceramics show men in Peru's Mochica culture from before 500 AD, hunting birds with blowpipes which are fitted with a kind of shield near the mouth, perhaps to conceal the hunters' hands and faces.",
"Another early source is a 15th-century French manuscript, ''The Hunting Book of Gaston Phebus'', showing a horse pulling a cart which contains a hunter armed with a crossbow under a cover of branches, perhaps serving as a hide for shooting game.",
"Jamaican Maroons are said to have used plant materials as camouflage in the First Maroon War ().====19th-century origins====Green-jacketed rifleman firing Baker rifle 1803The development of military camouflage was driven by the increasing range and accuracy of infantry firearms in the 19th century.",
"In particular the replacement of the inaccurate musket with weapons such as the Baker rifle made personal concealment in battle essential.",
"Two Napoleonic War skirmishing units of the British Army, the 95th Rifle Regiment and the 60th Rifle Regiment, were the first to adopt camouflage in the form of a rifle green jacket, while the Line regiments continued to wear scarlet tunics.",
"A contemporary study in 1800 by the English artist and soldier Charles Hamilton Smith provided evidence that grey uniforms were less visible than green ones at a range of 150 yards.In the American Civil War, rifle units such as the 1st United States Sharp Shooters (in the Federal army) similarly wore green jackets while other units wore more conspicuous colours.",
"The first British Army unit to adopt khaki uniforms was the Corps of Guides at Peshawar, when Sir Harry Lumsden and his second in command, William Hodson introduced a \"drab\" uniform in 1848.Hodson wrote that it would be more appropriate for the hot climate, and help make his troops \"invisible in a land of dust\".",
"Later they improvised by dyeing cloth locally.",
"Other regiments in India soon adopted the khaki uniform, and by 1896 khaki drill uniform was used everywhere outside Europe; by the Second Boer War six years later it was used throughout the British Army.During the late 19th century camouflage was applied to British coastal fortifications.",
"The fortifications around Plymouth, England were painted in the late 1880s in \"irregular patches of red, brown, yellow and green.\"",
"From 1891 onwards British coastal artillery was permitted to be painted in suitable colours \"to harmonise with the surroundings\" and by 1904 it was standard practice that artillery and mountings should be painted with \"large irregular patches of different colours selected to suit local conditions.",
"\"====First World War====Cubist painter André Mare, 1916In the First World War, the French army formed a camouflage corps, led by Lucien-Victor Guirand de Scévola, employing artists known as ''camoufleurs'' to create schemes such as tree observation posts and covers for guns.",
"Other armies soon followed them.",
"The term ''camouflage'' probably comes from ''camoufler'', a Parisian slang term meaning ''to disguise'', and may have been influenced by ''camouflet'', a French term meaning ''smoke blown in someone's face''.",
"The English zoologist John Graham Kerr, artist Solomon J. Solomon and the American artist Abbott Thayer led attempts to introduce scientific principles of countershading and disruptive patterning into military camouflage, with limited success.",
"In early 1916 the Royal Naval Air Service began to create dummy air fields to draw the attention of enemy planes to empty land.",
"They created decoy homes and lined fake runways with flares, which were meant to help protect real towns from night raids.",
"This strategy was not common practice and did not succeed at first, but in 1918 it caught the Germans off guard multiple times.Ship camouflage was introduced in the early 20th century as the range of naval guns increased, with ships painted grey all over.",
"In April 1917, when German U-boats were sinking many British ships with torpedoes, the marine artist Norman Wilkinson devised dazzle camouflage, which paradoxically made ships more visible but harder to target.",
"In Wilkinson's own words, dazzle was designed \"not for low visibility, but in such a way as to break up her form and thus confuse a submarine officer as to the course on which she was heading\".File:USS West Mahomet (ID-3681) cropped.jpg|USS ''West Mahomet'' in dazzle camouflageFile:CamouflagedAustralian9.2inchHowitzerYpres1917.jpeg|Siege howitzer camouflaged against observation from the air, 1917File:Austro-Hungarian ski patrol on Italian front in snow camouflage 1915-1918.jpg|Austro-Hungarian ski patrol in two-part snow uniforms with improvised head camouflage on Italian front, 1915–1918====Second World War====In the Second World War, the zoologist Hugh Cott, a protégé of Kerr, worked to persuade the British army to use more effective camouflage methods, including countershading, but, like Kerr and Thayer in the First World War, with limited success.",
"For example, he painted two rail-mounted coastal guns, one in conventional style, one countershaded.",
"In aerial photographs, the countershaded gun was essentially invisible.",
"The power of aerial observation and attack led every warring nation to camouflage targets of all types.",
"The Soviet Union's Red Army created the comprehensive doctrine of ''Maskirovka'' for military deception, including the use of camouflage.",
"For example, during the Battle of Kursk, General Katukov, the commander of the Soviet 1st Tank Army, remarked that the enemy \"did not suspect that our well-camouflaged tanks were waiting for him.",
"As we later learned from prisoners, we had managed to move our tanks forward unnoticed\".",
"The tanks were concealed in previously prepared defensive emplacements, with only their turrets above ground level.",
"In the air, Second World War fighters were often painted in ground colours above and sky colours below, attempting two different camouflage schemes for observers above and below.",
"Bombers and night fighters were often black, while maritime reconnaissance planes were usually white, to avoid appearing as dark shapes against the sky.",
"For ships, dazzle camouflage was mainly replaced with plain grey in the Second World War, though experimentation with colour schemes continued.As in the First World War, artists were pressed into service; for example, the surrealist painter Roland Penrose became a lecturer at the newly founded Camouflage Development and Training Centre at Farnham Castle, writing the practical ''Home Guard Manual of Camouflage''.",
"The film-maker Geoffrey Barkas ran the Middle East Command Camouflage Directorate during the 1941–1942 war in the Western Desert, including the successful deception of Operation Bertram.",
"Hugh Cott was chief instructor; the artist camouflage officers, who called themselves ''camoufleurs'', included Steven Sykes and Tony Ayrton.",
"In Australia, artists were also prominent in the Sydney Camouflage Group, formed under the chairmanship of Professor William John Dakin, a zoologist from Sydney University.",
"Max Dupain, Sydney Ure Smith, and William Dobell were among the members of the group, which worked at Bankstown Airport, RAAF Base Richmond and Garden Island Dockyard.",
"In the United States, artists like John Vassos took a certificate course in military and industrial camouflage at the American School of Design with Baron Nicholas Cerkasoff, and went on to create camouflage for the Air Force.File:Catalina Góraszka 2008 204.JPG|Maritime patrol Catalina, painted white to minimise visibility against the skyFile:SS Platanenmuster Sommer.jpg|1937 summer variant of Waffen SS ''Flecktarn'' Plane tree patternFile:USS Duluth (CL-87) underway in Hampton Roads on 10 October 1944 (NH 98363).jpg|USS ''Duluth'' in naval camouflage Measure 32, Design 11a, one of many dazzle schemes used on warshipsFile:Spitfire.planform.arp.jpg|A Spitfire's underside 'azure' paint scheme, meant to hide it against the skyFile:Royal Air Force 1939-1945- Fighter Command CL3979.jpg|A Luftwaffe aircraft hangar built to resemble a street of village houses, Belgium, 1944File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-E0406-0022-001, Russland, Kesselschlacht Stalingrad.jpg|Red Army soldiers in the Battle of Stalingrad in snow camouflage overalls, January 1943====After 1945====Camouflage has been used to protect military equipment such as vehicles, guns, ships, aircraft and buildings as well as individual soldiers and their positions.Vehicle camouflage methods begin with paint, which offers at best only limited effectiveness.",
"Other methods for stationary land vehicles include covering with improvised materials such as blankets and vegetation, and erecting nets, screens and soft covers which may suitably reflect, scatter or absorb near infrared and radar waves.",
"Some military textiles and vehicle camouflage paints also reflect infrared to help provide concealment from night vision devices.After the Second World War, radar made camouflage generally less effective, though coastal boats are sometimes painted like land vehicles.",
"Aircraft camouflage too came to be seen as less important because of radar, and aircraft of different air forces, such as the Royal Air Force's Lightning, were often uncamouflaged.Many camouflaged textile patterns have been developed to suit the need to match combat clothing to different kinds of terrain (such as woodland, snow, and desert).",
"The design of a pattern effective in all terrains has proved elusive.",
"The American Universal Camouflage Pattern of 2004 attempted to suit all environments, but was withdrawn after a few years of service.",
"Terrain-specific patterns have sometimes been developed but are ineffective in other terrains.",
"The problem of making a pattern that works at different ranges has been solved with multiscale designs, often with a pixellated appearance and designed digitally, that provide a fractal-like range of patch sizes so they appear disruptively coloured both at close range and at a distance.",
"The first genuinely digital camouflage pattern was the Canadian Disruptive Pattern (CADPAT), issued to the army in 2002, soon followed by the American Marine pattern (MARPAT).",
"A pixellated appearance is not essential for this effect, though it is simpler to design and to print.File:CADPAT digital camouflage pattern (Temperate Woodland variant).jpg|CADPAT was the first pixellated digital camouflage pattern to be issued, in 2002.File:British dpm2.jpg|British Disruptive Pattern Material, issued to special forces in 1963 and universally by 1968File:M05 snow pattern.jpg|2007 2-colour snow variant of Finnish Defence Forces M05 patternFile:Pla camo.svg|Main (4-colour woodland) variant of Chinese People's Liberation Army Type 99 pattern, File:Flecktarn.jpg|Modern German Flecktarn 1990, developed from a 1938 pattern, a non-digital pattern which works at different distancesFile:Six-Color Desert Pattern.jpg|US \"Chocolate Chip\" Six-Color Desert Pattern developed in 1962, widely used in Gulf War===Hunting===hide used in field sportsHunters of game have long made use of camouflage in the form of materials such as animal skins, mud, foliage, and green or brown clothing to enable them to approach wary game animals.",
"Field sports such as driven grouse shooting conceal hunters in hides (also called blinds or shooting butts).",
"Modern hunting clothing makes use of fabrics that provide a disruptive camouflage pattern; for example, in 1986 the hunter Bill Jordan created cryptic clothing for hunters, printed with images of specific kinds of vegetation such as grass and branches.===Civil structures===Cellphone tower disguised as a treeCamouflage is occasionally used to make built structures less conspicuous: for example, in South Africa, towers carrying cell telephone antennae are sometimes camouflaged as tall trees with plastic branches, in response to \"resistance from the community\".",
"Since this method is costly (a figure of three times the normal cost is mentioned), alternative forms of camouflage can include using neutral colours or familiar shapes such as cylinders and flagpoles.",
"Conspicuousness can also be reduced by siting masts near, or on, other structures.Automotive manufacturers often use patterns to disguise upcoming products.",
"This camouflage is designed to obfuscate the vehicle's visual lines, and is used along with padding, covers, and decals.",
"The patterns' purpose is to prevent visual observation (and to a lesser degree photography), that would subsequently enable reproduction of the vehicle's form factors.===Fashion, art and society===alt=1919 dazzle ball costumesMilitary camouflage patterns influenced fashion and art from the time of the First World War onwards.",
"Gertrude Stein recalled the cubist artist Pablo Picasso's reaction in around 1915:In 1919, the attendants of a \"dazzle ball\", hosted by the Chelsea Arts Club, wore dazzle-patterned black and white clothing.",
"The ball influenced fashion and art via postcards and magazine articles.",
"The ''Illustrated London News'' announced:More recently, fashion designers have often used camouflage fabric for its striking designs, its \"patterned disorder\" and its symbolism.",
"Camouflage clothing can be worn largely for its symbolic significance rather than for fashion, as when, during the late 1960s and early 1970s in the United States, anti-war protestors often ironically wore military clothing during demonstrations against the American involvement in the Vietnam War.Modern artists such as Ian Hamilton Finlay have used camouflage to reflect on war.",
"His 1973 screenprint of a tank camouflaged in a leaf pattern, ''Arcadia'', is described by the Tate as drawing \"an ironic parallel between this idea of a natural paradise and the camouflage patterns on a tank\".",
"The title refers to the Utopian Arcadia of poetry and art, and the ''memento mori'' Latin phrase ''Et in Arcadia ego'' which recurs in Hamilton Finlay's work.",
"In science fiction, ''Camouflage'' is a novel about shapeshifting alien beings by Joe Haldeman.",
"The word is used more figuratively in works of literature such as Thaisa Frank's collection of stories of love and loss, ''A Brief History of Camouflage''.File:André_Mare_1885-1932_Camouflaged_280_Gun_sketch_in_ink_and_watercolour.jpg|André Mare's Cubist sketch, c. 1917, of a 280 calibre gun illustrates the interplay of art and war, as artists like Mare contributed their skills as wartime ''camoufleurs''.File:Vietnam War protest in Washington DC April 1971.jpg|Camouflage clothing in an anti-war protest, 1971File:Aline Campos 1c.jpg|A camouflage skirt as a fashion item, 2007"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"===Camouflage in nature=======Early research====* * * Reprinted 1985, Penguin Classics.",
"* * ====General reading====* *Elias, Ann (2015).",
"''Camouflage Cultures: Beyond the Art of Disappearance.''",
"Sydney University Press.",
".",
"* * * ===Military camouflage===* * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Behrens, Roy R. (2002).",
"''False Colors: Art, Design and Modern Camouflage''.",
"Bobolink Books.",
".",
"* Behrens, Roy R. (2009).",
"''Camoupedia: A Compendium of Research on Art, Architecture and Camouflage''.",
"Bobolink Books.",
".",
"* Behrens, Roy R. (editor) (2012).",
"''Ship Shape: A Dazzle Camouflage Sourcebook''.",
"Bobolink Books.",
".",
"* Goodden, Henrietta (2009).",
"''Camouflage and Art: Design for Deception in World War 2''.",
"Unicorn Press.",
".",
"* Latimer, Jon (2001).",
"''Deception in War''.",
"John Murray.",
".",
"* Newman, Alex; Blechman, Hardy (2004).",
"''DPM – Disruptive Pattern Material: An Encyclopaedia of Camouflage: Nature, Military and Culture''.",
"DPM.",
".",
"* Shell, Hanna Rose (2012).",
"''Hide and Seek: Camouflage, Photography and the Media of Reconnaissance''.",
"Zone Books.",
".",
"* Stevens, Martin; Merilaita, Sami (2011).",
"''Animal Camouflage: Mechanisms and Function''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
".",
"* Wickler, Wolfgang (1968).",
"''Mimicry in plants and animals''.",
"McGraw-Hill.",
".===For children===* Kalman, Bobbie; Crossingham, John (2001).",
"''What are Camouflage and Mimicry?''.",
"Crabtree Publishing.",
".",
"(ages 4–8)* Mettler, Rene (2001).",
"''Animal Camouflage''.",
"First Discovery series.",
"Moonlight Publishing.",
".",
"(ages 4–8)"
],
[
"External links",
"* Ohio State University: The Camouflage Project – interplay of science and art* Behrens, Roy.",
"A Chronology of Camouflage"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Clock"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''clock''' or '''chronometer''' is a device that measures and displays time.",
"The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units such as the day, the lunar month, and the year.",
"Devices operating on several physical processes have been used over the millennia.Some predecessors to the modern clock may be considered \"clocks\" that are based on movement in nature: A sundial shows the time by displaying the position of a shadow on a flat surface.",
"There is a range of duration timers, a well-known example being the hourglass.",
"Water clocks, along with sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments.",
"A major advance occurred with the invention of the verge escapement, which made possible the first mechanical clocks around 1300 in Europe, which kept time with oscillating timekeepers like balance wheels.Traditionally, in horology (the study of timekeeping), the term ''clock'' was used for a striking clock, while a clock that did not strike the hours audibly was called a '''timepiece'''.",
"This distinction is not generally made any longer.",
"Watches and other timepieces that can be carried on one's person are usually not referred to as clocks.",
"Spring-driven clocks appeared during the 15th century.",
"During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished.",
"The next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of the pendulum clock by Christiaan Huygens.",
"A major stimulus to improving the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise time-keeping for navigation.",
"The mechanism of a timepiece with a series of gears driven by a spring or weights is referred to as clockwork; the term is used by extension for a similar mechanism not used in a timepiece.",
"The electric clock was patented in 1840, and electronic clocks were introduced in the 20th century, becoming widespread with the development of small battery-powered semiconductor devices.The timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates at a particular frequency.This object can be a pendulum, a balance wheel, a tuning fork, a quartz crystal, or the vibration of electrons in atoms as they emit microwaves, the last of which is so precise that it serves as the definition of the second.Clocks have different ways of displaying the time.",
"Analog clocks indicate time with a traditional clock face and moving hands.",
"Digital clocks display a numeric representation of time.",
"Two numbering systems are in use: 12-hour time notation and 24-hour notation.",
"Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or VFD displays.",
"For the blind and for use over telephones, speaking clocks state the time audibly in words.",
"There are also clocks for the blind that have displays that can be read by touch."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The word ''clock'' derives from the medieval Latin word for 'bell'——and has cognates in many European languages.",
"Clocks spread to England from the Low Countries, so the English word came from the Middle Low German and Middle Dutch .The word derives from the Middle English , Old North French , or Middle Dutch , all of which mean 'bell'."
],
[
"History of time-measuring devices",
"===Sundials===Simple horizontal sundialThe apparent position of the Sun in the sky changes over the course of each day, reflecting the rotation of the Earth.",
"Shadows cast by stationary objects move correspondingly, so their positions can be used to indicate the time of day.",
"A sundial shows the time by displaying the position of a shadow on a (usually) flat surface that has markings that correspond to the hours.",
"Sundials can be horizontal, vertical, or in other orientations.",
"Sundials were widely used in ancient times.",
"With knowledge of latitude, a well-constructed sundial can measure local solar time with reasonable accuracy, within a minute or two.",
"Sundials continued to be used to monitor the performance of clocks until the 1830s, when the use of the telegraph and trains standardized time and time zones between cities.===Devices that measure duration, elapsed time and intervals===The flow of sand in an hourglass can be used to keep track of elapsed time.Many devices can be used to mark the passage of time without respect to reference time (time of day, hours, minutes, etc.)",
"and can be useful for measuring duration or intervals.",
"Examples of such duration timers are candle clocks, incense clocks, and the hourglass.",
"Both the candle clock and the incense clock work on the same principle, wherein the consumption of resources is more or less constant, allowing reasonably precise and repeatable estimates of time passages.",
"In the hourglass, fine sand pouring through a tiny hole at a constant rate indicates an arbitrary, predetermined passage of time.",
"The resource is not consumed, but re-used.===Water clocks===A water clock for goldbeating goldleaf in Mandalay (Myanmar)Water clocks, along with sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments, with the only exception being the day-counting tally stick.",
"Given their great antiquity, where and when they first existed is not known and is perhaps unknowable.",
"The bowl-shaped outflow is the simplest form of a water clock and is known to have existed in Babylon and Egypt around the 16th century BC.",
"Other regions of the world, including India and China, also have early evidence of water clocks, but the earliest dates are less certain.",
"Some authors, however, write about water clocks appearing as early as 4000 BC in these regions of the world.The Macedonian astronomer Andronicus of Cyrrhus supervised the construction of the Tower of the Winds in Athens in the 1st century BC, which housed a large clepsydra inside as well as multiple prominent sundials outside, allowing it to function as a kind of early clocktower.",
"The Greek and Roman civilizations advanced water clock design with improved accuracy.",
"These advances were passed on through Byzantine and Islamic times, eventually making their way back to Europe.",
"Independently, the Chinese developed their own advanced water clocks () by 725 AD, passing their ideas on to Korea and Japan.Some water clock designs were developed independently, and some knowledge was transferred through the spread of trade.",
"Pre-modern societies do not have the same precise timekeeping requirements that exist in modern industrial societies, where every hour of work or rest is monitored and work may start or finish at any time regardless of external conditions.",
"Instead, water clocks in ancient societies were used mainly for astrological reasons.",
"These early water clocks were calibrated with a sundial.",
"While never reaching the level of accuracy of a modern timepiece, the water clock was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for millennia until it was replaced by the more accurate pendulum clock in 17th-century Europe.Islamic civilization is credited with further advancing the accuracy of clocks through elaborate engineering.",
"In 797 (or possibly 801), the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid, presented Charlemagne with an Asian elephant named Abul-Abbas together with a \"particularly elaborate example\" of a water clock.",
"Pope Sylvester II introduced clocks to northern and western Europe around 1000 AD.=== Mechanical water clocks ===The first known geared clock was invented by the great mathematician, physicist, and engineer Archimedes during the 3rd century BC.",
"Archimedes created his astronomical clock, which was also a cuckoo clock with birds singing and moving every hour.",
"It is the first carillon clock as it plays music simultaneously with a person blinking his eyes, surprised by the singing birds.",
"The Archimedes clock works with a system of four weights, counterweights, and strings regulated by a system of floats in a water container with siphons that regulate the automatic continuation of the clock.",
"The principles of this type of clock are described by the mathematician and physicist Hero, who says that some of them work with a chain that turns a gear in the mechanism.",
"Another Greek clock probably constructed at the time of Alexander was in Gaza, as described by Procopius.",
"The Gaza clock was probably a Meteoroskopeion, i.e., a building showing celestial phenomena and the time.",
"It had a pointer for the time and some automations similar to the Archimedes clock.",
"There were 12 doors opening one every hour, with Hercules performing his labors, the Lion at one o'clock, etc., and at night a lamp becomes visible every hour, with 12 windows opening to show the time.A scale model of Su Song's Astronomical Clock Tower, built in 11th-century Kaifeng, China.",
"It was driven by a large waterwheel, chain drive, and escapement mechanism.The Tang dynasty Buddhist monk Yi Xing along with government official Liang Lingzan made the escapement in 723 (or 725) to the workings of a water-powered armillary sphere and clock drive, which was the world's first clockwork escapement.",
"The Song dynasty polymath and genius Su Song (1020–1101) incorporated it into his monumental innovation of the astronomical clock tower of Kaifeng in 1088.His astronomical clock and rotating armillary sphere still relied on the use of either flowing water during the spring, summer, and autumn seasons or liquid mercury during the freezing temperatures of winter (i.e., hydraulics).In Su Song's waterwheel linkwork device, the action of the escapement's arrest and release was achieved by gravity exerted periodically as the continuous flow of liquid-filled containers of a limited size.",
"In a single line of evolution, Su Song's clock therefore united the concepts of the clepsydra and the mechanical clock into one device run by mechanics and hydraulics.",
"In his memorial, Su Song wrote about this concept:According to your servant's opinion there have been many systems and designs for astronomical instruments during past dynasties all differing from one another in minor respects.",
"But the principle of the use of water-power for the driving mechanism has always been the same.",
"The heavens move without ceasing but so also does water flow (and fall).",
"Thus if the water is made to pour with perfect evenness, then the comparison of the rotary movements (of the heavens and the machine) will show no discrepancy or contradiction; for the unresting follows the unceasing.Song was also strongly influenced by the earlier armillary sphere created by Zhang Sixun (976 AD), who also employed the escapement mechanism and used liquid mercury instead of water in the waterwheel of his astronomical clock tower.",
"The mechanical clockworks for Su Song's astronomical tower featured a great driving-wheel that was 11 feet in diameter, carrying 36 scoops, into each of which water was poured at a uniform rate from the \"constant-level tank\".",
"The main driving shaft of iron, with its cylindrical necks supported on iron crescent-shaped bearings, ended in a pinion, which engaged a gear wheel at the lower end of the main vertical transmission shaft.",
"This great astronomical hydromechanical clock tower was about ten metres high (about 30 feet), featured a clock escapement, and was indirectly powered by a rotating wheel either with falling water or liquid mercury.",
"A full-sized working replica of Su Song's clock exists in the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s National Museum of Natural Science, Taichung city.",
"This full-scale, fully functional replica, approximately 12 meters (39 feet) in height, was constructed from Su Song's original descriptions and mechanical drawings.",
"The Chinese escapement spread west and was the source for Western escapement technology.An elephant clock in a manuscript by Al-Jazari (1206 AD) from ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices''In the 12th century, Al-Jazari, an engineer from Mesopotamia (lived 1136–1206) who worked for the Artuqid king of Diyar-Bakr, Nasir al-Din, made numerous clocks of all shapes and sizes.",
"The most reputed clocks included the elephant, scribe, and castle clocks, some of which have been successfully reconstructed.",
"As well as telling the time, these grand clocks were symbols of the status, grandeur, and wealth of the Urtuq State.",
"Knowledge of these mercury escapements may have spread through Europe with translations of Arabic and Spanish texts.===Fully mechanical===The word (from the Greek —'hour', and —'to tell') was used to describe early mechanical clocks, but the use of this word (still used in several Romance languages) for all timekeepers conceals the true nature of the mechanisms.",
"For example, there is a record that in 1176, Sens Cathedral in France installed an 'horologe', but the mechanism used is unknown.",
"According to Jocelyn de Brakelond, in 1198, during a fire at the abbey of St Edmundsbury (now Bury St Edmunds), the monks \"ran to the clock\" to fetch water, indicating that their water clock had a reservoir large enough to help extinguish the occasional fire.",
"The word ''clock'' (via Medieval Latin from Old Irish , both meaning 'bell'), which gradually supersedes \"horologe\", suggests that it was the sound of bells that also characterized the prototype mechanical clocks that appeared during the 13th century in Europe.A 17th-century weight-driven clock in Läckö Castle, SwedenIn Europe, between 1280 and 1320, there was an increase in the number of references to clocks and horologes in church records, and this probably indicates that a new type of clock mechanism had been devised.",
"Existing clock mechanisms that used water power were being adapted to take their driving power from falling weights.",
"This power was controlled by some form of oscillating mechanism, probably derived from existing bell-ringing or alarm devices.",
"This controlled release of power – the escapement – marks the beginning of the true mechanical clock, which differed from the previously mentioned cogwheel clocks.",
"The verge escapement mechanism appeared during the surge of true mechanical clock development, which did not need any kind of fluid power, like water or mercury, to work.These mechanical clocks were intended for two main purposes: for signalling and notification (e.g., the timing of services and public events) and for modeling the solar system.",
"The former purpose is administrative; the latter arises naturally given the scholarly interests in astronomy, science, and astrology and how these subjects integrated with the religious philosophy of the time.",
"The astrolabe was used both by astronomers and astrologers, and it was natural to apply a clockwork drive to the rotating plate to produce a working model of the solar system.Simple clocks intended mainly for notification were installed in towers and did not always require faces or hands.",
"They would have announced the canonical hours or intervals between set times of prayer.",
"Canonical hours varied in length as the times of sunrise and sunset shifted.",
"The more sophisticated astronomical clocks would have had moving dials or hands and would have shown the time in various time systems, including Italian hours, canonical hours, and time as measured by astronomers at the time.",
"Both styles of clocks started acquiring extravagant features, such as automata.In 1283, a large clock was installed at Dunstable Priory in Bedfordshire in southern England; its location above the rood screen suggests that it was not a water clock.",
"In 1292, Canterbury Cathedral installed a 'great horloge'.",
"Over the next 30 years, there were mentions of clocks at a number of ecclesiastical institutions in England, Italy, and France.",
"In 1322, a new clock was installed in Norwich, an expensive replacement for an earlier clock installed in 1273.This had a large (2 metre) astronomical dial with automata and bells.",
"The costs of the installation included the full-time employment of two clockkeepers for two years.===Astronomical===Richard of Wallingford pointing to a clock, his gift to St Albans Abbey16th-century clock machine Convent of Christ, Tomar, PortugalAn elaborate water clock, the 'Cosmic Engine', was invented by Su Song, a Chinese polymath, designed and constructed in China in 1092.This great astronomical hydromechanical clock tower was about ten metres high (about 30 feet) and was indirectly powered by a rotating wheel with falling water and liquid mercury, which turned an armillary sphere capable of calculating complex astronomical problems.In Europe, there were the clocks constructed by Richard of Wallingford in Albans by 1336, and by Giovanni de Dondi in Padua from 1348 to 1364.They no longer exist, but detailed descriptions of their design and construction survive, and modern reproductions have been made.",
"They illustrate how quickly the theory of the mechanical clock had been translated into practical constructions, and also that one of the many impulses to their development had been the desire of astronomers to investigate celestial phenomena.The Astrarium of Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio was a complex astronomical clock built between 1348 and 1364 in Padua, Italy, by the doctor and clock-maker Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio.",
"The Astrarium had seven faces and 107 moving gears; it showed the positions of the sun, the moon and the five planets then known, as well as religious feast days.",
"The astrarium stood about 1 metre high, and consisted of a seven-sided brass or iron framework resting on 7 decorative paw-shaped feet.",
"The lower section provided a 24-hour dial and a large calendar drum, showing the fixed feasts of the church, the movable feasts, and the position in the zodiac of the moon's ascending node.",
"The upper section contained 7 dials, each about 30 cm in diameter, showing the positional data for the Primum Mobile, Venus, Mercury, the moon, Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars.",
"Directly above the 24-hour dial is the dial of the Primum Mobile, so called because it reproduces the diurnal motion of the stars and the annual motion of the sun against the background of stars.",
"Each of the 'planetary' dials used complex clockwork to produce reasonably accurate models of the planets' motion.",
"These agreed reasonably well both with Ptolemaic theory and with observations.Wallingford's clock had a large astrolabe-type dial, showing the sun, the moon's age, phase, and node, a star map, and possibly the planets.",
"In addition, it had a wheel of fortune and an indicator of the state of the tide at London Bridge.",
"Bells rang every hour, the number of strokes indicating the time.",
"Dondi's clock was a seven-sided construction, 1 metre high, with dials showing the time of day, including minutes, the motions of all the known planets, an automatic calendar of fixed and movable feasts, and an eclipse prediction hand rotating once every 18 years.",
"It is not known how accurate or reliable these clocks would have been.",
"They were probably adjusted manually every day to compensate for errors caused by wear and imprecise manufacture.",
"Water clocks are sometimes still used today, and can be examined in places such as ancient castles and museums.",
"The Salisbury Cathedral clock, built in 1386, is considered to be the world's oldest surviving mechanical clock that strikes the hours.===Spring-driven===Matthew Norman carriage clock with winding key.jpg|Matthew Norman carriage clock with winding key1908 Gilbert mantel clock decorated with Memento Mori decoupage.JPG|Decorated William Gilbert mantel clockClockmakers developed their art in various ways.",
"Building smaller clocks was a technical challenge, as was improving accuracy and reliability.",
"Clocks could be impressive showpieces to demonstrate skilled craftsmanship, or less expensive, mass-produced items for domestic use.",
"The escapement in particular was an important factor affecting the clock's accuracy, so many different mechanisms were tried.Spring-driven clocks appeared during the 15th century, although they are often erroneously credited to Nuremberg watchmaker Peter Henlein (or Henle, or Hele) around 1511.The earliest existing spring driven clock is the chamber clock given to Phillip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, around 1430, now in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum.",
"Spring power presented clockmakers with a new problem: how to keep the clock movement running at a constant rate as the spring ran down.",
"This resulted in the invention of the ''stackfreed'' and the fusee in the 15th century, and many other innovations, down to the invention of the modern ''going barrel'' in 1760.Early clock dials did not indicate minutes and seconds.",
"A clock with a dial indicating minutes was illustrated in a 1475 manuscript by Paulus Almanus, and some 15th-century clocks in Germany indicated minutes and seconds.An early record of a seconds hand on a clock dates back to about 1560 on a clock now in the Fremersdorf collection.During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished, particularly in the metalworking towns of Nuremberg and Augsburg, and in Blois, France.",
"Some of the more basic table clocks have only one time-keeping hand, with the dial between the hour markers being divided into four equal parts making the clocks readable to the nearest 15 minutes.",
"Other clocks were exhibitions of craftsmanship and skill, incorporating astronomical indicators and musical movements.",
"The cross-beat escapement was invented in 1584 by Jost Bürgi, who also developed the remontoire.",
"Bürgi's clocks were a great improvement in accuracy as they were correct to within a minute a day.",
"These clocks helped the 16th-century astronomer Tycho Brahe to observe astronomical events with much greater precision than before.Lantern clock, German, === Pendulum ===The next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of the pendulum clock.",
"Galileo had the idea to use a swinging bob to regulate the motion of a time-telling device earlier in the 17th century.",
"Christiaan Huygens, however, is usually credited as the inventor.",
"He determined the mathematical formula that related pendulum length to time (about 99.4 cm or 39.1 inches for the one second movement) and had the first pendulum-driven clock made.",
"The first model clock was built in 1657 in the Hague, but it was in England that the idea was taken up.",
"The longcase clock (also known as the ''grandfather clock'') was created to house the pendulum and works by the English clockmaker William Clement in 1670 or 1671.It was also at this time that clock cases began to be made of wood and clock faces to use enamel as well as hand-painted ceramics.In 1670, William Clement created the anchor escapement, an improvement over Huygens' crown escapement.",
"Clement also introduced the pendulum suspension spring in 1671.The concentric minute hand was added to the clock by Daniel Quare, a London clockmaker and others, and the second hand was first introduced.===Hairspring===In 1675, Huygens and Robert Hooke invented the spiral balance spring, or the hairspring, designed to control the oscillating speed of the balance wheel.",
"This crucial advance finally made accurate pocket watches possible.",
"The great English clockmaker Thomas Tompion, was one of the first to use this mechanism successfully in his pocket watches, and he adopted the minute hand which, after a variety of designs were trialled, eventually stabilised into the modern-day configuration.",
"The rack and snail striking mechanism for striking clocks, was introduced during the 17th century and had distinct advantages over the 'countwheel' (or 'locking plate') mechanism.",
"During the 20th century there was a common misconception that Edward Barlow invented ''rack and snail'' striking.",
"In fact, his invention was connected with a repeating mechanism employing the rack and snail.",
"The repeating clock, that chimes the number of hours (or even minutes) on demand was invented by either Quare or Barlow in 1676.George Graham invented the deadbeat escapement for clocks in 1720.===Marine chronometer===A major stimulus to improving the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise time-keeping for navigation.",
"The position of a ship at sea could be determined with reasonable accuracy if a navigator could refer to a clock that lost or gained less than about 10 seconds per day.",
"This clock could not contain a pendulum, which would be virtually useless on a rocking ship.",
"In 1714, the British government offered large financial rewards to the value of 20,000 pounds for anyone who could determine longitude accurately.",
"John Harrison, who dedicated his life to improving the accuracy of his clocks, later received considerable sums under the Longitude Act.In 1735, Harrison built his first chronometer, which he steadily improved on over the next thirty years before submitting it for examination.",
"The clock had many innovations, including the use of bearings to reduce friction, weighted balances to compensate for the ship's pitch and roll in the sea and the use of two different metals to reduce the problem of expansion from heat.",
"The chronometer was tested in 1761 by Harrison's son and by the end of 10 weeks the clock was in error by less than 5 seconds.===Mass production===The British had dominated watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, but maintained a system of production that was geared towards high quality products for the elite.",
"Although there was an attempt to modernise clock manufacture with mass-production techniques and the application of duplicating tools and machinery by the British Watch Company in 1843, it was in the United States that this system took off.",
"In 1816, Eli Terry and some other Connecticut clockmakers developed a way of mass-producing clocks by using interchangeable parts.",
"Aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in 1851 in Massachusetts that also used interchangeable parts, and by 1861 was running a successful enterprise incorporated as the Waltham Watch Company.===Early electric===Early French electromagnetic clockIn 1815, the English scientist Francis Ronalds published the first electric clock powered by dry pile batteries.",
"Alexander Bain, a Scottish clockmaker, patented the electric clock in 1840.The electric clock's mainspring is wound either with an electric motor or with an electromagnet and armature.",
"In 1841, he first patented the electromagnetic pendulum.",
"By the end of the nineteenth century, the advent of the dry cell battery made it feasible to use electric power in clocks.",
"Spring or weight driven clocks that use electricity, either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), to rewind the spring or raise the weight of a mechanical clock would be classified as an electromechanical clock.",
"This classification would also apply to clocks that employ an electrical impulse to propel the pendulum.",
"In electromechanical clocks the electricity serves no time keeping function.",
"These types of clocks were made as individual timepieces but more commonly used in synchronized time installations in schools, businesses, factories, railroads and government facilities as a master clock and slave clocks.Where an AC electrical supply of stable frequency is available, timekeeping can be maintained very reliably by using a synchronous motor, essentially counting the cycles.",
"The supply current alternates with an accurate frequency of 50 hertz in many countries, and 60 hertz in others.",
"While the frequency may vary slightly during the day as the load changes, generators are designed to maintain an accurate number of cycles over a day, so the clock may be a fraction of a second slow or fast at any time, but will be perfectly accurate over a long time.",
"The rotor of the motor rotates at a speed that is related to the alternation frequency.",
"Appropriate gearing converts this rotation speed to the correct ones for the hands of the analog clock.",
"Time in these cases is measured in several ways, such as by counting the cycles of the AC supply, vibration of a tuning fork, the behaviour of quartz crystals, or the quantum vibrations of atoms.",
"Electronic circuits divide these high-frequency oscillations to slower ones that drive the time display.===Quartz===Picture of a quartz crystal resonator, used as the timekeeping component in quartz watches and clocks, with the case removed.",
"It is formed in the shape of a tuning fork.",
"Most such quartz clock crystals vibrate at a frequency of .The piezoelectric properties of crystalline quartz were discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880.The first crystal oscillator was invented in 1917 by Alexander M. Nicholson, after which the first quartz crystal oscillator was built by Walter G. Cady in 1921.In 1927 the first quartz clock was built by Warren Marrison and J.W.",
"Horton at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Canada.",
"The following decades saw the development of quartz clocks as precision time measurement devices in laboratory settings—the bulky and delicate counting electronics, built with vacuum tubes at the time, limited their practical use elsewhere.",
"The National Bureau of Standards (now NIST) based the time standard of the United States on quartz clocks from late 1929 until the 1960s, when it changed to atomic clocks.",
"In 1969, Seiko produced the world's first quartz wristwatch, the Astron.",
"Their inherent accuracy and low cost of production resulted in the subsequent proliferation of quartz clocks and watches.===Atomic===Currently, atomic clocks are the most accurate clocks in existence.",
"They are considerably more accurate than quartz clocks as they can be accurate to within a few seconds over trillions of years.",
"Atomic clocks were first theorized by Lord Kelvin in 1879.In the 1930s the development of magnetic resonance created practical method for doing this.",
"A prototype ammonia maser device was built in 1949 at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS, now NIST).",
"Although it was less accurate than existing quartz clocks, it served to demonstrate the concept.",
"The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK.",
"Calibration of the caesium standard atomic clock was carried out by the use of the astronomical time scale ''ephemeris time'' (ET).",
"As of 2013, the most stable atomic clocks are ytterbium clocks, which are stable to within less than two parts in 1 quintillion ()."
],
[
"Operation",
"The invention of the mechanical clock in the 13th century initiated a change in timekeeping methods from continuous processes, such as the motion of the gnomon's shadow on a sundial or the flow of liquid in a water clock, to periodic oscillatory processes, such as the swing of a pendulum or the vibration of a quartz crystal, which had the potential for more accuracy.",
"All modern clocks use oscillation.Although the mechanisms they use vary, all oscillating clocks, mechanical, electric, and atomic, work similarly and can be divided into analogous parts.",
"They consist of an object that repeats the same motion over and over again, an ''oscillator'', with a precisely constant time interval between each repetition, or 'beat'.",
"Attached to the oscillator is a ''controller'' device, which sustains the oscillator's motion by replacing the energy it loses to friction, and converts its oscillations into a series of pulses.",
"The pulses are then counted by some type of ''counter'', and the number of counts is converted into convenient units, usually seconds, minutes, hours, etc.",
"Finally some kind of ''indicator'' displays the result in human readable form.===Power source======Oscillator===Balance wheel, the oscillator in a mechanical mantel clock.",
"The timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates repetitively at a precisely constant frequency.",
"* In mechanical clocks, this is either a pendulum or a balance wheel.",
"* In some early electronic clocks and watches such as the Accutron, it is a tuning fork.",
"* In quartz clocks and watches, it is a quartz crystal.",
"* In atomic clocks, it is the vibration of electrons in atoms as they emit microwaves.",
"* In early mechanical clocks before 1657, it was a crude balance wheel or foliot which was not a harmonic oscillator because it lacked a balance spring.",
"As a result, they were very inaccurate, with errors of perhaps an hour a day.The advantage of a harmonic oscillator over other forms of oscillator is that it employs resonance to vibrate at a precise natural resonant frequency or \"beat\" dependent only on its physical characteristics, and resists vibrating at other rates.",
"The possible precision achievable by a harmonic oscillator is measured by a parameter called its Q, or quality factor, which increases (other things being equal) with its resonant frequency.",
"This is why there has been a long-term trend toward higher frequency oscillators in clocks.",
"Balance wheels and pendulums always include a means of adjusting the rate of the timepiece.",
"Quartz timepieces sometimes include a rate screw that adjusts a capacitor for that purpose.",
"Atomic clocks are primary standards, and their rate cannot be adjusted.====Synchronized or slave clocks====The Shepherd Gate Clock at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich receives its timing signal from within the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.Some clocks rely for their accuracy on an external oscillator; that is, they are automatically synchronized to a more accurate clock:* Slave clocks, used in large institutions and schools from the 1860s to the 1970s, kept time with a pendulum, but were wired to a master clock in the building, and periodically received a signal to synchronize them with the master, often on the hour.",
"Later versions without pendulums were triggered by a pulse from the master clock and certain sequences used to force rapid synchronization following a power failure.Synchronous electric clock, around 1940.By 1940 the synchronous clock became the most common type of clock in the U.S.* Synchronous electric clocks do not have an internal oscillator, but count cycles of the 50 or 60 Hz oscillation of the AC power line, which is synchronized by the utility to a precision oscillator.",
"The counting may be done electronically, usually in clocks with digital displays, or, in analog clocks, the AC may drive a synchronous motor which rotates an exact fraction of a revolution for every cycle of the line voltage, and drives the gear train.",
"Although changes in the grid line frequency due to load variations may cause the clock to temporarily gain or lose several seconds during the course of a day, the total number of cycles per 24 hours is maintained extremely accurately by the utility company, so that the clock keeps time accurately over long periods.",
"* Computer real-time clocks keep time with a quartz crystal, but can be periodically (usually weekly) synchronized over the Internet to atomic clocks (UTC), using the Network Time Protocol (NTP).",
"* Radio clocks keep time with a quartz crystal, but are periodically synchronized to time signals transmitted from dedicated standard time radio stations or satellite navigation signals, which are set by atomic clocks.===Controller===This has the dual function of keeping the oscillator running by giving it 'pushes' to replace the energy lost to friction, and converting its vibrations into a series of pulses that serve to measure the time.",
"* In mechanical clocks, this is the escapement, which gives precise pushes to the swinging pendulum or balance wheel, and releases one gear tooth of the ''escape wheel'' at each swing, allowing all the clock's wheels to move forward a fixed amount with each swing.",
"* In electronic clocks this is an electronic oscillator circuit that gives the vibrating quartz crystal or tuning fork tiny 'pushes', and generates a series of electrical pulses, one for each vibration of the crystal, which is called the clock signal.",
"* In atomic clocks the controller is an evacuated microwave cavity attached to a microwave oscillator controlled by a microprocessor.",
"A thin gas of caesium atoms is released into the cavity where they are exposed to microwaves.",
"A laser measures how many atoms have absorbed the microwaves, and an electronic feedback control system called a phase-locked loop tunes the microwave oscillator until it is at the frequency that causes the atoms to vibrate and absorb the microwaves.",
"Then the microwave signal is divided by digital counters to become the clock signal.In mechanical clocks, the low Q of the balance wheel or pendulum oscillator made them very sensitive to the disturbing effect of the impulses of the escapement, so the escapement had a great effect on the accuracy of the clock, and many escapement designs were tried.",
"The higher Q of resonators in electronic clocks makes them relatively insensitive to the disturbing effects of the drive power, so the driving oscillator circuit is a much less critical component.===Counter chain===This counts the pulses and adds them up to get traditional time units of seconds, minutes, hours, etc.",
"It usually has a provision for ''setting'' the clock by manually entering the correct time into the counter.",
"* In mechanical clocks this is done mechanically by a gear train, known as the wheel train.",
"The gear train also has a second function; to transmit mechanical power from the power source to run the oscillator.",
"There is a friction coupling called the 'cannon pinion' between the gears driving the hands and the rest of the clock, allowing the hands to be turned to set the time.",
"* In digital clocks a series of integrated circuit counters or dividers add the pulses up digitally, using binary logic.",
"Often pushbuttons on the case allow the hour and minute counters to be incremented and decremented to set the time.===Indicator===A cuckoo clock with mechanical automaton and sound producer striking on the eighth hour on the analog dialThis displays the count of seconds, minutes, hours, etc.",
"in a human readable form.",
"* The earliest mechanical clocks in the 13th century did not have a visual indicator and signalled the time audibly by striking bells.",
"Many clocks to this day are striking clocks which strike the hour.",
"* Analog clocks display time with an analog clock face, which consists of a dial with the numbers 1 through 12 or 24, the hours in the day, around the outside.",
"The hours are indicated with an hour hand, which makes one or two revolutions in a day, while the minutes are indicated by a minute hand, which makes one revolution per hour.",
"In mechanical clocks a gear train drives the hands; in electronic clocks the circuit produces pulses every second which drive a stepper motor and gear train, which move the hands.",
"* Digital clocks display the time in periodically changing digits on a digital display.",
"A common misconception is that a digital clock is more accurate than an analog wall clock, but the indicator type is separate and apart from the accuracy of the timing source.",
"* Talking clocks and the speaking clock services provided by telephone companies speak the time audibly, using either recorded or digitally synthesized voices."
],
[
"Types",
"Clocks can be classified by the type of time display, as well as by the method of timekeeping.===Time display methods=======Analog====A modern quartz clock with a 24-hour faceA linear clock at London's Piccadilly Circus tube station.",
"The 24 hour band moves across the static map, keeping pace with the apparent movement of the sun above ground, and a pointer fixed on London points to the current time.Analog clocks usually use a clock face which indicates time using rotating pointers called \"hands\" on a fixed numbered dial or dials.",
"The standard clock face, known universally throughout the world, has a short \"hour hand\" which indicates the hour on a circular dial of 12 hours, making two revolutions per day, and a longer \"minute hand\" which indicates the minutes in the current hour on the same dial, which is also divided into 60 minutes.",
"It may also have a \"second hand\" which indicates the seconds in the current minute.",
"The only other widely used clock face today is the 24 hour analog dial, because of the use of 24 hour time in military organizations and timetables.",
"Before the modern clock face was standardized during the Industrial Revolution, many other face designs were used throughout the years, including dials divided into 6, 8, 10, and 24 hours.",
"During the French Revolution the French government tried to introduce a 10-hour clock, as part of their decimal-based metric system of measurement, but it did not achieve widespread use.",
"An Italian 6 hour clock was developed in the 18th century, presumably to save power (a clock or watch striking 24 times uses more power).Another type of analog clock is the sundial, which tracks the sun continuously, registering the time by the shadow position of its gnomon.",
"Because the sun does not adjust to daylight saving time, users must add an hour during that time.",
"Corrections must also be made for the equation of time, and for the difference between the longitudes of the sundial and of the central meridian of the time zone that is being used (i.e.",
"15 degrees east of the prime meridian for each hour that the time zone is ahead of GMT).",
"Sundials use some or part of the 24 hour analog dial.",
"There also exist clocks which use a digital display despite having an analog mechanism—these are commonly referred to as flip clocks.",
"Alternative systems have been proposed.",
"For example, the \"Twelv\" clock indicates the current hour using one of twelve colors, and indicates the minute by showing a proportion of a circular disk, similar to a moon phase.====Digital====Kanazawa Station Water Clock.jpg|Digital clock displaying time by controlling valves on the fountainDigital-clock-radio-basic hf.jpg|Simplistic digital clock radioAnalog clock with digital display.png|Diagram of a mechanical digital display of a flip clockSAMSUNG Galaxy S22 Ultra BLACK.jpg|A digital clock on a Samsung Galaxy smartphoneDigital clocks display a numeric representation of time.",
"Two numeric display formats are commonly used on digital clocks:* the 24-hour notation with hours ranging 00–23;* the 12-hour notation with AM/PM indicator, with hours indicated as 12AM, followed by 1AM–11AM, followed by 12PM, followed by 1PM–11PM (a notation mostly used in domestic environments).Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or VFD displays; many other display technologies are used as well (cathode-ray tubes, nixie tubes, etc.).",
"After a reset, battery change or power failure, these clocks without a backup battery or capacitor either start counting from 12:00, or stay at 12:00, often with blinking digits indicating that the time needs to be set.",
"Some newer clocks will reset themselves based on radio or Internet time servers that are tuned to national atomic clocks.",
"Since the introduction of digital clocks in the 1960s, there has been a notable decline in the use of analog clocks.Some clocks, called 'flip clocks', have digital displays that work mechanically.",
"The digits are painted on sheets of material which are mounted like the pages of a book.",
"Once a minute, a page is turned over to reveal the next digit.",
"These displays are usually easier to read in brightly lit conditions than LCDs or LEDs.",
"Also, they do not go back to 12:00 after a power interruption.",
"Flip clocks generally do not have electronic mechanisms.",
"Usually, they are driven by AC-synchronous motors.====Hybrid (analog-digital)====Clocks with analog quadrants, with a digital component, usually minutes and hours displayed analogously and seconds displayed in digital mode.====Auditory====For convenience, distance, telephony or blindness, auditory clocks present the time as sounds.",
"The sound is either spoken natural language, (e.g.",
"\"The time is twelve thirty-five\"), or as auditory codes (e.g.",
"number of sequential bell rings on the hour represents the number of the hour like the bell, Big Ben).",
"Most telecommunication companies also provide a speaking clock service as well.====Word====Software word clockWord clocks are clocks that display the time visually using sentences.",
"E.g.",
": \"It's about three o'clock.\"",
"These clocks can be implemented in hardware or software.====Projection====Some clocks, usually digital ones, include an optical projector that shines a magnified image of the time display onto a screen or onto a surface such as an indoor ceiling or wall.",
"The digits are large enough to be easily read, without using glasses, by persons with moderately imperfect vision, so the clocks are convenient for use in their bedrooms.",
"Usually, the timekeeping circuitry has a battery as a backup source for an uninterrupted power supply to keep the clock on time, while the projection light only works when the unit is connected to an A.C. supply.",
"Completely battery-powered portable versions resembling flashlights are also available.====Tactile====Auditory and projection clocks can be used by people who are blind or have limited vision.",
"There are also clocks for the blind that have displays that can be read by using the sense of touch.",
"Some of these are similar to normal analog displays, but are constructed so the hands can be felt without damaging them.",
"Another type is essentially digital, and uses devices that use a code such as Braille to show the digits so that they can be felt with the fingertips.====Multi-display====Some clocks have several displays driven by a single mechanism, and some others have several completely separate mechanisms in a single case.",
"Clocks in public places often have several faces visible from different directions, so that the clock can be read from anywhere in the vicinity; all the faces show the same time.",
"Other clocks show the current time in several time-zones.",
"Watches that are intended to be carried by travellers often have two displays, one for the local time and the other for the time at home, which is useful for making pre-arranged phone calls.",
"Some equation clocks have two displays, one showing mean time and the other solar time, as would be shown by a sundial.",
"Some clocks have both analog and digital displays.",
"Clocks with Braille displays usually also have conventional digits so they can be read by sighted people."
],
[
"Purposes",
"Many cities and towns traditionally have public clocks in a prominent location, such as a town square or city center.",
"This one is on display at the center of the town of Robbins, North Carolina A clock on sale in the store from Taipei, Taiwan.Napoleon III mantel clock, from the third quarter of the 19th century, in the Museu de Belles Arts de València from SpainClocks are in homes, offices and many other places; smaller ones (watches) are carried on the wrist or in a pocket; larger ones are in public places, e.g.",
"a railway station or church.",
"A small clock is often shown in a corner of computer displays, mobile phones and many MP3 players.The primary purpose of a clock is to ''display'' the time.",
"Clocks may also have the facility to make a loud alert signal at a specified time, typically to waken a sleeper at a preset time; they are referred to as ''alarm clocks''.",
"The alarm may start at a low volume and become louder, or have the facility to be switched off for a few minutes then resume.",
"Alarm clocks with visible indicators are sometimes used to indicate to children too young to read the time that the time for sleep has finished; they are sometimes called ''training clocks''.A clock mechanism may be used to ''control'' a device according to time, e.g.",
"a central heating system, a VCR, or a time bomb (see: digital counter).",
"Such mechanisms are usually called timers.",
"Clock mechanisms are also used to drive devices such as solar trackers and astronomical telescopes, which have to turn at accurately controlled speeds to counteract the rotation of the Earth.Most digital computers depend on an internal signal at constant frequency to synchronize processing; this is referred to as a clock signal.",
"(A few research projects are developing CPUs based on asynchronous circuits.)",
"Some equipment, including computers, also maintains time and date for use as required; this is referred to as time-of-day clock, and is distinct from the system clock signal, although possibly based on counting its cycles.In Chinese culture, giving a clock () is often taboo, especially to the elderly as the term for this act is a homophone with the term for the act of attending another's funeral ().",
"This homonymic pair works in both Mandarin and Cantonese, although in most parts of China only clocks and large bells, and not watches, are called \"''zhong''\", and watches are commonly given as gifts in China.",
"However, should such a gift be given, the \"unluckiness\" of the gift can be countered by exacting a small monetary payment so the recipient is buying the clock and thereby counteracting the (\"give\") expression of the phrase.===Time standards===For some scientific work timing of the utmost accuracy is essential.",
"It is also necessary to have a standard of the maximum accuracy against which working clocks can be calibrated.",
"An ideal clock would give the time to unlimited accuracy, but this is not realisable.",
"Many physical processes, in particular including some transitions between atomic energy levels, occur at exceedingly stable frequency; counting cycles of such a process can give a very accurate and consistent time—clocks which work this way are usually called atomic clocks.",
"Such clocks are typically large, very expensive, require a controlled environment, and are far more accurate than required for most purposes; they are typically used in a standards laboratory.===Navigation===Until advances in the late twentieth century, navigation depended on the ability to measure latitude and longitude.",
"Latitude can be determined through celestial navigation; the measurement of longitude requires accurate knowledge of time.",
"This need was a major motivation for the development of accurate mechanical clocks.",
"John Harrison created the first highly accurate marine chronometer in the mid-18th century.",
"The Noon gun in Cape Town still fires an accurate signal to allow ships to check their chronometers.",
"Many buildings near major ports used to have (some still do) a large ball mounted on a tower or mast arranged to drop at a pre-determined time, for the same purpose.",
"While satellite navigation systems such as GPS require unprecedentedly accurate knowledge of time, this is supplied by equipment on the satellites; vehicles no longer need timekeeping equipment.===Sports and games===Clocks can be used to measure varying periods of time in games and sports.",
"Stopwatches can be used to time the performance of track athletes.",
"Chess clocks are used to limit the board game players' time to make a move.",
"In various sports, '''' measure the duration the game or subdivisions of the game, while other clocks may be used for tracking different durations; these include play clocks, shot clocks, and pitch clocks."
],
[
"Specific types",
"A monumental conical pendulum clock by Eugène Farcot, 1867.Drexel University, Philadelphia, US By mechanism By function By style * Astronomical clock* Atomic clock* Candle clock* Congreve clock* Conical pendulum clock* Digital clock* Electric clock* Flip clock* Flying pendulum clock* Hourglass* Incense clock* Lamport clock* Mechanical watch* Observatory chronometer* Oil-lamp clock* Pendulum clock* Projection clock* Pulsar clock* Quantum clock* Quartz clock* Radio clock* Rolling ball clock* Spring drive watch* Steam clock* Sundial* Torsion pendulum clock* Water clock * 10-hour clock* Alarm clock* Binary clock* Chronometer watch* Cuckoo clock* Duodecimal clock* Equation clock* Game clock* Japanese clock* Master clock* Musical clock* Railroad chronometer* Slave clock* Speaking clock* Stopwatch* Striking clock* Talking clock* Tide clock* Time ball* Time clock* World clock* American clock* Automaton clock* Balloon clock* Banjo clock* Bracket clock* Carriage clock* Cartel clock* Cat clock* Chariot clock* Clock tower* Cuckoo clock* Doll's head clock* Floral clock* French Empire mantel clock* Grandfather clock* Lantern clock* Lighthouse clock* Mantel clock* Skeleton clock* Turret clock* Watch"
],
[
"Awards",
"* (GPHG)* ==See also==* 24-hour analog dial* Allan variance* Allen-Bradley Clock Tower at Rockwell Automation Headquarters Building (Wisconsin)* American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute* BaselWorld* Biological clock* Castle clock* Clockarium* Clock as herald of the Industrial Revolution (Lewis Mumford)* Clock face* Clock drift* Clock ident* Clock network* Clock of the Long Now* Clock signal (digital circuits)* Clockkeeper* Clockmaker* Colgate Clock (Indiana)* Colgate Clock (New Jersey), largest clock in US* Corpus Clock* Cosmo Clock 21, world's largest clock* Cox's timepiece* Cuckooland Museum* Date and time representation by country* Debt clock* Le Défenseur du Temps (automata)* Department of Defense master clock (U.S.)* Doomsday Clock* Earth clock* Equation clock* Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH* Guard tour patrol system (watchclocks)* Iron Ring Clock* Jens Olsen's World Clock* Jewel bearing* List of biggest clock faces* List of clocks* List of international common standards* List of largest cuckoo clocks* Metrology* Mora clock* National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors* Projection clock* Replica watch* Rubik's Clock* Star clock* Singing bird box* System time* Time to digital converter* Timeline of time measurement technology* Timer* Watch* Watchmaker"
],
[
"Notes and references"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* Baillie, G.H., O. Clutton, & C.A.",
"Ilbert.",
"''Britten's Old Clocks and Watches and Their Makers'' (7th ed.).",
"Bonanza Books (1956).",
"* Bolter, David J.",
"''Turing's Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age''.",
"The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC (1984).",
"pbk.",
"Summary of the role of \"the clock\" in its setting the direction of philosophic movement for the \"Western World\".",
"Cf.",
"picture on p. 25 showing the ''verge'' and ''foliot''.",
"Bolton derived the picture from Macey, p. 20.",
"* * * * Edey, Winthrop.",
"''French Clocks''.",
"New York: Walker & Co.",
"(1967).",
"* Kak, Subhash, Babylonian and Indian Astronomy: Early Connections.",
"2003.",
"* Kumar, Narendra \"Science in Ancient India\" (2004).",
".",
"* Landes, David S. ''Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World''.",
"Cambridge: Harvard University Press (1983).",
"* Landes, David S. ''Clocks & the Wealth of Nations'', Daedalus Journal, Spring 2003.",
"* Lloyd, Alan H. \"Mechanical Timekeepers\", ''A History of Technology,'' Vol.",
"III.",
"Edited by Charles Joseph Singer et al.",
"Oxford: Clarendon Press (1957), pp. 648–675.",
"* Macey, Samuel L., ''Clocks and the Cosmos: Time in Western Life and Thought'', Archon Books, Hamden, Conn.",
"(1980).",
"* * North, John.",
"''God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time''.",
"London: Hambledon and London (2005).",
"* Palmer, Brooks.",
"''The Book of American Clocks'', The Macmillan Co.",
"(1979).",
"* Robinson, Tom.",
"''The Longcase Clock''.",
"Suffolk, England: Antique Collector's Club (1981).",
"* Smith, Alan.",
"''The International Dictionary of Clocks''.",
"London: Chancellor Press (1996).",
"* Tardy.",
"''French Clocks the World Over''.",
"Part I and II.",
"Translated with the assistance of Alexander Ballantyne.",
"Paris: Tardy (1981).",
"* * Yoder, Joella Gerstmeyer.",
"''Unrolling Time: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematization of Nature''.",
"New York: Cambridge University Press (1988).",
"* Zea, Philip, & Robert Cheney.",
"''Clock Making in New England: 1725–1825''.",
"Old Sturbridge Village (1992)."
],
[
"External links",
"* * * National Association of Watch & Clock Collectors Museum* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Charles Proteus Steinmetz"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Charles Proteus Steinmetz''' (born '''Karl August Rudolph Steinmetz'''; April 9, 1865 – October 26, 1923) was an American mathematician and electrical engineer and professor at Union College.",
"He fostered the development of alternating current that made possible the expansion of the electric power industry in the United States, formulating mathematical theories for engineers.",
"He made ground-breaking discoveries in the understanding of hysteresis that enabled engineers to design better electromagnetic apparatus equipment, especially electric motors for use in industry.At the time of his death, Steinmetz held over 200 patents.",
"A genius in both mathematics and electronics, he did work that earned him the nicknames \"Forger of Thunderbolts\" and \"The Wizard of Schenectady\".",
"Steinmetz's equation, Steinmetz solids, Steinmetz curves, and Steinmetz equivalent circuit are all named after him, as are numerous honors and scholarships, including the IEEE Charles Proteus Steinmetz Award, one of the highest technical recognitions given by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers professional society."
],
[
"Early life and education",
"Steinmetz was born Karl August Rudolph Steinmetz on April 9, 1865, in Breslau, Province of Silesia, Prussia (now Wrocław, Poland) the son of Caroline (Neubert) and Karl Heinrich Steinmetz.",
"He was baptized as a Lutheran into the Evangelical Church of Prussia.",
"Steinmetz, who stood only tall as an adult, had dwarfism, hunchback, and hip dysplasia, as did his father and grandfather.",
"Steinmetz attended Johannes Gymnasium and astonished his teachers with his proficiency in mathematics and physics.Following the Gymnasium, Steinmetz went on to the University of Breslau to begin work on his undergraduate degree in 1883.He was on the verge of finishing his doctorate in 1888 when he came under investigation by the German police for activities on behalf of a socialist university group and articles he had written for a local socialist newspaper."
],
[
"Political persecution and emigration",
"As socialist meetings and press had been banned in Germany, Steinmetz fled to Zürich in 1889 to escape possible arrest.",
"Cornell University Professor Ronald R. Kline, author of ''Steinmetz: Engineer and Socialist'', points to other factors which reinforced Steinmetz's decision to leave his homeland such as financial problems and the prospect of a more harmonious life with his socialist friends and supporters than the stressful domestic circumstances of his father's household.Faced with an expiring visa, he emigrated to the United States in 1889.He changed his first name to \"Charles\" in order to sound more American, and chose the middle name \"Proteus\", a wise hunchbacked character from the ''Odyssey'' who knew many secrets, after a childhood epithet given by classmates Steinmetz felt suited him."
],
[
"Political activism in the USA",
"Steinmetz was politically active in the US as a technocratic socialist for over thirty years.",
"Following the Bolshevik introduction of a technocratic plan to electrify Russia, Steinmetz spoke of Lenin alongside Albert Einstein as the \"two greatest minds of our time.",
"\"He believed in a corporatist industrial government also covering its human wellfare function.A member of the original Technical Alliance, which also included Thorstein Veblen and Leland Olds, Steinmetz had great faith in the ability of machines to eliminate human toil and create abundance for all.",
"He put it this way: \"Some day we will make the good things of life for everybody.\""
],
[
"Electrical engineering",
"Steinmetz circa 1915Steinmetz is known for his contribution in three major fields of alternating current (AC) systems theory: hysteresis, steady-state analysis, and transients.===AC hysteresis theory===Shortly after arriving in the United States, Steinmetz went to work for Rudolf Eickemeyer in Yonkers, New York, and published in the field of magnetic hysteresis, earning worldwide professional recognition.",
"Eickemeyer's firm developed transformers for use in the transmission of electrical power among many other mechanical and electrical devices.",
"In 1893 Eickemeyer's company, along with all of its patents and designs, was bought by the newly formed General Electric Company, where Steinmetz quickly became known as the engineering wizard in GE's engineering community.===AC steady state circuit theory===Steinmetz's work revolutionized AC circuit theory and analysis, which had been carried out using complicated, time-consuming calculus-based methods.",
"In the groundbreaking paper, \"Complex Quantities and Their Use in Electrical Engineering\", presented at a July 1893 meeting published in the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE), Steinmetz simplified these complicated methods to \"a simple problem of algebra\".",
"He systematized the use of complex number phasor representation in electrical engineering education texts, whereby the lower-case letter \"j\" is used to designate the 90-degree rotation operator in AC system analysis.",
"His seminal books and many other AIEE papers \"taught a whole generation of engineers how to deal with AC phenomena\".===AC transient theory===Steinmetz also greatly advanced the understanding of lightning.",
"His systematic experiments resulted in the first laboratory created \"man-made lightning\", earning him the nickname the \"Forger of Thunderbolts\".",
"These were conducted in a football field-sized laboratory at General Electric, using 120,000 volt generators.",
"He also erected a lightning tower to attract natural lightning to study its patterns and effects, which resulted in several theories."
],
[
"Professional life",
"Steinmetz acted in the following professional capacities:* At Union College, as chair of electrical engineering from 1902 to 1913 and as faculty member thereafter until his death in 1923* Board member on the Schenectady Board of Education for six years, including four years as the board's president* President of the Common Council of Schenectady * President of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers from 1901 to 1902 * First vice-president of the International Association of Municipal Electricians (IAME) {which later became the International Municipal Signal Association (IMSA)} from 1913 until his death in 1923.He was granted an honorary degree from Harvard University in 1901 and a doctorate from Union College in 1903.Steinmetz wrote 13 books and 60 articles, not exclusively about engineering.",
"He was a member and adviser to the fraternity Phi Gamma Delta at Union College, whose chapter house was one of the first electrified residences.While serving as president of the Schenectady Board of Education, Steinmetz introduced numerous progressive reforms, including extended school hours, school meals, school nurses, special classes for the children of immigrants, and the distribution of free textbooks."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Steinmetz posed inside his 1914 Detroit Electric automobile behind some members of his adopted family.",
"From left to right are grandchildren Midge, Billy, and Joe Hayden, and adopted son Joseph LeRoy Hayden.Steinmetz was affected by kyphosis, as were his father and grandfather.",
"In spite of his love for children and family life, Steinmetz remained unmarried, to prevent his spinal deformity from being passed to any offspring.When Joseph LeRoy Hayden, a loyal and hardworking lab assistant, announced that he would marry and look for his own living quarters, Steinmetz made the unusual proposal of opening his large home, complete with research lab, greenhouse, and office to the Haydens and their prospective family.",
"Hayden favored the idea, but his future wife was wary of the unorthodox arrangement.",
"She agreed after Steinmetz's assurance that she could run the house as she saw fit.After an uneasy start, the arrangement worked well for all parties, especially after three Hayden children were born.",
"Steinmetz legally adopted Joseph Hayden as his son, becoming grandfather to the youngsters, entertaining them with fantastic stories and spectacular scientific demonstrations.",
"The unusual, harmonious living arrangement lasted for the rest of Steinmetz's life.Steinmetz founded America's first glider club, but none of its prototypes \"could be dignified with the term 'flight.Steinmetz was a lifelong agnostic.",
"He died on October 26, 1923, and was buried in Vale Cemetery in Schenectady."
],
[
"Legacy",
"Marconi Wireless Station in Somerset, New Jersey in 1921, including Steinmetz (center) and Albert Einstein (to his right)Life-size bronze statue of Charles Steinmetz meeting Thomas EdisonSteinmetz earned wide recognition among the scientific community and numerous awards and honors both during his life and posthumously.Steinmetz's equation, derived from his experiments, defines the approximate heat energy due to magnetic hysteresis released, per cycle per unit volume of magnetic material.",
"A Steinmetz solid is the solid body generated by the intersection of two or three cylinders of equal radius at right angles.",
"Steinmetz' equivalent circuit is still widely used for the design and testing of induction machines.One of the highest technical recognitions given by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the \"IEEE Charles Proteus Steinmetz Award\", is given for major contributions to standardization within the field of electrical and electronics engineering.",
"Other awards include the Certificate of Merit of Franklin Institute, 1908; the Elliott Cresson Medal, 1913; and the Cedergren Medal, 1914.Steinmetz was also an elected member of both the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society.The Charles P. Steinmetz Memorial Lecture series was begun in his honor in 1925, sponsored by the Schenectady branch of the IEEE.",
"Through 2017 seventy-three gatherings have taken place, held almost exclusively at Union College, featuring notable figures such as Nobel laureate experimental physicist Robert A. Millikan, helicopter inventor Igor Sikorsky, nuclear submarine pioneer Admiral Hyman G. Rickover (1963), Nobel-winning semiconductor inventor William Shockley, and Internet \"founding father\" Leonard Kleinrock.Steinmetz's connection to Union is further celebrated with the annual Steinmetz Symposium, a day-long event in which Union undergraduates give presentations on research they have done.",
"Steinmetz Hall, which houses the Union College computer center, is named after him.The Charles P. Steinmetz Scholarship is awarded annually by the college, underwritten since its inception in 1923 by the General Electric Company.",
"An additional Charles P. Steinmetz Memorial Scholarship was later established at Union by Marjorie Hayden, daughter of Joseph and Corrine Hayden, and is awarded to students majoring in engineering or physics.A 1914 \"Duplex Drive Brougham\" Detroit Electric automobile that once belonged to Steinmetz was purchased by Union College in 1971, and restored for use in campus ceremonies.",
"The Steinmetz car is permanent displayed in the first-floor corridor between the Wold Center and F.W.",
"Olin building.A Chicago public high school, Steinmetz College Prep, is named for him, as well as a Schenectady public school, the Steinmetz Career and Leadership Academy, formerly Steinmetz Middle-School.A public park in north Schenectady, New York was named for him in 1931.In 1983, the US Post Office included Steinmetz in a series of postage stamps commemorating American inventors.In May 2015, a life-size bronze statue of Charles Steinmetz meeting Thomas Edison by sculptor and caster Dexter Benedict was unveiled on a plaza on the corner of Erie Boulevards and South Ferry Street in Schenectady."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"Steinmetz is featured in John Dos Passos' ''U.S.A.''",
"trilogy in one of the biographies.",
"He also serves as a major character in Starling Lawrence's ''The Lightning Keeper''.Steinmetz is a major character in the novel ''Electric City'' by Elizabeth Rosner.Steinmetz was portrayed in 1959 by the actor Rod Steiger in the CBS television anthology series, ''The Joseph Cotten Show''.",
"The episode focused on his socialist activities in Germany.A famous anecdote about Steinmetz concerns a troubleshooting consultation at Henry Ford's River Rouge Plant.",
"A humorous aspect of the story is the \"itemized bill\" he submitted for the work performed."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"===Patents===At the time of his death, Steinmetz held over 200 patents:* , \"''System of distribution by alternating current''\" (January 29, 1895)* , \"''Inductor dynamo''\"* , \"''Three phase induction meter''\"* , \"''Inductor dynamo''\"* , \"''Induction motor''\"* , \"''System of electrical distribution''\"* , \"''Induction motor''\"* , \"''Means for producing light''\" (May 7, 1912)* , \"''Induction furnace''\"* , \"''Protective device''\"* , \"''Inductor dynamo''\"===Works===* * * * This book's first edition was expanded and updated in many subsequent editions.",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"See also",
"* Charles P. Steinmetz Academic Centre* IEEE Charles Proteus Steinmetz Award* :de:Steinmetzschaltung (Steinmetz circuit)"
],
[
"Explanatory notes"
],
[
"Citations"
],
[
"General sources",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* \"Charles Steinmetz: Union's Electrical Wizard\", ''Union College Magazine'', November 1, 1998.",
"* Finding Aid to Charles Steinmetz Papers , Schenectady County Historical Society.",
"* Charles Proteus Steinmetz, the Wizard of Schenectady , Smithsonian Institution* Charles Proteus Steinmetz: Accomplishments and Life, Edison Tech Center, Hall of Fame* United States Supreme Court, ''Steinmetz v. Allen'', 192 U.S. 543 (1904) .",
"''Steinmetz v. Allen, Commissioner of Patents''.",
"No.",
"383.Argued January 12, 13, 1904.Decided February 23, 1904.",
"* ''Divine Discontent'', a documentary on Steinmetz*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Charles Martel"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Charles Martel''' ( – 22 October 741), ''Martel'' being a sobriquet in Old French for \"The Hammer\", was a Frankish political and military leader who, as Duke and Prince of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace to the Merovingian kings of the Franks, was the de facto ruler of the Franks from 718 until his death.",
"He was a son of the Frankish statesman Pepin of Herstal and a noblewoman named Alpaida.",
"Charles successfully asserted his claims to power as successor to his father as the power behind the throne in Frankish politics.",
"Continuing and building on his father's work, he restored centralized government in Francia and began the series of military campaigns that re-established the Franks as the undisputed masters of all Gaul.",
"According to a near-contemporary source, the ''Liber Historiae Francorum'', Charles was \"a warrior who was uncommonly ... effective in battle\".Charles gained a very consequential victory against an Umayyad invasion of Aquitaine at the Battle of Tours, at a time when the Umayyad Caliphate controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula.",
"Alongside his military endeavours, Charles has been traditionally credited with an influential role in the development of the Frankish system of feudalism.At the end of his reign, Charles divided Francia between his sons, Carloman and Pepin.",
"The latter became the first king of the Carolingian dynasty.",
"Pepin's son Charlemagne, grandson of Charles, extended the Frankish realms and became the first emperor in the West since the Fall of the Western Roman Empire."
],
[
"Background",
"Charles, nicknamed \"Martel\" (\"the Hammer\") in later chronicles, was a son of Pepin of Herstal and his mistress, possible second wife, Alpaida.",
"He had a brother named Childebrand, who later became the Frankish ''dux'' (that is, ''duke'') of Burgundy.Older historiography commonly describes Charles as \"illegitimate\", but the dividing line between wives and concubines was not clear-cut in eighth-century Francia.",
"It is likely that the accusation of \"illegitimacy\" derives from the desire of Pepin's first wife Plectrude to see her progeny as heirs to Pepin's power.By Charles's lifetime the Merovingians had ceded power to the Mayors of the Palace, who controlled the royal treasury, dispensed patronage, and granted land and privileges in the name of the figurehead king.",
"Charles's father, Pepin of Herstal, had united the Frankish realm by conquering Neustria and Burgundy.",
"Pepin was the first to call himself Duke and Prince of the Franks, a title later taken up by Charles."
],
[
"Contesting for power",
"The Frankish kingdoms at the time of the death of Pepin of Heristal (714).",
"Aquitaine (yellow) was outside Arnulfing authority and Neustria and Burgundy (pink) were united in opposition to further Arnulfing dominance of the highest offices.",
"Only Austrasia (green) supported an Arnulfing mayor, first Theudoald then Charles.",
"The German duchies to the east of the Rhine were ''de facto'' outside of Frankish suzerainty at this time.In December 714, Pepin of Herstal died.",
"A few months before his death and shortly after the murder of his son Grimoald the Younger, he had, at his wife Plectrude's urging, designated Theudoald, his grandson by their late son Grimoald, his heir in the entire realm.",
"This was immediately opposed by the Austrasian nobles because Theudoald was a child of only eight years of age.",
"To prevent Charles using this unrest to his own advantage, Plectrude had him imprisoned in Cologne, the city which was intended to be her capital.",
"This prevented an uprising on his behalf in Austrasia, but not in Neustria.=== Civil war of 715–718 ===Pepin's death occasioned open conflict between his heirs and the Neustrian nobles who sought political independence from Austrasian control.",
"In 715, Dagobert III named Raganfrid mayor of their palace.",
"On 26 September 715, Raganfrid's Neustrians met the young Theudoald's forces at the Battle of Compiègne.",
"Theudoald was defeated and fled back to Cologne.",
"Before the end of the year, Charles had escaped from prison and been acclaimed mayor by the nobles of Austrasia.",
"That same year, Dagobert III died and the Neustrians proclaimed Chilperic II, the cloistered son of Childeric II, as king.==== Battle of Cologne ====In 716, Chilperic and Raganfrid together led an army into Austrasia intent on seizing the Pippinid wealth at Cologne.",
"The Neustrians allied with another invading force under Redbad, King of the Frisians and met Charles in battle near Cologne, which was still held by Plectrude.",
"Charles had little time to gather men or prepare and the result was inevitable.",
"The Frisians held off Charles, while the king and his mayor besieged Plectrude at Cologne, where she bought them off with a substantial portion of Pepin's treasure.",
"After that they withdrew.",
"The Battle of Cologne is the only defeat of Charles's career.==== Battle of Amblève ====Charles retreated to the hills of the Eifel to gather and train men.",
"In April 716, he fell upon the triumphant army near Malmedy as it was returning to Neustria.",
"In the ensuing Battle of Amblève, Charles attacked as the enemy rested at midday.",
"According to one source, he split his forces into several groups which fell at them from many sides.",
"Another suggests that while this was his intention, he then decided, given the enemy's unpreparedness, this was not necessary.",
"In any event, the suddenness of the assault led them to believe they were facing a much larger host.",
"Many of the enemy fled and Charles's troops gathered the spoils of the camp.",
"His reputation increased considerably as a result, and he attracted more followers.",
"This battle is often considered by historians as the turning point in Charles's struggle.==== Battle of Vincy ====Richard Gerberding points out that up to this time, much of Charles's support was probably from his mother's kindred in the lands around Liege.",
"After Amblève, he seems to have won the backing of the influential Willibrord, founder of the Abbey of Echternach.",
"The abbey had been built on land donated by Plectrude's mother, Irmina of Oeren, but most of Willibrord's missionary work had been carried out in Frisia.",
"In joining Chilperic and Ragqnfrid, Radbod of Frisia sacked Utrecht, burning churches and killing many missionaries.",
"Willibrord and his monks were forced to flee to Echternach.",
"Gerberding suggests that Willibrord had decided that the chances of preserving his life's work were better with a successful field commander like Charles than with Plectrude in Cologne.",
"Willibrord subsequently baptized Charles's son Pepin.",
"Gerberding suggests a likely date of Easter 716.Charles also received support from bishop Pepo of Verdun.Charles took time to rally more men and prepare.",
"By the following spring, he had attracted enough support to invade Neustria.",
"Charles sent an envoy who proposed a cessation of hostilities if Chilperic would recognize his rights as mayor of the palace in Austrasia.",
"The refusal was not unexpected but served to impress upon Charles's forces the unreasonableness of the Neustrians.",
"They met near Cambrai at the Battle of Vincy on 21 March 717.The victorious Charles pursued the fleeing king and mayor to Paris, but as he was not yet prepared to hold the city, he turned back to deal with Plectrude and Cologne.",
"He took the city and dispersed her adherents.",
"Plectrude was allowed to retire to a convent.",
"Theudoald lived to 741 under his uncle's protection."
],
[
"Consolidation of power",
"Upon this success, Charles proclaimed Chlothar IV king in Austrasia in opposition to Chilperic and deposed Rigobert, archbishop of Reims, replacing him with Milo, a lifelong supporter.In 718, Chilperic responded to Charles's new ascendancy by making an alliance with Odo the Great (or Eudes, as he is sometimes known), the duke of Aquitaine, who had become independent during the civil war in 715, but was again defeated, at the Battle of Soissons, by Charles.",
"Chilperic fled with his ducal ally to the land south of the Loire and Raganfrid fled to Angers.",
"Soon Chlotar IV died and Odo surrendered King Chilperic in exchange for Charles recognizing his dukedom.",
"Charles recognized Chilperic as king of the Franks in return for legitimate royal affirmation of his own mayoralty over all the kingdoms.=== Wars of 718–732 ===Between 718 and 732, Charles secured his power through a series of victories.",
"Having unified the Franks under his banner, Charles was determined to punish the Saxons who had invaded Austrasia.",
"Therefore, late in 718, he laid waste their country to the banks of the Weser, the Lippe, and the Ruhr.",
"He defeated them in the Teutoburg Forest and thus secured the Frankish border.When the Frisian leader Radbod died in 719, Charles seized West Frisia without any great resistance on the part of the Frisians, who had been subjected to the Franks but had rebelled upon the death of Pippin.",
"When Chilperic II died in 721, Charles appointed as his successor the son of Dagobert III, Theuderic IV, who was still a minor, and who occupied the throne from 721 to 737.Charles was now appointing the kings whom he supposedly served (''rois fainéants'').",
"By the end of his reign, he didn't appoint any at all.",
"At this time, Charles again marched against the Saxons.",
"Then the Neustrians rebelled under Raganfrid, who had left the county of Anjou.",
"They were easily defeated in 724 but Raganfrid gave up his sons as hostages in turn for keeping his county.",
"This ended the civil wars of Charles' reign.The next six years were devoted in their entirety to assuring Frankish authority over the neighboring political groups.",
"Between 720 and 723, Charles was fighting in Bavaria, where the Agilolfing dukes had gradually evolved into independent rulers, recently in alliance with Liutprand the Lombard.",
"He forced the Alemanni to accompany him, and Duke Hugbert submitted to Frankish suzerainty.",
"In 725 he brought back the Agilolfing Princess Swanachild as a second wife.In 725 and 728, he again entered Bavaria but, in 730, he marched against Lantfrid, Duke of Alemannia, who had also become independent, and killed him in battle.",
"He forced the Alemanni to capitulate to Frankish suzerainty and did not appoint a successor to Lantfrid.",
"Thus, southern Germany once more became part of the Frankish kingdom, as had northern Germany during the first years of the reign."
],
[
"Aquitaine and the Battle of Tours in 732",
"Charles Martel facing Abd Al Rahman Al Ghafiqi at the Battle of Tours, painting by Charles de Steuben ''Bataille de Poitiers en octobre 732''In 731, after defeating the Saxons, Charles turned his attention to the rival southern realm of Aquitaine, and crossed the Loire, breaking the treaty with Duke Odo.",
"The Franks ransacked Aquitaine twice, and captured Bourges, although Odo retook it.",
"The ''Continuations of Fredegar'' allege that Odo called on assistance from the recently established emirate of al-Andalus, but there had been Arab raids into Aquitaine from the 720s onwards.",
"Indeed, the anonymous Chronicle of 754 records a victory for Odo in 721 at the Battle of Toulouse, while the ''Liber Pontificalis'' records that Odo had killed 375,000 Saracens.",
"It is more likely that this invasion or raid took place in revenge for Odo's support for a rebel Berber leader named Munnuza.Whatever the precise circumstances were, it is clear that an army under the leadership of Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiqi headed north, and after some minor engagements marched on the wealthy city of Tours.",
"According to British medieval historian Paul Fouracre, \"Their campaign should perhaps be interpreted as a long-distance raid rather than the beginning of a war\".",
"They were, however, defeated by the army of Charles at the Battle of Tours (known in France as the Battle of Poitiers), at a location between the French cities of Tours and Poitiers, in a victory described by the ''Continuations of Fredegar''.",
"According to the historian Bernard Bachrach, the Arab army, mostly mounted, failed to break through the Frankish infantry.",
"News of this battle spread, and may be recorded in Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History'' (Book V, ch.",
"23).",
"However, it is not given prominence in Arabic sources from the period.Despite his victory, Charles did not gain full control of Aquitaine, and Odo remained duke until 735."
],
[
"Wars of 732–737",
"Charles's military campaigns in Aquitaine, Septimania and Provence after the Battle of Tour-Poitiers (734–742)Between his victory of 732 and 735, Charles reorganized the kingdom of Burgundy, replacing the counts and dukes with his loyal supporters, thus strengthening his hold on power.",
"He was forced, by the ventures of Bubo, Duke of the Frisians, to invade independent-minded Frisia again in 734.In that year, he slew the duke at the Battle of the Boarn.",
"Charles ordered the Frisian pagan shrines destroyed, and so wholly subjugated the populace that the region was peaceful for twenty years after.In 735, Duke Odo of Aquitaine died.",
"Though Charles wished to rule the duchy directly and went there to elicit the submission of the Aquitanians, the aristocracy proclaimed Odo's son, Hunald I of Aquitaine, as duke, and Charles and Hunald eventually recognised each other's position."
],
[
"Interregnum (737–741)",
"In 737, at the tail end of his campaigning in Provence and Septimania, the Merovingian king, Theuderic IV, died.",
"Charles, titling himself ''maior domus'' and ''princeps et dux Francorum'', did not appoint a new king and nobody acclaimed one.",
"The throne lay vacant until Charles' death.",
"The interregnum, the final four years of Charles' life, was relatively peaceful although in 738 he compelled the Saxons of Westphalia to submit and pay tribute and in 739 he checked an uprising in Provence where some rebels united under the leadership of Maurontus.Charles used the relative peace to set about integrating the outlying realms of his empire into the Frankish church.",
"He erected four dioceses in Bavaria (Salzburg, Regensburg, Freising, and Passau) and gave them Boniface as archbishop and metropolitan over all Germany east of the Rhine, with his seat at Mainz.",
"Boniface had been under his protection from 723 on.",
"Indeed, the saint himself explained to his old friend, Daniel of Winchester, that without it he could neither administer his church, defend his clergy nor prevent idolatry.In 739, Pope Gregory III begged Charles for his aid against Liutprand, but Charles was loath to fight his onetime ally and ignored the plea.",
"Nonetheless, the pope's request for Frankish protection showed how far Charles had come from the days when he was tottering on excommunication, and set the stage for his son and grandson to assert themselves in the peninsula."
],
[
"Death and transition in rule",
"14th-century depiction of the death of Charles.Saint Denis Basilica.Charles died on 22 October 741, at Quierzy-sur-Oise in what is today the Aisne ''département'' in the Picardy region of France.",
"He was buried at Saint Denis Basilica in Paris.His territories had been divided among his adult sons a year earlier: to Carloman he gave Austrasia, Alemannia, and Thuringia, and to Pippin the Younger Neustria, Burgundy, Provence, and Metz and Trier in the \"Mosel duchy\".",
"Grifo was given several lands throughout the kingdom, but at a later date, just before Charles died."
],
[
"Legacy",
"Earlier in his life Charles had many internal opponents and felt the need to appoint his own kingly claimant, Chlotar IV.",
"Later, however, the dynamics of rulership in Francia had changed, and no hallowed Merovingian ruler was required.",
"Charles divided his realm among his sons without opposition (though he ignored his young son Bernard).",
"For many historians, Charles laid the foundations for his son Pepin's rise to the Frankish throne in 751, and his grandson Charlemagne's imperial acclamation in 800.However, for Paul Fouracre, while Charles was \"the most effective military leader in Francia\", his career \"finished on a note of unfinished business\".Charles divides the realm between Pepin and Carloman (Grandes Chroniques de France – Bibliothèque Nationale)===Family and children===Charles married twice, his first wife being Rotrude of Treves, daughter either of Lambert II, Count of Hesbaye, or of Leudwinus, Count of Treves.",
"They had the following children:* Hiltrud* Carloman* Landrade, also rendered as Landres* Auda, also rendered as Aldana* Pepin the YoungerMost of the children married and had issue.",
"Hiltrud married Odilo I (Duke of Bavaria).",
"Landrade was once believed to have married a Sigrand (Count of Hesbania) but Sigrand's wife was more likely the sister of Rotrude.",
"Auda married Theoderic, Count of Autun.Charles also married a second time, to Swanhild and they had a child named Grifo.Charles also had a known mistress, Ruodhaid, with whom he had:* Bernhard (–787),Charles also had an unknown mistress:* Hieronymus ( – after 782),* Remigius (d. 771) archbishop of Rouen."
],
[
"Reputation and historiography",
"Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum'' by Guillaume Rouillé, published in 1553=== Military victories ===For early medieval authors, Charles was famous for his military victories.",
"Paul the Deacon for instance attributed a victory against the Saracens actually won by Odo of Aquitaine to Charles.",
"However, alongside this there soon developed a darker reputation, for his alleged abuse of church property.",
"A ninth-century text, the ''Visio Eucherii'', possibly written by Hincmar of Reims, portrayed Charles as suffering in hell for this reason.",
"According to British medieval historian Paul Fouracre, this was \"the single most important text in the construction of Charles's reputation as a seculariser or despoiler of church lands\".By the eighteenth century, historians such as Edward Gibbon had begun to portray the Frankish leader as the saviour of Christian Europe from a full-scale Islamic invasion.In the nineteenth century, the German historian Heinrich Brunner argued that Charles had confiscated church lands in order to fund military reforms that allowed him to defeat the Arab conquests, in this way brilliantly combining two traditions about the ruler.",
"However, Fouracre argued that \"...there is not enough evidence to show that there was a decisive change either in the way in which the Franks fought, or in the way in which they organised the resources needed to support their warriors.",
"\"Many twentieth-century European historians continued to develop Gibbon's perspectives, such as French medievalist Christian Pfister, who wrote in 1911 thatSimilarly, William E. Watson, who wrote of the battle's importance in Frankish and world history in 1993, suggested thatAnd in 1993, the influential political scientist Samuel Huntington saw the battle of Tours as marking the end of the \"Arab and Moorish surge west and north\".Other recent historians, however, argue that the importance of the battle is dramatically overstated, both for European history in general and for Charles's reign in particular.",
"This view is typified by Alessandro Barbero, who in 2004 wrote,Similarly, in 2002 Tomaž Mastnak wrote:More recently, the memory of Charles has been appropriated by far right and white nationalist groups, such as the 'Charles Martel Group' in France, and by the perpetrator of the Christchurch mosque shootings at Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch, New Zealand, in 2019.The memory of Charles is a topic of debate in contemporary French politics on both the right and the left.=== Order of the Genet ===In the seventeenth century, a legend emerged that Charles had formed the first regular order of knights in France.",
"In 1620, Andre Favyn stated (without providing a source) that among the spoils Charles's forces captured after the Battle of Tours were many genets (raised for their fur) and several of their pelts.",
"Charles gave these furs to leaders amongst his army, forming the first order of knighthood, the Order of the Genet.",
"Favyn's claim was then repeated and elaborated in later works in English, for instance by Elias Ashmole in 1672, and James Coats in 1725."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Ian Meadows, \"The Arabs in Occitania\": A sketch giving the context of the conflict from the Arab point of view.",
"* ''Poke's edition of Creasy's 15 Most Important Battles Ever Fought According to Edward Shepherd Creasy'' \"Chapter VII.",
"The Battle of Tours, A.D.",
"732.",
"\"* \"The Battle of Tours\"—''In Our Time'', BBC Radio 4 (2014)* Medieval Sourcebook: Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732 ()* Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732: Three Accounts () from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook* Medieval Sourcebook: Gregory II to Charles Martel, 739 ()*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Charles Edward Jones"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Colonel '''Charles Edward''' (\"'''Chuck'''\") '''Jones''' (November 8, 1952 – September 11, 2001) was a United States Air Force officer, an aeronautical engineer, computer programmer, and an astronaut in the USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer Program.",
"He was killed during the September 11 attacks, aboard American Airlines Flight 11."
],
[
"Life",
"Charles Edward Jones was born November 8, 1952, in Clinton, Indiana.",
"He graduated from Wichita East High School in 1970, earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Astronautical Engineering from the United States Air Force Academy in 1974, and received a Master of Science degree in Astronautics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1980.He entered the USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer program in 1982, and was scheduled to fly on mission STS-71-B in December 1986, but the mission was canceled after the ''Challenger'' Disaster in January 1986.He left the Manned Spaceflight Engineer program in 1987.He later worked for Defense Intelligence Agency, Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, D.C., and was Systems Program Director for Intelligence and Information Systems, Hanscom Air Force Base, Massachusetts.",
"Jones later was the manager of space programs for BAE Systems.Jones was killed at the age of 48 in the attacks of September 11, 2001, aboard American Airlines Flight 11.Jones was flying that day on a routine business trip for BAE Systems, and had been living as a retired U.S. Air Force Colonel in Bedford, Massachusetts, at the time of his death.",
"He was survived by his wife Jeanette.At the National 9/11 Memorial, Jones is memorialized at the North Pool, on Panel N-74.Jones' name is located on Panel N-74 of the National September 11 Memorial's North Pool, along with those of other passengers of Flight 11."
],
[
"Military decorations",
"His awards include:Parachutist BadgeMaster Air and Space Missile BadgeDefense Superior Service MedalDefense Meritorious Service MedalMeritorious Service Medalwith three bronze oak leaf clustersAir Force Commendation MedalJoint Service Achievement MedalAir Force Achievement MedalJoint Meritorious Unit AwardAir Force Organizational Excellence Awardwith three bronze oak leaf clustersNational Defense Service Medalwith bronze service starAir Force Longevity Service Awardwith silver leaf clusterSmall Arms Expert Marksmanship RibbonAir Force Training Ribbon*Senior Missile Badge"
],
[
"See also",
"* Casualties of the September 11 attacks"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Ceramic"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''ceramic''' is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant, and corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a high temperature.",
"Common examples are earthenware, porcelain, and brick.The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects (pots, vessels, or vases) or figurines made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other materials like silica, hardened and sintered in fire.",
"Later, ceramics were glazed and fired to create smooth, colored surfaces, decreasing porosity through the use of glassy, amorphous ceramic coatings on top of the crystalline ceramic substrates.",
"Ceramics now include domestic, industrial, and building products, as well as a wide range of materials developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering, such as semiconductors.The word ''ceramic'' comes from the Ancient Greek word (), meaning \"of or for pottery\" ().",
"The earliest known mention of the root ''ceram-'' is the Mycenaean Greek , workers of ceramic, written in Linear B syllabic script.",
"The word ''ceramic'' can be used as an adjective to describe a material, product, or process, or it may be used as a noun, either singular or, more commonly, as the plural noun ''ceramics''."
],
[
"Materials",
"Silicon nitride rocket thruster.",
"Left: Mounted in test stand.",
"Right: Being tested with H2/O2 propellants.Ceramic material is an inorganic, metallic oxide, nitride, or carbide material.",
"Some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics.",
"Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, and weak in shearing and tension.",
"They withstand the chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments.",
"Ceramics generally can withstand very high temperatures, ranging from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C (1,800 °F to 3,000 °F).SEM micrograph of an advanced ceramic material.",
"The properties of ceramics make fracturing an important inspection method.The crystallinity of ceramic materials varies widely.",
"Most often, fired ceramics are either vitrified or semi-vitrified, as is the case with earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain.",
"Varying crystallinity and electron composition in the ionic and covalent bonds cause most ceramic materials to be good thermal and electrical insulators (researched in ceramic engineering).",
"With such a large range of possible options for the composition/structure of a ceramic (nearly all of the elements, nearly all types of bonding, and all levels of crystallinity), the breadth of the subject is vast, and identifiable attributes (hardness, toughness, electrical conductivity) are difficult to specify for the group as a whole.",
"General properties such as high melting temperature, high hardness, poor conductivity, high moduli of elasticity, chemical resistance, and low ductility are the norm, with known exceptions to each of these rules (piezoelectric ceramics, glass transition temperature, superconductive ceramics).Composites such as fiberglass and carbon fiber, while containing ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of the ceramic family.Highly oriented crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing.",
"Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories: either making the ceramic in the desired shape by reaction ''in situ'' or \"forming\" powders into the desired shape and then sintering to form a solid body.",
"Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by hand (sometimes including a rotation process called \"throwing\"), slip casting, tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors), injection molding, dry pressing, and other variations.",
"Many ceramics experts do not consider materials with an amorphous (noncrystalline) character (i.e., glass) to be ceramics, even though glassmaking involves several steps of the ceramic process and its mechanical properties are similar to those of ceramic materials.",
"However, heat treatments can convert glass into a semi-crystalline material known as glass-ceramic.",
"Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina.",
"Modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide.",
"Both are valued for their abrasion resistance and are therefore used in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations.",
"Advanced ceramics are also used in the medical, electrical, electronics, and armor industries."
],
[
"History",
"Earliest known ceramics are the Gravettian figurines that date to 29,000–25,000 BC.Human beings appear to have been making their own ceramics for at least 26,000 years, subjecting clay and silica to intense heat to fuse and form ceramic materials.",
"The earliest found so far were in southern central Europe and were sculpted figures, not dishes.",
"The earliest known pottery was made by mixing animal products with clay and firing it at up to .",
"While pottery fragments have been found up to 19,000 years old, it was not until about 10,000 years later that regular pottery became common.",
"An early people that spread across much of Europe is named after its use of pottery: the Corded Ware culture.",
"These early Indo-European peoples decorated their pottery by wrapping it with rope while it was still wet.",
"When the ceramics were fired, the rope burned off but left a decorative pattern of complex grooves on the surface.Corded-Ware culture pottery from 2500 BCThe invention of the wheel eventually led to the production of smoother, more even pottery using the wheel-forming (throwing) technique, like the pottery wheel.",
"Early ceramics were porous, absorbing water easily.",
"It became useful for more items with the discovery of glazing techniques, which involved coating pottery with silicon, bone ash, or other materials that could melt and reform into a glassy surface, making a vessel less pervious to water.",
"===Archaeology===Ceramic artifacts have an important role in archaeology for understanding the culture, technology, and behavior of peoples of the past.",
"They are among the most common artifacts to be found at an archaeological site, generally in the form of small fragments of broken pottery called sherds.",
"The processing of collected sherds can be consistent with two main types of analysis: technical and traditional.The traditional analysis involves sorting ceramic artifacts, sherds, and larger fragments into specific types based on style, composition, manufacturing, and morphology.",
"By creating these typologies, it is possible to distinguish between different cultural styles, the purpose of the ceramic, and the technological state of the people, among other conclusions.",
"Besides, by looking at stylistic changes in ceramics over time, it is possible to separate (seriate) the ceramics into distinct diagnostic groups (assemblages).",
"A comparison of ceramic artifacts with known dated assemblages allows for a chronological assignment of these pieces.The technical approach to ceramic analysis involves a finer examination of the composition of ceramic artifacts and sherds to determine the source of the material and, through this, the possible manufacturing site.",
"Key criteria are the composition of the clay and the temper used in the manufacture of the article under study: the temper is a material added to the clay during the initial production stage and is used to aid the subsequent drying process.",
"Types of temper include shell pieces, granite fragments, and ground sherd pieces called 'grog'.",
"Temper is usually identified by microscopic examination of the tempered material.",
"Clay identification is determined by a process of refiring the ceramic and assigning a color to it using Munsell Soil Color notation.",
"By estimating both the clay and temper compositions and locating a region where both are known to occur, an assignment of the material source can be made.",
"Based on the source assignment of the artifact, further investigations can be made into the site of manufacture."
],
[
"Properties",
"The physical properties of any ceramic substance are a direct result of its crystalline structure and chemical composition.",
"Solid-state chemistry reveals the fundamental connection between microstructure and properties, such as localized density variations, grain size distribution, type of porosity, and second-phase content, which can all be correlated with ceramic properties such as mechanical strength σ by the Hall-Petch equation, hardness, toughness, dielectric constant, and the optical properties exhibited by transparent materials.Ceramography is the art and science of preparation, examination, and evaluation of ceramic microstructures.",
"Evaluation and characterization of ceramic microstructures are often implemented on similar spatial scales to that used commonly in the emerging field of nanotechnology: from nanometers to tens of micrometers (µm).",
"This is typically somewhere between the minimum wavelength of visible light and the resolution limit of the naked eye.The microstructure includes most grains, secondary phases, grain boundaries, pores, micro-cracks, structural defects, and hardness micro indentions.",
"Most bulk mechanical, optical, thermal, electrical, and magnetic properties are significantly affected by the observed microstructure.",
"The fabrication method and process conditions are generally indicated by the microstructure.",
"The root cause of many ceramic failures is evident in the cleaved and polished microstructure.",
"Physical properties which constitute the field of materials science and engineering include the following:===Mechanical properties===Cutting disks made of silicon carbide Mechanical properties are important in structural and building materials as well as textile fabrics.",
"In modern materials science, fracture mechanics is an important tool in improving the mechanical performance of materials and components.",
"It applies the physics of stress and strain, in particular the theories of elasticity and plasticity, to the microscopic crystallographic defects found in real materials in order to predict the macroscopic mechanical failure of bodies.",
"Fractography is widely used with fracture mechanics to understand the causes of failures and also verify the theoretical failure predictions with real-life failures.Ceramic materials are usually ionic or covalent bonded materials.",
"A material held together by either type of bond will tend to fracture before any plastic deformation takes place, which results in poor toughness in these materials.",
"Additionally, because these materials tend to be porous, the pores and other microscopic imperfections act as stress concentrators, decreasing the toughness further, and reducing the tensile strength.",
"These combine to give catastrophic failures, as opposed to the more ductile failure modes of metals.These materials do show plastic deformation.",
"However, because of the rigid structure of crystalline material, there are very few available slip systems for dislocations to move, and so they deform very slowly.To overcome the brittle behavior, ceramic material development has introduced the class of ceramic matrix composite materials, in which ceramic fibers are embedded and with specific coatings are forming fiber bridges across any crack.",
"This mechanism substantially increases the fracture toughness of such ceramics.",
"Ceramic disc brakes are an example of using a ceramic matrix composite material manufactured with a specific process.====Ice-templating for enhanced mechanical properties====If a ceramic is subjected to substantial mechanical loading, it can undergo a process called ice-templating, which allows some control of the microstructure of the ceramic product and therefore some control of the mechanical properties.",
"Ceramic engineers use this technique to tune the mechanical properties to their desired application.",
"Specifically, the strength is increased when this technique is employed.",
"Ice templating allows the creation of macroscopic pores in a unidirectional arrangement.",
"The applications of this oxide strengthening technique are important for solid oxide fuel cells and water filtration devices.To process a sample through ice templating, an aqueous colloidal suspension is prepared to contain the dissolved ceramic powder evenly dispersed throughout the colloid, for example Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ).",
"The solution is then cooled from the bottom to the top on a platform that allows for unidirectional cooling.",
"This forces ice crystals to grow in compliance with the unidirectional cooling, and these ice crystals force the dissolved YSZ particles to the solidification front of the solid-liquid interphase boundary, resulting in pure ice crystals lined up unidirectionally alongside concentrated pockets of colloidal particles.",
"The sample is then heated and at the same the pressure is reduced enough to force the ice crystals to sublime and the YSZ pockets begin to anneal together to form macroscopically aligned ceramic microstructures.",
"The sample is then further sintered to complete the evaporation of the residual water and the final consolidation of the ceramic microstructure.During ice-templating, a few variables can be controlled to influence the pore size and morphology of the microstructure.",
"These important variables are the initial solids loading of the colloid, the cooling rate, the sintering temperature and duration, and the use of certain additives which can influence the microstructural morphology during the process.",
"A good understanding of these parameters is essential to understanding the relationships between processing, microstructure, and mechanical properties of anisotropically porous materials.===Electrical properties=======Semiconductors====Some ceramics are semiconductors.",
"Most of these are transition metal oxides that are II-VI semiconductors, such as zinc oxide.",
"While there are prospects of mass-producing blue LEDs from zinc oxide, ceramicists are most interested in the electrical properties that show grain boundary effects.",
"One of the most widely used of these is the varistor.",
"These are devices that exhibit the property that resistance drops sharply at a certain threshold voltage.",
"Once the voltage across the device reaches the threshold, there is a breakdown of the electrical structure in the vicinity of the grain boundaries, which results in its electrical resistance dropping from several megohms down to a few hundred ohms.",
"The major advantage of these is that they can dissipate a lot of energy, and they self-reset; after the voltage across the device drops below the threshold, its resistance returns to being high.",
"This makes them ideal for surge-protection applications; as there is control over the threshold voltage and energy tolerance, they find use in all sorts of applications.",
"The best demonstration of their ability can be found in electrical substations, where they are employed to protect the infrastructure from lightning strikes.",
"They have rapid response, are low maintenance, and do not appreciably degrade from use, making them virtually ideal devices for this application.",
"Semiconducting ceramics are also employed as gas sensors.",
"When various gases are passed over a polycrystalline ceramic, its electrical resistance changes.",
"With tuning to the possible gas mixtures, very inexpensive devices can be produced.====Superconductivity====The Meissner effect demonstrated by levitating a magnet above a cuprate superconductor, which is cooled by liquid nitrogenUnder some conditions, such as extremely low temperatures, some ceramics exhibit high-temperature superconductivity.",
"The reason for this is not understood, but there are two major families of superconducting ceramics.====Ferroelectricity and supersets====Piezoelectricity, a link between electrical and mechanical response, is exhibited by a large number of ceramic materials, including the quartz used to measure time in watches and other electronics.",
"Such devices use both properties of piezoelectrics, using electricity to produce a mechanical motion (powering the device) and then using this mechanical motion to produce electricity (generating a signal).",
"The unit of time measured is the natural interval required for electricity to be converted into mechanical energy and back again.The piezoelectric effect is generally stronger in materials that also exhibit pyroelectricity, and all pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric.",
"These materials can be used to inter-convert between thermal, mechanical, or electrical energy; for instance, after synthesis in a furnace, a pyroelectric crystal allowed to cool under no applied stress generally builds up a static charge of thousands of volts.",
"Such materials are used in motion sensors, where the tiny rise in temperature from a warm body entering the room is enough to produce a measurable voltage in the crystal.In turn, pyroelectricity is seen most strongly in materials that also display the ferroelectric effect, in which a stable electric dipole can be oriented or reversed by applying an electrostatic field.",
"Pyroelectricity is also a necessary consequence of ferroelectricity.",
"This can be used to store information in ferroelectric capacitors, elements of ferroelectric RAM.The most common such materials are lead zirconate titanate and barium titanate.",
"Aside from the uses mentioned above, their strong piezoelectric response is exploited in the design of high-frequency loudspeakers, transducers for sonar, and actuators for atomic force and scanning tunneling microscopes.====Positive thermal coefficient====Temperature increases can cause grain boundaries to suddenly become insulating in some semiconducting ceramic materials, mostly mixtures of heavy metal titanates.",
"The critical transition temperature can be adjusted over a wide range by variations in chemistry.",
"In such materials, current will pass through the material until joule heating brings it to the transition temperature, at which point the circuit will be broken and current flow will cease.",
"Such ceramics are used as self-controlled heating elements in, for example, the rear-window defrost circuits of automobiles.At the transition temperature, the material's dielectric response becomes theoretically infinite.",
"While a lack of temperature control would rule out any practical use of the material near its critical temperature, the dielectric effect remains exceptionally strong even at much higher temperatures.",
"Titanates with critical temperatures far below room temperature have become synonymous with \"ceramic\" in the context of ceramic capacitors for just this reason.===Optical properties===Cermax xenon arc lamp with synthetic sapphire output windowOptically transparent materials focus on the response of a material to incoming light waves of a range of wavelengths.",
"Frequency selective optical filters can be utilized to alter or enhance the brightness and contrast of a digital image.",
"Guided lightwave transmission via frequency selective waveguides involves the emerging field of fiber optics and the ability of certain glassy compositions as a transmission medium for a range of frequencies simultaneously (multi-mode optical fiber) with little or no interference between competing wavelengths or frequencies.",
"This resonant mode of energy and data transmission via electromagnetic (light) wave propagation, though low powered, is virtually lossless.",
"Optical waveguides are used as components in Integrated optical circuits (e.g.",
"light-emitting diodes, LEDs) or as the transmission medium in local and long haul optical communication systems.",
"Also of value to the emerging materials scientist is the sensitivity of materials to radiation in the thermal infrared (IR) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.",
"This heat-seeking ability is responsible for such diverse optical phenomena as night-vision and IR luminescence.Thus, there is an increasing need in the military sector for high-strength, robust materials which have the capability to transmit light (electromagnetic waves) in the visible (0.4 – 0.7 micrometers) and mid-infrared (1 – 5 micrometers) regions of the spectrum.",
"These materials are needed for applications requiring transparency and translucency transparent armor, including next-generation high-speed missiles and pods, as well as protection against improvised explosive devices (IED).In the 1960s, scientists at General Electric (GE) discovered that under the right manufacturing conditions, some ceramics, especially aluminium oxide (alumina), could be made translucent.",
"These translucent materials were transparent enough to be used for containing the electrical plasma generated in high-pressure sodium street lamps.",
"During the past two decades, additional types of transparent ceramics have been developed for applications such as nose cones for heat-seeking missiles, windows for fighter aircraft, and scintillation counters for computed tomography scanners.Other ceramic materials, generally requiring greater purity in their make-up than those above, include forms of several chemical compounds, including:#Barium titanate: (often mixed with strontium titanate) displays ferroelectricity, meaning that its mechanical, electrical, and thermal responses are c#Sialon (silicon aluminium oxynitride) has high strength; resistance to thermal shock, chemical and wear resistance, and low density.",
"These ceramics are used in non-ferrous molten metal handling, weld pins, and the chemical industry.#Silicon carbide (SiC) is used as a susceptor in microwave furnaces, a commonly used abrasive, and as a refractory material.#Silicon nitride (Si3N4) is used as an abrasive powder.#Steatite (magnesium silicates) is used as an electrical insulator.#Titanium carbide Used in space shuttle re-entry shields and scratchproof watches.#Uranium oxide (UO2), used as fuel in nuclear reactors.#Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7−x), a high-temperature superconductor.#Zinc oxide (ZnO), which is a semiconductor, and used in the construction of varistors.#Zirconium dioxide (zirconia), which in pure form undergoes many phase changes between room temperature and practical sintering temperatures, can be chemically \"stabilized\" in several different forms.",
"Its high oxygen ion conductivity recommends it for use in fuel cells and automotive oxygen sensors.",
"In another variant, metastable structures can impart transformation toughening for mechanical applications; most ceramic knife blades are made of this material.",
"Partially stabilised zirconia (PSZ) is much less brittle than other ceramics and is used for metal forming tools, valves and liners, abrasive slurries, kitchen knives and bearings subject to severe abrasion."
],
[
"Products",
"===By usage===For convenience, ceramic products are usually divided into four main types; these are shown below with some examples:#Structural, including bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles#Refractories, such as kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and glass making crucibles#Whitewares, including tableware, cookware, wall tiles, pottery products and sanitary ware#Technical, also known as engineering, advanced, special, and fine ceramics.",
"Such items include: #*gas burner nozzles #*ballistic protection, vehicle armor#*nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets#*biomedical implants #*coatings of jet engine turbine blades#*ceramic matrix composite gas turbine parts#*reinforced carbon–carbon ceramic disc brakes#*missile nose cones#*bearings#*tiles used in the Space Shuttle program===Ceramics made with clay===Frequently, the raw materials of modern ceramics do not include clays.Those that do have been classified as:#Earthenware, fired at lower temperatures than other types#Stoneware, vitreous or semi-vitreous#Porcelain, which contains a high content of kaolin#Bone china===Classification===Ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories: # '''Oxides:''' alumina, beryllia, ceria, zirconia# '''Non-oxides:''' carbide, boride, nitride, silicide# '''Composite materials:''' particulate reinforced, fiber reinforced, combinations of oxides and nonoxides.Each one of these classes can be developed into unique material properties."
],
[
"Applications",
"Kitchen knife with a ceramic bladediving watch bezel insert# '''Knife blades:''' the blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and susceptible to breakage.# '''Carbon-ceramic brake disks''' for vehicles: highly resistant to brake fade at high temperatures.# Advanced '''composite ceramic and metal matrices''' have been designed for most modern Armoured fighting vehicles because they offer superior penetrating resistance against shaped charge (HEAT rounds) and kinetic energy penetrators.# Ceramics such as '''alumina''' and '''boron carbide''' have been used as plates in ballistic armored vests to repel high-velocity rifle fire.",
"Such plates are known commonly as small arms protective inserts, or SAPIs.",
"Similar low-weight material is used to protect the cockpits of some military aircraft.#Ceramic '''ball bearings''' can be used in place of steel.",
"Their greater hardness results in lower susceptibility to wear.",
"Ceramic bearings typically last triple the lifetime of steel bearings.",
"They deform less than steel under load, resulting in less contact with the bearing retainer walls and lower friction.",
"In very high-speed applications, heat from friction causes more problems for metal bearings than ceramic bearings.",
"Ceramics are chemically resistant to corrosion and are preferred for environments where steel bearings would rust.",
"In some applications their electricity-insulating properties are advantageous.",
"Drawbacks to ceramic bearings include significantly higher cost, susceptibility to damage under shock loads, and the potential to wear steel parts due to ceramics' greater hardness.# In the early 1980s Toyota researched production of an '''adiabatic engine''' using ceramic components in the hot gas area.",
"The use of ceramics would have allowed temperatures exceeding 1650°C.",
"Advantages would include lighter materials and a smaller cooling system (or no cooling system at all), leading to major weight reduction.",
"The expected increase of fuel efficiency (due to higher operating temperatures, demonstrated in Carnot's theorem) could not be verified experimentally.",
"It was found that heat transfer on the hot ceramic cylinder wall was greater than the heat transfer to a cooler metal wall.",
"This is because the cooler gas film on a metal surface acts as a thermal insulator.",
"Thus, despite the desirable properties of ceramics, prohibitive production costs and limited advantages have prevented widespread ceramic engine component adoption.",
"In addition, small imperfections in ceramic material along with low fracture toughness can lead to cracking and potentially dangerous equipment failure.",
"Such engines are possible experimentally, but mass production is not feasible with current technology.",
"# Experiments with ceramic parts for gas turbine engines are being conducted.",
"Currently, even blades made of advanced metal alloys used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful monitoring of operating temperatures.",
"Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, providing for greater range and payload.# Recent advances have been made in ceramics which include bioceramics such as dental implants and synthetic bones.",
"Hydroxyapatite, the major mineral component of bone, has been made synthetically from several biological and chemical components and can be formed into ceramic materials.",
"Orthopedic implants coated with these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues in the body without rejection or inflammatory reaction.",
"They are of great interest for gene delivery and tissue engineering scaffolding.",
"Most hydroxyapatite ceramics are quite porous and lack mechanical strength and are therefore used solely to coat metal orthopedic devices to aid in forming a bond to bone or as bone fillers.",
"They are also used as fillers for orthopedic plastic screws to aid in reducing inflammation and increase the absorption of these plastic materials.",
"Work is being done to make strong, fully dense nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic but naturally occurring bone mineral.",
"Ultimately, these ceramic materials may be used as bone replacement, or with the incorporation of protein collagens, the manufacture of synthetic bones.# Applications for actinide-containing ceramic materials include nuclear fuels for burning excess plutonium (Pu), or a chemically-inert source of alpha radiation in power supplies for uncrewed space vehicles or microelectronic devices.",
"Use and disposal of radioactive actinides require immobilization in a durable host material.",
"Long half-life radionuclides such as actinide are immobilized using chemically-durable crystalline materials based on polycrystalline ceramics and large single crystals.# High-tech ceramics are used for producing watch cases.",
"The material is valued by watchmakers for its light weight, scratch resistance, durability, and smooth touch.",
"IWC is one of the brands that pioneered the use of ceramic in watchmaking."
],
[
"See also",
"* * * * * *"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* Ceramics Science and Technology"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Diagram of the interactions between the ''wuxing''.",
"The \"generative\" cycle is illustrated by grey arrows running clockwise on the outside of the circle, while the \"destructive\" or \"conquering\" cycle is represented by red arrows inside the circle.Tablet in the Temple of Heaven of Beijing, written in Chinese and Manchu, dedicated to the gods of the Five Movements.",
"The Manchu word ''usiha'', meaning \"star\", explains that this tablet is dedicated to the five planets: Jupiter, Mars, Saturn, Venus and Mercury and the movements which they govern.''''''",
"(), usually translated as '''Five Phases''' or '''Five Agents''', is a fivefold conceptual scheme used in many traditional Chinese fields of study to explain a wide array of phenomena, including cosmic cycles, the interactions between internal organs, the succession of political regimes, and the properties of herbal medicines.The agents are Fire, Water, Wood, Metal, and Earth.",
"The ''wuxing'' system has been in use since it was formulated in the second or first century BCE during the Han dynasty.",
"It appears in many seemingly disparate fields of early Chinese thought, including music, feng shui, alchemy, astrology, martial arts, military strategy, ''I Ching'' divination, and traditional medicine, serving as a metaphysics based on cosmic analogy."
],
[
"Etymology",
"''Taijitu'' diagram featuring the ''wuxing'' in the center (from the ''Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China'' by Chen Menglei)''Wuxing'' originally referred to the five major planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, Mars, Venus), which were conceived as creating five forces of earthly life.",
"This is why the word is composed of Chinese characters meaning \"five\" () and \"moving\" ().",
"\"Moving\" is shorthand for \"planets\", since the word for planets in Chinese literally translates as \"moving stars\" ().",
"Some of the Mawangdui Silk Texts (before 168 BC) also connect the ''wuxing'' to the ''wude'' (), the Five Virtues and Five Emotions.",
"Scholars believe that various predecessors to the concept of ''wuxing'' were merged into one system with many interpretations during the Han dynasty.",
"''Wuxing'' was first translated into English as \"the Five Elements\", drawing deliberate parallels with the Western idea of the four elements.",
"This translation is still in common use among practitioners of Traditional Chinese medicine, such as in the name of Five Element acupuncture.",
"However, this analogy is misleading.",
"The four elements are concerned with form, substance and quantity, whereas ''wuxing'' are \"primarily concerned with process, change, and quality\".",
"For example, the ''wuxing'' element \"Wood\" is more accurately thought of as the \"vital essence\" of trees rather than the physical substance wood.",
"This led sinologist Nathan Sivin to propose the alternative translation \"five phases\" in 1987.But \"phase\" also fails to capture the full meaning of ''wuxing''.",
"In some contexts, the ''wuxing'' are indeed associated with physical substances.",
"Historian of Chinese medicine Manfred Porkert proposed the (somewhat unwieldy) term \"Evolutive Phase\".",
"Perhaps the most widely accepted translation among modern scholars is \"the five agents\", proposed by Marc Kalinowski."
],
[
"Cycles",
"In traditional doctrine, the five phases are connected in two cycles of interactions: a generating or creation ( ''shēng'') cycle, also known as \"mother-son\"; and an overcoming or destructive ( ''kè'') cycle, also known as \"grandfather-grandson\" (see diagram).",
"Each of the two cycles can be analyzed going forward or reversed.",
"There is also an \"overacting\" or excessive version of the destructive cycle.===Inter-promoting===The generating cycle ( ''xiāngshēng'') is:*Wood feeds Fire*Fire produces Earth (ash, lava)*Earth bears Metal (geological processes produce minerals)*Metal collects Water (water vapor condenses on metal, for example)*Water nourishes Wood (Water flowers, plants and other changes in forest)===Weakening===The reverse generating cycle (/ ''xiāngxiè'') is:*Wood depletes Water*Water rusts Metal*Metal impoverishes Earth (erosion, destructive mining of minerals)*Earth smothers Fire*Fire burns Wood (forest fires)===Inter-regulating===The destructive cycle ( ''xiāngkè'') is:*Wood grasps (or stabilizes) Earth (roots of trees can prevent soil erosion)*Earth contains (or directs) Water (dams or river banks)*Water dampens (or regulates) Fire*Fire melts (or refines or shapes) Metal*Metal chops (or carves) Wood===Overacting===The excessive destructive cycle ( ''xiāngchéng'') is:*Wood depletes Earth (depletion of nutrients in soil, over-farming, overcultivation)*Earth obstructs Water (over-damming)*Water extinguishes Fire*Fire melts Metal (affecting its integrity)*Metal makes Wood rigid to easily snap.===Counteracting===A reverse or deficient destructive cycle ( ''xiāngwǔ'' or ''xiānghào'') is:*Wood dulls Metal*Metal de-energizes Fire (conducting heat away)*Fire evaporates Water*Water muddies (or destabilizes) Earth*Earth rots Wood (buried wood rots)"
],
[
"Celestial stem",
" Movement Wood Fire Earth Metal WaterHeavenly Stems Jia Yi Bing Ding Wu Ji Geng Xin Ren Gui Year ends with 4, 5 6, 7 8, 9 0, 1 2, 3===Ming neiyin===In Ziwei divination, ''neiyin'' () further classifies the Five Elements into 60 ''ming'' (), or life orders, based on the ganzhi.",
"Similar to the astrology zodiac, the ''ming'' is used by fortune-tellers to analyse individual personality and destiny.OrderGanzhiMingOrderGanzhiMingElement1Jia Zi Sea metal 31Jia Wu Sand metal Metal 2Yi Chou 32Yi Wei 3Bing Yin Furnace fire 33Bing Shen Forest fire Fire 4Ding Mao 34Ding You 5Wu Chen Forest wood 35Wu Xu Meadow wood Wood 6Ji Si 36Ji Hai 7Geng Wu Road earth 37Geng Zi Adobe earth Earth 8Xin Wei 38Xin Chou 9Ren Shen Sword metal 39Ren Yin Precious metal Metal10Gui You 40Gui Mao 11Jia Xu Volcanic fire 41Jia Chen Lamp fire Fire 12Yi Hai 42Yi Si 13Bing Zi Cave water 43Bing Wu Sky water Water14Ding Chou 44Ding Wei 15Wu Yin Fortress earth 45Wu Shen Highway earth Earth 16Ji Mao 46Ji You 17Geng Chen Wax metal 47Geng Xu Jewellery metal Metal 18Xin Si 48Xin Hai 19Ren Wu Willow wood 49Ren Zi Mulberry wood Wood20Gui Wei 50Gui Chou 21Jia Shen Stream water 51Jia Yin Rapids water Water22Yi You 52Yi Mao 23Bing Xu Roof tiles earth 53Bing Chen Desert earth Earth 24Ding Hai 54Ding Si 25Wu Zi Lightning fire 55Wu Wu Sun fire Fire26Ji Chou 56Ji Wei 27Geng Yin Conifer wood 57Geng Shen Pomegranate wood Wood28Xin Mao 58Xin You 29Ren Chen River water 59Ren Xu Ocean water Water30Gui Si 60Gui Hai"
],
[
"Applications",
"The ''wuxing'' schema is applied to explain phenomena in various fields.===Phases of the Year===The five phases are around 73 days each and are usually used to describe the transformations of nature rather than their formative states.",
"*Wood/Spring: a period of growth, which generates abundant vitality, movement and wind.",
"*Fire/Summer: a period of swelling, flowering, expanding with heat.",
"*Earth can be seen as a transitional period between the other phases or seasons or when relating to transformative seasonal periods it can be seen as late Summer.",
"This period is associated with stability, leveling and dampness.",
"*Metal/Autumn: a period of harvesting, collecting and dryness.",
"*Water/Winter: a period of retreat, stillness, contracting and coolness.===Cosmology and feng shui===Another illustration of the cycleThe art of feng shui (Chinese geomancy) is based on ''wuxing'', with the structure of the cosmos mirroring the five phases, as well as the eight trigrams.",
"Each phase has a complex network of associations with different aspects of nature (see table): colors, seasons and shapes all interact according to the cycles.An interaction or energy flow can be expansive, destructive, or exhaustive, depending on the cycle to which it belongs.",
"By understanding these energy flows, a feng shui practitioner attempts to rearrange energy to benefit the client.",
"Movement Metal Metal Fire Wood Wood Water Earth EarthTrigram hanzi Trigram pinyinqiánduìlízhènxùnkǎngènkūn Trigrams☰☱☲☳☴☵☶☷ I Ching Heaven Lake Fire Thunder Wind Water Mountain Field Planet (Celestial Body) Neptune Venus Mars Jupiter Pluto Mercury Uranus Saturn Color Grey White Red Green Purple Black Blue Yellow Day Friday Friday Tuesday Thursday Thursday Wednesday Saturday Saturday Season Autumn Autumn Summer Spring Spring Winter Intermediate Intermediate Cardinal direction West West South East East North Center Center===Dynastic transitions===According to the Warring States period political philosopher Zou Yan ( BCE), each of the five elements possesses a personified virtue (), which indicates the foreordained destiny () of a dynasty; hence the cyclic succession of the elements also indicates dynastic transitions.",
"Zou Yan claims that the Mandate of Heaven sanctions the legitimacy of a dynasty by sending self-manifesting auspicious signs in the ritual color (yellow, blue, white, red, and black) that matches the element of the new dynasty (Earth, Wood, Metal, Fire, and Water).",
"From the Qin dynasty onward, most Chinese dynasties invoked the theory of the Five Elements to legitimize their reign.=== Chinese medicine ===Five Elements – diurnal cycleThe interdependence of ''zangfu'' networks in the body was said to be a circle of five things, and so mapped by the Chinese doctors onto the five phases.In order to explain the integrity and complexity of the human body, Chinese medical scientists and physicians use the Five Elements theory to classify the human body's endogenous influences on organs, physiological activities, pathological reactions, and environmental or exogenous influences.",
"This diagnostic capacity is extensively used in traditional five phase acupuncture today, as opposed to the modern eight principles based Traditional Chinese medicine.",
"Furthermore, in combination the two systems are the study of postnatal and prenatal influencing on genetics, psychology and sociology.",
"Movement Wood Fire Earth Metal Water Planet Jupiter Mars Saturn Venus Mercury Mental Quality idealism, spontaneity, curiosity passion, intensity agreeableness, honesty intuition, rationality, mind erudition, resourcefulness, wit Emotion anger, kindness hate, resolve anxiety, joy grief, bravery fear, passion Virtue Benevolence Propriety Fidelity Righteousness Wisdom Zang (yin organs) liver heart/pericardium spleen/pancreas lung kidney Fu (yang organs) gall bladder small intestine/San Jiao stomach large intestine urinary bladder Sensory Organ eyes tongue mouth nose ears Body Part tendons pulse muscles skin bones Body Fluid tears sweat saliva mucus urine Finger index finger middle finger thumb ring finger pinky finger Sense sight taste touch smell hearing Taste sour bitter sweet pungent, umami salty Smell rancid scorched fragrant rotten putrid Life early childhood pre-puberty adolescence/intermediate adulthood old age, conception Covering scaly feathered naked human furred shelled Hour 3–9 9–15 change 15–21 21–3 Year Spring Equinox Summer Solstice Summer Final Fall Equinox Winter Solstice 360° 45–135° 135–225° Change 225–315° 315–45°===Music===The ''Huainanzi'' and the ''Yueling'' chapter () of the ''Book of Rites'' make the following correlations: Movement Wood Fire Earth Metal WaterColor Qing (green and blue) Red Yellow White Black Arctic Direction east south center west north Basic Pentatonic Scale pitch Basic Pentatonic Scale pitch pinyin''jué''''zhǐ''''gōng''''shāng''''yǔ''solfege mi or E sol or G do or C re or D la or A* ''Qing'' is a Chinese color word used for both green and blue.",
"Modern Mandarin has separate words for each, but like many other languages, older forms of Chinese did not distinguish between green and blue.",
"* In most modern music, various five note or seven note scales (e.g., the major scale) are defined by selecting five or seven frequencies from the set of twelve semi-tones in the Equal tempered tuning.",
"The Chinese ''shi'er lü'' system of tuning is closest to the ancient Greek tuning of Pythagoras.===Martial arts===Tai chi uses the five elements to designate different directions, positions or footwork patterns: forward, backward, left, right and centre, or three steps forward (attack) and two steps back (retreat).The Five Steps ():*''Jinbu'' () – forward step*''Tuibu'' () – backward step*''Zuogu'' () – left step*''Youpan'' () – right step*''Zhongding'' () – central position, balance, equilibriumThe martial art of ''xingyiquan'' uses the five elements metaphorically to represent five different states of combat.",
"Movement Fist Chinese Pinyin Description '''Metal''' Splitting Pī To split like an axe chopping up and over '''Water''' Drilling / Zuān Drilling forward horizontally like a geyser '''Wood''' Crushing Bēng To collapse, as a building collapsing in on itself '''Fire''' Pounding Pào Exploding outward like a cannon while blocking '''Earth''' Crossing Héng Crossing across the line of attack while turning over''Wuxing heqidao'', Gogyo Aikido (五行合气道) is a life art with roots in Confucian, Taoists and Buddhist theory.",
"It centers around applied peace and health studies rather than defence or physical action.",
"It emphasizes the unification of mind, body and environment using the physiological theory of yin, yang and five-element Traditional Chinese medicine.",
"Its movements, exercises, and teachings cultivate, direct, and harmonise the ''qi''."
],
[
"Gogyo",
"The Japanese term is ''gogyo'' (Japanese:五行, romanized: gogyō).",
"During the 5th and 6th centuries (Kofun period), Japan adopted various philosophical disciplines such as Taoism, Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism through monks and physicians from China.",
"In particular, ''wuxing'' was adapted into gogyo.",
"These theories have been extensively practiced in Japanese acupuncture and traditional Kampo medicine."
],
[
"See also",
"* Acupuncture* Classical element* Color in Chinese culture* Flying Star Feng Shui* Humorism* ''Qi''* ''Wuxing'' painting* ''Zangfu''* Yin and yang"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Feng Youlan (Yu-lan Fung), ''A History of Chinese Philosophy'', volume 2, p. 13* Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China'', volume 2, pp. 262–23.",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Wuxing (Wu-hsing).",
"''The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', ."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Church of Christ, Scientist"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Church of Christ, Scientist''' was founded in 1879 in Boston, Massachusetts, by Mary Baker Eddy, author of ''Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures,'' and founder of Christian Science.",
"The church was founded \"to commemorate the word and works of Christ Jesus\" and \"reinstate primitive Christianity and its lost element of healing\".In the early decades of the 20th century, Christian Science churches were founded in communities around the world, though in the last several decades of that century, there was a marked decline in membership, except in Africa, where there has been growth.",
"Headquartered in Boston, the church does not officially report membership, and estimates as to worldwide membership range from under 100,000 to about 400,000."
],
[
"History",
"The church building, Huntington Ave., Boston, 1900The church was incorporated by Mary Baker Eddy in 1879, following a claimed personal healing in 1866, which she said resulted from reading the Bible.",
"The Bible and Eddy's textbook on Christian healing, ''Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures'', are together the church's key doctrinal sources and have been ordained as the church's \"dual impersonal pastor\".The First Church of Christ, Scientist publishes the weekly newspaper ''The Christian Science Monitor'' in print and online."
],
[
"Beliefs and practices",
"Christian Scientists believe that prayer is effective for healing diseases.",
"The Church has collected over 50,000 testimonies of incidents that it considers healing through Christian Science treatment alone.",
"While most of these testimonies represent ailments neither diagnosed nor treated by medical professionals, the Church requires three other people to vouch for any testimony published in any of its official organs, including the ''Christian Science Journal'', ''Christian Science Sentinel'', and ''Herald of Christian Science''; verifiers say that they witnessed the healing or know the testifier well enough to vouch for them.Christian Scientists may take an intensive two-week \"Primary\" class from an authorized Christian Science teacher.",
"Those who wish to become \"Journal-listed\" (accredited) practitioners, devoting themselves full-time to the practice of healing, must first have Primary class instruction.",
"When they have what the church regards as a record of healing, they may submit their names for publication in the directory of practitioners and teachers in the ''Christian Science Journal''.",
"A practitioner who has been listed for at least three years may apply for \"Normal\" class instruction, given once every three years.",
"Those who receive a certificate are authorized to teach.",
"Both Primary and Normal classes are based on the Bible and the writings of Mary Baker Eddy.",
"The Primary class focuses on the chapter \"Recapitulation\" in ''Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures''.",
"This chapter uses the Socratic method of teaching and contains the \"Scientific Statement of Being\".",
"The \"Normal\" class focuses on the platform of Christian Science, contained on pages 330-340 of ''Science and Health.''"
],
[
"Organization",
"Reflecting pool of the headquarters of the Church of Christ, Scientist.",
"The Prudential Tower and 111 Huntington Avenue are in the background.The First Church of Christ, Scientist is the legal title of The Mother Church and administrative headquarters of the Christian Science Church.",
"The Mary Baker Eddy Library for the Betterment of Humanity is housed in an 11-story structure originally built for The Christian Science Publishing Society.An international newspaper, ''The Christian Science Monitor'', founded by Eddy in 1908 and winner of seven Pulitzer prizes, is published by the church through the Christian Science Publishing Society.===Board of directors===The First Church of Christ, Scientist is the Mother Church and of the Christian Science Church.The Christian Science Board of Directors is a five-person executive entity created by Mary Baker Eddy to conduct the business of the Christian Science Church under the terms defined in the by-laws of the ''Church Manual''.",
"Its functions and restrictions are defined by the ''Manual''."
],
[
"Controversies",
"===Broadcasting===Beginning in the mid-1980s, church executives undertook a controversial and ambitious foray into electronic broadcast media.",
"The first significant effort was to create a weekly half-hour syndicated television program, ''The Christian Science Monitor'' Reports.",
"\"Monitor Reports\" was anchored in its first season by newspaper veteran Rob Nelson.",
"He was replaced in the second by the ''Christian Science Monitor'''s former Moscow correspondent, David Willis.In October 1991, after a series of conflicts over the boundaries between Christian Science teachings and his journalistic independence, John Hart resigned.The hundreds of millions lost on broadcasting brought the church to the brink of bankruptcy.",
"However, with the 1991 publication of ''The Destiny of The Mother Church'' by the late Bliss Knapp, the church secured a $90 million bequest from the Knapp trust.",
"The trust dictated that the book be published as \"Authorized Literature\", with neither modification nor comment.",
"Historically, the church had censured Knapp for deviating at several points from Eddy's teaching, and had refused to publish the work.",
"The church's archivist, fired in anticipation of the book's publication, wrote to branch churches to inform them of the book's history.",
"Many Christian Scientists thought the book violated the church's by-laws, and the editors of the church's religious periodicals and several other church employees resigned in protest.",
"Alternate beneficiaries subsequently sued to contest the church's claim it had complied fully with the will's terms, and the church ultimately received only half of the original sum.The fallout of the broadcasting debacle also sparked a minor revolt among some prominent church members.",
"In late 1993, a group of Christian Scientists filed suit against the Board of Directors, alleging a willful disregard for the ''Manual of The Mother Church'' in its financial dealings.",
"The suit was thrown out by the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts in 1997, but a lingering discontent with the church's financial matters persists to this day.''",
"The Destiny Of The Mother Church'' ceased publication in September 2023.===Membership decline and financial setbacks===In spite of its early meteoric rise, church membership has declined over the past eight decades, according to the church's former treasurer, J. Edward Odegaard.",
"Though the Church is prohibited by the Manual from publishing membership figures, the number of branch churches in the United States has fallen steadily since World War II.",
"In 2009, for the first time in church history, more new members came from Africa than the United States.In 2005, ''The Boston Globe'' reported that the church was considering consolidating Boston operations into fewer buildings and leasing out space in buildings it owned.",
"Church official Philip G. Davis noted that the administration and Colonnade buildings had not been fully used for many years and that vacancy increased after staff reductions in 2004.The church posted an $8 million financial loss in fiscal 2003, and in 2004 cut 125 jobs, a quarter of the staff, at the ''Christian Science Monitor''.",
"Conversely, Davis noted that \"the financial situation right now is excellent\" and stated that the church was not facing financial problems."
],
[
"See also",
"* Christian Science Reading Room* Reader (Christian Science Church)* Jewish Science* List of Christian Scientists (religious denomination)* List of Former Christian Science Churches, Societies and Buildings* Principia College, a college for Christian Scientists in Elsah, Illinois"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Information on Christian Science and official Christian Science Church-sponsored Web sites"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Connecticut"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Connecticut''' ( ) is the southernmost state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States.",
"It borders Rhode Island to its east, Massachusetts to its north, New York to its west, and Long Island Sound to its south.",
"Its capital is Hartford, and its most populous city is Bridgeport.",
"Historically, the state is part of New England as well as the tri-state area with New York and New Jersey.",
"The state is named for the Connecticut River which approximately bisects the state.",
"The word ''Connecticut'' is derived from various anglicized spellings of , a Mohegan-Pequot word for \"long tidal river\".",
"As of the 2020 United States census, Connecticut was home to over 3.6 million residents, its highest decennial count ever, growing every decade since 1790.Connecticut's first European settlers were Dutchmen who established a small, short-lived settlement called House of Hope in Hartford at the confluence of the Park and Connecticut Rivers.",
"Half of Connecticut was initially claimed by the Dutch colony New Netherland, which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware Rivers, although the first major settlements were established in the 1630s by the English.",
"Thomas Hooker led a band of followers from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and founded the Connecticut Colony; other settlers from Massachusetts founded the Saybrook Colony and the New Haven Colony.",
"The Connecticut and New Haven colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in America.",
"In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a royal charter, making Connecticut a crown colony.",
"Connecticut was one of the Thirteen Colonies which rejected British rule in the American Revolution.",
"It was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States.Connecticut is the third-smallest state by area, the 29th most populous, and the fourth most densely populated of the fifty states.",
"It is known as the \"Constitution State\", the \"Nutmeg State\", the \"Provisions State\", and the \"Land of Steady Habits\".",
"The state identifies as creators, makers, innovators, and entrepreneurs who are a powerful force for good in the country.",
"The state logo is the iconic C+T, with the T recognizable sideways making up the negative space in the C. The Connecticut River, Thames River, and ports along Long Island Sound have given Connecticut a strong maritime tradition which continues today.",
"Connecticut is home to the nation's oldest newspaper, The Hartford Courant, founded in 1764.The state also has a long history of hosting the financial services industry, including insurance companies in Hartford County and hedge funds in Fairfield County.",
"As of the 2010 census, it has the highest per-capita income, second-highest level of human development behind Massachusetts, and highest median household income in the United States."
],
[
"History",
"A map of the Connecticut, New Haven, and Saybrook colonies===First people===The name Connecticut is derived from the Mohegan-Pequot word that has been translated as \"long tidal river\" and \"upon the long river\", both referring to the Connecticut River.",
"Evidence of human presence in the Connecticut region dates to as far back as 10,000 years ago.",
"Stone tools were used for hunting, fishing, and woodworking.",
"Semi-nomadic in lifestyle, these peoples moved seasonally to take advantage of various resources in the area.",
"They shared languages based on Algonquian.",
"The Connecticut region was inhabited by multiple Native American tribes which can be grouped into the Nipmuc, the Sequin or \"River Indians\" (which included the Tunxis, Schaghticoke, Podunk, Wangunk, Hammonasset, and Quinnipiac), the Mattabesec or \"Wappinger Confederacy\" and the Pequot-Mohegan.",
"Some of these groups still reside in Connecticut, including the Mohegans, the Pequots, and the Paugusetts.===Colonial period===The first European explorer in Connecticut was Dutchman Adriaen Block, who explored the region in 1614.Dutch fur traders then sailed up the Connecticut River, which they called Versche Rivier (\"Fresh River\"), and built a fort at Dutch Point in Hartford that they named \"House of Hope\" ().On April 26, 1935, the U.S. Post Office issued a postage stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the initial settlement of the Connecticut colony.The Connecticut Colony was originally a number of separate, smaller settlements at Windsor, Wethersfield, Saybrook, Hartford, and New Haven.",
"The first English settlers came in 1633 and settled at Windsor, and then at Wethersfield the following year.",
"John Winthrop the Younger of Massachusetts received a commission to create Saybrook Colony at the mouth of the Connecticut River in 1635.The main body of settlers came in one large group in 1636.They were Puritans from Massachusetts Bay Colony led by Thomas Hooker, who established the Connecticut Colony at Hartford.",
"The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut were adopted in January 1639, and have been described as the first constitutional document in America.The Quinnipiack Colony was established by John Davenport, Theophilus Eaton, and others at New Haven in March 1638.The New Haven Colony had its own constitution called \"The Fundamental Agreement of the New Haven Colony\", signed on June 4, 1639.The settlements were established without official sanction of the English Crown, and each was an independent political entity.",
"In 1662, Winthrop traveled to England and obtained a charter from CharlesII which united the settlements of Connecticut.",
"Historically important colonial settlements included Windsor (1633), Wethersfield (1634), Saybrook (1635), Hartford (1636), New Haven (1638), Fairfield (1639), Guilford (1639), Milford (1639), Stratford (1639), Farmington (1640), Stamford (1641), and New London (1646).The Pequot War marked the first major clash between colonists and Native Americans in New England.",
"The Pequots reacted with increasing aggression to Colonial settlements in their territory—while simultaneously taking lands from the Narragansett and Mohegan tribes.",
"Settlers responded to a murder in 1636 with a raid on a Pequot village on Block Island; the Pequots laid siege to Saybrook Colony's garrison that autumn, then raided Wethersfield in the spring of 1637.Colonists declared war on the Pequots, organized a band of militia and allies from the Mohegan and Narragansett tribes, and attacked a Pequot village on the Mystic River, with death toll estimates ranging between 300 and 700 Pequots.",
"After suffering another major loss at a battle in Fairfield, the Pequots asked for a truce and peace terms.The western boundaries of Connecticut have been subject to change over time.",
"The Hartford Treaty with the Dutch was signed on September 19, 1650, but it was never ratified by the British.",
"According to it, the western boundary of Connecticut ran north from Greenwich Bay for a distance of , \"provided the said line come not within of Hudson River\".",
"This agreement was observed by both sides until war erupted between England and The Netherlands in 1652.Conflict continued concerning colonial limits until the Duke of York captured New Netherland in 1664.On the other hand, Connecticut's original Charter in 1662 granted it all the land to the \"South Sea\"—that is, to the Pacific Ocean.",
"Most Colonial royal grants were for long east–west strips.",
"Connecticut took its grant seriously and established a ninth county between the Susquehanna River and Delaware River named Westmoreland County.",
"This resulted in the brief Pennamite Wars with Pennsylvania.Yale College was established in 1701, providing Connecticut with an important institution to educate clergy and civil leaders.",
"The Congregational church dominated religious life in the colony and, by extension, town affairs in many parts.With more than of coastline including along its navigable rivers, Connecticut developed during its colonial years the antecedents of a maritime tradition that would later produce booms in shipbuilding, marine transport, naval support, seafood production, and leisure boating.Historical records list the ''Tryall'' as the first vessel built in Connecticut Colony, in 1649 at a site on the Connecticut River in present-day Wethersfield.",
"In the two decades leading up to 1776 and the American Revolution, Connecticut boatyards launched about 100 sloops, schooners and brigs according to a database of U.S. customs records maintained online by the Mystic Seaport Museum, the largest being the 180-ton ''Patient Mary'' launched in New Haven in 1763.Connecticut's first lighthouse was constructed in 1760 at the mouth of the Thames River with the New London Harbor Lighthouse.====American Revolution====A 1799 map of Connecticut which shows The Oblong, from ''Low's Encyclopaedia''Connecticut designated four delegates to the Second Continental Congress who signed the Declaration of Independence: Samuel Huntington, Roger Sherman, William Williams, and Oliver Wolcott.",
"Connecticut's legislature authorized the outfitting of six new regiments in 1775, in the wake of the clashes between British regulars and Massachusetts militia at Lexington and Concord.",
"There were some 1,200 Connecticut troops on hand at the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775.In 1775, David Bushnell invented the ''Turtle'' which the following year launched the first submarine attack in history, unsuccessfully against a British warship at anchor in New York Harbor.In 1777, the British got word of Continental Army supplies in Danbury, and they landed an expeditionary force of some 2,000 troops in Westport.",
"This force then marched to Danbury and destroyed homes and much of the depot.",
"Continental Army troops and militia led by General David Wooster and General Benedict Arnold engaged them on their return march at Ridgefield in 1777.For the winter of 1778–79, General George Washington decided to split the Continental Army into three divisions encircling New York City, where British General Sir Henry Clinton had taken up winter quarters.",
"Major General Israel Putnam chose Redding as the winter encampment quarters for some 3,000 regulars and militia under his command.",
"The Redding encampment allowed Putnam's soldiers to guard the replenished supply depot in Danbury and to support any operations along Long Island Sound and the Hudson River Valley.",
"Some of the men were veterans of the winter encampment at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, the previous winter.",
"Soldiers at the Redding camp endured supply shortages, cold temperatures, and significant snow, with some historians dubbing the encampment \"Connecticut's Valley Forge\".The state was also the launching site for a number of raids against Long Island orchestrated by Samuel Holden Parsons and Benjamin Tallmadge, and provided soldiers and material for the war effort, especially to Washington's army outside New York City.",
"General William Tryon raided the Connecticut coast in July 1779, focusing on New Haven, Norwalk, and Fairfield.",
"New London and Groton Heights were raided in September 1781 by Benedict Arnold, who had turned traitor to the British.At the outset of the American Revolution, the Continental Congress assigned Nathaniel Shaw Jr. of New London as its naval agent in charge of recruiting privateers to seize British vessels as opportunities presented, with nearly 50 operating out of the Thames River which eventually drew the reprisal from the British force led by Arnold.=== Early statehood =======Early national period and industrial revolution====Connecticut ratified the U.S. Constitution on January 9, 1788, becoming the fifth state.The state prospered during the era following the American Revolution, as mills and textile factories were built and seaports flourished from trade and fisheries.",
"After Congress established in 1790 the predecessor to the U.S. Revenue Cutter Service that would evolve into the U.S. Coast Guard, President Washington assigned Jonathan Maltbie as one of seven masters to enforce customs regulations, with Maltbie monitoring the southern New England coast with a 48-foot cutter sloop named ''Argus''.In 1786, Connecticut ceded territory to the U.S. government that became part of the Northwest Territory.",
"The state retained land extending across the northern part of present-day Ohio called the Connecticut Western Reserve.",
"The Western Reserve section was settled largely by people from Connecticut, and they brought Connecticut place names to Ohio.Connecticut made agreements with Pennsylvania and New York which extinguished the land claims within those states' boundaries and created the Connecticut Panhandle.",
"The state then ceded the Western Reserve in 1800 to the federal government, which brought it to its present boundaries (other than minor adjustments with Massachusetts).===19th century===For the first time in 1800, Connecticut shipwrights launched more than 100 vessels in a single year.",
"Over the following decade to the doorstep of renewed hostilities with Britain that sparked the War of 1812, Connecticut boatyards constructed close to 1,000 vessels, the most productive stretch of any decade in the 19th century.During the war, the British launched raids in Stonington and Essex and blockaded vessels in the Thames River.",
"Derby native Isaac Hull became Connecticut's best-known naval figure to win renown during the conflict, as captain of the .The British blockade during the War of 1812 hurt exports and bolstered the influence of Federalists who opposed the war.",
"The cessation of imports from Britain stimulated the construction of factories to manufacture textiles and machinery.",
"Connecticut came to be recognized as a major center for manufacturing, due in part to the inventions of Eli Whitney and other early innovators of the Industrial Revolution.The war led to the development of fast clippers that helped extend the reach of New England merchants to the Pacific and Indian oceans.",
"The first half of the 19th century saw as well a rapid rise in whaling, with New London emerging as one of the New England industry's three biggest home ports after Nantucket and New Bedford.The state was known for its political conservatism, typified by its Federalist party and the Yale College of Timothy Dwight.",
"The foremost intellectuals were Dwight and Noah Webster, who compiled his great dictionary in New Haven.",
"Religious tensions polarized the state, as the Congregational Church struggled to maintain traditional viewpoints, in alliance with the Federalists.",
"The failure of the Hartford Convention in 1814 hurt the Federalist cause, with the Democratic-Republican Party gaining control in 1817.Connecticut had been governed under the \"Fundamental Orders\" since 1639, but the state adopted a new constitution in 1818.====Civil War era====View of New London in 1854Connecticut manufacturers played a major role in supplying the Union forces with weapons and supplies during the Civil War.",
"The state furnished 55,000 men, formed into thirty full regiments of infantry, including two in the U.S.",
"Colored Troops, with several Connecticut men becoming generals.",
"The Navy attracted 250 officers and 2,100 men, and Glastonbury native Gideon Welles was Secretary of the Navy.",
"James H. Ward of Hartford was the first U.S.",
"Naval Officer killed in the Civil War.",
"Connecticut casualties included 2,088 killed in combat, 2,801 dying from disease, and 689 dying in Confederate prison camps.A surge of national unity in 1861 brought thousands flocking to the colors from every town and city.",
"However, as the war became a crusade to end slavery, many Democrats (especially Irish Catholics) pulled back.",
"The Democrats took a pro-slavery position and included many Copperheads willing to let the South secede.",
"The intensely fought 1863 election for governor was narrowly won by the Republicans.====Second industrial revolution====1895 map from Rand McNallyConnecticut's extensive industry, dense population, flat terrain, and wealth encouraged the construction of railroads starting in 1839.By 1840, of line were in operation, growing to in 1850 and in 1860.The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, called the ''New Haven'' or \"The Consolidated\", became the dominant Connecticut railroad company after 1872.J.",
"P. Morgan began financing the major New England railroads in the 1890s, dividing territory so that they would not compete.",
"The New Haven purchased 50 smaller companies, including steamship lines, and built a network of light rails (electrified trolleys) that provided inter-urban transportation for all of southern New England.",
"By 1912, the New Haven operated over of track with 120,000 employees.As steam-powered passenger ships proliferated after the Civil War, Noank would produce the two largest built in Connecticut during the 19th century, with the 332-foot wooden steam paddle wheeler ''Rhode Island'' launched in 1882, and the 345-foot paddle wheeler ''Connecticut'' seven years later.",
"Connecticut shipyards would launch more than 165 steam-powered vessels in the 19th century.In 1875, the first telephone exchange in the world was established in New Haven.===20th century=======World War I====When World War I broke out in 1914, Connecticut became a major supplier of weaponry to the U.S. military; by 1918, 80% of the state's industries were producing goods for the war effort.",
"Remington Arms in Bridgeport produced half the small-arms cartridges used by the U.S. Army, with other major suppliers including Winchester in New Haven and Colt in Hartford.Connecticut was also an important U.S. Navy supplier, with Electric Boat receiving orders for 85 submarines, Lake Torpedo Boat building more than 20 subs, and the Groton Iron Works building freighters.",
"On June 21, 1916, the Navy made Groton the site for its East Coast submarine base and school.The state enthusiastically supported the American war effort in 1917 and 1918 with large purchases of war bonds, a further expansion of industry, and an emphasis on increasing food production on the farms.",
"Thousands of state, local, and volunteer groups mobilized for the war effort and were coordinated by the Connecticut State Council of Defense.",
"Manufacturers wrestled with manpower shortages; Waterbury's American Brass and Manufacturing Company was running at half capacity, so the federal government agreed to furlough soldiers to work there.====Interwar period====In 1919, J. Henry Roraback started the Connecticut Light & Power Co. which became the state's dominant electric utility.",
"In 1925, Frederick Rentschler spurred the creation of Pratt & Whitney in Hartford to develop engines for aircraft; the company became an important military supplier in World WarII and one of the three major manufacturers of jet engines in the world.On September 21, 1938, the most destructive storm in New England history struck eastern Connecticut, killing hundreds of people.",
"The eye of the \"Long Island Express\" passed just west of New Haven and devastated the Connecticut shoreline between Old Saybrook and Stonington from the full force of wind and waves, even though they had partial protection by Long Island.",
"The hurricane caused extensive damage to infrastructure, homes, and businesses.",
"In New London, a sailing ship was driven into a warehouse complex, causing a major fire.",
"Heavy rainfall caused the Connecticut River to flood downtown Hartford and East Hartford.",
"An estimated 50,000 trees fell onto roadways.====World War II====The advent of lend-lease in support of Britain helped lift Connecticut from the Great Depression, with the state a major production center for weaponry and supplies used in World WarII.",
"Connecticut manufactured 4.1% of total U.S. military armaments produced during the war, ranking ninth among the 48 states, with major factories including Colt for firearms, Pratt & Whitney for aircraft engines, Chance Vought for fighter planes, Hamilton Standard for propellers, and Electric Boat for submarines and PT boats.",
"In Bridgeport, General Electric produced a significant new weapon to combat tanks: the bazooka.On May 13, 1940, Igor Sikorsky made an untethered flight of the first practical helicopter.",
"The helicopter saw limited use in World War II, but future military production made Sikorsky Aircraft's Stratford plant Connecticut's largest single manufacturing site by the start of the 21st century.====Post-World War II economic expansion====Connecticut lost some wartime factories following the end of hostilities, but the state shared in a general post-war expansion that included the construction of highways and resulting in middle-class growth in suburban areas.Prescott Bush represented Connecticut in the U.S. Senate from 1952 to 1963; his son George H. W. Bush and grandson George W. Bush both became presidents of the United States.",
"In 1965, Connecticut ratified its current constitution, replacing the document that had served since 1818.In 1968, commercial operation began for the Connecticut Yankee Nuclear Power Plant in Haddam; in 1970, the Millstone Nuclear Power Station began operations in Waterford.",
"In 1974, Connecticut elected Democratic Governor Ella T. Grasso, who became the first woman in any state to be elected governor without being the wife or widow of a previous governor.====Late 20th century====Connecticut's dependence on the defense industry posed an economic challenge at the end of the Cold War.",
"The resulting budget crisis helped elect Lowell Weicker as governor on a third-party ticket in 1990.Weicker's remedy was a state income tax which proved effective in balancing the budget, but only for the short-term.",
"He did not run for a second term, in part because of this politically unpopular move.In 1992, initial construction was completed on Foxwoods Casino at the Mashantucket Pequots reservation in eastern Connecticut, which became the largest casino in the Western Hemisphere.",
"Mohegan Sun followed four years later.===Early 21st century===In 2000, presidential candidate Al Gore chose Senator Joe Lieberman as his running mate, marking the first time that a major party presidential ticket included someone of the Jewish faith.",
"Gore and Lieberman fell five votes short of George W. Bush and Dick Cheney in the Electoral College.",
"In the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, 65 state residents were killed, mostly Fairfield County residents who were working in the World Trade Center.",
"In 2004, Republican Governor John G. Rowland resigned during a corruption investigation, later pleading guilty to federal charges.Connecticut was hit by three major storms in just over 14 months in 2011 and 2012, with all three causing extensive property damage and electric outages.",
"Hurricane Irene struck Connecticut August 28, and damage totaled $235 million.",
"Two months later, the \"Halloween nor'easter\" dropped extensive snow onto trees, resulting in snapped branches and trunks that damaged power lines; some areas were without electricity for 11 days.",
"Hurricane Sandy hit New Jersey and passed over Connecticut with hurricane-force winds and tides up to 12 feet above normal.",
"Many coastal buildings were damaged or destroyed.",
".",
"Sandy's winds drove storm surges into streets and cut power to 98% of homes and businesses, with more than $360 million in damage.On December 14, 2012, Adam Lanza shot and killed 26 people at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, and then killed himself.",
"The massacre spurred renewed efforts by activists for tighter laws on gun ownership nationally.In the summer and fall of 2016, Connecticut experienced a drought in many parts of the state, causing some water-use bans.",
"As of , 45% of the state was listed at Severe Drought by the U.S. Drought Monitor, including almost all of Hartford and Litchfield counties.",
"All the rest of the state was in Moderate Drought or Severe Drought, including Middlesex, Fairfield, New London, New Haven, Windham, and Tolland counties.",
"This affected the agricultural economy in the state."
],
[
"Geography",
"Connecticut is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New York, on the north by Massachusetts, and on the east by Rhode Island.",
"The state capital and fourth largest city is Hartford, and other major cities and towns (by population) include Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, Danbury, New Britain, Greenwich, and Bristol.",
"There are 169 incorporated towns in Connecticut, with cities and villages included within some towns.thumbThe highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state.",
"The highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet (42°3′ N, 73°29′ W), on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts.",
"At the opposite extreme, many of the coastal towns have areas that are less than above sea level.Connecticut has a long maritime history and a reputation based on that history—yet the state has no direct oceanfront (technically speaking).",
"The coast of Connecticut sits on Long Island Sound, which is an estuary.",
"The state's access to the open Atlantic Ocean is both to the west (toward New York City) and to the east (toward the \"race\" near Rhode Island).",
"Due to this unique geography, Long Island Sound and the Connecticut shoreline are relatively protected from high waves from storms.The Connecticut River cuts through the center of the state, flowing into Long Island Sound.",
"The most populous metropolitan region centered within the state lies in the Connecticut River Valley.",
"Despite Connecticut's relatively small size, it features wide regional variations in its landscape; for example, in the northwestern Litchfield Hills, it features rolling mountains and horse farms, whereas in areas to the east of New Haven along the coast, the landscape features coastal marshes, beaches, and large scale maritime activities.Connecticut's rural areas and small towns in the northeast and northwest corners of the state contrast sharply with its industrial cities such as Stamford, Bridgeport, and New Haven, located along the coastal highways from the New York border to New London, then northward up the Connecticut River to Hartford.",
"Many towns in northeastern and northwestern Connecticut center around a green.",
"Near the green typically stand historical visual symbols of New England towns, such as a white church, a colonial meeting house, a colonial tavern or inn, several colonial houses, and so on, establishing a scenic historical appearance maintained for both historic preservation and tourism.",
"Many of the areas in southern and coastal Connecticut have been built up and rebuilt over the years, and look less visually like traditional New England.The northern boundary of the state with Massachusetts is marked by the Southwick Jog or Granby Notch, an approximately square detour into Connecticut.",
"The origin of this anomaly is clearly established in a long line of disputes and temporary agreements which were finally concluded in 1804, when southern Southwick's residents sought to leave Massachusetts, and the town was split in half.The southwestern border of Connecticut where it abuts New York State is marked by a panhandle in Fairfield County, containing the towns of Greenwich, Stamford, New Canaan, Darien, and parts of Norwalk and Wilton.",
"This irregularity in the boundary is the result of territorial disputes in the late 17th century, culminating with New York giving up its claim to the area, whose residents considered themselves part of Connecticut, in exchange for an equivalent area extending northwards from Ridgefield to the Massachusetts border, as well as undisputed claim to Rye, New York.Areas maintained by the National Park Service include Appalachian National Scenic Trail, Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor, and Weir Farm National Historic Site.===Climate===Köppen climate types of Connecticut, using 1991–2020 climate normals.Connecticut lies at the rough transition zone between the southern end of the humid continental climate, and the northern portion of the humid subtropical climate.",
"Northern Connecticut generally experiences a climate with cold winters with moderate snowfall and hot, humid summers.",
"Far southern and coastal Connecticut has a climate with cool winters with a mix of rain and infrequent snow, and the long hot and humid summers typical of the middle and lower East Coast.==== Precipitation ====Connecticut sees a fairly even precipitation pattern with rainfall/snowfall spread throughout the 12 months.",
"Connecticut averages 56% of possible sunshine (higher than the U.S. national average), averaging 2,400 hours of sunshine annually.",
"On average, about one third of days in the state see some amount of precipitation each year.",
"Occasionally, some months may see extremes in precipitation, either much higher or lower than normal, though long term droughts and floods are rare.Early spring can range from slightly cool (40s to low 50s F) to warm (65 to 70 F), while mid and late spring (late April/May) is warm.",
"By late May, the building Bermuda High creates a southerly flow of warm and humid tropical air, bringing hot weather conditions throughout the state.",
"Average highs are in New London and in Windsor Locks at the peak of summer in late July.",
"On occasion, heat waves with highs from 90 to occur across Connecticut.",
"Connecticut's record high temperature is which occurred in Danbury on July 15, 1995.Although summers are sunny in Connecticut, quick moving summer thunderstorms can bring brief downpours with thunder and lightning.",
"Occasionally these thunderstorms can be severe, and the state usually averages one tornado per year.",
"During hurricane season, the remains of tropical cyclones occasionally affect the region, though a direct hit is rare.",
"Some notable hurricanes to impact the state include the 1938 New England hurricane, Hurricane Carol in 1954, Hurricane Sandy in 2012, and Hurricane Isaias in 2020.Weather commonly associated with the fall season typically begins in October and lasts to the first days of December.",
"Daily high temperatures in October and November range from the 50s to 60s (Fahrenheit) with nights in the 40s and upper 30s.",
"Colorful foliage begins across northern parts of the state in early October and moves south and east reaching southeast Connecticut by early November.",
"Far southern and coastal areas, however, have more oak and hickory trees (and fewer maples) and are often less colorful than areas to the north.",
"By December daytime highs are in the 40s °F for much of the state, and average overnight lows are below freezing.Winters (December through mid-March) are generally cold from south to north in Connecticut.",
"The coldest month (January) has average high temperatures ranging from in the coastal lowlands to in the inland and northern portions on the state.",
"The lowest temperature recorded in Connecticut is which has been observed twice: in Falls Village on February 16, 1943, and in Coventry on January 22, 1961.The average yearly snowfall ranges from about in the higher elevations of the northern portion of the state to only along the southeast coast of Connecticut (Branford to Groton).",
"Generally, any locale north or west of Interstate 84 receives the most snow, during a storm, and throughout the season.",
"Most of Connecticut has less than 60 days of snow cover.",
"Snow usually falls from late November to late March in the northern part of the state, and from early December to mid-March in the southern and coastal parts of the state.During winter every few years, Connecticut can occasionally get heavy snowstorms, called nor'easters, which may produce as much as two feet of snow on rare occasions.",
"Ice storms also occur on occasion, such as the Southern New England ice storm of 1973 and the December 2008 Northeastern United States ice storm.",
"These storms can cause widespread power outages and damage.Monthly normal high and low temperatures for various Connecticut cities (°F) City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Bridgeport 38/24 40/25 47/32 58/41 68/51 77/61 83/67 81/67 75/59 64/48 53/38 43/30 Hartford 35/18 38/20 47/28 60/38 71/48 79/57 85/63 83/61 75/53 63/42 51/33 40/24===Flora===Forests consist of a mix of Northeastern coastal forests of oak in southern areas of the state, to the upland New England-Acadian forests in the northwestern parts of the state.",
"Mountain Laurel (''Kalmia latifolia'') is the state flower and is native to low ridges in several parts of Connecticut.",
"Rosebay rhododendron (''Rhododendron maximum'') is also native to eastern uplands of Connecticut and Pachaug State Forest is home to the Rhododendron Sanctuary Trail.",
"Atlantic white cedar (''Chamaecyparis thyoides''), is found in wetlands in the southern parts of the state.",
"Connecticut has one native cactus (''Opuntia humifusa''), found in sandy coastal areas and low hillsides.",
"Several types of beach grasses and wildflowers are also native to Connecticut.",
"Connecticut spans USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5b to 7a.",
"Coastal Connecticut is the broad transition zone where more southern and subtropical plants are cultivated.",
"In some coastal communities, ''Magnolia grandiflora'' (southern magnolia), crape myrtles, scrub palms (''Sabal minor''), needle palms (''Rhapidophyllum hystrix''), and other broadleaved evergreens are cultivated in small numbers.=== Largest cities and towns ==="
],
[
"Demographics",
"As of the 2020 United States census, Connecticut has a population of 3,605,944, an increase of 31,847 people (0.9%) from the 2010 United States census.",
"Among the census records, 20.4% of the population was under 18.In 1790, 97% of the population in Connecticut was classified as \"rural\".",
"The first census in which less than half the population was classified as rural was 1890.In the 2000 census, only 12.3% was considered rural.",
"Most of western and southern Connecticut (particularly the Gold Coast) is strongly associated with New York City; this area is the most affluent and populous region of the state and has high property costs and high incomes.",
"The center of population of Connecticut is located in the town of Cheshire.According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 2,930 homeless people in Connecticut.Ethnic origins in ConnecticutConnecticut's population density mapRacial and ethnic composition as of the 2020 census Race and ethnicityAloneTotal White (non-Hispanic) Hispanic or Latino African American (non-Hispanic) Asian Native American Pacific Islander Other + '''Historical racial composition of Connecticut''' Racial composition 1990 2000 2010 White 87.0% 81.6% 77.6% Black 8.3% 9.1% 10.1% Asian 1.5% 2.4% 3.8% Native 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% Native Hawaiian andother Pacific Islander – – – Other race 2.9% 4.3% 5.6% Two or more races – 2.2% 2.6%In common with the majority of the United States, non-Hispanic whites have remained the dominant racial and ethnic group in Connecticut.",
"From being 98% of the population in 1940, however, they have declined to 63% of the population as of the 2020 census.",
"These statistics have represented fewer Americans identifying as non-Hispanic white, which has given rise to the Hispanic and Latino American population and Asian American population overall.",
", 46.1% of Connecticut's population younger than age1 were minorities.",
"As of 2004, 11.4% of the population (400,000) was foreign-born.",
"In 1870, native-born Americans had accounted for 75% of the state's population, but that had dropped to 35% by 1918.Also as of 2000, 81.69% of Connecticut residents age5 and older spoke English at home and 8.42% spoke Spanish, followed by Italian at 1.59%, French at 1.31%, and Polish at 1.20%.The largest ancestry groups since 2010 were: 19.3% Italian, 17.9% Irish, 10.7% English, 10.4% German, 8.6% Polish, 6.6% French, 3.0% French Canadian, 2.7% American, 2.0% Scottish, and 1.4% Scotch Irish.The top countries of origin for Connecticut's immigrants in 2018 were India, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Poland and Ecuador.===Birth data===''Note: Births in table do not add up because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.",
"''+ Live Births by Single Race/Ethnicity of Mother Race 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 White: 28,454 (78.8%) 28,543 (78.7%) 28,164 (78.8%) ... ... ... ... ... ... > Non-Hispanic White 20,704 (57.4%) 20,933 (57.7%) 20,395 (57.0%) 19,551 (54.3%) 18,842 (53.5%) 18,488 (53.2%) 18,366 (53.6%) 17,785 (53.2%) 19,136 (53.6%) Black 5,103 (14.1%) 5,154 (14.2%) 4,988 (14.0%) 4,453 (12.4%) 4,301 (12.2%) 4,423 (12.7%) 4,221 (12.3%) 4,056 (12.1%) 4,357 (12.2%) Asian 2,221 (6.1%) 2,280 (6.3%) 2,497 (7.0%) 2,583 (7.2%) 2,475 (7.0%) 2,232 (6.4%) 2,199 (6.4%) 1,992 (6.0%) 1,921 (5.4%) American Indian 307 (0.9%) 308 (0.8%) 97 (0.3%) 26 (0.1%) 28 (0.1%) 38 (0.1%) 24 (0.1%) 35 (0.1%) 33 (0.1%) ''Hispanic'' (of any race) ''8,208'' (22.7%) ''8,129'' (22.4%) ''8,275'' (23.1%) ''8,622'' (23.9%) ''8,833'' (25.1%) ''8,762'' (25.2%) ''8,728'' (25.5%) ''8,861'' (26.5%) ''9,482'' (26.6%) '''Total Connecticut ''' '''36,085''' (100%) '''36,285''' (100%) '''35,746''' (100%) '''36,015''' (100%) '''35,221''' (100%) '''34,725''' (100%) '''34,258''' (100%) '''33,460''' (100%) '''35,670''' (100%)* Since 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one ''Hispanic'' group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.===Religion===A Pew survey of Connecticut residents' religious self-identification showed the following distribution of affiliations in 2014: Protestant 35%, Mormonism 1%, Jewish 3%, Roman Catholic 33%, Orthodox 1%, Non-religious 28%, Jehovah's Witness 1%, Hinduism 1%, Buddhism 1% and Islam 1%.",
"Jewish congregations had 108,280 (3.2%) members in 2000.The Jewish population is concentrated in the towns near Long Island Sound between Greenwich and New Haven, in Greater New Haven and in Greater Hartford, especially the suburb of West Hartford.",
"According to the Association of Religion Data Archives, the largest Christian denominations, by number of adherents, in 2010 were: the Catholic Church, with 1,252,936; the United Church of Christ, with 96,506; and non-denominational Evangelical Protestants, with 72,863.Recent immigration has brought other non-Christian religions to the state, but the numbers of adherents of other religions are still low.",
"Connecticut is also home to New England's largest Protestant church: The First Cathedral in Bloomfield, Connecticut, located in Hartford County.",
"Hartford is seat to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Hartford, which is sovereign over the Diocese of Bridgeport and the Diocese of Norwich.By the Public Religion Research Institute's study in 2020, 71% of the population identified as Christian.",
"In contrast to the 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, the irreligious declined from 28% of the population to 21% at the 2020 Public Religion Research Institute's study."
],
[
"Economy",
"Enfield.Connecticut's economic output in 2019 as measured by gross domestic product was $289 billion, up from $277.9 billion in 2018.Connecticut's per capita personal income in 2019 was estimated at $79,087, the highest of any state.",
"There is, however, a great disparity in incomes throughout the state; after New York, Connecticut had the second largest gap nationwide between the average incomes of the top 1% and the average incomes of the bottom 99%.",
"According to a 2018 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Connecticut had the third-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 7.75%.",
"New Canaan is the wealthiest town in Connecticut, with a per capita income of $85,459.Hartford is the poorest municipality in Connecticut, with a per capita income of $13,428 in 2000.As of December 2019, Connecticut's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 3.8%, with U.S. unemployment at 3.5% that month.",
"Dating back to 1982, Connecticut recorded its lowest unemployment in 2000 between August and October, at 2.2%.",
"The highest unemployment rate during that period occurred in November and December 2010 at 9.3%, but economists expected record new levels of layoffs as a result of business closures in the spring of 2020 due to the coronavirus pandemic.===Taxation===Tax is collected by the Connecticut Department of Revenue Services and by local municipalities.As of 2012, Connecticut residents had the second highest rate in the nation of combined state and local taxes after New York, at 12.6% of income compared to the national average of 9.9% as reported by the Tax Foundation.Before 1991, Connecticut had an investment-only income tax system.",
"Income from employment was untaxed, but income from investments was taxed at 13%, the highest rate in the U.S., with no deductions allowed for costs of producing the investment income, such as interest on borrowing.In 1991, under Governor Lowell P. Weicker Jr., an independent, the system was changed to one in which the taxes on employment income and investment income were equalized at a maximum rate of 4%.",
"The new tax policy drew investment firms to Connecticut; , Fairfield County was home to the headquarters for 16 of the 200 largest hedge funds in the world., the income tax rates on Connecticut individuals were divided into seven tax brackets of 3% (on income up to $10,000); 5% ($10,000–$50,000); 5.5% ($50,000–$100,000); 6% ($100,000–$200,000); 6.5% ($200,000–$250,000); 6.9% ($250,000–$500,000); and 6.99% above $500,000, with additional amounts owed depending on the bracket.All wages of Connecticut residents are subject to the state's income tax, even if earned outside the state.",
"However, in those cases, Connecticut income tax must be withheld only to the extent the Connecticut tax exceeds the amount withheld by the other jurisdiction.",
"Since New York has higher income tax rates than Connecticut, this effectively means that Connecticut residents who work in New York have no Connecticut income tax withheld.",
"Connecticut permits a credit for taxes paid to other jurisdictions, but since residents who work in other states are still subject to Connecticut income taxation, they may owe taxes if the jurisdictional credit does not fully offset the Connecticut tax amount.Connecticut levies a 6.35% state sales tax on the retail sale, lease, or rental of most goods.",
"Some items and services in general are not subject to sales and use taxes unless specifically enumerated as taxable by statute.",
"A provision excluding clothing under $50 from sales tax was repealed .",
"There are no additional sales taxes imposed by local jurisdictions.",
"In 2001, Connecticut instituted what became an annual sales tax \"holiday\" each August lasting one week, when retailers do not have to remit sales tax on certain items and quantities of clothing that has varied from year to year.State law authorizes municipalities to tax property, including real estate, vehicles and other personal property, with state statute providing varying exemptions, credits and abatements.",
"All assessments are at 70% of fair market value.",
"The maximum property tax credit is $200 per return and any excess may not be refunded or carried forward.",
"According to the Tax Foundation, on a per capita basis in the 2017 fiscal year Connecticut residents paid the 3rd highest average property taxes in the nation after New Hampshire and New Jersey., gasoline taxes and fees in Connecticut were 40.13 cents per gallon, 11th highest in the United States which had a nationwide average of 36.13 cents a gallon excluding federal taxes.",
"Diesel taxes and fees as of January 2020 in Connecticut were 46.50 cents per gallon, ninth highest nationally with the U.S. average at 37.91 cents.===Real estate===In 2019, sales of single-family homes in Connecticut totaled 33,146 units, a 2.1 percent decline from the 2018 transaction total.",
"The median home sold in 2019 recorded a transaction amount of $260,000, up 0.4 percent from 2018.Connecticut had the seventh highest rate of home foreclosure activity in the country in 2019 at 0.53 percent of the total housing stock.===Industries===Finance, insurance and real estate was Connecticut's largest industry in 2018 as ranked by gross domestic product, generating $75.7 billion in GDP that year.",
"Major employers include The Hartford, Travelers, Harman International, Cigna, the Aetna subsidiary of CVS Health, Mass Mutual, People's United Financial, Bank of America, Realogy, Bridgewater Associates, GE Capital, William Raveis Real Estate, and Berkshire Hathaway through reinsurance and residential real estate subsidiaries.The combined educational, health and social services sector was the largest single industry as ranked by employment, with a combined workforce of 342,600 people at the end of 2019, ranking fourth the year before in GDP at $28.3 billion.The broad business and professional services sector had the second highest GDP total in Connecticut in 2018 at an estimated $33.7 billion.Manufacturing was the third biggest industry in 2018 with GDP of $30.8 billion, dominated by Raytheon Technologies formed in the March 2020 merger of Hartford-based United Technologies and Waltham, Mass.-based Raytheon Co. As of the merger, Raytheon Technologies employed about 19,000 people in Connecticut through subsidiaries Pratt & Whitney and Collins Aerospace.",
"Lockheed Martin subsidiary Sikorsky Aircraft operates Connecticut's single largest manufacturing plant in Stratford, where it makes helicopters.The world's largest audio equipment manufacturing company Harman International is headquartered in Stamford, Connecticut.",
"It owns many brands like JBL, Akg and Harman kardon.Other major manufacturers include the Electric Boat division of General Dynamics, which makes submarines in Groton, Boehringer Ingelheim, a pharmaceuticals manufacturer with its U.S. headquarters in Ridgefield, and ASML, which in Wilton makes precision lithography machines used to create circuitry on semiconductors and flat-screen displays.Connecticut historically was a center of gun manufacturing, and four gun-manufacturing firms continued to operate in the state , employing 2,000 people: Colt, Stag, Ruger, and Mossberg.",
"Marlin, owned by Remington, closed in April 2011.Other large components of the Connecticut economy in 2018 included wholesale trade ($18.1 billion in GDP); information services ($13.8 billion); retail ($13.7 billion); arts, entertainment and food services ($9.1 billion); and construction ($8.3 billion).Tourists spent $9.3 billion in Connecticut in 2017 according to estimates as part of a series of studies commissioned by the state of Connecticut.",
"Foxwoods Resort Casino and Mohegan Sun are the two biggest tourist draws and number among the state's largest employers; both are located on Native American reservations in the southeastern Connecticut.Connecticut's agricultural production totaled $580 million in 2017, with just over half of that revenue the result of nursery stock production.",
"Milk production totaled $81 million that year, with other major product categories including eggs, vegetables and fruit, tobacco and shellfish.===Energy===Connecticut's economy uses less energy to produce each dollar of GDP than all other states except California, Massachusetts, and New York.",
"It uses less energy on a per-capita basis than all but six other states.",
"It has no fossil-fuel resources, but does have renewable resources.",
"Average retail electricity prices are the highest among the 48 contiguous states.",
"While the vast majority of state's overall energy consumption is fossil fuels, nuclear power delivered over 40% of state's electricity generation in 2019.Refuse-derived fuels and other biomass provided the largest share of renewable electricity at about a 3% share.",
"Solar and wind generation have grown in recent years.",
"More than three-quarters of solar generation came from distributed small-scale installations such as rooftop solar in 2019, and there is planning underway to significantly increase renewable generation with the state's offshore wind resource."
],
[
"Transport",
"===Roads===Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge, locally known as the '''QBridge''', carries ten lanes over the Quinnipiac River in New Haven, along the Connecticut Turnpike.The Interstate highways in the state are Interstate 95 (I-95) traveling southwest to northeast along the coast, I-84 traveling southwest to northeast in the center of the state, I-91 traveling north to south in the center of the state, and I-395 traveling north to south near the eastern border of the state.",
"The other major highways in Connecticut are the Merritt Parkway and Wilbur Cross Parkway, which together form Connecticut Route 15 (Route 15), traveling from the Hutchinson River Parkway in New York parallel to I-95 before turning north of New Haven and traveling parallel to I-91, finally becoming a surface road in Berlin.",
"I-95 and Route 15 were originally toll roads; they relied on a system of toll plazas at which all traffic stopped and paid fixed tolls.",
"A series of major crashes at these plazas eventually contributed to the decision to remove the tolls in 1988.Other major arteries in the state include U.S. Route7 (US7) in the west traveling parallel to the New York state line, Route8 farther east near the industrial city of Waterbury and traveling north–south along the Naugatuck River Valley nearly parallel with US7, and Route9 in the east.Between New Haven and New York City, I-95 is one of the most congested highways in the United States.",
"Although I-95 has been widened in several spots, some areas are only three lanes and this strains traffic capacity, resulting in frequent and lengthy rush hour delays.",
"Frequently, the congestion spills over to clog the parallel Merritt Parkway and even US1.The state has encouraged traffic reduction schemes, including rail use and ride-sharing.Connecticut also has a very active bicycling community, with one of the highest rates of bicycle ownership and use in the United States, particularly in New Haven.",
"According to the U.S. Census 2006 American Community Survey, New Haven has the highest percentage of commuters who bicycle to work of any major metropolitan center on the East Coast.===Rail===Stamford StationRail is a popular travel mode between New Haven and New York City's Grand Central Terminal.",
"Southwestern Connecticut is served by the Metro-North Railroad's New Haven Line, operated by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority.",
"Metro-North provides commuter service between New York City and New Haven, with branches to New Canaan, Danbury, and Waterbury.",
"Connecticut lies along Amtrak's Northeast Corridor, which features frequent Northeast Regional and Acela Express service from New Haven south to New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, DC, and Norfolk, VA, as well as north to New London, Providence and Boston.",
"Since 1990, coastal cities and towns between New Haven and New London are also served by the Shore Line East commuter line.In June 2018, a commuter rail service called the Hartford Line began operating between New Haven and Springfield on Amtrak's New Haven-Springfield Line.",
"Hartford Line service is provided by both Amtrak and the Connecticut Department of Transportation's CT Rail, and in addition to its termini serves New Haven State Street, Wallingford, Meriden, Berlin, Hartford, Windsor, and Windsor Locks.",
"Several infill stations are planned to be added in the near future as of 2021.Amtrak's Vermonter runs from Washington to St. Albans, Vermont via the same line.",
"In July 2019, Amtrak launched the Valley Flyer, which runs between New Haven and Greenfield, Massachusetts.A proposed commuter rail service, the Central Corridor Rail Line, would connect New London with Norwich, Willimantic, Storrs, and Stafford Springs, with service continuing into Massachusetts and Brattleboro, Vermont.===Bus===Statewide bus service is supplied by Connecticut Transit, owned by the Connecticut Department of Transportation, with smaller municipal authorities providing local service.",
"Bus networks are an important part of the transportation system in Connecticut, especially in urban areas like Hartford, Stamford, Norwalk, Bridgeport and New Haven.",
"Connecticut Transit also operates CTfastrak, a bus rapid transit service between New Britain and Hartford, which opened to the public on March 28, 2015.===Air===Bradley International Airport, the state's largestConnecticut's largest airport is Bradley International Airport in Windsor Locks, north of Hartford.",
"Many residents of central and southern Connecticut also make heavy use of JFK International Airport and Newark International Airports, especially for international travel.",
"Smaller regional air service is provided at Tweed New Haven Regional Airport.",
"Larger civil airports include Danbury Municipal Airport and Waterbury-Oxford Airport in western Connecticut, Hartford–Brainard Airport in central Connecticut, and Groton-New London Airport in eastern Connecticut.",
"Sikorsky Memorial Airport is located in Stratford and mostly services cargo, helicopter and private aviation.===Ferry===Several ferry services cross Long Island Sound and connect the state to Long Island.",
"The Bridgeport & Port Jefferson Ferry travels between Bridgeport, Connecticut, and Port Jefferson, New York.",
"Ferry service also operates out of New London to Orient, New York; Fishers Island, New York; and Block Island, Rhode Island, which are popular tourist destinations.",
"Two ferries cross the Connecticut River: the Rocky Hill–Glastonbury ferry and the Chester–Hadlyme ferry, the former of which is the oldest continuously operating ferry in the United States, operating since 1655."
],
[
"Law and government",
"The Connecticut State Capitol in downtown HartfordHartford has been the sole capital of Connecticut since 1875.Before then, New Haven and Hartford alternated as dual capitals.===Constitutional history===Connecticut is known as the \"Constitution State\".",
"The origin of this nickname is uncertain, but it likely comes from Connecticut's pivotal role in the federal constitutional convention of 1787, during which Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth helped to orchestrate what became known as the Connecticut Compromise, or the Great Compromise.",
"This plan combined the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan to form a bicameral legislature, a form copied by almost every state constitution since the adoption of the federal constitution.",
"Variations of the bicameral legislature had been proposed by Virginia and New Jersey, but Connecticut's plan was the one that was in effect until the early 20th century, when Senators ceased to be selected by their state legislatures and were instead directly elected.",
"Otherwise, it is still the design of Congress.The nickname also might refer to the Fundamental Orders of 1638–39.These Fundamental Orders represent the framework for the first formal Connecticut state government written by a representative body in Connecticut.",
"The State of Connecticut government has operated under the direction of four separate documents in the course of the state's constitutional history.",
"After the Fundamental Orders, Connecticut was granted governmental authority by King Charles II of England through the Connecticut Charter of 1662.Separate branches of government did not exist during this period, and the General Assembly acted as the supreme authority.",
"A constitution similar to the modern U.S. Constitution was not adopted in Connecticut until 1818.Finally, the current state constitution was implemented in 1965.The 1965 constitution absorbed a majority of its 1818 predecessor, but incorporated a handful of important modifications.===Executive===The governor heads the executive branch.",
", Ned Lamont is the Governor and Susan Bysiewicz is the Lieutenant Governor; both are Democrats.",
"From 1639 until the adoption of the 1818 constitution, the governor presided over the General Assembly.",
"In 1974, Ella Grasso was elected as the governor of Connecticut.",
"This was the first time in United States history when a woman was a governor without her husband being governor first.There are several executive departments: Administrative Services, Agriculture, Banking, Children and Families, Consumer Protection, Correction, Economic and Community Development, Developmental Services, Construction Services, Education, Emergency Management and Public Protection, Energy & Environmental Protection, Higher Education, Insurance, Labor, Mental Health and Addiction Services, Military, Motor Vehicles, Public Health, Public Utility Regulatory Authority, Public Works, Revenue Services, Social Services, Transportation, and Veterans Affairs.",
"In addition to these departments, there are other independent bureaus, offices and commissions.In addition to the governor and lieutenant governor, there are four other executive officers named in the state constitution that are elected directly by voters: secretary of the state, treasurer, comptroller, and attorney general.",
"All executive officers are elected to four-year terms.===Legislative===Connecticut's legislative branch is known as the General Assembly.",
"It is a bicameral legislature consisting of an upper body, the State Senate (36 senators); and a lower body, the House of Representatives (151 representatives).",
"Bills must pass each house in order to become law.",
"The governor can veto bills, but this veto can be overridden by a two-thirds majority in both houses.",
"Per Article XV of the state constitution, Senators and Representatives must be at least 18 years of age and are elected to two-year terms in November on even-numbered years.",
"There also must always be between 30 and 50 senators and 125 to 225 representatives.",
"The Lieutenant Governor presides over the Senate, except when absent from the chamber, when the President pro tempore presides.",
"The Speaker of the House presides over the House.",
", Matthew Ritter is the Speaker of the House of Connecticut., Connecticut's United States Senators are Richard Blumenthal (Democrat) and Chris Murphy (Democrat).",
"Connecticut has five representatives in the U.S. House, all of whom are Democrats.Locally elected representatives also develop local ordinances to govern cities and towns.",
"The town ordinances often include noise control and zoning guidelines.",
"However, the State of Connecticut also provides statewide ordinances for noise control as well.===Judicial===The highest court of Connecticut's judicial branch is the Connecticut Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of Connecticut.",
"The Supreme Court is responsible for deciding on the constitutionality of laws, or cases as they relate to the law.",
"Its proceedings are similar to those of the United States Supreme Court: no testimony is given by witnesses, and the lawyers of the two sides each present oral arguments no longer than thirty minutes.",
"Following a court proceeding, the court may take several months to arrive at a judgment.",
", the Chief Justice is Richard A. Robinson.In 1818, the court became a separate entity, independent of the legislative and executive branches.",
"The Connecticut Appellate Court is a lesser statewide court, and the Superior Courts are lower courts that resemble county courts of other states.===Local government===Connecticut does not have county government, unlike all other states except Rhode Island.",
"Connecticut county governments were mostly eliminated in 1960, with the exception of sheriffs elected in each county.",
"In 2000, the county sheriff was abolished and replaced with the state marshal system, which has districts that follow the old county territories.",
"The judicial system is divided into judicial districts at the trial-court level which largely follow the old county lines.",
"The eight counties are still widely used for purely geographical and statistical purposes, such as weather reports and census reporting.The state is divided into nine regional councils of government defined by the state Office of Planning and Management, which facilitate regional planning and coordination of services between member towns.",
"The Intragovernmental Policy Division of this Office coordinates regional planning with the administrative bodies of these regions.",
"Each region has an administrative body made up chief executive officers of the member towns.",
"The regions are established for the purpose of planning \"coordination of regional and state planning activities; redesignation of logical planning regions and promotion of the continuation of regional planning organizations within the state; and provision for technical aid and the administration of financial assistance to regional planning organizations\".",
"By 2015, the State of Connecticut recognized COGs as county equivalents, allowing them to apply for funding and grants made available to county governments in other states.",
"In 2019 the state recommended to the United States Census Bureau that the nine Councils of Governments replace its counties for statistical purposes.",
"This proposal was approved by the Census Bureau in 2022, and will be fully implemented by 2024.Connecticut shares with the rest of New England a governmental institution called the New England town.",
"The state is divided into 169 towns which serve as the fundamental political jurisdictions.",
"There are also 21 cities, most of which simply follow the boundaries of their namesake towns and have a merged city-town government.",
"There are two exceptions: the City of Groton, which is a subsection of the Town of Groton, and the City of Winsted in the Town of Winchester.",
"There are also nine incorporated boroughs which may provide additional services to a section of town.",
"Naugatuck is a consolidated town and borough."
],
[
"Politics",
"Connecticut is generally considered to be a blue state.",
"The last Republican presidential candidate to win Connecticut's votes in the Electoral College was George H. W. Bush in 1988.Connecticut political party registration 1958–2012, marked with presidential influence===Registered voters===Connecticut residents who register to vote may declare an affiliation to a political party, may become unaffiliated at will, and may change affiliations subject to certain waiting periods.",
"around 58% of registered voters are enrolled in a political party.",
"The Democratic Party of Connecticut is the largest party in the state by voter registration, with 36% of voters, followed by the Connecticut Republican Party with approximately 20%.",
"An additional 1.6% are registered to third parties.",
"As of 2022, 4 third parties have statewide enrollment privileges (meaning any state resident may register as a member), including the Libertarian Party of Connecticut, the Independent Party of Connecticut, the Connecticut Green Party, and the Connecticut Working Families Party.",
"Connecticut allows electoral fusion, where the same candidate can run on the ballot of more than one political party; this is often used by the Connecticut Working Families Party to cross-endorse Democratic candidates.",
"Party registration as of October 31, 2023 Party Total voters Percentage Unaffiliated 1,035,711 42.0% Democratic 888,707 36.1% Republican 500,485 20.3% Minor parties 39,656 1.6% Total 2,464,919 100%===Voting===In July 2009, the Connecticut legislature overrode a veto by Governor M. Jodi Rell to pass SustiNet, the first significant public-option health care reform legislation in the nation.In April 2012, both houses of the Connecticut state legislature passed a bill (20 to 16 and 86 to 62) that abolished capital punishment for all future crimes, while 11 inmates who were waiting on the death row at the time could still be executed."
],
[
"Education",
"Yale's motto means \"light and truth\".Connecticut ranked third in the nation for educational performance, according to Education Week's Quality Counts 2018 report.",
"It earned an overall score of 83.5 out of 100 points.",
"On average, the country received a score of 75.2.Connecticut posted a B-plus in the Chance-for-Success category, ranking fourth on factors that contribute to a person's success both within and outside the K-12 education system.",
"Connecticut received a mark of B-plus and finished fourth for School Finance.",
"It ranked 12th with a grade of C on the K-12 Achievement Index.===K–12=======Public schools====Hartford Public High School (1638) is the third-oldest secondary school in the nation after the Collegiate School (1628) in Manhattan and the Boston Latin School (1635).",
"Today, the Connecticut State Board of Education manages the public school system for children in grades K–12.Board of Education members are appointed by the Governor of Connecticut.====Private schools====University of Connecticut, the state's main public universityConnecticut has a number of private schools.",
"Private schools may file for approval by the state Department of Education, but are not required to.",
"Per state law, private schools must file yearly attendance reports with the state.Notable private schools include Choate Rosemary Hall, The Hotchkiss School, Loomis Chaffee School, and Taft School.===Colleges and universities===Connecticut was home to the nation's first law school, Litchfield Law School, which operated from 1773 to 1833 in Litchfield.",
"Well known universities in the state include Yale University, Wesleyan University, Trinity College, Sacred Heart University, Fairfield University, Quinnipiac University, and the University of Connecticut.",
"The Connecticut State University System includes 4 state universities, and the state also has 12 community colleges.",
"The United States Coast Guard Academy is located in New London."
],
[
"Sports",
"There are two Connecticut teams in the American Hockey League.",
"The Bridgeport Islanders is a farm team for the New York Islanders which competes at the Total Mortgage Arena in Bridgeport.",
"The Hartford Wolf Pack is the affiliate of the New York Rangers; they play in the XL Center in Hartford.The Hartford Yard Goats of the Double-A Northeast are a AA affiliate of the Colorado Rockies.",
"Also, the Norwich Sea Unicorns play in the Futures Collegiate Baseball League.",
"The New Britain Bees play in the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball.",
"The Connecticut Sun of the WNBA currently play at the Mohegan Sun Arena in Uncasville.",
"In soccer, Hartford Athletic began play in the USL Championship in 2019.The state hosts several major sporting events.",
"Since 1952, a PGA Tour golf tournament has been played in the Hartford area.",
"It was originally called the \"Insurance City Open\" and later the \"Greater Hartford Open\" and is now known as the Travelers Championship.",
"Lime Rock, a home of the American Le Mans SeriesLime Rock Park in Salisbury is a road racing course, home to the International Motor Sports Association, SCCA, United States Auto Club, and K&N Pro Series East races.",
"Thompson International Speedway, Stafford Motor Speedway, and Waterford Speedbowl are oval tracks holding weekly races for NASCAR Modifieds and other classes, including the NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour.",
"The state also hosts several major mixed martial arts events for Bellator MMA and the Ultimate Fighting Championship.===Professional sports teams===The Hartford Whalers of the National Hockey League played in Hartford from 1975 to 1997 at the Hartford Civic Center.",
"They departed to Raleigh, North Carolina, after disputes with the state over the construction of a new arena, and they are now known as the Carolina Hurricanes.",
"A baseball team known as the Hartfords (or Hartford Dark Blues) played in the National Association from 1874 to 1875, before becoming charter members of the National League in 1876.The team moved to Brooklyn, New York, and then disbanded one season later.",
"In 1926, Hartford also had a franchise in the National Football League known as the Hartford Blues.",
"From 2000 until 2006 the city was home to the Hartford FoxForce of World TeamTennis.TeamSportLeagueBridgeport IslandersIce hockeyAmerican Hockey LeagueHartford Wolf PackIce hockeyAmerican Hockey LeagueHartford Yard GoatsBaseballDouble-A NortheastNorwich Sea UnicornsBaseballFutures Collegiate Baseball LeagueNew Britain BeesBaseballFutures Collegiate Baseball LeagueConnecticut SunBasketballWomen's National Basketball AssociationHartford AthleticSoccerUSL Championship AC Connecticut Soccer USL League Two===College sports===The Game\" between Yale and Harvard.",
"The Bowl was also the home of the NFL's New York Giants in 1973–74.The Connecticut Huskies are the team of the University of Connecticut (UConn); they play NCAA Division I sports.",
"Both the men's basketball and women's basketball teams have won multiple national championships.",
"In 2004, UConn became the first school in NCAA DivisionI history to have its men's and women's basketball programs win the national title in the same year; they repeated the feat in 2014 and are still the only DivisionI school to win both titles in the same year.",
"The UConn women's basketball team holds the record for the longest consecutive winning streak in NCAA college basketball at 111 games, a streak that ended in 2017.The UConn Huskies football team has played in the Football Bowl Subdivision since 2002, and has played in four bowl games.New Haven biennially hosts \"The Game\" between the Yale Bulldogs and the Harvard Crimson, the country's second-oldest college football rivalry.",
"Yale alumnus Walter Camp is deemed the \"Father of American Football\", and he helped develop modern football while living in New Haven.",
"Other Connecticut universities which feature DivisionI sports teams are Quinnipiac University, Fairfield University, Central Connecticut State University, Sacred Heart University, and the University of Hartford."
],
[
"Etymology and symbols",
"The name \"Connecticut\" originated with the Mohegan word ''quonehtacut'', meaning \"place of long tidal river\".",
"Connecticut's official nickname is \"The Constitution State\", adopted in 1959 and based on its colonial constitution of 1638–1639 which was the first in America and, arguably, the world.",
"Connecticut is also unofficially known as \"The Nutmeg State\", whose origin is unknown.",
"It may have come from its sailors returning from voyages with nutmeg, which was a very valuable spice in the 18th and 19th centuries.",
"It may have originated in the early machined sheet tin nutmeg grinders sold by early Connecticut peddlers.",
"It is also facetiously said to come from Yankee peddlers from Connecticut who would sell small carved knobs of wood shaped to look like nutmeg to unsuspecting customers.",
"George Washington gave Connecticut the title of \"The Provisions State\" because of the material aid that the state rendered to the American Revolutionary War effort.",
"Connecticut is also known as \"The Land of Steady Habits\".According to ''Webster's New International Dictionary'' (1993), a person who is a native or resident of Connecticut is a \"Connecticuter\".",
"There are numerous other terms coined in print but not in use, such as \"Connecticotian\" (Cotton Mather in 1702) and \"Connecticutensian\" (Samuel Peters in 1781).",
"Linguist Allen Walker Read suggests the more playful term \"Connecticutie\".",
"\"Nutmegger\" is sometimes used, as is \"Yankee\".The official state song is \"Yankee Doodle\".",
"The traditional abbreviation of the state's name is \"Conn.\"; the official postal abbreviation is CT.Commemorative stamps issued by the United States Postal Service with Connecticut themes include Nathan Hale, Eugene O'Neill, Josiah Willard Gibbs, Noah Webster, Eli Whitney, the whaling ship the ''Charles W. Morgan'', which is docked at Mystic Seaport, and a decoy of a broadbill duck.File:Charter Oak in Hartford CT.jpg|The Charter OakFile:SS-571-Nautilus-trials.gif|The + Connecticut state insignia and historical figuresSource Sites, Seals & Symbols except where noted.State aircraft Vought F4U CorsairState hero Nathan HaleState heroine Prudence CrandallState composer Charles Edward IvesState statues in Statuary Hall Roger Sherman and Jonathan TrumbullState poet laureate Margaret GibsonConnecticut State Troubadour Nekita WallerState composer laureate Jacob Druckman"
],
[
"Notable people"
],
[
"See also",
"* Index of Connecticut-related articles* Outline of Connecticut* List of states and territories of the United States* USS ''Connecticut'', 7 ships"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * CTVisit.com—Official tourism website* Connecticut QuickFacts—U.S Census Bureau* Library of Congress* Connecticut: State Resource Guide"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Country Liberal Party"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Country Liberal Party of the Northern Territory''' ('''CLP'''), commonly known as the '''Country Liberals''', is a centre-right political party in Australia's Northern Territory.",
"In local politics, it operates in a two-party system with the Australian Labor Party (ALP).",
"It also contests federal elections as an affiliate of the Liberal Party of Australia and National Party of Australia, the two partners in the federal coalition.The CLP originated in 1971 as a division of the Country Party (later renamed the National Party), the first local branches of which were formed in 1966.It adopted its current name in 1974 to attract Liberal Party supporters, but maintained a sole affiliation with the Country Party until 1979 when it adopted its current joint association.",
"The party dominated the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly from the inaugural election in 1974 through to its defeat at the 2001 election, winning eight consecutive elections and providing the territory's first seven chief ministers.",
"Following its defeat in 2001, the party did not return to power until 2012, but was defeated after a single term and has remained in opposition since 2016.The party is currently led by Lia Finocchiaro, who was elected party leader and leader of the opposition in February 2020.At federal level, the CLP contests elections for the Northern Territory's House of Representatives and Senate seats, which also cover the Australian Indian Ocean Territories.",
"It is registered with the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC).",
"Its candidates do not form a separate parliamentary party but instead join either the Liberal or National party rooms – for instance, CLP senator Nigel Scullion was a long-serving deputy leader of the Nationals.",
"Its sole current federal legislator Jacinta Nampijinpa Price sits with the National Party.The CLP's constitution describes it as an \"independent conservative\" party and commits it to Northern Territory statehood.",
"It has typically prioritised economic development of the territory and originally drew most of its support from Outback towns and the pastoral industry.",
"It later developed a voter base among the urban middle-class populations of Darwin, Palmerston and Alice Springs (the latter two of which are strongholds for the party).",
"The party has had a fluctuating relationship with the territory's large Indigenous population, notably providing the territory's first Indigenous MP (Hyacinth Tungutalum) and Australia's first Indigenous head of government (Adam Giles)."
],
[
"History",
"===Origins===A party system did not develop in the Northern Territory until the 1960s, due to its small population and lack of regular elections.",
"The Australian Labor Party (ALP) contested elections as early as 1905, but rarely faced an organised opposition; anti-Labor candidates usually stood as independents.",
"The regionalist North Australia Party (NAP), established by Lionel Rose for the 1965 Legislative Council election, has been cited as a predecessor of the CLP.A Darwin branch of the Country Party was established on 20 July 1966, following by an Alice Springs branch on 29 July.",
"The creation of the branches was spurred by the upcoming 1966 federal election and the announcement by the Northern Territory's federal MP Jock Nelson that he would be retiring from politics.",
"The Country Party achieved its first electoral success with the election of Sam Calder as Nelson's replacement.",
"It subsequently won four out of eleven seats at the 1968 Legislative Council election.",
"A third branch of the party was established in Katherine in February 1971.The branches affiliated with the Federal Council of the Australian Country Party in July 1971, establishing a formal entity with a central council, executive and annual conference.",
"The party was formally named the \"Australian Country Party – Northern Territory\".The Country Party primarily drew its support from Alice Springs, small towns, and the pastoral industry, including \"a fair proportion of the non-urban Aboriginal vote\".",
"The party did not have a strong presence in Darwin.",
"A branch of the Liberal Party, the Country Party's coalition partner at a federal level, had been established in Darwin in 1966, representing commercial interests and urban professionals.",
"The Liberals fielded candidates at the 1968 Legislative Council elections, but by 1970 the local branch had ceased to function.",
"In 1973, the Country Party began actively working to include Liberal supporters within its organisation, spurred by the Whitlam government's announcement of a fully elective Northern Territory Legislative Assembly.",
"Following informal negotiations led by Goff Letts, a joint committee was established to determine changes to the Country Party's constitution and policy.",
"These were officially approved, along with the adoption of the name Country Liberal Party, at the party's annual conference in Alice Springs on 20 July 1974.Per its 2018 constitution, the party reckons 1974 as its founding date.===1974–2001: Foundation and early dominance===The Whitlam government passed legislation in 1974 to establish a fully elected unicameral Northern Territory Legislative Assembly, replacing the previous partly elected Legislative Council, which had been in existence since 1947.The CLP won 17 out of 19 seats at the inaugural elections in October 1974, with independents holding the other two seats.",
"Goff Letts became the inaugural majority leader, a title changed to chief minister after the granting of self-government in 1978.The CLP governed the Northern Territory from 1974 until the 2001 election.",
"During this time, it never faced more than nine opposition members.",
"Indeed, the CLP's dominance was so absolute that its internal politics were seen as a bigger threat than any opposition party.",
"This was especially pronounced in the mid-1980s, when a series of party-room coups resulted in the Territory having three Chief Ministers in four years and also saw the creation of the Northern Territory Nationals as a short-lived splinter group under the leadership of former CLP chief minister Ian Tuxworth.The Whitlam government also passed legislation to give the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory (ACT) representation in the federal Senate, with each territory electing two senators.",
"Bernie Kilgariff was elected as the CLP's first senator at the 1975 federal election, sitting alongside Sam Calder in the parliamentary National Country Party.",
"On 3 February 1979 a special conference of the CLP resolved that \"the Federal CLP Parliamentarians be permitted to sit in the Party Rooms of their choice in Canberra\".",
"Despite personal misgivings, Kilgariff chose to sit with the parliamentary Liberal Party from 8 March 1979 in order that the CLP have representation in both parties, a practice which has been maintained where possible.===2001–2012: In opposition===At the 2001 election, the Australian Labor Party won government by one seat, ending 27 years of CLP government.",
"The loss marked a major turning point in Northern Territory politics, a result which was exacerbated when, at the 2005 election, the ALP won the second-largest majority government in the history of the Territory, reducing the once-dominant party to just four members in the Legislative Assembly.",
"This result was only outdone by the 1974 election, in which the CLP faced only two independents as opposition.",
"The CLP even lost two seats in Palmerston, an area where the ALP had never come close to winning any seats before.In the 2001 federal election, the CLP won the newly formed seat of Solomon, based on Darwin/Palmerston, in the House of Representatives.In the 2004 federal election, the CLP held one seat in the House of Representatives, and one seat in the Senate.",
"The CLP lost its federal lower house seat in the 2007 federal election, but regained it when Palmerston deputy mayor Natasha Griggs won back Solomon for the CLP.",
"She sat with the Liberals in the House.The 2008 election saw the CLP recover from the severe loss it suffered three years earlier, increasing its representation from four to 11 members.",
"Following the 2011 decision of ALP-turned-independent member Alison Anderson to join the CLP, this increased CLP's representation to 12 in the Assembly, leaving the incumbent Henderson Government to govern in minority with the support of Independent MP Gerry Wood.Historically, the CLP has been particularly dominant in the Territory's two major cities, Darwin/Palmerston and Alice Springs.",
"However, in recent years the ALP has pulled even with the CLP in the Darwin area; indeed, its 2001 victory was fueled by an unexpected swing in Darwin.===2012–2016: Return to government and internal conflict===The CLP under the leadership of Terry Mills returned to power in the 2012 election with 16 of 25 seats, defeating the incumbent Labor government led by Paul Henderson.",
"In the lead up to the Territory election, CLP Senator Nigel Scullion sharply criticised the Federal Labor government for its suspension of the live cattle trade to Indonesia - an economic mainstay of the territory.The election victory ended 11 years of ALP rule in the Northern Territory.",
"The victory was also notable for the support it achieved from indigenous people in pastoral and remote electorates.",
"Large swings were achieved in remote Territory electorates (where the indigenous population comprised around two-thirds of voters) and a total of five Aboriginal CLP candidates won election to the Assembly.",
"Among the indigenous candidates elected were high-profile Aboriginal activist Bess Price and former ALP member Alison Anderson.",
"Anderson was appointed Minister for Indigenous Advancement.",
"In a nationally reported speech in November 2012, Anderson condemned welfare dependency and a culture of entitlement in her first ministerial statement on the status of Aboriginal communities in the Territory and said the CLP would focus on improving education and on helping create real jobs for indigenous people.====Leadership spills====Adam Giles replaced Mills as Chief Minister of the Northern Territory and party leader at the 2013 CLP leadership ballot on 13 March while Mills was on a trade mission in Japan.",
"Giles was sworn in as Chief Minister on 14 March, becoming the first indigenous head of government of an Australian state or territory.Willem Westra van Holthe challenged Giles at the 2015 CLP leadership ballot on 2 February and was elected leader by the party room in a late night vote conducted by phone.",
"However, Giles refused to resign as Chief Minister following the vote.",
"On 3 February, ''ABC News'' reported that officials were preparing an instrument for Giles' removal by the Administrator.",
"The swearing-in of Westra van Holthe, which had been scheduled for 11:00 local time (01:30 UTC), was delayed.",
"After a meeting of the parliamentary wing of the CLP, Giles announced that he would remain as party leader and Chief Minister, and that Westra van Holthe would be his deputy.====Defections and minority government====After four defections during the parliamentary term, the CLP was reduced to minority government by July 2015.Giles raised the possibility of an early election on 20 July stating that he would \"love\" to call a snap poll, but that it was \"pretty much impossible to do\".",
"Crossbenchers dismissed the notion of voting against a confidence motion to bring down the government.===2016–present: In opposition===Territory government legislation passed in February 2016 changed the voting method of single-member electorates from full-preferential voting to optional preferential voting ahead of the 2016 territory election held on 27 August.Federally, a MediaReach seat-level opinion poll of 513 voters in the seat of Solomon conducted 22−23 June ahead of the 2016 federal election held on 2 July surprisingly found Labor candidate Luke Gosling heavily leading two-term CLP incumbent Natasha Griggs 61–39 on the two-party vote from a large 12.4 percent swing.",
"The CLP lost Solomon to Labor at the election, with Gosling defeating Griggs 56–44 on the two-party vote from a 7.4 percent swing.Polling ahead of the 2016 Territory election indicated a large swing against the CLP, including a near-total collapse in Darwin/Palmerston.",
"By the time the writs were dropped, commentators had almost universally written off the CLP.",
"At 27 August Territory election, the CLP was swept from power in a massive Labor landslide, suffering easily the worst defeat of a sitting government in Territory history and one of the worst defeats a governing party has ever suffered at the state or territory level in Australia.",
"The party not only lost all of the bush seats it picked up in 2012, but was all but shut out of Darwin/Palmerston, winning only one seat there.",
"All told, the CLP only won two seats, easily its worst showing in an election.",
"Giles himself lost his own seat, becoming the second Majority Leader/Chief Minister to lose his own seat.",
"Even before Giles' defeat was confirmed, second-term MP Gary Higgins—the only surviving member of the Giles cabinet—was named the party's new leader, with Lia Finocchiaro as his deputy.",
"On 20 January 2020, Higgins announced his resignation as party leader and announced his retirement at the next election.",
"Finocchiaro succeeded him as CLP leader and leader of the opposition on 1 February 2020.Finocchiaro led the CLP to a modest recovery at the 2020 Territory election.",
"The CLP picked up a six-seat swing, boosting its seat count to eight.",
"However, it failed to make significant inroads in Darwin/Palmerston, winning only two seats there, including that of Finocchiaro.The CLP lost the seat of Daly to Labor in a 2021 by-election, the first time an incumbent government had won a seat from the opposition in territory history."
],
[
"Ideology",
"The CLP stands for office in the Northern Territory Assembly and Federal Parliament of Australia and primarily concerns itself with representing Territory interests.",
"It is a regionally based party, that has parliamentary representation in both the Federal Parliament and at the Territory level.",
"It brands as a party with strong roots in the Territory.The CLP competes against the Australian Labor Party (Northern Territory Branch) (the local branch of Australia's social-democratic party).",
"It is closely affiliated with, but is independent from the Liberal Party of Australia (a mainly urban, pro-business party comprising mainly liberal membership) and the National Party of Australia (a conservative and regional interests party).The foreword to the constitution of the party describes it as an \"independent conservative political party\".",
"One of the objectives in the party's constitution is to \"work toward the achievement of Statehood in the Northern Territory\".",
"The party promotes traditional Liberal Party values such as individualism and private enterprise, and what it describes as \"progressive\" political policy such as full statehood for the Northern Territory.In February 2023, the party voted to oppose the Voice to Parliament."
],
[
"Organisation",
"Branch delegates and members of the party's Central Council attend the Annual Conference of the Country Liberal Party to decide the party's platform.",
"The Central Council is composed of the party's office bearers, its leaders from the Territory Assembly and the Federal Parliament and representatives of party branches.The Annual Conference of the Country Liberal Party, attended by branch delegates and members of the party's Central Council, decides matters relating to the party's platform and philosophy.",
"The Central Council administers the party and makes decisions on pre-selections.",
"It is composed of the party's office bearers, its leaders in the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly, members in the Federal Parliament, and representation from each of the party's branches.The CLP president has full voting rights with the National Party and observer status with the Liberal Party.",
"Both the Liberals and Nationals receive Country Liberal delegations at their conventions.",
"After federal elections, the CLP directs its federal members and senators as to which of the two other parties they should sit with in the parliamentary chamber.",
"In practice, since the 1980s CLP House members usually sit with the Liberals, while CLP Senators usually sit with the Nationals."
],
[
"Territory electoral performance",
" Election Leader Votes % Seats +/– Position Government 1974 Goff Letts 13,690 49.0 17 1st 1977 12,769 40.1 5 1st 1980 Paul Everingham 28,637 50.0 1 1st 1983 28,637 58.2 8 1st 1987 Stephen Hatton 20,074 39.4 3 1st 1990 Marshall Perron 31,758 48.8 2 1st 1994 38,266 \t 51.9 3 1st 1997 Shane Stone 41,722 \t 54.7 1 1st 2001 Denis Burke 36,926 \t 45.4 8 2nd 2005 30,827 \t 35.7 6 2nd 2008 Terry Mills 36,334 \t 45.4 7 2nd 2012 46,653 \t 50.6 5 1st 2016 Adam Giles 31,263 \t \t 31.8 14 2nd 2020 Lia Finocchiaro 32,021 \t 31.3 6 2nd"
],
[
"Parliamentary Leaders",
" Year Name Notes1974Goff LettsMajority Leader1977Paul EveringhamMajority Leader to 1978, then Chief Minister of the Northern Territory1984Ian TuxworthChief Minister of the Northern Territory1986Stephen HattonChief Minister of the Northern Territory1988Marshall PerronChief Minister of the Northern Territory1995Shane StoneChief Minister of the Northern Territory1999Denis BurkeChief Minister of the Northern Territory to 2001, then Opposition Leader2003Terry MillsOpposition Leader2005Denis BurkeOpposition Leader2005Jodeen CarneyOpposition Leader2008Terry MillsOpposition Leader to 2012, then Chief Minister of the Northern Territory,ousted in leadership spill by Adam Giles2013Adam GilesChief Minister of the Northern Territory, indirectly survived a leadership spillby Willem Westra van Holthe in 2015, minority government from 20152016Gary HigginsOpposition Leader2020Lia FinocchiaroOpposition Leader"
],
[
"See also",
"*2016 Northern Territory general election"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"**"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Canon law"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Canon law''' (from , , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members.",
"It is the internal ecclesiastical law, or operational policy, governing the Catholic Church (both the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches), the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the individual national churches within the Anglican Communion.",
"The way that such church law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these four bodies of churches.",
"In all three traditions, a canon was originally a rule adopted by a church council; these canons formed the foundation of canon law."
],
[
"Etymology",
"Greek / , Arabic / , Hebrew / , 'straight'; a rule, code, standard, or measure; the root meaning in all these languages is 'reed'; see also the Romance-language ancestors of the English word ''cane''.In the fourth century, the First Council of Nicaea (325) calls canons the disciplinary measures of the church: the term canon, κανὠν, means in Greek, a rule.",
"There is a very early distinction between the rules enacted by the church and the legislative measures taken by the state called ''leges'', Latin for laws."
],
[
"Apostolic Canons",
"The ''Apostolic Canons'' or ''Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles'' is a collection of ancient ecclesiastical decrees (eighty-five in the Eastern, fifty in the Western Church) concerning the government and discipline of the Early Christian Church, incorporated with the Apostolic Constitutions which are part of the Ante-Nicene Fathers."
],
[
"Catholic Church",
"In the Catholic Church, canon law is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the church's hierarchical authorities to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church.",
"It was the first modern Western legal system and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West.In the Latin Church, positive ecclesiastical laws, based directly or indirectly upon immutable divine law or natural law, derive formal authority in the case of universal laws from the supreme legislator (i.e., the Supreme Pontiff), who possesses the totality of legislative, executive, and judicial power in his person, while particular laws derive formal authority from a legislator inferior to the supreme legislator.",
"The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, but all-encompassing of the human condition, and therefore extending beyond what is taken as revealed truth.The Catholic Church also includes the main five rites (groups) of churches which are in full union with the Holy See and the Latin Church:# Alexandrian Rite Churches which include the Coptic Catholic Church, Eritrean Catholic Church, and Ethiopian Catholic Church.# West Syriac Rite which includes the Maronite Church, Syriac Catholic Church and the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church.# Armenian Rite Church which includes the Armenian Catholic Church.# Byzantine Rite Churches which include the Albanian Greek Catholic Church, Belarusian Greek Catholic Church, Bulgarian Greek Catholic Church, Greek Catholic Church of Croatia and Serbia, Greek Byzantine Catholic Church, Hungarian Greek Catholic Church, Italo-Albanian Catholic Church, Macedonian Greek Catholic Church, Melkite Greek Catholic Church, Romanian Greek Catholic Church, Russian Greek Catholic Church, Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church, Slovak Greek Catholic Church and Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church.# East Syriac Rite Churches which includes the Chaldean Catholic Church and Syro-Malabar Church.All of these church groups are in full communion with the Supreme Pontiff and are subject to the ''Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches''.===History, sources of law, and codifications===Image of pages from the ''Decretum'' of Burchard of Worms, an 11th-century book of canon lawThe Catholic Church has what is claimed to be the oldest continuously functioning internal legal system in Western Europe, much later than Roman law but predating the evolution of modern European civil law traditions.",
"What some might describe as \"canons\" adopted by the Apostles at the Council of Jerusalem in the first century would later be developed into a highly complex legal system encapsulating not just norms of the New Testament, but some elements of the Hebrew (Old Testament), Roman, Visigothic, Saxon, and Celtic legal traditions.The history of Latin canon law can be divided into four periods: the ''jus antiquum'', the ''jus novum'', the ''jus novissimum'' and the ''Code of Canon Law''.",
"In relation to the Code, history can be divided into the ''jus vetus'' (all law before the Code) and the ''jus novum'' (the law of the Code, or ''jus codicis'').The canon law of the Eastern Catholic Churches, which had developed some different disciplines and practices, underwent its own process of codification, resulting in the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches promulgated in 1990 by Pope John Paul II.===Catholic canon law as legal system===Roman Catholic canon law is a fully developed legal system, with all the necessary elements: courts, lawyers, judges, a fully articulated legal code, principles of legal interpretation, and coercive penalties, though it lacks civilly-binding force in most secular jurisdictions.",
"One example where conflict between secular and canon law occurred was in the English legal system, as well as systems, such as the U.S., that derived from it.",
"Here criminals could apply for the benefit of clergy.",
"Being in holy orders, or fraudulently claiming to be, meant that criminals could opt to be tried by ecclesiastical rather than secular courts.",
"The ecclesiastical courts were generally more lenient.",
"Under the Tudors, the scope of clerical benefit was steadily reduced by Henry VII, Henry VIII, and Elizabeth I.",
"The papacy disputed secular authority over priests' criminal offenses.",
"The benefit of clergy was systematically removed from English legal systems over the next 200 years, although it still occurred in South Carolina in 1827.In English Law, the use of this mechanism, which by that point was a legal fiction used for first offenders, was abolished by the Criminal Law Act 1827.The academic degrees in Catholic canon law are the J.C.B.",
"(''Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus'', Bachelor of Canon Law, normally taken as a graduate degree), J.C.L.",
"(''Juris Canonici Licentiatus'', Licentiate of Canon Law) and the J.C.D.",
"(''Juris Canonici Doctor'', Doctor of Canon Law).",
"Because of its specialized nature, advanced degrees in civil law or theology are normal prerequisites for the study of canon law.Much of Catholic canon law's legislative style was adapted from the Roman Code of Justinian.",
"As a result, Roman ecclesiastical courts tend to follow the Roman Law style of continental Europe with some variation, featuring collegiate panels of judges and an investigative form of proceeding, called \"inquisitorial\", from the Latin \"inquirere\", to enquire.",
"This is in contrast to the adversarial form of proceeding found in the common law system of English and U.S. law, which features such things as juries and single judges.The institutions and practices of Catholic canon law paralleled the legal development of much of Europe, and consequently, both modern civil law and common law bear the influences of canon law.",
"As Edson Luiz Sampel, a Brazilian expert in Catholic canon law, says, canon law is contained in the genesis of various institutes of civil law, such as the law in continental Europe and Latin American countries.",
"Indirectly, canon law has significant influence in contemporary society.Catholic Canonical jurisprudential theory generally follows the principles of Aristotelian-Thomistic legal philosophy.",
"While the term \"law\" is never explicitly defined in the Catholic Code of Canon Law, the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' cites Aquinas in defining law as \"an ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by the one who is in charge of the community\" and reformulates it as \"a rule of conduct enacted by competent authority for the sake of the common good\".===Code for the Eastern Churches===The law of the Eastern Catholic Churches in full communion with the Roman papacy was in much the same state as that of the Latin Church before 1917; much more diversity in legislation existed in the various Eastern Catholic Churches.",
"Each had its own special law, in which custom still played an important part.",
"One major difference in Eastern Europe however, specifically in the Eastern Orthodox Christian churches, was in regards to divorce.",
"Divorce started to slowly be allowed in specific instances such as adultery being committed, abuse, abandonment, impotence, and barrenness being the primary justifications for divorce.",
"Eventually, the church began to allow remarriage to occur (for both spouses) post-divorce.",
"In 1929 Pius XI informed the Eastern Churches of his intention to work out a Code for the whole of the Eastern Church.",
"The publication of these Codes for the Eastern Churches regarding the law of persons was made between 1949 through 1958 but finalized nearly 30 years later.The first Code of Canon Law (1917) was exclusively for the Latin Church, with application to the Eastern Churches only \"in cases which pertain to their very nature\".",
"After the Second Vatican Council (1962 - 1965), the Vatican produced the ''Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches'' which became the first code of Eastern Catholic Canon Law."
],
[
"Eastern Orthodox Church",
"The Eastern Orthodox Church, principally through the work of 18th-century Athonite monastic scholar Nicodemus the Hagiorite, has compiled canons and commentaries upon them in a work known as the (, 'Rudder'), so named because it is meant to \"steer\" the church in her discipline.",
"The dogmatic determinations of the Councils are to be applied rigorously since they are considered to be essential for the church's unity and the faithful preservation of the Gospel."
],
[
"Anglican Communion",
"In the Church of England, the ecclesiastical courts that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of certain church-related matters (e.g.",
"discipline of clergy, alteration of church property, and issues related to churchyards).",
"Their separate status dates back to the 12th century when the Normans split them off from the mixed secular/religious county and local courts used by the Saxons.",
"In contrast to the other courts of England, the law used in ecclesiastical matters is at least partially a civil law system, not common law, although heavily governed by parliamentary statutes.",
"Since the Reformation, ecclesiastical courts in England have been royal courts.",
"The teaching of canon law at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge was abrogated by Henry VIII; thereafter practitioners in the ecclesiastical courts were trained in civil law, receiving a Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.)",
"degree from Oxford, or a Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)",
"degree from Cambridge.",
"Such lawyers (called \"doctors\" and \"civilians\") were centered at \"Doctors Commons\", a few streets south of St Paul's Cathedral in London, where they monopolized probate, matrimonial, and admiralty cases until their jurisdiction was removed to the common law courts in the mid-19th century.Other churches in the Anglican Communion around the world (e.g., the Episcopal Church in the United States and the Anglican Church of Canada) still function under their own private systems of canon law.In 2002 a Legal Advisors Consultation meeting at Canterbury concluded:(1) There are principles of canon law common to the churches within the Anglican Communion; (2) Their existence can be factually established; (3) Each province or church contributes through its own legal system to the principles of canon law common within the Communion; (4) these principles have strong persuasive authority and are fundamental to the self-understanding of each of the member churches; (5) These principles have a living force, and contain within themselves the possibility for further development; and (6) The existence of the principles both demonstrates and promotes unity in the Communion."
],
[
"Presbyterian and Reformed churches",
"In Presbyterian and Reformed churches, canon law is known as \"practice and procedure\" or \"church order\", and includes the church's laws respecting its government, discipline, legal practice, and worship.Roman canon law had been criticized by the Presbyterians as early as 1572 in the Admonition to Parliament.",
"The protest centered on the standard defense that canon law could be retained so long as it did not contradict the civil law.",
"According to Polly Ha, the Reformed church government refuted this, claiming that the bishops had been enforcing canon law for 1500 years."
],
[
"Lutheranism",
"The Book of Concord is the historic doctrinal statement of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal documents recognized as authoritative in Lutheranism since the 16th century.",
"However, the Book of Concord is a confessional document (stating orthodox belief) rather than a book of ecclesiastical rules or discipline, like canon law.",
"Each Lutheran national church establishes its own system of church order and discipline, though these are referred to as \"canons\"."
],
[
"United Methodist Church",
"The Book of Discipline contains the laws, rules, policies, and guidelines for The United Methodist Church.",
"Its latest edition was published in 2016."
],
[
"See also",
"*Abrogation of Old Covenant laws*Akribeia*Canon law (Church of England)*Canon law (Episcopal Church in the United States)*Canonical Inquisition*Collections of ancient canons*''Decretum Gratiani''*Doctor of both laws*Economy (religion)*Fetha Nagast*''Halakha''*''Ius remonstrandi''*List of canon lawyers*Religious law*Rule according to higher law*Sharia*State religion"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Baker, J.H.",
"''An Introduction to English Legal History'', 4th edn.",
"London: Butterworths, 2002.",
"* Beal, John P., James A. Coriden, & Thomas J.",
"Green.",
"''New Commentary on the Code of Canon Law''.",
"New York: Paulist Press, 2000.",
"* Brundage, James A.",
"''The Medieval Origins of the Legal Profession: Canonists, Civilians, and Courts''.",
"Chicago: University of Chicago Press, c2008.",
"* Brundage, James A.",
"''Medieval Canon Law''.",
"London/New York: Longman, 1995.",
"* Coriden, James A.",
"''An Introduction to Canon Law'', revised edn.",
"New York: Paulist Press, 2004.",
"* Coriden, James A., Thomas J.",
"Green, & Donald E. Heintschel, eds.",
"''The Code of Canon Law: A Text and Commentary''.",
"New York: Paulist Press, 1985.",
"* Coughlin, John J., O.F.M.",
"''Canon Law: A Comparative Study with Anglo-American Legal Theory''.",
"Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.",
"* Della Rocca, Fernando.",
"''Manual of Canon Law''.",
"Trans.",
"by Rev.",
"Anselm Thatcher, O.S.B.",
"Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1959.",
"* The Episcopal Church. ''",
"Constitution and Canons, together with the Rules of Order for the Government of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, otherwise known as The Episcopal Church''.",
"New York: Church Publishing, Inc., 2006.",
"* Hartmann, Wilfried & Kenneth Pennington, eds.",
"''The History of Medieval Canon Law in the Classical Period, 1140-1234: From Gratian to the Decretals of Pope Gregory IX''.",
"Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2008.",
"*Hartmann, Wilfried & Kenneth Penningon, eds.",
"''The History of Byzantine and Eastern Canon Law to 1500''.",
"Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2011.",
"* R. C. Mortimer.",
"''Western Canon Law''.",
"London: A. and C. Black, 1953.",
"* * Robinson, O.F., T.D.",
"Fergus, & W.M.",
"Gordon.",
"''European Legal History'', 3rd edn.",
"London: Butterworths, 2000.",
"* Ulanov, M. S., Badmaev, V. N., Holland, E. C. Buddhism and Kalmyk Secular Law in the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries.",
"''Inner Asia.''",
"no.",
"19.P.",
"297–314.",
"* Wagschal, David.",
"''Law and Legality in the Greek East: The Byzantine Canonical Tradition, 381–883''.",
"Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.",
"* Witte, John, Jr. & Frank S. Alexander, eds.",
"''Christianity and Law: An Introduction''.",
"Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.",
"* On Armenian Oriental canon law."
],
[
"External links",
"'''Catholic'''* Codex Iuris Canonici (1983), original text in Latin (the only official text)* Code of Canon Law (1983) but with the 1998 modification of canons 750 and 1371, English translation by the Canon Law Society of America , on the Vatican website* Code of Canon Law (1983), English translation by the Canon Law Society of Great Britain and Ireland, assisted by the Canon Law Society of Australia and New Zealand and the Canadian Canon Law Society* Codex canonum ecclesiarum orientalium (1990), original text in Latin* \"Code of canons of Oriental Churchs\" (1990), English translation* Codex Iuris Canonici (1917), original text in Latin'''Anglican'''* \"Canons of the Church of England\""
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Columbanus"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Columbanus''' (; 543 – 23 November 615) was an Irish missionary notable for founding a number of monasteries after 590 in the Frankish and Lombard kingdoms, most notably Luxeuil Abbey in present-day France and Bobbio Abbey in present-day Italy.Columbanus taught an Irish monastic rule and penitential practices for those repenting of sins, which emphasised private confession to a priest, followed by penances levied by the priest in reparation for the sins.",
"Columbanus is one of the earliest identifiable Hiberno-Latin writers."
],
[
"Sources",
"Most of what we know about Columbanus is based on Columbanus' own works (as far as they have been preserved) and Jonas of Susa's ''Vita Columbani'' (''Life of Columbanus''), which was written between 639 and 641.Jonas entered Bobbio after Columbanus' death but relied on reports of monks who still knew Columbanus.",
"A description of miracles of Columbanus written by an anonymous monk of Bobbio is of much later date.",
"In the second volume of his ''Acta Sanctorum O.S.B.",
"'', Mabillon gives the life in full, together with an appendix on the miracles of Columbanus, written by an anonymous member of the Bobbio community."
],
[
"Biography",
"===Early life===Columbanus (the Latinised form of ''Colmán'', meaning ''little dove'') was born in Leinster, Ireland in 543.After his conception, his mother was said to have had a vision of her child's \"remarkable genius\".He was first educated under Abbot Sinell of Cluaninis, whose monastery was on an island of the River Erne, in modern County Fermanagh.",
"Under Sinell's instruction, Columbanus composed a commentary on the Psalms.Columbanus then moved to Bangor Abbey where he studied to become a teacher of the Bible.",
"He was well-educated in the areas of grammar, rhetoric, geometry, and the Holy Scriptures.",
"Abbot Comgall taught him Greek and Latin.",
"He stayed at Bangor until c. 590, when Comgall reluctantly gave him permission to travel to the continent.===Frankish Gaul (c. 590 – 610)===Columbanus set sail with twelve companions: Attala, Columbanus the Younger, Gallus, Domgal, Cummain, Eogain, Eunan, Gurgano, Libran, Lua, Sigisbert and Waldoleno.",
"They crossed the channel via Cornwall and landed in Saint-Malo, Brittany.Columbanus then entered Burgundian France.",
"Jonas writes that:At that time, either because of the numerous enemies from without, or on account of the carelessness of the bishops, the Christian faith had almost departed from that country.",
"The creed alone remained.",
"But the saving grace of penance and the longing to root out the lusts of the flesh were to be found only in a few.",
"Everywhere that he went the noble man Columbanus preached the Gospel.",
"And it pleased the people because his teaching was adorned by eloquence and enforced by examples of virtue.Columbanus and his companions were welcomed by King Guntram of Burgundy, who granted them land at Anegray, where they converted a ruined Roman fortress into a school.",
"Despite its remote location in the Vosges Mountains, the school rapidly attracted so many students that they moved to a new site at Luxeuil and then established a second school at Fontaines.",
"These schools remained under Columbanus' authority, and their rules of life reflected the Celtic tradition in which he had been educated.As these communities expanded and drew more pilgrims, Columbanus sought greater solitude.",
"Often he would withdraw to a cave seven miles away, with a single companion who acted as messenger between himself and his companions.==== Conflict with Frankish bishops ====Tensions arose in 603 CE when St. Columbanus and his followers argued with Frankish bishops over the exact date of Easter.",
"(St. Columbanus celebrated Easter according to Celtic rites and the Celtic Christian calendar.",
")The Frankish bishops may have feared his growing influence.",
"During the first half of the sixth century, the councils of Gaul had given to bishops absolute authority over religious communities.",
"Celtic Christians, Columbanus and his monks used the Irish Easter calculation, a version of Bishop Augustalis's 84-year for determining the date of Easter (quartodecimanism), whereas the Franks had adopted the Victorian cycle of 532 years.",
"The bishops objected to the newcomers' continued observance of their own dating, which – among other issues – caused the end of Lent to differ.",
"They also complained about the distinct Irish tonsure.In 602, the bishops assembled to judge Columbanus, but he did not appear before them as requested.",
"Instead, he sent a letter to the prelates – a strange mixture of freedom, reverence, and charity – admonishing them to hold synods more frequently, and advising them to pay more attention to matters of equal importance to that of the date of Easter.",
"In defence of his following his traditional paschal cycle, he wrote:When the bishops refused to abandon the matter, Columbanus appealed directly to Pope Gregory I.",
"In the third and only surviving letter, he asks \"the holy Pope, his Father\" to provide \"the strong support of his authority\" and to render a \"verdict of his favour\", apologising for \"presuming to argue as it were, with him who sits in the chair of Peter, Apostle and Bearer of the Keys\".",
"None of the letters were answered, most likely due to the pope's death in 604.Columbanus then sent a letter to Gregory's successor, Pope Boniface IV, asking him to confirm the tradition of his elders – if it was not contrary to the Faith – so that he and his monks could follow the rites of their ancestors.",
"Before Boniface responded, Columbanus moved outside the jurisdiction of the Frankish bishops.",
"As the Easter issue appears to end around that time, Columbanus may have stopped celebrating Irish date of Easter after moving to Italy.==== Conflict with Brunhilda of Austrasia ====Columbanus was also involved in a dispute with members of the Burgundian dynasty.",
"Upon the death of King Guntram of Burgundy, the succession passed to his nephew, Childebert II, the son of his brother Sigebert and Sigebert's wife Brunhilda of Austrasia.",
"When Childebert II died, his territories were divided between his two sons: Theuderic II inherited the Kingdom of Burgundy and Theudebert II inherited the Kingdom of Austrasia.",
"Both were minors and Brunhilda, their grandmother, ruled as their regents.Theuderic II \"very often visited\" Columbanus, but when Columbanus rebuked him for having a concubine, Brunhilda became his bitterest foe because she feared the loss of her influence if Theuderic II married.",
"Brunhilda incited the court and Catholic bishops against Columbanus and Theuderic II confronted Columbanus at Luxeuil, accusing him of violating the \"common customs\" and \"not allowing all Christians\" in the monastery.",
"Columbanus asserted his independence to run the monastery without interference and was imprisoned at Besançon for execution.Columbanus escaped and returned to Luxeuil.",
"When the king and his grandmother found out, they sent soldiers to drive him back to Ireland by force, separating him from his monks by insisting that only those from Ireland could accompany him into exile.Columbanus was taken to Nevers, then travelled by boat down the Loire river to the coast.",
"At Tours he visited the tomb of Martin of Tours, and sent a message to Theuderic II indicating that within three years he and his children would perish.",
"When he arrived at Nantes, he wrote a letter before embarkation to his fellow monks at Luxeuil monastery.",
"The letter urged his brethren to obey Attala, who stayed behind as abbot of the monastic community.The letter concludes:Soon after the ship set sail from Nantes, a severe storm drove the vessel back ashore.",
"Convinced that his holy passenger caused the tempest, the captain refused further attempts to transport the monk.",
"Columbanus found sanctuary with Chlothar II of Neustria at Soissons, who gave him an escort to the court of King Theudebert II of Austrasia.===The Alps (611–612)===Columbanus arrived at Theudebert II's court in Metz in 611, where members of the Luxeuil school met him and Theudebert II granted them land at Bregenz.",
"They travelled up the Rhine via Mainz to the lands of the Suebi and Alemanni in the northern Alps, intending to preach the Gospel to these people.",
"He followed the Rhine river and its tributaries, the Aar and the Limmat, and then on to Lake Zurich.",
"Columbanus chose the village of Tuggen as his initial community, but the work was not successful.",
"He continued north-east by way of Arbon to Bregenz on Lake Constance.",
"Here he found an oratory dedicated to Aurelia of Strasbourg containing three brass images of their tutelary deities.",
"Columbanus commanded Gallus, who knew the local language, to preach to the inhabitants, and many were converted.",
"The three brass images were destroyed, and Columbanus blessed the little church, placing the relics of Aurelia beneath the altar.",
"A monastery was erected, Mehrerau Abbey, and the brethren observed their regular life.",
"Columbanus stayed in Bregenz for about one year.In the spring of 612, war broke out between Austrasia and Burgundy and Theudebert II was resoundingly beaten by Theuderic II.",
"Austrasia was subsumed under the kingdom of Burgundy and Columbanus was again vulnerable to Theuderic II's opprobrium.",
"When Columbanus' students began to be murdered in the woods, Columbanus decided to cross the Alps into Lombardy.Gallus remained in this area until his death in 646.About seventy years later at the place of Gallus' cell the Abbey of Saint Gall was founded.",
"The city of St. Gallen originated as an adjoining settlement of the abbey.===Lombardy (612–615)===Columbanus arrived in Milan in 612 and was welcomed by King Agilulf and Queen Theodelinda of the Lombards.",
"He immediately began refuting the teachings of Arianism, which had enjoyed a degree of acceptance in Italy.",
"He wrote a treatise against Arianism, which has since been lost.",
"In 614, Agilulf granted Columbanus land for a school at the site of a ruined church at Bobbio.At the king's request, Columbanus wrote a letter to Pope Boniface IV on the controversy over the ''Three Chapters'' – writings by Syrian bishops suspected of Nestorianism, which had been condemned in the fifth century as heresy.",
"Pope Gregory I had tolerated in Lombardy those persons who defended the ''Three Letters'', among them King Agilulf.",
"Columbanus agreed to take up the issue on behalf of the king.",
"The letter has a diplomatic tone and begins with an apology that a \"foolish Scot\" (, Irishman) would be writing for a Lombard king.",
"After acquainting the pope with the imputations brought against him, he entreats the pontiff to prove his orthodoxy and assemble a council.",
"When critiquing Boniface, he writes that his freedom of speech is consistent with the custom of his country.",
"Some of the language used in the letter might now be regarded as disrespectful, but in that time, faith and austerity could be more indulgent.",
"Columbanus was tactful when making critiques, as he begins the letter expresses with the most affectionate and impassioned devotion to the Holy See.Later, he reveals charges against the Papacy so as to encourage Boniface to make concessions:Columbanus' deference towards Rome is sufficiently clear, calling the pope \"his Lord and Father in Christ\", the \"Chosen Watchman\", and the \"First Pastor, set higher than all mortals\", also asserting that \"we Irish, inhabitants of the world’s edge, are disciples of Saints Peter and Paul and of all the disciples\" and that \"the unity of faith has produced in the whole world a unity of power and privilege.",
"\"Facade of the Abbey in BobbioKing Agilulf gave Columbanus a tract of land called Bobbio between Milan and Genoa near the Trebbia river, situated in a defile of the Apennine Mountains, to be used as a base for the conversion of the Lombard people.",
"The area contained a ruined church and wastelands known as ''Ebovium'', which had formed part of the lands of the papacy prior to the Lombard invasion.",
"Columbanus wanted this secluded place, for while enthusiastic in the instruction of the Lombards he preferred solitude for his monks and himself.",
"Next to the little church, which was dedicated to Peter the Apostle, Columbanus erected a monastery in 614.Bobbio Abbey at its foundation followed the Rule of Saint Columbanus, based on the monastic practices of Celtic Christianity.",
"For centuries it remained the stronghold of orthodoxy in northern Italy.===Death===Stone bridge over the Trebbia river leading to Bobbio Abbey in northern ItalyDuring the last year of his life, Columbanus received messenges from King Chlothar II, inviting him to return to Burgundy, now that his enemies were dead.",
"Columbanus did not return, but requested that the king should always protect his monks at Luxeuil Abbey.",
"He prepared for death by retiring to his cave on the mountainside overlooking the Trebbia river, where, according to a tradition, he had dedicated an oratory to Our Lady.",
"Columbanus died at Bobbio on 21 November 615 and is buried there."
],
[
"Rule of Saint Columbanus",
"The Rule of Saint Columbanus embodied the customs of Bangor Abbey and other Irish monasteries.",
"Much shorter than the Rule of Saint Benedict, the Rule of Saint Columbanus consists of ten chapters, on the subjects of obedience, silence, food, poverty, humility, chastity, choir offices, discretion, mortification, and perfection.In the first chapter, Columbanus introduces the great principle of his Rule: obedience, absolute and unreserved.",
"The words of seniors should always be obeyed, just as \"Christ obeyed the Father up to death for us\".",
"One manifestation of this obedience was constant hard labour designed to subdue the flesh, exercise the will in daily self-denial, and set an example of industry in cultivation of the soil.",
"The least deviation from the Rule entailed corporal punishment, or a severe form of fasting.",
"In the second chapter, Columbanus instructs that the rule of silence be \"carefully observed\", since it is written: \"But the nurture of righteousness is silence and peace\".",
"He also warns, \"Justly will they be damned who would not say just things when they could, but preferred to say with garrulous loquacity what is evil\".",
"In the third chapter, Columbanus instructs, \"Let the monks' food be poor and taken in the evening, such as to avoid repletion, and their drink such as to avoid intoxication, so that it may both maintain life and not harm\".",
"Columbanus continues:Fresco of Saint Columbanus in Brugnato CathedralIn the fourth chapter, Columbanus presents the virtue of poverty and of overcoming greed, and that monks should be satisfied with \"small possessions of utter need, knowing that greed is a leprosy for monks\".",
"Columbanus also instructs that \"nakedness and disdain of riches are the first perfection of monks, but the second is the purging of vices, the third the most perfect and perpetual love of God and unceasing affection for things divine, which follows on the forgetfulness of earthly things.",
"Since this is so, we have need of few things, according to the word of the Lord, or even of one.\"",
"In the fifth chapter, Columbanus warns against vanity, reminding the monks of Jesus' warning in Luke 16:15: \"You are the ones who justify yourselves in the eyes of others, but God knows your hearts.",
"What people value highly is detestable in God's sight.\"",
"In the sixth chapter, Columbanus instructs that \"a monk's chastity is indeed judged in his thoughts\" and warns, \"What profit is it if he be virgin in body, if he be not virgin in mind?",
"For God, being Spirit.",
"\"In the seventh chapter, Columbanus instituted a service of perpetual prayer, known as , by which choir succeeded choir, both day and night.",
"In the eighth chapter, Columbanus stresses the importance of discretion in the lives of monks to avoid \"the downfall of some, who beginning without discretion and passing their time without a sobering knowledge, have been unable to complete a praiseworthy life\".",
"Monks are instructed to pray to God for to \"illumine this way, surrounded on every side by the world's thickest darkness\".",
"Columbanus continues:In the ninth chapter, Columbanus presents mortification as an essential element in the lives of monks, who are instructed, \"Do nothing without counsel.\"",
"Monks are warned to \"beware of a proud independence, and learn true lowliness as they obey without murmuring and hesitation\".",
"According to the Rule, there are three components to mortification: \"not to disagree in mind, not to speak as one pleases with the tongue, not to go anywhere with complete freedom\".",
"This mirrors the words of Jesus, \"For I have come down from heaven not to do my will but to do the will of him who sent me.\"",
"(John 6:38) In the tenth and final chapter, Columbanus regulates forms of penance (often corporal) for offences, and it is here that the Rule of Saint Columbanus differs significantly from that of Saint Benedict.The Communal Rule of Columbanus required monks to fast every day until ''None'' or 3 p.m.; this was later relaxed and observed on designated days.",
"Columbanus' Rule regarding diet was very strict.",
"Monks were to eat a limited diet of beans, vegetables, flour mixed with water and small bread of a loaf, taken in the evenings.The habit of the monks consisted of a tunic of undyed wool, over which was worn the cuculla, or cowl, of the same material.",
"A great deal of time was devoted to various kinds of manual labour, not unlike the life in monasteries of other rules.",
"The Rule of Saint Columbanus was approved of by the Fourth Council of Mâcon in 627, but it was superseded at the close of the century by the Rule of Saint Benedict.",
"For several centuries in some of the greater monasteries the two rules were observed conjointly."
],
[
"Character",
"Columbanus did not lead a perfect life.",
"According to Jonas and other sources, he could be impetuous and even headstrong, for by nature he was eager, passionate, and dauntless.",
"These qualities were both the source of his power and the cause of his mistakes.",
"His virtues, however, were quite remarkable.",
"Like many saints, he had a great love for God's creatures.",
"Stories claim that as he walked in the woods, it was not uncommon for birds to land on his shoulders to be caressed, or for squirrels to run down from the trees and nestle in the folds of his cowl.",
"Although a strong defender of Irish traditions, he never wavered in showing deep respect for the Holy See as the supreme authority.",
"His influence in Europe was due to the conversions he effected and to the rule that he composed.",
"It may be that the example and success of Columba in Caledonia inspired him to similar exertions.",
"The life of Columbanus stands as the prototype of missionary activity in Europe, followed by such men as Kilian, Vergilius of Salzburg, Donatus of Fiesole, Wilfrid, Willibrord, Suitbert of Kaiserwerdt, Boniface, and Ursicinus of Saint-Ursanne."
],
[
"Miracles",
"The following are the principal miracles attributed to his intercession:# Procuring food for a sick monk and curing the wife of his benefactor# Escaping injury while surrounded by wolves# Causing a bear to evacuate a cave at his biddings# Producing a spring of water near his cave# Replenishing the Luxeuil granary# Multiplying bread and beer for his community# Curing sick monks, who rose from their beds at his request to reap the harvest# Giving sight to a blind man at Orleans# Destroying with his breath a cauldron of beer prepared for a pagan festival# Taming a bear and yoking it to a ploughJonas relates the occurrence of a miracle during Columbanus' time in Bregenz, when that region was experiencing a period of severe famine."
],
[
"Legacy",
"Monastery ruins at AnnegrayHistorian Alexander O'Hara states that Columbanus had a \"very strong sense of Irish identity ...",
"He's the first person to write about Irish identity, he's the first Irish person that we have a body of literary work from, so even on that point of view he’s very important in terms of Irish identity.\"",
"In 1950 a congress celebrating the 1,400th anniversary of his birth took place in Luxeuil, France.",
"It was attended by Robert Schuman, Seán MacBride, the future Pope John XXIII, and John A. Costello who said \"All statesmen of today might well turn their thoughts to St Columban and his teaching.",
"History records that it was by men like him that civilisation was saved in the 6th century.",
"\"Columbanus is also remembered as the first Irish person to be the subject of a biography.",
"An Italian monk named Jonas of Bobbio wrote a biography of him some twenty years after Columbanus’ death.",
"His use of the phrase in 600 AD (all of Europe) in a letter to Pope Gregory the Great is the first known use of the expression.At Saint-Malo in Brittany, there is a granite cross bearing Columbanus's name to which people once came to pray for rain in times of drought.",
"The nearby village of Saint-Coulomb commemorates him in name.In France, the ruins of Columbanus' first monastery at Annegray are legally protected through the efforts of the Association Internationale des Amis de St Columban, which purchased the site in 1959.The association also owns and protects the site containing the cave, which served as Columbanus' cell, and the holy well that he created nearby.",
"At Luxeuil-les-Bains, the Basilica of Saint Peter stands on the site of Columbanus' first church.",
"A statue near the entrance, unveiled in 1947, shows him denouncing the immoral life of King Theuderic II.",
"Formally an abbey church, the basilica contains old monastic buildings, which have been used as a minor seminary since the nineteenth century.",
"It is dedicated to Columbanus and houses a bronze statue of him in its courtyard.Luxeuil Abbey, described in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' as \"the nursery of saints and apostles\", produced sixty-three apostles who carried his rule, together with the Gospel, into France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy.",
"These disciples of Columbanus are credited with founding more than a hundred different monasteries.",
"The canton and town still bearing the name of St. Gallen testify to how well one of his disciples succeeded.Bobbio Abbey became a renowned center of learning in the Early Middle Ages, so famous that it rivaled the monastic community at Monte Cassino in wealth and prestige.",
"St. Attala continued St. Columbanus' work at Bobbio, proselytizing and collecting religious texts for the abbey's library.",
"In Lombardy, San Colombano al Lambro in Milan, San Colombano Belmonte in Turin, and San Colombano Certénoli in Genoa all take their names from the saint.The Missionary Society of Saint Columban, founded in 1916, and the Missionary Sisters of St. Columban, founded in 1924, are both dedicated to Columbanus."
],
[
"Veneration",
"Remains of Columbanus, Bobbio Abbey cryptThe remains of Columbanus are preserved in the crypt at Bobbio Abbey.",
"Many miracles have been credited to his intercession.",
"In 1482, the relics were placed in a new shrine and laid beneath the altar of the crypt.",
"The sacristy at Bobbio possesses a portion of the skull of Columbanus, his knife, wooden cup, bell, and an ancient water vessel, formerly containing sacred relics and said to have been given to him by Pope Gregory I.",
"According to some authorities, twelve teeth of Columbanus were taken from the tomb in the fifteenth century and kept in the treasury, but these have since disappeared.Columbanus is named in the ''Roman Martyrology'' on 23 November, which is his feast day in Ireland.",
"His feast is observed by the Benedictines on 21 November.",
"Columbanus is the patron saint of motorcyclists.",
"In art, Columbanus is represented bearded bearing the monastic cowl, holding in his hand a book with an Irish satchel, and standing in the midst of wolves.",
"Sometimes he is depicted in the attitude of taming a bear, or with sun-beams over his head.An Anglican bishop suggested Columbanus as a patron of motorcyclists because of his extensive travels through Europe during his lifetime.",
"His patronage was declared by the Vatican in 2002."
],
[
"References",
"===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * Gray, Patrick T. R., and Michael W. Herren (1994).",
"\"Columbanus and the Three Chapters Controversy\" in ''Journal of Theological Studies'', NS, 45, pp. 160–170.",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Life of St. Columban, by the Monk Jonas (Internet Medieval Sourcebook)* * * The Order of the Knights of Saint Columbanus* Sermons of Columbanus (CELT)* Letters of Columbanus (CELT)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Concord, New Hampshire"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Concord''' () is the capital city of the U.S. state of New Hampshire and the seat of Merrimack County.",
"As of the 2020 census the population was 43,976, making it the 3rd most populous city in New Hampshire after Manchester and Nashua.",
"Governor Benning Wentworth gave the city its current name in 1765 following a boundary dispute with the neighboring town of Bow; the name was meant to signify the new concord, or harmony, between the two towns.The area was first settled in 1659.On January 17, 1725, the Province of Massachusetts Bay, which then claimed territories west of the Merrimack, granted the Concord area as the Plantation of Penacook.",
"It was settled between 1725 and 1727 and, on February 9, 1734, the town was incorporated as \"Rumford.\"",
"In 1808, Concord was named the official seat of state government.",
"The State House was completed in 1819 and remains the oldest U.S. state capitol wherein the legislature meets in its original chambers.Concord is entirely within the Merrimack River watershed and the city is centered on the river.",
"The Merrimack runs from northwest to southeast through the city.",
"The city's eastern boundary is formed by the Soucook River, which separates Concord from the town of Pembroke.",
"The Turkey River passes through the southwestern quarter of the city.",
"The city consists of its downtown, including the North End and South End neighborhoods, along with the four villages of Penacook, Concord Heights, East Concord, and West Concord.",
"Penacook sits along the Contoocook River, just before it flows into the Merrimack.As of 2020, the top employer in the city was the State of New Hampshire, and the largest private employer was Concord Hospital.",
"Concord is home to the University of New Hampshire School of Law, New Hampshire's only law school; St. Paul's School, a private preparatory school; NHTI, a two-year community college; the New Hampshire Police Academy; and the New Hampshire Fire Academy.",
"Concord's Old North Cemetery is the final resting place of Franklin Pierce, 14th President of the United States.Interstate 89 and Interstate 93 are the two main interstate highways serving the city, and general aviation access is via Concord Municipal Airport.",
"The nearest airport with commercial air service is Manchester–Boston Regional Airport, to the south.",
"There has been no passenger rail service to Concord since 1981.Historically, the Boston and Maine Railroad served the city."
],
[
"History",
" Old Town House, 1790The area that would become Concord was originally settled thousands of years ago by Abenaki Native Americans called the Pennacook.",
"The tribe fished for migrating salmon, sturgeon, and alewives with nets strung across the rapids of the Merrimack River.",
"The stream was also the transportation route for their birch bark canoes, which could travel from Lake Winnipesaukee to the Atlantic Ocean.",
"The broad sweep of the Merrimack River valley floodplain provided good soil for farming beans, gourds, pumpkins, melons and maize.The area was first settled by Europeans in 1659 as Penacook, after the Abenaki word \"pannukog\" meaning \"bend in the river,\" referencing the steep bends of the Merrimack River through the area.",
"On January 17, 1725, the Province of Massachusetts Bay, which then claimed territories west of the Merrimack, granted the Concord area as the Plantation of Penacook.",
"It was settled between 1725 and 1727 by Captain Ebenezer Eastman and others from Haverhill, Massachusetts.",
"On February 9, 1734, the town was incorporated as \"Rumford\", from which Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, would take his title.",
"It was renamed \"Concord\" in 1765 by Governor Benning Wentworth following a bitter boundary dispute between Rumford and the town of Bow; the city name was meant to reflect the new concord, or harmony, between the disputant towns.",
"Citizens displaced by the resulting border adjustment were given land elsewhere as compensation.",
"In 1779, New Pennacook Plantation was granted to Timothy Walker Jr. and his associates at what would be incorporated in 1800 as Rumford, Maine, the site of Pennacook Falls.Concord grew in prominence throughout the 18th century, and some of the earliest houses from this period survive at the northern end of Main Street.",
"In the years following the Revolution, Concord's central geographical location made it a logical choice for the state capital, particularly after Samuel Blodget in 1807 opened a canal and lock system to allow vessels passage around the Amoskeag Falls downriver, connecting Concord with Boston by way of the Middlesex Canal.",
"In 1808, Concord was named the official seat of state government, and in 1816 architect Stuart Park was commissioned to design a new capitol building for the state legislature on land sold to the state by local Quakers.",
"Construction on the State House was completed in 1819, and it remains the oldest capitol in the nation in which the state's legislative branches meet in their original chambers.",
"Concord was also named the seat of Merrimack County in 1823, and the Merrimack County Courthouse was constructed in 1857 in the North End at the site of the Old Town House.In the early 19th century, much of the city's economy was dominated by furniture-making, printing, and granite quarrying; granite had become a popular building material for many monumental halls in the early United States, and Concord granite was used in the construction of both the New Hampshire State House and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.",
"In 1828, Lewis Downing joined J. Stephens Abbot to form Abbot and Downing.",
"Their most famous product was their Concord coach, widely used in the development of the American West, and their enterprise largely boosted and changed the city economy in the mid-19th century.",
"In subsequent years, Concord would also become a hub for the railroad industry, with Penacook a textile manufacturing center using water power from the Contoocook River.",
"The city also around this time started to become a center for the emerging healthcare industry, with New Hampshire State Hospital opening in 1842 as one of the first psychiatric hospitals in the United States.",
"The State Hospital continued to expand throughout the following decades, and in 1891 Concord Hospital opened its doors as Margaret Pillsbury General Hospital, the first general hospital in the state of New Hampshire.Concord's economy changed once again in the 20th century with the declining railroad and textile industry.",
"The city developed into a center for national politics due to New Hampshire's first-in-the-nation primary, and many presidential candidates still visit the Concord area during campaign season.",
"The city also developed an identity within the emerging space industry, with the McAuliffe-Shepard Discovery Center opening in 1990 to commemorate Alan Shepard, the first American in space from nearby Derry, and Christa McAuliffe, a teacher at Concord High School who died in the 1986 Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' disaster.",
"Today, Concord remains a center for politics, law, healthcare, and insurance companies.Image:First Concord Bridge.GIF| First Concord Bridge, 1795Image:State House, Concord, NH.jpg|State House Image:Main Street, Concord, NH.jpg|Main Street Image:City Hall, Concord, NH.jpg|City Hall in 1913Image:Old Library, Concord, NH.jpg|Old Library Image:Post Office, Concord, NH.jpg|Old Post Office in 1910"
],
[
"Geography",
"Downtown Concord in 2017View along the Merrimack River from Terrill ParkConcord is located in south-central New Hampshire at (43.2070, −71.5371).",
"It is north of the Massachusetts border, west of the Maine border, east of the Vermont border, and south of the Canadian border at Pittsburg.According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of .",
"of it are land and of it are water, comprising 4.81% of the city.",
"Concord is drained by the Merrimack River.",
"Penacook Lake, the largest lake in the city and its main source of water, is in the west.",
"The highest point in Concord is above sea level on Oak Hill, just west of the hill's summit in neighboring Loudon.Concord lies fully within the Merrimack River watershed and is centered on the river, which runs from northwest to southeast through the city.",
"Downtown is located on a low terrace to the west of the river, with residential neighborhoods climbing hills to the west and extending southwards towards the town of Bow.",
"To the east of the Merrimack, atop a bluff, is a flat, sandy plain known as Concord Heights, which has seen most of the city's commercial development since 1960.The eastern boundary of Concord (with the town of Pembroke) is formed by the Soucook River, a tributary of the Merrimack.",
"The Turkey River winds through the southwestern quarter of the city, passing through the campus of St. Paul's School before entering the Merrimack River in Bow.",
"In the northern part of the city, the Contoocook River enters the Merrimack at the village of Penacook.Aerial view of downtown Concord (looking east)Concord is north of Manchester, New Hampshire's largest city, and north of Boston.===Villages===The city of Concord is made up of its downtown, including its North End and South End neighborhoods, plus the four distinct villages of Penacook, Concord Heights, East Concord, and West Concord.=== Adjacent municipalities ===* Canterbury (north)* Loudon (northeast)* Pembroke (southeast)* Bow (south)* Hopkinton (west)* Webster (northwest)* Boscawen (north-northwest)===Climate===Climate chart for ConcordConcord, as with much of New England, is within the humid continental climate zone (Köppen ''Dfb''), with long, cold, snowy winters, warm (and at times humid) summers, and relatively brief autumns and springs.",
"In winter, successive storms deliver moderate to at times heavy snowfall amounts, contributing to the relatively reliable snow cover.",
"In addition, lows reach below on an average 15 nights per year, and the city straddles the border between USDA Hardiness Zone 5b and 6a.",
"However, thaws are frequent, with one to three days per month with + highs from December to February.",
"Summer can bring stretches of humid conditions as well as thunderstorms, and there is an average of 12 days of + highs annually.",
"The window for freezing temperatures on average begins on September 27 and expires on May 14.The monthly daily average temperature range from in January to in July.",
"Temperature extremes have ranged from in February 1943 to in July 1966."
],
[
"Demographics",
"As of the census of 2020, there were 43,976 people residing in the city.",
"The population density was .",
"At the 2010 Census there were 42,695 residents and 10,052 families in the city, as well as 18,852 housing units at an average density of .",
"The racial makeup of the city in 2020 was 84.5% White, 4.9% Black or African American, 1.0% Native American, 4.9% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.4% from some other race, and 1.8% from two or more races.",
"4.9% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.In 2010 there were 17,592 households, out of which 28.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.3% were headed by married couples living together, 11.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.9% were non-families.",
"33.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.0% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.",
"The average household size was 2.26, and the average family size was 2.90.In the city, the population was spread out, with 20.7% under the age of 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 28.0% from 25 to 44, 28.2% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% who were 65 years of age or older.",
"The median age was 39.4 years.",
"For every 100 females, there were 98.5 males.",
"For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.9 males.For the period 2009–2011, the estimated median annual income for a household in the city was $52,695, and the median income for a family was $73,457.Male full-time workers had a median income of $49,228 versus $38,782 for females.",
"The per capita income for the city was $29,296.About 5.5% of families and 10.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.4% of those under age 18 and 5.5% of those age 65 or over.+2020 Census DemographicsRacePercentageWhite, not Hispanic or Latino84.5%Asian4.9%Black or African American4.9%Hispanic or Latino3.1%"
],
[
"Economy",
"===Top employers===In 2020, the top employer in the city remained the State of New Hampshire, with over 6,000 employed workers, while the largest private employer was Concord Hospital, with just under 3,000 employees.",
"According to the City of Concord's Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top 10 employers in the city for the Fiscal Year 2020 were: # Employer Employees1 State of New Hampshire6,0692 Capital Region Health Care – Concord Hospital2,9983 Concord School District8094 City of Concord5565Lincoln Financial Group4056 Market Basket4057Genesis HealthCare3858 NHHEAF Network Organizations3329 St. Paul's School33010 Merrimack Valley School District328"
],
[
"Transportation",
"===Highways===Interstate 89 and Interstate 93 are the two main interstate highways serving Concord, and join just south of the city limits.",
"Interstate 89 links Concord with Lebanon and the state of Vermont to the northwest, while Interstate 93 connects the city to Plymouth, Littleton, and the White Mountains to the north and Manchester and Boston to the south.",
"Interstate 393 is a spur highway leading east from Concord and merging with U.S. Route 4 as a direct route to New Hampshire's Seacoast region.",
"North-south U.S. Route 3 serves as Concord's Main Street, while U.S. Route 202 and New Hampshire Route 9 cross the city from east to west.",
"State routes 13 and 132 also serve the city: Route 13 leads southwest out of Concord towards Goffstown and Milford, while Route 132 travels north parallel to Interstate 93.New Hampshire Route 106 passes through the easternmost part of Concord, crossing I-393 and NH 9 before crossing the Soucook River south into the town of Pembroke.",
"To the north, NH 106 leads to Loudon, Belmont and Laconia.=== Railroads ===Historically, Concord served as an important railroad terminal and station for the Boston and Maine Railroad.",
"The former Concord Station was located at what is now a Burlington department store on Storrs Street.",
"The station itself was built in 1860, but the fourth and most famous iteration of the station was built in 1885, which had a brick head house designed by Bradford L. Gilbert.",
"The head house was demolished in 1959 and replaced by a smaller \"McGinnis Era\" station.",
"By 1967, all passenger rail services to Concord had been discontinued.",
"For 13 months from 1980 to 1981, MBTA Commuter Rail ran two round trips a day between Boston and Concord.",
"The service was discontinued after federal funding was pulled by the Reagan administration.",
"Since then, there has not been any passenger rail service to Concord.In 2021, Amtrak announced their plan to implement new service between Boston and Concord by 2035.===Bus===Local bus service is provided by Concord Area Transit (CAT), with three routes through the city.",
"Regional bus service provided by Concord Coach Lines and Greyhound Lines is available from the Concord Transportation Center at 30 Stickney Avenue next to Exit 14 on Interstate 93, with service south to Boston and points in between, as well as north to Littleton and northeast to Berlin.===Other modes===General aviation services are available through Concord Municipal Airport, located east of downtown.",
"There is no commercial air service within the city limits; the nearest such airport is Manchester–Boston Regional Airport, to the south.=== Complete Streets Improvement Project ===Concord's downtown underwent a significant renovation between 2015 and 2016, during the city's \"Complete Streets Improvement Project\".",
"At a proposed cost of $12 million, the project promised to deliver on categories of maintenance to aging infrastructure, improved accessibility, increased sustainability, a safer experience for walkers, bikers and motorists alike, and to stimulate economic growth in an increasingly idle downtown.",
"The main infrastructural change was reducing the four-lane street (two in each direction) to two lanes plus a turning lane in the center.",
"The freed-up space would contribute to extra width for bikes to ride in either direction, increased curb size and an added median where there is no need for a turning lane.",
"Concord opted to add shared lane markings for bikes, rather than a dedicated protected bike lane.By adding curb space, this project created new opportunities for pedestrians to enjoy the downtown.",
"Many power lines were buried, and street trees, colorful benches, art installations, and other green spaces were added, all allowing people to reclaim a space long dominated by cars.",
"Main Street underwent serious traffic calming, including a road diet, increased diagonal parking, widening sidewalks, adding shared lane markings, adding trees, texturing medians and coloring crosswalks red.",
"Another aspect of the new construction was adding heated sidewalk capabilities, utilizing excess steam from the local Concord Steam plant, and minimizing sand and snow blowing needed during the winter months.Funding for Complete Streets came from a combination of $4,710,000 from a USDOT TIGER grant and the rest from the City of Concord.",
"The project was initially proposed as costing $7,850,000, but ran over budget due to overambitious ideas.",
"After scrapping some of the most expensive offenders, the budget ended up at $14.2 million, with the project actually coming in $1.1 million below that.",
"Although adding final aesthetic touches with the extra money were debated, the city council ended up deciding to save for financially straining years ahead.",
"The design was carried out by McFarland Johnson, IBI Group, and City of Concord Engineering."
],
[
"Notable people"
],
[
"Government",
"+ Concord city vote by party in presidential elections Year Democratic Republican Third Parties2020'''64.99%''' ''15,511''33.45% ''7,983''1.57% ''374''2016'''58.09%''' ''12,984''34.95% ''7,812''6.95% ''1,554''2012'''65.07%''' ''14,218''33.52% ''7,325''1.41% ''309''2008'''64.81%''' ''14,302''33.97% ''7,496''1.23% ''271''2004'''60.16%''' ''12,675''38.97% ''8,210''0.87% ''183''2000'''56.25%''' ''10,025''39.17% ''6,981''4.58% ''817''1996'''60.03%''' ''9,719''31.39% ''5,082''8.58% ''1,389''1992'''49.19%''' ''8,325''33.39% ''5,651''17.41% ''2,947''198846.95% ''6,698'''''52.15%''' ''7,439''0.90% ''128''198441.69% ''5,172'''''57.96%''' ''7,190''0.35% ''43''198033.92% ''4,330'''''47.72%''' ''6,092''18.36% ''2,343''197643.62% ''5,256'''''54.99%''' ''6,627''1.39% ''168''197235.76% ''4,554'''''63.46%''' ''8,082''0.78% ''99''196840.55% ''4,975'''''56.73%''' ''6,960''2.71% ''333''1964'''64.27%''' ''8,042''35.73% ''4,470''0.00% ''0''196040.21% ''5,473'''''59.79%''' ''8,137''0.00% ''0''+Concord city election results from state and federal racesYearOfficeResults2010SenatorHodes 50–47%HouseKuster 59–38%GovernorLynch 67–30%2012PresidentObama 65-34%HouseKuster 60–36%GovernorHassan 67–30%2014SenatorShaheen 67–33%HouseKuster 66–33%GovernorHassan 68–32%2016PresidentClinton 59–36%SenatorHassan 60–37%HouseKuster 61–35%GovernorVan Ostern 61–36%2018HouseKuster 67–31%GovernorKelly 58–41%2020PresidentBiden 65–32%SenatorShaheen 70–28%HouseKuster 66–32%GovernorSununu 52–47%2022SenatorHassan 67–31%HouseKuster 69–31%GovernorSherman 56–43%Concord is governed via the council-manager system.",
"The city council consists of a mayor and 14 councilors, ten of which are elected to two-year terms representing each of the city wards, while the other four are elected at-large to four-year terms.",
"The mayor is elected directly every two years.",
"The current mayor as of 2024 is Byron Champlin, who was elected on November 7, 2023, with more than 75% of the vote.According to the Concord city charter, the mayor chairs the council, however has very few formal powers over the day-to-day management of the city.",
"The actual operations of the city are overseen by the city manager, currently Thomas J. Aspell, Jr.",
"The current police chief is Bradley S. Osgood.In the New Hampshire Senate, Concord is in the 15th District, represented by Democrat Becky Whitley since December 2020.On the New Hampshire Executive Council, Concord is in the 2nd District, represented by Cinde Warmington, the sole Democrat on the council.",
"In the United States House of Representatives, Concord is in New Hampshire's 2nd congressional district, represented by Democrat Ann McLane Kuster.New Hampshire Department of Corrections operates the New Hampshire State Prison for Men and New Hampshire State Prison for Women in Concord.Across from the state capitol, the former Eagle Hotel on Main Street was a downtown landmark in Concord from its opening in 1827 until it closed in 1961.It was added in 1978 to the National Register of Historic Places.Veterans Monument in ConcordConcord leans strongly Democratic in presidential elections; the last Republican nominee to carry the city was then Vice President George H. W. Bush in 1988.Voter turnout was 72.7% in the 2020 general election, down from 76.2% in 2016, but still above the 2020 national turnout of 66.7%."
],
[
"Media",
"'''Newspapers and journals'''*''Concord Monitor'' (daily)*''Concord NH Patch'' (daily)*''New Hampshire Bulletin'' (daily)* ''The Concord Insider'' (weekly)*''The Hippo'' (weekly)'''Radio'''*WKXL 1450 AM (News Talk Information)*WNHN-LP 94.7 FM (Jazz, Blues, Progressive Talk)*WEVO 89.1 FM (Public radio)*WJYY 105.5 FM (Top 40)*WAKC 102.3 FM (Contemporary Christian)*WICX 102.7 FM (Catholic Radio)The city is otherwise served by Manchester area stations.",
"New Hampshire Public Radio is headquartered in Concord.",
"'''Television'''*WPXG-TV (Channel 21) (Ion Television)*Concord TV Public-access television cable TV station"
],
[
"Sites of interest",
"New Hampshire historical markerThe New Hampshire State House, designed by architect Stuart Park and constructed between 1815 and 1818, is the oldest state house in which the legislature meets in its original chambers.",
"The building was remodeled in 1866, and the third story and west wing were added in 1910.Across from the State House is the Eagle Hotel on Main Street, which has been a downtown landmark since its opening in 1827.U.S.",
"Presidents Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford Hayes, and Benjamin Harrison all dined there, and Franklin Pierce spent the night before departing for his inauguration.",
"Other well-known guests included Jefferson Davis, Charles Lindbergh, Eleanor Roosevelt, Richard M. Nixon (who carried New Hampshire in all three of his presidential bids), and Thomas E. Dewey.",
"The hotel closed in 1961.South from the Eagle Hotel on Main Street is Phenix Hall, which replaced \"Old\" Phenix Hall, which burned in 1893.Both the old and new buildings featured multi-purpose auditoriums used for political speeches, theater productions, and fairs.",
"Abraham Lincoln spoke at the old hall in 1860; Theodore Roosevelt, at the new hall in 1912.Walker-Woodman House, built from 1733 to 1735, as it appeared North on Main Street is the Walker-Woodman House, also known as the Reverend Timothy Walker House, the oldest standing two-story house in Concord.",
"It was built for the Reverend Timothy Walker between 1733 and 1735.On the north end of Main Street is the Pierce Manse, in which President Franklin Pierce lived in Concord before and following his presidency.",
"The mid-1830s Greek Revival house was moved from Montgomery Street to North Main Street in 1971 to prevent its demolition.Beaver Meadow Golf Course, located in the northern part of Concord, is one of the oldest golf courses in New England.",
"Besides this golf course, other important sporting venues in Concord include Everett Arena and Memorial Field.The SNOB (Somewhat North Of Boston) Film Festival, started in the fall of 2002, brings independent films and filmmakers to Concord and has provided an outlet for local filmmakers to display their films.",
"SNOB Film Festival was a catalyst for the building of Red River Theatres, a locally owned, nonprofit, independent cinema in 2007.The SNOB Film Festival is one of the many arts organizations in the city.Other sites of interest include the Capitol Center for the Arts, the New Hampshire Historical Society, which has two facilities in Concord, and the McAuliffe-Shepard Discovery Center, a science museum named after Christa McAuliffe, the Concord teacher who died during the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986, and Alan Shepard, the Derry-born astronaut who was the second person and first American in space as well as the fifth and oldest person to walk on the Moon."
],
[
"Education",
"===Public schools===Concord High School during a 2007 snowstormConcord's public schools are within the Concord School District, except for schools in the Penacook area of the city, which are within the Merrimack Valley School District, a district which also includes several towns north of Concord.",
"The only public high school in the Concord School District is Concord High School, which has about 2,000 students.",
"The only public middle school in the Concord School District is Rundlett Middle School, which has roughly 1,500 students.",
"Concord School District's elementary schools underwent a major re-configuration in 2012, with three newly constructed schools opening and replacing six previous schools.",
"Kimball School and Walker School were replaced by Christa McAuliffe School on the Kimball School site, Conant School (and Rumford School, which closed a year earlier) were replaced by Abbot-Downing School at the Conant site, and Eastman and Dame schools were replaced by Mill Brook School, serving kindergarten through grade two, located next to Broken Ground Elementary School, serving grades three to five.",
"Beaver Meadow School, the remaining elementary school, was unaffected by the changes.Concord schools in the Merrimack Valley School District include Merrimack Valley High School and Merrimack Valley Middle School, which are adjacent to each other and to Rolfe Park in Penacook village, and Penacook Elementary School, just south of the village.===Private and charter schools=== UNH Franklin Pierce School of LawConcord has two parochial schools, Bishop Brady High School and Saint John Regional School.Other area private schools include Concord Christian Academy, Parker Academy, Trinity Christian School, and Shaker Road School.",
"Also in Concord is St. Paul's School, a boarding school located in the city's West End neighborhood.===Post-secondary schools===Concord is home to New Hampshire Technical Institute, the city's primary community college, and Granite State College, which offers online two-year and four-year degrees.",
"The University of New Hampshire School of Law is located near downtown, and the Franklin Pierce University Doctorate of Physical Therapy program also has a location in the city.",
"Concord Hospital recently announced plans to open a joint program with the New England College School of Nursing as part of their Bachelor of Nursing degree.",
"Concord is also a major clinical site of Dartmouth College's Geisel School of Medicine, New Hampshire's only medical school."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Concord School District* New Hampshire Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau Profile* New Hampshire Historical Society* Greater Concord Chamber of Commerce* Visit Concord NH"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chlorophyceae"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Chlorophyceae''' are one of the classes of green algae, distinguished mainly on the basis of ultrastructural morphology.",
"They are usually green due to the dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b.",
"The chloroplast may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral- or ribbon-shaped in different species.",
"Most of the members have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids located in the chloroplast.",
"Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch.",
"Some green algae may store food in the form of oil droplets.",
"They usually have a cell wall made up of an inner layer of cellulose and outer layer of pectose."
],
[
"General characteristics",
"* the body may be unicellular, colonial, filamentous or multicellular.",
"* They are usually green due to the presence of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and beta-carotene.",
"* The chloroplast may be discoid, cup-shaped (e.g.",
"''Chlamydomonas''), spiral or ribbon shaped* Most chlorophytes have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids (central proteinaceous body covered with a starch sheath) that are localised around the chloroplast.",
"* The inner cell wall layer is made of cellulose and the outer layer of pectose.",
"* Asexual reproduction is by zoospores.",
"They are flagellates produced from the parent cells by mitosis.",
"Also by aplanospores, hypnospores, akinetes, Palmella stage, etc.",
"* Sexual reproduction of Chlorophyceae is isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.",
"* The chlorophycean CW clade, and chlorophycean DO clade, are defined by the arrangement of their flagella.",
"Members of the CW clade have flagella that are displaced in a \"clockwise\" (CW, 1–7 o'clock) direction e.g.",
"Chlamydomonadales.",
"Members of the DO clade have flagella that are \"directly opposed\" (DO, 12–6 o'clock) e.g.",
"Sphaeropleales."
],
[
"Reproduction",
"Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation.",
"Asexual reproduction is by flagellated zoospores.",
"And haplospore, perennation (akinate and palmella stage).",
"Asexual reproduction by mitospore absent in spyrogyra.Sexual reproduction shows considerable variation in the type and formation of sex cells and it may be isogamous e.g.",
"''Chlamydomonas, Ulothrix'', anisogamous e.g.",
"''Chlamydomonas, Eudorina'' or Oogamous e.g.",
"''Chlamydomonas, Volvox''.",
"''Chlamydomonas'' has all three types of sexual reproduction.",
"They share many similarities with the higher plants, including the presence of asymmetrical flagellated cells, the breakdown of the nuclear envelope at mitosis, and the presence of phytochromes, flavonoids, and the chemical precursors to the cuticle.The sole method of reproduction in ''Chlorella'' is asexual and azoosporic.",
"The content of the cell divides into 2,4 (B), 8(C) sometimes daughter protoplasts.",
"Each daughter protoplast rounds off to form a non-motile spore.",
"These autospores (spores having the same distinctive shape as the parent cell) are liberated by the rupture of the parent cell wall (D).",
"On release each autospore grows to become a new individual.",
"The presence of sulphur in the culture medium is considered essential for cell division.",
"It takes place even in the dark with sulphur alone as the source material but under light conditions nitrogen also required in addition.",
"Pearsal and Loose (1937) reported the occurrence of motile cells in ''Chlorella''.",
"Bendix (1964) also observed that ''Chlorella'' produces motile cells which might be gametes.",
"These observations have an important bearing on the concept of the life cycle of ''Chlorella,'' which at present is considered to be strictly asexual in character.Asexual reproduction in ''Chlorella ellipsoides'' has been studied in detail and the following four phases have been observed during the asexual reproduction.",
"(i) Growth Phase - During this phase the cells grow in size by utilizing the photosynthetic products.",
"(ii) Ripening phase - In this phase the cells mature and prepare themselves for division.",
"(iii) Post ripening phase - During this phase, each mature cell divides twice either in dark or in light.",
"The cells formed in dark are known as dark to light phase, cells again grow in size.",
"(iv) Division Phase - During this phase the parent cell wall ruptures and unicells are released."
],
[
"Orders",
", AlgaeBase accepted the following orders in the class Chlorophyceae:*Chaetopeltidales C.J.O'Kelly, Shin Watanabe, & G.L.Floyd – 16 species*Chaetophorales Wille – 225 species*Chlamydomonadales F.E.Fritsch (also known as Volvocales) – 1793 species*Oedogoniales Heering – 792 species*Sphaeropleales Luerssen – 941 speciesAlong with these genera, AlgaeBase recognizes several taxa that are incertae sedis (i.e.",
"unplaced to an order):*Dangeardinellaceae Ettl - 1 speciesOther orders that have been recognized include:* Dunaliellales – ''Dunaliella'' and Dunaliellaceae are placed in Chlamydomonadales by AlgaeBase* Chlorococcales – ''Chlorococcum'' and Chlorococcaceae are placed in Chlamydomonadales by AlgaeBase* Microsporales – ''Microspora'' and Microsporaceae are placed in Sphaeropleales by AlgaeBase* Tetrasporales – ''Tetraspora'' and Tetrasporaceae are placed in Chlamydomonadales by AlgaeBaseIn older classifications, the term Chlorophyceae is sometimes used to apply to all the green algae except the Charales, and the internal division is considerably different."
],
[
"See also",
"* Cladistics* List of Chlorophyceae genera"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* AlgaeBase"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cyril"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cyril''' (also Cyrillus or Cyryl) is a masculine given name.",
"It is derived from the Greek name (''Kýrillos''), meaning 'lordly, masterful', which in turn derives from Greek (''kýrios'') 'lord'.",
"There are various variant forms of the name ''Cyril'' such as ''Cyrill'', ''Cyrille'', ''Ciril'', ''Kirill'', ''Kiryl'', ''Kirillos'', ''Kyrylo'', ''Kiril'', ''Kiro'', ''Kyril'', ''Kyrill'' and ''Quirrel''.",
"It may also refer to:"
],
[
"Christian patriarchs or bishops",
"* Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 313 – 386), theologian and bishop* Cyril of Alexandria (c. 376 – 444), Patriarch of Alexandria* Cyril the Philosopher (826–869), co-invented the Slavic alphabet (Glagolitic) and translated the Bible into Old Church Slavonic; namesake of the Cyrillic alphabet* Pope Cyril II of Alexandria, reigned 1078–1092* Greek Patriarch Cyril II of Alexandria, reigned in the 12th century* Cyril of Turaw (1130–1182), Belarusian bishop and orthodox saint* Pope Cyril III of Alexandria, reigned 1235–1243* Cyril, Metropolitan of Moscow (died 1572), Metropolitan of Moscow and all Rus' from 1568 to 1572* Cyril Lucaris (Patriarch Cyril I of Constantinople), reigned for six terms between 1612 and 1638* Cyril II of Constantinople, patriarch in 1633, 1635–1636, 1638–1639* Patriarch Cyril III of Constantinople, patriarch in 1652 and 1654* Cyril IV of Constantinople, patriarch 1711–1713* Cyril V Zaim, Melkite patriarch of Antioch died 1720* Cyril VI Tanas, Melkite patriarch of Antioch 1724–1760* Patriarch Cyril V of Constantinople, patriarch in 1748–1751, 1752–1757* Cyril VII Siaj, Melkite patriarch of Antioch 1794–1796* Patriarch Cyril VI of Constantinople, patriarch in 1813–1818* Cyril, Metropolitan of Belgrade, Metropolitan of Belgrade during 1825–1827* Patriarch Cyril II of Jerusalem, reigned 1845–1875* Patriarch Cyril VII of Constantinople, patriarch in 1855–1860* Pope Cyril IV of Alexandria, reigned 1854–1861* Pope Cyril V of Alexandria, reigned 1874–1921* Cyril VIII Jaha, Melkite patriarch of Antioch 1902–1916* Cyril IX Moghabghab, Melkite patriarch of Antioch 1925–1946* Patriarch Cyril of Bulgaria, reigned 1953–1971* Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria, reigned 1959–1971"
],
[
"Other individuals",
"* Cyrillus, 5th-century Greek jurist* Cyril Abiteboul (born 1977), French motor racing engineer and manager, formerly the Managing Director of Renault Sport F1 Team* Cyril Almeida, Pakistani journalist* Cyril Eugene Attygalle, Sri Lankan Sinhala politician* Cyril Benson, founder of British company Bensons for Beds* Cyril Bourlon de Rouvre (born 1945), French businessman and politician* Sir Cyril Burt (1883–1971), psychologist* Cyril Connolly (1903–1974), English literary critic and writer* Cyril Delevanti (1889–1975), British actor* Cyril Despres (born 1974), French motorcycle rider* Cyril De Zoysa (1896–1978), Sri Lankan businessman and Buddhist revivalist* Cyril Dissanayaka, Sri Lankan Sinhala senior police officer* Cyril Dodd (1844–1913), British politician* Cyril Domoraud (born 1971), Ivorian football player (senior career 1992–2008) who played for the Côte d'Ivoire national team (1995–2006)* Cyril Fernando (1895–1974), Sri Lankan Sinhala clinician and researcher* Cyril Fletcher (1913–2005), English comedian, actor and businessman* Cyril Gautier (born 1987), French racing cyclist* Cyril Goulden (1897–1981), Welsh/Canadian geneticist, statistician, and agronomist* Cyril Grayson (born 1993), American football player* Cyril Haran (1931–2014), Gaelic footballer and manager, priest, scholar and schoolteacher* Cyril Stanley Harrison (1915–1998), English cricketer* Cyril Leo Heraclius, Prince Toumanoff (born Toumanishvili) (1913–1997), Russian-born historian and genealogist who was a Professor Emeritus at Georgetown University* Cyril Herath (died 2011), Inspector-General of Sri Lanka Police from 1985 to 1988* Cyril Jordan (born 1948), American guitarist and founder of the Flamin' Groovies* Cyril Knowles (1944–1991), English footballer* C. M. Kornbluth (1923–1958), American science fiction author* Cyril Lawrence (1920–2020), English footballer * Cyril Lewis (1909–1999), Welsh footballer* Sister M. Cyril Mooney (1936–2023), educational innovator in India* Cyril Nicholas (1898–1961), Sri Lankan Burgher army captain, civil servant, and forester* Elder Cyril Pavlov (1919–2017), Russian Orthodox Christian monk, mystic and wonder-worker* Cyril Perkins (1911–2013), English cricketer* Cyril C. Perera (1923–2016), Sri Lankan Sinhala author, translator of world literature into Sinhala* Cyril E. S. Perera (1892-1968), Sri Lankan Sinhala member of the Ceylon House of Representatives* Cyril Pinto Jayatilake Seneviratne (1918–1984), Sri Lankan Sinhala military officer and politician* Cyril Ponnamperuma (1923–1994), Sri Lankan Sinhala scientist in the fields of chemical evolution and the origin of life* Cyril Ramaphosa (born 1952), South African president, businessman, and trade unionist* Cyril Ranatunga, Sri Lankan Sinhala army general* Cyril Richardson (born 1990), American football player* Cyril Riley, known mononymously as Cyril, an Australian musician, best known for his version of \"Stumblin' In\"* Cyril Rioli (born 1989), Australian rules footballer* Cyril Smith (1928–2010), English Liberal politician* Cyril Takayama, (born 1973), American-Japanese magician* Cyril Wickramage (born 1932), Sri Lankan Sinhala actor, director, and vocalist"
],
[
"Fictional characters",
"* Cyril \"Blakey\" Blake, the bus depot inspector from the 1970s British comedy TV series ''On the Buses''* Cyril Fielding, character in E. M. Forster's novel ''A Passage to India''* Cyril Figgis, character in the TV series ''Archer''* Cyril Gray, character from the film ''Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang'', played by Eros Vlahos* Cyril Kinnear, the menacing and urbane mastermind from the 1971 British crime film ''Get Carter''* Cyril Orchard, the murder victim in the 1948 Nero Wolfe mystery ''And Be a Villain''* Cyril Playfair, the reverend from the 1952 film ''The Quiet Man''* Cyril Proudbottom, Mr. Toad's horse from the 1949 film ''The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad''* Cyril O'Reily, character from television series ''Oz''* Cyril Sneer, the villain aardvark of the 1980s cartoon series ''The Raccoons''* Cyril Woodcock, from the film ''Phantom Thread'', played by Lesley Manville* Cyril the Fogman, a character from the television series ''Thomas & Friends''* Cyril, a character from ''Doctor Who''* Cyril, a character from ''Fire Emblem: Three Houses''* Cyril the Ice Dragon, from ''The Legend of Spyro''* Cyril the Squirrel, from ''Maisy''*Cyril, the main character in ''The Heart's Invisible Furies'' by John Boyne*Cyril, a giant squirrel kaiju from Rampage: Total Destruction"
],
[
"See also",
"* * * Cyrille* Cyrillus (crater), on the Moon* Cirillo* Kyril* Kyrylo"
]
] | wikipedia |
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