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[ [ "Citadel" ], [ "Introduction", "In this seventeenth-century plan of the fortified city of Casale Monferrato the citadel is the large star-shaped structure on the left.A '''citadel''' is the most fortified area of a town or city.", "It may be a castle, fortress, or fortified center.", "The term is a diminutive of ''city'', meaning \"little city\", because it is a smaller part of the city of which it is the defensive core.In a fortification with bastions, the citadel is the strongest part of the system, sometimes well inside the outer walls and bastions, but often forming part of the outer wall for the sake of economy.", "It is positioned to be the last line of defence, should the enemy breach the other components of the fortification system.", "The functions of the police and the army, as well as the army barracks were developed in the citadel." ], [ "History", "===3300–1300 BC===Some of the oldest known structures which have served as citadels were built by the Indus Valley civilisation, where citadels represented a centralised authority.", "Citadels in Indus Valley were almost 12 meters tall.", "The purpose of these structures, however, remains debated.", "Though the structures found in the ruins of Mohenjo-daro were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive against enemy attacks.", "Rather, they may have been built to divert flood waters.Several settlements in Anatolia, including the Assyrian city of Kaneš in modern-day Kültepe, featured citadels.", "Kaneš' citadel contained the city's palace, temples, and official buildings.", "The citadel of the Greek city of Mycenae was built atop a highly-defensible rectangular hill and was later surrounded by walls in order to increase its defensive capabilities.===800 BC – 400 AD===Reconstruction of the redoubt of Bibracte, a part of the Gaulish ''oppidum''.", "The Celts utilized these fortified cities in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC.In Ancient Greece, the Acropolis, which literally means \"high city\", placed on a commanding eminence, was important in the life of the people, serving as a lookout, a refuge, and a stronghold in peril, as well as containing military and food supplies, the shrine of the god and a royal palace.", "The most well known is the Acropolis of Athens, but nearly every Greek city-state had one – the Acrocorinth famed as a particularly strong fortress.", "In a much later period, when Greece was ruled by the Latin Empire, the same strong points were used by the new feudal rulers for much the same purpose.In the first millennium BC, the Castro culture emerged in northwestern Portugal and Spain in the region extending from the Douro river up to the Minho, but soon expanding north along the coast, and east following the river valleys.", "It was an autochthonous evolution of Atlantic Bronze Age communities.", "In 2008, the origins of the Celts were attributed to this period by John T. Koch and supported by Barry Cunliffe.", "The Ave River Valley in Portugal was the core region of this culture, with a large number of small settlements (the ''castros''), but also settlements known as citadels or oppida by the Roman conquerors.", "These had several rings of walls and the Roman conquest of the citadels of Abobriga, Lambriaca and Cinania around 138 BC was possible only by prolonged siege.", "Ruins of notable citadels still exist, and are known by archaeologists as Citânia de Briteiros, Citânia de Sanfins, Cividade de Terroso and Cividade de Bagunte.====167–160 BC====Rebels who took power in a city, but with the citadel still held by the former rulers, could by no means regard their tenure of power as secure.", "One such incident played an important part in the history of the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire.", "The Hellenistic garrison of Jerusalem and local supporters of the Seleucids held out for many years in the Acra citadel, making Maccabean rule in the rest of Jerusalem precarious.", "When finally gaining possession of the place, the Maccabeans pointedly destroyed and razed the Acra, though they constructed another citadel for their own use in a different part of Jerusalem.===400–1600===Although much of Nice was ransacked during the 1543 siege of the city, Franco-Ottoman forces besieging Nice were unable to capture its Citadel.", "Citadels have often been used as a last defence for a besieged army.At various periods, and particularly during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the citadel – having its own fortifications, independent of the city walls – was the last defence of a besieged army, often held after the town had been conquered.", "Locals and defending armies have often held out citadels long after the city had fallen.", "For example, in the 1543 Siege of Nice the Ottoman forces led by Barbarossa conquered and pillaged the town and took many captives, but the citadel held out.In the Philippines, the Ivatan people of the northern islands of Batanes often built fortifications to protect themselves during times of war.", "They built their so-called ''idjangs'' on hills and elevated areas.", "These fortifications were likened to European castles because of their purpose.", "Usually, the only entrance to the castles would be via a rope ladder that would only be lowered for the villagers and could be kept away when invaders arrived.===1600 to the present===In times of war, the citadel in many cases afforded retreat to the people living in the areas around the town.", "However, citadels were often used also to protect a garrison or political power from the inhabitants of the town where it was located, being designed to ensure loyalty from the town that they defended.", "This was used, for example, during the Dutch Wars of 1664–1667, King Charles II of England constructed a Royal Citadel at Plymouth, an important channel port which needed to be defended from a possible naval attack.", "However, due to Plymouth's support for the Parliamentarians, in the then-recent English Civil War, the Plymouth Citadel was so designed that its guns could fire on the town as well as on the sea approaches.Barcelona had a great citadel built in 1714 to intimidate the Catalans against repeating their mid-17th- and early-18th-century rebellions against the Spanish central government.", "In the 19th century, when the political climate had liberalized enough to permit it, the people of Barcelona had the citadel torn down, and replaced it with the city's main central park, the Parc de la Ciutadella.", "A similar example is the Citadella in Budapest, Hungary.The attack on the Bastille in the French Revolution – though afterwards remembered mainly for the release of the handful of prisoners incarcerated there – was to considerable degree motivated by the structure's being a Royal citadel in the midst of revolutionary Paris.Similarly, after Garibaldi's overthrow of Bourbon rule in Palermo, during the 1860 Unification of Italy, Palermo's Castellamare Citadel – a symbol of the hated and oppressive former rule – was ceremoniously demolished.Following Belgium gaining its independence in 1830, a Dutch garrison under General David Hendrik Chassé held out in Antwerp Citadel between 1830 and 1832, while the city had already become part of independent Belgium.The Siege of the Alcázar in the Spanish Civil War, in which the Nationalists held out against a much larger Republican force for two months until relieved, shows that in some cases a citadel can be effective even in modern warfare; a similar case is the Battle of Huế during the Vietnam War, where a North Vietnamese Army division held the citadel of Huế for 26 days against roughly their own numbers of much better-equipped US and South Vietnamese troops.===Modern usage===The Royal 22nd Regiment's home garrison is the Citadelle of Quebec in Canada.", "The citadel is the largest still in military operation in North America.The Citadelle of Québec (the construction was started in 1673 and completed in 1820) still survives as the largest citadel still in official military operation in North America.", "It is home to the Royal 22nd Regiment of the Canadian Army and forms part of the Ramparts of Quebec City dating back to 1620s.Since the mid 20th century, citadels have commonly enclosed military command and control centres, rather than cities or strategic points of defence on the boundaries of a country.", "These modern citadels are built to protect the command centre from heavy attacks, such as aerial or nuclear bombardment.", "The military citadels under London in the UK, including the massive underground complex Pindar beneath the Ministry of Defence, are examples, as is the Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker in the US." ], [ "Naval term", "Entrance to the armoured citadel of On armoured warships, the heavily armoured section of the ship that protects the ammunition and machinery spaces is called the armoured citadel.A modern naval interpretation refers to the heaviest protected part of the hull as \"the vitals\", and the citadel is the semi-armoured freeboard above the vitals.", "Generally, Anglo-American and German languages follow this while Russian sources/language refer to \"the vitals\" as цитадель \"citadel\".", "Likewise, Russian literature often refers to the turret of a tank as the 'tower'.The safe room on a ship is also called a citadel.==See also== * List of citadels* Acropolis* Alcazaba, a term for Moorish citadels in Spain* Alcázar* Arx (Roman)* Fujian Tulou* Kasbah, a synonym* Kremlin (fortification)* Presidio* Rocca (fortification)* List of cities with defensive walls* List of forts" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chain mail" ], [ "Introduction", "A European mail shirt.", "'''Chain mail''' (also known as '''chainmail''', '''mail''' or '''maille''') is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh.", "It was in common military use between the 3rd century BC and the 16th century AD in Europe, while continued to be used in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East as late as the 17th century.", "A coat of this armour is often called a hauberk or sometimes a byrnie." ], [ "History", "The Vachères warrior, 1st century BC, a statue depicting a Romanized Gaulish warrior wearing mail and a Celtic torc around his neck, bearing a Celtic-style shield.ancient Macedonian soldier (''thorakites'') wearing mail armour and bearing a ''thureos'' shieldThe earliest examples of surviving mail were found in the Carpathian Basin at a burial in Horný Jatov, Slovakia dated in the 3rd century BC, and in a chieftain's burial located in Ciumești, Romania.", "Its invention is commonly credited to the Celts, but there are examples of Etruscan pattern mail dating from at least the 4th century BC.", "Mail may have been inspired by the much earlier scale armour.", "Mail spread to North Africa, West Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, Tibet, South East Asia, and Japan.Herodotus wrote that the ancient Persians wore scale armour, but mail is also distinctly mentioned in the Avesta, the ancient holy scripture of the Persian religion of Zoroastrianism that was founded by the prophet Zoroaster in the 5th century BC.Mail continues to be used in the 21st century as a component of stab-resistant body armour, cut-resistant gloves for butchers and woodworkers, shark-resistant wetsuits for defense against shark bites, and a number of other applications." ], [ "Etymology", "The origins of the word ''mail'' are not fully known.", "One theory is that it originally derives from the Latin word , meaning 'spot' or 'opacity' (as in macula of retina).", "Another theory relates the word to the old French , meaning 'to hammer' (related to the modern English word ''malleable'').", "In modern French, ''maille'' refers to a loop or stitch.", "The Arabic words ''burnus'' ( 'burnoose, a hooded cloak', also a chasuble worn by Coptic priests) and ''barnaza'' ( 'to bronze') suggest an Arabic influence for the Carolingian armour known as byrnie (see below).The first attestations of the word ''mail'' are in Old French and Anglo-Norman: ''maille'', ''maile'', or ''male'' or other variants, which became ''mailye'', ''maille'', ''maile'', ''male'', or ''meile'' in Middle English.In early medieval Europe \"byrn(ie)\" was the equivalent of a \"coat of mail\"Civilizations that used mail invented specific terms for each garment made from it.", "The standard terms for European mail armour derive from French: leggings are called chausses, a hood is a mail coif, and mittens, mitons.", "A mail collar hanging from a helmet is a camail or aventail.", "A shirt made from mail is a hauberk if knee-length and a haubergeon if mid-thigh length.", "A layer (or layers) of mail sandwiched between layers of fabric is called a jazerant.A waist-length coat in medieval Europe was called a byrnie, although the exact construction of a byrnie is unclear, including whether it was constructed of mail or other armour types.", "Noting that the byrnie was the \"most highly valued piece of armour\" to the Carolingian soldier, Bennet, Bradbury, DeVries, Dickie, and Jestice indicate that:There is some dispute among historians as to what exactly constituted the Carolingian byrnie.", "Relying... only on artistic and some literary sources because of the lack of archaeological examples, some believe that it was a heavy leather jacket with metal scales sewn onto it.", "It was also quite long, reaching below the hips and covering most of the arms.", "Other historians claim instead that the Carolingian byrnie was nothing more than a coat of mail, but longer and perhaps heavier than traditional early medieval mail.", "Without more certain evidence, this dispute will continue." ], [ "In Europe", "Mail armour and equipment of Polish medium cavalryman, from the second half of the 17th centuryThe use of mail as battlefield armour was common during the Iron Age and the Middle Ages, becoming less common over the course of the 16th and 17th centuries when plate armour and more advanced firearms were developed.", "It is believed that the Roman Republic first came into contact with mail fighting the Gauls in Cisalpine Gaul, now Northern Italy.", "The Roman army adopted the technology for their troops in the form of the lorica hamata which was used as a primary form of armour through the Imperial period.Panel from the Bayeux Tapestry showing Norman and Anglo-Saxon soldiers in mail armour.", "Note the scene of stripping a mail hauberk from the dead at the bottom.After the fall of the Western Empire, much of the infrastructure needed to create plate armour diminished.", "Eventually the word \"mail\" came to be synonymous with armour.", "It was typically an extremely prized commodity, as it was expensive and time-consuming to produce and could mean the difference between life and death in a battle.", "Mail from dead combatants was frequently looted and was used by the new owner or sold for a lucrative price.", "As time went on and infrastructure improved, it came to be used by more soldiers.", "The oldest intact mail hauberk still in existence is thought to have been worn by Leopold III, Duke of Austria, who died in 1386 during the Battle of Sempach.", "By the 14th century, articulated plate armour was commonly used to supplement mail.", "Eventually mail was supplanted by plate for the most part, as it provided greater protection against windlass crossbows, bludgeoning weapons, and lance charges while maintaining most of the mobility of mail.", "However, it was still widely used by many soldiers, along with brigandines and padded jacks.", "These three types of armour made up the bulk of the equipment used by soldiers, with mail being the most expensive.", "It was sometimes more expensive than plate armour.", "Mail typically persisted longer in less technologically advanced areas such as Eastern Europe but was in use throughout Europe into the 16th century.During the late 19th and early 20th century, mail was used as a material for bulletproof vests, most notably by the Wilkinson Sword Company.", "Results were unsatisfactory; Wilkinson mail worn by the Khedive of Egypt's regiment of \"Iron Men\" was manufactured from split rings which proved to be too brittle, and the rings would fragment when struck by bullets and aggravate the injury.", "The riveted mail armour worn by the opposing Sudanese Madhists did not have the same problem but also proved to be relatively useless against the firearms of British forces at the battle of Omdurman.", "During World War I, Wilkinson Sword transitioned from mail to a lamellar design which was the precursor to the flak jacket.WWI Splatter Mask on display at the Army Medical Services MuseumMail was also used for face protection in World War I. Oculist Captain Cruise of the British Infantry designed a mail fringe to be attached to helmets to protect the upper face.", "This proved unpopular with soldiers, in spite of being proven to defend against a shrapnel round fired at a distance of .", "Another invention, a \"splatter mask\" or \"splinter mask\", consisted of rigid upper face protection and a mail veil to protect the lower face, and was used by early tank crews as a measure against flying steel fragments (spalling) inside the vehicle." ], [ "In Asia", "mirror plateMail armour was introduced to the Middle East and Asia through the Romans and was adopted by the Sassanid Persians starting in the 3rd century AD, where it was supplemental to the scale and lamellar armour already used.", "Mail was commonly also used as horse armour for cataphracts and heavy cavalry as well as armour for the soldiers themselves.", "Asian mail could be just as heavy as the European variety and sometimes had prayer symbols stamped on the rings as a sign of their craftsmanship as well as for divine protection.Mail armour is mentioned in the Quran as being a gift revealed by Allah to David:21:80 It was We Who taught him the making of coats of mail for your benefit, to guard you from each other's violence: will ye then be grateful?", "(Yusuf Ali's translation)Mughal ArmyFrom the Abbasid Caliphate, mail was quickly adopted in Central Asia by Timur (Tamerlane) and the Sogdians and by India's Delhi Sultanate.", "Mail armour was introduced by the Turks in late 12th century and commonly used by Turk and the Mughal and Suri armies where it eventually became the armour of choice in India.", "Indian mail was constructed with alternating rows of solid links and round riveted links and it was often integrated with plate protection (mail and plate armour).=== China ===Mail was introduced to China when its allies in Central Asia paid tribute to the Tang Emperor in 718 by giving him a coat of \"link armour\" assumed to be mail.", "Earliest assumed reference to mail can be found in early 3rd century record by Cao Zhi, being called \"chained ring armor\".", "China first encountered the armour in 384 when its allies in the nation of Kuchi arrived wearing \"armour similar to chains\".", "Once in China, mail was imported but was not produced widely.", "Due to its flexibility, comfort, and rarity, it was typically the armour of high-ranking guards and those who could afford the exotic import (to show off their social status) rather than the armour of the rank and file, who used more common brigandine, scale, and lamellar types.", "However, it was one of the few military products that China imported from foreigners.", "Mail spread to Korea slightly later where it was imported as the armour of imperial guards and generals.===Japan===Edo period Japanese (samurai) chain armour or kusari gusokuIn Japan, mail is called ''kusari'' which means chain.", "When the word ''kusari'' is used in conjunction with an armoured item it usually means that mail makes up the majority of the armour composition.", "An example of this would be ''kusari gusoku'' which means chain armour.", "''Kusari'' jackets, hoods, gloves, vests, shin guards, shoulder guards, thigh guards, and other armoured clothing were produced, even ''kusari tabi'' socks.", "''Kusari'' was used in samurai armour at least from the time of the Mongol invasion (1270s) but particularly from the Nambokucho Period (1336–1392).", "The Japanese used many different weave methods including a square 4-in-1 pattern (''so gusari''), a hexagonal 6-in-1 pattern (''hana gusari'') and a European 4-in-1 (''nanban gusari'').", "The rings of Japanese mail were much smaller than their European counterparts; they would be used in patches to link together plates and to drape over vulnerable areas such as the armpits.", "''Riveted kusari'' was known and used in Japan.", "On page 58 of the book ''Japanese Arms & Armor: Introduction'' by H. Russell Robinson, there is a picture of Japanese riveted kusari, andthis quote from the translated reference of Sakakibara Kozan's 1800 book, ''The Manufacture of Armour and Helmets in Sixteenth-Century Japan'', shows that the Japanese not only knew of and used riveted kusari but that they manufactured it as well.... karakuri-namban (riveted namban), with stout links each closed by a rivet.", "Its invention is credited to Fukushima Dembei Kunitaka, pupil, of Hojo Awa no Kami Ujifusa, but it is also said to be derived directly from foreign models.", "It is heavy because the links are tinned (biakuro-nagashi) and these are also sharp-edged because they are punched out of iron plateButted or split (twisted) links made up the majority of ''kusari'' links used by the Japanese.", "Links were either ''butted'' together meaning that the ends touched each other and were not riveted, or the ''kusari'' was constructed with links where the wire was turned or twisted two or more times; these split links are similar to the modern split ring commonly used on keychains.", "The rings were lacquered black to prevent rusting, and were always stitched onto a backing of cloth or leather.", "The kusari was sometimes concealed entirely between layers of cloth.", "''Kusari gusoku'' or chain armour was commonly used during the Edo period 1603 to 1868 as a stand-alone defense.", "According to George Cameron StoneEntire suits of mail ''kusari gusoku'' were worn on occasions, sometimes under the ordinary clothingIn his book ''Arms and Armor of the Samurai: The History of Weaponry in Ancient Japan'', Ian Bottomley shows a picture of a kusari armour and mentions ''kusari katabira'' (chain jackets) with detachable arms being worn by samurai police officials during the Edo period.", "The end of the samurai era in the 1860s, along with the 1876 ban on wearing swords in public, marked the end of any practical use for mail and other armour in Japan.", "Japan turned to a conscription army and uniforms replaced armour." ], [ "Effectiveness", "Mail hauberk from the Museum of BayeuxMail's resistance to weapons is determined by four factors: linkage type (riveted, butted, or welded), material used (iron versus bronze or steel), weave density (a tighter weave needs a thinner weapon to surpass), and ring thickness (generally ranging from 1.0–1.6 mm diameter (18 to 14 gauge) wire in most examples).", "Mail, if a warrior could afford it, provided a significant advantage when combined with competent fighting techniques.When the mail was not riveted, a thrust from most sharp weapons could penetrate it.", "However, when mail was riveted, only a strong well-placed thrust from certain spears, or thin or dedicated mail-piercing swords like the estoc, could penetrate, and a pollaxe or halberd blow could break through the armour.", "Strong projectile weapons such as stronger self bows, recurve bows, and crossbows could also penetrate riveted mail.", "Some evidence indicates that during armoured combat, the intention was to actually get around the armour rather than through it—according to a study of skeletons found in Visby, Sweden, a majority of the skeletons showed wounds on less well protected legs.", "Although mail was a formidable protection, due to technological advances as time progressed, mail worn under plate armour (and stand-alone mail as well) could be penetrated by the conventional weaponry of another knight.The flexibility of mail meant that a blow would often injure the wearer, potentially causing serious bruising or fractures, and it was a poor defence against head trauma.", "Mail-clad warriors typically wore separate rigid helms over their mail coifs for head protection.", "Likewise, blunt weapons such as maces and warhammers could harm the wearer by their impact without penetrating the armour; usually a soft armour, such as gambeson, was worn under the hauberk.", "Medieval surgeons were very well capable of setting and caring for bone fractures resulting from blunt weapons.", "With the poor understanding of hygiene, however, cuts that could get infected were much more of a problem.", "Thus mail armour proved to be sufficient protection in most situations." ], [ "Manufacture", "A manuscript from 1698 showing the manufacture of mailSeveral patterns of linking the rings together have been known since ancient times, with the most common being the 4-to-1 pattern (where each ring is linked with four others).", "In Europe, the 4-to-1 pattern was completely dominant.", "Mail was also common in East Asia, primarily Japan, with several more patterns being utilised and an entire nomenclature developing around them.Historically, in Europe, from the pre-Roman period on, the rings composing a piece of mail would be riveted closed to reduce the chance of the rings splitting open when subjected to a thrusting attack or a hit by an arrow.Up until the 14th century European mail was made of alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings.", "Sometime during the 14th century European mail makers started to transition from round rivets to wedge shaped rivets but continued using alternating rows of solid rings.", "Eventually European mail makers stopped using solid rings and almost all European mail was made from wedge riveted rings only with no solid rings.", "Both were commonly made of wrought iron, but some later pieces were made of heat-treated steel.", "Wire for the riveted rings was formed by either of two methods.", "One was to hammer out wrought iron into plates and cut or slit the plates.", "These thin pieces were then pulled through a draw plate repeatedly until the desired diameter was achieved.", "Waterwheel powered drawing mills are pictured in several period manuscripts.", "Another method was to simply forge down an iron billet into a rod and then proceed to draw it out into wire.", "The solid links would have been made by punching from a sheet.", "Guild marks were often stamped on the rings to show their origin and craftsmanship.", "Forge welding was also used to create solid links, but there are few possible examples known; the only well documented example from Europe is that of the camail (mail neck-defence) of the 7th century Coppergate helmet.", "Outside of Europe this practice was more common such as \"theta\" links from India.", "Very few examples of historic butted mail have been found and it is generally accepted that butted mail was never in wide use historically except in Japan where mail (''kusari'') was commonly made from ''butted'' links.", "Butted link mail was also used by the Moros of the Philippines in their mail and plate armours." ], [ "Modern uses", "===Practical uses===Neptunic shark suitMail is used as protective clothing for butchers against meat-packing equipment.", "Workers may wear up to of mail under their white coats.", "Butchers also commonly wear a single mail glove to protect themselves from self-inflicted injury while cutting meat, as do many oyster shuckers.Scuba divers sometimes use mail to protect them from sharkbite, as do animal control officers for protection against the animals they handle.", "In 1980, marine biologist Jeremiah Sullivan patented his design for Neptunic full coverage chain mail shark resistant suits which he had developed for close encounters with sharks.Shark expert and underwater filmmaker Valerie Taylor was among the first to develop and test shark suits in 1979 while diving with sharks.Mail is widely used in industrial settings as shrapnel guards and splash guards in metal working operations.Electrical applications for mail include RF leakage testing and being worn as a Faraday cage suit by tesla coil enthusiasts and high voltage electrical workers.====Stab-proof vests====Conventional textile-based ballistic vests are designed to stop soft-nosed bullets but offer little defense from knife attacks.", "Knife-resistant armour is designed to defend against knife attacks; some of these use layers of metal plates, mail and metallic wires.===Historical re-enactment===Roman soldier 175 A.D. from a northern province (re-enactment).Many historical reenactment groups, especially those whose focus is Antiquity or the Middle Ages, commonly use mail both as practical armour and for costuming.", "Mail is especially popular amongst those groups which use steel weapons.", "A modern hauberk made from 1.5 mm diameter wire with 10 mm inner diameter rings weighs roughly and contains 15,000–45,000 rings.One of the drawbacks of mail is the uneven weight distribution; the stress falls mainly on shoulders.", "Weight can be better distributed by wearing a belt over the mail, which provides another point of support.Mail worn today for re-enactment and recreational use can be made in a variety of styles and materials.", "Most recreational mail today is made of butted links which are galvanised or stainless steel.", "This is historically inaccurate but is much less expensive to procure and especially to maintain than historically accurate reproductions.", "Mail can also be made of titanium, aluminium, bronze, or copper.", "Riveted mail offers significantly better protection ability as well as historical accuracy than mail constructed with butted links.", "Japanese mail (''kusari'') is one of the few historically correct examples of mail being constructed with such ''butted links''.===Decorative uses===Major's shoulder chainsA modern example of the use of ''mail'', a bracelet using the ''roundmaille weave''Mail remained in use as a decorative and possibly high-status symbol with military overtones long after its practical usefulness had passed.", "It was frequently used for the epaulettes of military uniforms.", "It is still used in this form by some regiments of the British Army.Mail has applications in sculpture and jewellery, especially when made out of precious metals or colourful anodized metals.", "Mail artwork includes headdresses, decorative wall hangings, ornaments, chess sets, macramé, and jewelry.", "For these non-traditional applications, hundreds of patterns (commonly referred to as \"weaves\") have been invented.Large-linked mail is occasionally used as a fetish clothing material, with the large links intended to reveal – in part – the body beneath them." ], [ "In film", "In some films, knitted string spray-painted with a metallic paint is used instead of actual mail in order to cut down on cost (an example being ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'', which was filmed on a very small budget).", "Films more dedicated to costume accuracy often use ABS plastic rings, for the lower cost and weight.", "Such ABS mail coats were made for ''The Lord of the Rings'' film trilogy, in addition to many metal coats.", "The metal coats are used rarely because of their weight, except in close-up filming where the appearance of ABS rings is distinguishable.", "A large scale example of the ABS mail used in the ''Lord of the Rings'' can be seen in the entrance to the Royal Armouries museum in Leeds in the form of a large curtain bearing the logo of the museum.", "It was acquired from the makers of the film's armour, Weta Workshop, when the museum hosted an exhibition of WETA armour from their films.", "For the film ''Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome'', Tina Turner is said to have worn actual mail and she complained how heavy this was.", "''Game of Thrones'' makes use of mail, notably during the \"Red Wedding\" scene." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Kusari tabi.JPG|Edo period 1800s Japanese (samurai) mail socks or ''kusari tabi'', butted rings.File:Kusari katabira 6.JPG|Japanese Edo period mail jacket, butted rings ''kusari katabira''.File:Kusari kote.JPG|Edo period Japanese (samurai) mail gauntlets ''kusari han kote'', butted rings.File:Rriveted kusari kote.jpg|A rare example of Japanese riveted mail, round riveted rings.File:Kusari examples.JPG|Examples of Edo period Japanese (samurai) mail ''kusari''.File:Eastern riveted armor.JPG|Riveted mail and plate coat ''zirah bagtar''.", "Armour of this type was introduced into India under the Mughals.File:Riveted armor and plate.JPG|Close up of Mughal riveted mail and plate coat ''zirah Bagtar'', 17th century, alternating rows of solid rings and round riveted rings.File:Eastern riveted hood detail.JPG|Close up detail of Mughal riveted mail hood ''kulah zirah'', 17th century, alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings.File:Eastern riveted armor 1.JPG|Mughal riveted mail and plate coat ''zirah Bagtar'', 17th century, alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings.File:Eastern riveted armor hood.JPG|Mughal riveted mail hood ''kulah zirah''.", "17th century, alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings.File:Morgan Bible 28r detail.jpg|\"David rejects the unaccustomed armour\" (detail of fol.", "28r of the 13th century Morgan Bible).", "The image depicts a method of removing a hauberk.File:Indian theta or bar link mail 1.jpg|Indian theta link mail (bar link mail), alternating rows of solid theta rings and round riveted rings, 17th century.File:Ottoman krug front plate, detail view.jpg|Ottoman riveted mail, alternating rows of round riveted links and solid links, 16th century.File:European riveted mail hauberk, close up view.jpg|European wedge riveted mail, showing both sides of the rings, 16th to 17th century.File:Cota de malha não rebitada.jpg|Man wearing mail in modern days." ], [ "See also", "=== Mail-based armour ===* Banded mail* Hauberk* Mail and plate armour* Kusari (Japanese mail armour)* Lorica hamata* Lorica plumata with scales attached to a backing of mail* Tatami (Japanese armour)* Baju Rantai, type of mail from the Nusantara archipelago===Armour supplementary to mail===Typically worn under mail armour if thin or over mail armour if thick:* Gambeson (also known as quilted armour or a padded jack)Can be worn over mail armour:* Brigandine* Coat of plates* Lamellar armour* Mirror armour (supplementary plates worn over mail)* Scale armour* Splint armour* Transitional armourOthers:* Cataphract* Proofing (armour)* Ring armour" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Erik D. Schmid/The Mail Research Society* The Treatment of Mail on an Arm Guard from the Armoury of the Shah Shuja: Ethical Repair and in situ Documentation in Miniature* Excavated lorica hamata* Maillers Worldwide - weaves/tutorials/articles, and gallery photos* The Maille Artisans International League (MAIL) – Hundreds of weaves/tutorials/articles, and gallery pictures* \"Mail: Unchained\", an article taking an in-depth look at the construction and usage of European chain mail* Construction tips** Butted mail: A Mailmaker's Guide** The Ringinator - Tool for making jump rings** The Apprentice Armorer's Illustrated Handbook For Making Mail** The Ring Lord Chainmail Discussion Forum** Phong's Chainmaille Tutorials** Ring Guide – Sizing Specialty Square Rings to Round Weaves* Ancient Roman originals can be seen on the pages of the Roman Military Equipment Web museum, Romancoins.info* http://artofchainmail.com/patterns/european/index.html* http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/armor-ii* Chain Mail 101: Learn all about making Chain Mail" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cerberus" ], [ "Introduction", "Heracles, wearing his characteristic lion-skin, club in right hand, leash in left, presenting a three-headed Cerberus, snakes coiling from his snouts, necks and front paws, to a frightened Eurystheus hiding in a giant pot.", "Caeretan hydria (c. 530 BC) from Caere (Louvre E701).In Greek mythology, '''Cerberus''' ( or ; ''Kérberos'' ), often referred to as the '''hound of Hades''', is a multi-headed dog that guards the gates of the Underworld to prevent the dead from leaving.", "He was the offspring of the monsters Echidna and Typhon, and was usually described as having three heads, a serpent for a tail, and snakes protruding from his body.", "Cerberus is primarily known for his capture by Heracles, the last of Heracles' twelve labours." ], [ "Etymology", "Cerberus and Hades/Serapis.", "Heraklion Archaeological Museum, Crete, Greece.The etymology of Cerberus' name is uncertain.", "Ogden refers to attempts to establish an Indo-European etymology as \"not yet successful\".", "It has been claimed to be related to the Sanskrit word सर्वरा ''sarvarā'', used as an epithet of one of the dogs of Yama, from a Proto-Indo-European word *''k̑érberos'', meaning \"spotted\".", "Lincoln (1991), among others, critiques this etymology.", "This etymology was also rejected by Manfred Mayrhofer, who proposed an Austro-Asiatic origin for the word, and Beekes.", "Lincoln notes a similarity between Cerberus and the Norse mythological dog Garmr, relating both names to a Proto-Indo-European root ''*ger-'' \"to growl\" (perhaps with the suffixes ''-*m/*b'' and ''-*r'').", "However, as Ogden observes, this analysis actually requires ''Kerberos'' and ''Garmr'' to be derived from two ''different'' Indo-European roots (*''ker-'' and *''gher-'' respectively), and so does not actually establish a relationship between the two names.Though probably not Greek, Greek etymologies for Cerberus have been offered.", "An etymology given by Servius (the late-fourth-century commentator on Virgil)—but rejected by Ogden—derives Cerberus from the Greek word ''creoboros'' meaning \"flesh-devouring\".", "Another suggested etymology derives Cerberus from \"Ker berethrou\", meaning \"evil of the pit\"." ], [ "Descriptions", "Descriptions of Cerberus vary, including the number of his heads.", "Cerberus was usually three-headed, though not always.", "Cerberus had several multi-headed relatives.", "His father was the multi snake-footed Typhon, and Cerberus was the brother of three other multi-headed monsters, the multi-snake-headed Lernaean Hydra; Orthrus, the two-headed dog that guarded the Cattle of Geryon; and the Chimera, who had three heads: that of a lion, a goat, and a snake.", "And, like these close relatives, Cerberus was, with only the rare iconographic exception, multi-headed.In the earliest description of Cerberus, Hesiod's ''Theogony'' (c. 8th – 7th century BC), Cerberus has fifty heads, while Pindar (c. 522 – c. 443 BC) gave him one hundred heads.", "However, later writers almost universally give Cerberus three heads.", "An exception is the Latin poet Horace's Cerberus which has a single dog head, and one hundred snake heads.", "Perhaps trying to reconcile these competing traditions, Apollodorus's Cerberus has three dog heads and the heads of \"all sorts of snakes\" along his back, while the Byzantine poet John Tzetzes (who probably based his account on Apollodorus) gives Cerberus fifty heads, three of which were dog heads, the rest being the \"heads of other beasts of all sorts\".Heracles, chain in left hand, his club laid aside, calms a two-headed Cerberus, which has a snake protruding from each of his heads, a mane down his necks and back, and a snake tail.", "Cerberus is emerging from a portico, which represents the palace of Hades in the underworld.", "Between them, a tree represents the sacred grove of Hades' wife Persephone.", "On the far left, Athena stands, left arm extended.", "Amphora (c. 525–510 BC) from Vulci (Louvre F204).In art Cerberus is most commonly depicted with two dog heads (visible), never more than three, but occasionally with only one.", "On one of the two earliest depictions (c. 590–580 BC), a Corinthian cup from Argos (see below), now lost, Cerberus was shown as a normal single-headed dog.", "The first appearance of a three-headed Cerberus occurs on a mid-sixth-century BC Laconian cup (see below).Horace's many snake-headed Cerberus followed a long tradition of Cerberus being part snake.", "This is perhaps already implied as early as in Hesiod's ''Theogony'', where Cerberus' mother is the half-snake Echidna, and his father the snake-headed Typhon.", "In art, Cerberus is often shown as being part snake, for example the lost Corinthian cup showed snakes protruding from Cerberus' body, while the mid sixth-century BC Laconian cup gives Cerberus a snake for a tail.", "In the literary record, the first certain indication of Cerberus' serpentine nature comes from the rationalized account of Hecataeus of Miletus (fl.", "500–494 BC), who makes Cerberus a large poisonous snake.", "Plato refers to Cerberus' composite nature, and Euphorion of Chalcis (3rd century BC) describes Cerberus as having multiple snake tails, and presumably in connection to his serpentine nature, associates Cerberus with the creation of the poisonous aconite plant.", "Virgil has snakes writhe around Cerberus' neck, Ovid's Cerberus has a venomous mouth, necks \"vile with snakes\", and \"hair inwoven with the threatening snake\", while Seneca gives Cerberus a mane consisting of snakes, and a single snake tail.Cerberus was given various other traits.", "According to Euripides, Cerberus not only had three heads but three bodies, and according to Virgil he had multiple backs.", "Cerberus ate raw flesh (according to Hesiod), had eyes which flashed fire (according to Euphorion), a three-tongued mouth (according to Horace), and acute hearing (according to Seneca)." ], [ "The Twelfth Labour of Heracles", "Athena, Hermes and Heracles, leading a two-headed Cerberus out of the underworld, as Persephone looks on.", "Hydria (c. 550–500 BC) attributed to the Leagros Group (Louvre CA 2992).Cerberus' only mythology concerns his capture by Heracles.", "As early as Homer we learn that Heracles was sent by Eurystheus, the king of Tiryns, to bring back Cerberus from Hades the king of the underworld.", "According to Apollodorus, this was the twelfth and final labour imposed on Heracles.", "In a fragment from a lost play ''Pirithous'', (attributed to either Euripides or Critias) Heracles says that, although Eurystheus commanded him to bring back Cerberus, it was not from any desire to see Cerberus, but only because Eurystheus thought that the task was impossible.Heracles was aided in his mission by his being an initiate of the Eleusinian Mysteries.", "Euripides has his initiation being \"lucky\" for Heracles in capturing Cerberus.", "And both Diodorus Siculus and Apollodorus say that Heracles was initiated into the Mysteries, in preparation for his descent into the underworld.", "According to Diodorus, Heracles went to Athens, where Musaeus, the son of Orpheus, was in charge of the initiation rites, while according to Apollodorus, he went to Eumolpus at Eleusis.Heracles also had the help of Hermes, the usual guide of the underworld, as well as Athena.", "In the ''Odyssey'', Homer has Hermes and Athena as his guides.", "And Hermes and Athena are often shown with Heracles on vase paintings depicting Cerberus' capture.", "By most accounts, Heracles made his descent into the underworld through an entrance at Tainaron, the most famous of the various Greek entrances to the underworld.", "The place is first mentioned in connection with the Cerberus story in the rationalized account of Hecataeus of Miletus (fl.", "500–494 BC), and Euripides, Seneca, and Apolodorus, all have Heracles descend into the underworld there.", "However Xenophon reports that Heracles was said to have descended at the Acherusian Chersonese near Heraclea Pontica, on the Black Sea, a place more usually associated with Heracles' exit from the underworld (see below).", "Heraclea, founded c. 560 BC, perhaps took its name from the association of its site with Heracles' Cerberian exploit.=== Theseus and Pirithous ===While in the underworld, Heracles met the heroes Theseus and Pirithous, where the two companions were being held prisoner by Hades for attempting to carry off Hades' wife Persephone.", "Along with bringing back Cerberus, Heracles also managed (usually) to rescue Theseus, and in some versions Pirithous as well.", "According to Apollodorus, Heracles found Theseus and Pirithous near the gates of Hades, bound to the \"Chair of Forgetfulness, to which they grew and were held fast by coils of serpents\", and when they saw Heracles, \"they stretched out their hands as if they should be raised from the dead by his might\", and Heracles was able to free Theseus, but when he tried to raise up Pirithous, \"the earth quaked and he let go.", "\"The earliest evidence for the involvement of Theseus and Pirithous in the Cerberus story, is found on a shield-band relief (c. 560 BC) from Olympia, where Theseus and Pirithous (named) are seated together on a chair, arms held out in supplication, while Heracles approaches, about to draw his sword.", "The earliest literary mention of the rescue occurs in Euripides, where Heracles saves Theseus (with no mention of Pirithous).", "In the lost play ''Pirithous'', both heroes are rescued, while in the rationalized account of Philochorus, Heracles was able to rescue Theseus, but not Pirithous.", "In one place Diodorus says Heracles brought back both Theseus and Pirithous, by the favor of Persephone, while in another he says that Pirithous remained in Hades, or according to \"some writers of myth\" that neither Theseus, nor Pirithous returned.", "Both are rescued in Hyginus.=== Capture===Athena, Heracles, and a two-headed Cerberus, with mane down his necks and back.", "Hermes (not shown in the photograph) stands to the left of Athena.", "An amphora (c. 575–525 BC) from Kameiros, Rhodes (Louvre A481).There are various versions of how Heracles accomplished Cerberus' capture.", "According to Apollodorus, Heracles asked Hades for Cerberus, and Hades told Heracles he would allow him to take Cerberus only if he \"mastered him without the use of the weapons which he carried\", and so, using his lion-skin as a shield, Heracles squeezed Cerberus around the head until he submitted.In some early sources Cerberus' capture seems to involve Heracles fighting Hades.", "Homer (''Iliad'' 5.395–397) has Hades injured by an arrow shot by Heracles.", "A scholium to the ''Iliad'' passage, explains that Hades had commanded that Heracles \"master Cerberus without shield or Iron\".", "Heracles did this, by (as in Apollodorus) using his lion-skin instead of his shield, and making stone points for his arrows, but when Hades still opposed him, Heracles shot Hades in anger.", "Consistent with the no iron requirement, on an early-sixth-century BC lost Corinthian cup, Heracles is shown attacking Hades with a stone, while the iconographic tradition, from c. 560 BC, often shows Heracles using his wooden club against Cerberus.Euripides has Amphitryon ask Heracles: \"Did you conquer him in fight, or receive him from the goddess i.e.", "Persephone?", "To which Heracles answers: \"In fight\", and the ''Pirithous'' fragment says that Heracles \"overcame the beast by force\".", "However, according to Diodorus, Persephone welcomed Heracles \"like a brother\" and gave Cerberus \"in chains\" to Heracles.", "Aristophanes has Heracles seize Cerberus in a stranglehold and run off, while Seneca has Heracles again use his lion-skin as shield, and his wooden club, to subdue Cerberus, after which a quailing Hades and Persephone allow Heracles to lead a chained and submissive Cerberus away.", "Cerberus is often shown being chained, and Ovid tells that Heracles dragged the three headed Cerberus with chains of adamant.=== Exit from the underworld ===''Hercules and Cerberus''.", "Oil on canvas, by Peter Paul Rubens 1636, Prado Museum.There were several locations which were said to be the place where Heracles brought up Cerberus from the underworld.", "The geographer Strabo (63/64 BC – c. AD 24) reports that \"according to the myth writers\" Cerberus was brought up at Tainaron, the same place where Euripides has Heracles enter the underworld.", "Seneca has Heracles enter and exit at Tainaron.", "Apollodorus, although he has Heracles enter at Tainaron, has him exit at Troezen.", "The geographer Pausanias tells us that there was a temple at Troezen with \"altars to the gods said to rule under the earth\", where it was said that, in addition to Cerberus being \"dragged\" up by Heracles, Semele was supposed to have been brought up out of the underworld by Dionysus.Another tradition had Cerberus brought up at Heraclea Pontica (the same place which Xenophon had earlier associated with Heracles' descent) and the cause of the poisonous plant aconite which grew there in abundance.", "Herodorus of Heraclea and Euphorion said that when Heracles brought Cerberus up from the underworld at Heraclea, Cerberus \"vomited bile\" from which the aconite plant grew up.", "Ovid, also makes Cerberus the cause of the poisonous aconite, saying that on the \"shores of Scythia\", upon leaving the underworld, as Cerberus was being dragged by Heracles from a cave, dazzled by the unaccustomed daylight, Cerberus spewed out a \"poison-foam\", which made the aconite plants growing there poisonous.", "Seneca's Cerberus too, like Ovid's, reacts violently to his first sight of daylight.", "Enraged, the previously submissive Cerberus struggles furiously, and Heracles and Theseus must together drag Cerberus into the light.Pausanias reports that according to local legend Cerberus was brought up through a chasm in the earth dedicated to Clymenus (Hades) next to the sanctuary of Chthonia at Hermione, and in Euripides' ''Heracles'', though Euripides does not say that Cerberus was brought out there, he has Cerberus kept for a while in the \"grove of Chthonia\" at Hermione.", "Pausanias also mentions that at Mount Laphystion in Boeotia, that there was a statue of Heracles Charops (\"with bright eyes\"), where the Boeotians said Heracles brought up Cerberus.", "Other locations which perhaps were also associated with Cerberus being brought out of the underworld include, Hierapolis, Thesprotia, and Emeia near Mycenae.=== Presented to Eurystheus, returned to Hades ===In some accounts, after bringing Cerberus up from the underworld, Heracles paraded the captured Cerberus through Greece.", "Euphorion has Heracles lead Cerberus through Midea in Argolis, as women and children watch in fear, and Diodorus Siculus says of Cerberus, that Heracles \"carried him away to the amazement of all and exhibited him to men.\"", "Seneca has Juno complain of Heracles \"highhandedly parading the black hound through Argive cities\" and Heracles greeted by laurel-wreathed crowds, \"singing\" his praises.Then, according to Apollodorus, Heracles showed Cerberus to Eurystheus, as commanded, after which he returned Cerberus to the underworld.", "However, according to Hesychius of Alexandria, Cerberus escaped, presumably returning to the underworld on his own." ], [ "Principal sources", "Cerberus, with the gluttons in Dante's Third Circle of Hell.", "William Blake.The earliest mentions of Cerberus (c. 8th – 7th century BC) occur in Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'', and Hesiod's ''Theogony''.", "Homer does not name or describe Cerberus, but simply refers to Heracles being sent by Eurystheus to fetch the \"hound of Hades\", with Hermes and Athena as his guides, and, in a possible reference to Cerberus' capture, that Heracles shot Hades with an arrow.", "According to Hesiod, Cerberus was the offspring of the monsters Echidna and Typhon, was fifty-headed, ate raw flesh, and was the \"brazen-voiced hound of Hades\", who fawns on those that enter the house of Hades, but eats those who try to leave.Stesichorus (c. 630 – 555 BC) apparently wrote a poem called ''Cerberus'', of which virtually nothing remains.", "However the early-sixth-century BC-lost Corinthian cup from Argos, which showed a single head, and snakes growing out from many places on his body, was possibly influenced by Stesichorus' poem.", "The mid-sixth-century BC cup from Laconia gives Cerberus three heads and a snake tail, which eventually becomes the standard representation.Pindar (c. 522 – c. 443 BC) apparently gave Cerberus one hundred heads.", "Bacchylides (5th century BC) also mentions Heracles bringing Cerberus up from the underworld, with no further details.", "Sophocles (c. 495 – c. 405 BC), in his ''Women of Trachis'', makes Cerberus three-headed, and in his ''Oedipus at Colonus'', the Chorus asks that Oedipus be allowed to pass the gates of the underworld undisturbed by Cerberus, called here the \"untamable Watcher of Hades\".", "Euripides (c. 480 – 406 BC) describes Cerberus as three-headed, and three-bodied, says that Heracles entered the underworld at Tainaron, has Heracles say that Cerberus was not given to him by Persephone, but rather he fought and conquered Cerberus, \"for I had been lucky enough to witness the rites of the initiated\", an apparent reference to his initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries, and says that the capture of Cerberus was the last of Heracles' labors.", "The lost play ''Pirthous'' (attributed to either Euripides or his late contemporary Critias) has Heracles say that he came to the underworld at the command of Eurystheus, who had ordered him to bring back Cerberus alive, not because he wanted to see Cerberus, but only because Eurystheus thought Heracles would not be able to accomplish the task, and that Heracles \"overcame the beast\" and \"received favour from the gods\".", "Cerberus and Heracles.", "Etching by Antonio Tempesta (Florence, Italy, 1555–1630).", "The Los Angeles County Museum of Art.", "Plato (c. 425 – 348 BC) refers to Cerberus' composite nature, citing Cerberus, along with Scylla and the Chimera, as an example from \"ancient fables\" of a creature composed of many animal forms \"grown together in one\".", "Euphorion of Chalcis (3rd century BC) describes Cerberus as having multiple snake tails, and eyes that flashed, like sparks from a blacksmith's forge, or the volcanic Mount Etna.", "From Euphorion, also comes the first mention of a story which told that at Heraclea Pontica, where Cerberus was brought out of the underworld, by Heracles, Cerberus \"vomited bile\" from which the poisonous aconite plant grew up.According to Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), the capture of Cerberus was the eleventh of Heracles' labors, the twelfth and last being stealing the Apples of the Hesperides.", "Diodorus says that Heracles thought it best to first go to Athens to take part in the Eleusinian Mysteries, \"Musaeus, the son of Orpheus, being at that time in charge of the initiatory rites\", after which, he entered into the underworld \"welcomed like a brother by Persephone\", and \"receiving the dog Cerberus in chains he carried him away to the amazement of all and exhibited him to men.", "\"In Virgil's ''Aeneid'' (1st century BC), Aeneas and the Sibyl encounter Cerberus in a cave, where he \"lay at vast length\", filling the cave \"from end to end\", blocking the entrance to the underworld.", "Cerberus is described as \"triple-throated\", with \"three fierce mouths\", multiple \"large backs\", and serpents writhing around his neck.", "The Sibyl throws Cerberus a loaf laced with honey and herbs to induce sleep, enabling Aeneas to enter the underworld, and so apparently for Virgil—contradicting Hesiod—Cerberus guarded the underworld against entrance.", "Later Virgil describes Cerberus, in his bloody cave, crouching over half-gnawed bones.", "In his ''Georgics'', Virgil refers to Cerberus, his \"triple jaws agape\" being tamed by Orpheus' playing his lyre.Horace (65 – 8 BC) also refers to Cerberus yielding to Orpheus' lyre, here Cerberus has a single dog head, which \"like a Fury's is fortified by a hundred snakes\", with a \"triple-tongued mouth\" oozing \"fetid breath and gore\".Ovid (43 BC – AD 17/18) has Cerberus' mouth produce venom, and like Euphorion, makes Cerberus the cause of the poisonous plant aconite.", "According to Ovid, Heracles dragged Cerberus from the underworld, emerging from a cave \"where 'tis fabled, the plant grew / on soil infected by Cerberian teeth\", and dazzled by the daylight, Cerberus spewed out a \"poison-foam\", which made the aconite plants growing there poisonous.Cerberus and Heracles.", "Etching by Antonio Tempesta (Florence, Italy, 1555–1630).", "The Los Angeles County Museum of Art.", "Seneca, in his tragedy ''Hercules Furens'' gives a detailed description of Cerberus and his capture.Seneca's Cerberus has three heads, a mane of snakes, and a snake tail, with his three heads being covered in gore, and licked by the many snakes which surround them, and with hearing so acute that he can hear \"even ghosts\".", "Seneca has Heracles use his lion-skin as shield, and his wooden club, to beat Cerberus into submission, after which Hades and Persephone, quailing on their thrones, let Heracles lead a chained and submissive Cerberus away.", "But upon leaving the underworld, at his first sight of daylight, a frightened Cerberus struggles furiously, and Heracles, with the help of Theseus (who had been held captive by Hades, but released, at Heracles' request) drag Cerberus into the light.", "Seneca, like Diodorus, has Heracles parade the captured Cerberus through Greece.Apollodorus' Cerberus has three dog-heads, a serpent for a tail, and the heads of many snakes on his back.", "According to Apollodorus, Heracles' twelfth and final labor was to bring back Cerberus from Hades.", "Heracles first went to Eumolpus to be initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries.", "Upon his entering the underworld, all the dead flee Heracles except for Meleager and the Gorgon Medusa.", "Heracles drew his sword against Medusa, but Hermes told Heracles that the dead are mere \"empty phantoms\".", "Heracles asked Hades (here called Pluto) for Cerberus, and Hades said that Heracles could take Cerberus provided he was able to subdue him without using weapons.", "Heracles found Cerberus at the gates of Acheron, and with his arms around Cerberus, though being bitten by Cerberus' serpent tail, Heracles squeezed until Cerberus submitted.", "Heracles carried Cerberus away, showed him to Eurystheus, then returned Cerberus to the underworld.In an apparently unique version of the story, related by the sixth-century AD Pseudo-Nonnus, Heracles descended into Hades to abduct Persephone, and killed Cerberus on his way back up." ], [ "Iconography", "One of the two earliest depictions of the capture of Cerberus (composed of the last five figures on the right) shows, from right to left: Cerberus, with a single dog head and snakes rising from his body, fleeing right, Hermes, with his characteristic hat (''petasos'') and caduceus, Heracles, with quiver on his back, stone in left hand, and bow in right, a goddess, standing in front of Hades' throne, facing Heracles, and Hades, with scepter, fleeing left.", "Drawing of a lost Corinthian cup (c. 590–580 BC) from Argos.The capture of Cerberus was a popular theme in ancient Greek and Roman art.", "The earliest depictions date from the beginning of the sixth century BC.", "One of the two earliest depictions, a Corinthian cup (c. 590–580 BC) from Argos (now lost), shows a naked Heracles, with quiver on his back and bow in his right hand, striding left, accompanied by Hermes.", "Heracles threatens Hades with a stone, who flees left, while a goddess, perhaps Persephone or possibly Athena, standing in front of Hades' throne, prevents the attack.", "Cerberus, with a single canine head and snakes rising from his head and body, flees right.", "On the far right a column indicates the entrance to Hades' palace.", "Many of the elements of this scene—Hermes, Athena, Hades, Persephone, and a column or portico—are common occurrences in later works.", "The other earliest depiction, a relief ''pithos'' fragment from Crete (c. 590–570 BC), is thought to show a single lion-headed Cerberus with a snake (open-mouthed) over his back being led to the right.A mid-sixth-century BC Laconian cup by the Hunt Painter adds several new features to the scene which also become common in later works: three heads, a snake tail, Cerberus' chain and Heracles' club.", "Here Cerberus has three canine heads, is covered by a shaggy coat of snakes, and has a tail which ends in a snake head.", "He is being held on a chain leash by Heracles who holds his club raised over head.In Greek art, the vast majority of depictions of Heracles and Cerberus occur on Attic vases.", "Although the lost Corinthian cup shows Cerberus with a single dog head, and the relief ''pithos'' fragment (c. 590–570 BC) apparently shows a single lion-headed Cerberus, in Attic vase painting Cerberus usually has two dog heads.", "In other art, as in the Laconian cup, Cerberus is usually three-headed.", "Occasionally in Roman art Cerberus is shown with a large central lion head and two smaller dog heads on either side.Heracles with club in his right hand raised over head and leash in left hand drives ahead of him a two-headed Cerberus with mane down his necks and back and a snake tail.", "A neck-amphora (c. 530–515 BC) from Vulci (Munich 1493).As in the Corinthian and Laconian cups (and possibly the relief ''pithos'' fragment), Cerberus is often depicted as part snake.", "In Attic vase painting, Cerberus is usually shown with a snake for a tail or a tail which ends in the head of a snake.", "Snakes are also often shown rising from various parts of his body including snout, head, neck, back, ankles, and paws.Two Attic amphoras from Vulci, one (c. 530–515 BC) by the Bucci Painter (Munich 1493), the other (c. 525–510 BC) by the Andokides painter (Louvre F204), in addition to the usual two heads and snake tail, show Cerberus with a mane down his necks and back, another typical Cerberian feature of Attic vase painting.", "Andokides' amphora also has a small snake curling up from each of Cerberus' two heads.Besides this lion-like mane and the occasional lion-head mentioned above, Cerberus was sometimes shown with other leonine features.", "A pitcher (c. 530–500) shows Cerberus with mane and claws, while a first-century BC sardonyx cameo shows Cerberus with leonine body and paws.", "In addition, a limestone relief fragment from Taranto (c. 320–300 BC) shows Cerberus with three lion-like heads.During the second quarter of the 5th century BC the capture of Cerberus disappears from Attic vase painting.", "After the early third century BC, the subject becomes rare everywhere until the Roman period.", "In Roman art the capture of Cerberus is usually shown together with other labors.", "Heracles and Cerberus are usually alone, with Heracles leading Cerberus." ], [ "Cerberus rationalized", "At least as early as the 6th century BC, some ancient writers attempted to explain away various fantastical features of Greek mythology; included in these are various rationalized accounts of the Cerberus story.", "The earliest such account (late 6th century BC) is that of Hecataeus of Miletus.", "In his account Cerberus was not a dog at all, but rather simply a large venomous snake, which lived on Tainaron.", "The serpent was called the \"hound of Hades\" only because anyone bitten by it died immediately, and it was this snake that Heracles brought to Eurystheus.", "The geographer Pausanias (who preserves for us Hecataeus' version of the story) points out that, since Homer does not describe Cerberus, Hecataeus' account does not necessarily conflict with Homer, since Homer's \"Hound of Hades\" may not in fact refer to an actual dog.Other rationalized accounts make Cerberus out to be a normal dog.", "According to Palaephatus (4th century BC) Cerberus was one of the two dogs who guarded the cattle of Geryon, the other being Orthrus.", "Geryon lived in a city named Tricranium (in Greek ''Tricarenia'', \"Three-Heads\"), from which name both Cerberus and Geryon came to be called \"three-headed\".", "Heracles killed Orthus, and drove away Geryon's cattle, with Cerberus following along behind.", "Molossus, a Mycenaen, offered to buy Cerberus from Eurystheus (presumably having received the dog, along with the cattle, from Heracles).", "But when Eurystheus refused, Molossus stole the dog and penned him up in a cave in Tainaron.", "Eurystheus commanded Heracles to find Cerberus and bring him back.", "After searching the entire Peloponnesus, Heracles found where it was said Cerberus was being held, went down into the cave, and brought up Cerberus, after which it was said: \"Heracles descended through the cave into Hades and brought up Cerberus.", "\"In the rationalized account of Philochorus, in which Heracles rescues Theseus, Perithous is eaten by Cerberus.", "In this version of the story, Aidoneus (i.e., \"Hades\") is the mortal king of the Molossians, with a wife named Persephone, a daughter named Kore (another name for the goddess Persephone) and a large mortal dog named Cerberus, with whom all suitors of his daughter were required to fight.", "After having stolen Helen, to be Theseus' wife, Theseus and Perithous, attempt to abduct Kore, for Perithous, but Aidoneus catches the two heroes, imprisons Theseus, and feeds Perithous to Cerberus.", "Later, while a guest of Aidoneus, Heracles asks Aidoneus to release Theseus, as a favor, which Aidoneus grants.A 2nd-century AD Greek known as Heraclitus the paradoxographer (not to be confused with the 5th-century BC Greek philosopher Heraclitus)—claimed that Cerberus had two pups that were never away from their father, which made Cerberus appear to be three-headed." ], [ "Cerberus allegorized", "Virgil feeding Cerberus earth in the Third Circle of Hell.", "Illustration from Dante's ''Inferno'' by Gustave Doré.Servius, a medieval commentator on Virgil's ''Aeneid'', derived Cerberus' name from the Greek word ''creoboros'' meaning \"flesh-devouring\" (see above), and held that Cerberus symbolized the corpse-consuming earth, with Heracles' triumph over Cerberus representing his victory over earthly desires.", "Later, the mythographer Fulgentius, allegorizes Cerberus' three heads as representing the three origins of human strife: \"nature, cause, and accident\", and (drawing on the same flesh-devouring etymology as Servius) as symbolizing \"the three ages—infancy, youth, old age, at which death enters the world.\"", "The Byzantine historian and bishop Eusebius wrote that Cerberus was represented with three heads, because the positions of the sun above the earth are three—rising, midday, and setting.The later Vatican Mythographers repeat and expand upon the traditions of Servius and Fulgentius.", "All three Vatican Mythographers repeat Servius' derivation of Cerberus' name from ''creoboros''.", "The Second Vatican Mythographer repeats (nearly word for word) what Fulgentius had to say about Cerberus, while the Third Vatican Mythographer, in another very similar passage to Fugentius', says (more specifically than Fugentius), that for \"the philosophers\" Cerberus represented hatred, his three heads symbolizing the three kinds of human hatred: natural, causal, and casual (i.e.", "accidental).The Second and Third Vatican Mythographers, note that the three brothers Zeus, Poseidon and Hades each have tripartite insignia, associating Hades' three-headed Cerberus, with Zeus' three-forked thunderbolt, and Poseidon's three-pronged trident, while the Third Vatican Mythographer adds that \"some philosophers think of Cerberus as the tripartite earth: Asia, Africa, and Europe.", "This earth, swallowing up bodies, sends souls to Tartarus.", "\"Virgil described Cerberus as \"ravenous\" (''fame rabida''), and a rapacious Cerberus became proverbial.", "Thus Cerberus came to symbolize avarice, and so, for example, in Dante's ''Inferno,'' Cerberus is placed in the Third Circle of Hell, guarding over the gluttons, where he \"rends the spirits, flays and quarters them,\" and Dante (perhaps echoing Servius' association of Cerberus with earth) has his guide Virgil take up handfuls of earth and throw them into Cerberus' \"rapacious gullets.\"" ], [ "Namesakes", "Cerberus constellationIn the constellation Cerberus introduced by Johannes Hevelius in 1687, Cerberus is drawn as a three-headed snake, held in Hercules' hand (previously these stars had been depicted as a branch of the tree on which grew the Apples of the Hesperides).In 1829, French naturalist Georges Cuvier gave the name ''Cerberus'' to a genus of Asian snakes, which are commonly called \"dog-faced water snakes\" in English.The Serbian hard rock band Kerber, formed in 1981 by members Goran Šepa, Tomislav Nikolić and Branislav Božinović, is named after Cerberus." ], [ "See also", "* List of Greek mythological creatures* Dormarch – part of the Cŵn Annwn* Hellhound* Ammit, a chthonic creature in Egyptian mythology* Cadejo" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Apollodorus, ''Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S.", "in 2 Volumes''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Apuleius, ''Metamorphoses (The Golden Ass)'', Volume I: Books 1–6.Edited and translated by J. Arthur Hanson.", "Loeb Classical Library No.", "44.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996.Online version at Harvard University Press.", "* Aristophanes, ''Frogs'', Matthew Dillon, Ed., Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University, 1995.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Bacchylides, ''Odes'', translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien.", "1991.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Bloomfield, Maurice, ''Cerberus, the Dog of Hades: The History of an Idea'', Open Court publishing Company, 1905.Online version at Internet Archive* Bowra, C. M., ''Greek Lyric Poetry: From Alcman to Simonides'', Clarendon Press, 2001..* Diodorus Siculus, ''Diodorus Siculus: The Library of History''.", "Translated by C. H. Oldfather.", "Twelve volumes.", "Loeb Classical Library.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd.", "1989.", "* Euripides.", "''Fragments: Oedipus-Chrysippus.", "Other Fragments''.", "Edited and translated by Christopher Collard, Martin Cropp.", "Loeb Classical Library No.", "506.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2009.", "* Euripides, ''Heracles'', translated by E. P. Coleridge in ''The Complete Greek Drama'', edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. Volume 1.New York.", "Random House.", "1938.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Fowler, R. L. (2000), ''Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction'', Oxford University Press, 2000..* Fowler, R. L. (2013), ''Early Greek Mythography: Volume 2: Commentary'', Oxford University Press, 2013..* Freeman, Kathleen, ''Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers: A Complete Translation of the Fragments in Diels, Fragmente Der Vorsokratiker'', Harvard University Press, 1983..* Gantz, Timothy, ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol.", "1), (Vol.", "2).", "* Hard, Robin, ''The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J.", "Rose's \"Handbook of Greek Mythology\"'', Psychology Press, 2004, .", "Google Books.", "* Harding, Phillip, ''The Story of Athens: The Fragments of the Local Chronicles of Attika'', Routledge, 2007..* Hawes, Greta, ''Rationalizing Myth in Antiquity'', OUP Oxford, 2014..* Hesiod, ''Theogony'', in ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White'', Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Homer, ''The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Homer; ''The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Hopman, Marianne Govers, ''Scylla: Myth, Metaphor, Paradox'', Cambridge University Press, 2013..* Horace, ''The Odes and Carmen Saeculare of Horace''.", "John Conington.", "trans.", "London.", "George Bell and Sons.", "1882.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Hyginus, Gaius Julius, ''The Myths of Hyginus''.", "Edited and translated by Mary A.", "Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960.", "* Kirk, G. S. 1990 ''The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume 2, Books 5–8'', .", "* Lansing, Richard (editor), ''The Dante Encyclopedia'', Routledge, 2010..* Lightfoot, J. L. ''Hellenistic Collection: Philitas.", "Alexander of Aetolia.", "Hermesianax.", "Euphorion.", "Parthenius''.", "Edited and translated by J. L. Lightfoot.", "Loeb Classical Library No.", "508.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2010.. Online version at Harvard University Press.", "* * Lucan, ''Pharsalia'', Sir Edward Ridley.", "London.", "Longmans, Green, and Co. 1905.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Markantonatos, Andreas, ''Tragic Narrative: A Narratological Study of Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus'', Walter de Gruyter, 2002..* Nimmo Smith, Jennifer, ''A Christian's Guide to Greek Culture: The Pseudo-nonnus Commentaries on Sermons 4, 5, 39 and 43''.", "Liverpool University Press, 2001..* Ogden, Daniel (2013a), ''Drakōn: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds'', Oxford University Press, 2013..* Ogden, Daniel (2013b), ''Dragons, Serpents, and Slayers in the Classical and early Christian Worlds: A sourcebook'', Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Ovid.", "''Heroides.", "Amores''.", "Translated by Grant Showerman.", "Revised by G. P. Goold.", "Loeb Classical Library 41.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1977.. Online version at Harvard University Press.", "* Ovid, ''Metamorphoses'', Brookes More.", "Boston.", "Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Papadopoulou, Thalia, ''Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy'', Cambridge University Press, 2005..* Pausanias, ''Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Pepin, Ronald E., ''The Vatican Mythographers'', Fordham University Press, 2008.", "* Pindar, ''Odes'', Diane Arnson Svarlien.", "1990.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Pipili, Maria, ''Laconian Iconography of the Sixth Century B.C.", "'', Oxford University, 1987.", "* Plato, ''Republic Books 6–10'', Translated by Paul Shorey, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1969.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library* Plutarch.", "''Lives, Volume I: Theseus and Romulus.", "Lycurgus and Numa.", "Solon and Publicola''.", "Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.", "Loeb Classical Library No.", "46.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1914.. ''Theseus'' at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Propertius ''Elegies'' Edited and translated by G. P. Goold.", "Loeb Classical Library 18.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1990.Online version at Harvard University Press.", "* Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Quintus Smyrnaeus: The Fall of Troy'', Translator: A.S. Way; Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA, 1913.Internet Archive* Room, Adrian, ''Who's Who in Classical Mythology'', Gramercy Books, 2003..* Schefold, Karl (1966), ''Myth and Legend in Early Greek Art'', London, Thames and Hudson.", "* Schefold, Karl (1992), ''Gods and Heroes in Late Archaic Greek Art'', assisted by Luca Giuliani, Cambridge University Press, 1992..* Seneca, ''Tragedies, Volume I: Hercules.", "Trojan Women.", "Phoenician Women.", "Medea.", "Phaedra''.", "Edited and translated by John G. Fitch.", "Loeb Classical Library No.", "62.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2002.. Online version at Harvard University Press.", "* Seneca, ''Tragedies, Volume II: Oedipus.", "Agamemnon.", "Thyestes.", "Hercules on Oeta.", "Octavia''.", "Edited and translated by John G. Fitch.", "Loeb Classical Library No.", "78.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2004.. Online version at Harvard University Press.", "* Smallwood, Valerie, \"M. Herakles and Kerberos (Labour XI)\" in ''Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC)'' V.1 Artemis Verlag, Zürich and Munich, 1990.. pp. 85–100.", "* Sophocles, ''Women of Trachis'', Translated by Robert Torrance.", "Houghton Mifflin.", "1966.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Statius, ''Statius with an English Translation by J. H. Mozley'', Volume I, ''Silvae'', ''Thebaid'', Books I–IV, Loeb Classical Library No.", "206, London: William Heinemann, Ltd., New York: G. P. Putnamm's Sons, 1928.. Internet Archive* Statius, ''Statius with an English Translation by J. H. Mozley'', Volume II, ''Thebaid'', Books V–XII, ''Achilleid'', Loeb Classical Library No.", "207, London: William Heinemann, Ltd., New York: G. P. Putnamm's Sons, 1928.. Internet Archive* Stern, Jacob, ''Palaephatus Πεπὶ Ὰπίστων, On Unbelievable Tales'', Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 1996..* Trypanis, C. A., Gelzer, Thomas; Whitman, Cedric, ''CALLIMACHUS, MUSAEUS, Aetia, Iambi, Hecale and Other Fragments.", "Hero and Leander'', Harvard University Press, 1975..* Tzetzes, ''Chiliades'', editor Gottlieb Kiessling, F.C.G.", "Vogel, 1826.", "(English translation, Books II–IV, by Gary Berkowitz.", "Internet Archive).", "* Virgil, ''Aeneid'', Theodore C. Williams.", "trans.", "Boston.", "Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library* Virgil, ''Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics of Vergil''.", "J.", "B. Greenough.", "Boston.", "Ginn & Co. 1900.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library* West, David, ''Horace, Odes 3'', Oxford University Press, 2002..* West, M. L. (2003), ''Greek Epic Fragments: From the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC''.", "Edited and translated by Martin L. West.", "Loeb Classical Library No.", "497.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2003.Online version at Harvard University Press.", "* Whitbread, Leslie George, ''Fulgentius the Mythographer''.", "Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1971.", "* Woodford, Susan, Spier, Jeffrey, \"Kerberos\", in ''Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC)'' VI.1 Artemis Verlag, Zürich and Munich, 1992.. pp. 24–32.", "* Xenophon, ''Anabasis'' in ''Xenophon in Seven Volumes'', 3.Carleton L. Brownson.", "Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts; William Heinemann, Ltd., London.", "1922.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library." ], [ "External links", "****" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Camel case" ], [ "Introduction", "Camel case is named after the \"hump\" of its protruding capital letter, similar to the hump of common camels.", "'''Camel case''' (sometimes stylized as '''camelCase''' or '''CamelCase''', also known as '''camel caps''' or more formally as '''medial capitals''') is the practice of writing phrases without spaces or punctuation and with capitalized words.", "The format indicates the first word starting with either case, then the following words having an initial uppercase letter.", "Common examples include ''YouTube'', ''iPhone'' and ''eBay''.", "Camel case is often used as a naming convention in computer programming.", "It is also sometimes used in online usernames such as ''JohnSmith'', and to make multi-word domain names more legible, for example in promoting ''EasyWidgetCompany.com''.The more specific terms '''Pascal case''' and '''upper camel case''' refer to a joined phrase where the first letter of each word is capitalized, including the initial letter of the first word.", "Similarly, '''lower camel case''' (also known as '''dromedary case''') requires an initial lowercase letter.", "Some people and organizations, notably Microsoft, use the term ''camel case'' only for lower camel case, designating Pascal case for the upper camel case.", "Some programming styles prefer camel case with the first letter capitalized, others not.", "For clarity, this article leaves the definition of camel case ambiguous with respect to capitalization, and uses the more specific terms when necessary.Camel case is distinct from several other styles: ''title case'', which capitalizes all words but retains the spaces between them; ''Tall Man lettering'', which uses capitals to emphasize the differences between similar-looking product names such as ''predniSONE'' and ''predniSOLONE''; and ''snake case'', which uses underscores interspersed with lowercase letters (sometimes with the first letter capitalized).", "A combination of snake and camel case (identifiers ''Written_Like_This'') is recommended in the Ada 95 style guide." ], [ "Variations and synonyms", "The practice has various names, including:* camelBack (or camel-back) notation or CamelCaps* camel case or CamelCase* CapitalizedWords or CapWords for upper camel case in Python* compoundNames* Embedded caps (or embedded capitals)* HumpBack (or hump-back) notation* InterCaps or intercapping (abbreviation of ''Internal Capitalization'')* medial capitals, recommended by the Oxford English Dictionary* mixedCase for lower camel case in Python* PascalCase for upper camel case (after the Pascal programming language)* Smalltalk case* WikiWord or WikiCase (especially in older wikis)The earliest known occurrence of the term \"InterCaps\" on Usenet is in an April 1990 post to the group alt.folklore.computers by Avi Rappoport.", "The earliest use of the name \"Camel Case\" occurs in 1995, in a post by Newton Love.", "Love has since said, \"With the advent of programming languages having these sorts of constructs, the humpiness of the style made me call it HumpyCase at first, before I settled on CamelCase.", "I had been calling it CamelCase for years.", "...", "The citation above was just the first time I had used the name on USENET.\"" ], [ "Traditional use in natural language", "===In word combinations===The use of medial capitals as a convention in the regular spelling of everyday texts is rare, but is used in some languages as a solution to particular problems which arise when two words or segments are combined.In Italian, pronouns can be suffixed to verbs, and because the honorific form of second-person pronouns is capitalized, this can produce a sentence like ''non ho trovato il tempo di risponderLe'' (\"I have not found time to answer you\" – where ''Le'' means \"to you\").In German, the medial capital letter I, called ''Binnen-I'', is sometimes used in a word like ''StudentInnen'' (\"students\") to indicate that both ''Studenten'' (\"male students\") and ''Studentinnen'' (\"female students\") are intended simultaneously.", "However, mid-word capitalization does not conform to German orthography apart from proper names like ''McDonald''; the previous example could be correctly written using parentheses as ''Student(inn)en'', analogous to \"congress(wo)men\" in English.In Irish, camel case is used when an inflectional prefix is attached to a proper noun, for example (\"in Galway\"), from (\"Galway\"); (\"the Scottish person\"), from (\"Scottish person\"); and (\"to Ireland\"), from (\"Ireland\").", "In recent Scottish Gaelic orthography, a hyphen has been inserted: .This convention is also used by several written Bantu languages (e.g.", "''isiZulu'', \"Zulu language\") and several indigenous languages of Mexico (e.g.", "Nahuatl, Totonacan, Mixe–Zoque, and some Oto-Manguean languages).In Dutch, when capitalizing the digraph ''ij'', both the letter ''I'' and the letter ''J'' are capitalized, for example in the country name ''IJsland'' (\"Iceland\").In Chinese pinyin, camel case is sometimes used for place names so that readers can more easily pick out the different parts of the name.", "For example, places like Beijing (北京), Qinhuangdao (秦皇岛), and Daxing'anling (大兴安岭) can be written as ''BeiJing'', ''QinHuangDao,'' and ''DaXingAnLing'' respectively'','' with the number of capital letters equaling the number of Chinese characters.", "Writing word compounds only by the initial letter of each character is also acceptable in some cases, so Beijing can be written as ''BJ'', Qinghuangdao as ''QHD,'' and Daxing'anling as DXAL.In English, medial capitals are usually only found in Scottish or Irish \"Mac-\" or \"Mc-\" names, where for example ''MacDonald, McDonald,'' and ''Macdonald'' are common spelling variants of the same name, and in Anglo-Norman \"Fitz-\" names, where for example both ''FitzGerald'' and ''Fitzgerald'' are found.In their English style guide ''The King's English'', first published in 1906, H. W. and F. G. Fowler suggested that medial capitals could be used in triple compound words where hyphens would cause ambiguity—the examples they give are ''KingMark-like'' (as against ''King Mark-like'') and ''Anglo-SouthAmerican'' (as against ''Anglo-South American'').", "However, they described the system as \"too hopelessly contrary to use at present\".===In transliterations===In the scholarly transliteration of languages written in other scripts, medial capitals are used in similar situations.", "For example, in transliterated Hebrew, ''haIvri'' means \"the Hebrew person\" or \"the Jew\" and ''b'Yerushalayim'' means \"in Jerusalem\".", "In Tibetan proper names like ''rLobsang'', the \"r\" stands for a prefix glyph in the original script that functions as tone marker rather than a normal letter.", "Another example is ''tsIurku'', a Latin transcription of the Chechen term for the capping stone of the characteristic Medieval defensive towers of Chechnya and Ingushetia; the letter \"I\" (palochka) is not actually capital, denoting a phoneme distinct from the one transcribed as \"i\".=== In abbreviations ===Medial capitals are traditionally used in abbreviations to reflect the capitalization that the words would have when written out in full, for example in the academic titles PhD or BSc.", "A more recent example is NaNoWriMo, a contraction of National Novel Writing Month and the designation for both the annual event and the nonprofit organization that runs it.", "In German, the names of statutes are abbreviated using embedded capitals, e.g.", "StGB for (Criminal Code), PatG for (Patent Act), BVerfG for (Federal Constitutional Court), or the very common GmbH, for (private limited company).", "In this context, there can even be three or more camel case capitals, e.g.", "in TzBfG for (Act on Part-Time and Limited Term Occupations).", "In French, camel case acronyms such as OuLiPo (1960) were favored for a time as alternatives to initialisms.Camel case is often used to transliterate initialisms into alphabets where two letters may be required to represent a single character of the original alphabet, e.g., DShK from Cyrillic ДШК." ], [ "History of modern technical use", "=== Chemical formulas ===The first systematic and widespread use of medial capitals for technical purposes was the notation for chemical formulas invented by the Swedish chemist Jacob Berzelius in 1813.To replace the multitude of naming and symbol conventions used by chemists until that time, he proposed to indicate each chemical element by a symbol of one or two letters, the first one being capitalized.", "The capitalization allowed formulas like \"NaCl\" to be written without spaces and still be parsed without ambiguity.Berzelius' system continues to be used, augmented with three-letter symbols such as \"Uue\" for unconfirmed or unknown elements and abbreviations for some common substituents (especially in the field of organic chemistry, for instance \"Et\" for \"ethyl-\").", "This has been further extended to describe the amino acid sequences of proteins and other similar domains.=== Early use in trademarks ===Since the early 20th century, medial capitals have occasionally been used for corporate names and product trademarks, such as* DryIce Corporation (1925) marketed the solid form of carbon dioxide (CO2) as \"Dry Ice\", thus leading to its common name.", "* CinemaScope and VistaVision, rival widescreen movie formats (1953)* ShopKo (1962), retail stores, later renamed Shopko* ''MisteRogers Neighborhood'', the TV series also called ''Mister Rogers' Neighborhood'' (1968)* ChemGrass (1965), later renamed AstroTurf (1967)* ConAgra (1971), formerly Consolidated Mills* MasterCraft (1968), a sports boat manufacturer* AeroVironment (1971)* PolyGram (1972), formerly Grammophon-Philips Group* United HealthCare (1977)* MasterCard (1979), formerly Master Charge* SportsCenter (1979)=== Computer programming ===In the 1970s and 1980s, medial capitals were adopted as a standard or alternative naming convention for multi-word identifiers in several programming languages.", "The precise origin of the convention in computer programming has not yet been settled.", "A 1954 conference proceedings occasionally informally referred to IBM's Speedcoding system as \"SpeedCo\".", "Christopher Strachey's paper on GPM (1965), shows a program that includes some medial capital identifiers, including \"NextCh\" and \"WriteSymbol\".Multiple-word descriptive identifiers with embedded spaces such as end of file or char table cannot be used in most programming languages because the spaces between the words would be parsed as delimiters between tokens.", "The alternative of running the words together as in endoffile or chartable is difficult to understand and possibly misleading; for example, chartable is an English word (able to be charted), whereas charTable means a table of chars .Some early programming languages, notably Lisp (1958) and COBOL (1959), addressed this problem by allowing a hyphen (\"-\") to be used between words of compound identifiers, as in \"END-OF-FILE\": Lisp because it worked well with prefix notation (a Lisp parser would not treat a hyphen in the middle of a symbol as a subtraction operator) and COBOL because its operators were individual English words.", "This convention remains in use in these languages, and is also common in program names entered on a command line, as in Unix.However, this solution was not adequate for mathematically oriented languages such as FORTRAN (1955) and ALGOL (1958), which used the hyphen as an infix subtraction operator.", "FORTRAN ignored blanks altogether, so programmers could use embedded spaces in variable names.", "However, this feature was not very useful since the early versions of the language restricted identifiers to no more than six characters.Exacerbating the problem, common punched card character sets of the time were uppercase only and lacked other special characters.", "It was only in the late 1960s that the widespread adoption of the ASCII character set made both lowercase and the underscore character _ universally available.", "Some languages, notably C, promptly adopted underscores as word separators, and identifiers such as end_of_file are still prevalent in C programs and libraries (as well as in later languages influenced by C, such as Perl and Python).", "However, some languages and programmers chose to avoid underscores—among other reasons to prevent confusing them with whitespace—and adopted camel case instead.Charles Simonyi, who worked at Xerox PARC in the 1970s and later oversaw the creation of Microsoft's Office suite of applications, invented and taught the use of Hungarian Notation, one version of which uses the lowercase letter(s) at the start of a (capitalized) variable name to denote its type.", "One account claims that the camel case style first became popular at Xerox PARC around 1978, with the Mesa programming language developed for the Xerox Alto computer.", "This machine lacked an underscore key (whose place was taken by a left arrow \"←\"), and the hyphen and space characters were not permitted in identifiers, leaving camel case as the only viable scheme for readable multiword names.", "The PARC Mesa Language Manual (1979) included a coding standard with specific rules for upper and lower camel case that was strictly followed by the Mesa libraries and the Alto operating system.", "Niklaus Wirth, the inventor of Pascal, came to appreciate camel case during a sabbatical at PARC and used it in Modula, his next programming language.The Smalltalk language, which was developed originally on the Alto, also uses camel case instead of underscores.", "This language became quite popular in the early 1980s, and thus may also have been instrumental in spreading the style outside PARC.Upper camel case (or \"Pascal case\") is used in Wolfram Language in computer algebraic system Mathematica for predefined identifiers.", "User defined identifiers should start with a lower case letter.", "This avoids the conflict between predefined and user defined identifiers both today and in all future versions.C# variable names are recommended to follow the lower camel case convention.===Computer companies and products===Whatever its origins in the computing field, the convention was used in the names of computer companies and their commercial brands, since the late 1970s — a trend that continues to this day:* (1977) CompuServe* (1978) WordStar* (1979) VisiCalc* (1982) MicroProse, WordPerfect* (1983) NetWare* (1984) LaserJet, MacWorks, PostScript* (1985) PageMaker* (1987) ClarisWorks, HyperCard, PowerPoint* (1990) WorldWideWeb (the first web browser), later renamed Nexus=== Spread to mainstream usage ===In the 1980s and 1990s, after the advent of the personal computer exposed hacker culture to the world, camel case then became fashionable for corporate trade names in non-computer fields as well.", "Mainstream usage was well established by 1990:* (1980) EchoStar* (1984) BellSouth* (1985) ''EastEnders''* (1986) ''SpaceCamp''* (1990) HarperCollins, SeaTac* (1998) PricewaterhouseCoopers, merger of Price Waterhouse and CoopersDuring the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s, the lowercase prefixes \"e\" (for \"electronic\") and \"i\" (for \"Internet\", \"information\", \"intelligent\", etc.)", "became quite common, giving rise to names like Apple's iMac and the eBox software platform.In 1998, Dave Yost suggested that chemists use medial capitals to aid readability of long chemical names, e.g.", "write AmidoPhosphoRibosylTransferase instead of amidophosphoribosyltransferase.", "This usage was not widely adopted.Camel case is sometimes used for abbreviated names of certain neighborhoods, e.g.", "New York City neighborhoods ''SoHo'' (''So''uth of ''Ho''uston Street) and ''TriBeCa'' (''Tri''angle ''Be''low ''Ca''nal Street) and San Francisco's ''SoMa'' (''So''uth of ''Ma''rket).", "Such usages erode quickly, so the neighborhoods are now typically rendered as ''Soho'', ''Tribeca'', and ''Soma''.Internal capitalization has also been used for other technical codes like HeLa (1983)." ], [ "Current usage in computing", "=== Programming and coding ===The use of medial caps for compound identifiers is recommended by the coding style guidelines of many organizations or software projects.", "For some languages (such as Mesa, Pascal, Modula, Java and Microsoft's .NET) this practice is recommended by the language developers or by authoritative manuals and has therefore become part of the language's \"culture\".Style guidelines often distinguish between upper and lower camel case, typically specifying which variety should be used for specific kinds of entities: variables, record fields, methods, procedures, functions, subroutines, types, etc.", "These rules are sometimes supported by static analysis tools that check source code for adherence.The original Hungarian notation for programming, for example, specifies that a lowercase abbreviation for the \"usage type\" (not data type) should prefix all variable names, with the remainder of the name in upper camel case; as such it is a form of lower camel case.Programming identifiers often need to contain acronyms and initialisms that are already in uppercase, such as \"old HTML file\".", "By analogy with the title case rules, the natural camel case rendering would have the abbreviation all in uppercase, namely \"oldHTMLFile\".", "However, this approach is problematic when two acronyms occur together (e.g., \"parse DBM XML\" would become \"parseDBMXML\") or when the standard mandates lower camel case but the name begins with an abbreviation (e.g.", "\"SQL server\" would become \"sQLServer\").", "For this reason, some programmers prefer to treat abbreviations as if they were words and write \"oldHtmlFile\", \"parseDbmXml\" or \"sqlServer\".", "However, this can make it harder to recognize that a given word is intended as an acronym.Difficulties arise when identifiers have different meaning depending only on the case, as can occur with mathematical functions or trademarks.", "In this situation changing the case of an identifier might not be an option and an alternative name need be chosen.=== Wiki link markup ===Camel case is used in some wiki markup languages for terms that should be automatically linked to other wiki pages.", "This convention was originally used in Ward Cunningham's original wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, and can be activated in most other wikis.", "Some wiki engines such as TiddlyWiki, Trac and PmWiki make use of it in the default settings, but usually also provide a configuration mechanism or plugin to disable it.", "Wikipedia formerly used camel case linking as well, but switched to explicit link markup using square brackets and many other wiki sites have done the same.", "MediaWiki, for example, does not support camel case for linking.", "Some wikis that do not use camel case linking may still use the camel case as a naming convention, such as AboutUs.=== Other uses ===The NIEM registry requires that XML data elements use upper camel case and XML attributes use lower camel case.Most popular command-line interfaces and scripting languages cannot easily handle file names that contain embedded spaces (usually requiring the name to be put in quotes).", "Therefore, users of those systems often resort to camel case (or underscores, hyphens and other \"safe\" characters) for compound file names like MyJobResume.pdf.Microblogging and social networking services that limit the number of characters in a message are potential outlets for medial capitals.", "Using camel case between words reduces the number of spaces, and thus the number of characters, in a given message, allowing more content to fit into the limited space.", "Hashtags, especially long ones, often use camel case to maintain readability (e.g.", "#CollegeStudentProblems is easier to read than #collegestudentproblems); this practice improves accessibility as screen readers recognize CamelCase in parsing composite hashtags.In website URLs, spaces are percent-encoded as \"%20\", making the address longer and less human readable.", "By omitting spaces, camel case does not have this problem." ], [ "Readability studies", "Camel case has been criticized as negatively impacting readability due to the removal of spaces and uppercasing of every word.A 2009 study of 135 subjects comparing snake case (underscored identifiers) to camel case found that camel case identifiers were recognized with higher accuracy among all subjects.", "Subjects recognized snake case identifiers more quickly than camel case identifiers.", "Training in camel case sped up camel case recognition and slowed snake case recognition, although this effect involved coefficients with high p-values.", "The study also conducted a subjective survey and found that non-programmers either preferred underscores or had no preference, and 38% of programmers trained in camel case stated a preference for underscores.", "However, these preferences had no statistical correlation to accuracy or speed when controlling for other variables.A 2010 follow-up study used a similar study design with 15 subjects consisting of expert programmers trained primarily in snake case.", "It used a static rather than animated stimulus and found perfect accuracy in both styles except for one incorrect camel case response.", "Subjects recognized identifiers in snake case more quickly than camel case.", "The study used eye-tracking equipment and found that the difference in speed for its subjects was primarily due to the fact that average duration of fixations for camel-case was significantly higher than that of snake case for 3-part identifiers.", "The survey recorded a mixture of preferred identifier styles but again there was no correlation of preferred style to accuracy or speed." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Examples and history of CamelCase, also WordsSmashedTogetherLikeSo* .NET Framework General Reference Capitalization Styles* What's in a nAME(cq)?, by Bill Walsh, at The Slot* The Science of Word Recognition, by Kevin Larson, Advanced Reading Technology, Microsoft Corporation* Convert text to CamelCase* OASIS Cover Pages: CamelCase for Naming XML-Related Components* Convert text to CamelCase, Title Case, Uppercase and lowercase* Demystifying Common Casings in Programming: What They Are and When to Use Them" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cereal" ], [ "Introduction", "Harvesting a cereal with a combine harvester accompanied by a tractor and trailer.Cereal grains: (top) pearl millet, rice, barley(middle) sorghum, maize, oats(bottom) millet, wheat, rye, triticale A '''cereal''' is a grass cultivated for its edible grain.", "Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods.", "They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize.", "Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat and quinoa are pseudocereals.", "Most cereals are annuals, producing one crop from each planting, though rice is sometimes grown as a perennial.", "Winter varieties are hardy enough to be planted in the autumn, becoming dormant in the winter, and harvested in spring or early summer; spring varieties are planted in spring and harvested in late summer.", "The term cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain crops and fertility, Ceres.Cereals were domesticated in the Neolithic, some 8,000 years ago.", "Wheat and barley were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent; rice was domesticated in East Asia, and sorghum and millet were domesticated in West Africa.", "In the 20th century, cereal productivity was greatly increased by the Green Revolution.", "This increase in production has accompanied a growing international trade, with some countries producing large portions of the cereal supply for other countries.", "Cereals provide food eaten directly as whole grains, usually cooked, or they are ground to flour and made into bread, porridge, and other products.", "Cereals have a high starch content, enabling them to be fermented into alcoholic drinks such as beer.", "Cereal farming has a substantial environmental impact, and is often produced in high-intensity monocultures.", "The environmental harms can be mitigated by sustainable practices which reduce the impact on soil and improve biodiversity, such as no-till farming and intercropping." ], [ "History", "=== Origins ===Threshing of grain in ancient Egypt Wheat, barley, rye, and oats were gathered and eaten in the Fertile Crescent during the early Neolithic.", "Cereal grains 19,000 years old have been found at the Ohalo II site in Israel, with charred remnants of wild wheat and barley.During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using human-made floods and fires as part of their cultivation regimen.", "The use of soil conditioners, including manure, fish, compost and ashes, appears to have begun early, and developed independently in areas of the world including Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley, and Eastern Asia.Cereals that became modern barley and wheat were domesticated some 8,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent.", "Millets and rice were domesticated in East Asia, while sorghum and other millets were domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, primarily as feed for livestock.Roman harvesting machine In these agricultural regions, religion was often shaped by the divinity associated with the grain and harvests.", "In the Mesopotamian creation myth, an era of civilization is inaugurated by the grain goddess Ashnan.", "The Roman goddess Ceres presided over agriculture, grain crops, fertility, and motherhood; the term cereal is derived from Latin ''cerealis'', \"of grain\", originally meaning \"of the goddess Ceres\".", "Several gods of antiquity combined agriculture and war: the Hittite Sun goddess of Arinna, the Canaanite Lahmu and the Roman Janus.", "Complex civilizations arose where cereal agriculture created a surplus, allowing for part of the harvest to be appropriated from farmers, allowing power to be concentrated in cities.=== Modern ===Rice fields in India.", "India's participation in the Green Revolution helped resolve food shortages in the mid-twentieth century.During the second half of the 20th century, there was a significant increase in the production of high-yield cereal crops worldwide, especially wheat and rice, due to the Green Revolution, a technological change funded by development organizations.", "The strategies developed by the Green Revolution, including mechanized tilling, monoculture, nitrogen fertilizers, and breading of new strains of seeds.", "These innovations focused on fending off starvation and increasing yield-per-plant, and were very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but paid less attention to nutritional quality.", "These modern high-yield cereal crops tend to have low-quality proteins, with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates, and lack balanced essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other quality factors.", "So-called ancient grains and heirloom varieties have seen an increase in popularity with the \"organic\" movements of the early 21st century, but there is a tradeoff in yield-per-plant, putting pressure on resource-poor areas as food crops are replaced with cash crops." ], [ "Biology", "Structure of a cereal, wheat.", "A: Plant; B ripe ear of grains; 1 spikelet before flowering; 2 the same, flowering and spread, enlarged; 3 flowers with glumes; 4 stamens 5 pollen; 6 and 7 ovaries with juice scales; 8 and 9 parts of the scar; 10 fruit husks; 11–14 grains, natural size and enlarged.Cereals are grasses, in the Poaceae family, that produce edible grains.", "A cereal grain is botanically a caryopsis, a fruit where the seed coat is fused with the pericarp.", "Grasses have stems that are hollow except at the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks.", "The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath.", "The leaf grows from the base of the blade, an adaptation that protects the growing meristem from grazing animals.", "The flowers are usually hermaphroditic, with the exception of maize, and mainly anemophilous or wind-pollinated, although insects occasionally play a role.Among the best-known cereals are maize, rice, wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, oat, rye and triticale.", "Some other grains are colloquially called cereals, even though they are not grasses; these pseudocereals include buckwheat, quinoa, and amaranth." ], [ "Cultivation", "All cereal crops are cultivated in a similar way.", "Most are annual, so after sowing they are harvested just once.", "An exception is rice, which although usually treated as an annual can survive as a perennial, producing a ratoon crop.", "Cereals adapted to a temperate climate, such as barley, oats, rye, spelt, triticale, and wheat, are called cool-season cereals.", "Those preferring a tropical climate, such as millet and sorghum, are called warm-season cereals.", "Cool-season cereals, especially rye, followed by barley, are hardy; they grow best in fairly cool weather, and stop growing, depending on variety, when the temperature goes above around .", "Warm-season cereals, in contrast, require hot weather and cannot tolerate frost.", "Cool-season cereals can be grown in highlands in the tropics, where they sometimes deliver several crops in a single year.=== Planting ===Newly-planted rice in a paddy field In the tropics, warm-season cereals can be grown at any time of the year.", "In temperate zones, these cereals can only be grown when there is no frost.", "Most cereals are planted in tilled soils, which reduces weeds and breaks up the surface of a field.", "Most cereals need regular water in the early part of their life cycle.", "Rice is commonly grown in flooded fields, though some strains are grown on dry land.", "Other warm climate cereals, such as sorghum, are adapted to arid conditions.Cool-season cereals are grown mainly in temperate zones.", "These cereals often have both winter varieties for autumn sowing, winter dormancy, and early summer harvesting, and spring varieties planted in spring and harvested in late summer.", "Winter varieties have the advantage of using water when it is plentiful, and permitting a second crop after the early harvest.", "They flower only in spring as they require vernalization, exposure to cold for a specific period, fixed genetically.", "Spring crops grow when it is warmer but less rainy, so they may need irrigation.=== Growth ===''Fusarium graminearum'' damages many cereals, here wheat, where it causes wheat scab (right).Cereal strains are bred for consistency and resilience to the local environmental conditions.", "The greatest constraints on yield are plant diseases, especially rusts (mostly the ''Puccinia'' spp.)", "and powdery mildews.", "Fusarium head blight, caused by ''Fusarium graminearum'', is a significant limitation on a wide variety of cereals.", "Other pressures include pest insects and wildlife like rodents and deer.", "In conventional agriculture, some farmers will apply fungicides or pesticides=== Harvesting ===Annual cereals die when they have come to seed, and dry up.", "Harvesting begins once the plants and seeds are dry enough.", "Harvesting in mechanized agricultural systems is by combine harvester, a machine which drives across the field in a single pass in which it cuts the stalks and then threshes and winnows the grain.", "In traditional agricultural systems, mostly in the Global South, harvesting may be by hand, using tools such as scythes and grain cradles.", "Leftover parts of the plant can be allowed to decompose, or collected as straw; this can be used for animal bedding, mulch, and a growing medium for mushrooms.", "It is used in crafts such as building with cob or straw-bale construction.File:Rice-combine-harvester, Katori-city, Japan.jpg|A small-scale rice combine harvester in Japan=== Preprocessing and storage ===If cereals are not completely dry when harvested, such as when the weather is rainy, the stored grain will be spoilt by mould fungi such as ''Aspergillus'' and ''Penicillium''.", "This can be prevented by drying it artificially.", "It may then be stored in a grain elevator or silo, to be sold later.", "Grain stores need to be constructed to protect the grain from damage by pests such as seed-eating birds and rodents.", "File:Woman from small village peeling corn - Zambia.jpg|Peeling maize in Zambia File:Grain elevators on a farm in Israel (cropped).jpg|Grain elevators on a farm in Israel=== Processing ===An indigenous Mexican woman prepares maize tortillas, 2013When the cereal is ready to be distributed, it is sold to a manufacturing facility that first removes the outer layers of the grain for subsequent milling for flour or other processing steps, to produce foods such as flour, oatmeal, or pearl barley.", "In developing countries, processing may be traditional, in artisanal workshops, as with tortilla production in Central America.Most cereals can be processed in a variety of ways.", "Rice processing, for instance, can create whole-grain or polished rice, or rice flour.", "Removal of the germ increases the longevity of storing the grain.", "Some grains can be malted, a process of activating enzymes in the seed to cause sprouting that turns the complex starches into sugars before drying.", "These sugars can be extracted for industrial uses and further processing, such as for making industrial alcohol, beer, whisky, or rice wine, or sold directly as a sugar.", "In the 20th century, industrial processes developed around chemically altering the grain, to be used for other processes.", "In particular, maize can be altered to produce food additives, such as corn starch and high-fructose corn syrup." ], [ "Effects on the environment", "=== Impacts ===Harvesting kernza, a perennial cereal developed in the 21st century.", "Because it grows back every year, farmers no longer have to till the soil.Cereal production has a substantial impact on the environment.", "Tillage can lead to soil erosion and increased runoff.", "Irrigation consumes large quantities of water; its extraction from lakes, rivers, or aquifers may have multiple environmental effects, such as lowering the water table and cause salination of aquifers.", "Fertilizer production contributes to global warming, and its use can lead to pollution and eutrophication of waterways.", "Arable farming uses large amounts of fossil fuel, releasing greenhouse gases which contribute to global warming.", "Pesticide usage can cause harm to wildlife, such as to bees.=== Mitigations ===Excellent soil structure in land in South Dakota with no-till farming using a crop rotation of maize, soybeans, and wheat accompanied by cover crops.", "The main crop has been harvested but the roots of the cover crop are still visible in autumn.Some of the impacts of growing cereals can be mitigated by changing production practices.", "Tillage can be reduced by no-till farming, such as by direct drilling of cereal seeds, or by developing and planting perennial crop varieties so that annual tilling is not required.", "Rice can be grown as a ratoon crop; and other researchers are exploring perennial cool-season cereals, such as kernza, being developed in the US.", "Fertilizer and pesticide usage may be reduced in some polycultures, growing several crops in a single field at the same time.", "Fossil fuel-based nitrogen fertilizer usage can be reduced by intercropping cereals with legumes which fix nitrogen.", "Greenhouse gas emissions may be cut further by more efficient irrigation or by water harvesting methods like contour trenching that reduce the need for irrigation, and by breeding new crop varieties." ], [ "Uses", "=== Direct consumption ===Some cereals such as rice require little preparation before human consumption.", "For example, to make plain cooked rice, raw milled rice is washed and boiled.", "Foods such as porridge and muesli may be made largely of whole cereals, especially oats, whereas commercial breakfast cereals such as granola may be highly processed and combined with sugars, oils, and other products.=== Flour-based foods ===Various cereals and their productsCereals can be ground to make flour.", "Wheat flour is the main ingredient of bread and pasta.", "Maize flour has been important in Mesoamerica since ancient times, with foods such as Mexican tortillas and tamales.", "Rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern Europe, while rice flour is common in Asia.A cereal grain consists of starchy endosperm, germ, and bran.", "Wholemeal flour contains all of these; white flour is without some or all of the germ or bran.=== Alcohol ===Because cereals have a high starch content, they are often used to make industrial alcohol and alcoholic drinks by fermentation.", "For instance, beer is produced by brewing and fermenting starch, mainly from cereal grains—most commonly malted barley.", "Rice wines such as Japanese sake are brewed in Asia; a fermented rice and honey wine was made in China some 9,000 years ago.=== Animal feed ===feedCereals and their related byproducts such as hay are routinely fed to farm animals.", "Common cereals as animal food include maize, barley, wheat, and oats.", "Moist grains may be treated chemically or made into silage; mechanically flattened or crimped, and kept in airtight storage until used; or stored dry with a moisture content of less than 14%.", "Commercially, grains are often combined with other materials and formed into feed pellets." ], [ "Nutrition", "=== Whole-grain and processed ===Whole grains as used in this bread have more of the original seed, making them more nutritious but more prone to spoilage in storage.As whole grains, cereals provide carbohydrates, polyunsaturated fats, protein, vitamins, and minerals.", "When processed by the removal of the bran and germ, all that remains is the starchy endosperm.", "In some developing countries, cereals constitute a majority of daily sustenance.", "In developed countries, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial, primarily in the form of refined and processed grains.=== Amino acid balance ===Some cereals are deficient in the essential amino acid lysine, obliging vegetarian cultures to combine their diet of cereal grains with legumes to obtain a balanced diet.", "Many legumes, however, are deficient in the essential amino acid methionine, which grains contain.", "Thus, a combination of legumes with grains forms a well-balanced diet for vegetarians.", "Such combinations include dal (lentils) with rice by South Indians and Bengalis, beans with maize tortillas, tofu with rice, and peanut butter with wholegrain wheat bread (as sandwiches) in several other cultures, including the Americas.", "For feeding animals, the amount of crude protein measured in grains is expressed as grain crude protein concentration.=== Comparison of major cereals ===+ Nutritional values for some major cerealsPer 45g servingBarleyMaizeMilletOatsRiceRyeSorgh.WheatEnergykcal159163170175165152148153Proteing5.63.65.07.63.44.64.86.1Lipidg11.61.93.11.40.71.61.1Carbohydrateg3335313031343232Fibreg7.83.33.84.81.66.83.04.8Calciummg153424411615Ironmg1.61.51.32.10.61.21.51.6Magnesiummg6057518052507465Phosphorusmg119108128235140149130229Potassiummg20312988193112230163194Sodiummg516212111Zincmg1.20.80.81.81.01.20.71.9Thiamine (B1)mg0.290.170.190.340.240.140.150.19Riboflavin (B2)mg0.130.090.130.060.040.110.040.05Niacin (B3)mg21.62.10.42.91.91.73.0Pantothenic acid (B5)mg0.10.20.40.60.70.70.20.4Pyridoxine (B6)mg0.10.10.20.050.20.10.20.2Folic acid (B9)mcg91138251017919" ], [ "Production and trade commodities", "A grain elevator on fire in Ukraine, 2023.The Russian invasion of Ukraine disrupted its wheat exports and the global cereal trade.Cereals constitute the world's largest commodities by tonnage, whether measured by production or by international trade.", "Several major producers of cereals dominate the market.", "Because of the scale of the trade, some countries have become reliant on imports, thus cereals pricing or availability can have outsized impacts on countries with a food trade imbalance and thus food security.", "Speculation, as well as other compounding production and supply factors leading up to the 2007-2008 financial crises, created rapid inflation of grain prices during the 2007–2008 world food price crisis.", "Other disruptions, such as climate change or war related changes to supply or transportation can create further food insecurity; for example the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 disrupted Ukrainian and Russian wheat supplies causing a global food price crisis in 2022 that affected countries heavily dependent on wheat flour.=== Production ===Threshing teff, Ethiopia, 2007Cereals are the world's largest crops by tonnage of grain produced.", "Three cereals, maize, wheat, and rice, together accounted for 89% of all cereal production worldwide in 2012, and 43% of the global supply of food energy in 2009, while the production of oats and rye has drastically fallen from their 1960s levels.Other cereals not included in the U.N.'s Food and Agriculture Organization statistics include wild rice, which is grown in small amounts in North America, and teff, an ancient grain that is a staple in Ethiopia.", "Teff is grown in sub-Saharan Africa as a grass primarily for feeding horses.", "It is high in fiber and protein.", "Its flour is often used to make injera.", "It can be eaten as a warm breakfast cereal like farina with a chocolate or nutty flavor.", "File:Production Of Cereals (2021).svg|Production of cereals worldwide, by country in 2021The table shows the annual production of cereals in 1961, 1980, 2000, 2010, and 2019/2020.GrainWorldwide production (millions of metric tons)Notes19611980200020102019/20Maize (corn)2053975928521,148A staple food of people in the Americas, Africa, and of livestock worldwide; often called corn in North America, Australia, and New Zealand.", "A large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other than human consumption.Rice Production is in milled terms.285397599697755The primary cereal of tropical and some temperate regions.", "Staple food in most of Brazil, other parts of Latin America and some other Portuguese-descended cultures, parts of Africa (even more before the Columbian exchange), most of South Asia and the Far East.", "Largely overridden by breadfruit (a dicot tree) during the South Pacific's part of the Austronesian expansion.Wheat222440585641768The primary cereal of temperate regions.", "It has a worldwide consumption but it is a staple food of North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Brazil and much of the Greater Middle East.", "Wheat gluten-based meat substitutes are important in the Far East (albeit less than tofu) and are said to resemble meat texture more than others.Barley72157133123159Grown for malting and livestock on land too poor or too cold for wheat.Sorghum4157566058Important staple food in Asia and Africa and popular worldwide for livestock.Millet2625283328A group of similar cereals that form an important staple food in Asia and Africa.Oats5041262023Popular worldwide as a breakfast food, such as in porridge, and livestock feed.Triticale00.17914—Hybrid of wheat and rye, grown similarly to rye.Rye3525201213Important in cold climates.", "Rye grain is used for flour, bread, beer, crispbread, some whiskeys, some vodkas, and animal fodder.Fonio0.180.150.310.56—Several varieties are grown as food crops in Africa.=== Trade ===bulk grain ship, 2006Cereals are the most traded commodities by quantity in 2021, with wheat, maize, and rice the main cereals involved.", "The Americas and Europe are the largest exporters, and Asia is the largest importer.", "The largest exporter of maize is the US, while India is the largest exporter of rice.", "China is the largest importer of maize and of rice.", "Many other countries trade cereals, both as exporters and as importers.", "Cereals are traded as futures on world commodity markets, helping to mitigate the risks of changes in price for example, if harvests fail.File:Main Traded Cereals, Top Importers And Exporters (Quantities, 2021).svg|Main traded cereals, top import, export in 2021" ], [ "See also", "* Food price crisis* Food quality* Food safety* Lists of foods* Post-harvest losses* Pulse" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Christendom" ], [ "Introduction", "Christianity – Percentage of population by country (2014 data)'''Christendom''' historically refers to the Christian states, Christian empires, Christian-majority countries and the countries in which Christianity dominates, prevails, or that it is culturally or historically intertwined with.Following the spread of Christianity from the Levant to Europe and North Africa during the early Roman Empire, Christendom has been divided in the pre-existing Greek East and Latin West.", "Consequently, internal sects within the Christian religion arose with their own beliefs and practices, centred around the cities of Rome (Western Christianity, whose community was called Western or Latin Christendom) and Constantinople (Eastern Christianity, whose community was called Eastern Christendom).", "From the 11th to the 13th centuries, Latin Christendom rose to the central role of the Western world.", "The history of the Christian world spans about 2,000 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advancements in the arts, architecture, literature, science, philosophy, and technology.The term usually refers to the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period during which the Christian world represented a geopolitical power that was juxtaposed with both the pagan and especially the Muslim world." ], [ "Terminology", "The Anglo-Saxon term ''crīstendōm'' appears to have been coined in the 9th century by a scribe somewhere in southern England, possibly at the court of king Alfred the Great of Wessex.", "The scribe was translating Paulus Orosius' book ''History Against the Pagans'' () and in need for a term to express the concept of the universal culture focused on Jesus Christ.", "It had the sense now taken by ''Christianity'' (as is still the case with the cognate Dutch ''christendom'', where it denotes mostly the religion itself, just like the German ''Christentum''.The current sense of the word of \"lands where Christianity is the dominant religion\" emerged in Late Middle English (by ).Canadian theology professor Douglas John Hall stated (1997) that \"Christendom\" ... means literally the dominion or sovereignty of the Christian religion.\"", "Thomas John Curry, Roman Catholic auxiliary bishop of Los Angeles, defined (2001) Christendom as \"the system dating from the fourth century by which governments upheld and promoted Christianity.\"", "Curry states that the end of Christendom came about because modern governments refused to \"uphold the teachings, customs, ethos, and practice of Christianity.\"", "British church historian Diarmaid MacCulloch described (2010) Christendom as \"the union between Christianity and secular power.", "\"There is a common and nonliteral sense of the word that is much like the terms ''Western world'', ''known world'' or ''Free World''.", "The notion of \"Europe\" and the \"Western World\" has been intimately connected with the concept of \"Christianity and Christendom\"; many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity." ], [ "History", "===Rise of Christendom===This T-and-O map, which abstracts the then known world to a cross inscribed within an orb, remakes geography in the service of Christian iconography.", "More detailed versions place Jerusalem at the center of the world.Early Christianity spread in the Greek/Roman world and beyond as a 1st-century Jewish sect, which historians refer to as Jewish Christianity.", "It may be divided into two distinct phases: the apostolic period, when the first apostles were alive and organizing the Church, and the post-apostolic period, when an early episcopal structure developed, whereby bishoprics were governed by bishops (overseers).The post-apostolic period concerns the time roughly after the death of the apostles when bishops emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations.", "The earliest recorded use of the terms ''Christianity'' (Greek ) and ''catholic'' (Greek ), dates to this period, the 2nd century, attributed to Ignatius of Antioch ''c.''", "107.Early Christendom would close at the end of imperial persecution of Christians after the ascension of Constantine the Great and the Edict of Milan in AD 313 and the First Council of Nicaea in 325.According to Malcolm Muggeridge (1980), Christ founded Christianity, but Constantine founded Christendom.", "Canadian theology professor Douglas John Hall dates the 'inauguration of Christendom' to the 4th century, with Constantine playing the primary role (so much so that he equates Christendom with \"Constantinianism\") and Theodosius I (Edict of Thessalonica, 380) and Justinian I secondary roles.===Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages===the Emperor Constantine and the bishops of the First Council of Nicaea (AD 325) holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381Spread of Christianity by AD 600 (shown in dark blue is the spread of Early Christianity up to AD 325)\"Christendom\" has referred to the medieval and renaissance notion of the ''Christian world'' as a polity.", "In essence, the earliest vision of Christendom was a vision of a Christian theocracy, a government founded upon and upholding Christian values, whose institutions are spread through and over with Christian doctrine.", "In this period, members of the Christian clergy wield political authority.", "The specific relationship between the political leaders and the clergy varied but, in theory, the national and political divisions were at times subsumed under the leadership of the church as an institution.", "This model of church-state relations was accepted by various Church leaders and political leaders in European history.The Church gradually became a defining institution of the Roman Empire.", "Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313 proclaiming toleration for the Christian religion, and convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325 whose Nicene Creed included belief in \"one holy catholic and apostolic Church\".", "Emperor Theodosius I made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica of 380.In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the Byzantine Empire was one of the peaks in Christian history and Christian civilization, and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size, wealth, and culture.", "There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy, as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.As the Western Roman Empire disintegrated into feudal kingdoms and principalities, the concept of Christendom changed as the western church became one of five patriarchates of the Pentarchy and the Christians of the Eastern Roman Empire developed.", "The Byzantine Empire was the last bastion of Christendom.", "Christendom would take a turn with the rise of the Franks, a Germanic tribe who converted to the Christian faith and entered into communion with Rome.On Christmas Day 800 AD, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, resulting in the creation of another Christian king beside the Christian emperor in the Byzantine state.", "The Carolingian Empire created a definition of ''Christendom'' in juxtaposition with the Byzantine Empire, that of a distributed versus centralized culture respectively.The classical heritage flourished throughout the Middle Ages in both the Byzantine Greek East and the Latin West.", "In the Greek philosopher Plato's ideal state there are three major classes, which was representative of the idea of the \"tripartite soul\", which is expressive of three functions or capacities of the human soul: \"reason\", \"the spirited element\", and \"appetites\" (or \"passions\").", "Will Durant made a convincing case that certain prominent features of Plato's ideal community where discernible in the organization, dogma and effectiveness of \"the\" Medieval Church in Europe:... For a thousand years Europe was ruled by an order of guardians considerably like that which was visioned by our philosopher.", "During the Middle Ages it was customary to classify the population of Christendom into ''laboratores'' (workers), ''bellatores'' (soldiers), and ''oratores'' (clergy).", "The last group, though small in number, monopolized the instruments and opportunities of culture, and ruled with almost unlimited sway half of the most powerful continent on the globe.", "The clergy, like Plato's guardians, were placed in authority... by their talent as shown in ecclesiastical studies and administration, by their disposition to a life of meditation and simplicity, and ... by the influence of their relatives with the powers of state and church.", "In the latter half of the period in which they ruled 800 AD onwards, the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire for such guardians...", "Clerical Celibacy was part of the psychological structure of the power of the clergy; for on the one hand they were unimpeded by the narrowing egoism of the family, and on the other their apparent superiority to the call of the flesh added to the awe in which lay sinners held them....''''===Later Middle Ages and Renaissance===After the collapse of Charlemagne's empire, the southern remnants of the Holy Roman Empire became a collection of states loosely connected to the Holy See of Rome.", "Tensions between Pope Innocent III and secular rulers ran high, as the pontiff exerted control over their temporal counterparts in the west and vice versa.", "The pontificate of Innocent III is considered the height of temporal power of the papacy.", "The ''Corpus Christianum'' described the then-current notion of the community of all Christians united under the Roman Catholic Church.", "The community was to be guided by Christian values in its politics, economics and social life.", "Its legal basis was the ''corpus iuris canonica'' (body of canon law).In the East, Christendom became more defined as the Byzantine Empire's gradual loss of territory to an expanding Islam and the Muslim conquest of Persia.", "This caused Christianity to become important to the Byzantine identity.", "Before the East–West Schism which divided the Church religiously, there had been the notion of a ''universal Christendom'' that included the East and the West.", "After the East–West Schism, hopes of regaining religious unity with the West were ended by the Fourth Crusade, when Crusaders conquered the Byzantine capital of Constantinople and hastened the decline of the Byzantine Empire on the path to its destruction.", "With the breakup of the Byzantine Empire into individual nations with nationalist Orthodox Churches, the term Christendom described Western Europe, Catholicism, Orthodox Byzantines, and other Eastern rites of the Church.The Catholic Church's peak of authority over all European Christians and their common endeavours of the Christian community—for example, the Crusades, the fight against the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula and against the Ottomans in the Balkans—helped to develop a sense of communal identity against the obstacle of Europe's deep political divisions.", "The popes, formally just the bishops of Rome, claimed to be the focus of all Christendom, which was largely recognised in Western Christendom from the 11th century until the Reformation, but not in Eastern Christendom.", "Moreover, this authority was also sometimes abused, and fostered the Inquisition and anti-Jewish pogroms, to root out divergent elements and create a religiously uniform community.", "Ultimately, the Inquisition was done away with by order of Pope Innocent III.Christendom ultimately was led into specific crisis in the late Middle Ages, when the kings of France managed to establish a French national church during the 14th century and the papacy became ever more aligned with the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.", "Known as the Western Schism, western Christendom was a split between three men, who were driven by politics rather than any real theological disagreement for simultaneously claiming to be the true pope.", "The Avignon Papacy developed a reputation for corruption that estranged major parts of Western Christendom.", "The Avignon schism was ended by the Council of Constance.Before the modern period, Christendom was in a general crisis at the time of the Renaissance Popes because of the moral laxity of these pontiffs and their willingness to seek and rely on temporal power as secular rulers did.", "Many in the Catholic Church's hierarchy in the Renaissance became increasingly entangled with insatiable greed for material wealth and temporal power, which led to many reform movements, some merely wanting a moral reformation of the Church's clergy, while others repudiated the Church and separated from it in order to form new sects.", "The Italian Renaissance produced ideas or institutions by which men living in society could be held together in harmony.", "In the early 16th century, Baldassare Castiglione (''The Book of the Courtier'') laid out his vision of the ideal gentleman and lady, while Machiavelli cast a jaundiced eye on \"la verità effetuale delle cose\"—the actual truth of things—in ''The Prince'', composed, humanist style, chiefly of parallel ancient and modern examples of Virtù.", "Some Protestant movements grew up along lines of mysticism or renaissance humanism (cf.", "Erasmus).", "The Catholic Church fell partly into general neglect under the Renaissance Popes, whose inability to govern the Church by showing personal example of high moral standards set the climate for what would ultimately become the Protestant Reformation.", "During the Renaissance, the papacy was mainly run by the wealthy families and also had strong secular interests.", "To safeguard Rome and the connected Papal States the popes became necessarily involved in temporal matters, even leading armies, as the great patron of arts Pope Julius II did.", "During these intermediate times, popes strove to make Rome the capital of Christendom while projecting it through art, architecture, and literature as the center of a Golden Age of unity, order, and peace.Professor Frederick J. McGinness described Rome as essential in understanding the legacy the Church and its representatives encapsulated best by The Eternal City: No other city in Europe matches Rome in its traditions, history, legacies, and influence in the Western world.", "Rome in the Renaissance under the papacy not only acted as guardian and transmitter of these elements stemming from the Roman Empire but also assumed the role as artificer and interpreter of its myths and meanings for the peoples of Europe from the Middle Ages to modern times...", "Under the patronage of the popes, whose wealth and income were exceeded only by their ambitions, the city became a cultural center for master architects, sculptors, musicians, painters, and artisans of every kind...In its myth and message, Rome had become the sacred city of the popes, the prime symbol of a triumphant Catholicism, the center of orthodox Christianity, a new Jerusalem.It is clearly noticeable that the popes of the Italian Renaissance have been subjected by many writers with an overly harsh tone.", "Pope Julius II, for example, was not only an effective secular leader in military affairs, a deviously effective politician but foremost one of the greatest patron of the Renaissance period and person who also encouraged open criticism from noted humanists.The blossoming of renaissance humanism was made very much possible due to the universality of the institutions of Catholic Church and represented by personalities such as Pope Pius II, Nicolaus Copernicus, Leon Battista Alberti, Desiderius Erasmus, sir Thomas More, Bartolomé de Las Casas, Leonardo da Vinci and Teresa of Ávila.", "George Santayana in his work ''The Life of Reason'' postulated the tenets of the all encompassing order the Church had brought and as the repository of the legacy of classical antiquity:The enterprise of individuals or of small aristocratic bodies has meantime sown the world which we call civilised with some seeds and nuclei of order.", "There are scattered about a variety of churches, industries, academies, and governments.", "But the universal order once dreamt of and nominally almost established, the empire of universal peace, all-permeating rational art, and philosophical worship, is mentioned no more.", "An unformulated conception, the prerational ethics of private privilege and national unity, fills the background of men's minds.", "It represents feudal traditions rather than the tendency really involved in contemporary industry, science, or philanthropy.", "Those dark ages, from which our political practice is derived, had a political theory which we should do well to study; for their theory about a universal empire and a Catholic church was in turn the echo of a former age of reason, when a few men conscious of ruling the world had for a moment sought to survey it as a whole and to rule it justly.===Reformation and Early Modern era===Developments in western philosophy and European events brought change to the notion of the ''Corpus Christianum''.", "The Hundred Years' War accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralized state.", "The rise of strong, centralized monarchies denoted the European transition from feudalism to capitalism.", "By the end of the Hundred Years' War, both France and England were able to raise enough money through taxation to create independent standing armies.", "In the Wars of the Roses, Henry Tudor took the crown of England.", "His heir, the absolute king Henry VIII establishing the English church.In modern history, the Reformation and rise of modernity in the early 16th century entailed a change in the ''Corpus Christianum''.", "In the Holy Roman Empire, the Peace of Augsburg of 1555 officially ended the idea among secular leaders that all Christians must be united under one church.", "The principle of ''cuius regio, eius religio'' (\"whose the region is, his religion\") established the religious, political and geographic divisions of Christianity, and this was established with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which legally ended the concept of a single Christian hegemony in the territories of the Holy Roman Empire, despite the Catholic Church's doctrine that it alone is the one true Church founded by Christ.Subsequently, each government determined the religion of their own state.", "Christians living in states where their denomination was ''not'' the established one were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.", "At times there were mass expulsions of dissenting faiths as happened with the Salzburg Protestants.", "Some people passed as adhering to the official church, but instead lived as Nicodemites or crypto-protestants.The European wars of religion are usually taken to have ended with the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), or arguably, including the Nine Years' War and the War of the Spanish Succession in this period, with the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713.In the 18th century, the focus shifts away from religious conflicts, either between Christian factions or against the external threat of Islamic factions.=== End of Christendom ===Christian majority countries; Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple while countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink.The European Miracle, the Age of Enlightenment and the formation of the great colonial empires together with the beginning decline of the Ottoman Empire mark the end of the geopolitical \"history of Christendom\".", "Instead, the focus of Western history shifts to the development of the nation-state, accompanied by increasing atheism and secularism, culminating with the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the 19th century.Writing in 1997, Canadian theology professor Douglas John Hall argued that Christendom had either fallen already or was in its death throes; although its end was gradual and not as clear to pin down as its 4th-century establishment, the \"transition to the post-Constantinian, or post-Christendom, situation (...) has already been in process for a century or two,\" beginning with the 18th-century rationalist Enlightenment and the French Revolution (the first attempt to topple the Christian establishment).", "American Catholic bishop Thomas John Curry stated (2001) that the end of Christendom came about because modern governments refused to \"uphold the teachings, customs, ethos, and practice of Christianity.\"", "He argued the First Amendment to the United States Constitution (1791) and the Second Vatican Council's Declaration on Religious Freedom (1965) are two of the most important documents setting the stage for its end.", "According to British historian Diarmaid MacCulloch (2010), Christendom was 'killed' by the First World War (1914–18), which led to the fall of the three main Christian empires (Russian, German and Austrian) of Europe, as well as the Ottoman Empire, rupturing the Eastern Christian communities that had existed on its territory.", "The Christian empires were replaced by secular, even anti-clerical republics seeking to definitively keep the churches out of politics.", "The only surviving monarchy with an established church, Britain, was severely damaged by the war, lost most of Ireland due to Catholic–Protestant infighting, and was starting to lose grip on its colonies.Changes in worldwide Christianity over the last century have been significant, since 1900, Christianity has spread rapidly in the Global South and Third World countries.", "The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and the Southern Hemisphere in general, by 2010 about 157 countries and territories in the world had Christian majorities." ], [ "Classical culture", "St. Stephen's Cathedral, ViennaWestern culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and many of the population of the Western hemisphere could broadly be described as cultural Christians.", "The notion of \"Europe\" and the \"Western World\" has been intimately connected with the concept of \"Christianity and Christendom\"; many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.", "Historian Paul Legutko of Stanford University said the Catholic Church is \"at the center of the development of the values, ideas, science, laws, and institutions which constitute what we call Western civilization.", "\"Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the Greek and Roman Empires, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe.", "Until the Age of Enlightenment, Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science.", "Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed into Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian music, Christian literature etc.", "Art and literature, law, education, and politics were preserved in the teachings of the Church, in an environment that, otherwise, would have probably seen their loss.", "The Church founded many cathedrals, universities, monasteries and seminaries, some of which continue to exist today.", "Medieval Christianity created the first modern universities.", "The Catholic Church established a hospital system in Medieval Europe that vastly improved upon the Roman ''valetudinaria''.", "These hospitals were established to cater to \"particular social groups marginalized by poverty, sickness, and age,\" according to historian of hospitals, Guenter Risse.", "Christianity also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life: marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts.Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting.", "Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science.", "The cultural influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), natural law (which would later influence the creation of international law), politics, architecture, literature, personal hygiene, and family life.", "Christianity played a role in ending practices common among pagan societies, such as human sacrifice, slavery, infanticide and polygamy.===Art and literature=======Writings and poetry====Christian literature is writing that deals with Christian themes and incorporates the Christian world view.", "This constitutes a huge body of extremely varied writing.", "Christian poetry is any poetry that contains Christian teachings, themes, or references.", "The influence of Christianity on poetry has been great in any area that Christianity has taken hold.", "Christian poems often directly reference the Bible, while others provide allegory.====Supplemental arts====Christian art is art produced in an attempt to illustrate, supplement and portray in tangible form the principles of Christianity.", "Virtually all Christian groupings use or have used art to some extent.", "The prominence of art and the media, style, and representations change; however, the unifying theme is ultimately the representation of the life and times of Jesus and in some cases the Old Testament.", "Depictions of saints are also common, especially in Anglicanism, Roman Catholicism, and Eastern Orthodoxy.====Illumination====Picture of Christ in Majesty contained in an illuminated manuscriptAn illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration.", "The earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period AD 400 to 600, primarily produced in Ireland, Constantinople and Italy.", "The majority of surviving manuscripts are from the Middle Ages, although many illuminated manuscripts survive from the 15th century Renaissance, along with a very limited number from Late Antiquity.Most illuminated manuscripts were created as codices, which had superseded scrolls; some isolated single sheets survive.", "A very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on papyrus.", "Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment (most commonly of calf, sheep, or goat skin), but most manuscripts important enough to illuminate were written on the best quality of parchment, called vellum, traditionally made of unsplit calfskin, though high quality parchment from other skins was also called ''parchment''.====Iconography====There are few old ceramic icons, such as this St. Theodor icon which dates to (from Preslav, Bulgaria).Christian art began, about two centuries after Christ, by borrowing motifs from Roman Imperial imagery, classical Greek and Roman religion and popular art.", "Religious images are used to some extent by the Abrahamic Christian faith, and often contain highly complex iconography, which reflects centuries of accumulated tradition.", "In the Late Antique period iconography began to be standardised, and to relate more closely to Biblical texts, although many gaps in the canonical Gospel narratives were plugged with matter from the apocryphal gospels.", "Eventually the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, but some remain, like the ox and ass in the Nativity of Christ.An icon is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, from Eastern Christianity.", "Christianity has used symbolism from its very beginnings.", "In both East and West, numerous iconic types of Christ, Mary and saints and other subjects were developed; the number of named types of icons of Mary, with or without the infant Christ, was especially large in the East, whereas Christ Pantocrator was much the commonest image of Christ.Christian symbolism invests objects or actions with an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas.", "Christianity has borrowed from the common stock of significant symbols known to most periods and to all regions of the world.", "Religious symbolism is effective when it appeals to both the intellect and the emotions.", "Especially important depictions of Mary include the Hodegetria and Panagia types.", "Traditional models evolved for narrative paintings, including large cycles covering the events of the Life of Christ, the Life of the Virgin, parts of the Old Testament, and, increasingly, the lives of popular saints.", "Especially in the West, a system of attributes developed for identifying individual figures of saints by a standard appearance and symbolic objects held by them; in the East they were more likely to identified by text labels.Each saint has a story and a reason why he or she led an exemplary life.", "Symbols have been used to tell these stories throughout the history of the Church.", "A number of Christian saints are traditionally represented by a symbol or iconic motif associated with their life, termed an attribute or emblem, in order to identify them.", "The study of these forms part of iconography in Art history.====Architecture====The structure of a typical Gothic cathedralChristian architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Christianity to the present day, influencing the design and construction of buildings and structures in Christian culture.Buildings were at first adapted from those originally intended for other purposes but, with the rise of distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence secular ones which have often imitated religious architecture.", "In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such as concrete, as well as simpler styles has had its effect upon the design of churches and arguably the flow of influence has been reversed.", "From the birth of Christianity to the present, the most significant period of transformation for Christian architecture in the west was the Gothic cathedral.", "In the east, Byzantine architecture was a continuation of Roman architecture.=== Philosophy ===Christian philosophy is a term to describe the fusion of various fields of philosophy with the theological doctrines of Christianity.", "Scholasticism, which means \"that which belongs to the school\", and was a method of learning taught by the academics (or ''school people'') of medieval universities c. 1100–1500.Scholasticism originally started to reconcile the philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology.", "Scholasticism is not a philosophy or theology in itself but a tool and method for learning which places emphasis on dialectical reasoning." ], [ "Christian civilization", "Science, and particularly geometry and astronomy, was linked directly to the divine for most medieval scholars.", "Since these Christians believed God imbued the universe with regular geometric and harmonic principles, to seek these principles was therefore to seek and worship God.=== Medieval conditions ===The Byzantine Empire, which was the most sophisticated culture during antiquity, suffered under Muslim conquests limiting its scientific prowess during the Medieval period.", "Christian Western Europe had suffered a catastrophic loss of knowledge following the fall of the Western Roman Empire.", "But thanks to the Church scholars such as Aquinas and Buridan, the West carried on at least the spirit of scientific inquiry which would later lead to Europe's taking the lead in science during the Scientific Revolution using translations of medieval works.Medieval technology refers to the technology used in medieval Europe under Christian rule.", "After the Renaissance of the 12th century, medieval Europe saw a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth.", "The period saw major technological advances, including the adoption of gunpowder and the astrolabe, the invention of spectacles, and greatly improved water mills, building techniques, agriculture in general, clocks, and ships.", "The latter advances made possible the dawn of the Age of Exploration.", "The development of water mills was impressive, and extended from agriculture to sawmills both for timber and stone, probably derived from Roman technology.", "By the time of the Domesday Book, most large villages in Britain had mills.", "They also were widely used in mining, as described by Georg Agricola in De Re Metallica for raising ore from shafts, crushing ore, and even powering bellows.Significant in this respect were advances within the fields of navigation.", "The compass and astrolabe along with advances in shipbuilding, enabled the navigation of the World Oceans and thus domination of the worlds economic trade.", "Gutenberg's printing press made possible a dissemination of knowledge to a wider population, that would not only lead to a gradually more egalitarian society, but one more able to dominate other cultures, drawing from a vast reserve of knowledge and experience.===Renaissance innovations===During the Renaissance, great advances occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, math, manufacturing, and engineering.", "The rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople, and the invention of printing which would democratize learning and allow a faster propagation of new ideas.", "''Renaissance technology'' is the set of artifacts and customs, spanning roughly the 14th through the 16th century.", "The era is marked by such profound technical advancements like the printing press, linear perspectivity, patent law, double shell domes or Bastion fortresses.", "Draw-books of the Renaissance artist-engineers such as Taccola and Leonardo da Vinci give a deep insight into the mechanical technology then known and applied.Renaissance science spawned the Scientific Revolution; science and technology began a cycle of mutual advancement.", "The ''Scientific Renaissance'' was the early phase of the Scientific Revolution.", "In the two-phase model of early modern science: a ''Scientific Renaissance'' of the 15th and 16th centuries, focused on the restoration of the natural knowledge of the ancients; and a ''Scientific Revolution'' of the 17th century, when scientists shifted from recovery to innovation.", "Some scholars and historians attributes Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution.Professor Noah J Efron says that \"Generations of historians and sociologists have discovered many ways in which Christians, Christian beliefs, and Christian institutions played crucial roles in fashioning the tenets, methods, and institutions of what in time became modern science.", "They found that some forms of Christianity provided the motivation to study nature systematically...\" Virtually all modern scholars and historians agree that Christianity moved many early-modern intellectuals to study nature systematically." ], [ "Demographics", "===Geographic spread===Relative geographic prevalence of Christianity versus Islam versus lack of either religion (2006)In 2009, according to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', Christianity was the majority religion in Europe (including Russia) with 80%, Latin America with 92%, North America with 81%, and Oceania with 79%.", "There are also large Christian communities in other parts of the world, such as China, India and Central Asia, where Christianity is the second-largest religion after Islam.", "The United States is home to the world's largest Christian population, followed by Brazil and Mexico.Many Christians not only live under, but also have an official status in, a state religion of the following nations: Argentina (Roman Catholic Church), Armenia (Armenian Apostolic Church), Costa Rica (Roman Catholic Church), Denmark (Church of Denmark), El Salvador (Roman Catholic Church), England (Church of England), Georgia (Georgian Orthodox Church), Greece (Church of Greece), Iceland (Church of Iceland), Liechtenstein (Roman Catholic Church), Malta (Roman Catholic Church), Monaco (Roman Catholic Church), Romania (Romanian Orthodox Church), Norway (Church of Norway), Vatican City (Roman Catholic Church), Switzerland (Roman Catholic Church, Swiss Reformed Church and Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland).===Number of adherents===The estimated number of Christians in the world ranges from 2.2 billion to 2.4 billion people.", "The faith represents approximately one-third of the world's population and is the largest religion in the world, with the three largest groups of Christians being the Catholic Church, Protestantism, and the Eastern Orthodox Church.", "The largest Christian denomination is the Catholic Church, with an estimated 1.2 billion adherents.+ Demographics of major traditions within Christianity (Pew Research Center, 2010 data) Tradition Followers % of the Christian population % of the world population Follower dynamics Dynamics in- and outside Christianity Catholic Church 1,094,610,000 50.1 15.9 Growing Declining Protestantism 800,640,000 36.7 11.6 Growing GrowingOrthodoxy 260,380,000 11.9 3.8 Declining DecliningOther Christianity 28,430,000 1.3 0.4 Growing Growing Christianity 2,184,060,000 100 31.7 Growing Stable===Notable Christian organizations===A religious order is a lineage of communities and organizations of people who live in some way set apart from society in accordance with their specific religious devotion, usually characterized by the principles of its founder's religious practice.", "In contrast, the term Holy Orders is used by many Christian churches to refer to ordination or to a group of individuals who are set apart for a special role or ministry.", "Historically, the word \"order\" designated an established civil body or corporation with a hierarchy, and ordination meant legal incorporation into an ordo.", "The word \"holy\" refers to the Church.", "In context, therefore, a holy order is set apart for ministry in the Church.", "Religious orders are composed of initiates (laity) and, in some traditions, ordained clergies.Various organizations include:* In the Roman Catholic Church, religious institutes and secular institutes are the major forms of institutes of consecrated life, similar to which are societies of apostolic life.", "They are organizations of laity or clergy who live a common life under the guidance of a fixed rule and the leadership of a superior.", "(ed., see :Category: Catholic orders and societies for a particular listing.", ")* Anglican religious orders are communities of laity or clergy in the Anglican churches who live under a common rule of life.", "(ed., see :Category: Anglican organizations for a particular listing)" ], [ "Christianity law and ethics", "===Church and state framing===Within the framework of Christianity, there are at least three possible definitions for Church law.", "One is the Torah/Mosaic Law (from what Christians consider to be the Old Testament) also called Divine Law or Biblical law.", "Another is the instructions of Jesus of Nazareth in the Gospel (sometimes referred to as the Law of Christ or the New Commandment or the New Covenant).", "A third is canon law which is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of churches.", "The way that such church law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these three bodies of churches.", "In all three traditions, a canon was initially a rule adopted by a council (From Greek ''kanon'' / κανών, Hebrew kaneh / קנה, for rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law.Christian ethics in general has tended to stress the need for grace, mercy, and forgiveness because of human weakness and developed while Early Christians were subjects of the Roman Empire.", "From the time Nero blamed Christians for setting Rome ablaze (64 AD) until Galerius (311 AD), persecutions against Christians erupted periodically.", "Consequently, Early Christian ethics included discussions of how believers should relate to Roman authority and to the empire.Under the Emperor Constantine I (312–337), Christianity became a legal religion.", "While some scholars debate whether Constantine's conversion to Christianity was authentic or simply matter of political expediency, Constantine's decree made the empire safe for Christian practice and belief.", "Consequently, issues of Christian doctrine, ethics and church practice were debated openly, see for example the First Council of Nicaea and the First seven Ecumenical Councils.", "By the time of Theodosius I (379–395), Christianity had become the state religion of the empire.", "With Christianity in power, ethical concerns broaden and included discussions of the proper role of the state.Render unto Caesar... is the beginning of a phrase attributed to Jesus in the synoptic gospels which reads in full, \"Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's\".", "This phrase has become a widely quoted summary of the relationship between Christianity and secular authority.", "The gospels say that when Jesus gave his response, his interrogators \"marvelled, and left him, and went their way.\"", "Time has not resolved an ambiguity in this phrase, and people continue to interpret this passage to support various positions that are poles apart.", "The traditional division, carefully determined, in Christian thought is the state and church have separate spheres of influence.Thomas Aquinas thoroughly discussed that ''human law'' is positive law which means that it is natural law applied by governments to societies.", "All human laws were to be judged by their conformity to the natural law.", "An unjust law was in a sense no law at all.", "At this point, the natural law was not only used to pass judgment on the moral worth of various laws, but also to determine what the law said in the first place.", "This could result in some tension.", "Late ecclesiastical writers followed in his footsteps.====Democratic ideology====Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian principles to public policy.", "It emerged in 19th-century Europe, largely under the influence of Catholic social teaching.", "In a number of countries, the democracy's Christian ethos has been diluted by secularisation.", "In practice, Christian democracy is often considered conservative on cultural, social and moral issues and progressive on fiscal and economic issues.", "In places, where their opponents have traditionally been secularist socialists and social democrats, Christian democratic parties are moderately conservative, whereas in other cultural and political environments they can lean to the left.===Women's roles===Attitudes and beliefs about the roles and responsibilities of women in Christianity vary considerably today as they have throughout the last two millennia—evolving along with or counter to the societies in which Christians have lived.", "The Bible and Christianity historically have been interpreted as excluding women from church leadership and placing them in submissive roles in marriage.", "Male leadership has been assumed in the church and within marriage, society and government.Some contemporary writers describe the role of women in the life of the church as having been downplayed, overlooked, or denied throughout much of Christian history.", "Paradigm shifts in gender roles in society and also many churches has inspired reevaluation by many Christians of some long-held attitudes to the contrary.", "Christian egalitarians have increasingly argued for equal roles for men and women in marriage, as well as for the ordination of women to the clergy.", "Contemporary conservatives meanwhile have reasserted what has been termed a \"complementarian\" position, promoting the traditional belief that the Bible ordains different roles and responsibilities for women and men in the Church and family." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * Union of Christendom, a traditional Catholic view of ecumenism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", ";21st century Sources* * *;20th century sources* * * * ;19th century sources* Hull, Moses.", "Encyclopedia of Biblical Spiritualism; Or, A Concordance to the Principal Passages of the Old and New Testament Scriptures Which Prove or Imply Spiritualism; Together with a Brief History of the Origin of Many of the Important Books of the Bible.", "Chicago: M. Hull, 1895.", "(ed., reprint version is available)* Bosanquet, Bernard.", "The Civilization of Christendom, And Other Studies.", "London: S. Sonnenschein, 1893.", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bainton, Roland H. (1966).", "''Christendom: a Short History of Christianity and Its Impact on Western Civilization'', in series, ''Harper Colophon Books''.", "New York: Harper & Row.", "2 vol., ill.*Molland, Einar (1959) ''Christendom: the Christian churches, their doctrines, constitutional forms and ways of worship''.", "London: A.", "& R. Mowbray & Co. (first published in Norwegian in 1953 as ''Konfesjonskunnskap'').", "* Whalen, Brett Edward (2009).", "''Dominion of God: Christendom and Apocalypse in the Middle Ages''.", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": Harvard University Press." ], [ "External links", ";Websites*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Coyote" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''coyote''' ('''''Canis latrans''''') is a species of canine native to North America.", "It is smaller than its close relative, the wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf.", "It fills much of the same ecological niche as the golden jackal does in Eurasia.", "The coyote is larger and more predatory and was once referred to as the '''American jackal''' by a behavioral ecologist.", "Other historical names for the species include the '''prairie wolf''' and the '''brush wolf'''.The coyote is listed as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, due to its wide distribution and abundance throughout North America.", "The species is versatile, able to adapt to and expand into environments modified by humans; urban coyotes are common in many cities.", "The coyote was sighted in eastern Panama (across the Panama Canal from their home range) for the first time in 2013.The coyote has 19 recognized subspecies.", "The average male weighs and the average female .", "Their fur color is predominantly light gray and red or fulvous interspersed with black and white, though it varies somewhat with geography.", "It is highly flexible in social organization, living either in a family unit or in loosely knit packs of unrelated individuals.", "Primarily carnivorous, its diet consists mainly of deer, rabbits, hares, rodents, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates, though it may also eat fruits and vegetables on occasion.", "Its characteristic vocalization is a howl made by solitary individuals.", "Humans are the coyote's greatest threat, followed by cougars and gray wolves.", "Despite predation by gray wolves, coyotes sometimes mate with them, and with eastern, or red wolves, producing \"coywolf\" hybrids.", "In the northeastern regions of North America, the eastern coyote (a larger subspecies, though still smaller than wolves) is the result of various historical and recent matings with various types of wolves.", "Genetic studies show that most North American wolves contain some level of coyote DNA.The coyote is a prominent character in Native American folklore, mainly in Aridoamerica, usually depicted as a trickster that alternately assumes the form of an actual coyote or a man.", "As with other trickster figures, the coyote uses deception and humor to rebel against social conventions.", "The animal was especially respected in Mesoamerican cosmology as a symbol of military might.", "After the European colonization of the Americas, it was seen in Anglo-American culture as a cowardly and untrustworthy animal.", "Unlike wolves, which have seen their public image improve, attitudes towards the coyote remain largely negative." ], [ "Description", "A closeup of a mountain coyote's (''C.l.", "lestes'') headCoyote males average in weight, while females average , though size varies geographically.", "Northern subspecies, which average , tend to grow larger than the southern subspecies of Mexico, which average .", "Total length ranges on average from ; comprising a tail length of , with females being shorter in both body length and height.", "The largest coyote on record was a male killed near Afton, Wyoming, on November19, 1937, which measured from nose to tail, and weighed .", "Scent glands are located at the upper side of the base of the tail and are a bluish-black color.The color and texture of the coyote's fur vary somewhat geographically.", "The hair's predominant color is light gray and red or fulvous, interspersed around the body with black and white.", "Coyotes living at high elevations tend to have more black and gray shades than their desert-dwelling counterparts, which are more fulvous or whitish-gray.", "The coyote's fur consists of short, soft underfur and long, coarse guard hairs.", "The fur of northern subspecies is longer and denser than in southern forms, with the fur of some Mexican and Central American forms being almost hispid (bristly).", "Generally, adult coyotes (including coywolf hybrids) have a sable coat color, dark neonatal coat color, bushy tail with an active supracaudal gland, and a white facial mask.", "Albinism is extremely rare in coyotes.", "Out of a total of 750,000 coyotes killed by federal and cooperative hunters between March 1938, and June 1945, only two were albinos.The coyote is typically smaller than the gray wolf, but has longer ears and a relatively larger braincase, as well as a thinner frame, face, and muzzle.", "The scent glands are smaller than the gray wolf's, but are the same color.", "Its fur color variation is much less varied than that of a wolf.", "The coyote also carries its tail downwards when running or walking, rather than horizontally as the wolf does.Coyote tracks can be distinguished from those of dogs by their more elongated, less rounded shape.", "Unlike dogs, the upper canines of coyotes extend past the mental foramina." ], [ "Taxonomy and evolution", "===History===A Toltec pictograph of a coyoteAt the time of the European colonization of the Americas, coyotes were largely confined to open plains and arid regions of the western half of the continent.", "In early post-Columbian historical records, determining whether the writer is describing coyotes or wolves is often difficult.", "One record from 1750 in Kaskaskia, Illinois, written by a local priest, noted that the \"wolves\" encountered there were smaller and less daring than European wolves.", "Another account from the early 1800s in Edwards County mentioned wolves howling at night, though these were likely coyotes.", "This species was encountered several times during the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806), though it was already well known to European traders on the upper Missouri.", "Meriwether Lewis, writing on 5 May 1805, in northeastern Montana, described the coyote in these terms:The coyote was first scientifically described by naturalist Thomas Say in September 1819, on the site of Lewis and Clark's Council Bluffs, up the Missouri River from the mouth of the Platte during a government-sponsored expedition with Major Stephen Long.", "He had the first edition of the Lewis and Clark journals in hand, which contained Biddle's edited version of Lewis's observations dated 5 May 1805.His account was published in 1823.Say was the first person to document the difference between a \"''prairie wolf''\" (coyote) and on the next page of his journal a wolf which he named ''Canis nubilus'' (Great Plains wolf).", "Say described the coyote as:===Naming and etymology===The first published usage of the word \"coyote\" (which is a Spanish borrowing of its Nahuatl name ''coyōtl'' ) comes from the historian Francisco Javier Clavijero's ''Historia de México'' in 1780.The first time it was used in English occurred in William Bullock's ''Six months' residence and travels in Mexico'' (1824), where it is variously transcribed as ''cayjotte'' and ''cocyotie''.", "The word's spelling was standardized as \"coyote\" by the 1880s.", "The English pronunciation is heard both as a two-syllable word (with the final \"e\" silent) and as three-syllables (with the final \"e\" pronounced), with a tendency for the three-syllable pronunciation in eastern states and near the Mexican border, with two syllables in the west and north and outside the United States.Alternative English names for the coyote include \"prairie wolf\", \"brush wolf\", \"cased wolf\", \"little wolf\" and \"American jackal\".", "Its binomial name ''Canis latrans'' translates to \"barking dog\", a reference to the many vocalizations they produce.+ Local and indigenous names for ''Canis latrans'' Linguistic group or area Indigenous name Arikara ''Stshirits pukatsh'' Canadian French ''Coyote'' Chinook ''Italipas'' Chipewyan ''Nu-ní-yĕ=̑ts!ế-lĕ'' Cocopah ''Ṭxpa''''Xṭpa'' Northern CreePlains Cree (''Mîscacâkanis'') (''Mescacâkanis'') Creek ''Yv•hu•ce'' (archaic)''Yv•hv•la•nu•ce'' (modern) Dakota ''Mica''''Micaksica'' Flathead ''Sinchlep'' Hidatsa ''Motsa'' Hopi ''Iisawu'' ''Isaw'' Karuk ''Pihnêefich'' Klamath ''Ko-ha-a'' Mandan ''Scheke'' Mayan ''Pek'i'cash'' Nez Perce ''ʔiceyé•ye'' Nahuatl ''Coyōtl'' Navajo ''Ma'ii'' Ogallala Sioux ''Mee-yah-slay'-cha-lah'' Ojibwe (Southwestern) ''Wiisagi-ma’iingan'' Omaha ''Mikasi'' Osage ''Šómįhkasi'' Pawnee ''Ckirihki'' Piute ''Eja-ah'' Spanish ''Coyote''''Perro de monte'' Yakama ''Telipa'' Timbisha ''Isa(ppü)''''Isapaippü''''Itsappü'' Wintu ''Ćarawa''''Sedet'' Yankton Sioux ''Song-toke-cha'' Yurok ''Segep''===Evolution=======Fossil record====Xiaoming Wang and Richard H. Tedford, one of the foremost authorities on carnivore evolution, proposed that the genus ''Canis'' was the descendant of the coyote-like ''Eucyon davisi'' and its remains first appeared in the Miocene 6million years ago (Mya) in the southwestern US and Mexico.", "By the Pliocene (5Mya), the larger ''Canis lepophagus'' appeared in the same region and by the early Pleistocene (1Mya) ''C.latrans'' (the coyote) was in existence.", "They proposed that the progression from ''Eucyon davisi'' to ''C.lepophagus'' to the coyote was linear evolution.", "''C.latrans'' and ''C.", "aureus'' are closely related to ''C.edwardii'', a species that appeared earliest spanning the mid-Blancan (late Pliocene) to the close of the Irvingtonian (late Pleistocene), and coyote remains indistinguishable from ''C.", "latrans'' were contemporaneous with ''C.edwardii'' in North America.", "Johnston describes ''C.lepophagus'' as having a more slender skull and skeleton than the modern coyote.", "Ronald Nowak found that the early populations had small, delicate, narrowly proportioned skulls that resemble small coyotes and appear to be ancestral to ''C. latrans''.''C.", "lepophagus'' was similar in weight to modern coyotes, but had shorter limb bones that indicate a less cursorial lifestyle.", "The coyote represents a more primitive form of ''Canis'' than the gray wolf, as shown by its relatively small size and its comparatively narrow skull and jaws, which lack the grasping power necessary to hold the large prey in which wolves specialize.", "This is further corroborated by the coyote's sagittal crest, which is low or totally flattened, thus indicating a weaker bite than the wolves.", "The coyote is not a specialized carnivore as the wolf is, as shown by the larger chewing surfaces on the molars, reflecting the species' relative dependence on vegetable matter.", "In these respects, the coyote resembles the fox-like progenitors of the genus more so than the wolf.The oldest fossils that fall within the range of the modern coyote date to 0.74–0.85 Ma (million years) in Hamilton Cave, West Virginia; 0.73 Ma in Irvington, California; 0.35–0.48 Ma in Porcupine Cave, Colorado, and in Cumberland Cave, Pennsylvania.", "Modern coyotes arose 1,000 years after the Quaternary extinction event.", "Compared to their modern Holocene counterparts, Pleistocene coyotes (''C.l.", "orcutti'') were larger and more robust, likely in response to larger competitors and prey.", "Pleistocene coyotes were likely more specialized carnivores than their descendants, as their teeth were more adapted to shearing meat, showing fewer grinding surfaces suited for processing vegetation.", "Their reduction in size occurred within 1,000 years of the Quaternary extinction event, when their large prey died out.", "Furthermore, Pleistocene coyotes were unable to exploit the big-game hunting niche left vacant after the extinction of the dire wolf (''Aenocyondirus''), as it was rapidly filled by gray wolves, which likely actively killed off the large coyotes, with natural selection favoring the modern gracile morph.====DNA evidence====A skeleton of a Pleistocene coyote (''C.l.", "orcutti'')In 1993, a study proposed that the wolves of North America display skull traits more similar to the coyote than wolves from Eurasia.", "In 2010, a study found that the coyote was a basal member of the clade that included the Tibetan wolf, the domestic dog, the Mongolian wolf and the Eurasian wolf, with the Tibetan wolf diverging early from wolves and domestic dogs.In 2016, a whole-genome DNA study proposed, based on the assumptions made, that all of the North American wolves and coyotes diverged from a common ancestor about 51,000 years ago.", "However, the proposed timing of the wolf / coyote divergence conflicts with the discovery of a coyote-like specimen in strata dated to 1 Mya.", "The study also indicated that all North American wolves have a significant amount of coyote ancestry and all coyotes some degree of wolf ancestry, and that the red wolf and eastern wolf are highly admixed with different proportions of gray wolf and coyote ancestry.Genetic studies relating to wolves or dogs have inferred phylogenetic relationships based on the only reference genome available, that of the Boxer dog.", "In 2017, the first reference genome of the wolf ''Canis lupus lupus'' was mapped to aid future research.", "In 2018, a study looked at the genomic structure and admixture of North American wolves, wolf-like canids, and coyotes using specimens from across their entire range that mapped the largest dataset of nuclear genome sequences against the wolf reference genome.The study supports the findings of previous studies that North American gray wolves and wolf-like canids were the result of complex gray wolf and coyote mixing.", "A polar wolf from Greenland and a coyote from Mexico represented the purest specimens.", "The coyotes from Alaska, California, Alabama, and Quebec show almost no wolf ancestry.", "Coyotes from Missouri, Illinois, and Florida exhibit 5–10% wolf ancestry.", "There was 40% wolf to 60% coyote ancestry in red wolves, 60% wolf to 40% coyote in Eastern timber wolves, and 75% wolf to 25% coyote in the Great Lakes wolves.", "There was 10% coyote ancestry in Mexican wolves and the Atlantic Coast wolves, 5% in Pacific Coast and Yellowstone wolves, and less than 3% in Canadian archipelago wolves.", "If a third canid had been involved in the admixture of the North American wolf-like canids, then its genetic signature would have been found in coyotes and wolves, which it has not.In 2018, whole genome sequencing was used to compare members of the genus ''Canis''.", "The study indicates that the common ancestor of the coyote and gray wolf has genetically admixed with a ghost population of an extinct, unidentified canid.", "The \"ghost\" canid was genetically close to the dhole, and had evolved after the divergence of the African wild dog from the other canid species.", "The basal position of the coyote compared to the wolf is proposed to be due to the coyote retaining more of the mitochondrial genome from the unknown extinct canid.===Subspecies===, 19 subspecies are recognized.Geographic variation in coyotes is not great, though taken as a whole, the eastern subspecies ( and ) are large, dark-colored animals, with a gradual paling in color and reduction in size westward and northward (, , , and ), a brightening of 'ochraceous' tones – deep orange or brown – towards the Pacific coast (, ), a reduction in size in Aridoamerica (, ) and a general trend towards dark reddish colors and short muzzles in Mexican and Central American populations.", "Subspecies Trinomial authority Trinomial authority (year) Description & Image Range Synonyms '''Plains coyote'''''C.", "l. latrans''nominate subspecies150 px Say 1823 180pxThe largest subspecies; it has rather pale fur and bears large molars and carnassials.", "The Great Plains from Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan south to New Mexico and the Texas Panhandle '''Mexican coyote'''''C.", "l. cagottis''150 px C.E.H.", "Smith 1839 Similar to , but larger and redder in color; it has shorter ears, larger teeth, and a broader muzzle.", "States of Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi, Puebla, and Veracruz in Mexico '''San Pedro Martir coyote'''''C.", "l. clepticus''150 px Elliot 1903 180pxA small subspecies, it has reddish summer fur and a short, broad skull.", "Northern Baja California and southwestern California '''El Salvador coyote'''''C.", "l. dickeyi''150 px Nelson 1932 A large subspecies, it equals in size, but has smaller teeth and darker fur.", "Originally only known from Cerro Mogote, west of the Goascorán River in La Unión, El Salvador; in January 2013, it expanded its range southward into southern Panama.", "'''Southeastern coyote'''''C.", "l. frustor''150 px Woodhouse 1851 This subspecies is similar to , but larger and paler, with shorter ears and a longer muzzle.", "Southeastern and extreme eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Missouri, and Arkansas '''Belize coyote'''''C.", "l. goldmani''150 px Merriam 1904 The largest of the Mexican coyotes, it approaches in size, but has a shorter muzzle.", "Known only from San Vicente, Chiapas, Mexico, near the Guatemalan border, though it could be the coyote of western Guatemala.", "'''Honduras coyote'''''C.", "l. hondurensis''150 px Goldman 1936 A small, rufous-colored subspecies, it has coarse, thin fur and a broad skull.", "Known only from the open country northeast of Archaga, north of Tegucigalpa '''Durango coyote'''''C.", "l. impavidus''150 px Allen 1903 This canid is similar to in color, but much larger.", "Southern Sonora, extreme southwestern Chihuahua, western Durango, western Zacatecas, and Sinaloa '''Northern coyote'''''C.", "l. incolatus''150 px Hall 1934 180pxA medium-sized subspecies, it has cinnamon-colored fur and a more concave skull than .", "Boreal forests of Alaska, the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, northern British Columbia, and northern Alberta '''Tiburón Island coyote'''''C.", "l. jamesi''150 px Townsend 1912 Much paler than , it has heavier teeth, a large skull, and long ears.", "Tiburón Island '''Mountain coyote'''''C.", "l. lestes''150 px Merriam 1897 180pxSimilar in size and color to , this subspecies has a large tail and ears.", "Southern British Columbia and southeastern Alberta, Washington east of the Cascade Range, Oregon, northern California, western Montana, Wyoming, Colorado (except the southeastern corner), north-central Nevada, and north-central Utah '''Mearns' coyote'''''C.", "l. mearnsi''150 px Merriam 1897 180pxA small subspecies with medium-sized ears, a small skull and small teeth; its fur is richly and brightly colored.", "The fulvous tints are exceedingly bright, and cover the hindfeet and forefeet.", "Southwestern Colorado, extreme southern Utah and Nevada, southeastern California, northeastern Baja California, Arizona, west of the Rio Grande in New Mexico, northern Sonora and Chihuahua '''Lower Rio Grande coyote'''''C.", "l. microdon''150 px Merriam 1897 A small subspecies, it has small teeth and rather dark fur.", "The upper surface of the hind foot is whitish, while the belly is sprinkled with black-tipped hairs.", "Southern Texas and northern Tamaulipas '''California Valley coyote'''''C.", "l. ochropus''150 px von Eschscholtz 1829 180pxSimilar to and , but smaller, darker, more brightly colored; it has larger ears and smaller skull and teeth.", "California west of the Sierra Nevada '''Peninsula coyote'''''C.", "l. peninsulae''150 px Merriam 1897 It is similar to in size and features, but has darker, redder fur.", "The underside of the tail is blacker than that of , and the belly has more black-tipped hairs.", "Baja California '''Eastern coyote'''''C.", "l.'' var.150 px Lawrence & Bossert 1969 180px It is a hybrid of / and ; smaller than the eastern wolf and holds smaller territories, but larger and holds more extensive home ranges than the typical western coyote.", "New England, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia, and the eastern Canadian provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and Labrador '''Texas plains coyote'''''C.", "l. texensis''150 px Bailey 1905 180pxSmaller than , it has brighter, more fulvous fur closely approaching the richness found in , though lacks that subspecies' large ears.", "Most of Texas, eastern New Mexico, and northeastern Mexico '''Northeastern coyote'''''C.", "l. thamnos''150 px Jackson 1949 130pxAbout the same size as , or larger, but darker in color, it has a broader skull.", "North-central Saskatchewan, Manitoba (except the extreme southwestern corner), east to southern Quebec, south to eastern North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri (north of the Missouri River), Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois (except the extreme southern portion), and northern Indiana '''Northwest Coast coyote'''''C.", "l. umpquensis''150 px Jackson 1949 130pxA small subspecies, it has dark, rufous-tinged fur, a comparatively small skull, and weak dentition.", "Coasts of British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon '''Colima coyote'''''C.", "l. vigilis''150 px Merriam 1897 Similar to , but darker and more extensively colored; it has more black on the forearms, and no black on the underside of the tail (excepting the tip).", "Pacific coast of Mexico from Jalisco south to Guerrero===Hybridization===Melanistic coyotes owe their color to a mutation that first arose in domestic dogs.Coyotes occasionally mate with domestic dogs, sometimes producing crosses colloquially known as \"coydogs\".", "Such matings are rare in the wild, as the mating cycles of dogs and coyotes do not coincide, and coyotes are usually antagonistic towards dogs.", "Hybridization usually only occurs when coyotes are expanding into areas where conspecifics are few, and dogs are the only alternatives.", "Even then, pup survival rates are lower than normal, as dogs do not form pair bonds with coyotes, thus making the rearing of pups more difficult.", "In captivity, F1 hybrids (first generation) tend to be more mischievous and less manageable as pups than dogs, and are less trustworthy on maturity than wolf-dog hybrids.", "Hybrids vary in appearance, but generally retain the coyote's usual characteristics.", "F1 hybrids tend to be intermediate in form between dogs and coyotes, while F2 hybrids (second generation) are more varied.", "Both F1 and F2 hybrids resemble their coyote parents in terms of shyness and intrasexual aggression.", "Hybrids are fertile and can be successfully bred through four generations.", "Melanistic coyotes owe their black pelts to a mutation that first arose in domestic dogs.", "A population of non-albino white coyotes in Newfoundland owe their coloration to a melanocortin 1 receptor mutation inherited from Golden Retrievers.A coywolf hybrid conceived in captivity between a male gray wolf and a female coyoteCoyotes have hybridized with wolves to varying degrees, particularly in eastern North America.", "The so-called \"eastern coyote\" of northeastern North America probably originated in the aftermath of the extermination of gray and eastern wolves in the northeast, thus allowing coyotes to colonize former wolf ranges and mix with the remnant wolf populations.", "This hybrid is smaller than either the gray or eastern wolf, and holds smaller territories, but is in turn larger and holds more extensive home ranges than the typical western coyote.", ", the eastern coyote's genetic makeup is fairly uniform, with minimal influence from eastern wolves or western coyotes.", "Adult eastern coyotes are larger than western coyotes, with female eastern coyotes weighing 21% more than male western coyotes.", "Physical differences become more apparent by the age of 35 days, with eastern coyote pups having longer legs than their western counterparts.", "Differences in dental development also occurs, with tooth eruption being later, and in a different order in the eastern coyote.", "Aside from its size, the eastern coyote is physically similar to the western coyote.", "The four color phases range from dark brown to blond or reddish blond, though the most common phase is gray-brown, with reddish legs, ears, and flanks.", "No significant differences exist between eastern and western coyotes in aggression and fighting, though eastern coyotes tend to fight less, and are more playful.", "Unlike western coyote pups, in which fighting precedes play behavior, fighting among eastern coyote pups occurs after the onset of play.", "Eastern coyotes tend to reach sexual maturity at two years of age, much later than in western coyotes.Eastern and red wolves are also products of varying degrees of wolf-coyote hybridization.", "The eastern wolf probably was a result of a wolf-coyote admixture, combined with extensive backcrossing with parent gray wolf populations.", "The red wolf may have originated during a time of declining wolf populations in the Southeastern Woodlands, forcing a wolf-coyote hybridization, as well as backcrossing with local parent coyote populations to the extent that about 75–80% of the modern red wolf's genome is of coyote derivation." ], [ "Behavior", "===Social and reproductive behaviors===Mearns' coyote (''C.", "l. mearnsi'') pups playingThe \"hip-slam\" is a common play behaviorA pack of coyotes in Yellowstone National ParkLike the Eurasian golden jackal, the coyote is gregarious, but not as dependent on conspecifics as more social canid species like wolves are.", "This is likely because the coyote is not a specialized hunter of large prey as the latter species is.", "The basic social unit of a coyote pack is a family containing a reproductive female.", "However, unrelated coyotes may join forces for companionship, or to bring down prey too large to attack singly.", "Such \"nonfamily\" packs are only temporary, and may consist of bachelor males, nonreproductive females and subadult young.", "Families are formed in midwinter, when females enter estrus.", "Pair bonding can occur 2–3 months before actual copulation takes place.", "The copulatory tie can last 5–45 minutes.", "A female entering estrus attracts males by scent marking and howling with increasing frequency.", "A single female in heat can attract up to seven reproductive males, which can follow her for as long as a month.", "Although some squabbling may occur among the males, once the female has selected a mate and copulates, the rejected males do not intervene, and move on once they detect other estrous females.", "Unlike the wolf, which has been known to practice both monogamous and bigamous matings, the coyote is strictly monogamous, even in areas with high coyote densities and abundant food.", "Females that fail to mate sometimes assist their sisters or mothers in raising their pups, or join their siblings until the next time they can mate.", "The newly mated pair then establishes a territory and either constructs their own den or cleans out abandoned badger, marmot, or skunk earths.", "During the pregnancy, the male frequently hunts alone and brings back food for the female.", "The female may line the den with dried grass or with fur pulled from her belly.", "The gestation period is 63 days, with an average litter size of six, though the number fluctuates depending on coyote population density and the abundance of food.Coyote pups are born in dens, hollow trees, or under ledges, and weigh at birth.", "They are altricial, and are completely dependent on milk for their first 10 days.", "The incisors erupt at about 12 days, the canines at 16, and the second premolars at 21.Their eyes open after 10 days, by which point the pups become increasingly more mobile, walking by 20 days, and running at the age of six weeks.", "The parents begin supplementing the pup's diet with regurgitated solid food after 12–15 days.", "By the age of four to six weeks, when their milk teeth are fully functional, the pups are given small food items such as mice, rabbits, or pieces of ungulate carcasses, with lactation steadily decreasing after two months.", "Unlike wolf pups, coyote pups begin seriously fighting (as opposed to play fighting) prior to engaging in play behavior.", "A common play behavior includes the coyote \"hip-slam\".", "By three weeks of age, coyote pups bite each other with less inhibition than wolf pups.", "By the age of four to five weeks, pups have established dominance hierarchies, and are by then more likely to play rather than fight.", "The male plays an active role in feeding, grooming, and guarding the pups, but abandons them if the female goes missing before the pups are completely weaned.", "The den is abandoned by June to July, and the pups follow their parents in patrolling their territory and hunting.", "Pups may leave their families in August, though can remain for much longer.", "The pups attain adult dimensions at eight months and gain adult weight a month later.===Territorial and sheltering behaviors===Individual feeding territories vary in size from , with the general concentration of coyotes in a given area depending on food abundance, adequate denning sites, and competition with conspecifics and other predators.", "The coyote generally does not defend its territory outside of the denning season, and is much less aggressive towards intruders than the wolf is, typically chasing and sparring with them, but rarely killing them.", "Conflicts between coyotes can arise during times of food shortage.", "Coyotes mark their territories by raised-leg urination and ground-scratching.Like wolves, coyotes use a den, usually the deserted holes of other species, when gestating and rearing young, though they may occasionally give birth under sagebrushes in the open.", "Coyote dens can be located in canyons, washouts, coulees, banks, rock bluffs, or level ground.", "Some dens have been found under abandoned homestead shacks, grain bins, drainage pipes, railroad tracks, hollow logs, thickets, and thistles.", "The den is continuously dug and cleaned out by the female until the pups are born.", "Should the den be disturbed or infested with fleas, the pups are moved into another den.", "A coyote den can have several entrances and passages branching out from the main chamber.", "A single den can be used year after year.===Hunting and feeding behaviors===While the popular consensus is that olfaction is very important for hunting, two studies that experimentally investigated the role of olfactory, auditory, and visual cues found that visual cues are the most important ones for hunting in red foxes and coyotes.When hunting large prey, the coyote often works in pairs or small groups.", "Success in killing large ungulates depends on factors such as snow depth and crust density.", "Younger animals usually avoid participating in such hunts, with the breeding pair typically doing most of the work.", "The coyote pursues large prey, typically hamstringing the animal, and subsequently then harassing it until the prey falls.", "Like other canids, the coyote caches excess food.", "Coyotes catch mouse-sized rodents by pouncing, whereas ground squirrels are chased.", "Although coyotes can live in large groups, small prey is typically caught singly.", "Coyotes have been observed to kill porcupines in pairs, using their paws to flip the rodents on their backs, then attacking the soft underbelly.", "Only old and experienced coyotes can successfully prey on porcupines, with many predation attempts by young coyotes resulting in them being injured by their prey's quills.", "Coyotes sometimes urinate on their food, possibly to claim ownership over it.", "Recent evidence demonstrates that at least some coyotes have become more nocturnal in hunting, presumably to avoid humans.Coyotes may occasionally form mutualistic hunting relationships with American badgers, assisting each other in digging up rodent prey.", "The relationship between the two species may occasionally border on apparent \"friendship\", as some coyotes have been observed laying their heads on their badger companions or licking their faces without protest.", "The amicable interactions between coyotes and badgers were known to pre-Columbian civilizations, as shown on a jar found in Mexico dated to 1250–1300 CE depicting the relationship between the two.Food scraps, pet food, and animal feces may attract a coyote to a trash can.===Communication===A coyote howlingPack of coyotes howling at night====Body language====Being both a gregarious and solitary animal, the variability of the coyote's visual and vocal repertoire is intermediate between that of the solitary foxes and the highly social wolf.", "The aggressive behavior of the coyote bears more similarities to that of foxes than it does that of wolves and dogs.", "An aggressive coyote arches its back and lowers its tail.", "Unlike dogs, which solicit playful behavior by performing a \"play-bow\" followed by a \"play-leap\", play in coyotes consists of a bow, followed by side-to-side head flexions and a series of \"spins\" and \"dives\".", "Although coyotes will sometimes bite their playmates' scruff as dogs do, they typically approach low, and make upward-directed bites.", "Pups fight each other regardless of sex, while among adults, aggression is typically reserved for members of the same sex.", "Combatants approach each other waving their tails and snarling with their jaws open, though fights are typically silent.", "Males tend to fight in a vertical stance, while females fight on all four paws.", "Fights among females tend to be more serious than ones among males, as females seize their opponents' forelegs, throat, and shoulders.====Vocalizations====A yelping coyoteThe coyote has been described as \"the most vocal of all wild North American mammals\".", "Its loudness and range of vocalizations was the cause for its binomial name ''Canis latrans'', meaning \"barking dog\".", "At least 11 different vocalizations are known in adult coyotes.", "These sounds are divided into three categories: agonistic and alarm, greeting, and contact.", "Vocalizations of the first category include woofs, growls, huffs, barks, bark howls, yelps, and high-frequency whines.", "Woofs are used as low-intensity threats or alarms and are usually heard near den sites, prompting the pups to immediately retreat into their burrows.Growls are used as threats at short distances but have also been heard among pups playing and copulating males.", "Huffs are high-intensity threat vocalizations produced by rapid expiration of air.", "Barks can be classed as both long-distance threat vocalizations and alarm calls.", "Bark howls may serve similar functions.", "Yelps are emitted as a sign of submission, while high-frequency whines are produced by dominant animals acknowledging the submission of subordinates.", "Greeting vocalizations include low-frequency whines, 'wow-oo-wows', and group yip howls.", "Low-frequency whines are emitted by submissive animals and are usually accompanied by tail wagging and muzzle nibbling.The sound known as 'wow-oo-wow' has been described as a \"greeting song\".", "The group yip howl is emitted when two or more pack members reunite and may be the final act of a complex greeting ceremony.", "Contact calls include lone howls and group howls, as well as the previously mentioned group yip howls.", "The lone howl is the most iconic sound of the coyote and may serve the purpose of announcing the presence of a lone individual separated from its pack.", "Group howls are used as both substitute group yip howls and as responses to either lone howls, group howls, or group yip howls." ], [ "Ecology", "===Habitat===An urban coyote in Bernal Heights, San FranciscoPrior to the near extermination of wolves and cougars, the coyote was most numerous in grasslands inhabited by bison, pronghorn, elk, and other deer, doing particularly well in short-grass areas with prairie dogs, though it was just as much at home in semiarid areas with sagebrush and jackrabbits or in deserts inhabited by cactus, kangaroo rats, and rattlesnakes.", "As long as it was not in direct competition with the wolf, the coyote ranged from the Sonoran Desert to the alpine regions of adjoining mountains or the plains and mountainous areas of Alberta.", "With the extermination of the wolf, the coyote's range expanded to encompass broken forests from the tropics of Guatemala and the northern slope of Alaska.Coyotes walk around per day, often along trails such as logging roads and paths; they may use iced-over rivers as travel routes in winter.", "They are often crepuscular, being more active around evening and the beginning of the night than during the day.", "However, in urban areas coyotes are known to be more nocturnal, likely to avoid encounters with humans.", "Like many canids, coyotes are competent swimmers, reported to be able to travel at least across water.===Diet===A coyote with a scrap of road-killed pronghorn in Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge, WyomingThe coyote is ecologically the North American equivalent of the Eurasian golden jackal.", "Likewise, the coyote is highly versatile in its choice of food, but is primarily carnivorous, with 90% of its diet consisting of meat.", "Prey species include bison (largely as carrion), white-tailed deer, mule deer, moose, elk, bighorn sheep, pronghorn, rabbits, hares, rodents, birds (especially galliformes, roadrunners, young water birds and pigeons and doves), amphibians (except toads), lizards, snakes, turtles and tortoises, fish, crustaceans, and insects.", "Coyotes may be picky over the prey they target, as animals such as shrews, moles, and brown rats do not occur in their diet in proportion to their numbers.Terrestrial animals and/or burrowing small mammals such as ground squirrels and associated species (marmots, prairie dogs, chipmunks) as well as voles, pocket gophers, kangaroo rats and other ground-favoring rodents may be quite common foods, especially for lone coyotes.", "Examples of specific, primary mammal prey include eastern cottontail rabbits, thirteen-lined ground squirrels, and white-footed mice.", "More unusual prey include fishers, young black bear cubs, harp seals and rattlesnakes.", "Coyotes kill rattlesnakes mostly for food, but also to protect their pups at their dens, by teasing the snakes until they stretch out and then biting their heads and snapping and shaking the snakes.", "Birds taken by coyotes may range in size from thrashers, larks and sparrows to adult wild turkeys and, rarely, brooding adult swans and pelicans.", "If working in packs or pairs, coyotes may have access to larger prey than lone individuals normally take, such as various prey weighing more than .", "In some cases, packs of coyotes have dispatched much larger prey such as adult ''Odocoileus'' deer, cow elk, pronghorns and wild sheep, although the young fawn, calves and lambs of these animals are considerably more often taken even by packs, as well as domestic sheep and domestic cattle.", "In some cases, coyotes can bring down prey weighing up to or more.", "When it comes to adult ungulates such as wild deer, they often exploit them when vulnerable such as those that are infirm, stuck in snow or ice, otherwise winter-weakened or heavily pregnant, whereas less wary domestic ungulates may be more easily exploited.Although coyotes prefer fresh meat, they will scavenge when the opportunity presents itself.", "Excluding the insects, fruit, and grass eaten, the coyote requires an estimated of food daily, or annually.", "The coyote readily cannibalizes the carcasses of conspecifics, with coyote fat having been successfully used by coyote hunters as a lure or poisoned bait.", "The coyote's winter diet consists mainly of large ungulate carcasses, with very little plant matter.", "Rodent prey increases in importance during the spring, summer, and fall.The coyote feeds on a variety of different produce, including strawberries, blackberries, blueberries, sarsaparillas, peaches, pears, apples, prickly pears, chapotes, persimmons, peanuts, watermelons, cantaloupes, and carrots.", "During the winter and early spring, the coyote eats large quantities of grass, such as green wheat blades.", "It sometimes eats unusual items such as cotton cake, soybean meal, domestic animal droppings, beans, and cultivated grain such as maize, wheat, and sorghum.In coastal California, coyotes now consume a higher percentage of marine-based food than their ancestors, which is thought to be due to the extirpation of the grizzly bear from this region.", "In Death Valley, coyotes may consume great quantities of hawkmoth caterpillars or beetles in the spring flowering months.===Enemies and competitors===A comparative illustration of a coyote and a gray wolfMountain coyotes (''C.", "l. lestes'') cornering a juvenile cougarIn areas where the ranges of coyotes and gray wolves overlap, interference competition and predation by wolves has been hypothesized to limit local coyote densities.", "Coyote ranges expanded during the 19th and 20th centuries following the extirpation of wolves, while coyotes were driven to extinction on Isle Royale after wolves colonized the island in the 1940s.", "One study conducted in Yellowstone National Park, where both species coexist, concluded that the coyote population in the Lamar River Valley declined by 39% following the reintroduction of wolves in the 1990s, while coyote populations in wolf inhabited areas of the Grand Teton National Park are 33% lower than in areas where they are absent.", "Wolves have been observed to not tolerate coyotes in their vicinity, though coyotes have been known to trail wolves to feed on their kills.Coyotes may compete with cougars in some areas.", "In the eastern Sierra Nevada, coyotes compete with cougars over mule deer.", "Cougars normally outcompete and dominate coyotes, and may kill them occasionally, thus reducing coyote predation pressure on smaller carnivores such as foxes and bobcats.", "Coyotes that are killed are sometimes not eaten, perhaps indicating that these comprise competitive interspecies interactions, however there are multiple confirmed cases of cougars also eating coyotes.", "In northeastern Mexico, cougar predation on coyotes continues apace but coyotes were absent from the prey spectrum of sympatric jaguars, apparently due to differing habitat usages.Other than by gray wolves and cougars, predation on adult coyotes is relatively rare but multiple other predators can be occasional threats.", "In some cases, adult coyotes have been preyed upon by both American black and grizzly bears, American alligators, large Canada lynx and golden eagles.", "At kill sites and carrion, coyotes, especially if working alone, tend to be dominated by wolves, cougars, bears, wolverines and, usually but not always, eagles (i.e., bald and golden).", "When such larger, more powerful and/or more aggressive predators such as these come to a shared feeding site, a coyote may either try to fight, wait until the other predator is done or occasionally share a kill, but if a major danger such as wolves or an adult cougar is present, the coyote will tend to flee.Coyotes rarely kill healthy adult red foxes, and have been observed to feed or den alongside them, though they often kill foxes caught in traps.", "Coyotes may kill fox kits, but this is not a major source of mortality.", "In southern California, coyotes frequently kill gray foxes, and these smaller canids tend to avoid areas with high coyote densities.In some areas, coyotes share their ranges with bobcats.", "These two similarly-sized species rarely physically confront one another, though bobcat populations tend to diminish in areas with high coyote densities.", "However, several studies have demonstrated interference competition between coyotes and bobcats, and in all cases coyotes dominated the interaction.", "Multiple researchers reported instances of coyotes killing bobcats, whereas bobcats killing coyotes is more rare.", "Coyotes attack bobcats using a bite-and-shake method similar to what is used on medium-sized prey.", "Coyotes, both single individuals and groups, have been known to occasionally kill bobcats.", "In most cases, the bobcats were relatively small specimens, such as adult females and juveniles.", "Coyote attacks, by an unknown number of coyotes, on adult male bobcats have occurred.", "In California, coyote and bobcat populations are not negatively correlated across different habitat types, but predation by coyotes is an important source of mortality in bobcats.", "Biologist Stanley Paul Young noted that in his entire trapping career, he had never successfully saved a captured bobcat from being killed by coyotes, and wrote of two incidents wherein coyotes chased bobcats up trees.", "Coyotes have been documented to directly kill Canada lynx on occasion, and compete with them for prey, especially snowshoe hares.", "In some areas, including central Alberta, lynx are more abundant where coyotes are few, thus interactions with coyotes appears to influence lynx populations more than the availability of snowshoe hares." ], [ "Range", "Tiburón Island coyote, (10) plains coyote, (11) mountain coyote, (12) Mearns' coyote, (13) Lower Rio Grande coyote, (14) California valley coyote, (15) peninsula coyote, (16) Texas plains coyote, (17) northeastern coyote, (18) northwest coast coyote, (19) Colima coyote, (20) eastern coyoteCoyote expansion over the past 10,000 yearsCoyote expansion over the decades since 1900Due to the coyote's wide range and abundance throughout North America, it is listed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).", "The coyote's pre-Columbian range was limited to the Southwest and Plains regions of North America, and northern and central Mexico.", "By the 19th century, the species expanded north and east, expanding further after 1900, coinciding with land conversion and the extirpation of wolves.", "By this time, its range encompassed the entire North American continent, including all of the contiguous United States and Mexico, southward into Central America, and northward into most of Canada and Alaska.", "This expansion is ongoing, and the species now occupies the majority of areas between 8°N (Panama) and 70°N (northern Alaska).Although it was once widely believed that coyotes are recent immigrants to southern Mexico and Central America, aided in their expansion by deforestation, Pleistocene and Early Holocene records, as well as records from the pre-Columbian period and early European colonization show that the animal was present in the area long before modern times.", "Range expansion occurred south of Costa Rica during the late 1970s and northern Panama in the early 1980s, following the expansion of cattle-grazing lands into tropical rain forests.The coyote is predicted to appear in northern Belize in the near future, as the habitat there is favorable to the species.", "Concerns have been raised of a possible expansion into South America through the Panamanian Isthmus, should the Darién Gap ever be closed by the Pan-American Highway.", "This fear was partially confirmed in January 2013, when the species was recorded in eastern Panama's Chepo District, beyond the Panama Canal.A 2017 genetic study proposes that coyotes were originally not found in the area of the eastern United States.", "From the 1890s, dense forests were transformed into agricultural land and wolf control implemented on a large scale, leaving a niche for coyotes to disperse into.", "There were two major dispersals from two populations of genetically distinct coyotes.", "The first major dispersal to the northeast came in the early 20th century from those coyotes living in the northern Great Plains.", "These came to New England via the northern Great Lakes region and southern Canada, and to Pennsylvania via the southern Great Lakes region, meeting together in the 1940s in New York and Pennsylvania.These coyotes have hybridized with the remnant gray wolf and eastern wolf populations, which has added to coyote genetic diversity and may have assisted adaptation to the new niche.", "The second major dispersal to the southeast came in the mid-20th century from Texas and reached the Carolinas in the 1980s.", "These coyotes have hybridized with the remnant red wolf populations before the 1970s when the red wolf was extirpated in the wild, which has also added to coyote genetic diversity and may have assisted adaptation to this new niche as well.", "Both of these two major coyote dispersals have experienced rapid population growth and are forecast to meet along the mid-Atlantic coast.", "The study concludes that for coyotes the long range dispersal, gene flow from local populations, and rapid population growth may be inter-related." ], [ "Diseases and parasites", "California valley coyote (''C.", "l. ochropus'') suffering from sarcoptic mangeAmong large North American carnivores, the coyote probably carries the largest number of diseases and parasites, likely due to its wide range and varied diet.", "Viral diseases known to infect coyotes include rabies, canine distemper, infectious canine hepatitis, four strains of equine encephalitis, and oral papillomatosis.", "By the late 1970s, serious rabies outbreaks in coyotes had ceased to be a problem for over 60 years, though sporadic cases every 1–5 years did occur.", "Distemper causes the deaths of many pups in the wild, though some specimens can survive infection.", "''Tularemia'', a bacterial disease, infects coyotes from tick bites and through their rodent and lagomorph prey, and can be deadly for pups.Coyotes can be infected by both demodectic and sarcoptic mange, the latter being the most common.", "Mite infestations are rare and incidental in coyotes, while tick infestations are more common, with seasonal peaks depending on locality (May–August in the Northwest, March–November in Arkansas).", "Coyotes are only rarely infested with lice, while fleas infest coyotes from puphood, though they may be more a source of irritation than serious illness.", "''Pulex simulans'' is the most common species to infest coyotes, while ''Ctenocephalides canis'' tends to occur only in places where coyotes and dogs (its primary host) inhabit the same area.", "Although coyotes are rarely host to flukes, they can nevertheless have serious effects on coyotes, particularly ''Nanophyetus salmincola'', which can infect them with salmon poisoning disease, a disease with a 90% mortality rate.", "Trematode ''Metorchis conjunctus'' can also infect coyotes.", "Tapeworms have been recorded to infest 60–95% of all coyotes examined.", "The most common species to infest coyotes are ''Taenia pisiformis'' and ''Taenia crassiceps'', which uses cottontail rabbits and rodents as intermediate hosts.", "The largest species known in coyotes is ''T.", "hydatigena'', which enters coyotes through infected ungulates, and can grow to lengths of .", "Although once largely limited to wolves, ''Echinococcus granulosus'' has expanded to coyotes since the latter began colonizing former wolf ranges.The most frequent ascaroid roundworm in coyotes is ''Toxascaris leonina'', which dwells in the coyote's small intestine and has no ill effects, except for causing the host to eat more frequently.", "Hookworms of the genus ''Ancylostoma'' infest coyotes throughout their range, being particularly prevalent in humid areas.", "In areas of high moisture, such as coastal Texas, coyotes can carry up to 250 hookworms each.", "The blood-drinking ''A.", "caninum'' is particularly dangerous, as it damages the coyote through blood loss and lung congestion.", "A 10-day-old pup can die from being host to as few as 25 ''A.", "caninum'' worms." ], [ "Relationships with humans", "===In folklore and mythology===Coyote paddling in a canoe in Edward S. Curtis's ''Indian days of long ago''Coyote features as a trickster figure and skin-walker in the folktales of some Native Americans, notably several nations in the Southwestern and Plains regions, where he alternately assumes the form of an actual coyote or that of a man.", "As with other trickster figures, Coyote acts as a picaresque hero who rebels against social convention through deception and humor.", "Folklorists such as Harris believe coyotes came to be seen as tricksters due to the animal's intelligence and adaptability.", "After the European colonization of the Americas, Anglo-American depictions of Coyote are of a cowardly and untrustworthy animal.", "Unlike the gray wolf, which has undergone a radical improvement of its public image, Anglo-American cultural attitudes towards the coyote remain largely negative.In the Maidu creation story, Coyote introduces work, suffering, and death to the world.", "Zuni lore has Coyote bringing winter into the world by stealing light from the kachinas.", "The Chinook, Maidu, Pawnee, Tohono O'odham, and Ute portray the coyote as the companion of The Creator.", "A Tohono O'odham flood story has Coyote helping Montezuma survive a global deluge that destroys humanity.", "After The Creator creates humanity, Coyote and Montezuma teach people how to live.", "The Crow creation story portrays Old Man Coyote as The Creator.", "In The Dineh creation story, Coyote was present in the First World with First Man and First Woman, though a different version has it being created in the Fourth World.", "The Navajo Coyote brings death into the world, explaining that without death, too many people would exist, thus no room to plant corn.A mural from Atetelco, Teotihuacán depicting coyote warriorsPrior to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Coyote played a significant role in Mesoamerican cosmology.", "The coyote symbolized military might in Classic era Teotihuacan, with warriors dressing up in coyote costumes to call upon its predatory power.", "The species continued to be linked to Central Mexican warrior cults in the centuries leading up to the post-Classic Aztec rule.", "In Aztec mythology, Huehuecóyotl (meaning \"old coyote\"), the god of dance, music and carnality, is depicted in several codices as a man with a coyote's head.", "He is sometimes depicted as a womanizer, responsible for bringing war into the world by seducing Xochiquetzal, the goddess of love.", "Epigrapher David H. Kelley argued that the god Quetzalcoatl owed its origins to pre-Aztec Uto-Aztecan mythological depictions of the coyote, which is portrayed as mankind's \"Elder Brother\", a creator, seducer, trickster, and culture hero linked to the morning star.===Attacks on humans===A sign discouraging people from feeding coyotes, which can lead to them habituating themselves to human presence, thus increasing the likelihood of attacksCoyote attacks on humans are uncommon and rarely cause serious injuries, due to the relatively small size of the coyote, but have been increasingly frequent, especially in California.", "By the middle of the 19th century, the coyote was already marked as an enemy by humans.", "(Sharp & Hall, 1978 Pg.", "41-54) There have been only two confirmed fatal attacks: one on a three-year-old named Kelly Keen in Glendale, California and another on a nineteen-year-old named Taylor Mitchell in Nova Scotia, Canada.", "In the 30 years leading up to March 2006, at least 160 attacks occurred in the United States, mostly in the Los Angeles County area.", "Data from United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Wildlife Services, the California Department of Fish and Game, and other sources show that while 41 attacks occurred during the period of 1988–1997, 48 attacks were verified from 1998 through 2003.The majority of these incidents occurred in Southern California near the suburban-wildland interface.In the absence of the harassment of coyotes practiced by rural people, urban coyotes are losing their fear of humans, which is further worsened by people intentionally or unintentionally feeding coyotes.", "In such situations, some coyotes have begun to act aggressively toward humans, chasing joggers and bicyclists, confronting people walking their dogs, and stalking small children.", "Non-rabid coyotes in these areas sometimes target small children, mostly under the age of 10, though some adults have been bitten.Although media reports of such attacks generally identify the animals in question as simply \"coyotes\", research into the genetics of the eastern coyote indicates those involved in attacks in northeast North America, including Pennsylvania, New York, New England, and eastern Canada, may have actually been coywolves, hybrids of ''Canis latrans'' and ''C.", "lupus,'' not fully coyotes.===Livestock and pet predation===A coyote confronting a dog, coyotes were the most abundant livestock predators in western North America, causing the majority of sheep, goat, and cattle losses.", "For example, according to the National Agricultural Statistics Service, coyotes were responsible for 60.5% of the 224,000 sheep deaths attributed to predation in 2004.The total number of sheep deaths in 2004 comprised 2.22% of the total sheep and lamb population in the United States, which, according to the National Agricultural Statistics Service USDA report, totaled 4.66 million and 7.80 million heads respectively as of July 1, 2005.Because coyote populations are typically many times greater and more widely distributed than those of wolves, coyotes cause more overall predation losses.", "United States government agents routinely shoot, poison, trap, and kill about 90,000 coyotes each year to protect livestock.", "An Idaho census taken in 2005 showed that individual coyotes were 5% as likely to attack livestock as individual wolves.", "In Utah, more than 11,000 coyotes were killed for bounties totaling over $500,000 in the fiscal year ending June 30, 2017.Livestock guardian dogs are commonly used to aggressively repel predators and have worked well in both fenced pasture and range operations.", "A 1986 survey of sheep producers in the USA found that 82% reported the use of dogs represented an economic asset.Re-wilding cattle, which involves increasing the natural protective tendencies of cattle, is a method for controlling coyotes discussed by Temple Grandin of Colorado State University.", "This method is gaining popularity among producers who allow their herds to calve on the range and whose cattle graze open pastures throughout the year.A coyote with a typical throat hold on a domestic sheepCoyotes typically bite the throat just behind the jaw and below the ear when attacking adult sheep or goats, with death commonly resulting from suffocation.", "Blood loss is usually a secondary cause of death.", "Calves and heavily fleeced sheep are killed by attacking the flanks or hindquarters, causing shock and blood loss.", "When attacking smaller prey, such as young lambs, the kill is made by biting the skull and spinal regions, causing massive tissue and bone damage.", "Small or young prey may be completely carried off, leaving only blood as evidence of a kill.", "Coyotes usually leave the hide and most of the skeleton of larger animals relatively intact, unless food is scarce, in which case they may leave only the largest bones.", "Scattered bits of wool, skin, and other parts are characteristic where coyotes feed extensively on larger carcasses.Tracks are an important factor in distinguishing coyote from dog predation.", "Coyote tracks tend to be more oval-shaped and compact than those of domestic dogs, and their claw marks are less prominent and the tracks tend to follow a straight line more closely than those of dogs.", "With the exception of sighthounds, most dogs of similar weight to coyotes have a slightly shorter stride.", "Coyote kills can be distinguished from wolf kills by less damage to the underlying tissues in the former.", "Also, coyote scat tends to be smaller than wolf scat.Coyotes are often attracted to dog food and animals that are small enough to appear as prey.", "Items such as garbage, pet food, and sometimes feeding stations for birds and squirrels attract coyotes into backyards.", "About three to five pets attacked by coyotes are brought into the Animal Urgent Care hospital of South Orange County (California) each week, the majority of which are dogs, since cats typically do not survive the attacks.", "Scat analysis collected near Claremont, California, revealed that coyotes relied heavily on pets as a food source in winter and spring.", "At one location in Southern California, coyotes began relying on a colony of feral cats as a food source.", "Over time, the coyotes killed most of the cats and then continued to eat the cat food placed daily at the colony site by people who were maintaining the cat colony.Coyotes usually attack smaller-sized dogs, but they have been known to attack even large, powerful breeds such as the Rottweiler in exceptional cases.", "Dogs larger than coyotes, such as greyhounds, are generally able to drive them off and have been known to kill coyotes.", "Smaller breeds are more likely to suffer injury or death.=== Hunting ===Coyote tracks compared to those of the domestic dogCoyote hunting is one of the most common forms of predator hunting that humans partake in.", "There are not many regulations with regard to the taking of the coyote which means there are many different methods that can be used to hunt the animal.", "The most common forms are trapping, calling, and hound hunting.", "Since coyotes are colorblind, seeing only in shades of gray and subtle blues, open camouflages, and plain patterns can be used.", "As the average male coyote weighs 8 to 20 kg (18 to 44 lbs) and the average female coyote 7 to 18 kg (15 to 40 lbs), a universal projectile that can perform between those weights is the .223 Remington, so that the projectile expands in the target after entry, but before the exit, thus delivering the most energy.", "Coyotes being the light and agile animals they are, they often leave a very light impression on terrain.", "The coyote's footprint is oblong, approximately 6.35 cm (2.5-inches) long and 5.08 cm (2-inches) wide.", "There are four claws in both their front and hind paws.", "The coyote's center pad is relatively shaped like that of a rounded triangle.", "Like the domestic dog the coyote's front paw is slightly larger than the hind paw.", "The coyote's paw is most similar to that of the domestic dog.===Fur uses===Fur of a Canadian coyotePrior to the mid-19th century, coyote fur was considered worthless.", "This changed with the diminution of beavers, and by 1860, the hunting of coyotes for their fur became a great source of income (75 cents to $1.50 per skin) for wolfers in the Great Plains.", "Coyote pelts were of significant economic importance during the early 1950s, ranging in price from $5 to $25 per pelt, depending on locality.", "The coyote's fur is not durable enough to make rugs, but can be used for coats and jackets, scarves, or muffs.", "The majority of pelts are used for making trimmings, such as coat collars and sleeves for women's clothing.", "Coyote fur is sometimes dyed black as imitation silver fox.Coyotes were occasionally eaten by trappers and mountain men during the western expansion.", "Coyotes sometimes featured in the feasts of the Plains Indians, and coyote pups were eaten by the indigenous people of San Gabriel, California.", "The taste of coyote meat has been likened to that of the wolf and is more tender than pork when boiled.", "Coyote fat, when taken in the fall, has been used on occasion to grease leather or eaten as a spread.===Tameability===Coyotes were likely semidomesticated by various pre-Columbian cultures.", "Some 19th-century writers wrote of coyotes being kept in native villages in the Great Plains.", "The coyote is easily tamed as a pup, but can become destructive as an adult.", "Both full-blooded and hybrid coyotes can be playful and confiding with their owners, but are suspicious and shy of strangers, though coyotes being tractable enough to be used for practical purposes like retrieving and pointing have been recorded.", "A tame coyote named \"Butch\", caught in the summer of 1945, had a short-lived career in cinema, appearing in ''Smoky'' (1946) and ''Ramrod'' (1947) before being shot while raiding a henhouse." ], [ "In popular culture", "*Wile E. Coyote features prominently in the ''Looney Tunes'' and ''Merrie Melodies'' series of animated short films.", "*The NHL team in Arizona is named the Arizona Coyotes to pay tribute to the large population of coyotes in the region.", "*The famous ''oo-wee-oo-wee-oo wah-wah-wah'' scream in ''The Good, The Bad and The Ugly'' (1966) was inspired by the howl of the coyote.", "*Copper, a coyote, was one of three mascots for the 2002 Winter Olympics.", "*An animated coyote voiced by Johnny Cash plays a pivotal role as a spirit guide to Homer Simpson in the ''Simpsons'' episode ''El Viaje Misterioso de Nuestro Jomer''." ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited sources", "*********" ], [ "Further reading", "=== Books ===* Dixon, J. S. (1920). ''", "Control of the coyote in California''.", "Berkeley, Cal.", ": Agricultural Experiment Station* Flores, D. (2016). ''", "Coyote America: A Natural and Supernatural History''.", "Basic Books.", "* Harding, A. R. (1909). ''", "Wolf and coyote trapping; an up-to-date wolf hunter's guide, giving the most successful methods of experienced \"wolfers\" for hunting and trapping these animals, also gives their habits in detail''.", "Columbus, Ohio, A. R. Harding pub.", "co.* * * * Murie, A.", "(1940).", "''Ecology of the coyote in the Yellowstone''.", "Washington, D.C. : U.S.", "G.P.O.", "* Parker, Gerry.", "(1995).", "\"Eastern Coyote: Story of Its Success\", Nimbus Publishing, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.", "* Van Nuys, Frank (2015).", "''Varmints and Victims: Predator Control in the American West.''", "Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.", "* Wagner, M. M. (c. 1920).", "''The autobiography of a tame coyote''.", "San Francisco, Harr Wagner pub.", "co.=== Video ===*Shelly, Priya (June 2016). ''", "Living with Coyote'' (18 minutes).", "''Aeon''.=== Audiobooks ===* Olson, Jack (May 2015).", "''The Last Coyote'' (8 hours).", "Narrated by Gary MacFadden.", "Originally published as ''Slaughter the Animals, Poison the Earth'', Simon & Schuster, Oct. 11, 1971.." ], [ "External links", "* * * Arizona Game & Fish Department, \"Living with Coyotes\" * Western coyote , Wolf and Coyote DNA Bank @ Trent University* View occurrences of '' Canis latrans'' in the Biodiversity Heritage Library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Compressor (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''compressor''' is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.", "'''Compressor''' may also refer to:* A device that performs Compression (disambiguation)* Compressor (audio signal processor), for dynamic range compression* Compressor (software), a video and audio media compression and encoding application" ], [ "See also", "*** Compression (disambiguation)* Compaction (disambiguation)* Decompression (disambiguation)* Expansion (disambiguation)* Kompressor (disambiguation) * Compressor Hot Springs, a place in California, U.S.* Supercharger* Turbocharger" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Conan the Barbarian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Conan the Barbarian''' (also known as '''Conan the Cimmerian''') is a fictional sword and sorcery hero who originated in pulp magazines and has since been adapted to books, comics, films (including ''Conan the Barbarian'' and ''Conan the Destroyer''), television programs (animated and live-action), video games, and role-playing games.", "Robert E. Howard created the character in 1932 for a series of fantasy stories published in ''Weird Tales'' magazine.The earliest appearance of a Robert E. Howard character named Conan was that of a black-haired barbarian with heroic attributes in the 1931 short story \"People of the Dark\".", "By 1932, Howard had fully conceptualized Conan.", "Before his death, Howard had written 21 stories starring the barbarian.", "Over the years many other writers have written works featuring Conan.Many Conan the Barbarian stories feature Conan embarking on heroic adventures filled with common fantasy elements such as princesses and wizards.", "Howard's mythopoeia has the stories set in the legendary Hyborian Age in the times after the fall of Atlantis.", "Conan is a Cimmerian, who are descendants of the Atlanteans and ancestors of the modern Gaels.", "Conan is himself a descendant of Kull of Atlantis (an earlier adventurer of Howard's).", "He was born on a battlefield and is the son of a blacksmith.", "Conan is characterized as chivalric due to his penchant to save damsels in distress.", "He is honorable and has a sense of enduring loyalty.", "In contrast to his brooding ancestor, Kull, Conan has a sense of humour.", "He possesses great strength, combativeness, intelligence, agility, and endurance.", "The barbarian's appearance is iconic, with square-cut black hair, blue eyes, tanned skin, and giant stature, often wearing a barbarian's garb.Licensed comics published in the 1970s by Marvel Comics drew further popularity to the character, introducing the now iconic image of Conan in his loincloth.", "The most popular cinematic adaptation is the 1982 film, ''Conan the Barbarian'' directed by John Milius and starring Arnold Schwarzenegger as Conan, in which the plot revolves around Conan facing the villainous Thulsa Doom." ], [ "Publication history", "Robert E. Howard created Conan the Barbarian in a series of fantasy stories published in ''Weird Tales'' from 1932.Howard was searching for a new character to market to the burgeoning pulp outlets of the early 1930s.", "In October 1931, he submitted the short story \"People of the Dark\" to Clayton Publications' new magazine, ''Strange Tales of Mystery and Terror'' (June 1932).", "\"People of the Dark\" is a story about the remembrance of \"past lives\", and in its first-person narrative, the protagonist describes one of his previous incarnations: Conan is a black-haired barbarian hero who swears by a deity called Crom.", "Some Howard scholars believe this Conan to be a forerunner of the more famous character.In February 1932, Howard vacationed at a border town on the lower Rio Grande.", "During this trip, he further conceived the character of Conan and also wrote the poem \"Cimmeria\", much of which echoes specific passages in Plutarch's ''Lives''.", "According to some scholars, reading Thomas Bulfinch inspired Howard to \"coalesce into a coherent whole his literary aspirations and the strong physical, autobiographical elements underlying the creation of Conan\".Having digested these influences upon returning from his trip, Howard rewrote a rejected story, \"By This Axe I Rule!\"", "(May 1929), replacing his existing character Kull of Atlantis with his new hero and re-titling it \"The Phoenix on the Sword\".", "Howard also wrote \"The Scarlet Citadel\" and \"The Frost-Giant's Daughter\", inspired by the Greek myth of Daphne, and submitted both stories to ''Weird Tales'' magazine.", "Although \"The Frost-Giant's Daughter\" was rejected, the magazine accepted \"The Phoenix on the Sword\" after it received the requested polishing, and published it in the December 1932 issue.", "\"The Scarlet Citadel\" was published the following month.", "\"The Phoenix on the Sword\" appeared in ''Weird Tales'' cover-dated December 1932.Editor Farnsworth Wright subsequently prompted Howard to write an 8,000-word essay for personal use detailing \"the Hyborian Age\", the fictional setting for Conan.", "Using this essay as his guideline, Howard began plotting \"The Tower of the Elephant\", a new Conan story that was the first to integrate his new conception of the Hyborian world.The publication and success of \"The Tower of the Elephant\" spurred Howard to write more Conan stories for ''Weird Tales''.", "By the time of Howard's suicide in 1936, he had written 21 complete stories, 17 of which had been published, as well as multiple unfinished fragments.Following Howard's death, the copyright of the Conan stories passed through several hands.", "Eventually L. Sprague de Camp was entrusted with management of the fiction line and, beginning with 1967's ''Conan'' released by Lancer Books, oversaw a paperback series collecting all of Howard's stories (Lancer folded in 1973 and Ace Books picked up the line, reprinting the older volumes with new trade dress and continuing to release new ones).", "Howard's original stories received additional edits by de Camp, and de Camp also decided to create additional Conan stories to publish alongside the originals, working with Björn Nyberg and especially Lin Carter.", "These new stories were created from a mixture of already-complete Howard stories with different settings and characters that were altered to feature Conan and the Hyborian setting instead, incomplete fragments and outlines for Conan stories that were never completed by Howard, and all-new pastiches.", "Lastly, de Camp created prefaces for each story, fitting them into a timeline of Conan's life that he created.For roughly 40 years, the original versions of Howard's Conan stories remained out of print.", "In 1977, the publisher Berkley Books issued three volumes using the earliest published form of the texts from ''Weird Tales'' and thus no de Camp edits, with Karl Edward Wagner as series editor, but these were halted by action from de Camp before the remaining three intended volumes could be released.", "In the 1980s and 1990s, the copyright holders permitted Howard's stories to go out of print entirely as the public demand for sword & sorcery dwindled, but continued to release the occasional new Conan novel by other authors such as Leonard Carpenter, Roland Green, and Harry Turtledove.In 2000, the British publisher Gollancz Science Fiction issued a two-volume, complete edition of Howard's Conan stories as part of its ''Fantasy Masterworks'' imprint, which included several stories that had never seen print in their original form.", "The Gollancz edition mostly used the versions of the stories as published in ''Weird Tales''.The two volumes were combined and the stories restored to chronological order as ''The Complete Chronicles of Conan: Centenary Edition'' (Gollancz Science Fiction, 2006; edited and with an Afterword by Steve Jones).In 2003, another British publisher, Wandering Star Books, made an effort both to restore Howard's original manuscripts and to provide a more scholarly and historical view of the Conan stories.", "It published hardcover editions in England, which were republished in the United States by the Del Rey imprint of Ballantine Books.", "The first book, ''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume One (1932–1933)'' (2003; published in the US as ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian'') includes Howard's notes on his fictional setting as well as letters and poems concerning the genesis of his ideas.", "This was followed by ''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Two (1934)'' (2004; published in the US as ''The Bloody Crown of Conan'') and ''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Three (1935–1936)'' (2005; published in the US as ''The Conquering Sword of Conan'').", "These three volumes include all the original Conan stories." ], [ "Setting", "The stories occur in the pseudo-historical \"Hyborian Age\", set after the destruction of Atlantis and before the rise of any known ancient civilization.", "This is a specific epoch in a fictional timeline created by Howard for many of the low fantasy tales of his artificial legendary.The reasons behind the invention of the Hyborian Age were perhaps commercial.", "Howard had an intense love for history and historical dramas, but he also recognized the difficulties and the time-consuming research work needed in maintaining historical accuracy.", "Also, the poorly-stocked libraries in the rural part of Texas where Howard lived didn't have the material needed for such historical research.", "By conceiving \"a ''vanished'' age\" and by choosing names that resembled human history, Howard avoided anachronisms and the need for lengthy exposition.According to \"The Phoenix on the Sword\", the adventures of Conan take place \"Between the years when the oceans drank Atlantis and the gleaming cities, and the years of the rise of the Sons of Aryas.\"" ], [ "Personality and character", "Conan is a Cimmerian.", "The writings of Robert E. Howard (particularly his essay \"The Hyborian Age\") suggests that his Cimmerians are based on the Celts or perhaps the historic Cimmerians.", "Conan was born on a battlefield and is the son of a village blacksmith.", "Conan matured quickly as a youth and, by age fifteen, he was already a respected warrior who had participated in the destruction of the Aquilonian fortress of Venarium.", "After its demise, he was struck by wanderlust and began the adventures chronicled by Howard, encountering skulking monsters, evil wizards, tavern wenches, and beautiful princesses.", "He roamed throughout the Hyborian Age nations as a thief, outlaw, mercenary, and pirate.", "As he grew older, he began commanding vast units of warriors and escalating his ambitions.", "In his forties, he seized the crown from the tyrannical king of Aquilonia, the most powerful kingdom of the Hyborian Age, having strangled the previous ruler on the steps of his own throne.", "Conan's adventures often result in him performing heroic feats, though his motivation for doing so is largely to protect his own survival or for personal gain.A conspicuous element of Conan's character is his chivalry.", "He is extremely reluctant to fight women (even when they fight him) and has a strong tendency to save a damsel in distress.", "In \"Jewels of Gwahlur\", he has to make a split-second decision whether to save the dancing girl Muriela or the chest of priceless gems which he spent months in search of.", "So, without hesitation, he rescues Muriela and allows for the treasure to be irrevocably lost.", "In \"The Black Stranger\", Conan saves the exile Zingaran Lady Belesa at considerable risk to himself, giving her as a parting gift his fortune in gems big enough to have a comfortable and wealthy life in Zingara, while asking for no favors in return.", "Reviewer Jennifer Bard also noted that when Conan is in a pirate crew or a robber gang led by another male, his tendency is to subvert and undermine the leader's authority, and eventually supplant (and often, kill) him (e.g.", "\"Pool of the Black One\", \"A Witch Shall be Born\", \"Shadows in the Moonlight\").", "Conversely, in \"Queen of the Black Coast\", it is noted that Conan \"generally agreed to Belit's plan.", "Hers was the mind that directed their raids, his the arm that carried out her ideas.", "It was a good life.\"", "And at the end of \"Red Nails\", Conan and Valeria seem to be headed towards a reasonably amicable piratical partnership.===Appearance===Fan art of Conan the Barbarian in his iconic loincloth.Conan has \"sullen\", \"smoldering\", and \"volcanic\" blue eyes with a black \"square-cut mane\".", "Howard once describes him as having a hairy chest and, while comic book interpretations often portray Conan as wearing a loincloth or other minimalist clothing to give him a more barbaric image, Howard describes the character as wearing whatever garb is typical for the kingdom and culture in which Conan finds himself.", "Howard never gave a strict height or weight for Conan in a story, only describing him in loose terms like \"giant\" and \"massive\".", "In the tales, no human is ever described as being stronger than Conan, although few are mentioned as taller (including the strangler, Baal-Pteor) or of larger bulk.", "In a letter to P. Schuyler Miller and John D. Clark in 1936, only three months before Howard's death, Conan is described as standing 6 ft/183 cm and weighing when he takes part in an attack on Venarium at only 15 years old, though being far from fully grown.", "At one point, when he is meeting Juma in Kush, he describes Conan as tall as his friend, at nearly 7 ft. in height.", "Conan himself says in \"Beyond the Black River\" that he had \"not yet seen 15 snows\".", "at the Battle of Venarium.", "\"At Vanarium he was already a formidable antagonist, though only fifteen, He stood six feet tall 1.83 m and weighed 180 pounds 82 kg, though he lacked much of having his full growth.", "\"Although Conan is muscular, Howard frequently compares his agility and way of moving to that of a panther (see, for instance, \"Jewels of Gwahlur\", \"Beyond the Black River\", or \"Rogues in the House\").", "His skin is frequently characterized as bronzed from constant exposure to the sun.", "In his younger years, he is often depicted wearing a light chain shirt and a horned helmet, though appearances vary with different stories.During his reign as king of Aquilonia, Conan was::... a tall man, mightily shouldered and deep of chest, with a massive corded neck and heavily muscled limbs.", "He was clad in silk and velvet, with the royal lions of Aquilonia worked in gold upon his rich jupon, and the crown of Aquilonia shone on his square-cut black mane; but the great sword at his side seemed more natural to him than the regal accoutrements.", "His brow was low and broad, his eyes a volcanic blue that smoldered as if with some inner fire.", "His dark, scarred, almost sinister face was that of a fighting-man, and his velvet garments could not conceal the hard, dangerous lines of his limbs.Howard imagined the Cimmerians as a pre-Celtic people with mostly black hair and blue or grey eyes.", "Ethnically, the Cimmerians to which Conan belongs are descendants of the Atlanteans, though they do not remember their ancestry.", "In his fictional historical essay \"The Hyborian Age\", Howard describes how the people of Atlantis—the land where his character King Kull originated—had to move east after a great cataclysm changed the face of the world and sank their island, settling where Ireland and Scotland would eventually be located.", "Thus they are (in Howard's work) the ancestors of the Irish and Scottish (the Celtic Gaels) and not the Picts, the other ancestor of modern Scots who also appear in Howard's work.", "In the same work, Howard also described how the Cimmerians eventually moved south and east after the age of Conan (presumably in the vicinity of the Black Sea, where the historical Cimmerians dwelt).===Abilities===Despite his brutish appearance, Conan uses his brains as well as his brawn.", "The Cimmerian is a highly skilled warrior, possibly without peer with a sword, but his travels have given him vast experience in other trades, especially as a thief.", "He's also a talented commander, tactician, and strategist, as well as a born leader.", "In addition, Conan has advanced knowledge of languages and codes and is able to recognize, or even decipher, certain ancient or secret signs and writings.", "For example, in \"Jewels of Gwahlur\" Howard states: \"In his roaming about the world the giant adventurer had picked up a wide smattering of knowledge, particularly including the speaking and reading of many alien tongues.", "Many a sheltered scholar would have been astonished at the Cimmerian's linguistic abilities.\"", "He also has incredible stamina, enabling him to go without sleep for a few days.", "In \"A Witch Shall be Born\", Conan fights armed men until he is overwhelmed, captured, and crucified, before going an entire night and day without water.", "However, Conan still possesses the strength to pull the nails from his feet, while hoisting himself into a horse's saddle and riding for ten miles.Another noticeable trait is his sense of humor, largely absent in the comics and movies, but very much a part of Howard's original vision of the character (particularly apparent in \"Xuthal of the Dusk\", also known as \"The Slithering Shadow\".)", "His sense of humor can also be rather grimly ironic, as was demonstrated by how he unleashes his own version of justice on the treacherous—and ill-fated—innkeeper Aram Baksh in \"Shadows in Zamboula\".He is a loyal friend to those true to him, with a barbaric code of conduct that often marks him as more honorable than the more sophisticated people he meets in his travels.", "Indeed, his straightforward nature and barbarism are constants in all the tales.Conan is a formidable combatant both armed and unarmed.", "With his back to the wall, Conan is capable of engaging and killing opponents by the score.", "This is seen in several stories, such as \"Queen of the Black Coast\", \"The Scarlet Citadel\", and \"A Witch Shall Be Born\".", "Conan is not superhuman, though; he needed the providential help of Zelata's wolf to defeat four Nemedian soldiers in Howard's novel ''The Hour of the Dragon''.", "Some of his hardest victories have come from fighting single opponents of inhuman strength: one such as Thak, an ape-like humanoid from \"Rogues in the House\", or the strangler Baal-Pteor in \"Shadows in Zamboula\".", "Conan is far from untouchable and has been captured or defeated several times (on one occasion, knocking himself out after drunkenly running into a wall).===Influences===Howard frequently corresponded with H. P. Lovecraft, and the two would sometimes insert references or elements of each other's settings in their works.", "Later editors reworked many of the original Conan stories by Howard, thus diluting this connection.", "Nevertheless, many of Howard's unedited Conan stories are arguably part of the Cthulhu Mythos.", "Additionally, many of the Conan stories by Howard, de Camp, and Carter used geographical place names from Clark Ashton Smith's Hyperborean Cycle." ], [ "Original Robert E. Howard Conan stories", "Cover of ''Weird Tales'' (May 1934) depicting Conan and Bêlit in \"Queen of the Black Coast\", one of Robert E. Howard's original Conan stories===Conan stories published in ''Weird Tales''===# \"The Phoenix on the Sword\" (novelette; vol.", "20, #6, December 1932)# \"The Scarlet Citadel\" (novelette; vol.", "21, #1, January 1, 1933)# \"The Tower of the Elephant\" (novelette; vol.", "21, #3, March 1933)# \"Black Colossus\" (novelette; vol.", "21, #6, June 1933)# \"The Slithering Shadow\" (novelette; vol.", "22, #3, September 1933, alternate title \"Xuthal of the Dusk\")# \"The Pool of the Black One\" (novelette; vol.", "22, #4, October 1933)# \"Rogues in the House\" (novelette; vol.", "23, #1, January 1934)# \"Iron Shadows in the Moon\" (novelette; vol.", "23, #4, April 1934, published as \"Shadows in the Moonlight\")# \"Queen of the Black Coast\" (novelette; vol.", "23, #5, May 1934)# \"The Devil in Iron\" (novelette; vol.", "24, #2, August 1934)# \"The People of the Black Circle\" (novella; vol.", "24, #3–5, September–November 1934)# \"A Witch Shall Be Born\" (novelette; vol.", "24, #6, December 1934)# \"Jewels of Gwahlur\" (novelette; vol.", "25, #3, March 1935, author's original title \"The Servants of Bit-Yakin\")# \"Beyond the Black River\" (novella; vol.", "25, #5–6, May–June 1935)# \"Shadows in Zamboula\" (novelette; vol.", "26, #5, November 1935, author's original title \"The Man-Eaters of Zamboula\")# \"The Hour of the Dragon\" (novel; vol.", "26, #6 & vol.", "27, #1–4, December 1935, January–April 1936)# \"Red Nails\" (novella; vol.", "28, #1–3, July, September, October 1936)===Conan stories published in ''Fantasy Fan magazine''===* \"Gods of the North\" (March 1934) – published as ''The Frost-Giant's Daughter'' in ''The Coming of Conan'', 1953.===Conan stories not published in Howard's lifetime===* \"The God in the Bowl\" – Published in ''Space Science Fiction'', Sep.", "1952.", "* \"The Black Stranger\" – Published in ''Fantasy Magazine'', Feb.", "1953.", "* \"The Vale of Lost Women\" – Published in ''The Magazine of Horror'', Spring 1967.===Unfinished Conan stories by Howard===* \"The Drums of Tombalku\" – Fragment.", "Published in ''Conan the Adventurer'', 1966.", "* \"The Hall of the Dead\" – Synopsis.", "Published in ''The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction'', February 1967.", "* \"The Hand of Nergal\" – Fragment.", "Published in ''Conan'', 1967.", "* \"The Snout in the Dark\" – Fragment.", "Published in ''Conan of Cimmeria'', 1969.A number of untitled synopses for Conan stories also exist.===Other Conan-related material by Howard===* \"Wolves Beyond the Border\" – A non-Conan story set in Conan's world.", "Fragment.", "Published in 1967 in ''Conan the Usurper''* \"The Hyborian Age\" – An essay written in 1932.Published in 1938 in ''The Hyborian Age''.", "* \"Cimmeria\" – A poem written in 1932.Published in 1965 in ''The Howard Collector''." ], [ "Book editions", "The character of Conan has proven durably popular, resulting in Conan stories by later writers such as Poul Anderson, Leonard Carpenter, Lin Carter, L. Sprague de Camp, Roland J.", "Green, John C. Hocking, Robert Jordan, Sean A. Moore, Björn Nyberg, Andrew J. Offutt, Steve Perry, John Maddox Roberts, Harry Turtledove, and Karl Edward Wagner.", "Some of these writers have finished incomplete Conan manuscripts by Howard.", "Others were created by rewriting Howard stories which originally featured entirely different characters from entirely different milieus.", "Most, however, are completely original works.", "In total, more than fifty novels and dozens of short stories featuring the Conan character have been written by authors other than Howard.The Gnome Press edition (1950–1957) was the first hardcover collection of Howard's Conan stories, including all the original Howard material known to exist at the time, some left unpublished in his lifetime.", "The later volumes contain some stories rewritten by L. Sprague de Camp (like \"The Treasure of Tranicos\"), including several non-Conan Howard stories, mostly historical exotica situated in the Levant at the time of the Crusades, which he turned into Conan yarns.", "The Gnome edition also issued the first Conan story written by an author other than Howard—the final volume published, which is by Björn Nyberg and revised by de Camp.The Lancer/Ace editions (1966–1977), under the direction of de Camp and Lin Carter, were the first comprehensive paperbacks, compiling the material from the Gnome Press series together in a chronological order with all the remaining original Howard material, including that left unpublished in his lifetime and fragments and outlines.", "These were completed by de Camp and Carter.", "The series also included Howard stories originally featuring other protagonists that were rewritten by de Camp as Conan stories.", "New Conan stories written entirely by de Camp and Carter were added as well.", "Lancer Books went out of business before bringing out the entire series, the publication of which was completed by Ace Books.", "Eight of the eventual twelve volumes published featured dynamic cover paintings by Frank Frazetta that, for many fans, presented the definitive, iconic impression of Conan and his world.", "For decades to come, most other portrayals of the Cimmerian and his imitators were heavily influenced by the cover paintings of this series.Most editions after the Lancer/Ace series have been of either the original Howard stories or Conan material by others, but not both.", "The exception are the Ace Maroto editions (1978–1981), which include both new material by other authors and older material by Howard, though the latter are some of the non-Conan tales by Howard rewritten as Conan stories by de Camp.", "Notable later editions of the original Howard Conan stories include the Donald M. Grant editions (1974–1989, incomplete); Berkley editions (1977); Gollancz editions (2000–2006), and Wandering Star/Del Rey editions (2003–2005).", "Later series of new Conan material include the Bantam editions (1978–1982) and Tor editions (1982–2004)." ], [ "Conan chronologies", "In an attempt to provide a coherent timeline which fit the numerous adventures of Conan penned by Robert E. Howard and later writers, various \"Conan chronologies\" have been prepared by many people from the 1930s onward.", "Note that no consistent timeline has yet accommodated every single Conan story.", "The following are the principal theories that have been advanced over the years.", "* Miller/Clark chronology – ''A Probable Outline of Conan's Career'' (1936) was the first effort to put the tales in chronological order.", "Completed by P. Schuyler Miller and John Drury Clark, the chronology was later revised by Clark and L. Sprague de Camp in ''An Informal Biography of Conan the Cimmerian'' (1952).", "* Robert Jordan chronology – ''A Conan Chronology by Robert Jordan'' (1987) was a new chronology written by Conan writer Robert Jordan that included all written Conan material up to that point.", "It was heavily influenced by the Miller/Clark/de Camp chronologies, though it departed from them in a number of idiosyncratic instances.", "* William Galen Gray chronology – ''Timeline of Conan's Journeys'' (1997, rev.", "2004), was fan William Galen Gray's attempt to create \"a chronology of all the stories, both Howard and pastiche.\"", "Drawing on the earlier Miller/Clark and Jordan chronologies, it represents the ultimate expression of their tradition to date.", "* Joe Marek chronology – Joe Marek's chronology is limited to stories written (or devised) by Howard, though within that context it is essentially a revision of the Miller/Clark tradition to better reflect the internal evidence of the stories and avoid forcing Conan into what he perceives as a \"mad dash\" around the Hyborian world within timeframes too rapid to be credible.", "* Dale Rippke chronology – ''The Darkstorm Conan Chronology'' (2003) was a completely revised and heavily researched chronology, radically repositioning a number of stories and including only those stories written or devised by Howard.", "The Dark Horse comic series follows this chronology." ], [ "Media", "===Films=======Schwarzenegger as Conan (1980s)====The very first Conan cinematic project was planned by Edward Summer.", "Summer envisioned a series of Conan films, much like the James Bond franchise.", "He outlined six stories for this film series, but none were ever made.", "An original screenplay by Summer and Roy Thomas was written, but their lore-authentic screen story was never filmed.", "However, the resulting film, ''Conan the Barbarian'' (1982), was a combination of director John Milius's ideas and plots from Conan stories (written also by Howard's successors, notably Lin Carter and L. Sprague de Camp).", "A Nietzschean motto and Conan's life philosophy were notably added in this adaptation.The plot of ''Conan the Barbarian'' (1982) begins with Conan being enslaved by the Vanir raiders of Thulsa Doom, a malevolent warlord who is responsible for the slaying of Conan's parents and the genocide of his people.", "Later, Thulsa Doom becomes a cult leader of a religion that worships Set, a Snake God.", "The vengeful Conan, the archer Subotai and the thief Valeria set out on a quest to rescue a princess held captive by Thulsa Doom.", "The film was directed by John Milius and produced by Dino De Laurentiis.", "The character of Conan was played by Jorge Sanz as a child and Arnold Schwarzenegger as an adult.It was Schwarzenegger's break-through role as an actor.This film was followed by a less popular sequel, ''Conan the Destroyer'' in 1984.This sequel was a more typical fantasy-genre film and was even less faithful to Howard's Conan stories, being just a picaresque story of an assorted bunch of adventurers.The third film in the ''Conan'' trilogy was planned for 1987 to be titled ''Conan the Conqueror''.", "The director was to be either Guy Hamilton or John Guillermin.", "Since Arnold Schwarzenegger was committed to the film ''Predator'' and De Laurentiis's contract with the star had expired after his obligation to ''Red Sonja'' and ''Raw Deal'', he wasn't keen to negotiate a new one; thus the third Conan film sank into development hell.", "The script was eventually turned into ''Kull the Conqueror''.====Momoa as Conan (2011)====There were rumors in the late 1990s of another Conan sequel, a story about an older Conan titled ''King Conan: Crown of Iron'', but Schwarzenegger's election in 2003 as governor of California ended this project.", "Warner Bros. spent seven years trying to get the project off the ground.", "However, in June 2007 the rights reverted to Paradox Entertainment, though all drafts made under Warner remained with them.", "In August 2007, it was announced that Millennium Films had acquired the rights to the project.", "Production was aimed for a Spring 2006 start, with the intention of having stories more faithful to the Robert E. Howard creation.", "In June 2009, Millennium hired Marcus Nispel to direct.", "In January 2010, Jason Momoa was selected for the role of Conan.", "The film was released in August 2011, and met poor critical reviews and box office results.====Unproduced: ''Legend of Conan''====In 2012, producers Chris Morgan and Frederick Malmberg announced plans for a sequel to the 1982 ''Conan the Barbarian'' titled ''The Legend of Conan'', with Arnold Schwarzenegger reprising his role as Conan.", "A year later, ''Deadline'' reported that Andrea Berloff would write the script.", "Years passed since the initial announcement as Schwarzenegger worked on other films, but as late as 2016, Schwarzenegger affirmed his enthusiasm for making the film, saying, \"Interest is high ... but we are not rushing.\"", "The script was finished, and Schwarzenegger and Morgan were meeting with possible directors.", "In April 2017, producer Chris Morgan stated that Universal had dropped the project, although there was a possibility of a TV show.", "The story of the film was supposed to be set 30 years after the first, with some inspiration from Clint Eastwood's ''Unforgiven''.===''She Is Conann''===In 2023, French film director Bertrand Mandico released ''She Is Conann'', a gender-flipped version of Conan the Barbarian which stars five different actresses playing a female Conann at different stages in her life.===Television===There have been three television series related to Conan:* '''''Conan the Adventurer''''' is an animated television series produced by ''Jetlag Productions'' and ''Sunbow Productions'' that debuted on September 13, 1992, ran for 65 episodes and concluded on November 23, 1993.The series involved Conan chasing Serpent Men across the world in an attempt to release his parents from eternal imprisonment as living statues.", "* '''''Conan and the Young Warriors''''' is an animated television series that premiered in 1994 and ran for 13 episodes.", "DiC Entertainment produced the show and CBS aired this series as a spin-off to the previous animated series.", "This cartoon took place after the finale of ''Conan the Adventurer'' with Wrath-Amon vanquished and Conan's family returned to life from living stone.", "Conan soon finds that the family of one of his friends are being turned into wolves by an evil sorceress and he must train three warriors in order to aid him in rescuing them.", "* '''''Conan the Adventurer''''' is a live-action television series that premiered on September 22, 1997, and ran for 22 episodes.", "It starred German bodybuilder Ralf Möller as Conan, Danny Woodburn (Otli), Robert McRay (Zzeben), and TJ Storm (Bayu) as his sidekicks.", "The storyline was quite different from the Conan lore of Howard.", "In this adaptation, Conan is a pleasant and jovial person.", "Also in this version, Conan is not a loner but one member of a merry band of adventurers.", "* In September 2020, it was announced that Netflix will develop a new Conan TV series as a part of a larger deal involving and Mark Wheeler from Pathfinder Media between Netflix and Conan Properties International, owned by Cabinet Entertainment, for the exclusive rights to the Conan library for the rights for live-action and animated films and TV shows.", "Deadline had previously reported that a Conan show was in the works at Amazon Prime, but nothing came of it.===Comics===Conan the Barbarian has appeared in comics nearly non-stop since 1970.The comics are arguably, apart from the books, the vehicle that had the greatest influence on the longevity and popularity of the character.", "The earliest comic book adaptation of Conan was written in Spanish and first published in Mexico in the fifties.", "This version, which was done without authorization from the estate of Robert E. Howard, is loosely based on the short story ''Queen of the Black Coast''.", "The earliest licensed comic adaptations were written in English and first published by Marvel Comics in the seventies, beginning with ''Conan the Barbarian'' (1970–1993) and the classic ''Savage Sword of Conan'' (1974–1995).", "Dark Horse Comics launched their ''Conan'' series in 2003.Dark Horse Comics is currently publishing compilations of the 1970s Marvel Comics series in trade paperback format.Barack Obama, former President of the United States, is a fan of the character and collects Conan the Barbarian comic books.", "Obama also appeared as a character in a comic book called ''Barack the Barbarian'' from Devil's Due.Marvel Comics introduced a relatively lore-faithful version of Conan the Barbarian in 1970 with ''Conan the Barbarian'', written by Roy Thomas and illustrated by Barry Windsor-Smith.", "Smith was succeeded by penciller John Buscema, while Thomas continued to write for many years.", "Later writers included J. M. DeMatteis, Bruce Jones, Michael Fleisher, Doug Moench, Jim Owsley, Alan Zelenetz, Chuck Dixon and Don Kraar.", "In 1974, ''Conan the Barbarian'' series spawned the more adult-oriented, black-and-white comics magazine ''Savage Sword of Conan'', written by Thomas with art mostly by Buscema or Alfredo Alcala.", "Marvel also published several graphic novels starring the character , and a handbook with detailed information about the Hyborian world.", "Conan the Barbarian is also officially considered to be part of the larger Marvel Universe and has interacted with heroes and villains alike.The Marvel Conan stories were also adapted as a newspaper comic strip which appeared daily and Sunday from 4 September 1978 to 12 April 1981.Originally written by Roy Thomas and illustrated by John Buscema, the strip was continued by several different Marvel artists and writers.Dark Horse Comics began their comic adaptation of the Conan saga in 2003.Entitled simply ''Conan'', the series was first written by Kurt Busiek and pencilled by Cary Nord.", "Tim Truman replaced Busiek, when Busiek signed an exclusive contract with DC Comics.", "However, Busiek issues were sometimes used for filler.", "This series is an interpretation of the original Conan material by Robert E. Howard with no connection whatsoever to the earlier Marvel comics or any Conan story not written or envisioned by Howard supplemented by wholly original material.A second series, ''Conan the Cimmerian'' was released in 2008 by Tim Truman (writer) and Tomás Giorello (artist).", "The series ran for twenty-six issues, including an introductory \"zero\" issue.Dark Horse's third series, ''Conan: Road of Kings'', began in December 2010 by Roy Thomas (writer) and Mike Hawthorne (artist) and ran for twelve issues.A fourth series, ''Conan the Barbarian'', began in February 2012 by Brian Wood (writer) and Becky Cloonan (artist).", "It ran for twenty-five issues, and expanded on Robert E. Howard's ''Queen of the Black Coast''.A fifth series, ''Conan the Avenger'', began in April 2014 by Fred Van Lente (writer) and Brian Ching (artist).", "It ran for twenty-five issues, and expanded on Robert E. Howard's The Snout in the Dark and A Witch Shall Be Born.Dark Horse's sixth series, ''Conan the Slayer'', began in July 2016 by Cullen Bunn (writer) and Sergio Dávila (artist).In 2018, Marvel reacquired the rights and started new runs of both ''Conan the Barbarian'' and ''Savage Sword of Conan'' in January/February 2019.Conan is also a lead in the ''Savage Avengers'' title, which launched in 2019 and received a second volume in 2022.In 2022, it was revealed that Titan Publishing Group had acquired the rights from Heroic Signatures to make Conan comics, with a new ongoing series set to release in May 2023.===Games=======Board games====* In 2009, Fantasy Flight Games released the ''Age of Conan'' strategy board game, depicting warfare between the Hyborian nations in the Conan's adventures.", "* In 2016, Monolith Board Games LLC released a new boardgame with miniatures directly based on Howard's short stories. ''", "Conan'' (previously known as ''Conan: Hyborian Quests'') pits one player, controlling the evil forces, against 2-4 other players controlling Conan and his companions.====Collectible card games====* In 2006, Comic Images released the Conan Collectible Card Game designed by Jason Robinette.====Play-by-mail games====* ''Hyborian War'', introduced by Reality Simulations, Inc. as of 1985, is a play-by-mail game set in the Hyborian Age.====Role-playing games====TSR, Inc. signed a license agreement in 1984 to publish Conan-related gaming material:* Two modules for Advanced Dungeons & Dragons:** CB1 ''Conan Unchained!''", "(1984)** CB2 ''Conan Against Darkness!''", "(1984)* The ''Conan Role-Playing Game'' (1985), with 3 official game adventures:** CN1 ''Conan the Buccaneer'' (1985)** CN2 ''Conan the Mercenary'' (1985)** CN3 ''Conan Triumphant'' (1985)* Three Endless Quest books by TSR, published in the eighties, allow the reader to play the role of Conan (Conan the Undaunted, Conan and the Prophecy & Conan the Outlaw)In 1988 Steve Jackson Games acquired a Conan license and started publishing Conan solo adventures for its ''GURPS'' generic system of rules as of 1988 and a ''GURPS Conan'' core rulebook in 1989:* ''GURPS Conan: Beyond Thunder River'' (1988, solo adventure)* ''GURPS Conan'' (1989, core rulebook)* ''GURPS Conan and the Queen of the Black Coast'' (1989, solo adventure)* ''GURPS Conan: Moon of Blood'' (1989, solo adventure)* ''GURPS Conan the Wyrmslayer'' (1989, solo adventure)In 2003 the British company Mongoose Publishing bought a license and acquired in turn the rights to make use of the Conan gaming franchise, publishing a Conan role-playing game from 2004 until 2010.The game ran the OGL System of rules that Mongoose established for its ''OGL series'' of games:* ''Conan: The Roleplaying Game'' (2004), with many supplements.In 2010 Mongoose Publishing dropped the Conan license.", "In February 2015, another British company, Modiphius Entertainment, acquired the license, announcing plans to put out a new Conan role-playing game in August of that year.", "Actually, the core rulebook was not launched (via Kickstarter) until a whole year later, in February 2016, reaching by far all funds needed for publication.", "Long after the Kickstarter ended the core rulebook was launched in PDF format on January 31, 2017.The physical core rulebook finally started distribution in June 2017:* ''Conan: Adventures in an Age Undreamed Of'' (hardcover, 368 pages, 2017), with two hardcover supplements already published and at least 17 additional supplements in the works (as planned following the Kickstarter).====Video games====Nine video games have been released based on the Conan mythos.", "* In 1984, Datasoft released ''Conan: Hall of Volta'' for the Apple II, Atari 8-bit family, and Commodore 64.", "* In 1991, Mindscape released ''Conan: The Mysteries of Time'' for NES, a Commodore 64 port by System 3.", "* In 1991, Virgin Games and Synergistic released ''Conan: The Cimmerian'' for Amiga and IBM PC compatibles.", "* In 2004, TDK Mediactive released ''Conan'', a third-person action game for Windows and consoles.", "* In 2007, THQ and Nihilistic released ''Conan'', a third-person action game for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.", "* In 2008, Funcom released ''Age of Conan'', a MMORPG, on May 20 in the US and May 23 in Europe.", "* A RPG game titled ''Conan: The Tower of the Elephant'' was released for the iOS around the time of the release of the movie ''Conan the Barbarian'' as a promotion.", "The game is based on the short story of the same name.", "* In 2013, the side-scrolling shooter game ''Broforce'' introduced a playable character known as Bronan the Brobarian.", "In the game, he is one of the few characters who doesn't fight with a firearm or an explosive.", "Instead, Bronan fights with a sword that can cause massive shockwaves depending on how long the player holds the attack button.", "* On January 31, 2017, Funcom released ''Conan Exiles'' for PS4, Xbox One and PC.", "The title is an open world survival game.", "The game was released in early access, and was released on May 8, 2018.", "* In 2019, Funcom released a real time strategy game named ''Conan Unconquered''." ], [ "Characters", "===Prominent in prose fiction===* '''Bêlit''' – Self-styled Shemite Queen of the Black Coast, captain of the pirate ship ''Tigress'', and Conan's first serious lover (\"Queen of the Black Coast\").", "* '''Ctesphon''' - The king of Stygia is mentioned only once and in passing, in \"The Phoenix on the Sword\".", "He is a priest king, like Thugra-Khotan in the Stygian daughter-kingdom of Kutchemes.", "* '''Thoth-Amon''' – Stygian wizard of great power who appeared in the first Conan story written (\"The Phoenix on the Sword\" and was mentioned in \"The God in the Bowl\" and ''The Hour of the Dragon''.", "L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter made Thoth-Amon the nemesis of Conan.", "In the Marvel comics, Thoth-Amon was also Conan's lifelong opponent and had a striking appearance designed by Barry Windsor-Smith; he wore a distinctive ram-horn ornamental headdress.", "In \"The Phoenix on the Sword\" though, where Thoth has been robbed of his magical ring, he doesn't at all seem very impressive, yet less admirable.", "He is portrayed by Pat Roach in ''Conan the Destroyer''.", "* '''Valeria''' – Aquilonian female mercenary affiliated with the Red Brotherhood (\"Red Nails\").", "* '''Yara''' – Evil wizard and adversary of Conan (\"The Tower of the Elephant\") who enslaved Yag-Kosha, an extraterrestrial being resembling the Hindu god Ganesh.", "* '''Yasmina'''- Brave, proud, feisty, wise, and warmhearted queen over the ancient kingdom of Vendhya, homeland and stronghold of Asura-worship.", "* '''Zenobia''' – Seraglio concubine Conan promises to wed and make queen of Aquilonia (''The Hour of the Dragon'').===Prominent in comic-book fiction===* '''Fafnir''' – A pastiche of Fafhrd from the sword-and-sorcery stories of Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser by Fritz Leiber.", "He is a mighty red-bearded Vanir warrior and pirate captain.", "At first he and Conan are enemies, but they soon become allies after being shipwrecked.", "* '''Jenna''' – (Marvel comics character).", "A dancing girl from the city of Shadizar.", "She becomes Conan's girlfriend after he saves her from a monstrous bat, but later betrays him to the authorities.", "Conan gets his revenge by throwing her into a pool of sewage.", "Based on an unnamed character in the prose story \"Rogues in the House\".", "* '''Mikhal \"the Vulture\" Oglu''' – In Marvel comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' #23, Mikhal Oglu is Yezdigerd's enforcer and the greatest swordsman in Turan.", "He challenges Conan but is defeated and killed.", "He was inspired by a character in a non-Conan story by Robert E. Howard (\"The Shadow of the Vulture\").", "* '''Kulan Gath''' - a prominent evil wizard appearing initially in the Marvel Conan comics and later fully integrated into the Marvel Universe.", "He has also appeared in Red Sonya comics by Dynamite Entertainment.", "* '''Red Sonja''' – An Hyrkanian warrior created by Roy Thomas and Barry Windsor-Smith for the Conan comics.", "She was based on the Howard character, Red Sonya of Rogatino, who appeared in \"The Shadow of the Vulture\", a novella set in the 16th century.", "* '''Yezdigerd''' – Ruler of Turan, a Turkish empire-based civilization.", "He employs Conan as a mercenary but betrays him after he outlived his usefulness* '''Zukala''' – A character from the Conan comics published by Marvel, inspired by a poem by Robert E. Howard.", "Zukala is an evil sorcerer who gains his powers from a mask.", "His daughter, Zephra, falls in love with Conan.===Prominent in films===* '''Akiro''' – A character from the two Schwarzenegger Conan films.", "He is a powerful wizard who befriends Conan and Subotai, and serves as the narrator and Conan's chronicler.", "He is played by Japanese actor Mako Iwamatsu.", "* '''Rexor''' – In the 1982 film, the chief priest of Thulsa Doom's snake cult, who stole the sword of Conan's father.", "Played by Ben Davidson.", "* '''Subotai''' – Hyrkanian thief and archer.", "He is Conan's companion in the 1982 film.", "Played by Gerry Lopez.", "* '''Malak''' – A thief.", "He is Conan's traveling companion in the 1984 sequel.", "Played by Tracey Walter.", "* '''Thorgrim''' – Hammer-wielding minion of Thulsa Doom in the 1982 film.", "Played by Sven-Ole Thorsen* '''Thulsa Doom''' – A skull-faced necromancer from a King Kull story, a recurring villain in the Kull comics, and the antagonist in the 1982 film, played by James Earl Jones." ], [ "Copyright and trademark dispute", "The name ''Conan'' and the names of some of Robert E. Howard's other characters are claimed as trademarked by Conan Properties International and licensed to Cabinet Entertainment, both entities controlled by CEO Fredrik Malmberg.Since Robert E. Howard's Conan stories were published at a time when the date of publication was the marker (1932–1963), however, and any new owners failed to renew them to maintain the copyrights, the exact copyright status of all of Howard's 'Conan' works is in question.", "The majority of Howard's Conan fiction exist in at least two versions, subject to different copyright standards, namely 1) the original ''Weird Tales'' publications before or shortly after Howard's death, which are generally understood to be public domain and 2) restored versions based upon manuscripts which were unpublished during Howard's lifetime.The Australian site of Project Gutenberg hosts digital copies of many of Howard's stories, including several works about Conan.In the United Kingdom, works are released into the public domain 70 years after the death of an author.", "With Howard having died in 1936, his works have been in the public domain there since 2006.The same standard applies for Malmberg's home country of Sweden.In August 2018, Conan Properties International LLC won by default a suit against Spanish sculptor Ricardo Jove Sanchez after he failed to appear at court in the United States.", "Jove had started a crowdfunding campaign that raised around €3000 on Kickstarter, with the intent of selling barbarian figurines to online customers, including those in the United States.", "The Magistrate Judge originally recommended statutory damages for infringement on three Robert E. Howard characters not including Conan, but Jove was eventually fined $3,000 per character used in the campaign, including Conan, for a total of $21,000.In September 2020, it was announced that Netflix had made a larger deal involving Malmberg and Mark Wheeler from Pathfinder Media between Netflix and Conan Properties International for the exclusive rights to the Conan library for the rights for live-action and animated films and TV shows." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * The Works of Robert E. Howard* Conan: The Official Website* Conan: Czech fanpage* Hyboria: Polish fanpage*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chris Marker" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chris Marker''' (; 29 July 1921 – 29 July 2012) was a French writer, photographer, documentary film director, multimedia artist and film essayist.", "His best known films are ''La Jetée'' (1962), ''A Grin Without a Cat'' (1977) and ''Sans Soleil'' (1983).", "Marker is usually associated with the Left Bank subset of the French New Wave that occurred in the late 1950s and 1960s, and included such other filmmakers as Alain Resnais, Agnès Varda and Jacques Demy.His friend and sometime collaborator Alain Resnais called him \"the prototype of the twenty-first-century man.\"", "Film theorist Roy Armes has said of him: \"Marker is unclassifiable because he is unique...The French Cinema has its dramatists and its poets, its technicians, and its autobiographers, but only has one true essayist: Chris Marker.\"" ], [ "Early life", "Marker was born '''Christian François Bouche-Villeneuve'''.", "He was always elusive about his past and known to refuse interviews and not allow photographs to be taken of him; his place of birth is highly disputed.", "Some sources and Marker himself claim that he was born in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.", "Other sources say he was born in Belleville, Paris, and others, in Neuilly-sur-Seine.", "The 1949 edition of ''Le Cœur Net'' gives his birthday as 22 July.", "Film critic David Thomson has said, \"Marker told me himself that Mongolia is correct.", "I have since concluded that Belleville is correct—but that does not spoil the spiritual truth of Ulan Bator.\"", "When asked about his secretive nature, Marker said, \"My films are enough for them the audience.", "\"Marker was a philosophy student in France before World War II.", "During the German occupation of France, he joined the Maquis (FTP), a part of the French Resistance.", "At some point during the war he left France and joined the United States Air Force as a paratrooper, although some sources claim that this is not true.", "After the war, he began a career as a journalist, first writing for the journal ''Esprit'', a neo-Catholic, Marxist magazine where he met fellow journalist André Bazin.", "For ''Esprit'', Marker wrote political commentaries, poems, short stories, and film reviews.During this period, Marker began to travel around the world as a journalist and photographer, a vocation he pursued for the rest of his life.", "The French publishing company Éditions du Seuil hired him as editor of the series ''Petite Planète'' (\"Small World\").", "That collection devoted one edition to each country and included information and photographs, and would later be published in English translation by Studio Vista and The Viking Press.", "In 1949 Marker published his first novel, ''Le Coeur net'' (''The Forthright Spirit''), which was about aviation.", "In 1952 Marker published an illustrated essay on French writer Jean Giraudoux, ''Giraudoux Par Lui-Même''." ], [ "Early career (1950–1961)", "During his early journalism career, Marker became increasingly interested in filmmaking and in the early 1950s experimented with photography.", "Around this time Marker met and befriended many members of the Left Bank Film Movement, including Alain Resnais, Agnès Varda, Henri Colpi, Armand Gatti, and the novelists Marguerite Duras and Jean Cayrol.", "This group is often associated with the French New Wave directors who came to prominence during the same time period, and the groups were often friends and journalistic co-workers.", "The term ''Left Bank'' was first coined by film critic Richard Roud, who described them as having \"fondness for a kind of Bohemian life and an impatience with the conformity of the Right Bank, a high degree of involvement in literature and the plastic arts, and a consequent interest in experimental filmmaking\", as well as an identification with the political left.", "Anatole Dauman produced many of Marker's earliest films.In 1952 Marker made his first film, ''Olympia 52'', a 16mm feature documentary about the 1952 Helsinki Olympic Games.", "In 1953 he collaborated with Resnais on the documentary ''Statues Also Die''.", "The film examines traditional African art such as sculptures and masks, and its decline with coming of Western colonialism.", "It won the 1954 Prix Jean Vigo, but was banned by French censors for its criticism of French colonialism.After working as assistant director on Resnais's ''Night and Fog'' in 1955, Marker made ''Sunday in Peking'', a short documentary \"film essay\" in the style that characterized Marker's output for most of his career.", "Marker shot the film in two weeks while traveling through China with Armand Gatti in September 1955.In the film, Marker's commentary overlaps scenes from China, such as tombs that, contrary to Westernized understandings of Chinese legends, do not contain the remains of Ming Dynasty emperors.After working on the commentary for Resnais's film ''Le mystère de l'atelier quinze'' in 1957, Marker continued to refine his style with the feature documentary ''Letter from Siberia''.", "An essay film on the narrativization of Siberia, it contains Marker's signature commentary, which takes the form of a letter from the director, in the long tradition of epistolary treatments by French explorers of the \"undeveloped\" world.", "''Letter ''looks at Siberia's movement into the 20th century and at some of the tribal cultural practices receding into the past.", "It combines footage Marker shot in Siberia with old newsreel footage, cartoon sequences, stills, and even an illustration of Alfred E. Neuman from ''Mad Magazine'' as well as a fake TV commercial as part of a humorous attack on Western mass culture.", "In producing a meta-commentary on narrativity and film, Marker uses the same brief filmic sequence three times but with different commentary—the first praising the Soviet Union, the second denouncing it, and the third taking an apparently neutral or \"objective\" stance.In 1959 Marker made the animated film ''Les Astronautes'' with Walerian Borowczyk.", "The film was a combination of traditional drawings with still photography.", "In 1960 he made ''Description d'un combat'', a documentary on the State of Israel that reflects on its past and future.", "The film won the Golden Bear for Best Documentary at the 1961 Berlin Film Festival.In January 1961, Marker traveled to Cuba and shot the film ''¡Cuba Sí!''", "The film promotes and defends Fidel Castro and includes two interviews with him.", "It ends with an anti-American epilogue in which the United States is embarrassed by the Bay of Pigs Invasion fiasco, and was subsequently banned.", "The banned essay was included in Marker's first volume of collected film commentaries, ''Commentaires I'', published in 1961.The following year Marker published ''Coréennes'', a collection of photographs and essays on conditions in Korea." ], [ "''La Jetée'' and ''Le Joli Mai'' (1962–1966)", "Marker became known internationally for the short film ''La Jetée'' (''The Pier'') in 1962.It tells of a post-nuclear war experiment in time travel by using a series of filmed photographs developed as a photomontage of varying pace, with limited narration and sound effects.", "In the film, a survivor of a futuristic third World War is obsessed with distant and disconnected memories of a pier at the Orly Airport, the image of a mysterious woman, and a man's death.", "Scientists experimenting in time travel choose him for their studies, and the man travels back in time to contact the mysterious woman, and discovers that the man's death at the Orly Airport was his own.", "Except for one shot of the woman mentioned above sleeping and suddenly waking up, the film is composed entirely of photographs by Jean Chiabaud and stars Davos Hanich as the man, Hélène Châtelain as the woman and filmmaker William Klein as a man from the future.While making ''La Jetée'', Marker was simultaneously making the 150-minute documentary essay-film ''Le joli mai'', released in 1963.Beginning in the spring of 1962, Marker and his camera operator Pierre Lhomme shot 55 hours of footage interviewing random people on the streets of Paris.", "The questions, asked by the unseen Marker, range from their personal lives, as well as social and political issues of relevance at that time.", "As he had with montages of landscapes and indigenous art, Marker created a film essay that contrasted and juxtaposed a variety of lives with his signature commentary (spoken by Marker's friends, singer-actor Yves Montand in the French version and Simone Signoret in the English version).", "The film has been compared to the ''Cinéma vérité'' films of Jean Rouch, and criticized by its practitioners at the time.", "The term \"Cinéma vérité\" was itself anathema to Marker, who never used it.", "Instead, he preferred his own term “ciné, ma vérité,” meaning \"cinéma, my truth.\"", "It was shown in competition at the 1963 Venice Film Festival, where it won the award for Best First Work.", "It also won the Golden Dove Award at the Leipzig DOK Festival.After the documentary ''Le Mystère Koumiko'' in 1965, Marker made ''Si j'avais quatre dromadaires'', an essay-film that, like ''La Jetée'', is a photomontage of over 800 photographs Marker had taken over the previous 10 years in 26 countries.", "The commentary involves a conversation between a fictitious photographer and two friends, who discuss the photos.", "The film's title is an allusion to a poem by Guillaume Apollinaire.", "It was the last film in which Marker included \"travel footage\" for many years." ], [ "SLON and ISKRA (1967–1974)", "In 1967 Marker published his second volume of collected film essays, ''Commentaires II''.", "That same year, Marker organized the omnibus film ''Loin du Vietnam'', a protest against the Vietnam War with segments contributed by Marker, Jean-Luc Godard, Alain Resnais, Agnès Varda, Claude Lelouch, William Klein, Michele Ray and Joris Ivens.", "The film includes footage of the war, from both sides, as well as anti-war protests in New York and Paris and other anti-war activities.From this initial collection of filmmakers with left-wing political agendas, Marker created the group S.L.O.N.", "(''Société pour le lancement des oeuvres nouvelles'', \"Society for launching new works\", but also the Russian word for \"elephant\").", "SLON was a film collective whose objectives were to make films and to encourage industrial workers to create film collectives of their own.", "Its members included Valerie Mayoux, Jean-Claude Lerner, Alain Adair and John Tooker.", "Marker is usually credited as director or co-director of all of the films made by SLON.After the events of May 1968, Marker felt a moral obligation to abandon his own personal film career and devote himself to SLON and its activities.", "SLON's first film was about a strike at a Rhodiacéta factory in France, ''À bientôt, j'espère'' (''Rhodiacéta'') in 1968.Later that year SLON made ''La Sixième face du pentagone'', about an anti-war protest in Washington, D.C., and was a reaction to what SLON considered to be the unfair and censored reportage of such events on mainstream television.", "The film was shot by François Reichenbach, who received co-director credit.", "''La Bataille des dix millions'' was made in 1970 with Mayoux as co-director and Santiago Álvarez as cameraman and is about the 1970 sugar crop in Cuba and its disastrous effects on the country.", "In 1971, SLON made ''Le Train en marche'', a new prologue to Soviet filmmaker Aleksandr Medvedkin's 1935 film ''Schastye'', which had recently been re-released in France.In 1974, SLON became I.S.K.R.A.", "(''Images, Sons, Kinescope, Réalisations, Audiovisuelles'', but also the name of Vladimir Lenin's political newspaper ''Iskra,'' which also is a Russian word for \"spark\")." ], [ "Return to personal work (1974–1986)", "In 1974 Marker returned to his personal work and made a film outside of ISKRA.", "''La Solitude du chanteur de fond'' is a one-hour documentary about Marker's friend Yves Montand's benefit concert for Chilean refugees.", "The concert was Montand's first public performance in four years, and the documentary includes film clips from his long career as a singer and actor.Marker had been working on a film about Chile with ISKRA since 1973.Marker had collaborated with Belgian sociologist Armand Mattelart and ISKRA members Valérie Mayoux and Jacqueline Meppiel to shoot and collect the visual materials, which Marker then edited together and provided the commentary for.", "The resulting film was the two and a half-hour documentary ''La Spirale'', released in 1975.The film chronicles events in Chile, beginning with the 1970 election of socialist President Salvador Allende until his murder and the resulting coup in 1973.Marker then began work on one of his most ambitious films, ''A Grin Without a Cat'', released in 1977.The film's title refers to the Cheshire Cat from ''Alice in Wonderland''.", "The metaphor compares the promise of the global socialist movement before May 1968 (the grin) with its actual presence in the world after May 1968 (the cat).", "The film's original French title is ''Le fond de l'air est rouge'', which means \"the air is essentially red\", or \"revolution is in the air\", implying that the socialist movement was everywhere around the world.The film was intended to be an all-encompassing portrait of political movements since May 1968, a summation of the work which he had taken part in for ten years.", "The film is divided into two parts: the first half focuses on the hopes and idealism before May 1968, and the second half on the disillusion and disappointments since those events.", "Marker begins the film with the Odessa Steps sequence from Sergei Eisenstein's film ''The Battleship Potemkin'', which Marker points out is a fictitious creation of Eisenstein which has still influenced the image of the historical event.", "Marker used very little commentary in this film, but the film's montage structure and preoccupation with memory make it a Marker film.", "Upon release, the film was criticized for not addressing many current issues of the New Left such as the woman's movement, sexual liberation and worker self-management.", "The film was re-released in the US in 2002.In the late 1970s, Marker traveled extensively throughout the world, including an extended period in Japan.", "From this inspiration, he first published the photo-essay ''Le Dépays'' in 1982, and then used the experience for his next film ''Sans Soleil'', released in 1982.", "''Sans Soleil'' stretches the limits of what could be called a documentary.", "It is an essay, a montage, mixing pieces of documentary with fiction and philosophical comments, creating an atmosphere of dream and science fiction.", "The main themes are Japan, Africa, memory and travel.", "A sequence in the middle of the film takes place in San Francisco, and heavily references Alfred Hitchcock's ''Vertigo''.", "Marker has said that ''Vertigo'' is the only film \"capable of portraying impossible memory, insane memory.\"", "The film's commentary are credited to the fictitious cameraman Sandor Krasna, and read in the form of letters by an unnamed woman.", "Though centered around Japan, the film was also shot in such other countries as Guinea Bissau, Ireland and Iceland.", "''Sans Soleil'' was shown at the 1983 Berlin Film Festival where it won the OCIC Award.", "It was also awarded the Sutherland Trophy at the 1983 British Film Institute Awards.In 1984, Marker was invited by producer Serge Silberman to document the making of Akira Kurosawa's film ''Ran''.", "From this Marker made ''A.K.", "'', released in 1985.The film focuses more on Kurosawa's remote but polite personality than on the making of the film.", "The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival, before ''Ran'' itself had been released.In 1985, Marker's long-time friend and neighbor Simone Signoret died of cancer.", "Marker then made the one-hour TV documentary ''Mémoires pour Simone'' as a tribute to her in 1986." ], [ "Multimedia and later career (1987–2012)", "Beginning with ''Sans Soleil'', Marker developed a deep interest in digital technology.", "From 1985 to 1988, he worked on a conversational program (a prototypical chatbot) called \"Dialector,\" which he wrote in Applesoft BASIC on an Apple II.", "He incorporated audiovisual elements in addition to the snippets of dialogue and poetry that \"Computer\" exchanged with the user.", "Version 6 of this program was revived from a floppy disk (with Marker's help and permission) and emulated online in 2015.His interests in digital technology also led to his film ''Level Five'' (1996) and ''Immemory'' (1998, 2008), an interactive multimedia CD-ROM, produced for the Centre Pompidou (French language version) and from Exact Change (English version).", "Marker created a 19-minute multimedia piece in 2005 for the Museum of Modern Art in New York City titled ''Owls at Noon Prelude: The Hollow Men'' which was influenced by T. S. Eliot's poem.Marker lived in Paris, and very rarely granted interviews.", "One exception was a lengthy interview with ''Libération'' in 2003 in which he explained his approach to filmmaking.", "When asked for a picture of himself, he usually offered a photograph of a cat instead.", "(Marker was represented in Agnes Varda's 2008 documentary ''The Beaches of Agnes'' by a cartoon drawing of a cat, speaking in a technologically altered voice.)", "Marker's own cat was named ''Guillaume-en-égypte''.", "In 2009, Marker commissioned an Avatar of Guillaume-en-Egypte to represent him in machinima works.", "The avatar was created by Exosius Woolley and first appeared in the short film / machinima, ''Ouvroir the Movie by Chris Marker''.In the 2007 Criterion Collection release of ''La Jetée'' and ''Sans Soleil'', Marker included a short essay, \"Working on a Shoestring Budget\".", "He confessed to shooting all of ''Sans Soleil'' with a silent film camera, and recording all the audio on a primitive audio cassette recorder.", "Marker also reminds the reader that only one short scene in ''La Jetée'' is of a moving image, as Marker could only borrow a movie camera for one afternoon while working on the film.From 2007 through 2011 Marker collaborated with the art dealer and publisher Peter Blum on a variety of projects that were exhibited at the Peter Blum galleries in New York City's Soho and Chelsea neighborhoods.", "Marker's works were also exhibited at the Peter Blum Gallery on 57th Street in 2014.These projects include several series of printed photographs titled ''PASSENGERS'', ''Koreans'', ''Crush Art'', ''Quelle heure est-elle?", "'', and ''Staring Back''; a set of photogravures titled ''After Dürer''; a book, ''PASSENGERS''; and digital prints of movie posters, whose titles were often appropriated, including ''Breathless'', ''Hiroshima Mon Amour'', ''Owl People'', and ''Rin Tin Tin''.", "The video installations ''Silent Movie'' and ''Owls at Noon Prelude: The Hollow Men'' were exhibited at Peter Blum in 2009.These works were also exhibited at the 2014 & 2015 Venice Biennale, Whitechapel Gallery in London, the MIT List Visual Arts Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts at Harvard University, the Moscow Photobiennale, Les Recontres d'Arles de la Photographie in Arles, France, the Centre de la Photographie in Geneva, Switzerland, the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the Wexner Center for the Arts in Columbus, Ohio, The Museum of Modern Art in New York, and the Pacific Film Archive in Berkeley, California.", "Since 2014 the artworks of the Estate of Chris Marker are represented by Peter Blum Gallery, New York.Marker died on 29 July 2012, his 91st birthday." ], [ "Legacy", "''La Jetée'' was the inspiration for Mamoru Oshii's 1987 debut live action feature ''The Red Spectacles'' (and later for parts of Oshii's 2001 film ''Avalon'') and also inspired Terry Gilliam's ''12 Monkeys'' (1995) and Jonás Cuarón's ''Year of the Nail'' (2007) as well as many of Mira Nair's shots in her 2006 film ''The Namesake''." ], [ "Works", "===Filmography===*''Olympia 52'' (1952)*''Statues Also Die'' (1953 with Alain Resnais)*''Sunday in Peking'' (1956)*''Lettre de Sibérie'' (1957)*''Les Astronautes'' (1959 with Walerian Borowczyk)*''Description d'un combat'' (1960)*''¡Cuba Sí!''", "(1961)*''La Jetée'' (1962)*''Le Joli Mai'' (1963, 2006 re-cut)*''Le Mystère Koumiko'' (1965)*''Si j'avais quatre dromadaires'' (1966)*''Loin du Vietnam'' (1967)*''Rhodiacéta'' (1967)*''La Sixième face du pentagone'' (1968 with Reichenbach)*''Cinétracts'' (1968)*''À bientôt, j'espère'' (1968 with Marret)*''On vous parle du Brésil: Tortures'' (1969)*''Jour de tournage'' (1969)*''Classe de lutte'' (1969)*''On vous parle de Paris: Maspero, les mots ont un sens'' (1970)*''On vous parle du Brésil: Carlos Marighela'' (1970)*''La Bataille des dix millions'' (1971)*''Le Train en marche'' (1971)*''On vous parle de Prague: le deuxième procès d'Artur London'' (1971)*''Vive la baleine'' (1972)*''L'Ambassade'' (1973)*''On vous parle du Chili: ce que disait Allende'' (1973 with Miguel Littín)*''Puisqu'on vous dit que c'est possible'' (1974)*''La Solitude du chanteur de fond'' (1974)*''La Spirale'' (1975)*''A Grin Without a Cat'' (1977)*''Quand le siècle a pris formes'' (1978)*''Junkopia'' (1981)*''Sans Soleil'' (1983)*''2084'' (1984)*''From Chris to Christo'' (1985)* ''Matta'' (1985)*''A.K.''", "(1985)*''Eclats'' (1986)*''Mémoires pour Simone'' (1986)* ''Tokyo Days'' (1988)*''Spectre'' (1988)*''The Owl's Legacy'' (''L'héritage de la chouette'') (1989)* ''Bestiaire'' (three short video haiku) (1990)** ''Bestiaire 1.Chat écoutant la musique''** ''Bestiaire 2.An owl is An owl is an owl''** ''Bestiaire 3.Zoo Piece''*''Getting away with it'' (1990)* ''Berlin 1990'' (1990)*''Détour Ceausescu'' (1991)*''Théorie des ensembles'' (1991)*''Coin fenêtre'' (1992)*''Azulmoon'' (1992)*''Le Tombeau d'Alexandre'' a.k.a.", "''The Last Bolshevik'' (1992)*''Le 20 heurs dans les camps'' (1993)* ''Prime Time in the Camps'' (1993)* ''SLON Tango'' (1993)*''Bullfight in Okinawa'' (1994)*''Eclipse'' (1994)*''Haiku'' (1994)**''Haiku 1.Petite Ceinture''**''Haiku 2.Chaika''**''Haiku 3.Owl Gets in Your Eyes''*''Casque bleu'' (1995)*''Silent Movie'' (1995)*''Level Five'' (1997)*''One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich'' (2000)*''Un maire au Kosovo'' (2000)*''Le Facteur sonne toujours cheval'' (2001)*''Avril inquiet'' (2001)*''Le Souvenir d'un avenir'' (with Bellon 2003)*''Chats Perchés'' (2004) a documentary about M. Chat street art*''Leila Attacks'' (2006)*''Stopover in Dubai'' (2011)===Film collaborations===*''Nuit et Brouillard'' (Resnais 1955)**Note: In a 1995 interview Resnais states that the final version of the commentary was a collaboration between Marker and Jean Cayrol (source: ''Film Comment'').", "*''Toute la mémoire du monde'' (Resnais 1956)**Note: Credited as \"Chris and Magic Marker.", "\"*''Les hommes de la baleine'' (Ruspoli 1956)**Note: under the pseudonym \"Jacopo Berenizi\" Marker wrote the commentary for this short about whale hunters in the Azores.", "The two would return to this topic in 1972's Vive la Baleine (''Film Comment'').", "*''Broadway by Light'' (Klein 1957)**Note: Marker wrote the introductory text to this film.", "*''Le mystere de l'atelier quinze'' (Resnais et Heinrich 1957)**Note: Marker wrote the commentary for this fictional short (''Film Comment'').", "*''Le Siècle a soif'' (Vogel 1958)**Note: Marker wrote and spoke all the commentary for this short film about fruit juice in Alexandrine verse (''Film Comment'').", "*''La Mer et les jours'' (Vogel et Kaminker 1958)**Note: Marker present commentary for this \"somber work about the daily lives of fishermen on Brittany's Île de Sein\" (''Film Comment'').", "*''L'Amérique insolite'' (Reichenbach 1958)**Note: Marker was eventually credited as a writer for this one, apparently, he wrote the dialogue (''Film Comment'').", "*''Django Reinhardt'' (Paviot 1959)**Note: Marker narrated this one (''Film Comment'').", "*''Jouer à Paris'' (Varlin 1962)**Note: This was edited by Marker essentially, this film is a 27-minute postscript to ''Le Joli Mai'' assembled from leftover footage and organized around a new commentary (''Film Comment'').", "*''A Valparaiso'' (Ivens 1963)**Note: This gem was written by Marker.", "It feels like a Marker film.", "*''Les Chemins de la fortune'' (Kassovitz 1964)**Note: Marker apparently helped edit and organise this Venezuela travelogue (''Film Comment'').", "*''La Douceur du village'' (Reichenbach 1964)**Note: Edited by Marker.", "*''La Brûlure de mille soleils'' (Kast 1964)**Note: Marker edited this (mostly) animated science-fiction existentialist short and (possibly) collaborated on the script (''Film Comment'').", "*''Le volcan interdit'' (Tazieff 1966)**Note: Marker narrates this volcano documentary.", "*''Europort-Rotterdam'' (Ivens 1966)**Note: Marker did the textual adaptation (Film Comment.", "*''On vous parle de Flins'' (Devart 1970)**Note: Marker helped film and edit this short (Film Comment).", "*''L'Afrique express'' (Tessier et Lang 1970)**Note: Marker wrote the introductory text for this film under the name \"Boris Villeneuve\" (''Film Comment'').", "*''Kashima Paradise'' (Le Masson et Deswarte 1974)**Note: Marker collaborated on the commentary on this documentary about the destruction of Kashima and Narita (Film Comment).", "*''La Batalla de Chile'' (Guzman, 1975–1976)**Note: Marker helped produce and contributed to the screenplay for this, perhaps the greatest of all documentary films (''Film Comment'').", "*''One Sister and Many Brothers'' (Makavejev 1994)**Note: Marker tapes Makavejev circulating among the guests of a party in his honor as much jovial backslapping abounds (''Film comment'').===Photographic Series===* ''Koreans'' (1957, printed in 2009)* ''Crush Art'' (2003–2008)* ''\"Quelle heure est-elle?\"''", "(2004–2008)* ''PASSENGERS'' (2008–2010)* ''Staring Back'' (varying years)*===Digital Prints===* ''Breathless'' (1995, printed 2009)* ''Hiroshima Mon Amour'' (1995, printed 2009)* ''Owl People'' (1995, printed 2009)* ''Rin Tin Tin'' (1995, printed 2009)===Photogravures===* ''After Dürer'' (2005–07, printed in 2009)===Video Installations===* ''Silent Movie'' (1995)* ''Owls at Noon Prelude: The Hollow Men'' (2005)===Bibliography (self-contained works by Marker)===*''Le Cœur Net'' (1949, Editions du Seuil, Paris)*''Giraudoux Par Lui-Même'' (1952, Editions du Seuil, Paris)*''Commentaires I'' (1961, Editions du Seuil, Paris)*''Coréennes'' (1962, Editions du Seuil, Paris)*''Commentaires II'' (1967, Editions du Seuil, Paris)*''Le Dépays'' (1982, Editions Herscher, Paris)*''Silent Movie'' (1995, Ohio State University Press)*''La Jetée ciné-roman'' (1996 / 2nd printing 2008, MIT Press, Cambridge; designed by Bruce Mau)*''Staring Back'' (2007, MIT Press, Cambridge)*''Immemory'' (CDROM) (1997 / 2nd printing 2008, Exact Change, Cambridge)*''Inner Time of Television'' (2010, The Otolith Group, London)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Chris Marker: Notes from the Era of Imperfect Memory A site, blog and search engine exploring all aspects of the work of Chris Marker* Chris Marker: Plongée en imméroire (French) The most up-to-date site on Chris Marker's work** Icarus Films biography of Marker and list of his titles that they distribute* EAI: Chris Marker Biography and list of video works by the artist.", "* Texts from Chris Marker films* Bibliography of books and articles about Marker via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center* Marker's book of photographs and essays: Staring Back * The Wexner Center's \"Chris Marker Store\"* Filmmaker As Socialist Anthologist by Williams Cole, ''The Brooklyn Rail'', May 2009 Issue* Literature on Chris Marker* Chris Marker and the Audiovisual Archive, Oliver Mayer, ''Scope'' 20* Chris Marker Fundació Antoni Tàpies* ISKRA films" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cardinal vowels" ], [ "Introduction", "X-rays of Daniel Jones' .Highest tongue positions of cardinal front and back vowelsDiagram of relative highest points of tongue for cardinal vowelsThe \"''cardinal vowel quadrilateral''\", a more commonly seen schematic diagram of highest tongue positions of cardinal vowels'''Cardinal vowels''' are a set of reference vowels used by phoneticians in describing the sounds of languages.", "They are classified depending on the position of the tongue relative to the roof of the mouth, how far forward or back is the highest point of the tongue, and the position of the lips (rounded or unrounded).A cardinal vowel is a vowel sound produced when the tongue is in an extreme position, either front or back, high or low.", "The current system was systematised by Daniel Jones in the early 20th century, though the idea goes back to earlier phoneticians, notably Ellis and Bell." ], [ "Table of cardinal vowels", "400pxThree of the cardinal vowels—, and —have articulatory definitions.", "The vowel is produced with the tongue as far forward and as high in the mouth as is possible (without producing friction), with spread lips.", "The vowel is produced with the tongue as far back and as high in the mouth as is possible, with protruded lips.", "This sound can be approximated by adopting the posture to whistle a very low note, or to blow out a candle.", "And is produced with the tongue as low and as far back in the mouth as possible.The other vowels are 'auditorily equidistant' between these three 'corner vowels', at four degrees of aperture or 'height': close (high tongue position), close-mid, open-mid, and open (low tongue position).These degrees of aperture plus the front-back distinction define eight reference points on a mixture of articulatory and auditory criteria.", "These eight vowels are known as the eight 'primary cardinal vowels', and vowels like these are common in the world's languages.The lip positions can be reversed with the lip position for the corresponding vowel on the opposite side of the front-back dimension, so that e.g.", "Cardinal 1 can be produced with rounding somewhat similar to that of Cardinal 8; these are known as 'secondary cardinal vowels'.", "Sounds such as these are claimed to be less common in the world's languages.", "Other vowel sounds are also recognised on the vowel chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet.Jones argued that to be able to use the cardinal vowel system effectively one must undergo training with an expert phonetician, working both on the recognition and the production of the vowels.Cardinal vowels are not vowels of any particular language, but a measuring system.", "However, some languages contain vowel or vowels that are close to the cardinal vowel(s).", "An example of such language is Ngwe, which is spoken in Cameroon.", "It has been cited as a language with a vowel system that has eight vowels which are rather similar to the eight primary cardinal vowels (Ladefoged 1971:67).", "Number IPA Description 1 Close front unrounded vowel 2 Close-mid front unrounded vowel 3 Open-mid front unrounded vowel 4 Open front unrounded vowel 5 Open back unrounded vowel 6 Open-mid back rounded vowel 7 Close-mid back rounded vowel 8 Close back rounded vowel 9 Close front rounded vowel 10 Close-mid front rounded vowel 11 Open-mid front rounded vowel 12 Open front rounded vowel 13 Open back rounded vowel 14 Open-mid back unrounded vowel 15 Close-mid back unrounded vowel 16 Close back unrounded vowel 17 Close central unrounded vowel 18 Close central rounded vowel 19 Close-mid central unrounded vowel 20 Close-mid central rounded vowel 21 Open-mid central unrounded vowel 22 Open-mid central rounded vowelCardinal vowels 19–22 were added by David Abercrombie.", "In IPA Numbers, cardinal vowels 1–18 have the same numbers but added to 300." ], [ "Limits on the accuracy of the system", "The usual explanation of the cardinal vowel system implies that the competent user can reliably distinguish between sixteen Primary and Secondary vowels plus a small number of central vowels.", "The provision of diacritics by the International Phonetic Association further implies that intermediate values may also be reliably recognized, so that a phonetician might be able to produce and recognize not only a close-mid front unrounded vowel and an open-mid front unrounded vowel but also a mid front unrounded vowel , a centralized mid front unrounded vowel , and so on.", "This suggests a range of vowels nearer to forty or fifty than to twenty in number.", "Empirical evidence for this ability in trained phoneticians is hard to come by.Ladefoged, in a series of pioneering experiments published in the 1950s and 60s, studied how trained phoneticians coped with the vowels of a dialect of Scottish Gaelic.", "He asked eighteen phoneticians to listen to a recording of ten words spoken by a native speaker of Gaelic and to place the vowels on a cardinal vowel quadrilateral.", "He then studied the degree of agreement or disagreement among the phoneticians.", "Ladefoged himself drew attention to the fact that the phoneticians who were trained in the British tradition established by Daniel Jones were closer to each other in their judgments than those who had not had this training.", "However, the most striking result is the great divergence of judgments among ''all'' the listeners regarding vowels that were distant from Cardinal values." ], [ "See also", "*List of phonetics topics" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Ladefoged, Peter.", "(1971).", "''Preliminaries to linguistic phonetics''.", "Chicago: The University of Chicago Press." ], [ "External links", "* Audio demonstrations of cardinal vowels by Daniel Jones at age 75" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Columbia, Missouri" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Columbia''' is a city in the U.S. state of Missouri.", "It is the county seat of Boone County and home to the University of Missouri.", "Founded in 1821, it is the principal city of the five-county Columbia metropolitan area.", "It is Missouri's fourth most populous with an estimated 128,555 residents in 2022.As a Midwestern college town, Columbia maintains high-quality health care facilities, cultural opportunities, and a low cost of living.", "The tripartite establishment of Stephens College (1833), the University of Missouri (1839), and Columbia College (1851), which surround the city's Downtown to the east, south, and north, has made Columbia a center of learning.", "At its center is 8th Street (also known as the Avenue of the Columns), which connects Francis Quadrangle and Jesse Hall to the Boone County Courthouse and the City Hall.", "Originally an agricultural town, education is now Columbia's primary economic concern, with secondary interests in the healthcare, insurance, and technology sectors; it has never been a manufacturing center.", "Companies like Shelter Insurance, Carfax, Veterans United Home Loans, and Slackers CDs and Games, were founded in the city.", "Cultural institutions include the State Historical Society of Missouri, the Museum of Art and Archaeology, and the annual True/False Film Festival and the Roots N Blues Festival.", "The Missouri Tigers, the state's only major college athletic program, play football at Faurot Field and basketball at Mizzou Arena as members of the rigorous Southeastern Conference.The city rests upon the forested hills and rolling prairies of Mid-Missouri, near the Missouri River valley, where the Ozark Mountains begin to transform into plains and savanna.", "Limestone forms bluffs and glades while rain dissolves the bedrock, creating caves and springs which water the Hinkson, Roche Perche, and Bonne Femme creeks.", "Surrounding the city, Rock Bridge Memorial State Park, Mark Twain National Forest, and Big Muddy National Fish and Wildlife Refuge form a greenbelt preserving sensitive and rare environments.", "The Columbia Agriculture Park is home to the Columbia Farmers Market.The first humans who entered the area at least 12,000 years ago were nomadic hunters.", "Later, woodland tribes lived in villages along waterways and built mounds in high places.", "The Osage and Missouria nations were expelled by the exploration of French traders and the rapid settlement of American pioneers.", "The latter arrived by the Boone's Lick Road and hailed from the culture of the Upland South, especially Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee.", "From 1812, the Boonslick area played a pivotal role in Missouri's early history and the nation's westward expansion.", "German, Irish, and other European immigrants soon joined.", "The modern populace is unusually diverse, over 8% foreign-born.", "White and black people are the largest ethnicities, and people of Asian descent are the third-largest group.", "Columbia has been known as the \"Athens of Missouri\" for its classic beauty and educational emphasis, but is more commonly called \"CoMo\"." ], [ "History", "An aerial depiction of Columbia's downtown district in 1869.The large building on the right is University of Missouri Academic Hall.Columbia's origins begin with the settlement of American pioneers from Kentucky and Virginia in an early 1800s region known as the Boonslick.", "Before 1815 settlement in the region was confined to small log forts due to the threat of Native American attack during the War of 1812.When the war ended settlers came on foot, horseback, and wagon, often moving entire households along the Boone's Lick Road and sometimes bringing enslaved African Americans.", "By 1818 it was clear that the increased population would necessitate a new county be created from territorial Howard County.", "The Moniteau Creek on the west and Cedar Creek on the east were obvious natural boundaries.Believing it was only a matter of time before a county seat was chosen, the Smithton Land Company was formed to purchase over to establish the village of Smithton (near the present-day intersection of Walnut and Garth).", "In 1819 Smithton was a small cluster of log cabins in an ancient forest of oak and hickory; chief among them was the cabin of Richard Gentry, a trustee of the Smithton Company who would become first mayor of Columbia.", "In 1820, Boone County was formed and named after the recently deceased explorer Daniel Boone.", "The Missouri Legislature appointed John Gray, Jefferson Fulcher, Absalom Hicks, Lawrence Bass, and David Jackson as commissioners to select and establish a permanent county seat.", "Smithton never had more than twenty people, and it was quickly realized that well digging was difficult because of the bedrock.Springs were discovered across the Flat Branch Creek, so in the spring of 1821 Columbia was laid out, and the inhabitants of Smithton moved their cabins to the new town.", "The first house in Columbia was built by Thomas Duly in 1820 at what became Fifth and Broadway.", "Columbia's permanence was ensured when it was chosen as county seat in 1821 and the Boone's Lick Road was rerouted down Broadway.The roots of Columbia's three economic foundations—education, medicine, and insurance— can be traced to the city's incorporation in 1821.Original plans for the town set aside land for a state university.", "In 1833, Columbia Baptist Female College opened, which later became Stephens College.", "Columbia College, distinct from today's and later to become the University of Missouri, was founded in 1839.When the state legislature decided to establish a state university, Columbia raised three times as much money as any competing city, and James S. Rollins donated the land that is today the Francis Quadrangle.", "Soon other educational institutions were founded in Columbia, such as Christian Female College, the first college for women west of the Mississippi, which later became Columbia College.The city benefited from being a stagecoach stop of the Santa Fe and Oregon trails, and later from the Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad.", "In 1822, William Jewell set up the first hospital.", "In 1830, the first newspaper began; in 1832, the first theater in the state was opened; and in 1835, the state's first agricultural fair was held.", "By 1839, the population of 13,000 and wealth of Boone County was exceeded in Missouri only by that of St. Louis County, which, at that time, included the City of St. Louis.Columbia's infrastructure was relatively untouched by the Civil War.", "As a slave state, Missouri had many residents with Southern sympathies, but it stayed in the Union.", "The majority of the city was pro-Union; however, the surrounding agricultural areas of Boone County and the rest of central Missouri were decidedly pro-Confederate.", "Because of this, the University of Missouri became a base from which Union troops operated.", "No battles were fought within the city because the presence of Union troops dissuaded Confederate guerrillas from attacking, though several major battles occurred at nearby Boonville and Centralia.After Reconstruction, race relations in Columbia followed the Southern pattern of increasing violence of whites against blacks in efforts to suppress voting and free movement: George Burke, a black man who worked at the university, was lynched in 1889.In the spring of 1923, James T. Scott, an African-American janitor at the University of Missouri, was arrested on allegations of raping a university professor's daughter.", "He was taken from the county jail and lynched on April 29 before a white mob of roughly two thousand people, hanged from the Old Stewart Road Bridge.Memorial Union at the University of MissouriIn the 21st century, a number of efforts have been undertaken to recognize Scott's death.", "In 2010 his death certificate was changed to reflect that he was never tried or convicted of charges, and that he had been lynched.", "In 2011 a headstone was put at his grave at Columbia Cemetery; it includes his wife's and parents' names and dates, to provide a more full account of his life.", "In 2016, a marker was erected at the lynching site to memorialize Scott.", "5 years later, in 2021, the marker was removed in an act of vandalism.", "In 1901, Rufus Logan established ''The Columbia Professional'' newspaper to serve Columbia's large African American population.In 1963, University of Missouri System and the Columbia College system established their headquarters in Columbia.", "The insurance industry also became important to the local economy as several companies established headquarters in Columbia, including Shelter Insurance, Missouri Employers Mutual, and Columbia Insurance Group.", "State Farm Insurance has a regional office in Columbia.", "In addition, the now-defunct Silvey Insurance was a large local employer.Columbia became a transportation crossroads when U.S. Route 63 and U.S. Route 40 (which was improved as present-day Interstate 70) were routed through the city.", "Soon after, the city opened the Columbia Regional Airport.", "By 2000, the city's population was nearly 85,000.In 2017, Columbia was in the path of totality for the Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017.The city was expecting upwards of 400,000 tourists coming to view the eclipse." ], [ "Geography", "Columbia, in northern mid-Missouri, is away from both St. Louis and Kansas City, and north of the state capital of Jefferson City.", "The city is near the Missouri River, between the Ozark Plateau and the Northern Plains.According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.===Topography===The city generally slopes from the highest point in the Northeast to the lowest point in the Southwest towards the Missouri River.", "Prominent tributaries of the river are Perche Creek, Hinkson Creek, and Flat Branch Creek.", "Along these and other creeks in the area can be found large valleys, cliffs, and cave systems such as that in Rock Bridge State Park just south of the city.", "These creeks are largely responsible for numerous stream valleys giving Columbia hilly terrain similar to the Ozarks while also having prairie flatland typical of northern Missouri.", "Columbia also operates several greenbelts with trails and parks throughout town.===Animal life===Large mammals found in the city include urbanized coyotes, red foxes, and numerous whitetail deer.", "Eastern gray squirrel, and other rodents are abundant, as well as cottontail rabbits and the nocturnal opossum and raccoon.", "Large bird species are abundant in parks and include the Canada goose, mallard duck, as well as shorebirds, including the great egret and great blue heron.", "Turkeys are also common in wooded areas and can occasionally be seen on the MKT recreation trail.", "Populations of bald eagles are found by the Missouri River.", "The city is on the Mississippi Flyway, used by migrating birds, and has a large variety of small bird species, common to the eastern U.S.", "The Eurasian tree sparrow, an introduced species, is limited in North America to the counties surrounding St. Louis.", "Columbia has large areas of forested and open land and many of these areas are home to wildlife.===Climate===Columbia has a humid continental climate (Köppen ''Dfa)'' marked by sharp seasonal contrasts in temperature, and is in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 6a.", "The monthly daily average temperature ranges from in January to in July, while the high reaches or exceeds on an average of 35 days per year, on two days, while two nights of sub- lows can be expected.", "Precipitation tends to be greatest and most frequent in the latter half of spring, when severe weather is also most common.", "Snow averages per season, mostly from December to March, with occasional November accumulation and falls in April being rarer; historically seasonal snow accumulation has ranged from in 2005–06 to in 1977–78.Extreme temperatures have ranged from on February 12, 1899 to on July 12 and 14, 1954.Readings of or are uncommon, the last occurrences being January 7, 2014 and July 31, 2012." ], [ "Cityscape", "Downtown ColumbiaColumbia's most significant and well-known architecture is found in buildings located in its downtown area and on the university campuses.", "The University of Missouri's Jesse Hall and the neo-gothic Memorial Union have become icons of the city.", "The David R. Francis Quadrangle is an example of Thomas Jefferson's academic village concept.Nine historic districts located within the city are listed on the National Register of Historic Places: Downtown Columbia, the East Campus neighborhood, the West Broadway neighborhood, the Francis Quadrangle, the south campus of Stephens College, the Pierce Pennant Motor Hotel, Maplewood, and the David Guitar House.", "The downtown skyline is relatively low and is dominated by the 10-story Tiger Hotel and the 15-story Paquin Tower.Downtown Columbia is an area of approximately one square mile surrounded by the University of Missouri on the south, Stephens College to the east, and Columbia College on the north.", "The area serves as Columbia's financial and business district.Downtown apartment and mixed-use development next to the Missouri United Methodist Church in June 2017Since the early-21st century, a large number of high-rise apartment complexes have been built in downtown Columbia.", "Many of these buildings also offer mixed-use business and retail space on the lower levels.", "These developments have not been without criticism, with some expressing concern the buildings hurt the historic feel of the area, or that the city does not yet have the infrastructure to support them.The city's historic residential core lies in a ring around downtown, extending especially to the west along Broadway, and south into the East Campus Neighborhood.", "The city government recognizes 63 neighborhood associations.", "The city's most dense commercial areas are primarily along Interstate 70, U.S. Route 63, Stadium Boulevard, Grindstone Parkway, and Downtown." ], [ "Demographics", "===2020 census===The 2020 United States census counted 126,254 people, 49,371 households, and 25,144 families in Columbia.", "The population density was .", "There were 53,746 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup was 72.49% (91,516) white, 11.91% (15,038) black or African-American, 0.32% (398) Native American, 5.61% (7,084) Asian, 0.07% (89) Pacific Islander, 2.17% (2,734) from other races, and 7.44% (9,395) from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race was 3.4% (4,173) of the population.Of the 49,371 households, 24.0% had children under the age of 18; 38.7% were married couples living together; 31.4% had a female householder with no husband present.", "Of all households, 34.7% were individuals and 8.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.3 and the average family size was 3.0.18.2% of the population was under the age of 18, 23.8% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 18.0% from 45 to 64, and 10.7% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 28.8 years.", "For every 100 females, the population had 93.3 males.", "For every 100 females ages 18 and older, there were 89.8 males.The 2016-2020 5-year American Community Survey estimates show that the median household income was $53,447 (with a margin of error of +/- $2,355) and the median family income $81,392 (+/- $5,687).", "Males had a median income of $30,578 (+/- $2,131) versus $23,705 (+/- $1,849) for females.", "The median income for those above 16 years old was $26,870 (+/- $1,429).", "Approximately, 8.5% of families and 20.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.7% of those under the age of 18 and 5.2% of those ages 65 or over.===2010 census===As of the census of 2010, 108,500 people, 43,065 households, and 21,418 families resided in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 46,758 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 79.0% White, 11.3% African American, 0.3% Native American, 5.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.1% from other races, and 3.1% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.4% of the population.There were 43,065 households, of which 26.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.6% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 50.3% were non-families.", "32.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.94.In the city the population was spread out, with 18.8% of residents under the age of 18; 27.3% between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.7% from 25 to 44; 18.6% from 45 to 64; and 8.5% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age in the city was 26.8 years.", "The gender makeup of the city was 48.3% male and 51.7% female.===2000 census===As of the census of 2000, there were 84,531 people, 33,689 households, and 17,282 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 35,916 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 81.54% White, 10.85% Black or African American, 0.39% Native American, 4.30% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.81% from other races, and 2.07% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.05% of the population.There were 33,689 households, out of which 26.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.2% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 48.7% were non-families.", "33.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.92.In the city, the population was spread out, with 19.7% under the age of 18, 26.7% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 16.2% from 45 to 64, and 8.6% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 27 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 91.8 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.1 males.The median income for a household in the city was $33,729, and the median income for a family was $52,288.Males had a median income of $34,710 versus $26,694 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $19,507.About 9.4% of families and 19.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.8% of those under age 18 and 5.2% of those age 65 or over.", "However, traditional statistics of income and poverty can be misleading when applied to cities with high student populations, such as Columbia." ], [ "Economy", "Columbia's economy is historically dominated by education, healthcare, and insurance.", "Jobs in government are also common, either in Columbia or a half-hour south in Jefferson City.", "The Columbia Regional Airport and the Missouri River Port of Rocheport connect the region with trade and transportation.With a Gross Metropolitan Product of $9.6 billion in 2018, Columbia's economy makes up 3% of the Gross State Product of Missouri.", "Columbia's metro area economy is slightly larger than the economy of Rwanda.", "Insurance corporations headquartered in Columbia include Shelter Insurance and the Columbia Insurance Group.", "Other organizations include StorageMart, Veterans United Home Loans, MFA Incorporated, the Missouri State High School Activities Association, and MFA Oil.", "Companies such as Socket, Datastorm Technologies, Inc. (no longer existent), Slackers CDs and Games, Carfax, and MBS Textbook Exchange were all founded in Columbia.===Top employers===According to Columbia's 2022 Annual Comprehensive Financial Report, the top employers in the city are: # Employer # of Employees% of Total City Employment1 University of Missouri8,7099.07%2 University of Missouri Health Care5,0925.30%3 Veterans United Home Loans3,4743.62%4 Columbia Public Schools2,6502.76%5Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans' Hospital1,7791.85%6 Boone Hospital Center1,5811.65%7 City of Columbia1,5151.58%8 Shelter Insurance1,3751.43%9 Hubbell Power Systems7510.78%10Joe Machens Dealerships6110.64%" ], [ "Culture", "The Blue Note is a rock and pop venue located in Downtown Columbia.The Missouri Theatre Center for the Arts and Jesse Auditorium are Columbia's largest fine arts venues.", "Ragtag Cinema annually hosts the True/False Film Festival.In 2008, filmmaker Todd Sklar completed the film ''Box Elder'', which was filmed entirely in and around Columbia and the University of Missouri.The North Village Arts District, located on the north side of downtown, is home to galleries, restaurants, theaters, bars, music venues, and the Missouri Contemporary Ballet.The University of Missouri's Museum of Art and Archaeology displays 14,000 works of art and archaeological objects in five galleries for no charge to the public.", "Libraries include the Columbia Public Library, the University of Missouri Libraries, with over three million volumes in Ellis Library, and the State Historical Society of Missouri.===Music===The \"We Always Swing\" Jazz Series and the Roots N Blues Festival is held in Columbia.", "\"9th Street Summerfest\" (now hosted in Rose Park at Rose Music Hall) closes part of that street several nights each summer to hold outdoor performances and has featured Willie Nelson (2009), Snoop Dogg (2010), The Flaming Lips (2010), Weird Al Yankovic (2013), and others.", "The \"University Concert Series\" regularly includes musicians and dancers from various genres, typically in Jesse Hall.", "Other musical venues in town include the Missouri Theatre, the university's multipurpose Hearnes Center, the university's Mizzou Arena, The Blue Note, and Rose Music Hall.", "Shelter Gardens, a park on the campus of Shelter Insurance headquarters, also hosts outdoor performances during the summer.The Sinquefield Music Center, home to the University of Missouri School of MusicThe University of Missouri School of Music attracts hundreds of musicians to Columbia, student performances are held in Whitmore Recital Hall.", "Among many non-profit organizations for classical music are included the \"Odyssey Chamber Music Series\", \"Missouri Symphony\", \"Columbia Community Band\", and \"Columbia Civic Orchestra\".", "Founded in 2006, the \"Plowman Chamber Music Competition\" is a biennial competition held in March/April of odd-numbered years, considered to be one of the finest, top five chamber music competitions in the nation.===Theater===Columbia has multiple opportunities to watch and perform in theatrical productions.", "Ragtag Cinema is one of the most well known theaters in Columbia.", "The city is home to Stephens College, a private institution known for performing arts.", "Their season includes multiple plays and musicals.", "The University of Missouri and Columbia College also present multiple productions a year.The Missouri TheaterThe city's three public high schools are also known for their productions.", "Rock Bridge High School performs a musical in November and two plays in the spring.", "Hickman High School also performs a similar season with two musical performances (one in the fall, and one in the spring) and 2 plays (one in the winter, and one at the end of their school year).", "The newest high school, Battle High, opened in 2013 and also is known for their productions.", "Battle presents a musical in the fall and a play in the spring, along with improv nights and more productions throughout the year.The city is also home to the indoor/outdoor theatre Maplewood Barn Theatre in Nifong Park and other community theatre programs such as Columbia Entertainment Company, Talking Horse Productions, Pace Youth Theatre and TRYPS.===Sports===Faurot Field before a football gameThe University of Missouri's sports teams, the Missouri Tigers, play a significant role in the city's sports culture.", "Faurot Field at Memorial Stadium, which has a capacity of 62,621, hosts home football games.", "The Hearnes Center and Mizzou Arena are two other large sport and event venues, the latter being the home arena for Mizzou's basketball team.", "Taylor Stadium is host to their baseball team and was the regional host for the 2007 NCAA Baseball Championship.", "Columbia College has several men and women collegiate sports teams as well.", "In 2007, Columbia hosted the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics Volleyball National Championship, which the Lady Cougars participated in.Columbia also hosts the Show-Me State Games, a non-profit program of the Missouri Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Health.", "They are the largest state games in the United States.Situated midway between St. Louis and Kansas City, Columbians will often have allegiances to the professional sports teams housed there, such as the St. Louis Cardinals, the Kansas City Royals, the Kansas City Chiefs, the St. Louis Blues, Sporting Kansas City, and St. Louis City SC.Booches bar and grill===Cuisine===Columbia has many bars and restaurants that provide diverse styles of cuisine, due in part to having three colleges.", "The oldest is the historic Booches bar, restaurant, and pool hall, which was established in 1884 and is frequented by college students.", "Shakespeare's Pizza was founded in Columbia and is known for its college town pizza." ], [ "Parks and recreation", "The iconic rock bridge of Rock Bridge Memorial State ParkThroughout the city are many parks and trails for public usage.", "Among the more popularly frequented is the MKT which is a spur that connects to the Katy Trail, meeting up just south of Columbia proper.", "The MKT ranked second in the nation for \"Best Urban Trail\" in the 2015 ''USA Today''s 10 Best Readers' Choice Awards.", "This 10-foot wide trail built on the old railbed of the MKT railroad begins in downtown Columbia in Flat Branch Park at 4th and Cherry Streets.", "The all-weather crushed limestone surface provides opportunities for walking, jogging, running, and bicycling.", "Stephens Lake Park is the highlight of Columbia's park system and is known for its 11-acre fishing/swimming lake, mature trees, and historical significance in the community.", "It serves as the center for outdoor winter sports, a variety of community festivals such as the Roots N Blues Festival, and outdoor concert series at the amphitheater.", "Stephens Lake has reservable shelters, playgrounds, swimming beach and spraygrounds, art sculptures, waterfalls, and walking trails.", "Rock Bridge Memorial State Park is open year-round giving visitors the chance to scramble, hike, and bicycle through a scenic environment.", "Rock Bridge State Park contains some of the most popular hiking trails in the state, including the Gans Creek Wild Area.", "Columbia is home to Harmony Bends Disc Golf Course (https://www.como.gov/contacts/harmony-bends-championship-disc-golf-course-strawn-park/), which was named the 2017 Disc Golf Course of the Year by DGCourseReview.com.", "As of June, 2022, Harmony Bends still continues to rank on DGCourseReview.com as the No.", "1 public course, and #2 overall course in the United States" ], [ "Media", "The ''Columbia Missourian'' headquartersThe city has two daily morning newspapers: the ''Columbia Missourian'' and the ''Columbia Daily Tribune''.", "The ''Missourian'' is directed by professional editors and staffed by Missouri School of Journalism students who do reporting, design, copy editing, information graphics, photography, and multimedia.", "The ''Missourian'' publishes the monthly city magazine, '' Vox Magazine''.", "The University of Missouri has the independent official bi-weekly student newspaper called ''The Maneater'', and the quarterly literary magazine, ''The Missouri Review''.", "The now-defunct ''Prysms Weekly'' was also published in Columbia.", "In late 2009, KCOU News launched full operations out of KCOU 88.1 FM on the MU Campus.", "The entirely student-run news organization airs a weekday newscast, ''The Pulse''.The city has 4 television channels.", "Columbia Access Television (CAT or CAT-TV) is the public access channel.", "CPSTV is the education access channel, managed by Columbia Public Schools as a function of the Columbia Public Schools Community Relations Department.", "The Government Access channel broadcasts City Council, Planning and Zoning Commission, and Board of Adjustment meetings.=== Television ===+Columbia Area TelevisionStationChannelNetworkSubchannelsKMOS-TV6PBS6.2 Create6.3 KMOS Emerge6.4 PBS KidsKOMU-TV8NBC8.3 The CW+KRCG13CBS13.2 Comet13.3 Charge!13.4 TBDKMIZ17ABC17.2 MeTV17.3 MyNetworkTV17.4 Fox17.5 Bounce TVKQFX-LD22Fox22.2 Laff22.3 Grit22.4 Court TV Mystery22.5 DablKFDR25CTN25.2 CTNi25.3 CTN (SD)25.4 CTN LifestyleK35OY-D35Azteca America35.2 Infomercials35.3 Infomercials35.4 InfomercialsKGKM-LD36Telemundo36.2 Ion Television36.3 Court TV36.4 Defy TV36.5 TrueReal36.6 Newsy=== Radio ===Columbia has 19 radio stations as well as stations licensed from Jefferson City, Macon and, Lake of the Ozarks.=== AM ===*KFAL 900 kHz • Country*KWOS 950 kHz • News/Talk*KFRU 1400 kHz • News/Talk*KTGR 1580 kHz • Sports (ESPN Radio)===FM===*KCOU 88.1 MHz • College*KOPN 89.5 MHz • Public*KMUC 90.5 MHz • Classical*KBIA 91.3 MHz • News (NPR)*KMFC 92.1 MHz • Christian (K-Love)*KWJK 93.1 MHz • Variety (JACK FM)*KSSZ 93.9 MHz • News/Talk*KWWR 95.7 MHz • Country*KCMQ 96.7 MHz • Classic Rock*KDVC 98.3 MHz • Classic Hits*KCLR 99.3 MHz • Country*KPLA 101.5 MHz • Variety*KBXR 102.3 MHz • Alternative*KZZT 105.5 MHz • Classic Rock*KOQL 106.1 MHz • Top 40*KTXY 106.9 MHz Top 40" ], [ "Government and politics", "Boone County Courthouse within the Boone County Government CenterColumbia's current government was established by a home rule charter adopted by voters on November 11, 1974, which established a council-manager government that invested power in the city council.", "The city council has seven members: six elected by each of Columbia's six single-member districts or wards and an at-large member, the mayor, who is elected by all city voters.", "The mayor receives a $9,000 annual stipend, and the six other members receive a $6,000 annual stipend.", "They are elected to staggered three-year terms.", "As well as serving as a voting member of the city council, the mayor is recognized as the head of city government for ceremonial purposes.", "Chief executive authority is invested in a hired city manager, who oversees the government's day-to-day operations.Columbia is the county seat of Boone County, and houses the county court and government center.", "The city is in Missouri's 4th congressional district.", "The 19th Missouri State Senate district covers all of Boone County.", "There are five Missouri House of Representatives districts (9, 21, 23, 24, and 25) in the city.", "The Columbia Police Department provides law enforcement across the city, while the Columbia Fire Department provides fire protection.", "The University of Missouri Police Department also patrols areas on and around the University of Missouri campus and has jurisdiction throughout the state.", "Additionally, the Boone County Sheriff's Department, the law enforcement agency for the county, regularly patrols the city.", "The Public Service Joint Communications Center coordinates efforts between the two organizations as well as the Boone County Fire Protection District, which operates Urban Search and Rescue Missouri Task Force 1.Columbia's City Hall.The population generally supports progressive causes, such as recycling programs and the decriminalization of cannabis both for medical and recreational use at the municipal level, though the scope of the latter of the two cannabis ordinances has since been restricted.", "The city is one of only four in the state to offer medical benefits to same-sex partners of city employees.", "The new health plan extends health benefits to unmarried heterosexual domestic partners of city employees.On October 10, 2006, the city council approved an ordinance to prohibit smoking in public places, including restaurants and bars.", "The ordinance was passed over protest, and several amendments to the ordinance reflect this.", "Over half of residents possess at least a bachelor's degree, while over a quarter hold a graduate degree.", "Columbia is the 13th most-highly educated municipality in the United States." ], [ "Education", "Almost all of the Columbia city limits, and much of the surrounding area, lies within the Columbia Public School District.", "The district enrolled more than 18,000 students and had a budget of $281 million for the 2019–20 school year.While 95.4% of adults age 25 and older in the city have a high school diploma.", "In 2022, Columbia Public Schools recorded a 67.7% attendance rate, lower than the state average of 76.2%.", "Last year’s graduation rate for the class of 2022 was 90%, while the class of 2021’s graduation rate was reported at 89%.", "According to statewide numbers for 2022, Missouri’s overall graduation rate was 91.16%.", "The Columbia school district operates four public high schools which cover grades 9–12: David H. Hickman High School, Rock Bridge High School, Muriel Battle High School, and Frederick Douglass High School.", "Rock Bridge is one of two Missouri high schools to receive a silver medal by U.S. News & World Report, putting it in the Top 3% of all high schools in the nation.", "Hickman has been on Newsweek magazine's list of Top 1,300 schools in the country for the past three years and has more named presidential scholars than any other public high school in the US.", "There are also several private high schools located in the city, including Christian Fellowship School, Columbia Independent School, Heritage Academy, Christian Chapel Academy, and Tolton High School.CPS also manages seven middle schools: Jefferson, West, Oakland, Gentry, Smithton, Lange, and John Warner.", "John Warner Middle School first opened for the 2020/21 school year.A very small portion of the city limits is in Hallsville R-IV School District.", "The sole high school of that district is Hallsville High School.The United States census estimated that 55.3% of adults ages 25 and up hold a bachelors degree or higher.", "While only 31.2% of Missourians hold a bachelor’s degree.The city has three institutions of higher education: the University of Missouri, Stephens College, and Columbia College, all of which surround Downtown Columbia.", "The city is the headquarters of the University of Missouri System, which operates campuses in St. Louis, Kansas City, and Rolla.", "Moberly Area Community College, Central Methodist University, and William Woods University as well as operates satellite campuses in Columbia." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transportation===The Columbia Transit provides public bus and para-transit service, and is owned and operated by the city.", "In 2008, 1,414,400 passengers boarded along the system's six fixed routes and nine University of Missouri shuttle routes, and 27,000 boarded the Para-transit service.", "The system is constantly experiencing growth in service and technology.", "A $3.5 million project to renovate and expand the Wabash Station, a rail depot built in 1910 and converted into the city's transit center in the mid-1980s, was completed in summer of 2007.In 2007, a Transit Master Plan was created to address the future transit needs of the city and county with a comprehensive plan to add infrastructure in three key phases.", "The five to 15-year plan intends to add service along the southwest, southeast and northeast sections of Columbia and develop alternative transportation models for Boone County.The city is served by Columbia Regional Airport.", "The closest rail station is Jefferson City station, in the state capital Jefferson City.Columbia is also known for its MKT Trail, a spur of the Katy Trail State Park, which allows foot and bike traffic across the city, and, conceivably, the state.", "It consists of a soft gravel surface for running and biking.", "Columbia also is preparing to embark on construction of several new bike paths and street bike lanes thanks to a $25 million grant from the federal government.", "The city is also served by American Airlines at the Columbia Regional Airport, the only commercial airport in mid-Missouri.I-70 (concurrent with US 40) and US 63 are the two main freeways used for travel to and from Columbia.", "Within the city, there are also three state highways: Routes 763 (Rangeline Street & College Avenue), 163 (Providence Road), and 740 (Stadium Boulevard).Rail service is provided by the city-owned Columbia Terminal Railroad (COLT), which runs from the north side of Columbia to Centralia and a connection to the Norfolk Southern Railway.", "Columbia would be at the center of the proposed Missouri Hyperloop, reducing travel times to Kansas City and St. Louis to around 15 minutes.===Health systems===The University of Missouri Hospital is the main hospital of the MU Health Care System, and it is the largest hospital in Columbia.Health care is a big part of Columbia's economy, with nearly one in six people working in a health-care related profession and a physician density that is about three times the United States average.", "The city's hospitals and supporting facilities are a large referral center for the state, and medical related trips to the city are common.", "There are three hospital systems within the city and five hospitals with a total of 1,105 beds.Boone Hospital Center is the second largest hospital in Columbia and is the largest private hospital in Boone County.The University of Missouri Health Care operates three hospitals in Columbia: the University of Missouri Hospital, the University of Missouri Women's and Children's Hospital (formerly Columbia Regional Hospital), and the Ellis Fischel Cancer Center.", "Boone Hospital Center is administered by BJC Healthcare and operates several clinics as well as outpatient locations.", "The Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans' Hospital, adjacent to University Hospital, is administered by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs.There are a large number of medical-related industries in Columbia.", "The University of Missouri School of Medicine uses university-owned facilities as teaching hospitals.", "The University of Missouri Research Reactor Center is the largest research reactor in the United States and produces radioisotopes used in nuclear medicine.", "The center serves as the sole supplier of the active ingredients in two U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved radiopharmaceuticals and produces Fluorine-18 used in PET imaging with its cyclotron." ], [ "Sister cities", "In accordance with the Columbia Sister Cities Program, which operates in conjunction with Sister Cities International, Columbia has been paired with five international sister cities in an attempt to foster cross-cultural understanding:* Kutaisi, Georgia* Hakusan, Ishikawa, Japan* Sibiu, Romania* Suncheon, South Jeolla, South Korea* Laoshan, Shandong, China" ], [ "See also", "* List of people from Columbia, Missouri* History of the University of Missouri* National Register of Historic Places listings in Boone County, Missouri* USS ''Columbia'' (SSN-771)* The Big Tree" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*Stephens, E. W. (1875) \"History of Boone County.\"", "An Illustrated Historical Atlas of Boone County, Missouri.", "Philadelphia: Edwards Brothers*****Sapp, David (2000) \"Boone County Chronicles\" Columbia: Boone County Historical Society* Brownlee, Richard S. 1956 The Big Moniteau Bluff Pictographs in Boone County, MO.", "Missouri Archaeologist 18(4): 49-54*************Viles, Jonas The University of Missouri, 1839–1939, E.W.", "Stephens Publishing Company***" ], [ "External links", "* Official city government website* Columbia Convention & Visitors Bureau* Columbia Chamber of Commerce* Historic maps of Columbia in the Sanborn Maps of Missouri Collection at the University of Missouri" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Charlton Athletic F.C." ], [ "Introduction", " '''Charlton Athletic Football Club''' is a professional association football club based in Charlton, south-east London, England.", "The team compete in , the third level of the English football league system.", "Their home ground is The Valley, where the club have played since 1919.They have also played at The Mount in Catford during the 1923–24 season, and spent seven years at Selhurst Park and the Boleyn Ground between 1985 and 1992, because of financial issues, and then safety concerns raised by the local council.", "The club's traditional kit consists of red shirts, white shorts and red socks, and their most commonly used nickname is ''The Addicks''.", "Charlton share local rivalries with fellow South London clubs Crystal Palace and Millwall.The club was founded on 9 June 1905 and turned professional in 1920.They spent one season in the Kent League and one season in the Southern League, before being invited to join the newly-formed Football League Third Division South in 1921.They won the division in the 1928–29 season, and again in 1934–35 following relegation in 1933.Charlton were promoted out of the Second Division in 1935–36, and finished second in the First Division the next season.", "Having been beaten finalists in 1946, they lifted the FA Cup the following year with a 1–0 victory over Burnley.", "The departure of Jimmy Seed in 1956, manager for 23 years, saw the club relegated out of the top-flight the following year.", "Relegated again in 1972, Charlton were promoted from the Third Division in 1974–75, and again in 1980–81 following relegation the previous season.Charlton recovered from administration to secure promotion back to the First Division in 1985–86, and went on to lose in the 1987 final of the Full Members' Cup, though they won the 1987 play-off final to retain their top-flight status.", "Having been relegated in 1990, Charlton won the 1998 play-off final to make their debut in the Premier League.", "Though they were relegated the next year, manager Alan Curbishley took them back up as champions in 1999–2000.Charlton spent seven successive years in the Premier League, before suffering two relegations in three years.", "They won League One with 101 points in 2011–12, though were relegated from the Championship in 2016, and again in 2020 after they won the 2019 League One play-off final." ], [ "History", "===Early history (1905–1946)===Charlton Athletic F.C.", "was formed on 9 June 1905 by a group of 14 to 15-year-olds in East Street, Charlton, which is now known as Eastmoor Street and no longer residential.Contrary to some histories, the club was founded as \"Charlton Athletic\" and had no connection to other teams or institutions such as East St Mission, Blundell Mission or Charlton Reds; it was not founded by a church, school, employer or as a franchise for an existing ground.", "Charlton spent most of the years before the First World War playing in local leagues but progressing rapidly, winning successive leagues and so promotions eight years in a row.", "In 1905–06 the team played only friendly games but joined, and won, the Lewisham League Division III for the 1906–07 season.", "For the 1907–08 season the team contested the Lewisham League, Woolwich League and entered the Woolwich Cup.", "It was also around this time the Addicks nickname was first used in the local press although it may have been in use before then.", "In the 1908–09 season Charlton Athletic were playing in the Blackheath and District League and by 1910–11 had progressed to the Southern Suburban League.", "During this period Charlton Athletic won the Woolwich Cup four times, the championship of the Woolwich League three times, won the Blackheath League twice and the Southern Suburban League three times.They became a senior side in 1913, the same year that nearby Woolwich Arsenal F.C.", "relocated to North London.At the outbreak of World War I, Charlton were one of the first clubs to close down to take part in the \"Greater Game\" overseas.", "The club was reformed in 1917, playing mainly friendlies to raise funds for charities connected to the war and for the Woolwich Memorial Hospital Cup, the trophy for which Charlton donated.", "It had previously been the Woolwich Cup that the team had won outright following three consecutive victories.After the war, they joined the Kent League for one season (1919–20) before becoming professional, appointing Walter Rayner as the first full-time manager.", "They were accepted by the Southern League and played just a single season (1920–21) before being voted into the Football League.", "Charlton's first Football League match was against Exeter City in August 1921, which they won 1–0.In 1923, Charlton became \"giant killers\" in the FA Cup beating top flight sides Manchester City, West Bromwich Albion, and Preston North End before losing to eventual winners Bolton Wanderers in the Quarter-Finals.", "Later that year, it was proposed that Charlton merge with Catford Southend to create a larger team with bigger support.", "In the 1923–24 season Charlton played in Catford at The Mount stadium and wore the colours of \"The Enders\", light and dark blue vertical stripes.", "However, the move fell through and the Addicks returned to the Charlton area in 1924, returning to the traditional red and white colours in the process.Charlton finished second bottom in the Football League in 1926 and were forced to apply for re-election which was successful.", "Three years later the Addicks won the Division Three championship in 1929 and they remained at the Division Two level for four years.", "After relegation into the Third Division south at the end of the 1932–33 season the club appointed Jimmy Seed as manager and he oversaw the most successful period in Charlton's history either side of World War II.", "Seed, an ex-miner who had made a career as a footballer despite suffering the effects of poison gas in the First World War, remains the most successful manager in Charlton's history.", "He is commemorated in the name of a stand at the Valley.", "Seed was an innovative thinker about the game at a time when tactical formations were still relatively unsophisticated.", "He later recalled \"a simple scheme that enabled us to pull several matches out of the fire\" during the 1934–35 season: when the team was in trouble \"the centre-half was to forsake his defensive role and go up into the attack to add weight to the five forwards.\"", "The organisation Seed brought to the team proved effective and the Addicks gained successive promotions from the Third Division to the First Division between 1934 and 1936, becoming the first club to ever do so.", "Charlton finally secured promotion to the First Division by beating local rivals West Ham United at the Boleyn Ground, with their centre-half John Oakes playing on despite concussion and a broken nose.In 1937, Charlton finished runners up in the First Division, in 1938 finished fourth and 1939 finished third.", "They were the most consistent team in the top flight of English football over the three seasons immediately before World War II.", "This continued during the war years and they won the Football League War Cup and appeared in finals.===Post-war success and fall from grace (1946–1984)===Charlton reached the 1946 FA Cup Final, but lost 4–1 to Derby County at Wembley.", "Charlton's Bert Turner scored an own goal in the 80th minute before equalising for the Addicks a minute later to take them into extra time, but they conceded three further goals in the extra period.", "When the full league programme resumed in 1946–47 Charlton could finish only 19th in the First Division, just above the relegation spots, but they made amends with their performance in the FA Cup, reaching the 1947 FA Cup Final.", "This time they were successful, beating Burnley 1–0, with Chris Duffy scoring the only goal of the day.", "In this period of renewed football attendances, Charlton became one of only 13 English football teams to average over 40,000 as their attendance during a full season.", "The Valley was the largest football ground in the League, drawing crowds in excess of 70,000.However, in the 1950s little investment was made either for players or to The Valley, hampering the club's growth.", "In 1956, the then board undermined Jimmy Seed and asked for his resignation; Charlton were relegated the following year.Chart showing Charlton's table positions since joining the Football LeagueFrom the late 1950s until the early 1970s, Charlton remained a mainstay of the Second Division before relegation to the Third Division in 1972.It caused the team's support to drop, and even a promotion in 1975 back to the second division did little to re-invigorate the team's support and finances.", "In 1979–80 Charlton were relegated again to the Third Division, but won immediate promotion back to the Second Division in 1980–81.This was a turning point in the club's history leading to a period of turbulence and change including further promotion and exile.", "A change in management and shortly after a change in club ownership led to severe problems, such as the reckless signing of former European Footballer of the Year Allan Simonsen, and the club looked like it would go out of business.===The \"exiled\" years (1985–1992)===In 1984 financial matters came to a head and the club went into administration, to be reformed as Charlton Athletic (1984) Ltd. although the club's finances were still far from secure.", "They were forced to leave the Valley just after the start of the 1985–86 season, after its safety was criticised by Football League officials in the wake of the Bradford City stadium fire.The club began to ground-share with Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park and this arrangement looked to be for the long-term, as Charlton did not have enough funds to revamp the Valley to meet safety requirements.Despite the move away from the Valley, Charlton were promoted to the First Division as Second Division runners-up at the end of 1985–86, and remained at this level for four years (achieving a highest league finish of 14th) often with late escapes, most notably against Leeds in 1987, where the Addicks triumphed in extra-time of the play-off final replay to secure their top flight place.", "In 1987 Charlton also returned to Wembley for the first time since the 1947 FA Cup final for the Full Members Cup final against Blackburn.Eventually, Charlton were relegated in 1990 along with Sheffield Wednesday and bottom club Millwall.", "Manager Lennie Lawrence remained in charge for one more season before he accepted an offer to take charge of Middlesbrough.", "He was replaced by joint player-managers Alan Curbishley and Steve Gritt.", "The pair had unexpected success in their first season finishing just outside the play-offs, and 1992–93 began promisingly and Charlton looked good bets for promotion in the new Division One (the new name of the old Second Division following the formation of the Premier League).", "However, the club was forced to sell players such as Rob Lee to help pay for a return to the Valley, while club fans formed the Valley Party, nominating candidates to stand in local elections in 1990, pressing the local council to enable the club's return to the Valley – finally achieved in December 1992.In March 1993, defender Tommy Caton, who had been out of action because of injury since January 1991, announced his retirement from playing on medical advice.", "He died suddenly at the end of the following month at the age of 30.===Premier League years (1998–2007)===In 1995, new chairman Richard Murray appointed Alan Curbishley as sole manager of Charlton.", "Under his sole leadership Charlton made an appearance in the play-off in 1996 but were eliminated by Crystal Palace in the semi-finals and the following season brought a disappointing 15th-place finish.", "1997–98 was Charlton's best season for years.", "They reached the Division One play-off final and battled against Sunderland in a thrilling game which ended with a 4–4 draw after extra time.", "Charlton won 7–6 on penalties, with the match described as \"arguably the most dramatic game of football in Wembley's history\", and were promoted to the Premier League.Charlton's first Premier League campaign began promisingly (they went top after two games) but they were unable to keep up their good form and were soon battling relegation.", "The battle was lost on the final day of the season but the club's board kept faith in Curbishley, confident that they could bounce back.", "Curbishley rewarded the chairman's loyalty with the Division One title in 2000 which signalled a return to the Premier League.After the club's return, Curbishley proved an astute spender and by 2003 he had succeeded in establishing Charlton in the top flight.", "Charlton spent much of the 2003–04 Premier League season challenging for a Champions League place, but a late-season slump in form and the sale of star player Scott Parker to Chelsea, left Charlton in seventh place, which was still the club's highest finish since the 1950s.", "Charlton were unable to build on this level of achievement and Curbishley departed in 2006, with the club still established as a solid mid-table side.In May 2006, Iain Dowie was named as Curbishley's successor, but was sacked after 12 league matches in November 2006, with only two wins.", "Les Reed replaced Dowie as manager, however he too failed to improve Charlton's position in the league table and on Christmas Eve 2006, Reed was replaced by former player Alan Pardew.", "Although results did improve, Pardew was unable to keep Charlton up and relegation was confirmed in the penultimate match of the season.===Return to the Football League (2007–2014)===Charlton's return to the second tier of English football was a disappointment, with their promotion campaign tailing off to an 11th-place finish.", "Early in the following season the Addicks were linked with a foreign takeover, but this was swiftly denied by the club.", "On 10 October 2008, Charlton received an indicative offer for the club from a Dubai-based diversified investment company.", "However, the deal later fell through.", "The full significance of this soon became apparent as the club recorded net losses of over £13 million for that financial year.", "Pardew left on 22 November after a 2–5 home loss to Sheffield United that saw the team fall into the relegation places.", "Matters did not improve under caretaker manager Phil Parkinson, and the team went a club record 18 games without a win, a new club record, before finally achieving a 1–0 away victory over Norwich City in an FA Cup third round replay; Parkinson was hired on a permanent basis.", "The team were relegated to League One after a 2–2 draw against Blackpool on 18 April 2009.After spending almost the entire 2009–10 season in the top six of League One, Charlton were defeated in the Football League One play-offs semi-final second leg on penalties against Swindon Town.Former Charlton player Chris Powell returned to the club as manager between 2011 and 2014After a change in ownership, Parkinson and Charlton legend Mark Kinsella left after a poor run of results.", "Another Charlton legend, Chris Powell, was appointed manager of the club in January 2011, winning his first game in charge 2–0 over Plymouth at the Valley.", "This was Charlton's first league win since November.", "Powell's bright start continued with a further three victories, before running into a downturn which saw the club go 11 games in succession without a win.", "Yet the fans' respect for Powell saw him come under remarkably little criticism.", "The club's fortunes picked up towards the end of the season, but leaving them far short of the play-offs.", "In a busy summer, Powell brought in 19 new players and after a successful season, on 14 April 2012, Charlton Athletic won promotion back to the Championship with a 1–0 away win at Carlisle United.", "A week later, on 21 April 2012, they were confirmed as champions after a 2–1 home win over Wycombe Wanderers.", "Charlton then lifted the League One trophy on 5 May 2012, having been in the top position since 15 September 2011, and after recording a 3–2 victory over Hartlepool United, recorded their highest ever league points score of 101, the highest in any professional European league that year.In the first season back in the Championship, the 2012–13 season saw Charlton finish ninth place with 65 points, just three points short of the play-off places to the Premier League.===Duchâtelet's ownership (2014–2019)===In early January 2014 during the 2013–14 season, Belgian businessman Roland Duchâtelet took over Charlton as owner in a deal worth £14million.", "This made Charlton a part of a network of football clubs owned by Duchâtelet.", "On 11 March 2014, two days after an FA Cup quarter-final loss to Sheffield United, and with Charlton sitting bottom of the table, Powell was sacked, private emails suggesting a rift with the owner.New manager Jose Riga, despite having to join Charlton long after the transfer window had closed, was able to improve Charlton's form and eventually guide them to 18th place, successfully avoiding relegation.", "After Riga's departure to manage Blackpool, former Millwall player Bob Peeters was appointed as manager in May 2014 on a 12-month contract.", "Charlton started strong, but a long run of draws meant that after only 25 games in charge Peeters was dismissed with the team in 14th place.", "His replacement, Guy Luzon, ensured there was no relegation battle by winning most of the remaining matches, resulting in a 12th-place finish.The 2015–16 season began promisingly but results under Luzon deteriorated and on 24 October 2015 after a 3–0 defeat at home to Brentford he was sacked.", "Luzon said in a ''News Shopper'' interview that he \"was not the one who chose how to do the recruitment\" as the reason why he failed as manager.", "Karel Fraeye was appointed \"interim head coach\", but was sacked after 14 games and just two wins, with the club then second from bottom in the Championship.", "On 14 January 2016, Jose Riga was appointed head coach for a second spell, but could not prevent Charlton from being relegated to League One for the 2016–17 season.", "Riga resigned at the end of the season.", "To many fans, the managerial changes and subsequent relegation to League One were symptomatic of the mismanagement of the club under Duchâtelet's ownership and several protests began.After a slow start to the new season, with the club in 15th place of League One, the club announced that it had \"parted company\" with Russell Slade in November 2016.Karl Robinson was appointed on a permanent basis soon after.", "He led the Addicks to an uneventful 13th-place finish.", "The following season Robinson had the team challenging for the play-offs, but a drop in form in March led him to resign by mutual consent.", "He was replaced by former player Lee Bowyer as caretaker manager who guided them to a 6th-place finish, but lost in the play-off semi-final.Bowyer was appointed permanently in September on a one-year contract and after finishing third in the regular 2018-19 EFL League One season, Charlton beat Sunderland 2–1 in the League One play-off final to earn promotion back to the EFL Championship after a three-season absence.", "Bowyer later signed a new one-year contract following promotion, which was later extended to three years in January 2020.===Multiple changes of ownership (2019–2023)=======ESI (2019–2020)====On 29 November 2019, Charlton Athletic were acquired by East Street Investments (ESI) from Abu Dhabi, subject to EFL approval.", "Approval was reportedly granted on 2 January 2020.However, on 10 March 2020, a public disagreement between the new owners erupted along with reports that the main investor was pulling out, and the EFL said the takeover had not been approved.", "The Valley and Charlton's training ground were still owned by Duchâtelet, and a transfer embargo was in place as the new owners had not provided evidence of funding through to June 2021.On 20 April 2020, the EFL said the club was being investigated for misconduct regarding the takeover.", "In June 2020, Charlton confirmed that ESI had been taken over by a consortium led by businessman Paul Elliott, and said it had contacted the EFL to finalise the ownership change.", "However, a legal dispute involving former ESI director Matt Southall continued.", "He attempted to regain control of the club to prevent Elliott's takeover from going ahead, but failed and was subsequently fined and dismissed for challenging the club's directors.", "On 7 August 2020, the EFL said three individuals, including ESI owner Elliott and lawyer Chris Farnell, had failed its Owners' and Directors' Test, leaving the club's ownership unclear; Charlton appealed against the decision.", "Meanwhile, Charlton were relegated to League One at the end of the 2019–20 season after finishing 22nd.", "Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the final games of the season were played behind closed doors, which remained the case for the majority of the following season.Later in August, Thomas Sandgaard, a Danish businessman based in Colorado, was reported to be negotiating to buy the club.", "After further court hearings, Elliott was granted an injunction blocking the sale of ESI until a hearing in November 2020.====Thomas Sandgaard (2020–2023)====On 25 September 2020, Thomas Sandgaard acquired the club itself from ESI, and was reported to have passed the EFL's Owners' and Directors' Tests; the EFL noted the change in control, but said the club's sale was now \"a matter for the interested parties\".On 15 March 2021, with the club lying in eighth place, Bowyer resigned as club manager and was appointed manager of Birmingham City.", "His successor, Nigel Adkins, was appointed three days later.", "The club finished the 2020–21 season in seventh place, but started the following season by winning only two out of 13 League One matches and were in the relegation zone when Adkins was sacked on 21 October 2021.After a successful spell as caretaker manager, Johnnie Jackson was appointed manager in December 2021, but, after Charlton finished the season in 13th place, he was also sacked.", "Swindon Town manager Ben Garner was appointed as his replacement in June 2022, but was sacked on 5 December 2022 with the team in 17th place.", "After the club was knocked out of the FA Cup by League Two side Stockport County on 7 December, supporters said Charlton was at its \"lowest ebb in living memory\", with fans \"losing confidence\" in owner Thomas Sandgaard.", "Dean Holden was appointed manager on 20 December 2022, and Charlton improved to finish the 2022–23 season in 10th place.====SE7 Partners (2023–present)====On 5 June 2023, the club announced that SE7 Partners, comprising former Sunderland director Charlie Methven and Edward Warrick, had agreed a takeover of Charlton Athletic, becoming the club's fourth set of owners in under four years.", "On 19 July, the EFL and FA cleared SE7 Partners to take over the club, and the deal was completed on 21 July 2023.On 27 August 2023, after one win in the opening six games of the 2023–24 season, Holden was sacked as manager, and succeeded by Michael Appleton.", "On 23 January 2024, following a 3–2 defeat at The Valley against Northampton Town - and no wins in 10 League One games - Appleton was sacked and replaced on 4 February 2024 by Nathan Jones." ], [ "Club identity", "===Colours and crest===Crest of the former Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich Council, used by Charlton briefly in late 1940s and early 1950sCharlton have used a number of crests and badges during their history, although the current design has not been changed since 1968.The first known badge, from the 1930s, consisted of the letters CAF in the shape of a club from a pack of cards.", "In the 1940s, Charlton used a design featuring a robin sitting in a football within a shield, sometimes with the letters CAFC in the four-quarters of the shield, which was worn for the 1946 FA Cup Final.", "In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the crest of the former metropolitan borough of Greenwich was used as a symbol for the club but this was not used on the team's shirts.In 1963, a competition was held to find a new badge for the club, and the winning entry was a hand holding a sword, which complied with Charlton's nickname of the time, the Valiants.", "Over the next five years modifications were made to this design, such as the addition of a circle surrounding the hand and sword and including the club's name in the badge.", "By 1968, the design had reached the one known today, and has been used continuously from this year, apart from a period in the 1970s when just the letters CAFC appeared on the team's shirts.With the exception of one season, Charlton have always played in red and white – colours chosen by the boys who founded Charlton Athletic in 1905 after having to play their first matches in the borrowed kits of their local rivals Woolwich Arsenal, who also played in red and white.", "The exception came during part of the 1923–24 season when Charlton wore the colours of Catford Southend as part of the proposed move to Catford, which were light and dark blue stripes.", "However, after the move fell through, Charlton returned to wearing red and white as their home colours.The sponsors were as follows: Year Kit manufacturerMain shirt sponsorBack of shirt sponsorShorts sponsor 1974–80 Bukta None None 1980–81 Adidas 1981–82 FADS 1982–83 None 1983–84 Osca 1984–86 The Woolwich 1986–88 Adidas 1988–92 Admiral 1992–93 Ribero None 1993–94 Viglen 1994–98 Quaser 1998–00 Le Coq Sportif MESH 2000–02 Redbus 2002–03 All:Sports 2003–05 Joma 2005–08 Llanera 2008–09 Carbrini Sportswear 2009 Kent Reliance Building Society 2010–12 Macron 2012–14 Nike Andrews Sykes 2014–16 University of Greenwich Andrews Sykes Mitsubishi Electric 2016–17 BETDAQ ITRM Emmaus Consulting 2017–19 Hummel Gaughan Services 2019–20 Children with Cancer UK Cannon Glass 2020–21 KW Holdings (home)Vitech Services (away) 2021–2022 KW Holdings (home & third)Walker Mower (away) 2022– Castore RSK (home)University of Greenwich (away)|Generous Robots DAO===Nicknames===Charlton's most common nickname is The Addicks.", "The origin of this name is from a local fishmonger, Arthur \"Ikey\" Bryan, who rewarded the team with meals of haddock and chips with vinegarThe progression of the nickname can be seen in the book ''The Addicks Cartoons: An Affectionate Look into the Early History of Charlton Athletic'', which covers the pre-First World War history of Charlton through a narrative based on 56 cartoons which appeared in the now defunct Kentish Independent.", "The very first cartoon, from 31 October 1908, calls the team the Haddocks.", "By 1910, the name had changed to Addicks although it also appeared as Haddick.", "The club also have two other nicknames, The Robins, adopted in 1931, and The Valiants, chosen in a fan competition in the 1960s which also led to the adoption of the sword badge which is still in use.", "The Addicks nickname never went away and was revived by fans after the club lost its Valley home in 1985 and went into exile at Crystal Palace.", "It is now once again the official nickname of the club.Charlton fans' chants have included \"Valley, Floyd Road\", a song noting the stadium's address to the tune of \"Mull of Kintyre\"." ], [ "Stadium", "One of Charlton's early grounds, Siemens MeadowThe club's first ground was Siemens Meadow (1905–1907), a patch of rough ground by the River Thames.", "This was over-shadowed by the Siemens Brothers Telegraph Works.", "Then followed Woolwich Common (1907–1908), Pound Park (1908–1913), and Angerstein Lane (1913–1915).", "After the end of the First World War, a chalk quarry known as the Swamps was identified as Charlton's new ground, and in the summer of 1919 work began to create the level playing area and remove debris from the site.", "The first match at this site, now known as the club's current ground The Valley, was in September 1919.Charlton stayed at The Valley until 1923, when the club moved to The Mount stadium in Catford as part of a proposed merger with Catford Southend Football Club.", "However, after this move collapsed in 1924 Charlton returned to The Valley.During the 1930s and 1940s, significant improvements were made to the ground, making it one of the largest in the country at that time.", "In 1938 the highest attendance to date at the ground was recorded at over 75,000 for a FA Cup match against Aston Villa.", "During the 1940s and 1950s the attendance was often above 40,000, and Charlton had one of the largest support bases in the country.", "However, after the club's relegation little investment was made in The Valley as it fell into decline.In the 1980s matters came to a head as the ownership of the club and The Valley was divided.", "The large East Terrace had been closed down by the authorities after the Bradford City stadium fire and the ground's owner wanted to use part of the site for housing.", "In September 1985, Charlton made the controversial move to ground-share with South London neighbours Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park.", "This move was unpopular with supporters and in the late 1980s significant steps were taken to bring about the club's return to The Valley.A single issue political party, the Valley Party, contested the 1990 local Greenwich Borough Council elections on a ticket of reopening the stadium, capturing 11% of the vote, aiding the club's return.", "The Valley Gold investment scheme was created to help supporters fund the return to The Valley, and several players were also sold to raise funds.", "For the 1991–92 season and part of the 1992–93 season, the Addicks played at West Ham's Upton Park as Wimbledon had moved into Selhurst Park alongside Crystal Palace.", "Charlton finally returned to The Valley in December 1992, celebrating with a 1–0 victory against Portsmouth.Since the return to The Valley, three sides of the ground have been completely redeveloped turning The Valley into a modern, all-seater stadium with a 27,111 capacity which is the biggest in South London.", "There are plans in place to increase the ground's capacity to approximately 31,000 and even around 40,000 in the future." ], [ "Supporters and rivalries", "The bulk of the club's support base comes from South East London and Kent, particularly the London boroughs of Greenwich, Bexley and Bromley.", "Supporters played a key role in the return of the club to The Valley in 1992 and were rewarded by being granted a voice on the board in the form of an elected supporter director.", "Any season ticket holder could put themselves forward for election, with a certain number of nominations, and votes were cast by all season ticket holders over the age of 18.The last such director, Ben Hayes, was elected in 2006 to serve until 2008, when the role was discontinued as a result of legal issues.", "Its functions were replaced by a fans forum, which met for the first time in December 2008 and is still active to this day.Millwall pay tribute to Graham Taylor at The Valley in January 2017.Charlton's main rivals are their South London neighbours, Crystal Palace and Millwall.", "Unlike those rivals Charlton have never competed in football's fourth tier and are the only one of the three to have won the FA Cup.In 1985, Charlton were forced to ground-share with Crystal Palace after safety concerns at The Valley.", "They played their home fixtures at the Glaziers' Selhurst Park stadium until 1991.The arrangement was seen by Crystal Palace chairman Ron Noades as essential for the future of football, but it was unpopular with both sets of fans.", "Charlton fans campaigned for a return to The Valley throughout their time at Selhurst Park.", "In 2005, Palace were relegated by Charlton at the Valley after a 2–2 draw.", "Palace needed a win to survive.", "However, with seven minutes left, Charlton equalised, relegating their rivals.", "Post-match, there was a well-publicised altercation between the two chairmen of the respective clubs, Richard Murray and Simon Jordan.", "Since their first meeting in the Football League in 1925, Charlton have won 17, drawn 13 and lost 26 games against Palace.", "The teams last met in 2015, a 4–1 win for Palace in the League Cup.Charlton are closest in proximity to Millwall than any other EFL club, with The Valley and The Den being less than four miles () apart.", "They last met in July 2020, a 1–0 win for Millwall at the Valley.", "Since their first Football League game in 1921, Charlton have won 11, drawn 26 and lost 37 league games (the two sides also met twice in the Anglo-Italian Cup in the 1992–93 season; Charlton winning one tie, and one draw).", "The Addicks have not beaten Millwall in the last 12 league fixtures between the sides; their last win came on 9 March 1996 at The Valley." ], [ "In popular culture", "Charlton Athletic featured in the ITV one-off drama ''Albert's Memorial'', shown on 12 September 2010 and starring David Jason and David Warner.In the long-running BBC sitcom ''Only Fools and Horses'', Rodney Charlton Trotter is named after the club.In the BBC science-fiction series ''Doctor Who'', the seventh Doctor's companion Ace (played by Sophie Aldred from 1987 to 1989) wears a Charlton Athletic badge on her black bomber jacket and the club is mentioned in Silver Nemesis.The Valley and manager Alan Curbishley made cameo appearances in the Sky One television series ''Dream Team''.Charlton Athletic assumes a pivotal role in the film ''The Silent Playground'' (1963).", "Three children get in to trouble when their mother's boyfriend 'Uncle' Alan (John Ronane), gives them pocket money to wander off on their own, so that he can attend a Charlton football match.", "There is some footage from the ground which Ronane is later seen leaving.Charlton Athletic has also featured in a number of book publications, in both the realm of fiction and factual/sports writing.", "These include works by Charlie Connelly and Paul Breen's work of popular fiction which is entitled ''The Charlton Men''.", "The book is set against Charlton's successful 2011–12 season when they won the League One title and promotion back to the Championship in concurrence with the 2011 London riots.Timothy Young, the protagonist in ''Out of the Shelter'', a novel by David Lodge, supports Charlton Athletic.", "The book describes Timothy listening to Charlton's victory in the 1947 FA Cup Final on the radio.A Charlton Athletic match against Manchester United in the 1950s is depicted in BBC Two television film United (released in 2011).A young Billy Butcher has a Charlton flag in his room in Amazon Prime Video series The Boys." ], [ "Records and statistics", "*Gseries The Boys.Sam Bartram is Charlton's record appearance maker, having played a total of 623 times between 1934 and 1956.But for six years lost to the Second World War, when no league football was played, this tally would be far higher.", "*Keith Peacock is the club's second highest appearance maker with 591 games between 1961 and 1979 He was also the first-ever substitute in a Football League game, replacing injured goalkeeper Mike Rose after 11 minutes of a match against Bolton Wanderers on 21 August 1965.", "*Defender and midfielder Radostin Kishishev is Charlton's record international appearance maker, having received 42 caps for Bulgaria while a Charlton player.", "*In total, 12 Charlton players have received full England caps.", "The first was Seth Plum, in 1923 and the most recent was Darren Bent, in 2006.Luke Young, with seven caps, is Charlton's most capped England international.", "*Charlton's record goalscorer is Derek Hales, who scored 168 times in all competitions in 368 matches, during two spells, for the club.", "*Counting only league goals, Stuart Leary is the club's record scorer with 153 goals between 1951 and 1962.", "*The record number of goals scored in one season is 33, scored by Ralph Allen in the 1934–35 season.", "*Charlton's record home attendance is 75,031 which was set on 12 February 1938 for an FA Cup match against Aston Villa*The record all-seated attendance is 27,111, The Valley's current capacity.", "This record was first set in September 2005 in a Premier League match against Chelsea and has since been equalled several times.AchievementRecord (year, division)Highest league finish Runners-up in 1936–37 (First Division)Most league points in a season 101 in 2011–2012 (League One)Most league goals in a season 107 in 1957–58 (Second Division)Record victory 8–0 v. Stevenage, 9 October 2018Record away victory 8–0 v. Stevenage, 9 October 2018Record defeat 1–11 v. Aston Villa, 14 November 1959Record FA Cup victory 7–0 v. Burton Albion, 7 January 1956Record League Cup victory 5–0 v. Brentford, 12 August 1980Most successive victories 12 matches (from 26 December 1999 to 7 March 2000)Most games without a win 18 matches (from 18 October 2008 to 13 January 2009)Most successive defeats 10 matches (from 11 April 1990 to 15 September 1990)Most successive draws 6 matches (from 13 December 1992 to 16 January 1993)Longest unbeaten 15 matches (from 4 October 1980 to 20 December 1980)Record attendance 75,031 v. Aston Villa, 17 October 1938Record league attendance 68,160 v. Arsenal, 17 October 1936Record gate receipts £400,920 v. Leicester City, 19 February 2005===Player records===AchievementPlayer (record)Most appearances Sam Bartram (623)Most appearances (outfield) Keith Peacock (591)Most goals Derek Hales (168)Most hat-tricks Johnny Summers and Eddie Firmani (8)Most capped player Dennis Rommedahl (126)Most capped player while at the club Radostin Kishishev (42)Oldest player Sam Bartram (42 years and 47 days)Youngest player Jonjo Shelvey (16 years and 59 days)Oldest scorer Chris Powell (38 years and 239 days)Youngest scorer Jonjo Shelvey (16 years and 310 days)Quickest scorer Jim Melrose (9 seconds)Quickest sending off Naby Sarr (1 minute)" ], [ "Players", "===First-team squad======Out on loan=== ===Under-21s squad=== ===Under-18s squad======Women's team======Player of the Year===* 1971 Paul Went* 1972 Keith Peacock* 1973 Arthur Horsfield* 1974 John Dunn* 1975 Richie Bowman* 1976 Derek Hales* 1977 Mike Flanagan* 1978 Keith Peacock* 1979 Keith Peacock* 1980 Les Berry* 1981 Nicky Johns* 1982 Terry Naylor* 1983 Nicky Johns* 1984 Nicky Johns* 1985 Mark Aizlewood* 1986 Mark Aizlewood* 1987 Bob Bolder* 1988 John Humphrey* 1989 John Humphrey* 1990 John Humphrey* 1991 Rob Lee* 1992 Simon Webster* 1993 Stuart Balmer* 1994 Carl Leaburn* 1995 Richard Rufus* 1996 John Robinson* 1997 Andy Petterson* 1998 Mark Kinsella* 1999 Mark Kinsella* 2000 Richard Rufus* 2001 Richard Rufus* 2002 Dean Kiely* 2003 Scott Parker* 2004 Dean Kiely* 2005 Luke Young* 2006 Darren Bent* 2007 Scott Carson* 2008 Matt Holland* 2009 Nicky Bailey* 2010 Christian Dailly* 2011 José Semedo* 2012 Chris Solly* 2013 Chris Solly* 2014 Diego Poyet* 2015 Jordan Cousins* 2016 Jordan Cousins* 2017 Ricky Holmes* 2018 Jay DaSilva* 2019 Lyle Taylor* 2020 Dillon Phillips* 2021 Jake Forster-Caskey* 2022 George Dobson* 2023 Jesurun Rak-Sakyi* 2024" ], [ "Club officials", "===Coaching staff===RoleNameTechnical Director Andy ScottManager Nathan JonesAssistant Manager Paul HartFirst Team Assistant Head Coach Curtis FlemingFirst Team Goalkeeping Coach Stephen HendersonFirst-Team Development Coach Jon De SouzaFirst-Team Lead Sports Scientist Ben TalbotFirst-Team Doctor Toby LongwillHead of Physical Performance Josh HornbyFirst-Team Head Physiotherapist Adam CoeFirst-Team Physiotherapist Alex NgFirst-Team Assistant Therapist Steve JacksonHead of Performance Analysis Brett ShawFirst-Team Kit Manager Wayne BaldacchinoAcademy Director Steve AvoryAcademy Head of Coaching Rhys WilliamsSenior Professional Development Phase Lead Coach Jason PearceLead U21s Coach Chris LockHead of Academy Sport Science and Medicine Danny CampbellSenior Academy Scout Bert DawkinsAcademy Performance Analyst James ParkerAcademy Physiotherapist Andriana TsiantoulaKit Assistant Ben MehmetKit Assistant James Simmons=== Managerial history ===Alan Curbishley managed Charlton between 1991 and 2006Source: Name Dates Achievements Walter Rayner June 1920 – May 1925 Alex MacFarlane May 1925 – January 1928 Albert Lindon January 1928 – June 1928 Alex MacFarlane June 1928 – December 1932 Third Division champions (1929) Albert Lindon December 1932 – May 1933 Jimmy Seed May 1933 – September 1956 Third Division champions (1935);Second Division runners-up (1936);First Division runners-up (1937);Football League War Cup co-winners (1944);FA Cup runners-up 1946;FA Cup winners 1947 David Clark (caretaker) September 1956 Jimmy Trotter September 1956 – October 1961 David Clark (caretaker) October 1961 – November 1961 Frank Hill November 1961 – August 1965 Bob Stokoe August 1965 – September 1967 Eddie Firmani September 1967 – March 1970 Theo Foley March 1970 – April 1974 Les Gore (caretaker) April 1974 – May 1974 Andy Nelson May 1974 – March 1980 Third Division 3rd place (promoted; 1975) Mike Bailey March 1980 – June 1981 Third Division 3rd place (promoted; 1981) Alan Mullery June 1981 – June 1982 Ken Craggs June 1982 – November 1982 Lennie Lawrence November 1982 – July 1991 Division Two runners-up (1986);Full Members Cup runners-up (1987) Alan Curbishley & Steve Gritt July 1991 – June 1995 Alan Curbishley June 1995 – May 2006 First Division play-off winners (1998);First Division champions (2000) Iain Dowie May 2006 – November 2006 Les Reed November 2006 – December 2006 Alan Pardew December 2006 – November 2008 Phil Parkinson November 2008 – January 2011 Keith Peacock (caretaker) January 2011 Chris Powell January 2011 – March 2014 League One champions (2012) José Riga March 2014 – May 2014 Bob Peeters May 2014 – January 2015 Damian Matthew & Ben Roberts (caretakers) January 2015 Guy Luzon January 2015 – October 2015 Karel Fraeye October 2015 – January 2016 José Riga January 2016 – May 2016 Russell Slade June 2016 – November 2016 Kevin Nugent (caretaker) November 2016 Karl Robinson November 2016 – March 2018 Lee Bowyer (caretaker) March 2018 – September 2018 Lee Bowyer September 2018 – March 2021 League One play-off winners (2019) Johnnie Jackson (caretaker) March 2021  Nigel Adkins March 2021 – October 2021 Johnnie Jackson (caretaker) October 2021 – December 2021 Johnnie Jackson December 2021 – May 2022 Ben Garner June 2022 – December 2022 Anthony Hayes (caretaker) December 2022 Dean Holden December 2022 – August 2023 Jason Pearce (caretaker) August 2023 – September 2023 Michael Appleton September 2023 – January 2024 Curtis Fleming (caretaker) January 2024 – February 2024 Nathan Jones February 2024 – ===List of chairmen===Year Name1921–1924 Douglas Oliver1924–1932 Edwin Radford1932–1951 Albert Gliksten1951–1962 Stanley Gliksten1962–1982 Michael Gliksten1982–1983 Mark Hulyer1983 Richard Collins1983–1984 Mark Hulyer1984 John Fryer1984–1985 Jimmy Hill1985–1987 John Fryer1987–1989 Richard Collins1989–1995 Roger Alwen1995–2008 Richard Murray (PLC)1995–2008 Martin Simons2008–2010 Derek Chappell2008–2010 Richard Murray2010–2014 Michael Slater 2014–2020 Richard Murray2020 Matt Southall 2020–2023 Thomas Sandgaard" ], [ "Honours and achievements", "Source:'''League'''*First Division (level 1)**Runners-up: 1936–37*Second Division / First Division (level 2)**Champions: 1999–2000**2nd place promotion: 1935–36, 1985–86**Play-off winners: 1987, 1998*Third Division South / Third Division / League One (level 3)**Champions: 1928–29 (South), 1934–35 (South), 2011–12**3rd place promotion: 1974–75, 1980–81**Play-off winners: 2019'''Cup'''*FA Cup**Winners: 1946–47**Runners-up: 1945–46*Full Members' Cup**Runners-up: 1986–87*Football League War Cup**Joint winners: 1943–44*Kent Senior Cup**Winners: 1994–95, 2012–13, 2014–15**Runners-up: 2015–16*London Senior Cup**Winners: 2022–23" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===*" ], [ "External links", "** Charlton Athletic – UEFA.com* Charlton Athletic information and statistics – Soccerbase" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cross-country skiing" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cross-country skiing''' is a form of skiing whereby skiers traverse snow-covered terrain without use of ski lifts or other assistance.", "Cross-country skiing is widely practiced as a sport and recreational activity; however, some still use it as a means of transportation.", "Variants of cross-country skiing are adapted to a range of terrain which spans unimproved, sometimes mountainous terrain to groomed courses that are specifically designed for the sport.Modern cross-country skiing is similar to the original form of skiing, from which all skiing disciplines evolved, including alpine skiing, ski jumping and Telemark skiing.", "Skiers propel themselves either by striding forward (classic style) or side-to-side in a skating motion (skate skiing), aided by arms pushing on ski poles against the snow.", "It is practised in regions with snow-covered landscapes, including Europe, Canada, Russia, the United States, Australia and New Zealand.Competitive cross-country skiing is one of the Nordic skiing sports.", "Cross-country skiing and rifle marksmanship are the two components of biathlon.", "Ski orienteering is a form of cross-country skiing, which includes map navigation along snow trails and tracks." ], [ "History", "Sami hunter using skis of unequal length—short for traction, long for gliding—and a single pole.", "Both were employed until .", "(1673 woodcut)The word ski comes from the Old Norse word which means stick of wood.", "Skiing started as a technique for traveling cross-country over snow on skis, starting almost five millennia ago with beginnings in Scandinavia.", "It may have been practised as early as 600 BCE in Daxing'anling, in what is now China.", "Early historical evidence includes Procopius's (around CE 550) description of Sami people as ''skrithiphinoi'' translated as \"ski running samis\".", "Birkely argues that the Sami people have practiced skiing for more than 6000 years, evidenced by the very old Sami word ''čuoigat'' for skiing.", "Egil Skallagrimsson's 950 CE saga describes King Haakon the Good's practice of sending his tax collectors out on skis.", "The Gulating law (1274) stated that \"No moose shall be disturbed by skiers on private land.\"", "Cross-country skiing evolved from a utilitarian means of transportation to being a worldwide recreational activity and sport, which branched out into other forms of skiing starting in the mid-1800s.Early skiers used one long pole or spear in addition to the skis.", "The first depiction of a skier with two ski poles dates to 1741.Traditional skis, used for snow travel in Norway and elsewhere into the 1800s, often comprised one short ski with a natural fur traction surface, the ''andor'', and one long for gliding, the ''langski''—one being up to longer than the other—allowing skiers to propel themselves with a scooter motion.", "This combination has a long history among the Sami people.", "Skis up to 280 cm have been produced in Finland, and the longest recorded ski in Norway is 373 cm.===Transportation===German ''Reichswehr'' military patrol on skis training in the Giant Mountains, January 1932.Ski warfare, the use of ski-equipped troops in war, is first recorded by the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus in the 13th century.", "These troops were reportedly able to cover distances comparable to that of light cavalry.", "The garrison in Trondheim used skis at least from 1675, and the Danish-Norwegian army included specialized skiing battalions from 1747—details of military ski exercises from 1767 are on record.", "Skis were used in military exercises in 1747.In 1799 French traveller Jacques de la Tocnaye recorded his visit to Norway in his travel diary: Norwegian immigrants used skis (\"Norwegian snowshoes\") in the US midwest from around 1836.Norwegian immigrant \"Snowshoe Thompson\" transported mail by skiing across the Sierra Nevada between California and Nevada from 1856.In 1888 Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his team crossed the Greenland icecap on skis.", "Norwegian workers on the Buenos Aires - Valparaiso railway line introduced skiing in South America around 1890.In 1910 Roald Amundsen used skis on his South Pole Expedition.", "In 1902 the Norwegian consul in Kobe imported ski equipment and introduced skiing to the Japanese, motivated by the death of Japanese soldiers during a snow storm.", "Starting in 1919, Vladimir Lenin helped popularize the activity in the Soviet Union.===Sport===Michal Malák skate-skis at a qualifier for the Tour de Ski, 2007.|thumb|rightNorwegian skiing regiments organized military skiing contests in the 18th century, divided in four classes: shooting at a target while skiing at \"top speed\", downhill racing among trees, downhill racing on large slopes without falling, and \"long racing\" on \"flat ground\".", "An early record of a public ski competition occurred in Tromsø, 1843.In Norwegian, refers to \"competitive skiing where the goal is to complete a specific distance in groomed tracks in the shortest possible time\".", "In Norway, ''ski touring competitions'' () are long-distance cross-country competitions open to the public, competition is usually within age intervals.A new technique, skate skiing, was experimented with early in the 20th Century, but was not widely adopted until the 1980s.", "Johan Grøttumsbråten used the skating technique at the 1931 World Championship in Oberhof, one of the earliest recorded use of skating in competitive cross-country skiing.", "This technique was later used in ski orienteering in the 1960s on roads and other firm surfaces.", "It became widespread during the 1980s after the success of Bill Koch (United States) in 1982 Cross-country Skiing Championships drew more attention to the skating style.", "Norwegian skier Ove Aunli started using the technique in 1984, when he found it to be much faster than classic style.", "Finnish skier, Pauli Siitonen, developed a one-sided variant of the style in the 1970s, leaving one ski in the track while skating to the side with the other one during endurance events; this became known as the \"marathon skate\".===Terminology===Arctic travelers, Fridtjov Nansen and Hjalmar Johansen at the camp of Frederick Jackson on Northbrook Island in 1896.The word ''ski'' comes from the Old Norse word which means \"cleft wood\", \"stick of wood\" or \"ski\".", "Norwegian language does not use a verb-form equivalent in idiomatic speech, unlike English \"to ski\".", "In modern Norwegian, a variety of terms refer to cross-country skiing, including:* (literally \"walk on skis\")—a general term for self-propelled skiing* (literally \"hiking on skis\")—refers to ski touring as recreation* (literally \"long race\")—refers to cross-country ski racingIn contrast, alpine skiing is referred to as (literally \"stand on skis\").Fridtjof Nansen, describes the crossing of Greenland as , literally \"On skis across Greenland\", while the English edition of the report was titled, ''The first crossing of Greenland''.", "Nansen referred to the activity of traversing snow on skis as (he used the term also in the English translation), which may be translated as ''ski running''.", "Nansen used , regarding all forms of skiing, but noted that ski jumping is purely a competitive sport and not for amateurs.", "He further noted that in some competitions the skier \"is also required to show his skill in turning his ski to one side or the other within given marks\" at full speed on a steep hill.", "Nansen regarded these forms (i.e., jumping and slalom) as \"special arts\", and believed that the most important branch of skiing was travel \"in an ordinary way across the country\".", "In Germany, Nansen's Greenland report was published as (literally \"On snowshoes through Greenland\").", "The German term, , was supplanted by the borrowed Norwegian word, , in the late 19th century.", "The Norwegian encyclopedia of sports also uses the term, , (literally \"ski running\") for all forms of skiing.", "Around 1900 the word was used in German in the same sense as ." ], [ "Recreation", "Ski touring in untracked terrain.Recreational cross-country skiing includes ski touring and groomed-trail skiing, typically at resorts or in parklands.", "It is an accessible form of recreation for persons with vision and mobility impairments.", "A related form of recreation is dog skijoring—a winter sport where a cross-country skier is assisted by one or more dogs.===Ski touring===Ski touring takes place off-piste and outside of ski resorts.", "Tours may extend over multiple days.", "Typically, skis, bindings, and boots allow for free movement of the heel to enable a walking pace, as with Nordic disciplines and unlike Alpine skiing.", "Ski touring's subgenre ski mountaineering involves independently navigating and route finding through potential avalanche terrain and often requires familiarity with meteorology along with skiing skills.", "Ski touring can be faster and easier than summer hiking in some terrain, allowing for traverses and ascents that would be harder in the summer.", "Skis can also be used to access backcountry alpine climbing routes when snow is off the technical route, but still covers the hiking trail.", "In some countries, organizations maintain a network of huts for use by cross-country skiers in wintertime.", "For example, the Norwegian Trekking Association maintains over 400 huts stretching across thousands of kilometres of trails which hikers can use in the summer and skiers in the winter.===Groomed-trail skiing===Groomed ski trails for cross-country in Thuringia, track-set for classic skiing at the sides and groomed for skate skiing in the center.Groomed trail skiing occurs at facilities such as Nordmarka (Oslo), Royal Gorge Cross Country Ski Resort and Gatineau Park in Quebec, where trails are laid out and groomed for both classic and skate-skiing.", "Such grooming and track setting (for classic technique) requires specialized equipment and techniques that adapt to the condition of the snow.", "Trail preparation employs snow machines which tow snow-compaction, texturing and track-setting devices.", "Groomers must adapt such equipment to the condition of the snow—crystal structure, temperature, degree of compaction, moisture content, etc.", "Depending on the initial condition of the snow, grooming may achieve an increase in density for new-fallen snow or a decrease in density for icy or compacted snow.", "Cross-country ski facilities may incorporate a course design that meets homologation standards for such organizations as the International Olympic Committee, the International Ski Federation, or national standards.", "Standards address course distances, degree of difficulty with maximums in elevation difference and steepness—both up and downhill, plus other factors.Some facilities have night-time lighting on select trails—called ''lysløype'' (light trails) in Norwegian and ''elljusspår'' (electric-light trails) in Swedish.", "The first ''lysløype'' opened in 1946 in Nordmarka and at Byåsen (Trondheim)." ], [ "Competition", "Cross-country ski competition encompasses a variety of formats for races over courses of varying lengths according to rules sanctioned by the International Ski Federation (FIS) and by national organizations, such as the U.S.", "Ski and Snowboard Association and Cross Country Ski Canada.", "It also encompasses cross-country ski marathon events, sanctioned by the Worldloppet Ski Federation, cross-country ski orienteering events, sanctioned by the International Orienteering Federation, and Paralympic cross-country skiing, sanctioned by the International Paralympic Committee.===FIS-sanctioned competition===Swede Anna Haag with classic technique in the women's 10 km classic race at the 2011 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships in Oslo, Norway.|thumb|rightThe FIS Nordic World Ski Championships have been held in various numbers and types of events since 1925 for men and since 1954 for women.", "From 1924 to 1939, the World Championships were held every year, including the Winter Olympic Games.", "After World War II, the World Championships were held every four years from 1950 to 1982.Since 1985, the World Championships have been held in odd-numbered years.", "Notable cross-country ski competitions include the Winter Olympics, the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships, and the FIS World Cup events (including the Holmenkollen).===Other sanctioned competition===Cross-country ski marathons—races with distances greater than 40 kilometers—have two cup series, the Ski Classics, which started in 2011, and the Worldloppet.", "Skiers race in classic or free-style (skating) events, depending on the rules of the race.", "Notable ski marathons, include the ''Vasaloppet'' in Sweden, ''Birkebeineren'' in Norway, the Tartu Maraton in Estonia, the Engadin Skimarathon in Switzerland, the American Birkebeiner, the Tour of Anchorage in Anchorage, Alaska, and the Boreal Loppet, held in Forestville, Quebec, Canada.Biathlon combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting.", "Depending on the shooting performance, extra distance or time is added to the contestant's total running distance/time.", "For each shooting round, the biathlete must hit five targets; the skier receives a penalty for each missed target, which varies according to the competition rules.Ski orienteering is a form of cross-country skiing competition that requires navigation in a landscape, making optimal route choices at racing speeds.", "Standard orienteering maps are used, but with special green overprinting of trails and tracks to indicate their navigability in snow; other symbols indicate whether any roads are snow-covered or clear.", "Standard skate-skiing equipment is used, along with a map holder attached to the chest.", "It is one of the four orienteering disciplines recognized by the International Orienteering Federation.", "Upper body strength is especially important because of frequent double poling along narrow snow trails.Paralympic cross-country ski competition is an adaptation of cross-country skiing for athletes with disabilities.", "Paralympic cross-country skiing includes standing events, sitting events (for wheelchair users), and events for visually impaired athletes under the rules of the International Paralympic Committee.", "These are divided into several categories for people who are missing limbs, have amputations, are blind, or have any other physical disability, to continue their sport." ], [ "Techniques", "Skiers employing step turns, while descending during a 2006 FIS World Cup Cross Country competition in Otepää, rightVideo of skiers demonstrating a variety of techniques.Cross-country skiing has two basic propulsion techniques, which apply to different surfaces: classic (undisturbed snow and tracked snow) and skate skiing (firm, smooth snow surfaces).", "The classic technique relies on a wax or texture on the ski bottom under the foot for traction on the snow to allow the skier to slide the other ski forward in virgin or tracked snow.", "With the skate skiing technique a skier slides on alternating skis on a firm snow surface at an angle from each other in a manner similar to ice skating.", "Both techniques employ poles with baskets that allow the arms to participate in the propulsion.", "Specialized equipment is adapted to each technique and each type of terrain.", "A variety of turns are used, when descending.Poles contribute to forward propulsion, either simultaneously (usual for the skate technique) or in alternating sequence (common for the classical technique as the \"diagonal stride\").", "Double poling is also used with the classical technique when higher speed can be achieved on flats and slight downhills than is available in the diagonal stride, which is favored to achieve higher power going uphill.===Classic===The classic style is often used on prepared trails (pistes) that have pairs of parallel grooves (tracks) cut into the snow.", "It is also the most usual technique where no tracks have been prepared.", "With this technique, each ski is pushed forward from the other stationary ski in a striding and gliding motion, alternating foot to foot.", "With the \"diagonal stride\" variant the poles are planted alternately on the opposite side of the forward-striding foot; with the \"kick-double-pole\" variant the poles are planted simultaneously with every other stride.", "At times, especially with gentle descents, double poling is the sole means of propulsion.", "On uphill terrain, techniques include the \"side step\" for steep slopes, moving the skis perpendicular to the fall line, the \"herringbone\" for moderate slopes, where the skier takes alternating steps with the skis splayed outwards, and, for gentle slopes, the skier uses the diagonal technique with shorter strides and greater arm force on the poles.===Skate skiing===With skate skiing, the skier provides propulsion on a smooth, firm snow surface by pushing alternating skis away from one another at an angle, in a manner similar to ice skating.", "Skate-skiing usually involves a coordinated use of poles and the upper body to add impetus, sometimes with a double pole plant each time the ski is extended on a temporarily \"dominant\" side (\"V1\") or with a double pole plant each time the ski is extended on either side (\"V2\").", "Skiers climb hills with these techniques by widening the angle of the \"V\" and by making more frequent, shorter strides and more forceful use of poles.", "A variant of the technique is the \"marathon skate\" or \"Siitonen step\", where the skier leaves one ski in the track while skating outwards to the side with the other ski.===Turns===Turns, used while descending or for braking, include the snowplough (or \"wedge turn\"), the stem christie (or \"wedge christie\"), parallel turn, and the Telemark turn.", "The step turn is used for maintaining speed during descents or out of track on flats." ], [ "Equipment", "Pre-1940 ski gear in Oslo: bamboo poles, wooden skis, and cable bindings.Equipment comprises skis, poles, boots and bindings; these vary according to:* Technique, classic vs skate* Terrain, which may vary from groomed trails to wilderness* Performance level, from recreational use to competition at the elite level===Skis===Cross-country ski equipment for skate-skiing (left) and classic-style skiing (right).", "Ski and pole lengths are different for each.", "Classic skis have a \"grip zone\" in the area under the binding.Skis used in cross-country are lighter and narrower than those used in alpine skiing.", "Ski bottoms are designed to provide a gliding surface and, for classic skis, a traction zone under foot.", "The base of the gliding surface is a plastic material that is designed both to minimize friction and, in many cases, to accept waxes.", "Glide wax may be used on the tails and tips of classic skis and across the length of skate skis.====Types====Each type of ski is sized and designed differently.", "Length affects maneuverability; camber affects pressure on the snow beneath the feet of the skier; side-cut affects the ease of turning; width affects forward friction; overall area on the snow affects bearing capacity; and tip geometry affects the ability to penetrate new snow or to stay in a track.", "Each of the following ski types has a different combination of these attributes:* '''Classic skis''': Designed for skiing in tracks.", "For adult skiers (between 155 cm/50 kg and 185 cm/75 kg), recommended lengths are between 180 and 210 centimetres (approximately 115% of the skier's height).", "Traction comes from a \"grip zone\" underfoot that when bearing the skier's weight engages either a textured gripping surface or a grip wax.", "Accordingly, these skis are classified as \"waxable\" or \"waxless\".", "Recreational waxless skis generally require little attention and are adapted for casual use.", "Waxable skis, if prepared correctly, provide better grip and glide.", ":When the skier's weight is distributed on both skis, the ski's camber diminishes the pressure of the grip zone on the snow and promotes bearing on the remaining area of the ski—the \"glide zone\".", "A test for stiffness of camber is made with a piece of paper under the skier's foot, standing on skis on a flat, hard surface—the paper should be pinned throughout the grip zone of the ski on which all the skier's weight is placed, but slide freely when the skier's weight is bearing equally on both skis.", "* '''Skate skis''': Designed for skiing on groomed surfaces.", "Recommended lengths are between 170 and 200 centimetres (up to 110% of the skier's height) for adult skiers.", "The entire bottom of each skate ski is a glide zone—prepared for maximum glide.", "Traction comes from the skier pushing away from the edge of the previous ski onto the next ski.", "* '''Back country skis''': Designed for ski touring on natural snow conditions.", "Recommended lengths are between 150 and 195 centimeters for adult skiers, depending on height and weight of the user.", "Back country skis are typically heavier and wider than classic and skate skis; they often have metal edges for better grip on hard snow; and their greater sidecut helps to carve turns.", ":The geometry of a back country ski depends on its purpose—skis suited for forested areas where loose powder can predominate may be shorter and wider than those selected for open, exposed areas where compacted snow may prevail.", "Sidecut on Telemark skis promotes turning in forest and rugged terrain.", "Width and short length aid turning in loose and deep snow.", "Longer, narrower and more rigid skis with sharp edges are suited for snow that has been compacted by wind or freeze-thaw.", "Touring ski design may represent a general-purpose compromise among these different ski conditions, plus being acceptable for use in groomed tracks.", "Traction may come from a textured or waxed grip zone, as with classic skis, or from ski skins, which are applied to the ski bottom for long, steep ascents and have hairs or mechanical texture that prevents sliding backwards.====Gliding surface====Glide waxes enhance the speed of the gliding surface, and are applied by ironing them onto the ski and then polishing the ski bottom.", "Three classes of glide wax are available, depending on the level of desired performance with higher performance coming at higher cost.", "Hydrocarbon glide waxes, based on paraffin are common for recreational use.", "Race waxes comprise a combination of fluorinated hydrocarbon waxes and fluorocarbon overlays.", "Fluorocarbons decrease surface tension and surface area of the water between the ski and the snow, increasing speed and glide of the ski under specific conditions.", "Either combined with the wax or applied after in a spray, powder, or block form, fluorocarbons significantly improve the glide of the ski.", "Since the 2021-2022 race season, fluorinated products are banned in FIS sanctioned competitions.====Traction surface====Skis designed for classic technique, both in track and in virgin snow, rely on a traction zone, called the \"grip zone\" or \"kick zone\", underfoot.", "This comes either from a) ''texture'', such as \"fish scales\" or mohair skins, designed to slide forward but not backwards, that is built into the grip zone of waxless skis, or from applied devices, e.g.", "climbing skins, or b) from ''grip waxes''.", "Grip waxes are classified according to their hardness: harder waxes are for colder and newer snow.", "An incorrect choice of grip wax for the snow conditions encountered may cause ski slippage (wax too hard for the conditions) or snow sticking to the grip zone (wax too soft for the conditions).", "Grip waxes generate grip by interacting with snow crystals, which vary with temperature, age and compaction.", "Hard grip waxes do not work well for snow which has metamorphosed to having coarse grains, whether icy or wet.", "In these conditions, skiers opt for a stickier substance, called ''klister''.===Boots and bindings===Cross-country ski boot and ''standardized'' binding system for classic skiing.", "The skier clicks the toe of the boot into the binding and releases with the button in front of the boot.Ski boots are attached to the ski only at the toe, leaving the heel free.", "Depending on application, boots may be lightweight (performance skiing) or heavier and more supportive (back-country skiing).Bindings connect the boot to the ski.", "There are three primary groups of binding systems used in cross-country skiing (in descending order of importance):* '''Standardized system''': Boots and bindings have an integrated connection, typically a bar across the front end of the sole of the boot, and platform on which the boot rests.", "Two families of standards prevail: NNN (New Nordic Norm) and SNS (Salomon Nordic System) Profil.", "Both systems have variants for skiing on groomed surfaces and in back country.", "These systems are the most common type of binding.", "* '''Three-pin''': The boot-gripping system comprises three pins that correspond to three holes in the sole of the boot's toe, used primarily for back-country skiing.", "* '''Cable''': A cable secures the free-moving heel and keeps the toe of the boot pushed into a boot-gripping section, used primarily for back-country and telemark skiing.===Poles===Ski poles are used for balance and propulsion.", "Modern cross-country ski poles are made from aluminium, fibreglass-reinforced plastic, or carbon fibre, depending on weight, cost and performance parameters.", "Formerly they were made of wood or bamboo.", "They feature a foot (called a basket) near the end of the shaft that provides a pushing platform, as it makes contact with the snow.", "Baskets vary in size, according to the expected softness/firmness of the snow.", "Racing poles feature smaller, lighter baskets than recreational poles.", "Poles designed for skating are longer than those designed for classic skiing.", "Traditional skiing in the 1800s used a single pole for both cross-country and downhill.", "The single pole was longer and stronger than the poles that are used in pairs.", "In competitive cross-country poles in pairs were introduced around 1900." ], [ "Gallery", "Image:Skigudinne.jpg|An early depiction of a skier—a Sami woman or goddess hunting on skis by Olaus Magnus (1553).File:Birkebeinerne ski01.jpg|Loyal retainers transporting Prince Haakon IV of Norway to safety on skis during the winter of 1206—1869 depiction by Knud Bergslien.File:138.Kronprins Olav - no-nb digifoto 20150710 00006 bldsa pk kgl0061.jpg|Olav V of Norway as crown-prince in 1939Image:olympic skier in ice storm.jpg|A skate-skier in Gatineau Park, Quebec, a North American groomed-trail ski venue.File:AchenseeWinter01.JPG|A recreational cross-country trail, groomed for classic skiing only, in Tyrol.File:Blind skier and guide.jpg|A blind cross-country skier with guide at a regional Ski for Light event.File:Skijor worlds.jpg|Dog skijoring—dogs provide added propulsion to the cross-country skier." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Tutorial on classic style.", "* Tutorial on skate skiing.", "* Tutorial on the snowplough or wedge turn.", "* Tutorial on the stem or wedge christie turn.", "* Tutorial on the Telemark turn.", "* Tutorial on the step turn." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro" ], [ "Introduction", "Copacabana, early 20th centuryCopacabana Beach in 1971A view of the Copacabana beach from Sugarloaf MountainThe Portuguese pavement wave pattern at Copacabana beachMap of CopacabanaCopacabana at duskCopacabana Palace HotelFireworks during the celebrations of the New YearCopacabana sea watersCopacabana Beach during World Youth Day 2013.", "'''Copacabana''' ( , , ) is a (neighbourhood) located in the South Zone of the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.", "It is most prominently known for its 4 km (2.5 miles) balneario beach, which is one of the most famous in the world." ], [ "History", "The district was originally called (translated from the Tupi language, it means \"the way of the \", the being a kind of bird) until the mid-18th century.", "It was renamed after the construction of a chapel holding a replica of the Virgen de Copacabana, the patron saint of Bolivia." ], [ "Characteristics", "Copacabana begins at Princesa Isabel Avenue and ends at Posto Seis (lifeguard watchtower Six).", "Beyond Copacabana, there are two small beaches: one, inside Fort Copacabana and the other, right after it: Diabo (\"Devil\") Beach.", "Arpoador beach, where surfers go after its perfect waves, comes next, followed by the famous borough of Ipanema.", "The area served as one of the four \"Olympic Zones\" during the 2016 Summer Olympics.", "According to Riotur, the Tourism Secretariat of Rio de Janeiro, there are 63 hotels and 10 hostels in Copacabana." ], [ "Copacabana Beach", "Copacabana beach, located at the Atlantic shore, stretches from Posto Dois (lifeguard watchtower Two) to Posto Seis (lifeguard watchtower Six).", "Leme is at Posto Um (lifeguard watchtower One).", "There are historic forts at both ends of Copacabana beach; Fort Copacabana, built in 1914, is at the south end by Posto Seis and Fort Duque de Caxias, built in 1779, at the north end.", "Many hotels, restaurants, bars, nightclubs and residential buildings are located in the area.", "On Sundays and holidays, one side of Avenida Atlântica is closed to cars, giving residents and tourists more space for activities along the beach.Copacabana Beach plays host to millions of revellers during the annual New Year's Eve celebrations, and for the first three editions of the tournament, has been the official venue of the FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup." ], [ "Copacabana promenade", "The Copacabana promenade is a pavement landscape in large scale (4 kilometres long).", "It was rebuilt in 1970 and has used a black and white Portuguese pavement design since its origin in the 1930s: a geometric wave.", "The Copacabana promenade was designed by Roberto Burle Marx." ], [ "Living standard", "Copacabana has the 12th highest Human Development Index in Rio; the 2000 census put the HDI of Copacabana at 0.902." ], [ "Neighbourhood", "According to the IBGE, 160,000 people live in Copacabana and 44,000 or 27.5% of them are 60 years old or older.", "Copacabana covers an area of 5.220 km which gives the borough a population density of 20,400 people per km.", "Residential buildings eleven to thirteen stories high built next to each other dominate the borough.", "Houses and two-story buildings are rare.When Rio was the capital of Brazil, Copacabana was considered one of the best neighborhoods in the country." ], [ "Transportation", "More than 40 different bus routes serve Copacabana, as do three subway Metro stations: Cantagalo, Siqueira Campos and Cardeal Arcoverde.Three major arteries parallel to each other cut across the entire borough: Avenida Atlântica (Atlantic Avenue), which is a 6-lane, 4 km avenue by the beachside, Nossa Senhora de Copacabana Avenue and Barata Ribeiro/Raul Pompéia Street both of which are 4 lanes and 3.5 km in length.", "Barata Ribeiro Street changes its name to Raul Pompéia Street after the Sá Freire Alvim Tunnel.", "Twenty-four streets intersect all three major arteries, and seven other streets intersect some of the three." ], [ "Notable events", "* On 26 April 1949, broke in two as she was being towed into Rio de Janeiro harbour.", "Much of her cargo of oranges was washed up upon the beach.", "* On December 31, 1994, the New Year's Eve celebrations featured a Rod Stewart concert with an attendance of 3.5 million, making it the largest concert crowd ever.", "More recently, the beach has been a site for huge free concerts unrelated to the year-end festivities.", "On March 21, 2005, Lenny Kravitz performed there in front of 300,000 people, on a Monday night.", "On February 18, 2006, a Saturday, The Rolling Stones surpassed that mark by far, attracting over 1.5 million people to the beach.", "* On July 7, 2007, the beach hosted the Brazilian leg of the Live Earth concerts, which attracted 400,000 people.", "As the headliner, Lenny Kravitz got to play the venue a second time, with Jorge Benjor, Macy Gray, O Rappa and Pharrell as the main opening acts.", "* On October 2, 2009, 100,000 people filled the beach for a huge beach party as the IOC announced Rio would be hosting the 2016 Olympics.", "11 of the 15 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cups have taken place here.", "* On July 28, 2013, the beach hosted the final event of the World Youth Day 2013.About 3 million people including 3 presidents joined Pope Francis when he celebrated the holy mass.", "* From May till July, 2014 the United Buddy Bears exhibit was held on the Copacabana promenade and attracted more than 1,000,000 people.", "The presentation consisted of more than 140 bear sculptures, each two metres high and designed by a different artist.", "* In August 2016, Copacabana Beach was the site of beach volleyball in the Olympic Games." ], [ "New Year's Eve in Copacabana", "The fireworks display in Rio de Janeiro to celebrate New Year's Eve is one of the largest in the world, lasting 15 to 20 minutes.", "It is estimated that 2,000,000 people go to Copacabana Beach to see the spectacle.", "The festival also includes a concert that extends throughout the night.", "The celebration has become one of the biggest tourist attractions of Rio de Janeiro, attracting visitors from all over Brazil as well as from different parts of the world, and the city hotels generally stay fully booked.", "The celebration is broadcast live on major Brazilian networks including TV Globo.===History===New Year's Eve has been celebrated on Copacabana beach since the 1950s when cults of African origin such as Candomblé and Umbanda gathered in small groups dressed in white for ritual celebrations.", "The first fireworks display occurred in 1976, sponsored by a hotel on the waterfront and this has been repeated ever since.", "In the 1990s the city saw it as a great opportunity to promote the city and organized and expanded the event.An assessment made during the New Year's Eve 1992 highlighted the risks associated with increasing crowd numbers on Copacabana beach after the fireworks display.", "Since the 1993-94 event concerts have been held on the beach to retain the public.", "The result was a success with egress spaced out over a period of 2 hours without the previous turmoil, although critics claimed that it denied the spirit of the New Year's tradition of a religious festival with fireworks by the sea.", "The following year Rod Stewart beat attendance records.", "Finally, the Tribute to Tom Jobim - with Gal Costa, Gilberto Gil, Caetano Veloso, Chico Buarque, and Paulinho da Viola - consolidated the shows at the Copacabana Réveillon.There was a need to transform the fireworks display in a show of the same quality.", "The fireworks display was created by entrepreneurs Ricardo Amaral and Marius.", "From the previous 8–10 minutes the time was extended to 20 minutes and the quality and diversity of the fireworks was improved.", "A technical problem in fireworks 2000 required the use of ferries from New Year's Eve 2001-02.New Year's Eve has begun to compete with the Carnival, and since 1992 it has been a tourist attraction in its own right.There was no celebration in 2020–21 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but the fireworks show went on." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cy Young Award" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Cy Young Award''' is given annually to the best pitchers in Major League Baseball (MLB), one each for the American League (AL) and National League (NL).", "The award was introduced in 1956 by Baseball Commissioner Ford Frick in honor of Hall of Fame pitcher Cy Young, who died in 1955.The award was originally given to the single best pitcher in the major leagues, but in 1967, after the retirement of Frick, the award was given to one pitcher in each league.Each league's award is voted on by members of the Baseball Writers' Association of America, with one representative from each team.", "As of the 2010 season, each voter places a vote for first, second, third, fourth, and fifth place among the pitchers of each league.", "The formula used to calculate the final scores is a weighted sum of the votes.", "The pitcher with the highest score in each league wins the award.", "If two pitchers receive the same number of votes, the award is shared.", "From 1970 to 2009, writers voted for three pitchers, with the formula of five points for a first-place vote, three for a second-place vote and one for a third-place vote.", "Before 1970, writers only voted for the best pitcher and used a formula of one point per vote." ], [ "History", "Cy Young, for whom the award is namedThe Cy Young Award was introduced in 1956 by Commissioner of Baseball Ford C. Frick in honor of Hall of Fame pitcher Cy Young, who died in 1955.Originally given to the single best pitcher in the major leagues, the award changed its format over time.", "From 1956 to 1966, the award was given to one pitcher in Major League Baseball.", "After Frick retired in 1967, William Eckert became the new Commissioner of Baseball.", "Due to fan requests, Eckert announced that the Cy Young Award would be given out both in the American League and the National League.", "From 1956 to 1958, a pitcher was not allowed to win the award on more than one occasion; this rule was eliminated in 1959.After a tie in the 1969 voting for the Cy Young Award, the process was changed, in which each writer was to vote for three pitchers: the first-place vote received five points, the second-place vote received three points, and the third-place vote received one point.The first recipient of the Cy Young Award was Don Newcombe of the Dodgers.", "The Dodgers are the franchise with the most Cy Young Awards.", "In 1957, Warren Spahn became the first left-handed pitcher to win the award.", "In 1963, Sandy Koufax became the first pitcher to win the award in a unanimous vote; two years later he became the first multiple winner.", "In 1978, Gaylord Perry (age 40) became the oldest pitcher to receive the award, a record that stood until broken in 2004 by Roger Clemens (age 42).", "The youngest recipient was Dwight Gooden (age 20 in 1985).", "In 2012, R. A. Dickey became the first knuckleball pitcher to win the award.In 1974, Mike Marshall became the first relief pitcher to win the award.", "In 1992, Dennis Eckersley was the first modern closer (first player to be used almost exclusively in ninth-inning situations) to win the award, and since then only one other relief pitcher has won the award, Éric Gagné in 2003 (also a closer).", "A total of nine relief pitchers have won the Cy Young Award across both leagues.Steve Carlton in 1982 became the first pitcher to win more than three Cy Young Awards, while Greg Maddux in 1994 became the first to win at least three in a row (and received a fourth straight the following year), a feat later repeated by Randy Johnson." ], [ "Winners", "+KeyYearEach year is linked to an article about that Major League Baseball season.ERAEarned run average (#) Number of wins by pitchers who have won the award multiple times*Also named Most Valuable Player (11 occurrences as of 2023)**Also named Rookie of the Year (1 occurrence as of 2023, by Fernando Valenzuela)Member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum (21 individuals as of 2023)===Major Leagues combined (1956–1966)===Don Newcombe, the first winnerYearPitcherTeamRecordSavesERAK's*Brooklyn Dodgers (NL) 27–7 0 3.06 139Milwaukee Braves (NL) 21–11 3 2.69 111New York Yankees (AL) 21–7 1 2.97 168Chicago White Sox (AL) 22–10 0 3.17 179Pittsburgh Pirates (NL) 20–9 0 3.08 120New York Yankees (AL) 25–4 0 3.21 209Los Angeles Dodgers (NL) 25–9 1 2.84 232*Los Angeles Dodgers (NL) 25–5 0 1.88 306Los Angeles Angels (AL) 20–9 4 1.65 207 (2) Los Angeles Dodgers (NL) 26–8 2 2.04 382 (3)Los Angeles Dodgers (NL) 27–9 0 1.73 317===American League (1967–present)===Gerrit Cole, 2023 AL winnerYearPitcherTeamRecordSavesERAK'sBoston Red Sox 22–9 0 3.16 246*Detroit Tigers 31–6 0 1.96 280Baltimore Orioles 23–11 0 2.38 182 (2)Detroit Tigers 24–9 0 2.80 181Minnesota Twins 24–12 0 3.04 168*Oakland Athletics 24–8 0 1.82 301Cleveland Indians 24–16 1 1.92 234Baltimore Orioles 22–9 1 2.40 168Oakland Athletics 25–12 0 2.49 143 (2)Baltimore Orioles 23–11 1 2.09 193 (3)Baltimore Orioles 22–13 0 2.51 159New York Yankees 13–5 26 2.17 68New York Yankees 25–3 0 1.74 248Baltimore Orioles 23–9 0 3.08 190Baltimore Orioles 25–7 0 3.23 149*Milwaukee Brewers 6–3 28 1.04 61Milwaukee Brewers 18–6 0 3.34 105Chicago White Sox 24–10 0 3.66 148*Detroit Tigers 9–3 32 1.92 112Kansas City Royals 20–6 0 2.87 158*Boston Red Sox 24–4 0 2.48 238 (2)Boston Red Sox 20–9 0 2.97 256Minnesota Twins 24–7 0 2.64 193 (2)Kansas City Royals 23–6 0 2.16 193Oakland Athletics 27–6 0 2.95 127 (3)Boston Red Sox 18–10 0 2.62 241*Oakland Athletics 7–1 51 1.91 93Chicago White Sox 22–10 0 3.37 158Kansas City Royals 16–5 0 2.94 132Seattle Mariners 18–2 0 2.48 294Toronto Blue Jays 20–10 0 3.22 177 (4)Toronto Blue Jays 21–7 0 2.05 292 (5)Toronto Blue Jays 20–6 0 2.65 271 (2)Boston Red Sox 23–4 0 2.07 313 (3)Boston Red Sox 18–6 0 1.74 284 (6)New York Yankees 20–3 0 3.51 213Oakland Athletics 23–5 0 2.75 182Toronto Blue Jays 22–7 0 3.25 204Minnesota Twins 20–6 0 2.61 265Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim 21–8 0 3.48 157 (2)Minnesota Twins 19–6 0 2.77 265Cleveland Indians 19–7 0 3.21 209Cleveland Indians 22–3 0 2.54 170Kansas City Royals 16–8 0 2.16 242Seattle Mariners 13–12 0 2.27 232*Detroit Tigers 24–5 0 2.40 250Tampa Bay Rays 20–5 0 2.56 205Detroit Tigers 21–3 0 2.90 240Cleveland Indians 18–9 0 2.44 269Houston Astros 20–8 0 2.48 216Boston Red Sox 22–4 0 3.15 189 (2)Cleveland Indians 18–4 0 2.25 265Tampa Bay Rays 21–5 0 1.89 221 (2)Houston Astros 21–6 0 2.58 300Cleveland Indians 8–1 0 1.63 122Toronto Blue Jays 13–7 0 2.84 248 (3) Houston Astros 18–4 0 1.75 185 New York Yankees 15–4 0 2.63 222===National League (1967–present)===Blake Snell, 2023 NL winnerYearPitcherTeamRecordSavesERAK'sSan Francisco Giants 22–10 0 2.85 150*St. Louis Cardinals 22–9 0 1.12 268New York Mets 25–7 0 2.21 208 (2)St. Louis Cardinals 23–7 0 3.12 274Chicago Cubs 24–13 0 2.77 263Philadelphia Phillies 27–10 0 1.98 310 (2)New York Mets 19–10 0 2.08 251Los Angeles Dodgers 15–12 21 2.42 143 (3)New York Mets 22–9 0 2.38 243San Diego Padres 22–14 0 2.74 93 (2)Philadelphia Phillies 23–10 0 2.64 198 (2)San Diego Padres 21–6 0 2.73 154Chicago Cubs 6–6 37 2.22 110 (3)Philadelphia Phillies 24–9 0 2.34 286**Los Angeles Dodgers 13–7 0 2.48 180 (4)Philadelphia Phillies 23–11 0 3.11 286Philadelphia Phillies 19–6 0 2.37 139Chicago Cubs 16–1 0 2.69 155New York Mets 24–4 0 1.53 268Houston Astros 18–10 0 2.22 306Philadelphia Phillies 5–3 40 2.83 74Los Angeles Dodgers 23–8 1 2.26 178San Diego Padres 4–3 44 1.85 92Pittsburgh Pirates 22–6 0 2.76 131Atlanta Braves 20–11 0 2.55 192Chicago Cubs 20–11 0 2.18 199 (2)Atlanta Braves 20–10 0 2.36 197 (3)Atlanta Braves 16–6 0 1.56 156 (4)Atlanta Braves 19–2 0 1.63 181Atlanta Braves 24–8 0 2.94 276Montreal Expos 17–8 0 1.90 305 (2)Atlanta Braves 20–6 0 2.47 157 (2)Arizona Diamondbacks 17–9 0 2.49 364 (3)Arizona Diamondbacks 19–7 0 2.64 347 (4)Arizona Diamondbacks 21–6 0 2.49 372 (5)Arizona Diamondbacks 24–5 0 2.32 334Los Angeles Dodgers 2–3 55 1.20 137 (7)Houston Astros 18–4 0 2.98 218St.", "Louis Cardinals 21–5 0 2.83 213Arizona Diamondbacks 16–8 0 3.10 178San Diego Padres 19–6 0 2.54 240San Francisco Giants 18–5 0 2.62 265 (2)San Francisco Giants 15–7 0 2.48 261 (2)Philadelphia Phillies 21–10 0 2.44 219Los Angeles Dodgers 21–5 0 2.28 248New York Mets 20–6 0 2.73 230 (2)Los Angeles Dodgers 16–9 0 1.83 232* (3)Los Angeles Dodgers 21–3 0 1.77 239Chicago Cubs 22–6 0 1.77 236 (2)Washington Nationals 20–7 0 2.96 284 (3)Washington Nationals 16–6 0 2.51 268New York Mets 10–9 0 1.70 269 (2)New York Mets 11–8 0 2.43 255Cincinnati Reds 5–4 0 1.73 100Milwaukee Brewers 11–5 0 2.43 234Miami Marlins 14–9 02.28207Blake Snell (2)San Diego Padres14–902.25234===Multiple winners===With 7, Roger Clemens has the most Cy Young Awards.Randy Johnson, five-time winnerTwenty-two (22) pitchers have won the award multiple times.", "Roger Clemens currently holds the record for the most awards won, with seven – his first and last wins separated by eighteen years.", "Greg Maddux (1992–1995) and Randy Johnson (1999–2002) share the record for the most consecutive awards won with four.", "Clemens, Johnson, Pedro Martínez, Gaylord Perry, Roy Halladay, Max Scherzer, and Blake Snell are the only pitchers to have won the award in both the American League and National League; Sandy Koufax is the only pitcher who won multiple awards during the period when only one award was presented for all of Major League Baseball.", "Roger Clemens was the youngest pitcher to win a second Cy Young Award, while Tim Lincecum is the youngest pitcher to do so in the National League, and Clayton Kershaw is the youngest left-hander to do so.", "Clayton Kershaw is the youngest pitcher to win a third Cy Young Award.", "Clemens is also the only pitcher to win the Cy Young Award with four different teams; nobody else has done so with more than two different teams.", "Justin Verlander has the most seasons separating his first (2011) and second (2019) Cy Young Awards.", "Pitcher # of Awards Years 7 1986, 1987, 1991, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2004 5 1995, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002 4 1972, 1977, 1980, 1982 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995 3 1963, 1965, 1966 1969, 1973, 1975 1973, 1975, 1976 1997, 1999, 2000 2011, 2013, 2014 2013, 2016, 2017 2011, 2019, 2022 2 1968, 1969 1968, 1970 1972, 1978 1985, 1989 1991, 1998 2004, 2006 2008, 2009 2003, 2010 2014, 2017 2018, 2019 2018, 2023===Wins by teams===Only two teams have never had a pitcher win the Cy Young Award.", "The Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers have won more than any other team with 12.Team # of Awards Years Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers12 1956, 1962, 1963, 1965, 1966, 1974, 1981, 1988, 2003, 2011, 2013, 2014 Milwaukee/Atlanta Braves7 1957, 1991, 1993–1996, 1998 Philadelphia Phillies 1972, 1977, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1987, 2010 Boston Red Sox 1967, 1986, 1987, 1991, 1999, 2000, 2016 New York Mets 1969, 1973, 1975, 1985, 2012, 2018, 2019 Baltimore Orioles6 1969, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1979, 1980 Cleveland Indians 1972, 2007, 2008, 2014, 2017, 2020 New York Yankees 1958, 1961, 1977, 1978, 2001, 2023 Arizona Diamondbacks5 1999–2002, 2006 Detroit Tigers 1968, 1969, 1984, 2011, 2013 Oakland Athletics 1971, 1974, 1990, 1992, 2002 Chicago Cubs 1971, 1979, 1984, 1992, 2015 Toronto Blue Jays 1996–1998, 2003, 2021 Houston Astros 1986, 2004, 2015, 2019, 2022 San Diego Padres 1976, 1978, 1989, 2007, 2023 Kansas City Royals4 1985, 1989, 1994, 2009 Minnesota Twins 1970, 1988, 2004, 2006 Chicago White Sox3 1959, 1983, 1993 San Francisco Giants 1967, 2008, 2009 St. Louis Cardinals 1968, 1970, 2005 Montreal Expos/Washington Nationals 1997, 2016, 2017 Milwaukee Brewers 1981, 1982, 2021 Los Angeles Angels2 1964, 2005 Pittsburgh Pirates 1960, 1990 Seattle Mariners 1995, 2010 Tampa Bay Rays 2012, 2018 Cincinnati Reds1 2020 Miami Marlins 2022 Colorado Rockies0 none Texas Rangers none===Unanimous winners===There have been 20 players who unanimously won the Cy Young Award, for a total of 27 wins.Six of these unanimous wins were accompanied by a win of the Most Valuable Player award (marked with * below; ** denotes that the player's unanimous win was accompanied by a unanimous win of the MVP Award).In the National League, 12 players have unanimously won the Cy Young Award, for a total of 15 wins.", "*Sandy Koufax (1963*, 1965, 1966)*Greg Maddux (1994, 1995)*Bob Gibson (1968*)*Steve Carlton (1972)*Rick Sutcliffe (1984)*Dwight Gooden (1985)*Orel Hershiser (1988)*Randy Johnson (2002)*Jake Peavy (2007)*Roy Halladay (2010)*Clayton Kershaw (2014*)*Sandy Alcántara (2022)In the American League, eight players have unanimously won the Cy Young Award, for a total of 12 wins.", "*Denny McLain (1968**)*Ron Guidry (1978)*Roger Clemens (1986*, 1998)*Pedro Martínez (1999, 2000)*Johan Santana (2004, 2006)*Justin Verlander (2011*, 2022)*Shane Bieber (2020)*Gerritt Cole (2023)" ], [ "See also", "*Triple Crown (pitching)*Pitcher of the Month*Major League Baseball Reliever of the Year Award** also known as the Mariano Rivera AL Reliever of the Year Award and Trevor Hoffman NL Reliever of the Year Award*\"Esurance MLB Awards\" Best Pitcher (in MLB)*''Baseball Digest'' Pitcher of the Year (in MLB)*\"Players Choice Awards\" Outstanding Pitcher (in each league)*''Sporting News'' Starting Pitcher (in each league)*\"Greg Spira Memorial Internet Baseball Awards\" Pitcher of the Year (in each league)*NLBM Wilbur \"Bullet\" Rogan Legacy Award (\"Pitchers of the Year\") (in each league)*''Sporting News'' Relief Pitcher of the Year (in each league)*NLBM Hilton Smith Legacy Award (\"Relievers of the Year\") (in each league)*''TSN'' Reliever of the Year (in each league) (''discontinued'')*''Rolaids'' Relief Man Award (in each league) (''discontinued'')*Warren Spahn Award (best left-handed pitcher)*Major League Baseball All-Century Team*Major League Baseball All-Time Team*\"Pitching Wall of Great Achievement\" (in the Ted Williams Museum and Hitters Hall of Fame)*Eiji Sawamura Award (top starting pitcher in NPB)*Choi Dong-won Award (top starting pitcher in KBO)*Baseball awards" ], [ "Notes", "* The formula is: Score = 7F + 4S + 3T + 2FO + FI, where ''F'' is the number of first-place votes, ''S'' is second-place votes, ''T'' is third-place votes, ''FO'' is fourth-place votes and ''FI'' is fifth-place votes.", "* See: Decision (baseball)* In baseball, a save is credited to a pitcher who finishes a game for the winning team under certain prescribed circumstances.", "It became an official statistic in Major League Baseball in 1969." ], [ "References", "'''Specific''''''General'''* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Anti-Semitism in Christianity" ], [ "Introduction", "Some Christian Churches, Christian groups, and ordinary Christians express religious antisemitism toward the Jewish people and the associated religion of Judaism.Anti-Semitic Christian rhetoric and the resulting antipathy toward Jews both date back to the early years of Christianity and are derived from pagan anti-Jewish attitudes that were reinforced by the belief that Jews are responsible for the murder of Jesus of Nazareth.", "Christians imposed ever-increasing anti-Jewish measures over the ensuing centuries, including acts of ostracism, humiliation, expropriation, violence, and murder—measures which culminated in the Holocaust.Christian antisemitism has been attributed to numerous factors including theological differences between these two related Abrahamic religions; the competition between Church and synagogue; the Christian missionary impulse; a misunderstanding of Jewish culture, beliefs, and practice; and the perception that Judaism was hostile toward Christianity.", "For two millennia, these attitudes were reinforced in Christian preaching, art, and popular teachings—all of which express contempt for Jews—as well as statutes designed to humiliate and stigmatise Jews.Modern anti-Semitism has primarily been described as hatred against Jews as a race and its most recent expression is rooted in 18th-century racial theories.", "Anti-Judaism is rooted in hostility toward Judaism the religion; in Western Christianity, anti-Judaism effectively merged with anti-Semitism during the 12th century.", "Scholars have debated how Christian anti-Semitism played a role in the Nazi Third Reich, World War II, and the Holocaust.", "The Holocaust forced many Christians to reflect on the role(s) Christian theology and practice played and still play in anti-Judaism and anti-Semitism." ], [ "Early differences between Christianity and Judaism", "The legal status of Christianity and Judaism differed within the Roman Empire: Because the practice of Judaism was restricted to the Jewish people and Jewish proselytes, its followers were generally exempt from following the obligations that were imposed on followers of other religions by the Roman imperial cult.", "Since the reign of Julius Caesar, Judaism enjoyed the status of a \"licit religion\", but occasional persecutions still occurred, such as Tiberius' conscription and expulsion of Jews in 19 AD followed by Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome.", "Christianity however was not restricted to one people, and because Jewish Christians were excluded from the synagogue (see Council of Jamnia), they also lost the protected status that was granted to Judaism, even though that ''protection'' still had its limits (see Titus Flavius Clemens (consul), Rabbi Akiva, and Ten Martyrs).From the reign of Nero onwards, who is said by Tacitus to have blamed the Great Fire of Rome on Christians, the practice of Christianity was criminalized and Christians were frequently persecuted, but the persecution differed from region to region.", "Comparably, Judaism suffered setbacks due to the Jewish-Roman wars, and these setbacks are remembered in the legacy of the Ten Martyrs.", "Robin Lane Fox traces the origin of much of the later hostility to this early period of persecution, when the Roman authorities commonly tested the faith of suspected Christians by forcing them to pay homage to the deified emperor.", "Jews were exempt from this requirement as long as they paid the Fiscus Judaicus, and Christians (many or mostly of Jewish origin) would say that they were Jewish but refused to pay the tax.", "This had to be confirmed by the local Jewish authorities, who were likely to refuse to accept the Christians as fellow Jews, often leading to their execution.", "The Birkat haMinim was often brought forward as support for this charge that the Jews were responsible for the Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire.", "In the 3rd century systematic persecution of Christians began and lasted until Constantine's conversion to Christianity.", "In 390 Theodosius I made Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire.", "While pagan cults and Manichaeism were suppressed, Judaism retained its legal status as a licit religion, though anti-Jewish violence still occurred.", "In the 5th century, some legal measures worsened the status of the Jews in the Roman Empire.Another point of contention for Christians concerning Judaism, according to the modern KJV of the Protestant Bible, is attributed more to a religious bias, rather than an issue of race or being a \"Semite\".", "Paul (a Benjamite Hebrew) clarifies this point in the letter to the Galatians where he makes plain his declaration \"28 There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus.", "29 And if ye be Christ's, then are ye Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise.\"", "Further Paul states: \"15 Brethren, I speak after the manner of men; Though it be but a man's covenant, yet if it be confirmed, no man disannulleth, or addeth thereto.", "16 Now to Abraham and his seed were the promises made.", "He saith not, And to seeds, as of many; but as of one, And to thy seed, which is Christ.\"" ], [ "Issues arising from the New Testament", "===Jesus as the Messiah===In Judaism, Jesus was not recognized as the Messiah, which Christians interpreted as His rejection, as a failed Jewish Messiah claimant and a false prophet.", "However, since Jews traditionally believe that the messiah has not yet come and the Messianic Age is not yet present, the total rejection of Jesus as either the messiah or a deity has never been a central issue in Judaism.===Criticism of the Pharisees===Many New Testament passages criticise the Pharisees and it has been argued that these passages have shaped the way that Christians viewed Jews.", "Like most Bible passages, however, they can be and have been interpreted in a variety of ways.Mainstream Talmudic Rabbinical Judaism today directly descends from the Pharisees whom Jesus often criticized.", "During Jesus' life and at the time of his execution, the Pharisees were only one of several Jewish groups such as the Sadducees, Zealots, and Essenes who mostly died out not long after the period; indeed, Jewish scholars such as Harvey Falk and Hyam Maccoby have suggested that Jesus was himself a Pharisee.", "In the sermon on the mount, for example, Jesus says \"The Pharisees sit in Moses' seat, therefore do what they say ..\".", "Arguments by Jesus and his disciples against certain groups of Pharisees and what he saw as their hypocrisy were most likely examples of disputes among Jews and internal to Judaism that were common at the time, see for example Hillel and Shammai.===Recent studies of anti-Semitism in the New Testament===Professor Lillian C. Freudmann, author of ''Antisemitism in the New Testament'' (University Press of America, 1994) has published a detailed study of the description of Jews in the New Testament, and the historical effects that such passages have had in the Christian community throughout history.", "Similar studies of such verses have been made by both Christian and Jewish scholars, including Professors Clark Williamsom (Christian Theological Seminary), Hyam Maccoby (The Leo Baeck Institute), Norman A. Beck (Texas Lutheran College), and Michael Berenbaum (Georgetown University).", "Most rabbis feel that these verses are anti-Semitic, and many Christian scholars, in America and Europe, have reached the same conclusion.", "Another example is John Dominic Crossan's 1995 book, titled ''Who Killed Jesus?", "Exposing the Roots of Anti-Semitism in the Gospel Story of the Death of Jesus''.Some biblical scholars have also been accused of holding anti-Semitic beliefs.", "Bruce J. Malina, a founding member of The Context Group, has come under criticism for going as far as to deny the Semitic ancestry of modern Israelis.", "He then ties this back to his work on first-century cultural anthropology.=== Jewish deicide ===Jewish deicide is the belief that Jews to this day will always be collectively responsible for the killing of Jesus, also known as the blood curse.", "A justification of this charge is derived from Matthew (27:24–25) alleging a crowd of Jews told Pilate that they and their children would be responsible for Jesus' death.", "Most members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints accept the Jewish deicide, while the Catholic Church and several other Christian denominations have repudiated it." ], [ "Church Fathers", "After Paul's death, Christianity emerged as a separate religion, and Pauline Christianity emerged as the dominant form of Christianity, especially after Paul, James and the other apostles agreed on a compromise set of requirements.", "Some Christians continued to adhere to aspects of Jewish law, but they were few in number and often considered heretics by the Church.", "One example is the Ebionites, who seem to have denied the virgin birth of Jesus, the physical Resurrection of Jesus, and most of the books that were later canonized as the New Testament.", "For example, the Ethiopian Orthodox still continue Old Testament practices such as the Sabbath.", "As late as the 4th century Church Father John Chrysostom complained that some Christians were still attending Jewish synagogues.", "The Church Fathers identified Jews and Judaism with heresy and declared the people of Israel to be ''extra Deum'' (lat.", "\"outside of God\").===Peter of Antioch===Peter of Antioch referred to Christians that refused to venerate religious images as having \"Jewish minds\".", "===Marcion of Sinope===In the early second century AD, the heretic Marcion of Sinope ( 85 – 160 AD) declared that the Jewish God was a different God, inferior to the Christian one, and rejected the Jewish scriptures as the product of a lesser deity.", "Marcion's teachings, which were extremely popular, rejected Judaism not only as an incomplete revelation, but as a false one as well, but, at the same time, allowed less blame to be placed on the Jews personally for having not recognized Jesus, since, in Marcion's worldview, Jesus was not sent by the lesser Jewish God, but by the supreme Christian God, whom the Jews had no reason to recognize.In combating Marcion, orthodox apologists conceded that Judaism was an incomplete and inferior religion to Christianity, while also defending the Jewish scriptures as canonical.", "===Tertullian===The Church Father Tertullian ( 155 – 240 AD) had a particularly intense personal dislike towards the Jews and argued that the Gentiles had been chosen by God to replace the Jews, because they were worthier and more honorable.", "Origen of Alexandria ( 184 – 253) was more knowledgeable about Judaism than any of the other Church Fathers, having studied Hebrew, met Rabbi Hillel the Younger, consulted and debated with Jewish scholars, and been influenced by the allegorical interpretations of Philo of Alexandria.", "Origen defended the canonicity of the Old Testament and defended Jews of the past as having been chosen by God for their merits.", "Nonetheless, he condemned contemporary Jews for not understanding their own Law, insisted that Christians were the \"true Israel\", and blamed the Jews for the death of Christ.", "He did, however, maintain that Jews would eventually attain salvation in the final ''apocatastasis''.", "Hippolytus of Rome ( 170 – 235 AD) wrote that the Jews had \"been darkened in the eyes of your soul with a darkness utter and everlasting.", "\"===Augustine of Hippo===Patristic bishops of the patristic era such as Augustine of Hippo argued that the Jews should be left alive and suffering as a perpetual reminder of their murder of Christ.", "Like his anti-Jewish teacher, Ambrose of Milan, he defined Jews as a special subset of those damned to hell.", "As \"Witness People\", he sanctified collective punishment for the Jewish deicide and enslavement of Jews to Catholics: \"Not by bodily death, shall the ungodly race of carnal Jews perish ... 'Scatter them abroad, take away their strength.", "And bring them down O Lord.", "Augustine claimed to \"love\" the Jews but as a means to convert them to Christianity.", "Sometimes he identified all Jews with the evil Judas and developed the doctrine (together with Cyprian) that there was \"no salvation outside the Church\".===John Chrysostom===John Chrysostom and other church fathers went further in their condemnation; the Catholic editor Paul Harkins wrote that St. John Chrysostom's anti-Jewish theology \"is no longer tenable (..) For these objectively unchristian acts he cannot be excused, even if he is the product of his times.\"", "John Chrysostom held, as most Church Fathers did, that the sins of all Jews were communal and endless, to him his Jewish neighbours were the collective representation of all alleged crimes of all preexisting Jews.", "All Church Fathers applied the passages of the New Testament concerning the alleged advocation of the crucifixion of Christ to all Jews of his day, the Jews were the ultimate evil.", "However, John Chrysostom went so far to say that because Jews rejected the Christian God in human flesh, Christ, they therefore deserved to be killed: \"grew fit for slaughter.\"", "In citing the New Testament, he claimed that Jesus was speaking about Jews when he said, \"as for these enemies of mine who did not want me to reign over them, bring them here and ''slay them'' before me.\"===Jerome===St.", "Jerome identified Jews with Judas Iscariot and the immoral use of money (\"Judas is cursed, that in Judas the Jews may be accursed... their prayers turn into sins\").", "Jerome's homiletical assaults, that may have served as the basis for the anti-Jewish Good Friday liturgy, contrasts Jews with the evil, and that \"the ceremonies of the Jews are harmful and deadly to Christians\", whoever keeps them was doomed to the devil: \"My enemies are the Jews; they have conspired in hatred against Me, crucified Me, heaped evils of all kinds upon Me, blasphemed Me.", "\"===Ephraim the Syrian===Ephraim the Syrian wrote polemics against Jews in the 4th century, including the repeated accusation that Satan dwells among them as a partner.", "The writings were directed at Christians who were being proselytized by Jews.", "Ephraim feared that they were slipping back into Judaism; thus, he portrayed the Jews as enemies of Christianity, like Satan, to emphasize the contrast between the two religions, namely, that Christianity was Godly and true and Judaism was Satanic and false.", "Like John Chrysostom, his objective was to dissuade Christians from reverting to Judaism by emphasizing what he saw as the wickedness of the Jews and their religion." ], [ "Middle Ages", "A miniature from Grandes Chroniques de France depicting the expulsion of Jews from France in 1182.Bernard of Clairvaux said \"For us the Jews are Scripture's living words, because they remind us of what Our Lord suffered.", "They are not to be persecuted, killed, or even put to flight.\"", "According to Anna Sapir Abulafia, most scholars agree that Jews and Christians in Latin Christendom lived in relative peace with one another until the thirteenth century.Jews were subjected to a wide range of legal disabilities and restrictions in Medieval Europe.", "Jews were excluded from many trades, the occupations varying with place and time, and determined by the influence of various non-Jewish competing interests.", "Often Jews were barred from all occupations but money-lending and peddling, with even these at times forbidden.", "Jews' association to money lending would carry on throughout history in the stereotype of Jews being greedy and perpetuating capitalism.In the later medieval period, the number of Jews who were permitted to reside in certain places was limited; they were concentrated in ghettos, and they were also not allowed to own land; they were forced to pay discriminatory taxes whenever they entered cities or districts other than their own.", "The Oath More Judaico, the form of oath required from Jewish witnesses, developed bizarre or humiliating forms in some places, e.g.", "in the Swabian law of the 13th century, the Jew would be required to stand on the hide of a sow or a bloody lamb.The Fourth Lateran Council which was held in 1215 was the first council to proclaim that Jews were required to wear something which distinguished them as Jews (the same requirement was also imposed on Muslims).On many occasions, Jews were accused of blood libels, the supposed drinking of the blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian Eucharist.===''Sicut Judaeis''===''Sicut Judaeis'' (the \"Constitution for the Jews\") was the official position of the papacy regarding Jews throughout the Middle Ages and later.", "The first bull was issued in about 1120 by Calixtus II, intended to protect Jews who suffered during the First Crusade, and was reaffirmed by many popes, even until the 15th century although they were not always strictly upheld.The bull forbade, besides other things, Christians from coercing Jews to convert, or to harm them, or to take their property, or to disturb the celebration of their festivals, or to interfere with their cemeteries, on pain of excommunication:===Popular anti-Semitism===Jews burned alive for the alleged host desecration in Deggendorf, Bavaria, in 1337Anti-Semitism in popular European Christian culture escalated beginning in the 13th century.", "Blood libels and host desecration drew popular attention and led to many cases of persecution against Jews.", "Many believed Jews poisoned wells to cause plagues.", "In the case of blood libel it was widely believed that the Jews would kill a child before Easter and needed Christian blood to bake matzo.", "Throughout history if a Christian child was murdered accusations of blood libel would arise no matter how small the Jewish population.", "The Church often added to the fire by portraying the dead child as a martyr who had been tortured and child had powers like Jesus was believed to.", "Sometimes the children were even made into Saints.", "Anti-Semitic imagery such as Judensau and Ecclesia et Synagoga recurred in Christian art and architecture.", "Anti-Jewish Easter holiday customs such as the Burning of Judas continue to present time.In Iceland, one of the hymns repeated in the days leading up to Easter includes the lines,:The righteous Law of Moses:The Jews here misapplied,:Which their deceit exposes,:Their hatred and their pride.", ":The judgement is the Lord's.", ":When by falsification:The foe makes accusation,:It's His to make awards.===Persecutions and expulsions===Lisbon Massacre in 1506Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600During the Middle Ages in Europe persecutions and formal expulsions of Jews were liable to occur at intervals, although this was also the case for other minority communities, regardless of whether they were religious or ethnic.", "There were particular outbursts of riotous persecution during the Rhineland massacres of 1096 in Germany accompanying the lead-up to the First Crusade, many involving the crusaders as they travelled to the East.", "There were many local expulsions from cities by local rulers and city councils.", "In Germany the Holy Roman Emperor generally tried to restrain persecution, if only for economic reasons, but he was often unable to exert much influence.", "In the Edict of Expulsion, King Edward I expelled all the Jews from England in 1290 (only after ransoming some 3,000 among the most wealthy of them), on the accusation of usury and undermining loyalty to the dynasty.", "In 1306 there was a wave of persecution in France, and there were widespread Black Death Jewish persecutions as the Jews were blamed by many Christians for the plague, or spreading it.", "As late as 1519, the Imperial city of Regensburg took advantage of the recent death of Emperor Maximilian I to expel its 500 Jews.", "\"Officially, the medieval Catholic church never advocated the expulsion of all the Jews from Christendom, or repudiated Augustine's doctrine of Jewish witness...", "Still, late medieval Christendom frequently ignored its mandates...\"====Expulsion of Jews from Spain====The largest expulsion of Jews followed the Reconquista or the reunification of Spain, and it preceded the expulsion of the Muslims who would not convert, in spite of the protection of their religious rights promised by the Treaty of Granada (1491).", "On 31 March 1492 Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the rulers of Spain who financed Christopher Columbus' voyage to the New World just a few months later in 1492, declared that all Jews in their territories should either convert to Christianity or leave the country.", "While some converted, many others left for Portugal, France, Italy (including the Papal States), Netherlands, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, and North Africa.", "Many of those who had fled to Portugal were later expelled by King Manuel in 1497 or left to avoid forced conversion and persecution." ], [ "From the Renaissance to the 17th century", "===Cum Nimis Absurdum===On 14 July 1555, Pope Paul IV issued papal bull Cum nimis absurdum which revoked all the rights of the Jewish community and placed religious and economic restrictions on Jews in the Papal States, renewed anti-Jewish legislation and subjected Jews to various degradations and restrictions on their personal freedom.The bull established the Roman Ghetto and required Jews of Rome, which had existed as a community since before Christian times and which numbered about 2,000 at the time, to live in it.", "The Ghetto was a walled quarter with three gates that were locked at night.", "Jews were also restricted to one synagogue per city.Paul IV's successor, Pope Pius IV, enforced the creation of other ghettos in most Italian towns, and his successor, Pope Pius V, recommended them to other bordering states.===Protestant Reformation===On the Jews and Their Lies''Martin Luther at first made overtures towards the Jews, believing that the \"evils\" of Catholicism had prevented their conversion to Christianity.", "When his call to convert to his version of Christianity was unsuccessful, he became hostile to them.In his book ''On the Jews and Their Lies'', Luther excoriates them as \"venomous beasts, vipers, disgusting scum, canders, devils incarnate.\"", "He provided detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion, writing \"Their private houses must be destroyed and devastated, they could be lodged in stables.", "Let the magistrates burn their synagogues and let whatever escapes be covered with sand and mud.", "Let them be forced to work, and if this avails nothing, we will be compelled to expel them like dogs in order not to expose ourselves to incurring divine wrath and eternal damnation from the Jews and their lies.\"", "At one point he wrote: \"...we are at fault in not slaying them...\" a passage that \"may be termed the first work of modern anti-Semitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust.", "\"Luther's harsh comments about the Jews are seen by many as a continuation of medieval Christian anti-Semitism.", "In his final sermon shortly before his death, however, Luther preached: \"We want to treat them with Christian love and to pray for them, so that they might become converted and would receive the Lord.\"" ], [ "18th century", "Painting in Sandomierz Cathedral, Poland, depicts Jews murdering Christian children for their blood, ~ 1750.In accordance with the anti-Jewish precepts of the Russian Orthodox Church, Russia's discriminatory policies towards Jews intensified when the partition of Poland in the 18th century resulted, for the first time in Russian history, in the possession of land with a large Jewish population.", "This land was designated as the Pale of Settlement from which Jews were forbidden to migrate into the interior of Russia.", "In 1772 Catherine II, the empress of Russia, forced the Jews living in the Pale of Settlement to stay in their ''shtetls'' and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland." ], [ "19th century", "Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Roman Catholic Church still incorporated strong anti-Semitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate anti-Judaism (opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds) and racial anti-Semitism.", "Brown University historian David Kertzer, working from the Vatican archive, has argued in his book ''The Popes Against the Jews'' that in the 19th and early 20th centuries the Roman Catholic Church adhered to a distinction between \"good anti-Semitism\" and \"bad anti-Semitism\".", "The \"bad\" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent.", "This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian.", "The \"good\" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc.", "Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when they were accused of promoting hatred of Jews, they would remind people that they condemned the \"bad\" kind of anti-Semitism.", "Kertzer's work is not without critics.", "Scholar of Jewish-Christian relations Rabbi David G. Dalin, for example, criticized Kertzer in the ''Weekly Standard'' for using evidence selectively.===Opposition to the French Revolution===The counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist Louis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French Revolution.", "Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews.", "Bonald's article ''Sur les juifs'' (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian anti-Semitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard Drumont, nationalists such as Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and anti-Semitic socialists such as Alphonse Toussenel.", "Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an \"alien\" people, a \"state within a state\", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.In the 1840s, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist Louis Veuillot propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish \"financial aristocracy\" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a \"deicidal people\" driven by hatred to \"enslave\" Christians.", "Gougenot des Mousseaux's ''Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens'' (1869) has been called a \"Bible of modern anti-Semitism\" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg.", "Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty anti-Semitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows.In Italy the Jesuit priest Antonio Bresciani's highly popular novel 1850 novel ''L'Ebreo di Verona'' (''The Jew of Verona'') shaped religious anti-Semitism for decades, as did his work for ''La Civiltà Cattolica'', which he helped launch.Pope Pius VII (1800–1823) had the walls of the Jewish ghetto in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were emancipated by Napoleon, and Jews were restricted to the ghetto through the end of the Papal States in 1870.Official Catholic organizations, such as the Jesuits, banned candidates \"who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church\" until 1946." ], [ "20th century", "In Russia, under the Tsarist regime, anti-Semitism intensified in the early years of the 20th century and was given official favour when the secret police forged the notorious ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion'', a document purported to be a transcription of a plan by Jewish elders to achieve global domination.", "Violence against the Jews in the Kishinev pogrom in 1903 was continued after the 1905 revolution by the activities of the Black Hundreds.", "The Beilis Trial of 1913 showed that it was possible to revive the blood libel accusation in Russia.Catholic writers such as Ernest Jouin, who published the ''Protocols'' in French, seamlessly blended racial and religious anti-Semitism, as in his statement that \"from the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity.\"", "Pope Pius XI praised Jouin for \"combating our mortal Jewish enemy\" and appointed him to high papal office as a protonotary apostolic.===From WWI to the eve of WWII===Christian Social Party during the 1920 elections in AustriaIn 1916, in the midst of the First World War, American Jews petitioned Pope Benedict XV on behalf of the Polish Jews.===Nazi anti-Semitism===During a meeting with Roman Catholic Bishop Wilhelm Berning of Osnabrück On April 26, 1933, Hitler declared:I have been attacked because of my handling of the Jewish question.", "The Catholic Church considered the Jews pestilent for fifteen hundred years, put them in ghettos, etc., because it recognized the Jews for what they were.", "In the epoch of liberalism the danger was no longer recognized.", "I am moving back toward the time in which a fifteen-hundred-year-long tradition was implemented.", "I do not set race over religion, but I recognize the representatives of this race as pestilent for the state and for the Church, and perhaps I am thereby doing Christianity a great service by pushing them out of schools and public functions.The transcript of the discussion does not contain any response by Bishop Berning.", "Martin Rhonheimer does not consider this unusual because in his opinion, for a Catholic Bishop in 1933 there was nothing particularly objectionable \"in this historically correct reminder\".The Nazis used Martin Luther's book, ''On the Jews and Their Lies'' (1543), to justify their claim that their ideology was morally righteous.", "Luther even went so far as to advocate the murder of Jews who refused to convert to Christianity by writing that \"we are at fault in not slaying them.", "\"Archbishop Robert Runcie asserted that: \"Without centuries of Christian anti-Semitism, Hitler's passionate hatred would never have been so fervently echoed... because for centuries Christians have held Jews collectively responsible for the death of Jesus.", "On Good Friday in times past, Jews have cowered behind locked doors with fear of a Christian mob seeking 'revenge' for deicide.", "Without the poisoning of Christian minds through the centuries, the Holocaust is unthinkable.\"", "The dissident Catholic priest Hans Küng has written that \"Nazi anti-Judaism was the work of godless, anti-Christian criminals.", "But it would not have been possible without the almost two thousand years' pre-history of 'Christian' anti-Judaism...\" The consensus among historians is that Nazism as a whole was either unrelated or actively opposed to Christianity, and Hitler was strongly critical of it, although Germany remained mostly Christian during the Nazi era.The document Dabru Emet was issued by over 220 rabbis and intellectuals from all branches of Judaism in 2000 as a statement about Jewish-Christian relations.", "This document states,Nazism was not a Christian phenomenon.", "Without the long history of Christian anti-Judaism and Christian violence against Jews, Nazi ideology could not have taken hold nor could it have been carried out.", "Too many Christians participated in, or were sympathetic to, Nazi atrocities against Jews.", "Other Christians did not protest sufficiently against these atrocities.", "But Nazism itself was not an inevitable outcome of Christianity.According to American historian Lucy Dawidowicz, anti-Semitism has a long history within Christianity.", "The line of \"anti-Semitic descent\" from Luther, the author of ''On the Jews and Their Lies'', to Hitler is \"easy to draw.\"", "In her ''The War Against the Jews, 1933-1945'', she contends that Luther and Hitler were obsessed by the \"demonologized universe\" inhabited by Jews.", "Dawidowicz writes that the similarities between Luther's anti-Jewish writings and modern anti-Semitism are no coincidence, because they derived from a common history of ''Judenhass'', which can be traced to Haman's advice to Ahasuerus.", "Although modern German anti-Semitism also has its roots in German nationalism and the liberal revolution of 1848, Christian anti-Semitism she writes is a foundation that was laid by the Roman Catholic Church and \"upon which Luther built.", "\"====Collaborating Christians====* German Christians (movement)* ''Gleichschaltung''* Hanns Kerrl, Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs* Positive Christianity (the approved Nazi version of Christianity)* Protestant Reich Church====Opposition to the Holocaust====The Confessing Church was, in 1934, the first Christian opposition group.", "The Catholic Church officially condemned the Nazi theory of racism in Germany in 1937 with the encyclical \"''Mit brennender Sorge''\", signed by Pope Pius XI, and Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber led the Catholic opposition, preaching against racism.Many individual Christian clergy and laypeople of all denominations had to pay for their opposition with their lives, including:* the Catholic priest Maximilian Kolbe.", "* the Lutheran pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer* the Catholic parson of the Berlin Cathedral, Bernhard Lichtenberg.", "* the mostly Catholic members of the Munich-based resistance group the White Rose which was led by Hans and Sophie Scholl.By the 1940s, few Christians were willing to publicly oppose Nazi policy, but many Christians secretly helped save the lives of Jews.", "There are many sections of Israel's Holocaust Remembrance Museum, Yad Vashem, which are dedicated to honoring these \"Righteous Among the Nations\".====Pope Pius XII====Before he became Pope, Cardinal Pacelli addressed the International Eucharistic Congress in Budapest on 25–30 May 1938 during which he made reference to the Jews \"whose lips curse Christ and whose hearts reject him even today\"; at this time anti-Semitic laws were in the process of being formulated in Hungary.The 1937 encyclical ''Mit brennender Sorge'' was issued by Pope Pius XI, but drafted by the future Pope Pius XII and read from the pulpits of all German Catholic churches, it condemned Nazi ideology and has been characterized by scholars as the \"first great official public document to dare to confront and criticize Nazism\" and \"one of the greatest such condemnations ever issued by the Vatican.", "\"In the summer of 1942, Pius explained to his college of Cardinals the reasons for the great gulf that existed between Jews and Christians at the theological level: \"Jerusalem has responded to His call and to His grace with the same rigid blindness and stubborn ingratitude that has led it along the path of guilt to the murder of God.\"", "Historian Guido Knopp describes these comments of Pius as being \"incomprehensible\" at a time when \"Jerusalem was being murdered by the million\".", "This traditional adversarial relationship with Judaism would be reversed in ''Nostra aetate'', which was issued during the Second Vatican Council.Prominent members of the Jewish community have contradicted the criticisms of Pius and spoke highly of his efforts to protect Jews.", "The Israeli historian Pinchas Lapide interviewed war survivors and concluded that Pius XII \"was instrumental in saving at least 700,000, but probably as many as 860,000 Jews from certain death at Nazi hands\".", "Some historians dispute this estimate.===\"White Power\" movement===In Proper Hands.", "The Protestant Christian dominated KKK hinting at violence against Jews and Catholics.", "Illustration by Rev.", "Branford Clarke from ''Heroes of the Fiery Cross'' (1928), by Bishop Alma White and published by the Pillar of Fire Church in Zarephath, New Jersey.The Christian Identity movement, the Ku Klux Klan and other White supremacist groups have expressed anti-Semitic views.", "They claim that their anti-Semitism is based on purported Jewish control of the media, control of international banks, involvement in radical left-wing politics, and the Jews' promotion of multiculturalism, anti-Christian groups, liberalism and perverse organizations.", "They rebuke charges of racism by claiming that Jews who share their views maintain membership in their organizations.", "A racial belief which is common among these groups, but not universal among them, is an alternative history doctrine concerning the descendants of the Lost Tribes of Israel.", "In some of its forms, this doctrine absolutely denies the view that modern Jews have any ethnic connection to the Israel of the Bible.", "Instead, according to extreme forms of this doctrine, the true Israelites and the true humans are the members of the Adamic (white) race.", "These groups are often rejected and they are not even considered Christian groups by mainstream Christian denominations and the vast majority of Christians around the world.===Post World War II anti-Semitism===Anti-Semitism remains a substantial problem in Europe and to a greater or lesser degree, it also exists in many other nations, including Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, and tensions between some Muslim immigrants and Jews have increased across Europe.", "The US State Department reports that anti-Semitism has increased dramatically in Europe and Eurasia since 2000.While it has been on the decline since the 1940s, a measurable amount of anti-Semitism still exists in the United States, although acts of violence are rare.", "For example, the influential Evangelical preacher Billy Graham and the then-president Richard Nixon were caught on tape in the early 1970s while they were discussing matters like how to address the Jews' control of the American media.", "This belief in Jewish conspiracies and domination of the media was similar to those of Graham's former mentors: William Bell Riley chose Graham to succeed him as the second president of Northwestern Bible and Missionary Training School and evangelist Mordecai Ham led the meetings where Graham first believed in Christ.", "Both held strongly anti-Semitic views.", "The 2001 survey by the Anti-Defamation League reported 1432 acts of anti-Semitism in the United States that year.", "The figure included 877 acts of harassment, including verbal intimidation, threats and physical assaults.", "A minority of American churches engage in anti-Israel activism, including support for the controversial BDS (Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions) movement.", "While not directly indicative of anti-Semitism, this activism often conflates the Israeli government's treatment of Palestinians with that of Jesus, thereby promoting the anti-Semitic doctrine of Jewish guilt.", "Many Christian Zionists are also accused of anti-Semitism, such as John Hagee, who argued that the Jews brought the Holocaust upon themselves by angering God.Relations between Jews and Christians have dramatically improved since the 20th century.", "According to a global poll which was conducted in 2014 by the Anti-Defamation League, a Jewish group which is devoted to fighting anti-Semitism and other forms of racism, data was collected from 102 countries with regard to their population's attitudes towards Jews and it revealed that only 24% of the world's Christians held views which were considered anti-Semitic according to the ADL's index, compared to 49% of the world's Muslims." ], [ "Anti-Judaism", "Many Christians do not consider anti-Judaism anti-Semitism.", "They regard anti-Judaism as a disagreement with the tenets of Judaism by religiously sincere people, while they regard anti-Semitism as an emotional bias or hatred which does not specifically target the religion of Judaism.", "Under this approach, anti-Judaism is not regarded as anti-Semitism because it does not involve actual hostility towards the Jewish people, instead, anti-Judaism only rejects the religious beliefs of Judaism.Others believe that anti-Judaism is rejection of Judaism as a religion or opposition to Judaism's beliefs and practices ''essentially because'' of their source in Judaism or because a belief or practice is associated with the Jewish people.", "(But see supersessionism)The position that \"Christian theological anti-Judaism is a phenomenon which is distinct from modern anti-Semitism, which is rooted in economic and racial thought, so that Christian teachings should not be held responsible for anti-Semitism\" has been articulated, among other people, by Pope John Paul II in 'We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah,' and the Jewish declaration on Christianity, Dabru Emet.", "Several scholars, including Susannah Heschel, Gavin I Langmuir and Uriel Tal have challenged this position, by arguing that anti-Judaism directly led to modern anti-Semitism.Although some Christians did consider anti-Judaism to be contrary to Christian teaching in the past, this view was not widely expressed by Christian leaders and lay people.", "In many cases, the practical tolerance towards the Jewish religion and Jews prevailed.", "Some Christian groups condemned verbal anti-Judaism, particularly in their early years." ], [ "Conversion of Jews", "Some Jewish organizations have denounced evangelistic and missionary activities which specifically target Jews by labeling them anti-Semitic.The Southern Baptist Convention (SBC), the largest Protestant Christian denomination in the U.S., has explicitly rejected suggestions that it should back away from seeking to convert Jews, a position which critics have called anti-Semitic, but a position which Baptists believe is consistent with their view that salvation is solely found through faith in Christ.", "In 1996 the SBC approved a resolution calling for efforts to seek the conversion of Jews \"as well as the salvation of 'every kindred and tongue and people and nation.", "'\"Most Evangelicals agree with the SBC's position, and some of them also support efforts which specifically seek the Jews' conversion.", "Additionally, these Evangelical groups are among the most pro-Israel groups.", "(''For more information, see Christian Zionism''.)", "One controversial group which has received a considerable amount of support from some Evangelical churches is Jews for Jesus, which claims that Jews can \"complete\" their Jewish faith by accepting Jesus as the Messiah.The Presbyterian Church (USA), the United Methodist Church, and the United Church of Canada have ended their efforts to convert Jews.", "While Anglicans do not, as a rule, seek converts from other Christian denominations, the General Synod has affirmed that \"the good news of salvation in Jesus Christ is for all and must be shared with all including people from other faiths or of no faith and that to do anything else would be to institutionalize discrimination\".The Roman Catholic Church formerly operated religious congregations which specifically aimed to convert Jews.", "Some of these congregations were actually founded by Jewish converts, like the Congregation of Our Lady of Sion, whose members were nuns and ordained priests.", "Many Catholic saints were specifically noted for their missionary zeal to convert Jews, such as Vincent Ferrer.", "After the Second Vatican Council, many missionary orders which aimed to convert Jews to Christianity no longer actively sought to missionize (or proselytize) them.", "However, Traditionalist Roman Catholic groups, congregations and clergymen continue to advocate the missionizing of Jews according to traditional patterns, sometimes with success (''e.g.", "'', the Society of St. Pius X which has notable Jewish converts among its faithful, many of whom have become traditionalist priests).The Church's Ministry Among Jewish People (CMJ) is one of the ten official mission agencies of the Church of England.", "The Society for Distributing Hebrew Scriptures is another organisation, but it is not affiliated with the established Church.There are several prophecies concerning the conversion of the Jewish people to Christianity in the scriptures of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS).", "The Book of Mormon teaches that the Jewish people need to believe in Jesus to be gathered to Israel.", "The Doctrine & Covenants teaches that the Jewish people will be converted to Christianity during the second coming when Jesus appears to them and shows them his wounds.", "It teaches that if the Jewish people do not convert to Christianity, then the world would be cursed.", "Early LDS prophets, such as Brigham Young and Wildord Woodruff, taught that Jewish people could not be truly converted because of the curse which resulted from Jewish deicide.", "However, after the establishment of the state of Israel, many LDS members felt that it was time for the Jewish people to start converting to Mormonism.", "During the 1950s, the LDS Church established several missions which specifically targeted Jewish people in several cities in the United States.", "After the LDS church began to give the priesthood to all males regardless of race in 1978, it also started to deemphasize the importance of race with regard to conversion.", "This led to a void of doctrinal teachings that resulted in a spectrum of views in how LDS members interpret scripture and previous teachings.", "According to research which was conducted by Armand Mauss, most LDS members believe that the Jewish people will need to be converted to Christianity in order to be forgiven for the crucifixion of Jesus Christ.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has also been criticized for baptizing deceased Jewish Holocaust victims.", "In 1995, in part as a result of public pressure, church leaders promised to put new policies into place that would help the church to end the practice, unless it was specifically requested or approved by the surviving spouses, children or parents of the victims.", "However, the practice has continued, including the baptism of the parents of Holocaust survivor and Jewish rights advocate Simon Wiesenthal." ], [ "Reconciliation between Judaism and Christian groups", "In recent years, there has been much to note in the way of reconciliation between some Christian groups and the Jews." ], [ "See also", "* Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire* Anti-Jewish violence in Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–1946* Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946* Antisemitic trope* Antisemitism in the Arab world* Antisemitism in Canada* Antisemitism in Europe* Antisemitism in Islam* Antisemitism in Russia* Antisemitism in Ukraine* Antisemitism in the United Kingdom* Antisemitism in the United States* Anti-Zionism* Christianity and other religions* Christianity and violence* Criticism of Christianity* Criticism of Judaism* Geography of antisemitism* Good Friday Prayer for the Jews* History of antisemitism* History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance* History of Israel* History of the Jews and the Crusades* History of the Jews during World War II* History of the Jews in Europe* History of the Jews in Germany* History of the Jews in the United States* Jesus in Christianity* Jewish history* New antisemitism* Persecution of Jews* Pope John Paul II and Judaism* Radical right (Europe)* Radical right (United States)* Religious aspects of Nazism* Secondary antisemitism* Stereotypes of Jews* Timeline of antisemitism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Beck, Norman A.", "''Mature Christianity: The Recognition and Repudiation of the Anti-Jewish Polemic in the New Testament'' (Expanded Edition).", "Crossroad Pub Co 1994.", "* Boyarin, Daniel.", "''The Subversion of the Jews: Moses's Veil and the Hermeneutics of Supersession'' diacritics 23.2: 16–35 Summer 1993.", "* Boys, Mary (Ed.).", "''Seeing Judaism Anew: Christianity's Sacred Obligation''.", "Sheed & Ward March 31, 2005 * Carmichael, Joel.", "''The Satanizing of the Jews: Origin and development of mystical anti-Semitism''.", "Fromm, 1993 * Eckhardt, A. Roy.", "''Elder and Younger Brothers: The Encounter of Jews and Christians'', Schocken Books (1973)* Eckhardt, A. Roy.", "''Your People, My People: The Meeting of Christians & Jews'', Crown Publishing Group (1974); * Gager, John C. ''The Origins of Anti-Semitism: Attitudes Toward Judaism in Pagan and Christian Antiquity''.", "Oxford Univ.", "Press, 1983 * Gould, Allan, (Ed.).", "''What Did They Think of the Jews?", "'', Jason Aronson Inc., 1991 * Hall III, Sidney G. ''Christian Anti-Semitism and Paul's Theology''.", "Fortress Press, 1993.", "* Johnson, Luke.", "''The New Testament's Anti-Jewish Slander and Conventions of Ancient Polemic'' Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol.", "108, No.", "3, Autumn, 1989 * Lapide, Pinchas E, ''Three Popes and the Jews''.", "Hawthorne Books, 1967 * Micklem, Nathaniel.", "''National Socialism and the Roman Catholic Church: Being an Account of the Conflict between the National Socialist Government of Germany and the Roman Catholic Church, 1933-1938''.", "London: Oxford University Press, 1939.", "* Nicholls, William, ''Christian Antisemitism: A History of Hate''.", "Jason Aronson Inc., 1993.", "* Ruether, Rosemary Radford ''Faith and fratricide: the theological roots of anti-Semitism''.", "New York 1974, Seabury Press, .", "* * Synan, Edward A.", "''The Popes and the Jews in the Middle Ages''.", "Macmillan, New York, 1965 * Tausch, Arno, ''The Effects of 'Nostra Aetate:' Comparative Analyses of Catholic Antisemitism More Than Five Decades after the Second Vatican Council'', 2018.Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3098079* Utz, Richard.", "\"Remembering Ritual Murder: The Anti-Semitic Blood Accusation Narrative in Medieval and Contemporary Cultural Memory\".", "Pp.", "145–62 in ''Genre and Ritual: The Cultural Heritage of Medieval Rituals''.", "Ed.", "Eyolf Østrem.", "Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press/University of Copenhagen, 2005.", "* Wilken, Robert L. ''John Chrysostom and the Jews : Rhetoric and Reality in the Late 4th Century'', University of California Press, Berkeley, 1983 * S. J. Greenstein ''WE ARE NOT GOING TO BURN IN HELL, A Jewish Response to Christianity'' (Biblically Speaking Publishing Company)" ], [ "External links", "* United States Holocaust Memorial Museum* Yad Vashem" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Boeing C-17 Globemaster III" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''McDonnell Douglas'''/'''Boeing C-17 Globemaster III''' is a large military transport aircraft that was developed for the United States Air Force (USAF) from the 1980s to the early 1990s by McDonnell Douglas.", "The C-17 carries forward the name of two previous piston-engined military cargo aircraft, the Douglas C-74 Globemaster and the Douglas C-124 Globemaster II.The C-17 is based upon the YC-15, a smaller prototype airlifter designed during the 1970s.", "It was designed to replace the Lockheed C-141 Starlifter, and also fulfill some of the duties of the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy.", "Compared to the YC-15, the redesigned airlifter differed in having swept wings, increased size, and more powerful engines.", "Development was protracted by a series of design issues, causing the company to incur a loss of nearly US$1.5 billion on the program's development phase.", "On 15 September 1991, roughly one year behind schedule, the first C-17 performed its maiden flight.", "The C-17 formally entered USAF service on 17 January 1995.Boeing, which merged with McDonnell Douglas in 1997, continued to manufacture the C-17 for almost two decades.", "The final C-17 was completed at the Long Beach, California, plant and flown on 29 November 2015.The C-17 commonly performs tactical and strategic airlift missions, transporting troops and cargo throughout the world; additional roles include medical evacuation and airdrop duties.", "The transport is in service with the USAF along with air arms of India, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and the Europe-based multilateral organization Heavy Airlift Wing.", "The type played a key logistical role during both Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq, as well as in providing humanitarian aid in the aftermath of various natural disasters, including the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the 2011 Sindh floods and the recent 2023 Turkey-Syria earthquake." ], [ "Development", "The alt=Top view of cargo aircraft in-flight, trailed by a fighter chase aircraft.", "Under each un-swept wing are two engines suspended forward ahead the leading edge.===Background and design phase===In the 1970s, the U.S. Air Force began looking for a replacement for its Lockheed C-130 Hercules tactical cargo aircraft.", "The Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST) competition was held, with Boeing proposing the YC-14, and McDonnell Douglas proposing the YC-15.Though both entrants exceeded specified requirements, the AMST competition was canceled before a winner was selected.", "The USAF started the C-X program in November 1979 to develop a larger AMST with longer range to augment its strategic airlift.By 1980, the USAF had a large fleet of aging C-141 Starlifter cargo aircraft.", "Compounding matters, increased strategic airlift capabilities was needed to fulfill its rapid-deployment airlift requirements.", "The USAF set mission requirements and released a request for proposals (RFP) for C-X in October 1980.McDonnell Douglas chose to develop a new aircraft based on the YC-15.Boeing bid an enlarged three-engine version of its AMST YC-14.Lockheed submitted both a C-5-based design and an enlarged C-141 design.", "On 28 August 1981, McDonnell Douglas was chosen to build its proposal, then designated ''C-17''.", "Compared to the YC-15, the new aircraft differed in having swept wings, increased size, and more powerful engines.", "This would allow it to perform the work done by the C-141, and to fulfill some of the duties of the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, freeing the C-5 fleet for outsize cargo.Alternative proposals were pursued to fill airlift needs after the C-X contest.", "These were lengthening of C-141As into C-141Bs, ordering more C-5s, continued purchases of KC-10s, and expansion of the Civil Reserve Air Fleet.", "Limited budgets reduced program funding, requiring a delay of four years.", "During this time contracts were awarded for preliminary design work and for the completion of engine certification.", "In December 1985, a full-scale development contract was awarded, under Program Manager Bob Clepper.", "At this time, first flight was planned for 1990.The USAF had formed a requirement for 210 aircraft.Development problems and limited funding caused delays in the late 1980s.", "Criticisms were made of the developing aircraft and questions were raised about more cost-effective alternatives during this time.", "In April 1990, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced the order from 210 to 120 aircraft.", "The maiden flight of the C-17 took place on 15 September 1991 from the McDonnell Douglas's plant in Long Beach, California, about a year behind schedule.", "The first aircraft (T-1) and five more production models (P1-P5) participated in extensive flight testing and evaluation at Edwards Air Force Base.", "Two complete airframes were built for static and repeated load testing.===Development difficulties===A static test of the C-17 wing in October 1992 resulted in its failure at 128% of design limit load, below the 150% requirement.", "Both wings buckled rear to the front and failures occurred in stringers, spars, and ribs.", "Some $100 million was spent to redesign the wing structure; the wing failed at 145% during a second test in September 1993.A review of the test data, however, showed that the wing was not loaded correctly and did indeed meet the requirement.", "The C-17 received the \"Globemaster III\" name in early 1993.In late 1993, the Department of Defense (DoD) gave the contractor two years to solve production issues and cost overruns or face the contract's termination after the delivery of the 40th aircraft.", "By accepting the 1993 terms, McDonnell Douglas incurred a loss of nearly US$1.5 billion on the program's development phase.In March 1994, the Non-Developmental Airlift Aircraft program was established to procure a transport aircraft using commercial practices as a possible alternative or supplement to the C-17.Initial material solutions considered included: buy a modified Boeing 747-400 NDAA, restart the C-5 production line, extend the C-141 service life, and continue C-17 production.", "The field eventually narrowed to: the Boeing 747-400, the Lockheed Martin C-5D, and the McDonnell Douglas C-17.The NDAA program was initiated after the C-17 program was temporarily capped at a 40-aircraft buy pending further evaluation of C-17 cost and performance and an assessment of commercial airlift alternatives.In April 1994, the program remained over budget and did not meet weight, fuel burn, payload, and range specifications.", "It failed several key criteria during airworthiness evaluation tests.", "Problems were found with the mission software, landing gear, and other areas.", "In May 1994, it was proposed to cut production to as few as 32 aircraft; these cuts were later rescinded.", "A July 1994 Government Accountability Office (GAO) report revealed that USAF and DoD studies from 1986 and 1991 stated the C-17 could use 6,400 more runways outside the U.S. than the C-5, but these studies had only considered runway dimensions, but not runway strength or load classification numbers (LCN).", "The C-5 has a lower LCN, but the USAF classifies both in the same broad load classification group.", "When considering runway dimensions and load ratings, the C-17's worldwide runway advantage over the C-5 shrank from 6,400 to 911 airfields.", "The report also stated \"current military doctrine that does not reflect the use of small, austere airfields\", thus the C-17's short field capability was not considered.A January 1995 GAO report stated that the USAF originally planned to order 210 C-17s at a cost of $41.8 billion, and that the 120 aircraft on order were to cost $39.5 billion based on a 1992 estimate.", "In March 1994, the U.S. Army decided it did not need the low-altitude parachute-extraction system delivery with the C-17 and that the C-130's capability was sufficient.", "C-17 testing was limited to this lower weight.", "Airflow issues prevented the C-17 from meeting airdrop requirements.", "A February 1997 GAO report revealed that a C-17 with a full payload could not land on wet runways; simulations suggested a distance of was required.", "The YC-15 was transferred to AMARC to be made flightworthy again for further flight tests for the C-17 program in March 1997.By September 1995, most of the prior issues were reportedly resolved and the C-17 was meeting all performance and reliability targets.", "The first USAF squadron was declared operational in January 1995.===Production and deliveries===alt=Two paratroopers dropping from a C-17 during an exerciseIn 1996, the DoD ordered another 80 aircraft for a total of 120.In 1997, McDonnell Douglas merged with domestic competitor Boeing.", "In April 1999, Boeing offered to cut the C-17's unit price if the USAF bought 60 more; in August 2002, the order was increased to 180 aircraft.", "In 2007, 190 C-17s were on order for the USAF.", "On 6 February 2009, Boeing was awarded a $2.95 billion contract for 15 additional C-17s, increasing the total USAF fleet to 205 and extending production from August 2009 to August 2010.On 6 April 2009, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates stated that there would be no more C-17s ordered beyond the 205 planned.", "However, on 12 June 2009, the House Armed Services Air and Land Forces Subcommittee added a further 17 C-17s.In 2010, Boeing reduced the production rate to 10 aircraft per year from a high of 16 per year, due to dwindling orders and to extend the production line's life while additional orders were sought.", "The workforce was reduced by about 1,100 through 2012, a second shift at the Long Beach plant was also eliminated.", "By April 2011, 230 production C-17s had been delivered, including 210 to the USAF.", "The C-17 prototype \"T-1\" was retired in 2012 after use as a testbed by the USAF.", "In January 2010, the USAF announced the end of Boeing's performance-based logistics contracts to maintain the type.", "On 19 June 2012, the USAF ordered its 224th and final C-17 to replace one that crashed in Alaska in July 2010.In September 2013, Boeing announced that C-17 production was starting to close down.", "In October 2014, the main wing spar of the 279th and last aircraft was completed; this C-17 was delivered in 2015, after which Boeing closed the Long Beach plant.", "Production of spare components was to continue until at least 2017.The C-17 is projected to be in service for several decades.", "In February 2014, Boeing was engaged in sales talks with \"five or six\" countries for the remaining 15 C-17s; thus Boeing decided to build ten aircraft without confirmed buyers in anticipation of future purchases.In May 2015, ''The Wall Street Journal'' reported that Boeing expected to book a charge of under $100 million and cut 3,000 positions associated with the C-17 program, and also suggested that Airbus' lower cost A400M Atlas took international sales away from the C-17.+ C-17 yearly deliveries 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 1 4 5 8 6 6 7 10 11 13 14 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 14 12 10 10 7 5 4 0 0 1" ], [ "Design", "Cockpit of a C-17The C-17 Globemaster III is a strategic transport aircraft, able to airlift cargo close to a battle area.", "The size and weight of U.S. mechanized firepower and equipment have grown in recent decades from increased air mobility requirements, particularly for large or heavy non-palletized outsize cargo.", "It has a length of and a wingspan of , and uses about 8% composite materials, mostly in secondary structure and control surfaces.The C-17 is powered by four Pratt & Whitney F117-PW-100 turbofan engines, which are based on the commercial Pratt & Whitney PW2040 used on the Boeing 757.Each engine is rated at of thrust.", "The engine's thrust reversers direct engine exhaust air upwards and forward, reducing the chances of foreign object damage by ingestion of runway debris, and providing enough reverse thrust to back up the aircraft while taxiing.", "The thrust reversers can also be used in flight at idle-reverse for added drag in maximum-rate descents.", "In vortex surfing tests performed by two C-17s, up to 10% fuel savings were reported.A Royal Australian Air Force C-17 landing at Kharkiv International Airport, showing its landing gearFor cargo operations the C-17 requires a crew of three: pilot, copilot, and loadmaster.", "The cargo compartment is long by wide by high.", "The cargo floor has rollers for palletized cargo but it can be flipped to provide a flat floor suitable for vehicles and other rolling stock.", "Cargo is loaded through a large aft ramp that accommodates rolling stock, such as a 69-ton (63-metric ton) M1 Abrams main battle tank, other armored vehicles, trucks, and trailers, along with palletized cargo.Maximum payload of the C-17 is , and its maximum takeoff weight is .", "With a payload of and an initial cruise altitude of , the C-17 has an unrefueled range of about on the first 71 aircraft, and on all subsequent extended-range models that include a sealed center wing bay as a fuel tank.", "Boeing informally calls these aircraft the ''C-17 ER''.", "The C-17's cruise speed is about (Mach 0.74).", "It is designed to airdrop 102 paratroopers and their equipment.", "According to Boeing the maximum unloaded range is 6,230 nautical miles (10,026 Kilometers).The C-17 is designed to operate from runways as short as and as narrow as .", "The C-17 can also operate from unpaved, unimproved runways (although with a higher probability to damage the aircraft).", "The thrust reversers can be used to move the aircraft backwards and reverse direction on narrow taxiways using a three- (or more) point turn.", "The plane is designed for 20 man-hours of maintenance per flight hour, and a 74% mission availability rate." ], [ "Operational history", "===United States Air Force===USAF C-17s fly over the Blue Ridge Mountains in the eastern U.S., December 2005.The first production C-17 was delivered to Charleston Air Force Base, South Carolina, on 14 July 1993.The first C-17 unit, the 17th Airlift Squadron, became operationally ready on 17 January 1995.It has broken 22 records for oversized payloads.", "The C-17 was awarded U.S. aviation's most prestigious award, the Collier Trophy, in 1994.A Congressional report on operations in Kosovo and Operation Allied Force noted \"One of the great success stories...was the performance of the Air Force's C-17A\" It flew half of the strategic airlift missions in the operation, the type could use small airfields, easing operations; rapid turnaround times also led to efficient utilization.In 2006, eight C-17s were delivered to March Joint Air Reserve Base, California; controlled by the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC), assigned to the 452nd Air Mobility Wing and subsequently assigned to AMC's 436th Airlift Wing and its AFRC \"associate\" unit, the 512th Airlift Wing, at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware, supplementing the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy.", "The Mississippi Air National Guard's 172 Airlift Group received their first of eight C-17s in 2006.In 2011, the New York Air National Guard's 105th Airlift Wing at Stewart Air National Guard Base transitioned from the C-5 to the C-17.C-17s delivered military supplies during Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq as well as humanitarian aid in the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, and the 2011 Sindh floods, delivering thousands of food rations, tons of medical and emergency supplies.", "On 26 March 2003, 15 USAF C-17s participated in the biggest combat airdrop since the United States invasion of Panama in December 1989: the night-time airdrop of 1,000 paratroopers from the 173rd Airborne Brigade occurred over Bashur, Iraq.", "These airdrops were followed by C-17s ferrying M1 Abrams, M2 Bradleys, M113s and artillery.", "USAF C-17s have also assisted allies in their airlift needs, such as Canadian vehicles to Afghanistan in 2003 and Australian forces for the Australian-led military deployment to East Timor in 2006.In 2006, USAF C-17s flew 15 Canadian Leopard C2 tanks from Kyrgyzstan into Kandahar in support of NATO's Afghanistan mission.", "In 2013, five USAF C-17s supported French operations in Mali, operating with other nations' C-17s (RAF, NATO and RCAF deployed a single C-17 each).Since 1999, C-17s have flown annually to Antarctica on Operation Deep Freeze in support of the US Antarctic Research Program, replacing the C-141s used in prior years.", "The initial flight was flown by the USAF 62nd Airlift Wing.", "The C-17s fly round trip between Christchurch Airport and McMurdo Station around October each year and take 5 hours to fly each way.", "In 2006, the C-17 flew its first Antarctic airdrop mission, delivering 70,000 pounds of supplies.", "Further air drops occurred during subsequent years.Presidential Limousine is transported by a C-17 for long-distance trips.A C-17 accompanies the President of the United States on his visits to both domestic and foreign arrangements, consultations, and meetings.", "It is used to transport the Presidential Limousine, Marine One, and security detachments.", "On several occasions, a C-17 has been used to transport the President himself, temporarily gaining the Air Force One call sign while doing so.Debate arose over follow-on C-17 orders, the USAF requested line shutdown while Congress called for further production.", "In FY2007, the USAF requested $1.6 billion (~$ in ) in response to \"excessive combat use\" on the C-17 fleet.", "In 2008, USAF General Arthur Lichte, Commander of Air Mobility Command, indicated before a House of Representatives subcommittee on air and land forces a need to extend production to another 15 aircraft to increase the total to 205, and that C-17 production may continue to satisfy airlift requirements.", "The USAF finally decided to cap its C-17 fleet at 223 aircraft; the final delivery was on 12 September 2013.In 2015, as part of a missile-defense test at Wake Island, simulated medium-range ballistic missiles were launched from C-17s against THAAD missile defense systems and the USS ''John Paul Jones'' (DDG-53).", "In early 2020, palletized munitions–\"Combat Expendable Platforms\"– were tested from C-17s and C-130Js with results the USAF considered positive.", "In 2021, the Air Force Research Laboratory further developed the concept into the Rapid Dragon system which transforms the C-17 into a lethal cruise missile arsenal ship capable of mass launching 45 JASSM-ER with 500 kg warheads from a standoff distance of .", "Future anticipated improvements includes support for JDAM-ER, mine laying, drone dispersal as well as improved standoff range when full production of the JASSM-XR delivers large inventories in 2024.On 15 August 2021, USAF C-17 02-1109 from the 62nd Airlift Wing and 446th Airlift Wing at Joint Base Lewis-McChord departed Hamid Karzai International Airport in Kabul, Afghanistan, while crowds of people trying to escape the 2021 Taliban offensive ran alongside the aircraft.", "The C-17 lifted off with people holding on to the outside, and at least two died after falling from the aircraft.", "There were an unknown number possibly crushed and killed by the landing gear retracting, with human remains found in the landing-gear stowage.", "Also that day, C-17 01-0186 from the 816th Expeditionary Airlift Squadron at Al Udeid Air Base transported 823 Afghan citizens from Hamid Karzai International Airport on a single flight, setting a new record for the type which was previously over 670 people during a 2013 typhoon evacuation from Tacloban, Philippines.===Royal Air Force===Boeing marketed the C-17 to many European nations including Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom.", "The Royal Air Force (RAF) has established an aim of having interoperability and some weapons and capabilities commonality with the USAF.", "The 1998 Strategic Defence Review identified a requirement for a strategic airlifter.", "The Short-Term Strategic Airlift competition commenced in September of that year, but the tender was canceled in August 1999 with some bids identified by ministers as too expensive, including the Boeing/BAe C-17 bid, and others unsuitable.", "The project continued, with the C-17 seen as the favorite.", "In the light of Airbus A400M delays, the UK Secretary of State for Defence, Geoff Hoon, announced in May 2000 that the RAF would lease four C-17s at an annual cost of £100 million from Boeing for an initial seven years with an optional two-year extension.", "The RAF had the option to buy or return the aircraft to Boeing.", "The UK committed to upgrading its C-17s in line with the USAF so that if they were returned, the USAF could adopt them.", "The lease agreement restricted the C-17's operational use, meaning that the RAF could not use them for para-drop, airdrop, rough field, low-level operations and air to air refueling.The first C-17 was delivered to the RAF at Boeing's Long Beach facility on 17 May 2001 and flown to RAF Brize Norton by a crew from No.", "99 Squadron.", "The RAF's fourth C-17 was delivered on 24 August 2001.The RAF aircraft were some of the first to take advantage of the new center wing fuel tank found in Block 13 aircraft.", "In RAF service, the C-17 has not been given an official service name and designation (for example, C-130J referred to as Hercules C4 or C5), but is referred to simply as the C-17 or \"C-17A Globemaster\".", "Although it was to be a fallback for the A400M, the Ministry of Defence (MoD) announced on 21 July 2004 that they had elected to buy their four C-17s at the end of the lease, though the A400M appeared to be closer to production.", "The C-17 gives the RAF strategic capabilities that it would not wish to lose, for example a maximum payload of compared to the A400M's .", "The C-17's capabilities allow the RAF to use it as an airborne hospital for medical evacuation missions.Another C-17 was ordered in August 2006, and delivered on 22 February 2008.The four leased C-17s were to be purchased later in 2008.Due to fears that the A400M may suffer further delays, the MoD announced in 2006 that it planned to acquire three more C-17s, for a total of eight, with delivery in 2009–2010.On 3 December 2007, the MoD announced a contract for a sixth C-17, which was received on 11 June 2008.On 18 December 2009, Boeing confirmed that the RAF had ordered a seventh C-17, which was delivered on 16 November 2010.The UK announced the purchase of its eighth C-17 in February 2012.The RAF showed interest in buying a ninth C-17 in November 2013.On 13 January 2013, the RAF deployed two C-17s from RAF Brize Norton to the French Évreux Air Base, transporting French armored vehicles to the Malian capital of Bamako during the French intervention in Mali.", "In June 2015, an RAF C-17 was used to medically evacuate four victims of the 2015 Sousse attacks from Tunisia.", "On 13 September 2022, C-17 ZZ177 carried the body of Queen Elizabeth II from Edinburgh Airport to RAF Northolt in London.", "She had been lying in state at St Giles' Cathedral in Edinburgh, Scotland.===Royal Australian Air Force===A RAAF C-17 in 2010The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) began investigating an acquisition of strategic transport aircraft in 2005.In late 2005, the then Minister for Defence Robert Hill stated that such aircraft were being considered due to the limited availability of strategic airlift aircraft from partner nations and air freight companies.", "The C-17 was considered to be favored over the A400M as it was a \"proven aircraft\" and in production.", "One major RAAF requirement was the ability to airlift the Army's M1 Abrams tanks; another requirement was immediate delivery.", "Though unstated, commonality with the USAF and the RAF was also considered advantageous.", "RAAF aircraft were ordered directly from the USAF production run and are identical to American C-17s even in paint scheme, the only difference being the national markings, allowing deliveries to commence within nine months of commitment to the program.On 2 March 2006, the Australian government announced the purchase of three aircraft and one option with an entry into service date of 2006.In July 2006, Boeing was awarded a fixed price contract to deliver four C-17s for ().", "Australia also signed a US$80.7M contract to join the global 'virtual fleet' C-17 sustainment program; RAAF C-17s receive the same upgrades as the USAF's fleet.The RAAF took delivery of its first C-17 in a ceremony at Boeing's plant at Long Beach, California on 28 November 2006.Several days later the aircraft flew from Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii to Defence Establishment Fairbairn, Canberra, arriving on 4 December 2006.The aircraft was formally accepted in a ceremony at Fairbairn shortly after arrival.", "The second aircraft was delivered to the RAAF on 11 May 2007 and the third was delivered on 18 December 2007.The fourth Australian C-17 was delivered on 19 January 2008.All the Australian C-17s are operated by No.", "36 Squadron and are based at RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland.On 18 April 2011, Boeing announced that Australia had signed an agreement with the U.S. government to acquire a fifth C-17 due to an increased demand for humanitarian and disaster relief missions.", "The aircraft was delivered to the RAAF on 14 September 2011.On 23 September 2011, Australian Minister for Defence Materiel Jason Clare announced that the government was seeking information from the U.S. about the price and delivery schedule for a sixth Globemaster.", "In November 2011, Australia requested a sixth C-17 through the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program; it was ordered in June 2012, and was delivered on 1 November 2012.In August 2014, Defence Minister David Johnston announced the intention to purchase one or two additional C-17s.", "On 3 October 2014, Johnston announced the government's approval to buy two C-17s at a total cost of ().", "The United States Congress approved the sale under the Foreign Military Sales program.", "Prime Minister Tony Abbott confirmed in April 2015 that two additional aircraft were to be ordered, with both delivered by 4 November 2015; these added to the six C-17s it had .===Royal Canadian Air Force===A Royal Canadian Air Force C-17 (code 177703) departs the 2017 Royal International Air Tattoo, RAF Fairford, England.The Canadian Armed Forces had a long-standing need for strategic airlift for military and humanitarian operations around the world.", "It had followed a pattern similar to the German Air Force in leasing Antonovs and Ilyushins for many requirements, including deploying the Disaster Assistance Response Team to tsunami-stricken Sri Lanka in 2005; the Canadian Forces had relied entirely on leased An-124 ''Ruslan'' for a Canadian Army deployment to Haiti in 2003.A combination of leased ''Ruslans'', Ilyushins and USAF C-17s was also used to move heavy equipment to Afghanistan.", "In 2002, the Canadian Forces Future Strategic Airlifter Project began to study alternatives, including long-term leasing arrangements.On 5 July 2006, the Canadian government issued a notice of intent to negotiate with Boeing to procure four airlifters for the Canadian Forces Air Command (Royal Canadian Air Force after August 2011).", "On 1 February 2007, Canada awarded a contract for four C-17s with delivery beginning in August 2007.Like Australia, Canada was granted airframes originally slated for the USAF to accelerate delivery.", "The official Canadian designation is ''CC-177 Globemaster III''.On 23 July 2007, the first Canadian C-17 made its initial flight.", "It was turned over to Canada on 8 August, and participated at the Abbotsford International Airshow on 11 August prior to arriving at its new home base at 8 Wing, CFB Trenton, Ontario on 12 August.", "Its first operational mission was to deliver disaster relief to Jamaica following Hurricane Dean that month.", "The last of the initial four aircraft was delivered in April 2008.On 19 December 2014, it was reported that Canada intended to purchase one more C-17.On 30 March 2015, Canada's fifth C-17 arrived at CFB Trenton.", "The aircraft are assigned to 429 Transport Squadron based at CFB Trenton.On 14 April 2010, a Canadian C-17 landed for the first time at CFS Alert, the world's most northerly airport.", "Canadian Globemasters have been deployed in support of numerous missions worldwide, including Operation Hestia after the earthquake in Haiti, providing airlift as part of Operation Mobile and support to the Canadian mission in Afghanistan.", "After Typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines in 2013, Canadian C-17s established an air bridge between the two nations, deploying Canada's DART and delivering humanitarian supplies and equipment.", "In 2014, they supported Operation Reassurance and Operation Impact.===Strategic Airlift Capability program===One of the Strategic Airlift Capability C-17sAt the 2006 Farnborough Airshow, a number of NATO member nations signed a letter of intent to jointly purchase and operate several C-17s within the Strategic Airlift Capability (SAC).", "SAC members are Bulgaria, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, the U.S., along with two Partnership for Peace countries Finland and Sweden as of 2010.The purchase was for two C-17s, and a third was contributed by the U.S. On 14 July 2009, Boeing delivered the first C-17 under the SAC program.", "The second and third C-17s were delivered in September and October 2009.The SAC C-17s are based at Pápa Air Base, Hungary.", "The Heavy Airlift Wing is hosted by Hungary, which acts as the flag nation.", "The aircraft are manned in similar fashion as the NATO E-3 AWACS aircraft.", "The C-17 flight crew are multi-national, but each mission is assigned to an individual member nation based on the SAC's annual flight hour share agreement.", "The NATO Airlift Management Programme Office (NAMPO) provides management and support for the Heavy Airlift Wing.", "NAMPO is a part of the NATO Support Agency (NSPA).", "In September 2014, Boeing stated that the three C-17s supporting SAC missions had achieved a readiness rate of nearly 94 percent over the last five years and supported over 1,000 missions.===Indian Air Force===In June 2009, the Indian Air Force (IAF) selected the C-17 for its Very Heavy Lift Transport Aircraft requirement to replace several types of transport aircraft.", "In January 2010, India requested 10 C-17s through the U.S.'s Foreign Military Sales program, the sale was approved by Congress in June 2010.On 23 June 2010, the IAF successfully test-landed a USAF C-17 at the Gaggal Airport, India to complete the IAF's C-17 trials.", "In February 2011, the IAF and Boeing agreed terms for the order of 10 C-17s with an option for six more; the US$4.1 billion order was approved by the Indian Cabinet Committee on Security on 6 June 2011.Deliveries began in June 2013 and were to continue to 2014.In 2012, the IAF reportedly finalized plans to buy six more C-17s in its five-year plan for 2017–2022.IAF C-17sIt provides strategic airlift, the ability to deploy special forces, and to operate in diverse terrain – from Himalayan air bases in North India at to Indian Ocean bases in South India.", "The C-17s are based at Hindon Air Force Station and are operated by No.", "81 Squadron IAF ''Skylords''.", "The first C-17 was delivered in January 2013 for testing and training; it was officially accepted on 11 June 2013.The second C-17 was delivered on 23 July 2013 and put into service immediately.", "IAF Chief of Air Staff Norman AK Browne called it \"a major component in the IAF's modernization drive\" while taking delivery of the aircraft at Boeing's Long Beach factory.", "On 2 September 2013, the ''Skylords'' squadron with three C-17s officially entered IAF service.The ''Skylords'' regularly fly missions within India, such as to high-altitude bases at Leh and Thoise.", "The IAF first used the C-17 to transport an infantry battalion's equipment to Port Blair on Andaman Islands on 1 July 2013.Foreign deployments to date include Tajikistan in August 2013, and Rwanda to support Indian peacekeepers.", "One C-17 was used for transporting relief materials during Cyclone Phailin.The sixth aircraft was received in July 2014.In June 2017, the U.S. Department of State approved the potential sale of one C-17 to India under a proposed $366 million (~$ in ) U.S. Foreign Military Sale.", "This aircraft, the last C-17 produced, increased the IAF's fleet to 11 C-17s.", "In March 2018, a contract was awarded for completion by 22 August 2019.On 7 February 2023, an IAF C-17 delivered humanitarian aid packages for earthquake victims in Turkey and Syria by taking a detour around Pakistan's airspace in the aftermath of the 2021 Taliban takeover of Afghanistan.=== Qatar ===Qatar Emiri Air Force C-17Boeing delivered Qatar's first C-17 on 11 August 2009 and the second on 10 September 2009 for the Qatar Emiri Air Force.", "Qatar received its third C-17 in 2012, and fourth C-17 was received on 10 December 2012.In June 2013, ''The New York Times'' reported that Qatar was allegedly using its C-17s to ship weapons from Libya to the Syrian opposition during the civil war via Turkey.", "On 15 June 2015, it was announced at the Paris Airshow that Qatar agreed to order four additional C-17s from the five remaining \"white tail\" C-17s to double Qatar's C-17 fleet.", "One Qatari C-17 bears the civilian markings of government-owned Qatar Airways, although the airplane is owned and operated by the Qatar Emiri Air Force.", "This is because some airports are closed to airplanes with military markings.=== United Arab Emirates ===In February 2009, the United Arab Emirates Air Force agreed to buy four C-17s.", "In January 2010, a contract was signed for six C-17s.", "In May 2011, the first C-17 was handed over and the final was received in June 2012.===Kuwait===A Kuwait Air Force C-17 in 2015Kuwait requested the purchase of one C-17 in September 2010 and a second in April 2013 through the U.S.'s Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program.", "The nation ordered two C-17s; the first was delivered on 13 February 2014.=== Proposed operators ===In 2015, New Zealand's Minister of Defence, Gerry Brownlee, was considering the purchase of two C-17s for the Royal New Zealand Air Force at an estimated cost of $600 million as a heavy air transport option.", "However, the New Zealand Government eventually decided not to acquire the C-17." ], [ "Variants", "*'''C-17A:''' Initial military airlifter version.", "*'''C-17A \"ER\":''' Unofficial name for C-17As with extended range due to the addition of the center wing tank.", "This upgrade was incorporated in production beginning in 2001 with Block 13 aircraft.", "**'''Block 16:''' This software/hardware upgrade was a major improvement of the improved Onboard Inert Gas-Generating System (OBIGGS II), a new weather radar, an improved stabilizer strut system and other avionics.", "**'''Block 21:''' Adds ADS-B capability, IFF modification, communication/navigation upgrades and improved flight management.", "*'''C-17B:''' A proposed tactical airlifter version with double-slotted flaps, an additional main landing gear on the center fuselage, more powerful engines, and other systems for shorter landing and take-off distances.", "Boeing offered the C-17B to the U.S. military in 2007 for carrying the Army's Future Combat Systems (FCS) vehicles and other equipment.", "*'''KC-17:''' Proposed tanker variant of the C-17.", "*'''MD-17:''' Proposed variant for US airlines participating in the Civil Reserve Air Fleet, later redesignated as '''BC-17''' after 1997 merger." ], [ "Operators", "Map of countries that operate the C-17 Globemaster III (highlighted in blue)PzH 2000 self-propelled howitzer to Afghanistan, 2006Chinook helicopter is loaded into a C-17.A C-17 in its aeromedical evacuation configurationU.S.", "Army paratroopers seated in a C-17 as it maneuvers to a drop zone for a mass-attack airdropout of Kabul on 15 August 2021;* Royal Australian Air Force – 8 C-17A ERs in service as of Jan.", "2018.", "** No.", "36 Squadron;* Royal Canadian Air Force – 5 CC-177 (C-17A ER) aircraft in use as of Jan.", "2018.", "** 429 Transport Squadron, CFB Trenton;* Indian Air Force – 11 C-17s as of Aug.", "2019.**No.", "81 Squadron (''Skylords''), Hindon AFS;* Kuwait Air Force – 2 C-17s as of Jan. 2018; Europe* The multi-nation Strategic Airlift Capability Heavy Airlift Wing – 3 C-17s in service as of Jan. 2018, including 1 C-17 contributed by the USAF; based at Pápa Air Base, Hungary.", ";*Qatar Emiri Air Force – 8 C-17As in use as of Jan. 2018;*United Arab Emirates Air Force – 8 C-17As in operation as of Jan. 2018;* Royal Air Force – 8 C-17A ERs in use as of Jan. 2018** No.", "99 Squadron, RAF Brize Norton;* United States Air Force – 222 C-17s in service (157 Active, 47 Air National Guard, 18 Air Force Reserve)**60th Air Mobility Wing – Travis Air Force Base, California***21st Airlift Squadron**62d Airlift Wing – McChord AFB, Washington***4th Airlift Squadron***7th Airlift Squadron***8th Airlift Squadron*** 10th Airlift Squadron - (2003–2016)**305th Air Mobility Wing – McGuire Air Force Base, New Jersey***6th Airlift Squadron**385th Air Expeditionary Group – Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar***816th Expeditionary Airlift Squadron**436th Airlift Wing – Dover Air Force Base, Delaware***3d Airlift Squadron**437th Airlift Wing – Charleston Air Force Base, South Carolina***14th Airlift Squadron***15th Airlift Squadron***16th Airlift Squadron***17th Airlift Squadron - (1993–2015)**3d Wing – Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska***517th Airlift Squadron (Associate)**15th Wing – Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii***535th Airlift Squadron**97th Air Mobility Wing – Altus AFB, Oklahoma***58th Airlift Squadron**412th Test Wing – Edwards AFB, California***418th Flight Test Squadron*Air Force Reserve**315th Airlift Wing (Associate) – Charleston AFB, South Carolina***300th Airlift Squadron***317th Airlift Squadron***701st Airlift Squadron**349th Air Mobility Wing (Associate) – Travis AFB, California***301st Airlift Squadron**445th Airlift Wing – Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio***89th Airlift Squadron**446th Airlift Wing (Associate) – McChord AFB, Washington***97th Airlift Squadron***313th Airlift Squadron***728th Airlift Squadron**452d Air Mobility Wing – March ARB, California***729th Airlift Squadron**507th Air Refueling Wing – Tinker AFB, Oklahoma***730th Air Mobility Training Squadron (Altus AFB)**512th Airlift Wing (Associate) – Dover AFB, Delaware***326th Airlift Squadron**514th Air Mobility Wing (Associate) – McGuire AFB, New Jersey***732d Airlift Squadron**911th Airlift Wing – Pittsburgh Air Reserve Station, Pennsylvania***758th Airlift Squadron*Air National Guard**105th Airlift Wing – Stewart ANGB, New York***137th Airlift Squadron**145th Airlift Wing – Charlotte Air National Guard Base, North Carolina***156th Airlift Squadron**154th Wing – Hickam AFB, Hawaii***204th Airlift Squadron (Associate)**164th Airlift Wing – Memphis ANGB, Tennessee***155th Airlift Squadron**167th Airlift Wing – Shepherd Field ANGB, West Virginia***167th Airlift Squadron**172d Airlift Wing – Allen C. Thompson Field ANGB, Mississippi***183d Airlift Squadron**176th Wing – Elmendorf AFB, Alaska***144th Airlift Squadron" ], [ "Accidents and notable incidents {{anchor|Accidents and notable incidents}}", "* On 10 September 1998, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No.", "''96-0006'') delivered Keiko the whale to Vestmannaeyjar, Iceland, a runway, and suffered a landing gear failure during landing.", "There were no injuries, but the landing gear sustained major damage.", "* On 10 December 2003, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No.", "''98-0057'') was hit by a surface-to-air missile after take-off from Baghdad, Iraq.", "One engine was disabled and the aircraft returned for a safe landing.", "It was repaired and returned to service.", "* On 6 August 2005, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No.", "''01-0196'') ran off the runway at Bagram Air Base in Afghanistan while attempting to land, destroying its nose and main landing gear.", "After two months making it flightworthy, a test pilot flew the aircraft to Boeing's Long Beach facility as the temporary repairs imposed performance limitations.", "In October 2006, it returned to service following repairs.Bagram Air Base, Afghanistan, on 30 January 2009 after landing with landing gear retracted* On 30 January 2009, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No.", "''96-0002'' – \"Spirit of the Air Force\") made a gear-up landing at Bagram Air Base.", "It was ferried from Bagram AB, making several stops along the way, to Boeing's Long Beach plant for extensive repairs.", "The USAF Aircraft Accident Investigation Board concluded the cause was the crew's failure to follow the pre-landing checklist and lower the landing gear.", "* On 28 July 2010, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No.", "''00-0173'' – \"Spirit of the Aleutians\") crashed at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, while practicing for the 2010 Arctic Thunder Air Show, killing all four aboard.", "It crashed near a railroad, disrupting rail operations.", "A military investigation found pilot error caused a stall.", "This is the C-17's only fatal crash and the only hull loss accident.", "* On 23 January 2012, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No.", "''07-7189''), assigned to the 437th Airlift Wing, Joint Base Charleston, South Carolina, landed on runway 34R at Forward Operating Base Shank, Afghanistan.", "The crew did not realize the required stopping distance exceeded the runway's length thus were unable to stop.", "It came to rest approximately 700 feet from the runway's end upon an embankment, causing major structural damage but no injuries.", "After 9 months of repairs to make it airworthy, the C-17 flew to Long Beach.", "It returned to service at a reported cost of $69.4 million.", "* On 20 July 2012, a USAF C-17 of the 305th Air Mobility Wing, flying from McGuire AFB, New Jersey, to MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida, mistakenly landed at nearby Peter O. Knight Airport, a small municipal field without a control tower, with Gen. Jim Mattis, then commander of CENTCOM on board.", "After a few hours, the Globemaster took off from the airport's runway without incident and made the short trip to MacDill AFB.", "The mistaken landing followed an extended duration flight from Europe to Southwest Asia to embark military passengers before returning to the U.S.", "The USAF investigation attributed the incident to fatigue leading to pilot error, as both airfields' main runways share the same magnetic heading and are only four miles apart along the shore of Tampa Bay.", "* On 9 April 2021, USAF C-17 10-0223 suffered a fire in its undercarriage after landing at Charleston AFB following a flight from RAF Mildenhall, UK.", "The fire spread to the fuselage before it was extinguished." ], [ "Specifications (C-17A)" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* Bonny, Danny, Barry Fryer and Martyn Swann.", "''AMARC MASDC III, The Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center, Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ, 1997–2005.''", "Surrey, UK: British Aviation Research Group, 2006..* Department of Defense.", "''Kosovo/Operation Allied Force After-Action Report'', DIANE Publishing; 31 January 2000..* Gertler, Jeremiah.", "\"Air Force C-17 Aircraft Procurement: Background and Issues for Congress.\"", "''Congressional Research Service,''.", "DIANE Publishing; 22 December 2009..* Kennedy, Betty R. ''Globemaster III: Acquiring the C-17''.", "McConnell AFB, Kansas: Air Mobility Command Office of History, 2004.", "* McLaughlin, Andrew.", "\"Big Mover.\"", "Canberra: ''Australian Aviation (Phantom Media),'' September 2008.", "* Norton, Bill.", "''Boeing C-17 Globemaster III'' (Warbird Tech, Vol.", "30).", "North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2001.." ], [ "External links", "* * USAF C-17 fact sheet* RCAF CC-177 Globemaster III page* Full C-17 production list, including manufacturer serial numbers (c/n)* Tour of the manufacturing line on ''California's Gold''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Caber" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Caber''' can refer to:* Caber toss, a sport" ], [ "Places", "* Caber, Çivril, a village in Çivril District, Denizli Province, Turkey* Caber, Sarayköy, a village in Sarayköy District, Denizli Province, Turkey*Çabër, a village in Zubin Potok, Mitrovica district, Kosovo" ], [ "Other uses", "*CaBER, Capillary Breakup Extensional Rheometer*Caber (comics), a deity in Marvel Comics*Caber Music, a British record label founded in 1998 by Tom Bancroft" ], [ "See also", "*Kaber (disambiguation)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Garbage collection (computer science)" ], [ "Introduction", "Lisp architecture: Memory is divided into ''working'' and ''free'' memory; new objects are allocated in the former.", "When it is full (depicted), garbage collection is performed: All data structures still in use are located by pointer tracing and copied into consecutive locations in free memory.After that, the working memory contents is discarded in favor of the compressed copy, and the role of ''working'' and ''free'' memory are exchanged (depicted).In computer science, '''garbage collection''' ('''GC''') is a form of automatic memory management.", "The ''garbage collector'' attempts to reclaim memory which was allocated by the program, but is no longer referenced; such memory is called ''garbage''.", "Garbage collection was invented by American computer scientist John McCarthy around 1959 to simplify manual memory management in Lisp.Garbage collection relieves the programmer from doing manual memory management, where the programmer specifies what objects to de-allocate and return to the memory system and when to do so.", "Other, similar techniques include stack allocation, region inference, and memory ownership, and combinations thereof.", "Garbage collection may take a significant proportion of a program's total processing time, and affect performance as a result.Resources other than memory, such as network sockets, database handles, windows, file descriptors, and device descriptors, are not typically handled by garbage collection, but rather by other methods (e.g.", "destructors).", "Some such methods de-allocate memory also." ], [ "Overview", "Many programming languages require garbage collection, either as part of the language specification (e.g., RPL, Java, C#, D, Go, and most scripting languages) or effectively for practical implementation (e.g., formal languages like lambda calculus).", "These are said to be ''garbage-collected languages''.", "Other languages, such as C and C++, were designed for use with manual memory management, but have garbage-collected implementations available.", "Some languages, like Ada, Modula-3, and C++/CLI, allow both garbage collection and manual memory management to co-exist in the same application by using separate heaps for collected and manually managed objects.", "Still others, like D, are garbage-collected but allow the user to manually delete objects or even disable garbage collection entirely when speed is required.Although many languages integrate GC into their compiler and runtime system, ''post-hoc'' GC systems also exist, such as Automatic Reference Counting (ARC).", "Some of these ''post-hoc'' GC systems do not require recompilation.", "=== Advantages ===GC frees the programmer from manually de-allocating memory.", "This helps avoid some kinds of errors:* ''Dangling pointers'', which occur when a piece of memory is freed while there are still pointers to it, and one of those pointers is dereferenced.", "By then the memory may have been reassigned to another use, with unpredictable results.", "* ''Double free bugs'', which occur when the program tries to free a region of memory that has already been freed, and perhaps already been allocated again.", "* Certain kinds of ''memory leaks'', in which a program fails to free memory occupied by objects that have become unreachable, which can lead to memory exhaustion.=== Disadvantages ===GC uses computing resources to decide which memory to free.", "Therefore, the penalty for the convenience of not annotating object lifetime manually in the source code is overhead, which can impair program performance.", "A peer-reviewed paper from 2005 concluded that GC needs five times the memory to compensate for this overhead and to perform as fast as the same program using idealised explicit memory management.", "The comparison however is made to a program generated by inserting deallocation calls using an oracle, implemented by collecting traces from programs run under a profiler, and the program is only correct for one particular execution of the program.", "Interaction with memory hierarchy effects can make this overhead intolerable in circumstances that are hard to predict or to detect in routine testing.", "The impact on performance was given by Apple as a reason for not adopting garbage collection in iOS, despite it being the most desired feature.The moment when the garbage is actually collected can be unpredictable, resulting in stalls (pauses to shift/free memory) scattered throughout a session.", "Unpredictable stalls can be unacceptable in real-time environments, in transaction processing, or in interactive programs.", "Incremental, concurrent, and real-time garbage collectors address these problems, with varying trade-offs." ], [ "Strategies", "=== Tracing ===Tracing garbage collection is the most common type of garbage collection, so much so that \"garbage collection\" often refers to tracing garbage collection, rather than other methods such as reference counting.", "The overall strategy consists of determining which objects should be garbage collected by tracing which objects are ''reachable'' by a chain of references from certain root objects, and considering the rest as garbage and collecting them.", "However, there are a large number of algorithms used in implementation, with widely varying complexity and performance characteristics.=== Reference counting ===Reference counting garbage collection is where each object has a count of the number of references to it.", "Garbage is identified by having a reference count of zero.", "An object's reference count is incremented when a reference to it is created, and decremented when a reference is destroyed.", "When the count reaches zero, the object's memory is reclaimed.As with manual memory management, and unlike tracing garbage collection, reference counting guarantees that objects are destroyed as soon as their last reference is destroyed, and usually only accesses memory which is either in CPU caches, in objects to be freed, or directly pointed to by those, and thus tends to not have significant negative side effects on CPU cache and virtual memory operation.There are a number of disadvantages to reference counting; this can generally be solved or mitigated by more sophisticated algorithms:; Cycles: If two or more objects refer to each other, they can create a cycle whereby neither will be collected as their mutual references never let their reference counts become zero.", "Some garbage collection systems using reference counting (like the one in CPython) use specific cycle-detecting algorithms to deal with this issue.", "Another strategy is to use weak references for the \"backpointers\" which create cycles.", "Under reference counting, a weak reference is similar to a weak reference under a tracing garbage collector.", "It is a special reference object whose existence does not increment the reference count of the referent object.", "Furthermore, a weak reference is safe in that when the referent object becomes garbage, any weak reference to it ''lapses'', rather than being permitted to remain dangling, meaning that it turns into a predictable value, such as a null reference.", "; Space overhead (reference count): Reference counting requires space to be allocated for each object to store its reference count.", "The count may be stored adjacent to the object's memory or in a side table somewhere else, but in either case, every single reference-counted object requires additional storage for its reference count.", "Memory space with the size of an unsigned pointer is commonly used for this task, meaning that 32 or 64 bits of reference count storage must be allocated for each object.", "On some systems, it may be possible to mitigate this overhead by using a tagged pointer to store the reference count in unused areas of the object's memory.", "Often, an architecture does not actually allow programs to access the full range of memory addresses that could be stored in its native pointer size; certain number of high bits in the address is either ignored or required to be zero.", "If an object reliably has a pointer at a certain location, the reference count can be stored in the unused bits of the pointer.", "For example, each object in Objective-C has a pointer to its class at the beginning of its memory; on the ARM64 architecture using iOS 7, 19 unused bits of this class pointer are used to store the object's reference count.", "; Speed overhead (increment/decrement): In naive implementations, each assignment of a reference and each reference falling out of scope often require modifications of one or more reference counters.", "However, in a common case when a reference is copied from an outer scope variable into an inner scope variable, such that the lifetime of the inner variable is bounded by the lifetime of the outer one, the reference incrementing can be eliminated.", "The outer variable \"owns\" the reference.", "In the programming language C++, this technique is readily implemented and demonstrated with the use of const references.", "Reference counting in C++ is usually implemented using \"smart pointers\" whose constructors, destructors and assignment operators manage the references.", "A smart pointer can be passed by reference to a function, which avoids the need to copy-construct a new smart pointer (which would increase the reference count on entry into the function and decrease it on exit).", "Instead the function receives a reference to the smart pointer which is produced inexpensively.", "The Deutsch-Bobrow method of reference counting capitalizes on the fact that most reference count updates are in fact generated by references stored in local variables.", "It ignores these references, only counting references in the heap, but before an object with reference count zero can be deleted, the system must verify with a scan of the stack and registers that no other reference to it still exists.", "A further substantial decrease in the overhead on counter updates can be obtained by update coalescing introduced by Levanoni and Petrank.", "Consider a pointer that in a given interval of the execution is updated several times.", "It first points to an object O1, then to an object O2, and so forth until at the end of the interval it points to some object On.", "A reference counting algorithm would typically execute rc(O1)--, rc(O2)++, rc(O2)--, rc(O3)++, rc(O3)--, ..., rc(On)++.", "But most of these updates are redundant.", "In order to have the reference count properly evaluated at the end of the interval it is enough to perform rc(O1)-- and rc(On)++.", "Levanoni and Petrank measured an elimination of more than 99% of the counter updates in typical Java benchmarks.", "; Requires atomicity: When used in a multithreaded environment, these modifications (increment and decrement) may need to be atomic operations such as compare-and-swap, at least for any objects which are shared, or potentially shared among multiple threads.", "Atomic operations are expensive on a multiprocessor, and even more expensive if they have to be emulated with software algorithms.", "It is possible to avoid this issue by adding per-thread or per-CPU reference counts and only accessing the global reference count when the local reference counts become or are no longer zero (or, alternatively, using a binary tree of reference counts, or even giving up deterministic destruction in exchange for not having a global reference count at all), but this adds significant memory overhead and thus tends to be only useful in special cases (it is used, for example, in the reference counting of Linux kernel modules).", "Update coalescing by Levanoni and Petrank can be used to eliminate all atomic operations from the write-barrier.", "Counters are never updated by the program threads in the course of program execution.", "They are only modified by the collector which executes as a single additional thread with no synchronization.", "This method can be used as a stop-the-world mechanism for parallel programs, and also with a concurrent reference counting collector.", "; Not real-time: Naive implementations of reference counting do not generally provide real-time behavior, because any pointer assignment can potentially cause a number of objects bounded only by total allocated memory size to be recursively freed while the thread is unable to perform other work.", "It is possible to avoid this issue by delegating the freeing of unreferenced objects to other threads, at the cost of extra overhead.=== Escape analysis ===Escape analysis is a compile-time technique that can convert heap allocations to stack allocations, thereby reducing the amount of garbage collection to be done.", "This analysis determines whether an object allocated inside a function is accessible outside of it.", "If a function-local allocation is found to be accessible to another function or thread, the allocation is said to \"escape\" and cannot be done on the stack.", "Otherwise, the object may be allocated directly on the stack and released when the function returns, bypassing the heap and associated memory management costs." ], [ "Availability", "Generally speaking, higher-level programming languages are more likely to have garbage collection as a standard feature.", "In some languages lacking built in garbage collection, it can be added through a library, as with the Boehm garbage collector for C and C++.Most functional programming languages, such as ML, Haskell, and APL, have garbage collection built in.", "Lisp is especially notable as both the first functional programming language and the first language to introduce garbage collection.Other dynamic languages, such as Ruby and Julia (but not Perl 5 or PHP before version 5.3, which both use reference counting), JavaScript and ECMAScript also tend to use GC.", "Object-oriented programming languages such as Smalltalk, RPL and Java usually provide integrated garbage collection.", "Notable exceptions are C++ and Delphi, which have destructors.=== BASIC ===BASIC and Logo have often used garbage collection for variable-length data types, such as strings and lists, so as not to burden programmers with memory management details.", "On the Altair 8800, programs with many string variables and little string space could cause long pauses due to garbage collection.", "Similarly the Applesoft BASIC interpreter's garbage collection algorithm repeatedly scans the string descriptors for the string having the highest address in order to compact it toward high memory, resulting in performance and pauses anywhere from a few seconds to a few minutes.", "A replacement garbage collector for Applesoft BASIC by Randy Wigginton identifies a group of strings in every pass over the heap, reducing collection time dramatically.", "BASIC.SYSTEM, released with ProDOS in 1983, provides a windowing garbage collector for BASIC that is many times faster.=== Objective-C ===While the Objective-C traditionally had no garbage collection, with the release of OS X 10.5 in 2007 Apple introduced garbage collection for Objective-C 2.0, using an in-house developed runtime collector.However, with the 2012 release of OS X 10.8, garbage collection was deprecated in favor of LLVM's automatic reference counter (ARC) that was introduced with OS X 10.7.Furthermore, since May 2015 Apple even forbids the usage of garbage collection for new OS X applications in the App Store.", "For iOS, garbage collection has never been introduced due to problems in application responsivity and performance; instead, iOS uses ARC.=== Limited environments ===Garbage collection is rarely used on embedded or real-time systems because of the usual need for very tight control over the use of limited resources.", "However, garbage collectors compatible with many limited environments have been developed.", "The Microsoft .NET Micro Framework, .NET nanoFramework and Java Platform, Micro Edition are embedded software platforms that, like their larger cousins, include garbage collection.=== Java ===Garbage collectors available in Java JDKs include:* G1* Parallel* Concurrent mark sweep collector (CMS)* Serial* C4 (Continuously Concurrent Compacting Collector)* Shenandoah* ZGC=== Compile-time use ===Compile-time garbage collection is a form of static analysis allowing memory to be reused and reclaimed based on invariants known during compilation.This form of garbage collection has been studied in the Mercury programming language, and it saw greater usage with the introduction of LLVM's automatic reference counter (ARC) into Apple's ecosystem (iOS and OS X) in 2011.=== Real-time systems ===Incremental, concurrent, and real-time garbage collectors have been developed, for example by Henry Baker and by Henry Lieberman.In Baker's algorithm, the allocation is done in either half of a single region of memory.", "When it becomes half full, a garbage collection is performed which moves the live objects into the other half and the remaining objects are implicitly deallocated.", "The running program (the 'mutator') has to check that any object it references is in the correct half, and if not move it across, while a background task is finding all of the objects.Generational garbage collection schemes are based on the empirical observation that most objects die young.", "In generational garbage collection two or more allocation regions (generations) are kept, which are kept separate based on object's age.", "New objects are created in the \"young\" generation that is regularly collected, and when a generation is full, the objects that are still referenced from older regions are copied into the next oldest generation.", "Occasionally a full scan is performed.Some high-level language computer architectures include hardware support for real-time garbage collection.Most implementations of real-time garbage collectors use tracing.", "Such real-time garbage collectors meet hard real-time constraints when used with a real-time operating system." ], [ "See also", "* Destructor (computer programming)* Dynamic dead-code elimination* Smart pointer* Virtual memory compression" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* (511 pages)* (404 pages)* * *" ], [ "External links", "* The Memory Management Reference* The Very Basics of Garbage Collection* Java SE 6 HotSpot Virtual Machine Garbage Collection Tuning* TinyGC - an independent implementation of the BoehmGC API* Conservative Garbage Collection Implementation for C Language* MeixnerGC - an incremental mark and sweep garbage collector for C++ using smart pointers" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Canidae" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Canidae''' (; from Latin, ''canis'', \"dog\") is a biological family of dog-like carnivorans, colloquially referred to as '''dogs''', and constitutes a clade.", "A member of this family is also called a '''canid''' ().", "The family includes three subfamilies: the Caninae, the extinct Borophaginae and Hesperocyoninae.", "The Caninae are known as canines, and include domestic dogs, wolves, coyotes, foxes, jackals and other species.Canids are found on all continents except Antarctica, having arrived independently or accompanied by human beings over extended periods of time.", "Canids vary in size from the gray wolf to the fennec fox.", "The body forms of canids are similar, typically having long muzzles, upright ears, teeth adapted for cracking bones and slicing flesh, long legs, and bushy tails.", "They are mostly social animals, living together in family units or small groups and behaving co-operatively.", "Typically, only the dominant pair in a group breeds and a litter of young are reared annually in an underground den.", "Canids communicate by scent signals and vocalizations.", "One canid, the domestic dog, originated from a symbiotic relationship with Upper Paleolithic humans and today remains one of the most widely kept domestic animals." ], [ "Taxonomy", "In the history of the carnivores, the family Canidae is represented by the two extinct subfamilies designated as Hesperocyoninae and Borophaginae, and the extant subfamily Caninae.", "This subfamily includes all living canids and their most recent fossil relatives.", "All living canids as a group form a dental monophyletic relationship with the extinct borophagines, with both groups having a bicuspid (two points) on the lower carnassial talonid, which gives this tooth an additional ability in mastication.", "This, together with the development of a distinct entoconid cusp and the broadening of the talonid of the first lower molar, and the corresponding enlargement of the talon of the upper first molar and reduction of its parastyle distinguish these late Cenozoic canids and are the essential differences that identify their clade.The cat-like feliformia and dog-like Caniforms emerged within the Carnivoramorpha around 45–42 Mya (million years ago).", "The Canidae first appeared in North America during the Late Eocene (37.8-33.9 Mya).", "They did not reach Eurasia until the Miocene or to South America until the Late Pliocene.===Phylogenetic relationships===This cladogram shows the phylogenetic position of canids within Caniformia, based on fossil finds:" ], [ "Evolution", "Representatives of three canid subfamilies: ''Hesperocyon'' (Hesperocyoninae), ''Aelurodon'' (Borophaginae) and ''Canis aureus'' (Caninae)The Canidae today includes a diverse group of some 37 species ranging in size from the maned wolf with its long limbs to the short-legged bush dog.", "Modern canids inhabit forests, tundra, savannahs, and deserts throughout tropical and temperate parts of the world.", "The evolutionary relationships between the species have been studied in the past using morphological approaches, but more recently, molecular studies have enabled the investigation of phylogenetics relationships.", "In some species, genetic divergence has been suppressed by the high level of gene flow between different populations and where the species have hybridized, large hybrid zones exist.===Eocene epoch===Carnivorans evolved after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago.", "Around 50 million years ago, or earlier, in the Paleocene, the carnivorans split into two main divisions: caniforms (dog-like) and feliforms (cat-like).", "By 40 Mya, the first identifiable member of the dog family had arisen.", "Named ''Prohesperocyon wilsoni'', its fossilized remains have been found in what is now the southwestern part of Texas.", "The chief features which identify it as a canid include the loss of the upper third molar (part of a trend toward a more shearing bite), and the structure of the middle ear which has an enlarged bulla (the hollow bony structure protecting the delicate parts of the ear).", "''Prohesperocyon'' probably had slightly longer limbs than its predecessors, and also had parallel and closely touching toes which differ markedly from the splayed arrangements of the digits in bears.The canid family soon subdivided into three subfamilies, each of which diverged during the Eocene: Hesperocyoninae (about 39.74–15 Mya), Borophaginae (about 34–32 Mya), and Caninae (about 34–30 Mya).", "The Caninae are the only surviving subfamily and all present-day canids, including wolves, foxes, coyotes, jackals, and domestic dogs.", "Members of each subfamily showed an increase in body mass with time and some exhibited specialized hypercarnivorous diets that made them prone to extinction.===Oligocene epoch===By the Oligocene, all three subfamilies of canids (Hesperocyoninae, Borophaginae, and Caninae) had appeared in the fossil records of North America.", "The earliest and most primitive branch of the Canidae was the Hesperocyoninae lineage, which included the coyote-sized ''Mesocyon'' of the Oligocene (38–24 Mya).", "These early canids probably evolved for the fast pursuit of prey in a grassland habitat; they resembled modern viverrids in appearance.", "Hesperocyonines eventually became extinct in the middle Miocene.", "One of the early members of the Hesperocyonines, the genus ''Hesperocyon'', gave rise to ''Archaeocyon'' and ''Leptocyon''.", "These branches led to the borophagine and canine radiations.===Miocene epoch===Around 8 Mya, the Beringian land bridge allowed members of the genus ''Eucyon'' a means to enter Asia from North America and they continued on to colonize Europe.===Pliocene epoch===The ''Canis'', ''Urocyon'', and ''Vulpes'' genera developed from canids from North America, where the canine radiation began.", "The success of these canines was related to the development of lower carnassials that were capable of both mastication and shearing.Around 5 million years ago, some of the Old World ''Eucyon'' evolved into the first members of ''Canis'',During the Pliocene, around 4–5 Mya, ''Canis lepophagus'' appeared in North America.", "This was small and sometimes coyote-like.", "Others were wolf-like in characteristics.", "''C.", "latrans'' (the coyote) is theorized to have descended from ''C.", "lepophagus''.The formation of the Isthmus of Panama, about 3 Mya, joined South America to North America, allowing canids to invade South America, where they diversified.", "However, the most recent common ancestor of the South American canids lived in North America some 4 Mya and more than one incursion across the new land bridge is likely given the fact that more than one lineage is present in South America.", "Two North American lineages found in South America are the gray fox (''Urocyon cinereoargentus'') and the now-extinct dire wolf (''Aenocyon dirus'').", "Besides these, there are species endemic to South America: the maned wolf (''Chrysocyon brachyurus''), the short-eared dog (''Atelocynus microtis''), the bush dog (''Speothos venaticus''), the crab-eating fox (''Cerdocyon thous''), and the South American foxes (''Lycalopex'' spp.).", "The monophyly of this group has been established by molecular means.===Pleistocene epoch===During the Pleistocene, the North American wolf line appeared, with ''Canis edwardii'', clearly identifiable as a wolf, and ''Canis rufus'' appeared, possibly a direct descendant of ''C. edwardii''.", "Around 0.8 Mya, ''Canis ambrusteri'' emerged in North America.", "A large wolf, it was found all over North and Central America and was eventually supplanted by the dire wolf, which then spread into South America during the Late Pleistocene.By 0.3 Mya, a number of subspecies of the gray wolf (''C.", "lupus'') had developed and had spread throughout Europe and northern Asia.", "The gray wolf colonized North America during the late Rancholabrean era across the Bering land bridge, with at least three separate invasions, with each one consisting of one or more different Eurasian gray wolf clades.", "MtDNA studies have shown that there are at least four extant ''C.", "lupus'' lineages.", "The dire wolf shared its habitat with the gray wolf, but became extinct in a large-scale extinction event that occurred around 11,500 years ago.", "It may have been more of a scavenger than a hunter; its molars appear to be adapted for crushing bones and it may have gone extinct as a result of the extinction of the large herbivorous animals on whose carcasses it relied.In 2015, a study of mitochondrial genome sequences and whole-genome nuclear sequences of African and Eurasian canids indicated that extant wolf-like canids have colonized Africa from Eurasia at least five times throughout the Pliocene and Pleistocene, which is consistent with fossil evidence suggesting that much of African canid fauna diversity resulted from the immigration of Eurasian ancestors, likely coincident with Plio-Pleistocene climatic oscillations between arid and humid conditions.", "When comparing the African and Eurasian golden jackals, the study concluded that the African specimens represented a distinct monophyletic lineage that should be recognized as a separate species, ''Canis anthus'' (African golden wolf).", "According to a phylogeny derived from nuclear sequences, the Eurasian golden jackal (''Canis aureus'') diverged from the wolf/coyote lineage 1.9 Mya, but the African golden wolf separated 1.3 Mya.", "Mitochondrial genome sequences indicated the Ethiopian wolf diverged from the wolf/coyote lineage slightly prior to that." ], [ "{{visible anchor|Characteristics|Anatomy}}", "Wild canids are found on every continent except Antarctica, and inhabit a wide range of different habitats, including deserts, mountains, forests, and grasslands.", "They vary in size from the fennec fox, which may be as little as in length and weigh , to the gray wolf, which may be up to long, and can weigh up to .", "Only a few species are arboreal—the gray fox, the closely related island fox and the raccoon dog habitually climb trees.All canids have a similar basic form, as exemplified by the gray wolf, although the relative length of muzzle, limbs, ears, and tail vary considerably between species.", "With the exceptions of the bush dog, the raccoon dog and some domestic dog breeds, canids have relatively long legs and lithe bodies, adapted for chasing prey.", "The tails are bushy and the length and quality of the pelage vary with the season.", "The muzzle portion of the skull is much more elongated than that of the cat family.", "The zygomatic arches are wide, there is a transverse lambdoidal ridge at the rear of the cranium and in some species, a sagittal crest running from front to back.", "The bony orbits around the eye never form a complete ring and the auditory bullae are smooth and rounded.", "Females have three to seven pairs of mammae.All canids are digitigrade, meaning they walk on their toes.", "The tip of the nose is always naked, as are the cushioned pads on the soles of the feet.", "These latter consist of a single pad behind the tip of each toe and a more-or-less three-lobed central pad under the roots of the digits.", "Hairs grow between the pads and in the Arctic fox the sole of the foot is densely covered with hair at some times of the year.", "With the exception of the four-toed African wild dog (''Lycaon pictus''), five toes are on the forefeet, but the pollex (thumb) is reduced and does not reach the ground.", "On the hind feet are four toes, but in some domestic dogs, a fifth vestigial toe, known as a dewclaw, is sometimes present, but has no anatomical connection to the rest of the foot.", "In some species, slightly curved nails are non-retractile and more-or-less blunt while other species have sharper, partially-retractile claws.The penis in male canids is supported by a baculum and contains a structure called the bulbus glandis, which creates a copulatory tie that lasts for up to an hour during mating.", "Young canids are born blind, with their eyes opening a few weeks after birth.", "All living canids (Caninae) have a ligament analogous to the nuchal ligament of ungulates used to maintain the posture of the head and neck with little active muscle exertion; this ligament allows them to conserve energy while running long distances following scent trails with their nose to the ground.", "However, based on skeletal details of the neck, at least some of the Borophaginae (such as ''Aelurodon'') are believed to have lacked this ligament.===Dentition===Dentition relates to the arrangement of teeth in the mouth, with the dental notation for the upper-jaw teeth using the upper-case letters I to denote incisors, C for canines, P for premolars, and M for molars, and the lower-case letters i, c, p and m to denote the mandible teeth.", "Teeth are numbered using one side of the mouth and from the front of the mouth to the back.", "In carnivores, the upper premolar P4 and the lower molar m1 form the carnassials that are used together in a scissor-like action to shear the muscle and tendon of prey.Canids use their premolars for cutting and crushing except for the upper fourth premolar P4 (the upper carnassial) that is only used for cutting.", "They use their molars for grinding except for the lower first molar m1 (the lower carnassial) that has evolved for both cutting and grinding depending on the canid's dietary adaptation.", "On the lower carnassial, the trigonid is used for slicing and the talonid is used for grinding.", "The ratio between the trigonid and the talonid indicates a carnivore's dietary habits, with a larger trigonid indicating a hypercarnivore and a larger talonid indicating a more omnivorous diet.", "Because of its low variability, the length of the lower carnassial is used to provide an estimate of a carnivore's body size.A study of the estimated bite force at the canine teeth of a large sample of living and fossil mammalian predators, when adjusted for their body mass, found that for placental mammals the bite force at the canines was greatest in the extinct dire wolf (163), followed among the modern canids by the four hypercarnivores that often prey on animals larger than themselves: the African wild dog (142), the gray wolf (136), the dhole (112), and the dingo (108).", "The bite force at the carnassials showed a similar trend to the canines.", "A predator's largest prey size is strongly influenced by its biomechanical limits.Most canids have 42 teeth, with a dental formula of: .", "The bush dog has only one upper molar with two below, the dhole has two above and two below.", "and the bat-eared fox has three or four upper molars and four lower ones.", "The molar teeth are strong in most species, allowing the animals to crack open bone to reach the marrow.", "The deciduous, or baby teeth, formula in canids is , molars being completely absent." ], [ "Life history", "===Social behavior===Dholes attacking a sambar, Bandipur National Parkgrooming each otherAlmost all canids are social animals and live together in groups.", "In general, they are territorial or have a home range and sleep in the open, using their dens only for breeding and sometimes in bad weather.", "In most foxes, and in many of the true dogs, a male and female pair work together to hunt and to raise their young.", "Gray wolves and some of the other larger canids live in larger groups called packs.", "African wild dogs have packs which may consist of 20 to 40 animals and packs of fewer than about seven individuals may be incapable of successful reproduction.", "Hunting in packs has the advantage that larger prey items can be tackled.", "Some species form packs or live in small family groups depending on the circumstances, including the type of available food.", "In most species, some individuals live on their own.", "Within a canid pack, there is a system of dominance so that the strongest, most experienced animals lead the pack.", "In most cases, the dominant male and female are the only pack members to breed.=== Communication ===Red foxes barking in Pinbury Park, Gloucestershire, England.Canids communicate with each other by scent signals, by visual clues and gestures, and by vocalizations such as growls, barks, and howls.", "In most cases, groups have a home territory from which they drive out other conspecifics.", "The territory is marked by leaving urine scent marks, which warn trespassing individuals.", "Social behavior is also mediated by secretions from glands on the upper surface of the tail near its root and from the anal glands, preputial glands, and supracaudal glands.===Reproduction===Canids as a group exhibit several reproductive traits that are uncommon among mammals as a whole.", "They are typically monogamous, provide paternal care to their offspring, have reproductive cycles with lengthy proestral and dioestral phases and have a copulatory tie during mating.", "They also retain adult offspring in the social group, suppressing the ability of these to breed while making use of the alloparental care they can provide to help raise the next generation of offspring.", "Most canid species are spontaneous ovulators, although maned wolves are induced ovulators.", "During the proestral period, increased levels of estradiol make the female attractive to the male.", "There is a rise in progesterone during the estral phase when female is receptive.", "Following this, the level of estradiol fluctuates and there is a lengthy dioestrous phase during which the female is pregnant.", "Pseudo-pregnancy frequently occurs in canids that have ovulated but failed to conceive.", "A period of anestrus follows pregnancy or pseudo-pregnancy, there being only one oestral period during each breeding season.", "Small and medium-sized canids mostly have a gestation period of 50 to 60 days, while larger species average 60 to 65 days.", "The time of year in which the breeding season occurs is related to the length of day, as has been demonstrated in the case of several species that have been translocated across the equator to the other hemisphere and experiences a six-month shift of phase.", "Domestic dogs and certain small canids in captivity may come into oestrus more frequently, perhaps because the photoperiod stimulus breaks down under conditions of artificial lighting.", "Canids have an oestrus period of 1 to 20 days, lasting one week in most species.The size of a litter varies, with from one to 16 or more pups being born.", "The young are born small, blind and helpless and require a long period of parental care.", "They are kept in a den, most often dug into the ground, for warmth and protection.", "When the young begin eating solid food, both parents, and often other pack members, bring food back for them from the hunt.", "This is most often vomited up from the adult's stomach.", "Where such pack involvement in the feeding of the litter occurs, the breeding success rate is higher than is the case where females split from the group and rear their pups in isolation.", "Young canids may take a year to mature and learn the skills they need to survive.", "In some species, such as the African wild dog, male offspring usually remain in the natal pack, while females disperse as a group and join another small group of the opposite sex to form a new pack." ], [ "Canids and humans", "Traditional English fox huntOne canid, the domestic dog, entered into a partnership with humans a long time ago.", "The dog was the first domesticated species.", "The archaeological record shows the first undisputed dog remains buried beside humans 14,700 years ago, with disputed remains occurring 36,000 years ago.", "These dates imply that the earliest dogs arose in the time of human hunter-gatherers and not agriculturists.The fact that wolves are pack animals with cooperative social structures may have been the reason that the relationship developed.", "Humans benefited from the canid's loyalty, cooperation, teamwork, alertness and tracking abilities, while the wolf may have benefited from the use of weapons to tackle larger prey and the sharing of food.", "Humans and dogs may have evolved together.Among canids, only the gray wolf has widely been known to prey on humans.", "Nonetheless, at least two records of coyotes killing humans have been published, and at least two other reports of golden jackals killing children.", "Human beings have trapped and hunted some canid species for their fur and some, especially the gray wolf, the coyote and the red fox, for sport.", "Canids such as the dhole are now endangered in the wild because of persecution, habitat loss, a depletion of ungulate prey species and transmission of diseases from domestic dogs." ], [ "See also", "*List of canids*Largest wild canids*Canid hybrid*Free-ranging dog==References==" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Subspecies of Canis lupus" ], [ "Introduction", "Skulls of various wolf subspecies from North AmericaPresent and historical range of wild subspecies of ''C.", "lupus''.", "This map uses the more broadly defined North American subspecies of Nowak (1995), but see also the map under the section titled North America.There are 38 subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' listed in the taxonomic authority ''Mammal Species of the World'' (2005, 3rd edition).", "These subspecies were named over the past 250 years, and since their naming, a number of them have gone extinct.", "The nominate subspecies is the Eurasian wolf (''Canis lupus lupus'')." ], [ "Taxonomy", "In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus published in his ''Systema Naturae'' the binomial nomenclature – or the two-word naming – of species.", "''Canis'' is the Latin word meaning \"dog\", and under this genus he listed the dog-like carnivores including domestic dogs, wolves, and jackals.", "He classified the domestic dog as ''Canis familiaris'', and on the next page he classified the wolf as ''Canis lupus''.", "Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its head and body and tail''cauda recurvata'' - its upturning tail - which is not found in any other canid.In 1999, a study of mitochondrial DNA indicated that the domestic dog may have originated from multiple wolf populations, with the dingo and New Guinea singing dog \"breeds\" having developed at a time when human populations were more isolated from each other.", "In the third edition of ''Mammal Species of the World'' published in 2005, the mammalogist W. Christopher Wozencraft listed under the wolf ''Canis lupus'' some 36 wild subspecies, and proposed two additional subspecies: ''familiaris'' Linnaeus, 1758 and ''dingo'' Meyer, 1793.Wozencraft included ''hallstromi'' – the New Guinea singing dog – as a taxonomic synonym for the dingo.", "Wozencraft referred to the mDNA study as one of the guides in forming his decision, and listed the 38 subspecies under the biological common name of \"wolf\", with the nominate subspecies being the Eurasian wolf (''Canis lupus lupus'') based on the type specimen that Linnaeus studied in Sweden.", "However, the classification of several of these canines as either species or subspecies has recently been challenged." ], [ "List of extant subspecies", "Living subspecies recognized by ''MSW3'' and divided into Old World and New World:===Eurasia and Australasia===Sokolov and Rossolimo (1985) recognised nine Old World subspecies of wolf.", "These were ''C.", "l. lupus'', ''C.", "l. albus'', ''C.", "l. pallipes'', ''C.", "l. cubanensis'', ''C.", "l. campestris'', ''C.", "l. chanco'', ''C.", "l. desortorum'', ''C.", "l. hattai'', and ''C.", "l. hodophilax''.", "In his 1995 statistical analysis of skull morphometrics, mammalogist Robert Nowak recognized the first four of those subspecies, synonymized ''campestris'', ''chanco'' and ''desortorum'' with ''C.", "l. lupus'', but did not examine the two Japanese subspecies.", "In addition, he recognized ''C.", "l. communis'' as a subspecies distinct from ''C.", "l. lupus''.", "In 2003, Nowak also recognized the distinctiveness of ''C.", "l. '', ''C.", "l. hattai'', ''C.", "l. italicus'', and ''C.", "l. hodophilax''.", "In 2005, ''MSW3'' included ''C.", "l. filchneri''.", "In 2003, two forms were distinguished in southern China and Inner Mongolia as being separate from ''C.", "l. chanco'' and ''C.", "l. filchneri'' and have yet to be named.+ Eurasian and Australasian subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' Subspecies Image Authority Description Range Taxonomic synonyms ''C.", "l. albus''Tundra wolf150 px Kerr, 1792 A large, light-furred subspecies.", "Northern tundra and forest zones in the European and Asian parts of Russia and Kamchatka.", "Outside Russia, its range includes the extreme north of Scandinavia.", "''dybowskii'' Domaniewski, 1926, ''kamtschaticus'' Dybowski, 1922, ''turuchanensis'' Ognev, 1923 ''C.", "l. arabs''Arabian wolf120 px Pocock, 1934 A small, \"desert-adapted\" subspecies that is around 66 cm tall and weighs, on average, about 18 kg.", "Its fur coat varies from short in the summer to long in the winter, possibly because of solar radiation.", "Southern Palestine, southern Israel, southern and western Iraq, Oman, Yemen, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and probably some parts of the Sinai Peninsula ''C.", "l. campestris''Steppe wolf130 px Dwigubski, 1804 An average-sized subspecies with short, coarse and sparse fur.", "Northern Ukraine, southern Kazakhstan, the Caucasus and the Trans-Caucasus ''bactrianus'' Laptev, 1929, ''cubanenesis'' Ognev, 1923, ''desertorum'' Bogdanov, 1882 ''C.", "l. chanco''Himalayan wolf130 px Matschie, 1907 Long sharp face, elevated brows, broad head, large pointed ears, thick woolly pelage and very full brush of medial length.", "Above, dull earthy-brown; below, with the entire face and limbs yellowish-white.The Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau predominating above 4,000 metres in elevation ''laniger'' Hodgson, 1847 ''C.", "l. chanco''Mongolian wolf130 px Gray, 1863 The fur is fulvous, on the back longer, rigid, with intermixed black and gray hairs; the throat, chest, belly, and inside of the legs pure white; head pale gray-brown; forehead grizzled with short black and gray hairs.", "Mongolia, northern and central China, Korea, and the Ussuri River region of Russia ''coreanus'' Abe, 1923, ''dorogostaiskii'' Skalon, 1936, ''karanorensis'' Matschie, 1907, ''niger'' Sclater, 1874, ''tschiliensis'' Matschie, 1907 ''C.", "l. dingo''Dingo and New Guinea singing dog140 px Meyer, 1793 Generally 52–60 cm tall at the shoulders and measures 117 to 124 cm from nose to tail tip.", "The average weight is 13 to 20 kg.", "Fur color is mostly sandy- to reddish-brown, but can include tan patterns and can also be occasionally light brown, black or white.", "Australia and New Guinea ''antarticus'' Kerr, 1792 suppressed ICZN O451:1957, ''australasiae'' Desmarest, 1820, ''australiae'' Gray, 1826, ''dingoides'' Matschie, 1915, ''macdonnellensis'' Matschie, 1915, ''novaehollandiae'' Voigt, 1831, ''papuensis'' Ramsay, 1879, ''tenggerana'' Kohlbrugge, 1896, ''hallstromi'' Troughton, 1957, ''harappensis'' Prashad, 1936Sometimes included within ''Canis familiaris'' when the domestic dog is recognised as a species.", "''C.", "l. familiaris''Domestic dogbut refer Synonyms120 px Linnaeus, 1758The domestic dog is a divergent subspecies of the gray wolf and was derived from an extinct population of Late Pleistocene wolves.", "Through selective pressure and selective breeding, the domestic dog has developed into hundreds of varied breeds and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal.", "Worldwide in association with humans Increasingly proposed as the species ''Canis familiaris'' but debated ''C.", "l. italicus''Italian wolf150 px Altobello, 1921 The pelt is generally of a grey-fulvous colour, which reddens in summer.", "The belly and cheeks are more lightly coloured, and dark bands are present on the back and tail tip, and occasionally along the fore limbs.", "Native to the Italian Peninsula; recently expanded into Switzerland and southeastern France.", "''lupus'' Linnaeus, 1758 ''C.", "l. lupus''Eurasian wolf(nominate subspecies)150 px Linnaeus, 1758 Generally a large subspecies with rusty ocherous or light gray fur.", "Has the largest range among wolf subspecies and is the most common subspecies in Europe and Asia, ranging through Western Europe, Scandinavia, the Caucasus, Russia, China, and Mongolia.", "Its habitat overlaps with the Indian wolf in some regions of Turkey.", "''altaicus'' Noack, 1911, ''argunensis'' Dybowski, 1922, ''canus'' Sélys Longchamps, 1839, ''communis'' Dwigubski, 1804, ''deitanus'' Cabrera, 1907, ''desertorum'' Bogdanov, 1882, ''flavus'' Kerr, 1792, ''fulvus'' Sélys Longchamps, 1839, ''kurjak'' Bolkay, 1925, ''lycaon'' Trouessart, 1910, ''major'' Ogérien, 1863, ''minor'' Ogerien, 1863, ''niger'' Hermann, 1804, ''orientalis'' Wagner, 1841, ''orientalis'' Dybowski, 1922 ''C.", "l. pallipes''Indian wolf130 px Sykes, 1831 A small subspecies with pelage shorter than that of northern wolves and with little to no underfur.", "Fur color ranges from grayish-red to reddish-white with black tips.", "The dark V-shaped stripe over the shoulders is much more pronounced than in northern wolves.", "The underparts and legs are more or less white.India, Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, northern Israel, and northern Palestine ''C.", "l. signatus''Iberian wolf130 px Cabrera, 1907 A subspecies with slighter frame than ''C.", "l. lupus'', white marks on the upper lips, dark marks on the tail, and a pair of dark marks on its front legs.", "Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, which includes northwestern Spain and northern Portugal ''lupus'' Linnaeus, 1758===North America===North American wolf subspecies distribution according to Goldman (1944) and Hall (1981).", "Hall split off ''C.", "l. griseoalbus'' from Goldman's ''C.", "l. occidentalis''.", "These subspecies are included in ''MSW3'' 2005.For North America, in 1944 the zoologist Edward Goldman recognized as many as 23 subspecies based on morphology.", "In 1959, E. Raymond Hall proposed that there had been 24 subspecies of ''lupus'' in North America.", "In 1970, L. David Mech proposed that there was \"probably far too many subspecific designations...in use\", as most did not exhibit enough points of differentiation to be classified as separate subspecies.", "The 24 subspecies were accepted by many authorities in 1981 and these were based on morphological or geographical differences, or a unique history.", "In 1995, the American mammologist Robert M. Nowak analyzed data on the skull morphology of wolf specimens from around the world.", "For North America, he proposed that there were only five subspecies of the wolf.", "These include a large-toothed Arctic wolf named ''C.", "l. arctos'', a large wolf from Alaska and western Canada named ''C.", "l. occidentalis'', a small wolf from southeastern Canada named ''C.", "l. lycaon'', a small wolf from the southwestern U.S. named ''C.", "l. baileyi'' and a moderate-sized wolf that was originally found from Texas to Hudson Bay and from Oregon to Newfoundland named ''C.", "l. nubilus''.The taxonomic classification of ''Canis lupus'' in ''Mammal Species of the World'' (3rd edition, 2005) listed 27 subspecies of North American wolf, corresponding to the 24 ''Canis lupus'' subspecies and the three ''Canis rufus'' subspecies of Hall (1981).", "The table below shows the extant subspecies, with the extinct ones listed in the following section.+ North American subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' Subspecies Image Authority Description Range Taxonomic synonyms ''C.", "l. arctos''Arctic wolf140 px Pocock, 1935 A medium-sized, almost completely white subspecies.", "Melville Island (the Northwest Territories and Nunavut), Ellesmere Island The current (2022) classification of the more broadly defined ''C.", "l. arctos'' of Nowak (1995) synonymizes ''C.", "l. orion'' and ''C.", "l. bernardi''.", "''C.", "l. baileyi''Mexican wolf130 px Nelson and Goldman, 1929 The smallest of the North American subspecies, with dark fur.", "found in southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona as well as northern Mexico; once ranged into western Texas ''C.", "l. columbianus''British Columbian wolf 150 px Goldman, 1941 Smaller-sized; unique diet of fish and smaller-sized deer in temperate rainforest; similar to ''crassodon''.", "Coastal British Columbia and the coastal Yukon Currently (2023) synonymized under ''C.", "l. crassodon''.", "''C.", "l. crassodon''Vancouver Island wolf140 px Hall, 1932 A medium-sized subspecies with grayish fur; similar to ''columbianus''.", "Vancouver Island, British Columbia Currently (2023) ''C.", "l. crassodon'' synonymizes ''C.", "l. ligoni'' and ''C.", "l. columbianus''.", "''C.", "l. familiaris''Domestic dogbut refer Synonyms120 px worldwideThe domestic dog is a divergent subspecies of the gray wolf and was derived from an extinct population of Late Pleistocene wolves.", "Through selective pressure and selective breeding, the domestic dog has developed into hundreds of varied breeds and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal.Increasingly proposed as the species ''Canis familiaris'' but debated ''C.", "l. hudsonicus''Hudson Bay wolf 140px Goldman, 1941 A light-colored subspecies similar to ''occidentalis'', but smaller.", "Northern Manitoba and the Northwest Territories Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. nubilus'' ''C.", "l. irremotus''Northern Rocky Mountain wolf 140 px Goldman, 1937 A medium-sized to large subspecies with pale fur.", "The northern Rocky Mountains Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. occidentalis'' ''C.", "l. labradorius''Labrador wolf140px Goldman, 1937 A medium-sized, light-colored subspecies.", "Labrador and northern Quebec; recent confirmed sightings on Newfoundland Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. nubilus'' ''C.", "l. ligoni''Alexander Archipelago wolf140 px Goldman, 1937 A medium-sized, dark-colored subspecies.", "The Alexander Archipelago, Alaska Currently (2023) synonymized under ''C.", "l. crassodon''.", "''C.", "l. lycaon''Eastern wolfbut refer Synonyms130 px Schreber, 1775 Two forms are known - a small, reddish-brown colored form called the Algonquin wolf; and a slightly larger, more grayish-brown form called the Great Lakes wolf, which is an admixture of the Algonquin wolf and other gray wolves.", "The Algonquin form occupies central Ontario and southwestern Quebec, particularly in and nearby protected areas, such as Algonquin Provincial Park in Ontario, and possibly extreme northeastern U.S. and western New Brunswick.", "The Great Lakes form occupies northern Ontario, Wisconsin and Minnesota, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and southern Manitoba.", "Overlaps of the two forms occur, with intermixing in the southern portions of northern Ontario.", "''canadensis'' de Blainville, 1843, ''ungavensis'' Comeau, 1940The Algonquin form is currently (2022) recognized as the species ''Canis lycaon'' by the American Society of Mammologists, but its taxonomy is still debated.", "''C.", "l. mackenzii''Mackenzie River wolf 150px Anderson, 1943 A subspecies with variable fur and intermediate in size between ''occidentalis'' and ''manningi''.", "The southern Northwest Territories Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. occidentalis'' ''C.", "l. manningi''Baffin Island wolf130 px Anderson, 1943 The smallest subspecies of the Arctic, with buffy-white fur.", "Baffin Island Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. nubilus'' ''C.", "l. occidentalis''Northwestern wolf150px Richardson, 1829 A very large, usually light-colored subspecies, and the biggest subspecies.", "Alaska, the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and the northwestern United States ''ater'' Richardson, 1829, ''sticte'' Richardson, 1829The ''C.", "l. occidentalis'' of Nowak (1995) synonymizes ''alces'', ''columbianus'', ''griseoalbus'', ''mackenzii'', ''pambasileus'' and ''tundrarum'', which is the currently (2022) recognized classification.", "''C.", "l. orion''Greenland wolf150px Pocock, 1935 Greenland and the Queen Elizabeth Islands Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. arctos'' ''C.", "l. pambasileus''Alaskan Interior wolf150 px Miller, 1912 The second largest subspecies of wolf, second in skull and tooth proportions only to ''occidentalis'' (see chart above), with fur that is black, white or a mixture of both in color.", "The Alaskan Interior and the Yukon, save for the tundra region of the Arctic Coast Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. occidentalis''''C.", "l. nubilus''Great Plains wolf140px Say, 1823 A medium-sized, light-colored subspecies.", "Throughout the Great Plains from southern Manitoba and Saskatchewan southward to northern Texas ''variabilis'' Wied-Neuwied, 1841.Previously thought extinct in 1926, the Great Plains wolf's descendants were found in the northeastern region of the United States and have become federally protected since 1974.As of 2022 the classification of the more broadly defined ''C.", "l. nubilus'' of Nowak (1995) synonymizes ''beothucus'', ''fuscus'', ''hudsonicus'', ''irremotus'', ''labridorius'', ''manningi'', ''mogollonensis'', ''monstrabilis'' and ''youngi'', in which case the subspecies is extant in Canada (see infobox map).", "''C.", "l. rufus''Red wolfbut refer Synonyms 130 px Audubon and Bachman, 1851 Has a brownish or cinnamon pelt, with gray and black shading on the back and tail.", "Generally intermediate in size between other North American wolf subspecies and the coyote.", "Like other wolves, it has almond-shaped eyes, a broad muzzle and a wide nose pad though, like the coyote, its ears are proportionately larger.", "It has a deeper profile, a longer and broader head than the coyote, and has a less prominent ruff than other wolves.", "Historically distributed throughout the Eastern, Southern, and Midwestern United States, from southernmost New York south to Florida and west to Texas.", "Modern range is eastern North Carolina.", "''C.", "l. tundrarum''Alaskan tundra wolf150 px Miller, 1912 A large, white-colored subspecies closely resembling ''pambasileus'', though lighter in color.", "The Barren Grounds of the Arctic Coast region from near Point Barrow eastward toward Hudson Bay and probably northwards to the Arctic Archipelago Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. occidentalis''" ], [ "List of extinct subspecies", "+ Fossil subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' Subspecies Image Authority Description Range Taxonomic synonyms † ''C.", "l. maximus'' Boudadi-Maligne, 2012The largest subspecies of all known extinct and extant wolves from Western Europe.", "The wolf's long bones are 10% longer than those of extant European wolves, 12% larger than those of ''C.", "l. santenaisiensis'' and 20% longer than those of ''C.", "l. lunellensis''.", "The teeth are robust, the posterior denticules on the lower premolars p2, p3, p4 and upper P2 and P3 are highly developed, and the diameter of the lower carnassial (m1) were larger than any known European wolf.Jaurens Cave, southern France † ''C.", "l. spelaeus''Cave wolf140 pxGoldfuss, 1823Its bone proportions are close to those of the Canadian Arctic-boreal mountain-adapted timber wolf and a little larger than those of the modern European wolf.Across Europe''brevis'' Kuzmina, 1994 † Unnamed Late Pleistocene Italian subspeciesBerte, Pandolfi, 2014Known from fragmentary remains, it was a large subspecies comparable in size and shape to ''C.", "l. maximus''.Avetrana (Italy)Subspecies recognized by ''MSW3'' which have gone extinct over the past 150 years: + Extinct subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' Subspecies Image Authority Description Range Taxonomic synonyms † ''C.", "l. alces''Kenai Peninsula wolf140px Goldman, 1941 One of the largest North American subspecies, similar to ''pambasileus''.", "Its fur color is unknown.The Kenai Peninsula, Alaska Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. occidentalis'' † ''C.", "l. beothucus''Newfoundland wolf140px G. M. Allen and Barbour, 1937 A medium-sized, white-furred subspecies.", "Its former range is slowly being claimed by its relative, the Labrador wolf (''C.", "l. labradorius'').", "Newfoundland Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. nubilus'' † ''C.", "l. bernardi''Banks Island wolf140 px Anderson, 1943 A large, slender subspecies with a narrow muzzle and large carnassials.", "Limited to Banks and Victoria Islands in the Canadian Arctic ''banksianus'' Anderson, 1943Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. arctos'' † ''C.", "l. floridanus''Florida black wolfbut refer Synonyms130 px Miller, 1912 A jet-black subspecies that is described as having been extremely similar to the red wolf in both size and weight.", "This subspecies became extinct in 1908.FloridaCurrently (2022) recognized as a subspecies of ''Canis rufus'' as ''Canis rufus floridanus'', but debated † ''C.", "l. fuscus''Cascade Mountains wolf140 px Richardson, 1839 A cinnamon-colored subspecies similar to ''columbianus'' and ''irremotus'', but darker in color.", "The Cascade Range ''gigas'' Townsend, 1850Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. nubilus'' † ''C.", "l. gregoryi''Mississippi Valley wolfbut refer Synonyms Goldman, 1937 A medium-sized subspecies, though slender and tawny; its coat contained a mixture of various colors, including black, white, gray and cinnamon.In and around the lower Mississippi River basin Currently (2022) recognized as a subspecies of ''Canis rufus'' as ''Canis rufus gregoryi'', but debated † ''C.", "l. griseoalbus''Manitoba wolf 150px Baird, 1858 Northern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba ''knightii'' Anderson, 1945Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. occidentalis'' † ''C.", "l. hattai''Hokkaidō wolf140 px Kishida, 1931 Similar in size, and related to, the wolves of North America.", "Hokkaido, Sakhalin, the Kamchatkan Peninsula, and Iturup and Kunashir Islands just to the east of Hokkaido in the Kuril Archipelago ''rex'' Pocock, 1935 † ''C.", "l. hodophilax''Japanese wolf120 px Temminck, 1839 Smaller in size compared to other subspecies, except for the Arabian wolf (''C.", "l. arabs'').", "Japanese islands of Honshū, Shikoku, and Kyūshū (but not Hokkaido) ''japonicus'' Nehring, 1885 † ''C.", "l. mogollonensis''Mogollon Mountains wolf140 px Goldman, 1937 A small, dark-colored subspecies, intermediate in size between ''youngi'' and ''baileyi''.", "Arizona and New Mexico Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. nubilus'' † ''C.", "l. monstrabilis''Texas wolf140 px Goldman, 1937 Similar in size and color to ''mogollonensis'' and possibly the same subspecies.", "Texas, New Mexico, and northern Mexico ''niger'' Bartram, 1791Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. nubilus'' † ''C.", "l. youngi''Southern Rocky Mountain wolf140 px Goldman, 1937 A medium-sized, light-colored subspecies closely resembling ''nubilus'', though larger, with more blackish-buff hairs on the back.", "Southeastern Idaho, southwestern Wyoming, northeastern Nevada, Utah, western and central Colorado, northwestern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico Currently (2022) synonymized under ''C.", "l. nubilus''Subspecies discovered since the publishing of ''MSW3'' in 2005 which have gone extinct over the past 150 years: + Extinct subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' Subspecies Image Authority Description Range Taxonomic synonyms † ''Canis lupus cristaldii''Sicilian wolf140 px Angelici and Rossi, 2018 A slender, short-legged subspecies with light, tawny-colored fur.", "The dark bands present on the forelimbs of the mainland Italian wolf were absent or poorly defined in the Sicilian wolf.", "Sicily" ], [ "Disputed subspecies", "===Global===In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group considered the New Guinea singing dog and the dingo to be feral dogs (''Canis familiaris'').", "In 2020, a literature review of canid domestication stated that modern dogs were not descended from the same ''Canis'' lineage as modern wolves, and proposed that dogs may be descended from a Pleistocene wolf closer in size to a village dog.", "In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists also considered dingos a feral dog (''Canis familiaris'') population.===Eurasia===C.", "l. lupus'' ('''a''') and ''C.", "l. italicus'' ('''b''').", "The distinct status of the latter is currently unrecognized by MSW3.====Italian wolf====The Italian wolf (or Apennine wolf) was first recognised as a distinct subspecies (''Canis lupus italicus'') in 1921 by zoologist Giuseppe Altobello.", "Altobello's classification was later rejected by several authors, including Reginald Innes Pocock, who synonymised ''C.", "l. italicus'' with ''C.", "l. lupus''.", "In 2002, the noted paleontologist R.M.", "Nowak reaffirmed the morphological distinctiveness of the Italian wolf and recommended the recognition of ''Canis lupus italicus''.", "A number of DNA studies have found the Italian wolf to be genetically distinct.", "In 2004, the genetic distinction of the Italian wolf subspecies was supported by analysis which consistently assigned all the wolf genotypes of a sample in Italy to a single group.", "This population also showed a unique mitochondrial DNA control-region haplotype, the absence of private alleles and lower heterozygosity at microsatellite loci, as compared to other wolf populations.", "In 2010, a genetic analysis indicated that a single wolf haplotype (w22) unique to the Apennine Peninsula and one of the two haplotypes (w24, w25), unique to the Iberian Peninsula, belonged to the same haplogroup as the prehistoric wolves of Europe.", "Another haplotype (w10) was found to be common to the Iberian peninsula and the Balkans.", "These three populations with geographic isolation exhibited a near lack of gene flow and spatially correspond to three glacial refugia.The taxonomic reference ''Mammal Species of the World'' (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize ''Canis lupus italicus''; however, NCBI/Genbank publishes research papers under that name.====Iberian wolf====The Iberian wolf was first recognised as a distinct subspecies (''Canis lupus signatus'') in 1907 by zoologist Ángel Cabrera.", "The wolves of the Iberian peninsula have morphologically distinct features from other Eurasian wolves and each are considered by their researchers to represent their own subspecies.The taxonomic reference ''Mammal Species of the World'' (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize ''Canis lupus signatus''; however, NCBI/Genbank does list it.====Himalayan wolf====The Himalayan wolf is distinguished by its mitochondrial DNA, which is basal to all other wolves.", "The taxonomic name of this wolf is disputed, with the species ''Canis himalayensis'' being proposed based on two limited DNA studies.", "In 2017, a study of mitochondrial DNA, X-chromosome (maternal lineage) markers and Y-chromosome (male lineage) markers found that the Himalayan wolf was genetically basal to the Holarctic grey wolf and has an association with the African golden wolf.In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group noted that the Himalayan wolf's distribution included the Himalayan range and the Tibetan Plateau.", "The group recommends that this wolf lineage be known as the \"Himalayan wolf\" and classified as ''Canis lupus chanco'' until a genetic analysis of the holotypes is available.", "In 2020, further research on the Himalayan wolf found that it warranted species-level recognition under the Unified Species Concept, the Differential Fitness Species Concept, and the Biological Species Concept.", "It was identified as an Evolutionary Significant Unit that warranted assignment onto the IUCN Red List for its protection.====Indian plains wolf====The Indian plains wolf is a proposed clade within the Indian wolf (''Canis lupus pallipes'') that is distinguished by its mitochondrial DNA, which is basal to all other wolves except for the Himalayan wolf.", "The taxonomic status of this wolf clade is disputed, with the separate species ''Canis indica'' being proposed based on two limited DNA studies.", "The proposal has not been endorsed because they relied on a limited number of museum and zoo samples that may not have been representative of the wild population and a call for further fieldwork has been made.The taxonomic reference ''Mammal Species of the World'' (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize ''Canis indica''; however, NCBI/Genbank lists it as a new subspecies, ''Canis lupus indica''.====Southern Chinese wolf====In 2017, a comprehensive study found that the gray wolf was present across all of mainland China, both in the past and today.", "It exists in southern China, which refutes claims made by some researchers in the Western world that the wolf had never existed in southern China.", "This wolf has not been taxonomically classified.In 2019, a genomic study on the wolves of China included museum specimens of wolves from southern China that were collected between 1963 and 1988.The wolves in the study formed three clades: northern Asian wolves that included those from northern China and eastern Russia, Himalayan wolves from the Tibetan Plateau, and a unique population from southern China.", "One specimen from Zhejiang Province in eastern China shared gene flow with the wolves from southern China; however, its genome was 12-14 percent admixed with a canid that may be the dhole or an unknown canid that predates the genetic divergence of the dhole.", "The wolf population from southern China is believed to be still existing in that region.===North America=======Coastal wolves====A study of the three coastal wolves indicates a close phylogenetic relationship across regions that are geographically and ecologically contiguous, and the study proposed that ''Canis lupus ligoni'' (the Alexander Archipelago wolf), ''Canis lupus columbianus'' (the British Columbian wolf), and ''Canis lupus crassodon'' (the Vancouver Coastal Sea wolf) should be recognized as a single subspecies of ''Canis lupus'', synonymized as ''Canis lupus crassodon''.", "They share the same habitat and prey species, and form one study's six identified North American ecotypes - a genetically and ecologically distinct population separated from other populations by their different type of habitat.====Eastern wolf====The eastern wolf has two proposals over its origin.", "One is that the eastern wolf is a distinct species (''C.", "lycaon'') that evolved in North America, as opposed to the gray wolf that evolved in the Old World, and is related to the red wolf.", "The other is that it is derived from admixture between gray wolves which inhabited the Great Lakes area and coyotes, forming a hybrid that was classified as a distinct species by mistake.The taxonomic reference ''Mammal Species of the World'' (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize ''Canis lycaon'', however NCBI/Genbank does list it.", "In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists also considered ''Canis lycaon'' a valid species.====Red wolf====The red wolf is an enigmatic taxon, of which there are two proposals over its origin.", "One is that the red wolf was a distinct species (''C.", "rufus'') that has undergone human-influenced admixture with coyotes.", "The other is that it was never a distinct species but was derived from past admixture between coyotes and gray wolves, due to the gray wolf population being eliminated by humans.The taxonomic reference ''Mammal Species of the World'' (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize ''Canis rufus'', however NCBI/Genbank does list it.", "In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists also considered ''Canis rufus'' a valid species." ], [ "See also", "* List of gray wolf populations by country* Wolf distribution* Cave wolf* Pleistocene wolf" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Canis lupus on the ITIS (Integrated Taxonomic Information System)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Central Asia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Central Asia''' is a subregion of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the southwest and Eastern Europe in the northwest to Western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north.", "It includes Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.", "The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the \"-stans\" as all have names ending with the Persian suffix \"-stan\" (meaning \"land of\") in both respective native languages and most other languages.In the pre-Islamic and early Islamic eras ( and earlier) Central Asia was inhabited predominantly by Iranian people, populated by Eastern Iranian-speaking Bactrians, Sogdians, Chorasmians, and the semi-nomadic Scythians and Dahae.", "After expansion by Turkic people, Central Asia also became the homeland for the Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Tatars, Turkmens, Kyrgyz, and Uyghurs; Turkic languages largely replaced the Iranian languages spoken in the area, with the exception of Tajikistan and areas where Tajik is spoken.Central Asia was historically closely tied to the Silk Road trade routes, acting as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, and ideas between Europe and the Far East.", "Most countries in Central Asia are still integral to parts of the world economy.From the mid-19th century until almost the end of the 20th century, Central Asia was colonised by the Russians, and incorporated into the Russian Empire, and later the Soviet Union, which led to Russians and other Slavs emigrating into the area.", "Modern-day Central Asia is home to a large population of European settlers, who mostly live in Kazakhstan; 7 million Russians, 500,000 Ukrainians, and about 170,000 Germans.", "Stalinist-era forced deportation policies also mean that over 300,000 Koreans live there.Central Asia has a population of about 72 million, in five countries: Kazakhstan ( million), Kyrgyzstan ( million), Tajikistan ( million), Turkmenistan ( million), and Uzbekistan (35 million)." ], [ "Definitions", "One of the first geographers to mention Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was Alexander von Humboldt.", "The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions.", "Historically, political geography and culture have been two significant parameters widely used in scholarly definitions of Central Asia.", "Humboldt's definition composed of every country between 5° North and 5° South of the latitude 44.5°N.", "Humboldt mentions some geographic features of this region, which include the Caspian Sea in the west, the Altai mountains in the north and the Hindu Kush and Pamir mountains in the South.", "He did not give an eastern border for the region.", "His legacy is still seen: Humboldt University of Berlin, named after him, offers a course in Central Asian studies.", "The Russian geographer Nikolaĭ Khanykov questioned the latitudinal definition of Central Asia and preferred a physical one of all countries located in the region landlocked from water, including Afghanistan, Khorasan (Northeast Iran), Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uyghuristan (Xinjiang), and Uzbekistan.Expanded definition of Central Asia.", "Core definition that includes the five post-Soviet states in dark green.", "Afghanistan, the most commonly added country to Central Asia, in green.", "Regions that are sometimes considered part of Central Asia in light green.Three sets of possible boundaries for the Central Asia region (which overlap with conceptions of South and East Asia).Russian culture has two distinct terms: ''Средняя Азия'' (''Srednyaya Aziya'' or \"Middle Asia\", the narrower definition, which includes only those traditionally non-Slavic, Central Asian lands that were incorporated within those borders of historical Russia) and ''Центральная Азия'' (''Tsentralnaya Aziya'' or \"Central Asia\", the wider definition, which includes Central Asian lands that have never been part of historical Russia).", "The latter definition includes Afghanistan and 'East Turkestan'.The most limited definition was the official one of the Soviet Union, which defined Middle Asia as consisting solely of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, omitting Kazakhstan.", "Soon after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the leaders of the four former Soviet Central Asian Republics met in Tashkent and declared that the definition of Central Asia should include Kazakhstan as well as the original four included by the Soviets.", "Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia.In 1978, UNESCO defined the region as \"Afghanistan, north-eastern Iran, Pakistan, northern India, western China, Mongolia and the Soviet Central Asian Republics\".An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity, and in particular, areas populated by Eastern Turkic, Eastern Iranian, or Mongolian peoples.", "These areas include Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Turkic regions of southern Siberia, the five republics, and Afghan Turkestan.", "Afghanistan as a whole, the northern and western areas of Pakistan and the Kashmir Valley of India may also be included.", "The Tibetans and Ladakhis are also included.", "Most of the mentioned peoples are considered the \"indigenous\" peoples of the vast region.", "Central Asia is sometimes referred to as Turkestan." ], [ "Geography", "On the south shore of Issyk Kul lake, Issyk Kul RegionCentral Asia is a region of varied geography, including high passes and mountains (Tian Shan), vast deserts (Kyzyl Kum, Taklamakan), and especially treeless, grassy steppes.", "The vast steppe areas of Central Asia are considered together with the steppes of Eastern Europe as a homogeneous geographical zone known as the Eurasian Steppe.Much of the land of Central Asia is too dry or too rugged for farming.", "The Gobi desert extends from the foot of the Pamirs, 77° E, to the Great Khingan (Da Hinggan) Mountains, 116°–118° E.Central Asia has the following geographic extremes:* The world's northernmost desert (sand dunes), at Buurug Deliin Els, Mongolia, 50°18' N.* The Northern Hemisphere's southernmost permafrost, at Erdenetsogt sum, Mongolia, 46°17' N.* The world's shortest distance between non-frozen desert and permafrost: .", "* The Eurasian pole of inaccessibility.A majority of the people earn a living by herding livestock.", "Industrial activity centers in the region's cities.Major rivers of the region include the Amu Darya, the Syr Darya, Irtysh, the Hari River and the Murghab River.", "Major bodies of water include the Aral Sea and Lake Balkhash, both of which are part of the huge west-central Asian endorheic basin that also includes the Caspian Sea.Both of these bodies of water have shrunk significantly in recent decades due to the diversion of water from rivers that feed them for irrigation and industrial purposes.", "Water is an extremely valuable resource in arid Central Asia and can lead to rather significant international disputes." ], [ "Historical regions", "Central Asia is bounded on the north by the forests of Siberia.", "The northern half of Central Asia (Kazakhstan) is the middle part of the Eurasian steppe.", "Westward the Kazakh steppe merges into the Russian-Ukrainian steppe and eastward into the steppes and deserts of Dzungaria and Mongolia.", "Southward the land becomes increasingly dry and the nomadic population increasingly thin.", "The south supports areas of dense population and cities wherever irrigation is possible.", "The main irrigated areas are along the eastern mountains, along the Oxus and Jaxartes Rivers and along the north flank of the Kopet Dagh near the Persian border.", "East of the Kopet Dagh is the important oasis of Merv and then a few places in Afghanistan like Herat and Balkh.", "Two projections of the Tian Shan create three \"bays\" along the eastern mountains.", "The largest, in the north, is eastern Kazakhstan, traditionally called Jetysu or Semirechye which contains Lake Balkhash.", "In the center is the small but densely-populated Ferghana valley.", "In the south is Bactria, later called Tocharistan, which is bounded on the south by the Hindu Kush mountains of Afghanistan.", "The Syr Darya (Jaxartes) rises in the Ferghana valley and the Amu Darya (Oxus) rises in Bactria.", "Both flow northwest into the Aral Sea.", "Where the Oxus meets the Aral Sea it forms a large delta called Khwarazm and later the Khanate of Khiva.", "North of the Oxus is the less-famous but equally important Zarafshan River which waters the great trading cities of Bokhara and Samarkand.", "The other great commercial city was Tashkent northwest of the mouth of the Ferghana valley.", "The land immediately north of the Oxus was called Transoxiana and also Sogdia, especially when referring to the Sogdian merchants who dominated the silk road trade.To the east, Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin were united into the Manchu-Chinese province of Xinjiang (Sinkiang; Hsin-kiang) about 1759.Caravans from China usually went along the north or south side of the Tarim basin and joined at Kashgar before crossing the mountains northwest to Ferghana or southwest to Bactria.", "A minor branch of the silk road went north of the Tian Shan through Dzungaria and Zhetysu before turning southwest near Tashkent.", "Nomadic migrations usually moved from Mongolia through Dzungaria before turning southwest to conquer the settled lands or continuing west toward Europe.The Kyzyl Kum Desert or semi-desert is between the Oxus and Jaxartes, and the Karakum Desert is between the Oxus and Kopet Dagh in Turkmenistan.", "Khorasan meant approximately northeast Persia and northern Afghanistan.", "Margiana was the region around Merv.", "The Ustyurt Plateau is between the Aral and Caspian Seas.To the southwest, across the Kopet Dagh, lies Persia.", "From here Persian and Islamic civilisation penetrated Central Asia and dominated its high culture until the Russian conquest.", "In the southeast is the route to India.", "In early times Buddhism spread north and throughout much of history warrior kings and tribes would move southeast to establish their rule in northern India.", "Most nomadic conquerors entered from the northeast.", "After 1800 western civilisation in its Russian and Soviet form penetrated from the northwest.", ";Names of historical regions* Ariana* Bactria* Dahistan* Khorasan* Khwarazm* Margiana* Parthia* Sogdia* Tokharistan* Transoxiana* Turan* Turkestan" ], [ "Climate", "Central Asia map of Köppen climate classification.Because Central Asia is landlocked and not buffered by a large body of water, temperature fluctuations are often severe, excluding the hot, sunny summer months.", "In most areas the climate is dry and continental, with hot summers and cool to cold winters, with occasional snowfall.", "Outside high-elevation areas, the climate is mostly semi-arid to arid.", "In lower elevations, summers are hot with blazing sunshine.", "Winters feature occasional rain or snow from low-pressure systems that cross the area from the Mediterranean Sea.", "Average monthly precipitation is very low from July to September, rises in autumn (October and November) and is highest in March or April, followed by swift drying in May and June.", "Winds can be strong, producing dust storms sometimes, especially toward the end of the summer in September and October.", "Specific cities that exemplify Central Asian climate patterns include Tashkent and Samarkand, Uzbekistan, Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, and Dushanbe, Tajikistan.", "The last of these represents one of the wettest climates in Central Asia, with an average annual precipitation of over .Biogeographically, Central Asia is part of the Palearctic realm.", "The largest biome in Central Asia is the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome.", "Central Asia also contains the montane grasslands and shrublands, deserts and xeric shrublands and temperate coniferous forests biomes.=== Climate change ===As of 2022, Central Asia is one of the most vulnerable regions to global climate change in the world and the region's temperature is growing faster than the global average." ], [ "History", "Although, during the golden age of Orientalism the place of Central Asia in the world history was marginalised, contemporary historiography has rediscovered the \"centrality\" of the Central Asia.", "The history of Central Asia is defined by the area's climate and geography.", "The aridness of the region made agriculture difficult, and its distance from the sea cut it off from much trade.", "Thus, few major cities developed in the region; instead, the area was for millennia dominated by the nomadic horse peoples of the steppe.Various Iranic speaking populations in Central Asia during the Iron Age (highlighted in green)Relations between the steppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were long marked by conflict.", "The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to warfare, and the steppe horse riders became some of the most militarily potent people in the world, limited only by their lack of internal unity.", "Any internal unity that was achieved was most probably due to the influence of the Silk Road, which traveled along Central Asia.", "Periodically, great leaders or changing conditions would organise several tribes into one force and create an almost unstoppable power.", "These included the Hun invasion of Europe, the Five Barbarians rebellions in China and most notably the Mongol conquest of much of Eurasia.During pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, Central Asia was inhabited predominantly by speakers of Iranian languages.", "Among the ancient sedentary Iranian peoples, the Sogdians and Chorasmians played an important role, while Iranian peoples such as Scythians and the later on Alans lived a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle.Uzbek men from Khiva, –1880The Mongol Empire at its greatest extent.", "The gray area is the later Timurid Empire.The main migration of Turkic peoples occurred between the 6th and 11th centuries, when they spread across most of Central Asia.", "The Eurasian Steppe slowly transitioned from Indo European and Iranian-speaking groups with dominant West-Eurasian ancestry to a more heterogeneous region with increasing East Asian ancestry through Turkic and Mongolian groups in the past thousands years, including extensive Turkic and later Mongol migrations out of Mongolia and slow assimilation of local populations.", "In the 8th century AD, the Islamic expansion reached the region but had no significant demographic impact.", "In the 13th century AD, the Mongolian invasion of Central Asia brought most of the region under Mongolian influence, which had \"enormous demographic success\", but did not impact the cultural or linguistic landscape.===Invasion routes through Central Asia=== Once populated by Iranian tribes and other Indo-European speaking people, Central Asia experienced numerous invasions emanating out of Southern Siberia and Mongolia that would drastically affect the region.", "Genetic data shows that the different Central Asian Turkic-speaking peoples have between ~22% and ~70% East Asian ancestry (represented by \"Baikal hunter-gatherer ancestry\" shared with other Northeast Asians and Eastern Siberians), in contrast to Iranian-speaking Central Asians, specifically Tajiks, which display genetic continuity to Indo-Iranians of the Iron Age.", "Certain Turkic ethnic groups, specifically the Kazakhs, display even higher East Asian ancestry.", "This is explained by substantial Mongolian influence on the Kazakh genome, through significant admixture between blue eyes, blonde hair, the medieval Kipchaks of Central Asia and the invading medieval Mongolians.", "The data suggests that the Mongol invasion of Central Asia had lasting impacts onto the genetic makeup of Kazakhs.", "According to recent genetic genealogy testing, the genetic admixture of the Uzbeks clusters somewhere between the Iranian peoples and the Mongols.", "Another study shows that the Uzbeks are closely related to other Turkic peoples of Central Asia and rather distant from Iranian people.", "The study also analysed the maternal and paternal DNA haplogroups and shows that Turkic speaking groups are more homogenous than Iranian speaking groups.", "Genetic studies analyzing the full genome of Uzbeks and other Central Asian populations found that about ~27-60% of the Uzbek ancestry is derived from East Asian sources, with the remainder ancestry (~40–73%) being made up by European and Middle Eastern components.", "According to a recent study, the Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Turkmens share more of their gene pool with various East Asian and Siberian populations than with West Asian or European populations, though the Turkmens have a large percentage from populations to the east, their main components are Central Asian.", "The study further suggests that both migration and linguistic assimilation helped to spread the Turkic languages in Eurasia.The Tang dynasty of China expanded westwards and controlled large parts of Central Asia, directly and indirectly through their Turkic vassals.", "Tang China actively supported the Turkification of Central Asia, while extending its cultural influence.", "The Tang Chinese were defeated by the Abbasid Caliphate at the Battle of Talas in 751, marking the end of the Tang dynasty's western expansion and the 150 years of Chinese influence.", "The Tibetan Empire would take the chance to rule portions of Central Asia and South Asia.", "During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongols conquered and ruled the largest contiguous empire in recorded history.", "Most of Central Asia fell under the control of the Chagatai Khanate.Central Asia in 1636.The Dzungar Khanate was the last great nomadic empire in Central Asia.The dominance of the nomads ended in the 16th century, as firearms allowed settled peoples to gain control of the region.", "Russia, China, and other powers expanded into the region and had captured the bulk of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century.", "After the Russian Revolution, the western Central Asian regions were incorporated into the Soviet Union.", "The eastern part of Central Asia, known as Xinjiang, was incorporated into the People's Republic of China, having been previously ruled by the Qing dynasty and the Republic of China.", "Mongolia gained its independence from China and has remained independent but became a Soviet satellite state until the dissolution of the Soviet Union.", "Afghanistan remained relatively independent of major influence by the Soviet Union until the Saur Revolution of 1978.The Soviet areas of Central Asia saw much industrialisation and construction of infrastructure, but also the suppression of local cultures, hundreds of thousands of deaths from failed collectivisation programmes, and a lasting legacy of ethnic tensions and environmental problems.", "Soviet authorities deported millions of people, including entire nationalities, from western areas of the Soviet Union to Central Asia and Siberia.", "According to Touraj Atabaki and Sanjyot Mehendale, \"From 1959 to 1970, about two million people from various parts of the Soviet Union migrated to Central Asia, of which about one million moved to Kazakhstan.", "\"With the collapse of the Soviet Union, five countries gained independence, that is, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.", "The historian and Turkologist Peter B.", "Golden explains that without the imperial manipulations of the Russian Empire but above all the Soviet Union, the creation of said republics would have been impossible.In nearly all the new states, former Communist Party officials retained power as local strongmen.", "None of the new republics could be considered functional democracies in the early days of independence, although in recent years Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Mongolia have made further progress towards more open societies, unlike Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan, which have maintained many Soviet-style repressive tactics." ], [ "Culture", "=== Arts ===Mosque in Petropavlovsk, KazakhstanAt the crossroads of Asia, shamanistic practices live alongside Buddhism.", "Thus, Yama, Lord of Death, was revered in Tibet as a spiritual guardian and judge.", "Mongolian Buddhism, in particular, was influenced by Tibetan Buddhism.", "The Qianlong Emperor of Qing China in the 18th century was Tibetan Buddhist and would sometimes travel from Beijing to other cities for personal religious worship.Saadi Shirazi is welcomed by a youth from Kashgar during a forum in Bukhara.Central Asia also has an indigenous form of improvisational oral poetry that is over 1000 years old.", "It is principally practiced in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan by ''akyns'', lyrical improvisationalists.", "They engage in lyrical battles, the ''aytysh'' or the ''alym sabak''.", "The tradition arose out of early bardic oral historians.", "They are usually accompanied by a stringed instrument—in Kyrgyzstan, a three-stringed komuz, and in Kazakhstan, a similar two-stringed instrument, the dombra.Photography in Central Asia began to develop after 1882, when a Russian Mennonite photographer named Wilhelm Penner moved to the Khanate of Khiva during the Mennonite migration to Central Asia led by Claas Epp, Jr.", "Upon his arrival to Khanate of Khiva, Penner shared his photography skills with a local student Khudaybergen Divanov, who later became the founder of Uzbek photography.Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in Hazrat-e Turkestan, Kazakhstan.", "Timurid architecture consisted of Persian art.Some also learn to sing the ''Manas'', Kyrgyzstan's epic poem (those who learn the ''Manas'' exclusively but do not improvise are called ''manaschis'').", "During Soviet rule, ''akyn'' performance was co-opted by the authorities and subsequently declined in popularity.", "With the fall of the Soviet Union, it has enjoyed a resurgence, although ''akyns'' still do use their art to campaign for political candidates.", "A 2005 ''The Washington Post'' article proposed a similarity between the improvisational art of ''akyns'' and modern freestyle rap performed in the West.As a consequence of Russian colonisation, European fine arts – painting, sculpture and graphics – have developed in Central Asia.", "The first years of the Soviet regime saw the appearance of modernism, which took inspiration from the Russian avant-garde movement.", "Until the 1980s, Central Asian arts had developed along with general tendencies of Soviet arts.", "In the 90s, arts of the region underwent some significant changes.", "Institutionally speaking, some fields of arts were regulated by the birth of the art market, some stayed as representatives of official views, while many were sponsored by international organisations.", "The years of 1990–2000 were times for the establishment of contemporary arts.", "In the region, many important international exhibitions are taking place, Central Asian art is represented in European and American museums, and the Central Asian Pavilion at the Venice Biennale has been organised since 2005.=== Sports ===Kazakh man on a horse with golden eagleEquestrian sports are traditional in Central Asia, with disciplines like endurance riding, buzkashi, dzhigit and kyz kuu.The traditional game of Buzkashi is played throughout the Central Asian region, the countries sometimes organise Buzkashi competition amongst each other.", "The First regional competition among the Central Asian countries, Russia, Chinese Xinjiang and Turkey was held in 2013.The first world title competition was played in 2017 and won by Kazakhstan.Association football is popular across Central Asia.", "Most countries are members of the Central Asian Football Association, a region of the Asian Football Confederation.", "However, Kazakhstan is a member of the UEFA.Wrestling is popular across Central Asia, with Kazakhstan having claimed 14 Olympic medals, Uzbekistan seven, and Kyrgyzstan three.", "As former Soviet states, Central Asian countries have been successful in gymnastics.Mixed Martial Arts is one of more common sports in Central Asia, Kyrgyz athlete Valentina Shevchenko holding the UFC Flyweight Champion title.Cricket is the most popular sport in Afghanistan.", "The Afghanistan national cricket team, first formed in 2001, has claimed wins over Bangladesh, West Indies and Zimbabwe.Notable Kazakh competitors include cyclists Alexander Vinokourov and Andrey Kashechkin, boxer Vassiliy Jirov and Gennady Golovkin, runner Olga Shishigina, decathlete Dmitriy Karpov, gymnast Aliya Yussupova, judoka Askhat Zhitkeyev and Maxim Rakov, skier Vladimir Smirnov, weightlifter Ilya Ilyin, and figure skaters Denis Ten and Elizabet Tursynbaeva.Notable Uzbekistani competitors include cyclist Djamolidine Abdoujaparov, boxer Ruslan Chagaev, canoer Michael Kolganov, gymnast Oksana Chusovitina, tennis player Denis Istomin, chess player Rustam Kasimdzhanov, and figure skater Misha Ge." ], [ "Economy", "GDP growth trends in Central Asia, 2000–2013.Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 14.1GDP in Central Asia by economic sector, 2005 and 2013.Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 14.2GDP per capita development in Central Asia, since 1973Since gaining independence in the early 1990s, the Central Asian republics have gradually been moving from a state-controlled economy to a market economy.", "However, reform has been deliberately gradual and selective, as governments strive to limit the social cost and ameliorate living standards.", "All five countries are implementing structural reforms to improve competitiveness.", "Kazakhstan is the only CIS country to be included in the 2020 and 2019 IWB World Competitiveness rankings.", "In particular, they have been modernizing the industrial sector and fostering the development of service industries through business-friendly fiscal policies and other measures, to reduce the share of agriculture in GDP.", "Between 2005 and 2013, the share of agriculture dropped in all but Tajikistan, where it increased while industry decreased.", "The fastest growth in industry was observed in Turkmenistan, whereas the services sector progressed most in the other four countries.Public policies pursued by Central Asian governments focus on buffering the political and economic spheres from external shocks.", "This includes maintaining a trade balance, minimizing public debt and accumulating national reserves.", "They cannot totally insulate themselves from negative exterior forces, however, such as the persistently weak recovery of global industrial production and international trade since 2008.Notwithstanding this, they have emerged relatively unscathed from the global financial crisis of 2008–2009.Growth faltered only briefly in Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan and not at all in Uzbekistan, where the economy grew by more than 7% per year on average between 2008 and 2013.Turkmenistan achieved unusually high 14.7% growth in 2011.Kyrgyzstan's performance has been more erratic but this phenomenon was visible well before 2008.The republics which have fared best benefitted from the commodities boom during the first decade of the 2000s.", "Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan have abundant oil and natural gas reserves and Uzbekistan's own reserves make it more or less self-sufficient.", "Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan all have gold reserves and Kazakhstan has the world's largest uranium reserves.", "Fluctuating global demand for cotton, aluminium and other metals (except gold) in recent years has hit Tajikistan hardest, since aluminium and raw cotton are its chief exports − the Tajik Aluminium Company is the country's primary industrial asset.", "In January 2014, the Minister of Agriculture announced the government's intention to reduce the acreage of land cultivated by cotton to make way for other crops.", "Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan are major cotton exporters themselves, ranking fifth and ninth respectively worldwide for volume in 2014.Although both exports and imports have grown significantly over the past decade, Central Asian republics countries remain vulnerable to economic shocks, owing to their reliance on exports of raw materials, a restricted circle of trading partners and a negligible manufacturing capacity.", "Kyrgyzstan has the added disadvantage of being considered resource poor, although it does have ample water.", "Most of its electricity is generated by hydropower.The Kyrgyz economy was shaken by a series of shocks between 2010 and 2012.In April 2010, President Kurmanbek Bakiyev was deposed by a popular uprising, with former minister of foreign affairs Roza Otunbayeva assuring the interim presidency until the election of Almazbek Atambayev in November 2011.Food prices rose two years in a row and, in 2012, production at the major Kumtor gold mine fell by 60% after the site was perturbed by geological movements.", "According to the World Bank, 33.7% of the population was living in absolute poverty in 2010 and 36.8% a year later.Despite high rates of economic growth in recent years, GDP per capita in Central Asia was higher than the average for developing countries only in Kazakhstan in 2013 (PPP$23,206) and Turkmenistan (PPP$14 201).", "It dropped to PPP$5,167 for Uzbekistan, home to 45% of the region's population, and was even lower for Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.Kazakhstan leads the Central Asian region in terms of foreign direct investments.", "The Kazakh economy accounts for more than 70% of all the investment attracted in Central Asia.In terms of the economic influence of big powers, China is viewed as one of the key economic players in Central Asia, especially after Beijing launched its grand development strategy known as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013.The Central Asian countries attracted $378.2 billion of foreign direct investment (FDI) between 2007 and 2019.Kazakhstan accounted for 77.7% of the total FDI directed to the region.", "Kazakhstan is also the largest country in Central Asia accounting for more than 60 percent of the region's gross domestic product (GDP).Central Asian nations fared better economically throughout the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Many variables are likely to have been at play, but disparities in economic structure, the intensity of the pandemic, and accompanying containment efforts may all be linked to part of the variety in nations' experiences.", "Central Asian countries are, however, predicted to be hit the worst in the future.", "Only 4% of permanently closed businesses anticipate to return in the future, with huge differences across sectors, ranging from 3% in lodging and food services to 27% in retail commerce.In 2022, experts assessed that global climate change is likely to pose multiple economic risks to Central Asia and may possibly result in many billions of losses unless proper adaptation measures are developed to counter growing temperatures across the region." ], [ "Education, science and technology", "=== Modernisation of research infrastructure ===Bolstered by strong economic growth in all but Kyrgyzstan, national development strategies are fostering new high-tech industries, pooling resources and orienting the economy towards export markets.", "Many national research institutions established during the Soviet era have since become obsolete with the development of new technologies and changing national priorities.", "This has led countries to reduce the number of national research institutions since 2009 by grouping existing institutions to create research hubs.", "Several of the Turkmen Academy of Science's institutes were merged in 2014: the Institute of Botany was merged with the Institute of Medicinal Plants to become the Institute of Biology and Medicinal Plants; the Sun Institute was merged with the Institute of Physics and Mathematics to become the Institute of Solar Energy; and the Institute of Seismology merged with the State Service for Seismology to become the Institute of Seismology and Atmospheric Physics.", "In Uzbekistan, more than 10 institutions of the Academy of Sciences have been reorganised, following the issuance of a decree by the Cabinet of Ministers in February 2012.The aim is to orient academic research towards problem-solving and ensure continuity between basic and applied research.", "For example, the Mathematics and Information Technology Research Institute has been subsumed under the National University of Uzbekistan and the Institute for Comprehensive Research on Regional Problems of Samarkand has been transformed into a problem-solving laboratory on environmental issues within Samarkand State University.", "Other research institutions have remained attached to the Uzbek Academy of Sciences, such as the Centre of Genomics and Bioinformatics.Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan are also building technology parks as part of their drive to modernise infrastructure.", "In 2011, construction began of a technopark in the village of Bikrova near Ashgabat, the Turkmen capital.", "It will combine research, education, industrial facilities, business incubators and exhibition centres.", "The technopark will house research on alternative energy sources (sun, wind) and the assimilation of nanotechnologies.", "Between 2010 and 2012, technological parks were set up in the east, south and north Kazakhstan oblasts (administrative units) and in the capital, Astana.", "A Centre for Metallurgy was also established in the east Kazakhstan oblast, as well as a Centre for Oil and Gas Technologies which will be part of the planned Caspian Energy Hub.", "In addition, the Centre for Technology Commercialisation has been set up in Kazakhstan as part of the Parasat National Scientific and Technological Holding, a joint stock company established in 2008 that is 100% state-owned.", "The centre supports research projects in technology marketing, intellectual property protection, technology licensing contracts and start-ups.", "The centre plans to conduct a technology audit in Kazakhstan and to review the legal framework regulating the commercialisation of research results and technology.Trends in research expenditure in Central Asia, as a percentage of GDP, 2001–2013.Source: UNESCO Science Report: 2030 (2015), Figure 14.3Countries are seeking to augment the efficiency of traditional extractive sectors but also to make greater use of information and communication technologies and other modern technologies, such as solar energy, to develop the business sector, education and research.", "In March 2013, two research institutes were created by presidential decree to foster the development of alternative energy sources in Uzbekistan, with funding from the Asian Development Bank and other institutions: the SPU Physical−Technical Institute (Physics Sun Institute) and the International Solar Energy Institute.", "Three universities have been set up since 2011 to foster competence in strategic economic areas: Nazarbayev University in Kazakhstan (first intake in 2011), an international research university, Inha University in Uzbekistan (first intake in 2014), specializing in information and communication technologies, and the International Oil and Gas University in Turkmenistan (founded in 2013).", "Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan are both generalizing the teaching of foreign languages at school, in order to facilitate international ties.", "Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan have both adopted the three-tier bachelor's, master's and PhD degree system, in 2007 and 2012 respectively, which is gradually replacing the Soviet system of Candidates and Doctors of Science.", "In 2010, Kazakhstan became the only Central Asian member of the Bologna Process, which seeks to harmonise higher education systems in order to create a European Higher Education Area.=== Financial investment in research ===The Central Asian republics' ambition of developing the business sector, education and research is being hampered by chronic low investment in research and development.", "Over the decade to 2013, the region's investment in research and development hovered around 0.2–0.3% of GDP.", "Uzbekistan broke with this trend in 2013 by raising its own research intensity to 0.41% of GDP.Kazakhstan is the only country where the business enterprise and private non-profit sectors make any significant contribution to research and development – but research intensity overall is low in Kazakhstan: just 0.18% of GDP in 2013.Moreover, few industrial enterprises conduct research in Kazakhstan.", "Only one in eight (12.5%) of the country's manufacturing firms were active in innovation in 2012, according to a survey by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics.", "Enterprises prefer to purchase technological solutions that are already embodied in imported machinery and equipment.", "Just 4% of firms purchase the license and patents that come with this technology.", "Nevertheless, there appears to be a growing demand for the products of research, since enterprises spent 4.5 times more on scientific and technological services in 2008 than in 1997.Central Asian researchers by sector of employment (HC), 2013.Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 14.5=== Trends in researchers ===Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan count the highest researcher density in Central Asia.", "The number of researchers per million population is close to the world average (1,083 in 2013) in Kazakhstan (1,046) and higher than the world average in Uzbekistan (1,097).Kazakhstan is the only Central Asian country where the business enterprise and private non-profit sectors make any significant contribution to research and development.", "Uzbekistan is in a particularly vulnerable position, with its heavy reliance on higher education: three-quarters of researchers were employed by the university sector in 2013 and just 6% in the business enterprise sector.", "With most Uzbek university researchers nearing retirement, this imbalance imperils Uzbekistan's research future.", "Almost all holders of a Candidate of Science, Doctor of Science or PhD are more than 40 years old and half are aged over 60; more than one in three researchers (38.4%) holds a PhD degree, or its equivalent, the remainder holding a bachelor's or master's degree.Central Asian researchers by field of science, 2013.Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 14.4Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan have all maintained a share of women researchers above 40% since the fall of the Soviet Union.", "Kazakhstan has even achieved gender parity, with Kazakh women dominating medical and health research and representing some 45–55% of engineering and technology researchers in 2013.In Tajikistan, however, only one in three scientists (34%) was a woman in 2013, down from 40% in 2002.Although policies are in place to give Tajik women equal rights and opportunities, these are underfunded and poorly understood.", "Turkmenistan has offered a state guarantee of equality for women since a law adopted in 2007 but the lack of available data makes it impossible to draw any conclusions as to the law's impact on research.", "As for Turkmenistan, it does not make data available on higher education, research expenditure or researchers.", "'''Table:''' '''PhDs obtained in science and engineering in Central Asia, 2013 or closest year'''PhDsPhDs in sciencePhDs in engineeringTotalWomen (%)TotalWomen (%)Total per million pop.Women PhDs per million pop.TotalWomen (%)Total per million pop.Women PhDs per million pop.Kazakhstan (2013)2475173604.42.737382.30.9Kyrgyzstan (2012)49963916316.610.45463––Tajikistan (2012)3311131–3.9–14–––Uzbekistan (2011)83842152305.41.611827.0––''Note: PhD graduates in science cover life sciences, physical sciences, mathematics and statistics, and computing; PhDs in engineering also cover manufacturing and construction.", "For Central Asia, the generic term of PhD also encompasses Candidate of Science and Doctor of Science degrees.", "Data are unavailable for Turkmenistan.", "'''''Table: Central Asian researchers by field of science and gender, 2013 or closest year''''''Total researchers (head counts)''''''Researchers by field of science (head counts)'''Natural SciencesEngineering and technologyMedical and health sciences Agricultural sciencesSocial sciencesHumanitiesTotalPer million pop.Number of womenWomen (%)TotalWomen (%)TotalWomen (%)TotalWomen (%)TotalWomen (%)TotalWomen (%)TotalWomen (%)Kazakhstan201317,1951,0468,84951.55,09151.94,99644.71,06869.52,15043.41,77661.02 11457.5Kyrgyzstan20112,22441296143.259346.556730.039344.021250.015442.925952.1Tajikistan20132,15226272833.850930.320618.037467.647223.533525.725634.0Uzbekistan201130,8901,09712,63940.96,91035.34,98230.13,65953.61,87224.86,81741.26,65052.0=== Research output ===Scientific publications from Central Asia catalogued by Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, 2005–2014, UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 14.6The number of scientific papers published in Central Asia grew by almost 50% between 2005 and 2014, driven by Kazakhstan, which overtook Uzbekistan over this period to become the region's most prolific scientific publisher, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded).", "Between 2005 and 2014, Kazakhstan's share of scientific papers from the region grew from 35% to 56%.", "Although two-thirds of papers from the region have a foreign co-author, the main partners tend to come from beyond Central Asia, namely the Russian Federation, USA, German, United Kingdom and Japan.Five Kazakh patents were registered at the US Patent and Trademark Office between 2008 and 2013, compared to three for Uzbek inventors and none at all for the other three Central Asian republics, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan.Cumulative total of articles by Central Asians between 2008 and 2013, by field of science.", "Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 14.6Kazakhstan is Central Asia's main trader in high-tech products.", "Kazakh imports nearly doubled between 2008 and 2013, from US$2.7 billion to US$5.1 billion.", "There has been a surge in imports of computers, electronics and telecommunications; these products represented an investment of US$744 million in 2008 and US$2.6 billion five years later.", "The growth in exports was more gradual – from US$2.3 billion to US$3.1 billion – and dominated by chemical products (other than pharmaceuticals), which represented two-thirds of exports in 2008 (US$1.5 billion) and 83% (US$2.6 billion) in 2013.=== International cooperation ===The five Central Asian republics belong to several international bodies, including the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Economic Cooperation Organization and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.", "They are also members of the Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation (CAREC) Programme, which also includes Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, China, Mongolia and Pakistan.", "In November 2011, the 10 member countries adopted the ''CAREC 2020 Strategy'', a blueprint for furthering regional co-operation.", "Over the decade to 2020, US$50 billion is being invested in priority projects in transport, trade and energy to improve members' competitiveness.", "The landlocked Central Asian republics are conscious of the need to co-operate in order to maintain and develop their transport networks and energy, communication and irrigation systems.", "Only Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan border the Caspian Sea and none of the republics has direct access to an ocean, complicating the transportation of hydrocarbons, in particular, to world markets.Kazakhstan is also one of the three founding members of the Eurasian Economic Union in 2014, along with Belarus and the Russian Federation.", "Armenia and Kyrgyzstan have since joined this body.", "As co-operation among the member states in science and technology is already considerable and well-codified in legal texts, the Eurasian Economic Union is expected to have a limited additional impact on co-operation among public laboratories or academia but it should encourage business ties and scientific mobility, since it includes provision for the free circulation of labour and unified patent regulations.Kazakhstan and Tajikistan participated in the Innovative Biotechnologies Programme (2011–2015) launched by the Eurasian Economic Community, the predecessor of the Eurasian Economic Union, The programme also involved Belarus and the Russian Federation.", "Within this programme, prizes were awarded at an annual bio-industry exhibition and conference.", "In 2012, 86 Russian organisations participated, plus three from Belarus, one from Kazakhstan and three from Tajikistan, as well as two scientific research groups from Germany.", "At the time, Vladimir Debabov, scientific director of the Genetika State Research Institute for Genetics and the Selection of Industrial Micro-organisms in the Russian Federation, stressed the paramount importance of developing bio-industry.", "\"In the world today, there is a strong tendency to switch from petrochemicals to renewable biological sources\", he said.", "\"Biotechnology is developing two to three times faster than chemicals.", "\"Kazakhstan also participated in a second project of the Eurasian Economic Community, the establishment of the Centre for Innovative Technologies on 4 April 2013, with the signing of an agreement between the Russian Venture Company (a government fund of funds), the Kazakh JSC National Agency and the Belarusian Innovative Foundation.", "Each of the selected projects is entitled to funding of US$3–90 million and is implemented within a public–private partnership.", "The first few approved projects focused on supercomputers, space technologies, medicine, petroleum recycling, nanotechnologies and the ecological use of natural resources.", "Once these initial projects have spawned viable commercial products, the venture company plans to reinvest the profits in new projects.", "This venture company is not a purely economic structure; it has also been designed to promote a common economic space among the three participating countries.", "Kazakhstan recognises the role civil society initiatives have to address the consequences of the COVID-19 crisis.Four of the five Central Asian republics have also been involved in a project launched by the European Union in September 2013, IncoNet CA.", "The aim of this project is to encourage Central Asian countries to participate in research projects within Horizon 2020, the European Union's eighth research and innovation funding programme.", "The focus of this research projects is on three societal challenges considered as being of mutual interest to both the European Union and Central Asia, namely: climate change, energy and health.", "IncoNet CA builds on the experience of earlier projects which involved other regions, such as Eastern Europe, the South Caucasus and the Western Balkans.", "IncoNet CA focuses on twinning research facilities in Central Asia and Europe.", "It involves a consortium of partner institutions from Austria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Poland, Portugal, Tajikistan, Turkey and Uzbekistan.", "In May 2014, the European Union launched a 24-month call for project applications from twinned institutions – universities, companies and research institutes – for funding of up to €10, 000 to enable them to visit one another's facilities to discuss project ideas or prepare joint events like workshops.The International Science and Technology Center (ISTC) was established in 1992 by the European Union, Japan, the Russian Federation and the US to engage weapons scientists in civilian research projects and to foster technology transfer.", "ISTC branches have been set up in the following countries party to the agreement: Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.", "The headquarters of ISTC were moved to Nazarbayev University in Kazakhstan in June 2014, three years after the Russian Federation announced its withdrawal from the centre.Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan have been members of the World Trade Organization since 1998, 2013 and 2015 respectively." ], [ "Territorial and regional data", "CountryAreakm2Population()Population densityper km2Nominal GDP (2023) GDP per capita (2023) HDI (2021) Capital Official languages 2,724,900 6.3 $245.695 billion $12,306 0.811 Astana Kazakh, Russian 199,950 29.7 $12.309 billion $1,736 0.692 Bishkek Kyrgyz, Russian 142,550 60.4 $12.796 billion $1,277 0.685 Dushanbe Tajik, Russian 488,100 11.1 $82.624 billion $13,065 0.745 Ashgabat Turkmen 448,978 36,024,900 69.1 $92.332 billion $2,563 0.727 Tashkent Uzbek" ], [ "Demographics", "Population pyramid of Central Asia in 2023Ethnic map of Central Asia.", "White areas are thinly-populated semi-desert.", "The three northwest-tending lines are the Syr Darya and Amu Darya Rivers flowing from the eastern mountains into the Aral Sea and in the south the irrigated north side of the Kopet Dagh mountains.Uzbek children in SamarkandChildren in AfghanistanBy a broad definition including Mongolia and Afghanistan, more than 90 million people live in Central Asia, about 2% of Asia's total population.", "Of the regions of Asia, only North Asia has fewer people.", "It has a population density of 9 people per km2, vastly less than the 80.5 people per km2 of the continent as a whole.", "Kazakhstan is one of the least densely populated countries in the world.=== Languages ===Russian, as well as being spoken by around six million ethnic Russians and Ukrainians of Central Asia, is the de facto lingua franca throughout the former Soviet Central Asian Republics.", "Mandarin Chinese has an equally dominant presence in Inner Mongolia, Qinghai and Xinjiang.The languages of the majority of the inhabitants of the former Soviet Central Asian Republics belong to the Turkic language group.", "Turkmen is mainly spoken in Turkmenistan, and as a minority language in Afghanistan, Russia, Iran and Turkey.", "Kazakh and Kyrgyz are related languages of the Kypchak group of Turkic languages and are spoken throughout Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and as a minority language in Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Xinjiang.", "Uzbek and Uyghur are spoken in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan and Xinjiang.Middle Iranian languages were once spoken throughout Central Asia, such as the once prominent Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Bactrian and Scythian, which are now extinct and belonged to the Eastern Iranian family.", "The Eastern Iranian Pashto language is still spoken in Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan.", "Other minor Eastern Iranian languages such as Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi, Sarikoli, Wakhi, Yaghnobi and Ossetic are also spoken at various places in Central Asia.", "Varieties of Persian are also spoken as a major language in the region, locally known as Dari (in Afghanistan), Tajik (in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan), and Bukhori (by the Bukharan Jews of Central Asia).Tocharian, another Indo-European language group, which was once predominant in oases on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin of Xinjiang, is now extinct.Other language groups include the Tibetic languages, spoken by around six million people across the Tibetan Plateau and into Qinghai, Sichuan (Szechwan), Ladakh and Baltistan, and the Nuristani languages of northeastern Afghanistan.", "Korean is spoken by the Koryo-saram minority, mainly in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.=== Religions ===A Kazakh wedding ceremony in a mosqueIslam is the religion most common in the Central Asian Republics, Afghanistan, Xinjiang, and the peripheral western regions, such as Bashkortostan.", "Most Central Asian Muslims are Sunni, although there are sizable Shia minorities in Afghanistan and Tajikistan.Buddhism and Zoroastrianism were the major faiths in Central Asia before the arrival of Islam.", "Zoroastrian influence is still felt today in such celebrations as Nowruz, held in all five of the Central Asian states.", "The transmission of Buddhism along the Silk Road eventually brought the religion to China.", "Amongst the Turkic peoples, Tengrism was the leading religion before Islam.", "Tibetan Buddhism is most common in Tibet, Mongolia, Ladakh, and the southern Russian regions of Siberia.The form of Christianity most practiced in the region in previous centuries was Nestorianism, but now the largest denomination is the Russian Orthodox Church, with many members in Kazakhstan, where about 25% of the population of 19 million identify as Christian, 17% in Uzbekistan and 5% in Kyrgyzstan.", "Pew Research Center estimates indicate that in 2010, around 6 million Christians lived in Central Asian countries, the Pew Forum study finds that Kazakhstan (4.1 million) has the largest Christian population in the region, followed by Uzbekistan (710,000), Kyrgyzstan (660,000), Turkmenistan (320,000) and Tajikistan (100,000).The Bukharan Jews were once a sizable community in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, but nearly all have emigrated since the dissolution of the Soviet Union.In Siberia, shaministic practices persist, including forms of divination such as Kumalak.Contact and migration with Han people from China has brought Confucianism, Daoism, Mahayana Buddhism, and other Chinese folk beliefs into the region.Central Asia is where many integral beliefs and elements in various religious traditions of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism originated.", "Country Population Christian Muslim Irreligion Hindu Buddhist Folk religion Other religion Jewish Pop.", "% Pop.", "% Pop.", "% Pop.", "% Pop.", "% Pop.", "% Pop.", "% Pop.", "% < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < '''Total'''64,625,0004,663,6157.2255,535,69085.944,158,8606.4400.0026,8700.0451,3700.08136,1050.2110,0000.02" ], [ "Geostrategy", "Tartar prostrating before Qianlong Emperor of China (1757).Great Game showing the Afghan Amir Sher Ali with his \"friends\" Imperial Russia and the United Kingdom (1878)Islam Karimov (President, Uzbekistan) in the Pentagon, March 2002Central Asia has long been a strategic location merely because of its proximity to several great powers on the Eurasian landmass.", "The region itself never held a dominant stationary population nor was able to make use of natural resources.", "Thus, it has rarely throughout history become the seat of power for an empire or influential state.", "Central Asia has been divided, redivided, conquered out of existence, and fragmented time and time again.", "Central Asia has served more as the battleground for outside powers than as a power in its own right.Central Asia had both the advantage and disadvantage of a central location between four historical seats of power.", "From its central location, it has access to trade routes to and from all the regional powers.", "On the other hand, it has been continuously vulnerable to attack from all sides throughout its history, resulting in political fragmentation or outright power vacuum, as it is successively dominated.", "* To the North, the steppe allowed for rapid mobility, first for nomadic horseback warriors like the Huns and Mongols, and later for Russian traders, eventually supported by railroads.", "As the Russian Empire expanded to the East, it would also push down into Central Asia towards the sea, in a search for warm water ports.", "The Soviet bloc would reinforce dominance from the North and attempt to project power as far south as Afghanistan.", "* To the East, the demographic and cultural weight of Chinese empires continually pushed outward into Central Asia since the Silk Road period of Han Dynasty.", "However, with the Sino-Soviet split and collapse of Soviet Union, China would project its soft power into Central Asia, most notably in the case of Afghanistan, to counter Russian dominance of the region.", "* To the Southeast, the demographic and cultural influence of India was felt in Central Asia, notably in Tibet, the Hindu Kush, and slightly beyond.", "From its base in India, the British Empire competed with the Russian Empire for influence in the region in the 19th and 20th centuries.", "* To the Southwest, West Asian powers have expanded into the southern areas of Central Asia (usually Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan).", "Several Persian empires would conquer and reconquer parts of Central Asia; Alexander the Great's Hellenic empire would extend into Central Asia; two Islamic empires would exert substantial influence throughout the region; and the modern state of Iran has projected influence throughout the region as well.", "Turkey, through a common Turkic nation identity, has gradually increased its ties and influence as well in the region.", "Furthermore, since Uzbekistan announced their intention to join in April 2018, Turkey and all of the Central Asian Turkic-speaking states except Turkmenistan are together part of the Turkic Council.In the post–Cold War era, Central Asia is an ethnic cauldron, prone to instability and conflicts, without a sense of national identity, but rather a mess of historical cultural influences, tribal and clan loyalties, and religious fervor.", "Projecting influence into the area is no longer just Russia, but also Turkey, Iran, China, Pakistan, India and the United States:* Russia continues to dominate political decision-making throughout the former SSRs; although, as other countries move into the area, Russia's influence has begun to wane though Russia still maintains military bases in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.", "* The United States, with its military involvement in the region and oil diplomacy, is also significantly involved in the region's politics.", "The United States and other NATO members were the main contributors to the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan during the Islamic Republic period and also exert considerable influence in other Central Asian nations.", "* China has security ties with Central Asian states through the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, and conducts energy trade bilaterally.", "* India has geographic proximity to the Central Asian region and, in addition, enjoys considerable influence on Afghanistan.", "India maintains a military base at Farkhor, Tajikistan, and also has extensive military relations with Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.", "* Turkey also exerts considerable influence in the region on account of its ethnic and linguistic ties with the Turkic peoples of Central Asia and its involvement in the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline.", "Political and economic relations are growing rapidly (e.g., Turkey recently eliminated visa requirements for citizens of the Central Asian Turkic republics).", "* Iran, the seat of historical empires that controlled parts of Central Asia, has historical and cultural links to the region and is vying to construct an oil pipeline from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf.", "* Pakistan, a nuclear-armed Islamic state, has a history of political relations with neighbouring Afghanistan and is termed capable of exercising influence.", "For some Central Asian nations, the shortest route to the ocean lies through Pakistan.", "Pakistan seeks natural gas from Central Asia and supports the development of pipelines from its countries.", "According to an independent study, Turkmenistan is supposed to be the fifth largest natural gas field in the world.", "The mountain ranges and areas in northern Pakistan lie on the fringes of greater Central Asia; the Gilgit–Baltistan region of Pakistan lies adjacent to Tajikistan, separated only by the narrow Afghan Wakhan Corridor.", "Being located on the northwest of South Asia, the area forming modern-day Pakistan maintained extensive historical and cultural links with the central Asian region.", "* Japan has an important and growing influence in Central Asia, with the master plan of the capital city of Astana in Kazakhstan being designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa, and the Central Asia plus Japan initiative designed to strengthen ties between them and promote development and stability of the region.Russian historian Lev Gumilev wrote that Xiongnu, Mongols (Mongol Empire, Zunghar Khanate) and Turkic peoples (First Turkic Khaganate, Uyghur Khaganate) played a role to stop Chinese aggression to the north.", "The Turkic Khaganate had special policy against Chinese assimilation policy.", "Another interesting theoretical analysis on the historical-geopolitics of the Central Asia was made through the reinterpretation of Orkhun Inscripts.The region, along with Russia, is also part of \"the great pivot\" as per the Heartland Theory of Halford Mackinder, which says that the power which controls Central Asia—richly endowed with natural resources—shall ultimately be the \"empire of the world\".=== War on Terror ===In the context of the United States' War on Terror, Central Asia has once again become the center of geostrategic calculations.", "Pakistan's status has been upgraded by the U.S. government to Major non-NATO ally because of its central role in serving as a staging point for the invasion of Afghanistan, providing intelligence on Al-Qaeda operations in the region, and leading the hunt on Osama bin Laden.Afghanistan, which had served as a haven and source of support for Al-Qaeda under the protection of Mullah Omar and the Taliban, was the target of a U.S. invasion in 2001 and ongoing reconstruction and drug-eradication efforts.", "U.S. military bases have also been established in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, causing both Russia and the People's Republic of China to voice their concern over a permanent U.S. military presence in the region.Western governments have accused Russia, China and the former Soviet republics of justifying the suppression of separatist movements, and the associated ethnics and religion with the War on Terror." ], [ "Major cultural, scientific and economic centres", "=== Cities in Central Asia ===CityCountryPopulationImageInformation Astana Kazakhstan (2017) 200px The capital and second largest city in Kazakhstan.", "After Kazakhstan gained its independence in 1991, the city and the region were renamed from Tselinograd to Aqmola.", "The name was often translated as \"White Tombstone\", but actually means \"Holy Place\" or \"Holy Shrine\".", "The \"White Tombstone\" literal translation was too appropriate for many visitors to escape notice in almost all guide books and travel accounts.", "In 1994, the city was designated as the future capital of the newly independent country and again renamed to the Astana after the capital was officially moved from Almaty in 1997.In 2019 the city was renamed to Nur-Sultan to honor the resigned president, but was reverted to Astana in 2022.Almaty Kazakhstan (2017) 200px It was the capital of Kazakhstan (and its predecessor, the Kazakh SSR) from 1929 to 1998.Despite losing its status as the capital, Almaty remains the major commercial center of Kazakhstan.", "It is a recognised financial center of Kazakhstan and the Central Asian region.", "Bishkek Kyrgyzstan (2019) 200px The capital and the largest city of Kyrgyzstan.", "Bishkek is also the administrative center of Chüy Region, which surrounds the city, even though the city itself is not part of the region, but rather a region-level unit of Kyrgyzstan.", "Osh Kyrgyzstan (2009) 200px The second largest city of Kyrgyzstan.", "Osh is also the administrative center of Osh Region, which surrounds the city, even though the city itself is not part of the region, but rather a region-level unit of Kyrgyzstan.", "Dushanbe Tajikistan (2014) 200px The capital and largest city of Tajikistan.", "Dushanbe means \"Monday\" in Tajik and Persian, and the name reflects the fact that the city grew on the site of a village that originally was a popular Monday marketplace.", "Ashgabat Turkmenistan (2014) 200px The capital and largest city of Turkmenistan.", "Ashgabat is a relatively young city, growing out of a village of the same name established by Russians in 1818.It is not far from the site of Nisa, the ancient capital of the Parthians, and it grew on the ruins of the Silk Road city of Konjikala, which was first mentioned as a wine-producing village in the 2nd century BC and was leveled by an earthquake in the 1st century BC (a precursor of the 1948 Ashgabat earthquake).", "Konjikala was rebuilt because of its advantageous location on the Silk Road, and it flourished until its destruction by Mongols in the 13th century AD.", "After that, it survived as a small village until the Russians took over in the 19th century.", "Bukhara Uzbekistan (1999) 200px The nation's fifth-largest city and the capital of the Bukhara Region of Uzbekistan.", "Bukhara has been one of the main centers of Persian civilisation from its early days in the 6th century BC, and, since the 12th century AD, Turkic speakers gradually moved in.", "Its architecture and archaeological sites form one of the pillars of Central Asian history and art.", "Kokand Uzbekistan (2011) 200px Kokand (; ; ; Chagatai: خوقند; ) is a city in Fergana Region in eastern Uzbekistan, at the southwestern edge of the Fergana Valley.", "It has a population of 192,500 (1999 census estimate).", "Kokand is 228 km southeast of Tashkent, 115 km west of Andijan, and 88 km west of Fergana.", "It is nicknamed \"City of Winds\", or sometimes \"Town of the Boar\".", "Samarkand Uzbekistan (2008) 200px The second largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Samarqand Region.", "The city is most noted for its central position on the Silk Road between China and the West, and for being an Islamic center for scholarly study.", "It was here that the ruler Ulugh Beg (1394–1449) built a gigantic astronomical observatory.Tashkent Uzbekistan (2020) 200px The capital and largest city of Uzbekistan.", "In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, the town and the region were known as Chach.", "Tashkent started as an oasis on the Chirchik River, near the foothills of the Golestan Mountains.", "In ancient times, this area contained Beitian, probably the summer \"capital\" of the Kangju confederacy." ], [ "See also", "* Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation Program* Central Asian Football Federation* Central Asian Games* Central Asian Union* Central Asians in ancient Indian literature* Chinese Central Asia* Chinese Turkestan* Continental pole of inaccessibility* Hindutash* Inner Asia* Mountains of Central Asia* Russian Turkestan" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Chow, Edward.", "\"Central Asia's Pipelines: Field of Dreams and Reality\", in '' Pipeline Politics in Asia: The Intersection of Demand, Energy Markets, and Supply Routes''.", "National Bureau of Asian Research, 2010.", "* Farah, Paolo Davide, Energy Security, Water Resources and Economic Development in Central Asia, World Scientific Reference on Globalisation in Eurasia and the Pacific Rim, Imperial College Press (London, UK) & World Scientific Publishing, November 2015.Available at SSRN: Energy Security, Water Resources and Economic Development in Central Asia* Dani, A.H. and V.M.", "Masson, eds. ''", "History of Civilizations of Central Asia''.", "Paris: UNESCO, 1992.", "* Gorshunova.", "Olga V. ''Svjashennye derevja Khodzhi Barora...'', (''Sacred Trees of Khodzhi Baror: Phytolatry and the Cult of Female Deity in Central Asia'') in Etnoragraficheskoe Obozrenie, 2008, n° 1, pp. 71–82..", ".", "* * * Mandelbaum, Michael, ed.", "''Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkmenistan''.", "New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994.", "* Marcinkowski, M. Ismail.", "''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, Pakistan and Early Ottoman Turkey''.", "Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003.", "* Menga, Filippo (2020).", "Power and Water in Central Asia.", "Routledge.", "* Olcott, Martha Brill.", "''Central Asia's New States: Independence, Foreign policy, and Regional security''.", "Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996.", "* * Hasan Bulent Paksoy.", "''ALPAMYSH: Central Asian Identity under Russian Rule''.", "Hartford: AACAR, 1989.alpamysh: central asian identity under Russian rule* Soucek, Svatopluk.", "''A History of Inner Asia''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.", "* Rall, Ted.", "''Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New Middle East?''", "New York: NBM Publishing, 2006.", "* Stone, L.A. ''The International Politics of Central Eurasia'' (272 pp).", "Central Eurasian Studies On Line: Accessible via the Web Page of the International Eurasian Institute for Economic and Political Research: IEI_forum / International Eurasian Institute for Economic and Political Research* Trochev, Alexei; Slade, Gavin (2019), in Caron, Jean-François (ed.", "), \"Trials and Tribulations: Kazakhstan's Criminal Justice Reforms\", ''Kazakhstan and the Soviet Legacy'', Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp.", "75–99, , retrieved 4 December 2020.", "* Vakulchuk, Roman (2014) Kazakhstan's Emerging Economy: Between State and Market, Peter Lang: Frankfurt/Main.", "Available at: www.researchgate.net/publication/299731455* Weston, David.", "''Teaching about Inner Asia'' , Bloomington, Indiana: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies, 1989.", "* Yellinek, Roie, The Impact of China's Belt and Road Initiative on Central Asia and the South Caucasus, E-International Relations, 14 February 2020." ], [ "External links", "* * Central Asia ethnicity, languages, and religious composition maps at Columbia University* General Map of Central Asia I – World Digital Library a historic map from 1874* The Central Asian Chronicles" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Constantine II" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Constantine II''' may refer to:* Constantine II (emperor) (317–340), Roman Emperor 337–340* Constantine III (usurper) (died 411), known as Constantine II of Britain in British legend* Constans II, Byzantine emperor (630–668)* Antipope Constantine II (died 768), antipope from 767 to 768* Constantine II of Scotland (c.878 – 952), King of Scotland 900–942 or 943* Constantine II, Prince of Armenia (died 1129)* Constantine II of Cagliari (c. 1100 – 1163)* Constantine II of Torres (died 1198), called de Martis, was the giudice of Logudoro* Constantine II the Woolmaker (died 1322), Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church* Constantine II, King of Armenia (died 1344), first Latin King of Armenian Cilicia of the Lusignan dynasty* Constantine II of Bulgaria (early 1370s–1422), last emperor of Bulgaria 1396–1422.", "* Eskender (1471–1494), Emperor of Ethiopia sometimes known as Constantine II* Constantine II of Georgia (c. 1447 – 1505)* Constantine II, Prince of Mukhrani (died 1716), Georgian nobleman* Constantine II of Kakheti (died 1732), King of Kakheti 1722–1732* Constantine II of Greece (1940–2023), Olympic champion (1960) and formerly King of the Hellenes March 6, 1964 – June 1, 1973" ], [ "See also", "* Constantius II (317–361), Roman Emperor from 337 to 361" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Couscous" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Couscous''' () is a traditional North African dish of small steamed granules of rolled semolina that is often served with a stew spooned on top.", "Pearl millet, sorghum, bulgur, and other cereals are sometimes cooked in a similar way in other regions, and the resulting dishes are also sometimes called couscous.Couscous is a staple food throughout the Maghrebi cuisines of Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania, Morocco, and Libya.", "It was integrated into French and European cuisine at the beginning of the twentieth century, through the French colonial empire and the Pieds-Noirs of Algeria.In 2020, couscous was added to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"couscous\" (alternately ''cuscus'' or ''kuskus'') was first noted in early 17th century French, from Arabic kuskus, from kaskasa 'to pound', and is probably of Berber origin.", "The term ''seksu'' is attested in various Berber dialects such as Kabyle and Rifain, while Saharan Berber dialects such as Touareg and Ghadames have a slightly different form, ''keskesu.''", "This widespread geographical dispersion of the term strongly suggests its local Berber origin, lending further support to its likely Berber roots as Algerian linguist Salem Chaker suggests.The Berber root *KS means \"well formed, well rolled, rounded.\"", "Numerous names and pronunciations for couscous exist around the world." ], [ "History", "Algerian couscous from Kabylia.|leftIt is unclear when couscous originated.", "Food historian Lucie Bolens believes couscous originated millennia ago, during the reign of Masinissa in the ancient kingdom of Numidia in present-day Algeria.", "Traces of cooking vessels akin to couscoussiers have been found in graves from the 3rd century BC, from the time of the berber kings of Numidia, in the city of Tiaret, Algeria.", "Couscoussiers dating back to the 12th century were found in the ruins of Igiliz, located in the Sous valley of Morocco.According to food writer Charles Perry, couscous originated among the Berbers of Algeria and Morocco between the end of the 11th-century Zirid dynasty, modern-day Algeria, and the rise of the 13th-century Almohad Caliphate.", "The historian Hady Idris noted that couscous is attested to during the Hafsid dynasty, but not the Zirid dynasty.In the 12th century, Maghrebi cooks were preparing dishes of non-mushy grains by stirring flour with water to create light, round balls of couscous dough that could be steamed.The historian Maxime Rodinson found three recipes for couscous from the 13th century Arabic cookbook ''Kitab al-Wusla ila al-Habib'', written by an Ayyubid author, and the anonymous Arabic cooking book ''Kitab al tabikh'' and Ibn Razin al-Tujibi's ''Fadalat al-khiwan'' also contain recipes.Couscous is believed to have been spread among the inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula by the Berber dynasties of the 13th century, though it is no longer found in traditional Spanish or Portuguese cuisine.", "In modern day Trapani, Sicily, the dish is still made to the medieval recipe of Andalusian author Ibn Razin al-Tujibi.", "Ligurian families that moved from Tabarka to Sardinia brought the dish with them to Carloforte in the 18th century.Known in France since the 16th century, it was brought into French cuisine at the beginning of the 20th century via the French colonial empire and the Pieds-Noirs." ], [ "Preparation", "Brown couscous with vegetables in Tunisia.Couscous is traditionally made from semolina, the hardest part of the grain of durum wheat (the hardest of all forms of wheat), which resists the grinding of the millstone.", "The semolina is sprinkled with water and rolled with the hands to form small pellets, sprinkled with dry flour to keep them separate, and then sieved.", "Any pellets that are too small to be finished, granules of couscous fall through the sieve and are again rolled and sprinkled with dry semolina and rolled into pellets.", "This labor-intensive process continues until all the semolina has been formed into tiny couscous granules.", "In the traditional method of preparing couscous, groups of people come together to make large batches over several days, which are then dried in the sun and used for several months.", "Handmade couscous may need to be rehydrated as it is prepared; this is achieved by a process of moistening and steaming over stew until the couscous reaches the desired light and fluffy consistency.In some regions, couscous is made from farina or coarsely ground barley or pearl millet.A ''kiskas'' (French: ''couscoussier''), a traditional steamer for couscous.In modern times, couscous production is largely mechanized, and the product is sold worldwide.", "This couscous can be sauteed before it is cooked in water or another liquid.", "Properly cooked couscous is light and fluffy, not gummy or gritty.Traditionally, North Africans use a food steamer (called a ''taseksut'' in the Berber language, a ''kiskas'' in Arabic or a ''couscoussier'' in French language).", "The base is a tall metal pot shaped like an oil jar, where the meat and vegetables are cooked as a stew.", "On top of the base, a steamer sits where the couscous is cooked, absorbing the flavours from the stew.", "The steamer's lid has holes around its edge so steam can escape.", "It is also possible to use a pot with a steamer insert.", "If the holes are too big, the steamer can be lined with damp cheesecloth.The couscous that is sold in most Western grocery stores is usually pre-steamed and dried.", "It is typically prepared by adding 1.5 measures of boiling water or stock to each measure of couscous and then leaving it covered tightly for about five minutes.", "Pre-steamed couscous takes less time to prepare than regular couscous, most dried pasta, or dried grains (such as rice).", "Packaged sets of quick-preparation couscous and canned vegetables, and generally meat, are routinely sold in European grocery stores and supermarkets.", "Couscous is widely consumed in France, where it was introduced by Maghreb immigrants and voted the third most popular dish in a 2011 survey." ], [ "Recognition", "In December 2020, Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia obtained official recognition for the knowledge, know-how, and practices pertaining to the production and consumption of couscous on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.", "The joint submission by the four countries was hailed as an \"example of international cooperation.\"" ], [ "Local variations", "Moroccan couscous with ''tfaya'' and roasted chicken.Couscous proper is about 2 mm in diameter, but there also exists a larger variety (3 mm more) known as ''berkoukes'', as well as an ultra-fine version (around 1 mm).", "In Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, it is generally served with vegetables (carrots, potatoes, and turnips) cooked in a spicy or mild broth or stew, usually with some meat (generally, chicken, lamb, or mutton).Couscous with vegetables, meat, and ''tfaya''.=== Algeria ===Algerian couscous from Biskra.Algerian couscous is a traditional staple food in Algeria, and it plays an important role in Algerian culture and cuisine.", "It is commonly served with vegetables, meat, or fish.", "In Algeria, there are various types of couscous dishes.=== Tunisia ===Fish couscous from Tunisia.In Tunisia, couscous is usually spicy, made with harissa sauce, and served commonly with vegetables and meat, including lamb, fish, seafood, beef, and sometimes (in southern regions) camel.", "Fish couscous is a Tunisian specialty and can also be made with octopus, squid or other seafood in a hot, red, spicy sauce.Couscous can also be served as a dessert.", "It is then called Masfuf.", "Masfuf can also contain raisins, grapes, or pomegranate seeds.=== Libya ===In Libya, couscous is mostly served with lamb (but sometimes camel meat or, rarely, beef) in Tripoli and the western parts of Libya, but not during official ceremonies or weddings.", "Another way to eat couscous is as a dessert; it is prepared with dates, sesame, and pure honey and is locally referred to as ''maghrood''.=== Malta ===In Malta, small round pasta slightly larger than typical couscous is known as ''kusksu''.", "It is commonly used in a dish of the same name, which includes broad beans (known in Maltese as ''ful'') and ''ġbejniet'', a local type of cheese.=== Mauritania ===In Mauritania, the couscous uses large wheat grains (''mabroum'') and is darker than the yellow couscous of Morocco.", "It is cooked with lamb, beef, or camel meat together with vegetables, primarily onion, tomato, and carrots, then mixed with a sauce and served with ghee, locally known as ''dhen''." ], [ "Similar foods", "Couscous is made from crushed wheat flour rolled into its constituent granules or pearls, making it distinct from pasta, even pasta such as orzo and risoni of similar size, which is made from ground wheat and either molded or extruded.", "Couscous and pasta have similar nutritional value, although pasta is usually more refined.Several dishes worldwide are also made from granules, like those of couscous rolled from flour from grains or other milled or grated starchy crops.", "* Attiéké, a staple food in Côte d'Ivoire and surrounding regions of West Africa, is made from granulated grated cassava.", "* Cuscuz () is a couscous-like dish from the Northeast Region of Brazil.", "It is made out of cornmeal and eaten hot with meat and cold with milk.", "In the state of São Paulo the ''cuscuz'' is pressed into a mold decorated with orange slices, in a dish called \"''cuscuz'' Paulista,\" a variation of the original version made by locals after migrant waves from the Northeast Region.", "* Dambou is a couscous-like dish from Niger.", "It may be made from semolina for special occasions but is often made with rice, millet, or other grain.", "Moringa leaves are traditionally included in the dish.", "In France, this Nigerien dish has been adapted as a specific variant (called ''couscous aux épinards'') of the Maghreb-syle couscous commonly found there, often using spinach in place of the moringa.", "* Fregula is a type of pasta from Sardinia.", "It is similar to North African Berkoukes and Middle Eastern Moghrabieh.", "Fregula comes in varying sizes but typically consists of semolina dough rolled into balls 2–3 mm in diameter and toasted in an oven.", "* Kouskousaki (Κουσκουσάκι (in Greek) or ''kuskus'' (in Turkish) is a pasta from Greece and Turkey, that is boiled and served with cheese and walnuts.Maftoul, a Palestinian variety of couscous that is made with bulgur.", "* In the Levant, the dish known as moghrabieh (a reference to the Maghreb region) uses the same durum-based semolina flour but rolled into larger ( in diameter) 'pearls' to create a dish that is popular across Jordan, Lebanon and Syria.", "The pearls are either cooked as part of a stew or flavored with cinnamon and served alongside a chicken and chickpea broth.", "*Palestinian ''maftoul'' uses granules that are larger than the North African variety but smaller than moghrabieh pearls ( in diameter) and made with bulgur, not durum wheat.", "It is similarly served alongside a chicken and chickpea broth.", "\"Maftoul\" is an Arabic word derived from the root \"fa-ta-la,\" which means to roll or to twist, describing the hand-rolling method used to make the granules.", "* Israeli couscous, known in Hebrew as ''ptitim'' (, , lit.", "'flakes', singular: פְּתִית, , lit.", "'flake'), is made up of tiny balls of toasted pasta.", "It was developed in Israel in the 1950s when rice was scarce due to austerity in Israel as a higher protein alternative.", "Despite its name in English, it is not a type of couscous (, , plural: כַּסְכּוּסִים, ).", "* Wusu-Wusu is a couscous that is prepared out of fonio in the Hausa region of Nigeria, Benin, Togo and Ghana." ], [ "See also", "* North African cuisine: Moroccan cuisine, Berber cuisine, Algerian cuisine, Tunisian cuisine, Libyan cuisine and Egyptian cuisine* List of Middle Eastern dishes* List of African dishes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Constantius II" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Constantius II''' (; ; 7 August 317 – 3 November 361) was Roman emperor from 337 to 361.His reign saw constant warfare on the borders against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic peoples, while internally the Roman Empire went through repeated civil wars, court intrigues, and usurpations.", "His religious policies inflamed domestic conflicts that would continue after his death.Constantius was a son of Constantine the Great, who elevated him to the imperial rank of ''Caesar'' on 8 November 324 and after whose death Constantius became ''Augustus'' together with his brothers, Constantine II and Constans on 9 September 337.He promptly oversaw the massacre of his father-in-law, an uncle, and several cousins, consolidating his hold on power.", "The brothers divided the empire among themselves, with Constantius receiving Greece, Thrace, the Asian provinces, and Egypt in the east.", "For the following decade a costly and inconclusive war against Persia took most of Constantius's time and attention.", "In the meantime, his brothers Constantine and Constans warred over the western provinces of the empire, leaving the former dead in 340 and the latter as sole ruler of the west.", "The two remaining brothers maintained an uneasy peace with each other until, in 350, Constans was overthrown and assassinated by the usurper Magnentius.Unwilling to accept Magnentius as co-ruler, Constantius waged a civil war against the usurper, defeating him at the battles of Mursa Major in 351 and Mons Seleucus in 353.Magnentius died by suicide after the latter battle, leaving Constantius as sole ruler of the empire.", "In 351, Constantius elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to the subordinate rank of ''Caesar'' to rule in the east, but had him executed three years later after receiving scathing reports of his violent and corrupt nature.", "Shortly thereafter, in 355, Constantius promoted his last surviving cousin, Gallus' younger half-brother Julian, to the rank of ''Caesar''.As emperor, Constantius promoted Arianism, banned pagan sacrifices, and issued laws against Jews.", "His military campaigns against Germanic tribes were successful: he defeated the Alamanni in 354 and campaigned across the Danube against the Quadi and Sarmatians in 357.The war against the Sasanians, which had been in a lull since 350, erupted with renewed intensity in 359 and Constantius travelled to the east in 360 to restore stability after the loss of several border fortresses.", "However, Julian claimed the rank of ''Augustus'' in 360, leading to war between the two after Constantius' attempts to persuade Julian to back down failed.", "No battle was fought, as Constantius became ill and died of fever on 3 November 361 in Mopsuestia, allegedly naming Julian as his rightful successor before his death." ], [ "Early life", "''Caesar'' Constantius II on an miliarense of Siscia , AD 327.Bust of Constantius II while he was a prince, Romano-Germanic Museum, Cologne.Constantius was born in 317 at Sirmium, Pannonia, now Serbia.", "He was the third son of Constantine the Great, and second by his second wife Fausta, the daughter of Maximian.", "Constantius was made ''caesar'' by his father on 8 November 324.In 336, religious unrest in Armenia and tense relations between Constantine and king Shapur II caused war to break out between Rome and Sassanid Persia.", "Though he made initial preparations for the war, Constantine fell ill and sent Constantius east to take command of the eastern frontier.", "Before Constantius arrived, the Persian general Narses, who was possibly the king's brother, overran Mesopotamia and captured Amida.", "Constantius promptly attacked Narses, and after suffering minor setbacks defeated and killed Narses at the Battle of Narasara.", "Constantius captured Amida and initiated a major refortification of the city, enhancing the city's circuit walls and constructing large towers.", "He also built a new stronghold in the hinterland nearby, naming it ''Antinopolis''." ], [ "Augustus in the East", "Division of the Roman Empire among the ''caesares'' appointed by Constantine the Great, before the death of Dalmatius.Bust of youthful Constantius II or Constans, Capitoline Museums.Bronze coin of MagnentiusGold solidus of Constantius Gallus.", "A paternal cousin of Constantius, he was made Caesar by Constantius in 350 and was married to the emperor's sister, Constantina.", "However, his mismanagement of the eastern provinces led to his death in 354.In early 337, Constantius hurried to Constantinople after receiving news that his father was near death.", "After Constantine died, Constantius buried him with lavish ceremony in the Church of the Holy Apostles.", "Soon after his father's death, the army massacred his relatives descended from the marriage of his paternal grandfather Constantius Chlorus to Flavia Maximiana Theodora, though the details are unclear.", "Two of Constantius' uncles (Julius Constantius and Flavius Dalmatius) and seven of his cousins were killed, including Hannibalianus and Dalmatius, rulers of Pontus and Moesia respectively, leaving Constantius, his two brothers Constantine II and Constans, and three cousins Gallus, Julian and Nepotianus as the only surviving male relatives of Constantine the Great.", "While the “official version” was that Constantius’ relatives were merely the victims of a mutinous army, Ammianus Marcellinus, Zosimus, Libanius, Athanasius and Julian all blamed Constantius for the event.", "Burgess considered the latter version to be “consistent with all the evidence,” pointing to multiple factors that he believed lined up with the massacre being a planned attack rather than a spontaneous mutiny - the lack of high profile punishments as a response, the sparing of all women, the attempted damnatio memoriae on the deceased, and the exile of the survivors Gallus and Julian.Soon after, Constantius met his brothers in Pannonia at Sirmium to formalize the partition of the empire.", "Constantius received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople, Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Cyrenaica; Constantine received Britannia, Gaul, Hispania, and Mauretania; and Constans, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, received Italy, Africa, Illyricum, Pannonia, Macedonia, and Achaea.Constantius then hurried east to Antioch to resume the war with Persia.", "While Constantius was away from the eastern frontier in early 337, King Shapur II assembled a large army, which included war elephants, and launched an attack on Roman territory, laying waste to Mesopotamia and putting the city of Nisibis under siege.", "Despite initial success, Shapur lifted his siege after his army missed an opportunity to exploit a collapsed wall.", "When Constantius learned of Shapur's withdrawal from Roman territory, he prepared his army for a counter-attack.Constantius repeatedly defended the eastern border against invasions by the Sassanid Empire under Shapur.", "These conflicts were mainly limited to Sassanid sieges of the major fortresses of Roman Mesopotamia, including Nisibis (Nusaybin), Singara, and Amida (Diyarbakir).", "Although Shapur seems to have been victorious in most of these confrontations, the Sassanids were able to achieve little.", "However, the Romans won a decisive victory at the Battle of Narasara, killing Shapur's brother, Narses.", "Ultimately, Constantius was able to push back the invasion, and Shapur failed to make any significant gains.Meanwhile, Constantine II desired to retain control of Constans' realm, leading the brothers into open conflict.", "Constantine was killed in 340 near Aquileia during an ambush.", "As a result, Constans took control of his deceased brother's realms and became sole ruler of the Western two-thirds of the empire.", "This division lasted until January 350, when Constans was assassinated by forces loyal to the usurper Magnentius.===War against Magnentius===As the only surviving son of Constantine the Great, Constantius felt that the position of emperor was his alone, and he determined to march west to fight the usurper, Magnentius.", "However, feeling that the east still required some sort of imperial presence, he elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to ''caesar'' of the eastern provinces.", "As an extra measure to ensure the loyalty of his cousin, he married the elder of his two sisters, Constantina, to him.Before facing Magnentius, Constantius first came to terms with Vetranio, a loyal general in Illyricum who had recently been acclaimed emperor by his soldiers.", "Vetranio immediately sent letters to Constantius pledging his loyalty, which Constantius may have accepted simply in order to stop Magnentius from gaining more support.", "These events may have been spurred by the action of Constantina, who had since traveled east to marry Gallus.", "Constantius subsequently sent Vetranio the imperial diadem and acknowledged the general's new position as ''augustus''.", "However, when Constantius arrived, Vetranio willingly resigned his position and accepted Constantius’ offer of a comfortable retirement in Bithynia.In 351, Constantius clashed with Magnentius in Pannonia with a large army.", "The ensuing Battle of Mursa Major was one of the largest and bloodiest battles ever between two Roman armies.", "The result was a victory for Constantius, but a costly one.", "Magnentius survived the battle and, determined to fight on, withdrew into northern Italy.", "Rather than pursuing his opponent, however, Constantius turned his attention to securing the Danubian border, where he spent the early months of 352 campaigning against the Sarmatians along the middle Danube.", "After achieving his aims, Constantius advanced on Magnentius in Italy.", "This action led the cities of Italy to switch their allegiance to him and eject the usurper's garrisons.", "Again, Magnentius withdrew, this time to southern Gaul.In 353, Constantius and Magnentius met for the final time at the Battle of Mons Seleucus in southern Gaul, and again Constantius emerged the victor.", "Magnentius, realizing the futility of continuing his position, committed suicide on 10 August 353." ], [ "Solo reign", "''Solidus'' struck at Mediolanum in 354–357.The reverse reads ''gloria rei publicae'', \"glory of the republic\".Constantius spent much of the rest of 353 and early 354 on campaign against the Alamanni on the Danube frontier.", "The campaign was successful and raiding by the Alamanni ceased temporarily.", "In the meantime, Constantius had been receiving disturbing reports regarding the actions of his cousin Gallus.", "Possibly as a result of these reports, Constantius concluded a peace with the Alamanni and traveled to Mediolanum (Milan).In Mediolanum, Constantius first summoned Ursicinus, Gallus’ ''magister equitum'', for reasons that remain unclear.", "Constantius then summoned Gallus and Constantina.", "Although Gallus and Constantina complied with the order at first, when Constantina died in Bithynia, Gallus began to hesitate.", "However, after some convincing by one of Constantius’ agents, Gallus continued his journey west, passing through Constantinople and Thrace to Poetovio (Ptuj) in Pannonia.In Poetovio, Gallus was arrested by the soldiers of Constantius under the command of Barbatio.", "Gallus was then moved to Pola and interrogated.", "Gallus claimed that it was Constantina who was to blame for all the trouble while he was in charge of the eastern provinces.", "This angered Constantius so greatly that he immediately ordered Gallus' execution.", "He soon changed his mind, however, and recanted the order.", "Unfortunately for Gallus, this second order was delayed by Eusebius, one of Constantius' eunuchs, and Gallus was executed.===Religious issues===Constantius II depicted in the Chronography of 354 dispensing largesse (a Renaissance copy of a Carolingian copy)This section of a belt contains two gold medallions.", "The larger coin depicts the triumphant emperor in his chariot.", "The Walters Art Museum.====Paganism====Laws dating from the 350s prescribed the death penalty for those who performed or attended pagan sacrifices, and for the worshipping of idols.", "Pagan temples were shut down, and the Altar of Victory was removed from the Senate meeting house.", "There were also frequent episodes of ordinary Christians destroying, pillaging and desecrating many ancient pagan temples, tombs and monuments.Paganism was still popular among the population at the time.", "The emperor's policies were passively resisted by many governors and magistrates.In spite of this, Constantius never made any attempt to disband the various Roman priestly colleges or the Vestal Virgins.", "He never acted against the various pagan schools.", "At times, he actually made some effort to protect paganism.", "In fact, he even ordered the election of a priest for Africa.", "Also, he remained pontifex maximus and was deified by the Roman Senate after his death.", "His relative moderation toward paganism is reflected by the fact that it was over twenty years after his death, during the reign of Gratian, that any pagan senator protested his treatment of their religion.====Christianity====Although often considered an Arian, Constantius ultimately preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between Arianism and the Nicene Creed, retrospectively called Semi-Arianism.", "During his reign he attempted to mold the Christian church to follow this compromise position, convening several Christian councils.", "\"Unfortunately for his memory the theologians whose advice he took were ultimately discredited and the malcontents whom he pressed to conform emerged victorious,\" writes the historian A.H.M.", "Jones.", "\"The great councils of 359–60 are therefore not reckoned ecumenical in the tradition of the church, and Constantius II is not remembered as a restorer of unity, but as a heretic who arbitrarily imposed his will on the church.", "\"====Judaism====Judaism faced some severe restrictions under Constantius, who seems to have followed an anti-Jewish policy in line with that of his father.", "This included edicts to limit the ownership of slaves by Jewish people and banning marriages between Jews and Christian women.", "Later edicts sought to discourage conversions from Christianity to Judaism by confiscating the apostate's property.", "However, Constantius' actions in this regard may not have been so much to do with Jewish religion as with Jewish business—apparently, privately owned Jewish businesses were often in competition with state-owned businesses.", "As a result, Constantius may have sought to provide an advantage to state-owned businesses by limiting the skilled workers and slaves available to Jewish businesses.===Further crises===On 11 August 355, the ''magister militum'' Claudius Silvanus revolted in Gaul.", "Silvanus had surrendered to Constantius after the Battle of Mursa Major.", "Constantius had made him ''magister militum'' in 353 with the purpose of blocking the German threats, a feat that Silvanus achieved by bribing the German tribes with the money he had collected.", "A plot organized by members of Constantius' court led the emperor to recall Silvanus.", "After Silvanus revolted, he received a letter from Constantius recalling him to Milan, but which made no reference to the revolt.", "Ursicinus, who was meant to replace Silvanus, bribed some troops, and Silvanus was killed.Constantius realised that too many threats still faced the Empire, however, and he could not possibly handle all of them by himself.", "So on 6 November 355, he elevated his last remaining male relative, Julian, to the rank of ''caesar''.", "A few days later, Julian was married to Helena, the last surviving sister of Constantius.", "Constantius soon sent Julian off to Gaul.Triumphal arch of Constantius II in Carnuntum, PannoniaConstantius spent the next few years overseeing affairs in the western part of the empire primarily from his base at Mediolanum.", "In April–May 357 he visited Rome for the only time in his life.", "The same year, he forced Sarmatian and Quadi invaders out of Pannonia and Moesia Inferior, then led a successful counter-attack across the Danube.In the winter of 357–58, Constantius received ambassadors from Shapur II who demanded that Rome restore the lands surrendered by Narseh.", "Despite rejecting these terms, Constantius tried to avert war with the Sassanid Empire by sending two embassies to Shapur II.", "Shapur II nevertheless launched another invasion of Roman Mesopotamia.", "In 360, when news reached Constantius that Shapur II had destroyed Singara (Sinjar), and taken Kiphas (Hasankeyf), Amida (Diyarbakır), and Ad Tigris (Cizre), he decided to travel east to face the re-emergent threat.===Usurpation of Julian and crises in the east===Missorium of Kerch depicting Constantius II on horseback with a spear.", "He is preceded by victory and accompanied by a guardsman (Hermitage Museum).In the meantime, Julian had won some victories against the Alamanni, who had once again invaded Roman Gaul.", "However, when Constantius requested reinforcements from Julian's army for the eastern campaign, the Gallic legions revolted and proclaimed Julian ''augustus''.On account of the immediate Sassanid threat, Constantius was unable to directly respond to his cousin's usurpation, other than by sending missives in which he tried to convince Julian to resign the title of ''augustus'' and be satisfied with that of ''caesar''.", "By 361, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with force, and yet the threat of the Sassanids remained.", "Constantius had already spent part of early 361 unsuccessfully attempting to re-take the fortress of Ad Tigris.", "After a time he had withdrawn to Antioch to regroup and prepare for a confrontation with Shapur II.", "The campaigns of the previous year had inflicted heavy losses on the Sassanids, however, and they did not attempt another round of campaigns that year.", "This temporary respite in hostilities allowed Constantius to turn his full attention to facing Julian.===Death===Constantius immediately gathered his forces and set off west.", "However, by the time he reached Mopsuestia in Cilicia, it was clear that he was fatally ill and would not survive to face Julian.", "The sources claim that realising his death was near, Constantius had himself baptised by Euzoius, the Semi-Arian bishop of Antioch, and then declared that Julian was his rightful successor.Constantius II died of fever on 3 November 361.Like Constantine the Great, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the ''De Ceremoniis''." ], [ "Marriages and children", "Presumed bust of Constantius II (or Valens), from an exhibition at the Colosseum, 2013Constantius II was married three times:First to a daughter of his half-uncle Julius Constantius, whose name is unknown.", "She was a full-sister of Gallus and a half-sister of Julian.", "She died c. 352/3.Second, to Eusebia, a woman of Macedonian origin, originally from the city of Thessalonica, whom Constantius married before his defeat of Magnentius in 353.She died in 360.Third and lastly, in 360, to Faustina, who gave birth to Constantius' only child, a posthumous daughter named Constantia, who later married Emperor Gratian." ], [ "Family tree", "Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti, names with a thicker border appear in both sections'''1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings''''''2: Constantine's children'''" ], [ "Reputation", "According to DiMaio and Frakes, “…Constantius is hard for the modern historian to fully understand both due to his own actions and due to the interests of the authors of primary sources for his reign.” A. H. M. Jones writes that he \"appears in the pages of Ammianus as a conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man, an easy prey to flatterers.", "He was timid and suspicious, and interested persons could easily play on his fears for their own advantage.\"", "However, Kent and M. and A. Hirmer suggest that the emperor \"has suffered at the hands of unsympathetic authors, ecclesiastical and civil alike.", "To orthodox churchmen he was a bigoted supporter of the Arian heresy, to Julian the Apostate and the many who have subsequently taken his part he was a murderer, a tyrant and inept as a ruler\".", "They go on to add, \"Most contemporaries seem in fact to have held him in high esteem, and he certainly inspired loyalty in a way his brother could not\".Eutropius wrote of him,He was a man of a remarkably tranquil disposition, good-natured, trusting too much to his friends and courtiers, and at last too much in the power of his wives.", "He conducted himself with great moderation in the commencement of his reign; he enriched his friends, and suffered none, whose active services he had experienced, to go unrewarded.", "He was however somewhat inclined to severity, whenever any suspicion of an attempt on the government was excited in him; otherwise he was gentle.", "His fortune is more to be praised in civil than in foreign wars." ], [ "See also", "*Persian wars of Constantius II*Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–363" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Ancient sources===*Ammianus Marcellinus.", "''Res Gestae''.", "**Yonge, Charles Duke, trans.", "''Roman History''.", "London: Bohn, 1862.Online at Tertullian.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "**Rolfe, J.C., trans.", "''History''.", "3 vols.", "Loeb ed.", "London: Heinemann, 1939–52.Online at LacusCurtius.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "**Hamilton, Walter, trans.", "''The Later Roman Empire (A.D. 354–378)''.", "Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986.Abridged edition*Athanasius of Alexandria.", "**''Festal Index''.", "***Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans.", "''Festal Letters''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "4.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at Christian Classics Ethereal Library.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "**''Epistula encyclica'' (''Encyclical letter'').", "Summer 339.", "***Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans.", "''Encyclical letter''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "4.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent and Christian Classics Ethereal Library.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "**''Apologia Contra Arianos'' (''Defense against the Arians'').", "349.", "***Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans.", "''Apologia Contra Arianos''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "4.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 14 August 2009.", "**''Apologia ad Constantium'' (''Defense before Constantius'').", "353.", "***Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans.", "''Apologia ad Constantium''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "4.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 14 August 2009.", "**''Historia Arianorum'' (''History of the Arians'').", "357.", "***Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans.", "''Historia Arianorum''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "4.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 14 August 2009.", "**''De Synodis'' (''On the Councils of Arminium and Seleucia'').", "Autumn 359.", "***Newman, John Henry and Archibald Robertson, trans.", "''De Synodis''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "4.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "**''Historia acephala''.", "368 – c.", "420.", "***Robertson, Archibald, trans.", "''Historia Acephala''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "4.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent and Christian Classics Ethereal Library.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "*''Chronica minora'' 1, 2.", "**Mommsen, T., ed.", "''Chronica Minora saec.", "IV, V, VI, VII'' 1, 2 (in Latin).", "''Monumenta Germaniae Historia'', Auctores Antiquissimi 9, 11.Berlin, 1892, 1894.Online at .", "Accessed 25 August 2009.", "*''Codex Theodosianus''.", "**Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds.", "''Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes''2 (in Latin).", "Berlin: Weidmann, 1905 1954.Complied by Nicholas Palmer, revised by Tony Honoré for Oxford Text Archive, 1984.Prepared for online use by R.W.B.", "Salway, 1999.Preface, books 1–8.Online at University College London and the University of Grenoble .", "Accessed 25 August 2009.", "**Unknown edition (in Latin).", "Online at AncientRome.ru.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "*''Codex Justinianus''.", "**Scott, Samuel P., trans.", "''The Code of Justinian'', in ''The Civil Law''.", "17 vols.", "1932.Online at the Constitution Society.", "Accessed 14 August 2009.", "*Ephraem the Syrian.", "''Carmina Nisibena'' (''Songs of Nisibis'').", "**Stopford, J.T.", "Sarsfield, trans.", "''The Nisibene Hymns''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "13.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 16 August 2009.", "**Bickell, Gustav, trans.", "''S.", "Ephraemi Syri Carmina Nisibena: additis prolegomenis et supplemento lexicorum Syriacorum'' (in Latin).", "Lipetsk: Brockhaus, 1866.Online at Google Books.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "*''Epitome de Caesaribus''.", "**Banchich, Thomas M., trans.", "''A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores''.", "''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 1.Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009.Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis .", "Accessed 15 August 2009.*Eunapius.", "''Lives of the Sophists''.", "*Eusebius of Caesarea.", "**''Oratio de Laudibus Constantini'' (''Oration in Praise of Constantine'', sometimes the ''Tricennial Oration'').", "***Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans.", "''Oration in Praise of Constantine''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "1.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 16 August 2009.", "**''Vita Constantini'' (''Life of Constantine'').", "***Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans.", "''Life of Constantine''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "1.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 25 August 2009.*Eutropius.", "''Historiae Romanae Breviarium''.", "**Watson, John Selby, trans.", "''Abridgment of Roman History''.", "London: George Bell & Sons, 1886.Revised and edited for Tertullian by Roger Pearse, 2003.Online at Tertullian.", "Accessed 11 June 2010.*Festus.", "''Breviarium''.", "**Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans.", "''Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People''.", "''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 2.Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2001.Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis().", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "*Firmicus Maternus.", "''De errore profanarum religionum'' (''On the error of profane religions'').", "**Baluzii and Rigaltii, eds.", "''Divi Cæcilii Cypriani, Carthaginensis Episcopi, Opera Omnia; accessit J. Firmici Materni, Viri Clarissimi, De Errore Profanarum Religionum'' (in Latin).", "Paris: Gauthier Brothers and the Society of Booksellers, 1836.Online at Google Books.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "*Hilary of Poitiers.", "''Ad Constantium'' (''To Constantius'').", "**Feder, Alfred Leonhard, ed.", "''S.", "Hilarii episcopi Pictaviensis Tractatus mysteriorum.", "Collectanea Antiariana Parisina (fragmenta historica) cum appendice (liber I Ad Constantium).", "Liber ad Constantium imperatorem (Liber II ad Constantium).", "Hymni.", "Fragmenta minora.", "Spuria'' (in Latin).", "In the ''Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum'', Vol.", "65.Vienna: Tempsky, 1916.", "*''Itinerarium Alexandri'' (''Itinerary of Alexander'').", "**Mai, Angelo, ed.", "''Itinerarium Alexandri ad Constantium Augustum, Constantini M. Filium'' (in Latin).", "Regiis Typis, 1818.Online at Google Books.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "**Davies, Iolo, trans.", "''Itinerary of Alexander''.", "2009.Online at DocStoc.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.*Jerome.", "**''Chronicon'' (''Chronicle'').", "***Pearse, Roger, ''et al.", "'', trans.", "''The Chronicle of St. Jerome'', in ''Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts''.", "Tertullian, 2005.Online at Tertullian.", "Accessed 14 August 2009.", "**''de Viris Illustribus'' (''On Illustrious Men'').", "***Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans.", "''De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men)''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "3.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.*Julian.", "**Wright, Wilmer Cave, trans.", "''Works of the Emperor Julian''.", "3 vols.", "Loeb ed.", "London: Heinemann, 1913.Online at the Internet Archive: Vol.", "1, 2, 3.*Libanius.", "''Oratio'' 59 (''Oration'' 59).**M.H.", "Dodgeon, trans.", "''The Sons of Constantine: Libanius Or.", "LIX''.", "In ''From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views, A Source History'', edited by S.N.C.", "Lieu and Dominic Montserrat, 164–205.London: Routledge, 1996.", "*''Origo Constantini Imperatoris''.", "**Rolfe, J.C., trans.", "''Excerpta Valesiana'', in vol.", "3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' ''History''.", "Loeb ed.", "London: Heinemann, 1952.Online at LacusCurtius.", "Accessed 16 August 2009.", "*''Papyri Abinnaeus''.", "**''The Abinnaeus Archive: Papers of a Roman Officer in the Reign of Constantius II'' (in Greek).", "Duke Data Bank of Documentary Papyri.", "Online at Perseus and the Duke Data Bank.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "*''Papyri Laurentius''.", "**''Dai Papiri della Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana'' (in Greek).", "Duke Data Bank of Documentary Papyri.", "Online at Perseus and the Duke Data Bank.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.*Philostorgius.", "''Historia Ecclesiastica''.", "**Walford, Edward, trans.", "''Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople''.", "London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855.Online at Tertullian.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.*Socrates.", "''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''History of the Church'').", "**Zenos, A.C., trans.", "''Ecclesiastical History''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "2.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 14 August 2009.*Sozomen.", "''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''History of the Church'').", "**Hartranft, Chester D. ''Ecclesiastical History''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "2.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "*Sulpicius Severus.", "''Sacred History''.", "**Roberts, Alexander, trans.", "''Sacred History''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "11.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1894.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 14 August 2009.*Theodoret.", "''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''History of the Church'').", "**Jackson, Blomfield, trans.", "''Ecclesiastical History''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "3.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.*Themistius.", "''Orationes'' (''Orations'').*Theophanes.", "''Chronicle''.*Zonaras.", "''Extracts of History''.*Zosimus.", "''Historia Nova'' (''New History'').", "**Unknown trans.", "''The History of Count Zosimus''.", "London: Green and Champlin, 1814.Online at Tertullian.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.An unsatisfactory edition.", "**Unknown trans.", "''Histoire Nouvelle'' and ''ΖΩΣΙΜΟΥ ΚΟΜΙΤΟΣ ΚΑΙ ΑΠΟΦΙΣΚΟΣΥΝΗΓΟΡΟΥ'' (in French and Greek).", "Online at the Catholic University of Louvain .", "Accessed 16 November 2009.===Modern sources===* Baker-Brian, N. and Tougher, S., ''The Sons of Constantine, AD 337-361: In the Shadows of Constantine and Julian'' (Palgrave MacMillan, 2020)** Banchich, T.M., 'DIR-Gallus' from ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' *** * DiMaio, M., and Frakes, R., \"Constantius II,\" from ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''*** * * * * Hunt, ''Constantius II in the Ecclesiastical Historians'', Ph.D. diss.", "(Fordham University, 2010), AAT 3431914.", "* * * Kent, J.P.C., Hirmer, M. & Hirmer, A.", "''Roman Coins'' (Thames and Hudson, 1978)** Moser, Muriel.", "2018.Emperor and Senators in the Reign of Constantius II.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Pelikan, J.J., ''The Christian Tradition'' (University of Chicago, 1989)* * ** * *" ], [ "External links", "* This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Constantius II relating to Christianity." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Constans" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Flavius Julius Constans''' ( 323 – 350), sometimes called '''Constans I''', was Roman emperor from 337 to 350.He held the imperial rank of ''caesar'' from 333, and was the youngest son of Constantine the Great.After his father's death, he was made ''augustus'' alongside his brothers in September 337.Constans was given the administration of the praetorian prefectures of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa.", "He defeated the Sarmatians in a campaign shortly afterwards.", "Quarrels over the sharing of power led to a civil war with his eldest brother and co-emperor Constantine II, who invaded Italy in 340 and was killed in battle by Constans's forces near Aquileia.", "Constans gained from him the praetorian prefecture of Gaul.", "Thereafter there were tensions with his remaining brother and co-''augustus'' Constantius II (), including over the exiled bishop Athanasius of Alexandria, who in turn eulogized Constans as \"the most pious Augustus... of blessed and everlasting memory.\"", "In the following years he campaigned against the Franks, and in 343 he visited Roman Britain, the last legitimate emperor to do so.In January 350, Magnentius () the commander of the Jovians and Herculians, a corps in the Roman army, was acclaimed ''augustus'' at Augustodunum (Autun) with the support of Marcellinus, the ''comes rei privatae''.", "Magnentius overthrew and killed Constans.", "Surviving sources, possibly influenced by the propaganda of Magnentius's faction, accuse Constans of misrule and of homosexuality." ], [ "Early life", "Sources variously report Constans’ age at the time of his death as 27 or 30, meaning he was born in either 320 or 323.Barnes argues for the year 323, observing that he was depicted as significantly younger than his two older brothers.", "He was the third and youngest son of Constantine I and Fausta.", "According to the works of both Ausonius and Libanius, he was educated at Constantinople under the tutelage of the poet Aemilius Magnus Arborius, who instructed him in Latin." ], [ "Reign", "=== ''Caesar'' ===On 25 December 333, his father Constantine I elevated Constans to the imperial rank of ''caesar'' at Constantinople.", "He was ''nobilissimus caesar'' alongside his brothers Constantine II and Constantius II.", "Constans became engaged to Olympias, the daughter of the praetorian prefect Ablabius, but the marriage never came to pass.", "Official imagery was changed to accommodate an image of Constans as co-''caesar'' beside his brothers and their father the ''augustus''.It is possible that the occasion of Constans's elevation to the imperial college was timed to coincide with the celebration of the millennium of the city of Byzantium, whose re-foundation as Constantinople Constantine had begun the previous decade.", "Byzantium was thought to have been founded in 667 BC, according to the reckoning derived from the ''Histories'' of Herodotus, and the ''Chronicon'' of Constantine's court historian Eusebius of Caesarea.", "Rome had celebrated its own millennium in 248, in the reign of Philip the Arab, who may also have raised his son to co-''augustus'' at the start of the anniversary year.=== ''Augustus'' ===''Solidus'' of Constans marked: .", "After Constantine's death in 337, the army assassinated almost all of their male relatives.", "Constans and his two brothers, Constantine II and Constantius II were proclaimed ''augusti'' and divided the Roman world among themselves on 9 September 337.Almost immediately, Constans was required to deal with a Sarmatian invasion in late 337, in which he won a resounding victory.Division of the Empire among the Caesars appointed by Constantine I: from west to east, the territories of Constantine II, Constans, Dalmatius and Constantius II.", "After Dalmatius was killed his territory were divided between Constans and Constantius.Constans managed to extract the prefecture of Illyricum and the diocese of Thrace, provinces that were originally to be ruled by his cousin Dalmatius, as per Constantine I's proposed division after his death.", "Constantine II soon complained that he had not received the amount of territory that was his due as the eldest son.Gold medallion of Constans, equivalent to 9 solidi.", "Aquileia, 342 AD - Bode Museum|alt=Annoyed that Constans had received Thrace and Macedonia after the death of Dalmatius, Constantine demanded that Constans hand over the African provinces, which he agreed to do in order to maintain a fragile peace.", "Soon, however, they began quarreling over which parts of the African provinces belonged to Carthage and Constantine, and which parts belonged to Italy and Constans.", "This led to growing tensions between the two brothers, which were only heightened by Constans finally coming of age and Constantine refusing to give up his guardianship.", "In 340 Constantine II invaded Italy.", "Constans, at that time in Dacia, detached and sent a select and disciplined body of his Illyrian troops, stating that he would follow them in person with the remainder of his forces.", "Constantine was eventually trapped at Aquileia, where he died, leaving Constans to inherit all of his brother's former territories – Hispania, Britannia and Gaul.", "''Solidus'' of Constans marked: on the obverse, with the emperor holding a ''vexillum'' with a ''chi-rho'' and crowned by Victory on the reverse, marked: (\"''the hope of the Republic''\")|alt=Constans began his reign in an energetic fashion.", "In 341–342, he led a successful campaign against the Franks.", "Eutropius wrote that he “had performed many gallant actions in the field, and had made himself feared by the army through the whole course of his life, though without exercising any extraordinary severity,” while Ammianus Marcellinus remarked that Julian was the only person the Alamanni feared after the death of Constans.In the early months of 343, he visited Britain.", "Although the reasons for it are unclear, the event was celebrated enough for Libanius to dedicate several sections of his panegyric to explaining it.", "Hunt argues against the theory of it being a military campaign, and instead suggests that it was for administrative purposes.Regarding religion, Constans was tolerant of Judaism and promulgated an edict banning pagan sacrifices in 341.He suppressed Donatism in Africa and supported Nicene orthodoxy against Arianism, which was championed by his brother Constantius.", "Although Constans called the Council of Serdica in 343 to settle the conflict, it was a complete failure, and by 346 the two emperors were on the point of open warfare over the dispute.===Homosexuality===Unlike his brother and co-ruler Constantius II, Constans was targeted with gossip over his personal life.", "Eutropius wrote that he “indulged in great vices,” possibly a reference to his alleged homosexuality, and the suspicions were fueled by him “unduly favouring good-looking members of his barbarian bodyguard.” Aurelius Victor additionally charged Constans with pederasty towards young barbarian hostages, though Hunt remarked that, “…the allegation that he kept a coterie of captive barbarians to gratify his homosexual tastes sounds more like hostile folklore.”" ], [ "Death", "''Solidus'' of ConstansCourt officials began plotting to overthrow Constans.", "Ancient sources assert that he was deeply unpopular, and attribute his downfall to his own failings.", "He is accused of employing corrupt ministers (one example being the ''magister officiorum'' Flavius Eugenius), neglecting portions of the empire, personal greed, and treating his soldiers with contempt.On 18 January 350, the general Magnentius declared himself emperor at Augustodunum (Autun) with the support of the troops on the Rhine frontier and, later, the western provinces of the Empire.", "Constans was distracted by a hunting trip when he was notified of the elevation of Magnentius, and he was forced to flee for his life.", "As he was trying to reach Hispania, supporters of Magnentius cornered him in a fortification in Helena (Elne) in the eastern Pyrenees of southwestern Gaul, where he was killed after seeking sanctuary in a temple.", "An alleged prophecy at his birth had said Constans would die \"in the arms of his grandmother\".", "His place of death happens to have been named after Helena, mother of Constantine and his own grandmother, thus realizing the prophecy." ], [ "Family tree", "Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti, names with a thicker border appear in both sections'''1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings''''''2: Constantine's children'''" ], [ "See also", "*Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–361" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Primary sources===* Zosimus, ''Historia Nova'' II* Aurelius Victor, '' Epitome de Caesaribus''* Eutropius, ''Breviarium ab urbe condita''===Secondary sources===** * ** DiMaio, Michael; Frakes, Robert, ''Constans I (337–350 A.D.)'' ( Archive), ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' * * * ** Gibbon, Edward (1888) ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''* Norwich, John Julius (1989) ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', Guild Publishing" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cheerleading" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cheerleading''' is an activity in which the participants (called '''cheerleaders''') cheer for their team as a form of encouragement.", "It can range from chanting slogans to intense physical activity.", "It can be performed to motivate sports teams, to entertain the audience, or for competition.", "Cheerleading routines typically range anywhere from one to three minutes, and contain components of tumbling, dance, jumps, cheers, and stunting.", "Having originated in the United States, cheerleading has a great tradition in this country.", "In the rest of the world there is little practice of cheerleading, except in some countries with the influence of American sports or with cheerleading contests sponsored by private brands.Modern cheerleading is very closely associated with American football and basketball.", "Sports such as association football (soccer), ice hockey, volleyball, baseball, and wrestling will sometimes sponsor cheerleading squads.", "The ICC Twenty20 Cricket World Cup in South Africa in 2007 was the first international cricket event to have cheerleaders.", "The Florida Marlins were the first Major League Baseball team to have a cheerleading team.", "Cheerleading originated as an all-male activity in the United States, and is popular predominantly in America, with an estimated 3.85 million participants as of 2017.The global presentation of cheerleading was led by the 1997 broadcast of ESPN's International cheerleading competition, and the worldwide release of the 2000 film ''Bring It On''.", "The International Cheer Union (ICU) now claims 116 member nations with an estimated 7.5 million participants worldwide.", "Around the end of the 2000s the sport had gained traction outside of the United States in countries like Australia, Canada, Mexico, China, Colombia, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.", "However, the sport does not have the international popularity of other American sports, such as baseball or basketball, despite efforts being made to popularize the sport at an international level.", "In 2016, the IOC (International Olympic Committee) recognized the ICU (International Cheer Union) as part of the sports federations; in practice this means that the modality is considered a sport by the IOC, and in the future, depending on negotiations and international popularization, it could become part of the Olympic Games.Cheerleading carries the highest rate of catastrophic injuries to female athletes in sports, with most injuries associated with stunting, also known as pyramids." ], [ "History", "===Before organized cheerleading===Cheerleading began during the late 18th century with the rebellion of male students.", "After the American Revolutionary War, students experienced harsh treatment from teachers.", "In response to faculty's abuse, college students violently acted out.", "The undergraduates began to riot, burn down buildings located on their college campuses, and assault faculty members.", "As a more subtle way to gain independence, however, students invented and organized their own extracurricular activities outside their professors' control.", "This brought about American sports, beginning first with collegiate teams.In the 1860s, students from Great Britain began to cheer and chant in unison for their favorite athletes at sporting events.", "Soon, that gesture of support crossed overseas to America.On November 6, 1869, the United States witnessed its first intercollegiate football game.", "It took place between Princeton University and Rutgers University, and marked the day the original \"Sis Boom Rah!\"", "cheer was shouted out by student fans.===Beginning of organized cheerleading===Minnesota Gopher cheerleader Johnny CampbellOrganized cheerleading began as an all-male activity.", "As early as 1877, Princeton University had a \"Princeton Cheer\", documented in the February 22, 1877, March 12, 1880, and November 4, 1881, issues of ''The Daily Princetonian''.", "This cheer was yelled from the stands by students attending games, as well as by the athletes themselves.", "The cheer, \"Hurrah!", "Hurrah!", "Hurrah!", "Tiger!", "S-s-s-t!", "Boom!", "A-h-h-h!\"", "remains in use with slight modifications today, where it is now referred to as the \"Locomotive\".Princeton class of 1882 graduate Thomas Peebles moved to Minnesota in 1884.He transplanted the idea of organized crowds cheering at football games to the University of Minnesota.", "The term \"Cheer Leader\" had been used as early as 1897, with Princeton's football officials having named three students as ''Cheer Leaders:'' Thomas, Easton, and Guerin from Princeton's classes of 1897, 1898, and 1899, respectively, on October 26, 1897.These students would cheer for the team also at football practices, and special cheering sections were designated in the stands for the games themselves for both the home and visiting teams.It was not until 1898 that University of Minnesota student Johnny Campbell directed a crowd in cheering \"Rah, Rah, Rah!", "Ski-u-mah, Hoo-Rah!", "Hoo-Rah!", "Varsity!", "Varsity!", "Varsity, Minn-e-So-Tah!", "\", making Campbell the very first cheerleader.November 2, 1898, is the official birth date of organized cheerleading.", "Soon after, the University of Minnesota organized a \"yell leader\" squad of six male students, who still use Campbell's original cheer today.", "===Early 20th century cheerleading and female participation===Cheerleaders at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1948In 1903, the first cheerleading fraternity, Gamma Sigma, was founded.", "In 1923, at the University of Minnesota, women were permitted to participate in cheerleading.", "However, it took time for other schools to follow.", "In the late 1920s, many school manuals and newspapers that were published still referred to cheerleaders as \"chap\", \"fellow\", and \"man\".", "Women cheerleaders were overlooked until the 1940s when collegiate men were drafted for World War II, creating the opportunity for more women to make their way onto sporting event sidelines.", "As noted by Kieran Scott in ''Ultimate Cheerleading'': \"Girls really took over for the first time.\"", "In 1949, Lawrence Herkimer, a former cheerleader at Southern Methodist University and inventor of the herkie jump, founded his first cheerleading camp in Huntsville, Texas.", "52 girls were in attendance.", "The clinic was so popular that Herkimer was asked to hold a second, where 350 young women were in attendance.", "Herkimer also patented the pom-pom.===Growth in popularity (1950-1979)===In 1951, Herkimer created the National Cheerleading Association to help grow the activity and provide cheerleading education to schools around the country.", "During the 1950s, female participation in cheerleading continued to grow.", "An overview written on behalf of cheerleading in 1955 explained that in larger schools, \"occasionally boys as well as girls are included\", and in smaller schools, \"boys can usually find their place in the athletic program, and cheerleading is likely to remain solely a feminine occupation\".", "Cheerleading could be found at almost every school level across the country; even pee wee and youth leagues began to appear.In the 1950s, professional cheerleading also began.", "The first recorded cheer squad in National Football League (NFL) history was for the Baltimore Colts.", "Professional cheerleaders put a new perspective on American cheerleading.", "Women were exclusively chosen for dancing ability as well as to conform to the male gaze, as heterosexual men were the targeted marketing group.", "By the 1960s, college cheerleaders employed by the NCA were hosting workshops across the nation, teaching fundamental cheer skills to tens of thousands of high-school-age girls.", "Herkimer also contributed many notable firsts to cheerleading: the founding of a cheerleading uniform supply company, inventing the herkie jump (where one leg is bent towards the ground as if kneeling and the other is out to the side as high as it will stretch in toe-touch position), and creating the \"Spirit Stick\".", "In 1965, Fred Gastoff invented the vinyl pom-pom, which was introduced into competitions by the International Cheerleading Foundation (ICF, now the World Cheerleading Association, or WCA).", "Organized cheerleading competitions began to pop up with the first ranking of the \"Top Ten College Cheerleading Squads\" and \"Cheerleader All America\" awards given out by the ICF in 1967.The Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders soon gained the spotlight with their revealing outfits and sophisticated dance moves, debuting in the 1972–1973 season, but were first widely seen in Super Bowl X (1976).", "These pro squads of the 1970s established cheerleaders as \"American icons of wholesome sex appeal.\"", "In 1975, Randy Neil estimated that over 500,000 students actively participated in American cheerleading from elementary school to the collegiate level.", "Neil also approximated that ninety-five percent of cheerleaders within America were female.", "In 1978, America was introduced to competitive cheerleading by the first broadcast of Collegiate Cheerleading Championships on CBS.===1980s to present===The Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders (1983) performing in the USO show \"America and Her Music\" on the deck of the nuclear-powered guided missile cruiser U.S. Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld posing with U.S. Army cheerleaders, 2004.The 1980s saw the beginning of modern cheerleading, adding difficult stunt sequences and gymnastics into routines.", "All-star teams, or those not affiliated with a school, popped up, and eventually led to the creation of the U.S. All Star Federation (USASF).", "ESPN first broadcast the National High School Cheerleading Competition nationwide in 1983.By 1981, a total of seventeen Nation Football League teams had their own cheerleaders.", "The only teams without NFL cheerleaders at this time were New Orleans, New York, Detroit, Cleveland, Denver, Minnesota, Pittsburgh, San Francisco, and San Diego.", "Professional cheerleading eventually spread to soccer and basketball teams as well.Cheerleading organizations such as the American Association of Cheerleading Coaches and Advisors (AACCA), founded in 1987, started applying universal safety standards to decrease the number of injuries and prevent dangerous stunts, pyramids, and tumbling passes from being included in the cheerleading routines.", "In 2003, the National Council for Spirit Safety and Education (NCSSE) was formed to offer safety training for youth, school, all-star, and college coaches.", "The NCAA now requires college cheer coaches to successfully complete a nationally recognized safety-training program.Even with its athletic and competitive development, cheerleading at the school level has retained its ties to its spirit leading traditions.", "Cheerleaders are quite often seen as ambassadors for their schools, and leaders among the student body.", "At the college level, cheerleaders are often invited to help at university fundraisers and events.Debuting in 2003, the \"Marlin Mermaids\" gained national exposure, and have influenced other MLB teams to develop their own cheer/dance squads.As of 2005, overall statistics show around 97% of all modern cheerleading participants are female, although at the collegiate level, cheerleading is co-ed with about 50% of participants being male.", "Modern male cheerleaders' stunts focus less on flexibility and more on tumbling, flips, pikes, and handstands.", "These depend on strong legs and strong core strength.", "In 2019, Napoleon Jinnies and Quinton Peron became the first male cheerleaders in the history of the NFL to perform at the Super Bowl.", "=== Safety regulation changes ===Kristi Yamaoka, a cheerleader for Southern Illinois University, suffered a fractured vertebra when she hit her head after falling from a human pyramid.", "She also suffered from a concussion, and a bruised lung.", "The fall occurred when Yamaoka lost her balance during a basketball game between Southern Illinois University and Bradley University at the Savvis Center in St. Louis on March 5, 2006.The fall gained \"national attention\", because Yamaoka continued to perform from a stretcher as she was moved away from the game.", "The accident caused the Missouri Valley Conference to ban its member schools from allowing cheerleaders to be \"launched or tossed and from taking part in formations higher than two levels\" for one week during a women's basketball conference tournament, and also resulted in a recommendation by the NCAA that conferences and tournaments do not allow pyramids two and one half levels high or higher, and a stunt known as basket tosses, during the rest of the men's and women's basketball season.", "On July 11, 2006, the bans were made permanent by the AACCA rules committee:The committee unanimously voted for sweeping revisions to cheerleading safety rules, the most major of which restricts specific upper-level skills during basketball games.", "Basket tosses, high pyramids, one-arm stunts, stunts that involve twisting or flipping, and twisting tumbling skills may be performed only during halftime and post-game on a matted surface and are prohibited during game play or time-outs." ], [ "Types of teams in the United States today", "University of Memphis Cheerleaders performing a Co-ed double Cupie===School-sponsored===Most American elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and colleges have organized cheerleading squads.", "Some colleges even offer cheerleading scholarships for students.", "A school cheerleading team may compete locally, regionally, or nationally, but their main purpose is typically to cheer for sporting events and encourage audience participation.", "Cheerleading is quickly becoming a year-round activity, starting with tryouts during the spring semester of the preceding school year.", "Teams may attend organized summer cheerleading camps and practices to improve skills and create routines for competition.In addition to supporting their schools' football or other sports teams, student cheerleaders may compete with recreational-style routine at competitions year-round.====Elementary school====In far more recent years, it has become more common for elementary schools to have an organized cheerleading team.", "This is a great way to get younger children introduced to the sport and used to being crowd leaders.", "Also, with young children learning so much so quickly, tumbling can come very easy to a child in elementary school.====Middle school====Middle school cheerleading evolved shortly after high school squads were created and is set at the district level.", "In middle school, cheerleading squads serve the same purpose, but often follow a modified set of rules from high school squads with possible additional rules.", "Squads can cheer for basketball teams, football teams, and other sports teams in their school.", "Squads may also perform at pep rallies and compete against other local schools from the area.", "Cheerleading in middle school sometimes can be a two-season activity: fall and winter.", "However, many middle school cheer squads will go year-round like high school squads.", "Middle school cheerleaders use the same cheerleading movements as their older counterparts, yet may perform less extreme stunts and tumbling elements, depending on the rules in their area.. ====High school====High school cheerleadersIn high school, there are usually two squads per school: varsity and a junior varsity.", "High school cheerleading contains aspects of school spirit as well as competition.", "These squads have become part of a year-round cycle.", "Starting with tryouts in the spring, year-round practice, cheering on teams in the fall and winter, and participating in cheerleading competitions.", "Most squads practice at least three days a week for about two hours each practice during the summer.", "Many teams also attend separate tumbling sessions outside of practice.", "During the school year, cheerleading is usually practiced five- to six-days-a-week.", "During competition season, it often becomes seven days with practice twice a day sometimes.", "The school spirit aspect of cheerleading involves cheering, supporting, and \"hyping up\" the crowd at football games, basketball games, and even at wrestling meets.", "Along with this, cheerleaders usually perform at pep rallies, and bring school spirit to other students.", "In May 2009, the National Federation of State High School Associations released the results of their first true high school participation study.", "They estimated that the number of high school cheerleaders from public high schools is around 394,700.There are different cheerleading organizations that put on competitions; some of the major ones include state and regional competitions.", "Many high schools will often host cheerleading competitions, bringing in IHSA judges.", "The regional competitions are qualifiers for national competitions, such as the UCA (Universal Cheerleaders Association) in Orlando, Florida, every year.", "Many teams have a professional choreographer that choreographs their routine in order to ensure they are not breaking rules or regulations and to give the squad creative elements.===College===Collegiate cheerleaders for the University of Florida perform a high splits pyramid during a Gators college football gameMost American universities have a cheerleading squad to cheer for football, basketball, volleyball, wrestling, and soccer.", "Most college squads tend to be larger coed teams, although in recent years; all-girl squads and smaller college squads have increased rapidly.", "Cheerleading is not recognized by NCAA, NAIA, and NJCAA as athletics; therefore, there are few to no scholarships offered to athletes wanting to pursue cheerleading at the collegiate level.", "However, some community colleges and universities offer scholarships directly from the program or sponsorship funds.", "Some colleges offer scholarships for an athlete's talents, academic excellence, and/or involvement in community events.College squads perform more difficult stunts which include multi-level pyramids, as well as flipping and twisting basket tosses.Not only do college cheerleaders cheer on the other sports at their university, many teams at universities compete with other schools at either UCA College Nationals or NCA College Nationals.", "This requires the teams to choreograph a 2-minute and 30 second routine that includes elements of jumps, tumbling, stunting, basket tosses, pyramids, and a crowd involvement section.", "Winning one of these competitions is a very prestigious accomplishment, and is seen as another national title for most schools.", "===Youth leagues and athletic associations===Youth cheerleaders during a football halftime show.", "Youth cheer—high school ages and younger—make up the vast majority of cheerleaders and cheer teams.Organizations that sponsor youth cheer teams usually sponsor either youth league football or basketball teams as well.", "This allows for the two, under the same sponsor, to be intermingled.", "Both teams have the same mascot name and the cheerleaders will perform at their football or basketball games.", "Examples of such sponsors include Pop Warner, American Youth Football, and the YMCA.", "The purpose of these squads is primarily to support their associated football or basketball players, but some teams do compete at local or regional competitions.", "The Pop Warner Association even hosts a national championship each December for teams in their program who qualify.===All-star or club cheerleading===\"All-star\" or club cheerleading differs from school or sideline cheerleading because all-star teams focus solely on performing a competition routine and not on leading cheers for other sports teams.", "All-star cheerleaders are members of a privately owned gym or club which they typically pay dues or tuition to, similar to a gymnastics gym.During the early 1980s, cheerleading squads not associated with a school or sports league, whose main objective was competition, began to emerge.", "The first organization to call themselves all-stars were the Q94 Rockers from Richmond, Virginia, founded in 1982.All-star teams competing prior to 1987 were placed into the same divisions as teams that represented schools and sports leagues.", "In 1986, the National Cheerleaders Association (NCA) addressed this situation by creating a separate division for teams lacking a sponsoring school or athletic association, calling it the All-Star Division and debuting it at their 1987 competitions.", "As the popularity of this type of team grew, more and more of them were formed, attending competitions sponsored by many different organizations and companies, each using its own set of rules, regulations, and divisions.", "This situation became a concern to coaches and gym owners, as the inconsistencies caused coaches to keep their routines in a constant state of flux, detracting from time that could be better utilized for developing skills and providing personal attention to their athletes.", "More importantly, because the various companies were constantly vying for a competitive edge, safety standards had become more and more lax.", "In some cases, unqualified coaches and inexperienced squads were attempting dangerous stunts as a result of these expanded sets of rules.The United States All Star Federation (USASF) was formed in 2003 by the competition companies to act as the national governing body for all star cheerleading and to create a standard set of rules and judging criteria to be followed by all competitions sanctioned by the Federation.", "Eager to grow the sport and create more opportunities for high-level teams, The USASF hosted the first Cheerleading Worlds on April 24, 2004.At the same time, cheerleading coaches from all over the country organized themselves for the same rule making purpose, calling themselves the National All Star Cheerleading Coaches Congress (NACCC).", "In 2005, the NACCC was absorbed by the USASF to become their rule making body.", "In late 2006, the USASF facilitated the creation of the International All-Star Federation (IASF), which now governs club cheerleading worldwide.Competitive cheer - Paramount Cheerleaders doing a scale, all-star cheerleading, as sanctioned by the USASF, involves a squad of 5–36 females and males.", "All-star cheerleaders are placed into divisions, which are grouped based upon age, size of the team, gender of participants, and ability level.", "The age groups vary from under 4 years of age to 18 years and over.", "The squad prepares year-round for many different competition appearances, but they actually perform only for up to minutes during their team's routine.", "The numbers of competitions a team participates in varies from team to team, but generally, most teams tend to participate in six to ten competitions a year.", "These competitions include locals or regionals, which normally take place in school gymnasiums or local venues, nationals, hosted in large venues all around the U.S., and the Cheerleading Worlds, which takes place at Walt Disney World in Orlando, Florida.", "During a competition routine, a squad performs carefully choreographed stunting, tumbling, jumping, and dancing to their own custom music.", "Teams create their routines to an eight-count system and apply that to the music so that the team members execute the elements with precise timing and synchronization.All-star cheerleaders compete at competitions hosted by private event production companies, the foremost of these being Varsity Spirit.", "Varsity Spirit is the parent company for many subsidiaries including The National Cheerleader's Association, The Universal Cheerleader's Association, AmeriCheer, Allstar Challenge, and JamFest, among others.", "Each separate company or subsidiary typically hosts their own local and national level competitions.", "This means that many gyms within the same area could be state and national champions for the same year and never have competed against each other.", "Currently, there is no system in place that awards only one state or national title.Judges at a competition watch closely for illegal skills from the group or any individual member.", "Here, an illegal skill is something that is not allowed in that division due to difficulty or safety restrictions.", "They look out for deductions, or things that go wrong, such as a dropped stunt or a tumbler who does not stick a landing.", "More generally, judges look at the difficulty and execution of jumps, stunts and tumbling, synchronization, creativity, the sharpness of the motions, showmanship, and overall routine execution.If a level 6 or 7 team places high enough at selected USASF/IASF sanctioned national competitions, they could earn a place at the Cheerleading Worlds and compete against teams from all over the world, as well as receive money for placing.", "For elite level cheerleaders, The Cheerleading Worlds is the highest level of competition to which they can aspire, and winning a world championship title is an incredible honor.===Professional===NFL Cheerleaders at the 2006 Pro Bowl.Professional cheerleaders and dancers cheer for sports such as football, basketball, baseball, wrestling, or hockey.", "There are only a small handful of professional cheerleading leagues around the world; some professional leagues include the NBA Cheerleading League, the NFL Cheerleading League, the CFL Cheerleading League, the MLS Cheerleading League, the MLB Cheerleading League, and the NHL Ice Girls.", "Although professional cheerleading leagues exist in multiple countries, there are no Olympic teams.In addition to cheering at games and competing, professional cheerleaders often do a lot of philanthropy and charity work, modeling, motivational speaking, television performances, and advertising." ], [ "Injuries and accidents", "Cheerleading carries the highest rate of catastrophic injuries to female athletes in high school and collegiate sports.", "Of the United States' 2.9 million female high school athletes, only 3% are cheerleaders, yet cheerleading accounts for nearly 65% of all catastrophic injuries in girls' high school athletics.", "In data covering the 1982-83 academic year through the 2018-19 academic year in the US, the rate of serious, direct traumatic injury per 100,000 participants was 1.68 for female cheerleaders at the high school level, the highest for all high school sports surveyed.", "(table 9a) The college rate could not be determined, as the total number of collegiate cheerleaders was unknown, but the total number of traumatic, direct catastrophic injuries over this period was 33 (28 female, 5 male), higher than all sports at this level aside from football.", "(table 5a) Another study found that between 1982 and 2007, there were 103 fatal, disabling, or serious injuries recorded among female high school athletes, with the vast majority (67) occurring in cheerleading.The main source of injuries comes from stunting, also known as pyramids.", "These stunts are performed at games and pep rallies, as well as competitions.", "Sometimes competition routines are focused solely around the use of difficult and risky stunts.", "These stunts usually include a flyer (the person on top), along with one or two bases (the people on the bottom), and one or two spotters in the front and back on the bottom.", "The most common cheerleading related injury is a concussion.", "96% of those concussions are stunt related.", "Other injuries include: sprained ankles, sprained wrists, back injuries, head injuries (sometimes concussions), broken arms, elbow injuries, knee injuries, broken noses, and broken collarbones.", "Sometimes, however, injuries can be as serious as whiplash, broken necks, broken vertebrae, and death.The journal ''Pediatrics'' has reportedly said that the number of cheerleaders suffering from broken bones, concussions, and sprains has increased by over 100 percent between the years of 1990 and 2002, and that in 2001, there were 25,000 hospital visits reported for cheerleading injuries dealing with the shoulder, ankle, head, and neck.", "Meanwhile, in the US, cheerleading accounted for 65.1% of all major physical injuries to high school females, and to 66.7% of major injuries to college students due to physical activity from 1982 to 2007, with 22,900 minors being admitted to hospital with cheerleading-related injuries in 2002.The risks of cheerleading were highlighted at the death of Lauren Chang.", "Chang died on April 14, 2008, after competing in a competition where her teammate had kicked her so hard in the chest that her lungs collapsed.Cheerleading (for both girls and boys) was one of the sports studied in the Pediatric Injury Prevention, Education and Research Program of the Colorado School of Public Health in 2009/10–2012/13.Data on cheerleading injuries is included in the report for 2012–13." ], [ "Associations, federations, and organizations", "Cheerleading formations demonstrated in Tokyo, Japan'''International Cheer Union (ICU)''': Established on April 26, 2004, the ICU is recognized by the SportAccord as the world governing body of cheerleading and the authority on all matters with relation to it.", "Including participation from its 105-member national federations reaching 3.5 million athletes globally, the ICU continues to serve as the unified voice for those dedicated to cheerleading's positive development around the world.Following a positive vote by the SportAccord General Assembly on May 31, 2013, in Saint Petersburg, the International Cheer Union (ICU) became SportAccord's 109th member, and SportAccord's 93rd international sports federation to join the international sports family.", "In accordance with the SportAccord statutes, the ICU is recognized as the world governing body of cheerleading and the authority on all matters related to it.As of the 2016–17 season, the ICU has introduced a Junior aged team (12-16) to compete at the Cheerleading Worlds, because cheerleading is now in provisional status to become a sport in the Olympics.", "For cheerleading to one day be in the Olympics, there must be a junior and senior team that competes at the world championships.", "The first junior cheerleading team that was selected to become the junior national team was Eastside Middle School, located in Mount Washington Kentucky and will represent the United States in the inaugural junior division at the world championships.The ICU holds training seminars for judges and coaches, global events and the World Cheerleading Championships.", "The ICU is also fully applied to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and is compliant under the code set by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).", "'''International Federation of Cheerleading (IFC)''': Established on July 5, 1998, the International Federation of Cheerleading (IFC) is a non-profit federation based in Tokyo, Japan, and is a world governing body of cheerleading, primarily in Asia.", "The IFC objectives are to promote cheerleading worldwide, to spread knowledge of cheerleading, and to develop friendly relations among the member associations and federations.", "'''USA Cheer''': The USA Federation for Sport Cheering (USA Cheer) was established in 2007 to serve as the national governing body for all types of cheerleading in the United States and is recognized by the ICU.", "\"The USA Federation for Sport Cheering is a not-for profit 501(c)(6) organization that was established in 2007 to serve as the National Governing Body for Sport Cheering in the United States.", "USA Cheer exists to serve the cheer community, including club cheering (all star) and traditional school based cheer programs, and the growing sport of STUNT.", "USA Cheer has three primary objectives: help grow and develop interest and participation in cheer throughout the United States; promote safety and safety education for cheer in the United States; and represent the United States of America in international cheer competitions.\"", "In March 2018, they absorbed the American Association of Cheerleading Coaches and Advisors (AACCA) and now provide safety guidelines and training for all levels of cheerleading.", "Additionally, they organize the USA National Team.'''", "Universal Cheerleading Association''': UCA is an association owned by the company brand Varsity.", "\"Universal Cheerleaders Association was founded in 1974 by Jeff Webb to provide the best educational training for cheerleaders with the goal of incorporating high-level skills with traditional crowd leading.", "It was Jeff's vision that would transform cheerleading into the dynamic, athletic combination of high energy entertainment and school leadership that is loved by so many.\"", "\"Today, UCA is the largest cheerleading camp company in the world, offering the widest array of dates and locations of any camp company.", "We also celebrate cheerleader's incredible hard work and athleticism through the glory of competition at over 50 regional events across the country and our Championships at the Walt Disney World Resort every year.\"", "\"UCA has instilled leadership skills and personal confidence in more than 4.5 million athletes on and off the field while continuing to be the industry's leader for more than forty-five years.", "UCA has helped many cheerleaders get the training they need to succeed." ], [ "Competitions and companies", "'''Asian Thailand Cheerleading Invitational (ATCI)''': Organised by the Cheerleading Association of Thailand (CAT) in accordance with the rules and regulations of the International Federation of Cheerleading (IFC).", "The ATCI is held every year since 2009.At the ATCI, many teams from all over Thailand compete, joining them are many invited neighbouring nations who also send cheer squads.", "'''Cheerleading Asia International Open Championships (CAIOC)''': Hosted by the Foundation of Japan Cheerleading Association (FJCA) in accordance with the rules and regulations of the IFC.", "The CAIOC has been a yearly event since 2007.Every year, many teams from all over Asia converge in Tokyo to compete.", "'''Cheerleading World Championships (CWC)''': Organised by the IFC.", "The IFC is a non-profit organisation founded in 1998 and based in Tokyo, Japan.", "The CWC has been held every two years since 2001, and to date, the competition has been held in Japan, the United Kingdom, Finland, Germany, and Hong Kong.", "The 6th CWC was held at the Hong Kong Coliseum on November 26–27, 2011.The Italian national team competing at the ICU World Championships.", "'''ICU World Championships''': The International Cheer Union currently encompasses 105 National Federations from countries across the globe.", "Every year, the ICU host the World Cheerleading Championship.", "This competition uses a more collegiate style performance and rulebook.", "Countries assemble and send only one team to represent them.", "'''National Cheerleading Championships (NCC)''': The NCC is the annual IFC-sanctioned national cheerleading competition in Indonesia organised by the Indonesian Cheerleading Community (ICC).", "Since NCC 2010, the event is now open to international competition, representing a significant step forward for the ICC.", "Teams from many countries such as Japan, Thailand, the Philippines, and Singapore participated in the ground breaking event.", "'''Pan-American Cheerleading Championships (PCC)''': The PCC was held for the first time in 2009 in the city of Latacunga, Ecuador and is the continental championship organised by the Pan-American Federation of Cheerleading (PFC).", "The PFC, operating under the umbrella of the IFC, is the non-profit continental body of cheerleading whose aim it is to promote and develop cheerleading in the Americas.", "The PCC is a biennial event, and was held for the second time in Lima, Peru, in November 2010.", "'''USASF/IASF Worlds''': Many United States cheerleading organizations form and register the not-for-profit entity the United States All Star Federation (USASF) and also the International All Star Federation (IASF) to support international club cheerleading and the World Cheerleading Club Championships.", "The first World Cheerleading Championships, or Cheerleading Worlds, were hosted by the USASF/IASF at the Walt Disney World Resort and taped for an ESPN global broadcast in 2004.This competition is only for All-Star/Club cheer.", "Only level 6 and 7 teams may attend and must receive a bid from a partner company.The competition floor at Final Destination'''Varsity''': Varsity Spirit, a branch of Varsity Brands is a parent company which, over the past 10 years, has absorbed or bought most other cheerleading event production companies.", "The following is a list of subsidiary competition companies owned by Varsity Spirit:*'''All Star Challenge'''*'''All Star Championships'''*'''All Things Cheer'''*'''Aloha Spirit Championships'''*'''America's Best Championships'''*'''American Cheer and Dance'''*'''American Cheer Power'''*'''American Cheerleaders Association'''* '''AmeriCheer''': Americheer was founded in 1987 by Elizabeth Rossetti.", "It is the parent company to Ameridance and Eastern Cheer and Dance Association.", "In 2005, Americheer became one of the founding members of the NLCC.", "This means that Americheer events offer bids to The U.S. Finals: The Final Destination.", "AmeriCheer InterNational Championship competition is held every March at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida.", "*'''Athletic Championships'''*'''Champion Cheer and Dance'''*'''Champion Spirit Group'''*'''Cheer LTD'''*'''CHEERSPORT:''' CHEERSPORT was founded in 1993 by all star coaches who believed they could conduct competitions that would be better for the athletes, coaches and spectators.", "Their main event is CHEERSPORT Nationals, held each February at the Georgia World Congress Center in Atlanta, Georgia*'''CheerStarz'''*'''COA Cheer and Dance'''*'''Coastal Cheer and Dance'''*'''Encore Championships'''*'''GLCC Events'''*'''Golden State Spirit Association'''*'''The JAM Brands''': The JAM Brands, headquartered in Louisville, Kentucky, provides products and services for the cheerleading and dance industry.", "It was previously made up of approximately 12 different brands that produce everything from competitions to camps to uniforms to merchandise and apparel, but is now owned by the parent company Varsity.", "JAMfest, the original brand of The JAM Brands, has been around since 1996 and was founded by Aaron Flaker and Emmitt Tyler.", "*'''Mardi Gras Spirit Events'''*'''Mid Atlantic Championships'''*'''Nation's Choice'''*'''National Cheerleaders Association (NCA):''' The NCA was founded in 1948 by Lawrence Herkimer.", "Every year, the NCA hosts a variety of competitions all across the United States, most notably the NCA High School Cheerleading Nationals and the NCA All-Star Cheerleading Nationals in Dallas, Texas.", "They also host the NCA/NDA Collegiate Cheer & Dance Championship in Daytona Beach, Florida.", "In addition to competitions, they also provide summer camps for school cheerleaders.", "Their sister organization is the National Dance Alliance (NDA).", "The National Cheerleaders Association was the first company in cheerleading and also is accredited with many other firsts in cheerleading.", "These firsts include the first All Star National Championship, cheer camp, uniform company, and more.", "*'''One Up Championships'''*'''PacWest'''*'''Sea to Sky'''*'''Spirit Celebration'''*'''Spirit Cheer'''*'''Spirit Sports'''*'''Spirit Unlimited'''*'''Spirit Xpress'''*'''The American Championships'''*'''The U.S. Finals:''' This event was formerly hosted by Nation's Leading Cheer Companies which was a multi brand company, partnered with other companies such as: Americheer/Ameridance, American Cheer & Dance Academy, Eastern Cheer & Dance Association, and Spirit Unlimited before they were all acquired by Varsity.", "Every year, starting in 2006, the NLCC hosted The US Finals: The Final Destination of Cheerleading and Dance.", "Every team that attends must qualify and receive a bid at a partner company's competition.", "In May 2008, the NLCC and The JAM Brands announced a partnership to produce The U.S. Finals - Final Destination.", "This event is still produced under the new parent company, Varsity.", "There are nine Final Destination locations across the country.", "After the regional events, videos of all the teams that competed are sent to a new panel of judges and rescored to rank teams against those against whom they may never have had a chance to compete.", "*'''Universal Cheerleaders Association (UCA):''' Universal Cheerleaders Association was founded in 1974 by Jeff Webb.", "Since 1980, UCA has hosted the National High School Cheerleading Championship in Walt Disney World Resort.", "They also host the National All-Star Cheerleading Championship, and the College Cheerleading National Championship at Walt Disney World Resort.", "All of these events air on ESPN.", "*'''United Spirit Association:''' In 1950, Robert Olmstead directed his first summer training camp, and USA later sprouted from this.", "USA's focus is on the game day experience as a way to enhance audience entertainment.", "This focus led to the first American football half-time shows to reach adolescences from around the world and expose them to American style cheerleading.", "USA provides competitions for cheerleading squads without prior qualifications needed in order to participate.", "The organization also allows the opportunity for cheerleaders to become an All-American, participate in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, and partake in London's New Year's Day Parade and other special events much like UCA and NCA allow participants to do.", "*'''Universal Spirit Association'''*'''World Spirit Federation'''" ], [ "Title IX sports status", "In the United States, the designation of a \"sport\" is important because of Title IX.", "There is a large debate on whether or not cheerleading should be considered a sport for Title IX (a portion of the United States Education Amendments of 1972 forbidding discrimination under any education program on the basis of sex) purposes.", "These arguments have varied from institution to institution and are reflected in how they treat and organize cheerleading within their schools.", "Some institutions have been accused of not providing equal opportunities to their male students or for not treating cheerleading as a sport, which reflects on the opportunities they provide to their athletes.", "The Office for Civil Rights (OCR) issued memos and letters to schools that cheerleading, both sideline and competitive, may not be considered \"athletic programs\" for the purposes of Title IX.", "Supporters consider cheerleading, as a whole, a sport, citing the heavy use of athletic talents while critics see it as a physical activity because a \"sport\" implies a competition among all squads and not all squads compete, along with subjectivity of competitions where—as with gymnastics, diving, and figure skating—scores are assessed based on human judgment and not an objective goal or measurement of time.", "The Office for Civil Rights' primary concern was ensuring that institutions complied with Title IX, which means offering equal opportunities to all students despite their gender.", "In their memos, their main point against cheerleading being a sport was that the activity is underdeveloped and unorganized to have varsity-level athletic standing among students.", "This claim was not universal and the Office for Civil Rights would review cheerleading on a case-by-case basis.", "Due to this the status of cheerleading under Title IX has varied from region to region based on the institution and how they organize their teams.", "However, within their decisions, the Office for Civil Rights never clearly stated any guidelines on what was and was not considered a sport under Title IX.On January 27, 2009, in a lawsuit involving an accidental injury sustained during a cheerleading practice, the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled that cheerleading is a full-contact sport in that state, not allowing any participants to be sued for accidental injury.", "In contrast, on July 21, 2010, in a lawsuit involving whether college cheerleading qualified as a sport for purposes of Title IX, a federal court, citing a current lack of program development and organization, ruled that it is not a sport at all.The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) does not recognize cheerleading as a sport.", "In 2014, the American Medical Association adopted a policy that, as the leading cause of catastrophic injuries of female athletes both in high school and college, cheerleading should be considered a sport.", "While there are cheerleading teams at the majority of the NCAA's Division I schools, they are still not recognized as a sport.", "This results in many teams not being properly funded.", "Additionally, there are little to no college programs offering scholarships because their universities cannot offer athletic scholarships to \"spirit\" team members.=== Title IX Guidelines for Sports ports ===In 2010, Quinnipiac University was sued for not providing equal opportunities for female athletes as required by Title IX.", "The university disbanded its volleyball team and created a new competitive cheerleading sports team.", "The issue with Biediger v. Quinnipiac University is centered around whether competitive cheerleading could be considered a sport for Title IX.", "The university had not provided additional opportunities for their female athletes which led to the court ruling in favor that cheerleading could not count as a varsity sport.", "This case established clear guidelines on what qualifies as a sport under Title IX, these guidelines are known as the three-pronged approach.", "The three-pronged approach is as follows:* Prong 1.Whether the number of female and male student participation within the intercollegiate sport is at a sustainable ratio based on the number of students enrolled at the institution* Prong 2.Whether the institution has provided, both in the past and ongoing, opportunities to intercollegiate athletes that are members of a sex that is currently underrepresented in their sport.", "* Prong 3.Whether intercollegiate athletes of an underrepresented sex have been fully accommodated by their institution based on their athlete's interests in sports.The three-pronged approach was the first official guideline that clearly stated what criteria were necessary when deciding what activity was considered a sport or not under Title IX.", "This approach was used and is still continued to be used by the Office for Civil Rights.", "Based on this approach the Office for Civil Rights still considers cheerleading, including both sideline and competitive, not a sport under Title IX." ], [ "Cheerleading in Canada", "High school cheerleaders in Montreal in 1943Cheerleading in Canada is rising in popularity among the youth in co-curricular programs.", "Cheerleading has grown from the sidelines to a competitive activity throughout the world and in particular Canada.", "Cheerleading has a few streams in Canadian sports culture.", "It is available at the middle-school, high-school, collegiate, and best known for all-star.", "There are multiple regional, provincial, and national championship opportunities for all athletes participating in cheerleading.", "Canada does not have provincial teams, just a national program referred to as Team Canada, facilitated by Cheer Canada.", "Their first year as a national team was in 2009 when they represented Canada at the International Cheer Union World Cheerleading Championships International Cheer Union (ICU).===Competition and governance in Canada===Cheer Canada acts as the Canadian national governing body for cheer, as recognised by the International Cheer Union.", "There are a number of provincial sports organizations that also exist in Canada under Cheer Canada, each governing cheer within their province which BC Sport Cheer, Alberta Cheerleading Association, Saskatchewan Cheerleading Association, Cheer Manitoba, Ontario Cheerleading Federation, Federation de Cheerleading du Quebec, Newfoundland and Labrador Cheerleading Athletics, Cheer New Brunswick and Cheer Nova Scotia.", "Cheer Canada and the provincial organizations utilise the IASF divisions and rules for all star cheer and performance cheer (all star dance) and the ICU divisions and rules for scholastic cheer.", "Canadian Cheer (previously known as Cheer Evolution) is the largest cheer and dance organization for Canada, and currently comply to Cheer Canada's rules and guidelines for their 15 events.", "Varsity Spirit also hosts events within Canada utilising the Cheer Canada/IASF rules.", "There are currently over 400 clubs and schools recognised by Cheer Canada, with over 25,000 participants as of 2023.===Canadian cheer on the global stage===There are two world championship competitions that Canada participates in.", "The first is the ICU World Championships where the Canadian National Teams compete against other countries.", "The second is The Cheerleading Worlds where Canadian club teams, referred to as \"all-star\" teams, compete within the IASF divisions.", "National team members who compete at the ICU Worlds can also compete with their \"all-star club\" teams at the IASF World Championships.", "Although athletes can compete in both International Cheer Union (ICU) and IASF championships, crossovers between teams at each individual competition are not permitted.", "Teams compete against the other teams from their countries on the first day of competition and the top three teams from each country in each division continue to finals.", "At the end of finals, the top team scoring the highest for their country earns the \"Nations Cup\".", "Canada has multiple teams across their country that compete in the IASF Cheerleading Worlds Championship.", "In total, Canada has had 98 International podium finishes at cheer events.The International Cheer Union (ICU) is built of 119 member nations, who are eligible to field teams to compete against one another at the ICU World Championships in a number of divisions in both cheerleading and performance cheer, with special divisions for youth, junior and adaptive abilities athletes.", "Cheer Canada fields a national team, with up to 40 athletes from around the country for both a senior national all girl and senior national coed team training at three training camps across the season in Canada before 28 athletes per team are selected to train in Florida, with 24 athletes going on to compete on the competition floor at ICU Worlds.", "In the 2023 ICU World Championships, Canada won a total of 4 medals (1 gold and 3 silver) with teams entered in the Youth All Girl, Youth Coed, Unified Median, Unified Advanced, Premier All Girl, Premier Coed, Performance Cheer Hip Hop doubles, Performance Cheer Pom Doubles and Performance Cheer Pom divisions.", "In total, Team Canada holds podium placements at the ICU World Championships from the following years/divisions: +YearPlaceTeamSource20231stAdaptive Abilities Unified 20232ndYouth All Girl Median20232ndYouth Coed Median20221stAdaptive Abilities Unified Median20222ndYouth All Girl Median20222ndYouth Coed 20223rdJunior Coed Advanced20192ndCoed Premier20192ndSpecial Abilities Traditional20192ndJunior Coed Advanced20182ndJunior Coed Advanced20183rdCoed Premier20171stJunior All Girl Advanced20172ndJunior Coed Advanced20173rdAll Girl Premier20131stCoed Elite20121stAll Girl Elite20121stCoed Elite20111stAll Girl Elite20111stCoed Elite20101stAll Girl Elite20101st Coed Elite20102ndAll Girl Partner Stunt20091stAll Girl Elite20091stCoed Elite" ], [ "Cheerleading in Mexico", "Mexican cheerleaders at a soccer game in Monterrey, Mexico.Cheerleading in Mexico is a popular sport commonly seen in Mexican College Football and Professional Mexican Soccer sporting events.", "Cheerleading emerged within the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), the highest House of Studies in the country, during the 1930s, almost immediately after it was granted its autonomy.", "Since then, this phenomenon has been evolving to become what it is now.", "Firstly, it was developed only in the UNAM, later in other secondary and higher education institutions in Mexico City, and currently in practically the entire country.=== Competition in Mexico ===Cheerleaders associated with the Borregos Salvajes, called \"Borreguitas\" at the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Mexico City.In Mexico, this sport is endorsed by the Mexican Federation of Cheerleaders and Cheerleading Groups (Federación Mexicana de Porristas y Grupos de Animación) (FMPGA), a body that regulates competitions in Mexico and subdivisions such as the Olympic Confederation of Cheerleaders (COP Brands), National Organization of Cheerleaders (Organización Nacional de Porristas) (ONP) and the Mexican Organization of Trainers and Animation Groups (Organización Mexicana de Entrenadores y Grupos de Animación) (OMEGA Mexico), these being the largest in the country.In 2021, the third edition of the National Championship of State Teams was held and organized by The Mexican Federation of Cheerleaders and Cheerleading Groups, on this occasion, the event was held virtually, broadcasting live, through the Vimeo platform.=== Mexican Cheer of the Global Stage ===In Mexico there are more than 500 teams and almost 10,000 athletes who practice this sport, in addition to a representative national team of Mexico, which won first place in the cheerleading world championship organized by the ICU (International Cheer Union) on April 24, 2015, receiving a gold medal; In 2016, Mexico became the second country with the most medals in the world in this sport.", "With 27 medals, it is considered the second world power in this sport, only behind the United States.", "In the 2019 Coed Premier World Cheerleading Championship Mexico ranked 4th just behind the United States, Canada and Taiwan.", "In 2021, the Mexican team won 3rd place at the Junior Boom category in World Cheerleading Championship 2021 hosted by international cheerleading federation." ], [ "Cheerleading in the United Kingdom", "This section has a link to a separate Wikipedia page that talks about the history and growth of cheerleading in the United Kingdom.", "This can be used to compare and contrast the activity in the U.S and in Australia." ], [ "Cheerleading in Australia", "This section has a link to a separate Wikipedia page that talks about the history and growth of cheerleading in Australia.", "This can be used to compare and contrast the activity in the U.S and in Australia." ], [ "Notable former cheerleaders", "This section has a link to a separate Wikipedia page that lists former cheerleaders and well-known cheerleading squads." ], [ "See also", "* ''Cheerleader Nation''* Cheerleader effect* Cheerleading in Japan* Cheerleading Philippines* Color guard* Dance squad* List of cheerleading jumps* List of cheerleading stunts* Majorette (dancer)* National Basketball Association Cheerleading* National Football League Cheerleading* Pep squad* Pom-pom* UAAP Cheerdance Competition* Varsity Brands" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cottingley Fairies" ], [ "Introduction", "The first of the five photographs, taken by Elsie Wright in 1917, shows Frances Griffiths with the alleged fairies.The '''Cottingley Fairies''' appear in a series of five photographs taken by Elsie Wright (1901–1988) and Frances Griffiths (1907–1986), two young cousins who lived in Cottingley, near Bradford in England.", "In 1917, when the first two photographs were taken, Elsie was 16 years old and Frances was 9.The pictures came to the attention of writer Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who used them to illustrate an article on fairies he had been commissioned to write for the Christmas 1920 edition of ''The Strand Magazine''.", "Doyle, as a spiritualist, was enthusiastic about the photographs, and interpreted them as clear and visible evidence of psychic phenomena.", "Public reaction was mixed; some accepted the images as genuine, others believed that they had been faked.Interest in the Cottingley Fairies gradually declined after 1921.Both girls married and lived abroad for a time after they grew up, and yet the photographs continued to hold the public imagination.", "In 1966 a reporter from the ''Daily Express'' newspaper traced Elsie, who had by then returned to the United Kingdom.", "Elsie left open the possibility that she believed she had photographed her thoughts, and the media once again became interested in the story.In the early 1980s Elsie and Frances admitted that the photographs were faked, using cardboard cutouts of fairies copied from a popular children's book of the time, but Frances maintained that the fifth and final photograph was genuine.", "As of 2019 the photographs and the cameras used are in the collections of the National Science and Media Museum in Bradford, England." ], [ "1917 photographs", "Cottingley Beck, where Frances and Elsie claimed to have seen the fairiesIn mid-1917 nine-year-old Frances Griffiths and her motherboth newly arrived in the UK from South Africawere staying with Frances's aunt, Elsie Wright's mother, Polly, in the village of Cottingley in West Yorkshire; Elsie was then 16 years old.", "The two girls often played together beside the deck beck at the bottom of the garden, much to their mothers' annoyance, because they frequently came back with wet feet and clothes.", "Frances and Elsie said they only went to the beck to see the fairies, and to prove it, Elsie borrowed her father's camera, a Midg quarter-plate.", "The girls returned about 30 minutes later, \"triumphant\".", "Elsie's father, Arthur, was a keen amateur photographer, and had set up his own darkroom.", "The picture on the photographic plate he developed showed Frances behind a bush in the foreground, on which four fairies appeared to be dancing.", "Knowing his daughter's artistic ability, and that she had spent some time working in a photographer's studio, he dismissed the figures as cardboard cutouts.", "Two months later the girls borrowed his camera again, and this time returned with a photograph of Elsie sitting on the lawn holding out her hand to a gnome.", "Exasperated by what he believed to be \"nothing but a prank\", and convinced that the girls must have tampered with his camera in some way, Arthur Wright refused to lend it to them again.", "His wife Polly, however, believed the photographs to be authentic.Towards the end of 1918, Frances sent a letter to Johanna Parvin, a friend in Cape Town, South Africa, where Frances had lived for most of her life, enclosing the photograph of herself with the fairies.", "On the back she wrote \"It is funny, I never used to see them in Africa.", "It must be too hot for them there.", "\"The photographs became public in mid-1919, after Elsie's mother attended a meeting of the Theosophical Society in Bradford.", "The lecture that evening was on \"fairy life\", and at the end of the meeting Polly Wright showed the two fairy photographs taken by her daughter and niece to the speaker.", "As a result, the photographs were displayed at the society's annual conference in Harrogate, held a few months later.", "There they came to the attention of a leading member of the society, Edward Gardner.", "One of the central beliefs of theosophy is that humanity is undergoing a cycle of evolution, towards increasing \"perfection\", and Gardner recognised the potential significance of the photographs for the movement:" ], [ "Initial examinations", "Gardner sent the prints along with the original glass-plate negatives to Harold Snelling, a photography expert.", "Snelling's opinion was that \"the two negatives are entirely genuine, unfaked photographs ... with no trace whatsoever of studio work involving card or paper models\".", "He did not go so far as to say that the photographs showed fairies, stating only that \"these are straight forward photographs of whatever was in front of the camera at the time\".", "Gardner had the prints \"clarified\" by Snelling, and new negatives produced, \"more conducive to printing\", for use in the illustrated lectures he gave around the UK.", "Snelling supplied the photographic prints which were available for sale at Gardner's lectures.The second of the five photographs, showing Elsie with a winged gnomeAuthor and prominent spiritualist Sir Arthur Conan Doyle learned of the photographs from the editor of the spiritualist publication ''Light''.", "Doyle had been commissioned by ''The Strand Magazine'' to write an article on fairies for their Christmas issue, and the fairy photographs \"must have seemed like a godsend\" according to broadcaster and historian Magnus Magnusson.", "Doyle contacted Gardner in June 1920 to determine the background to the photographs, and wrote to Elsie and her father to request permission from the latter to use the prints in his article.", "Arthur Wright was \"obviously impressed\" that Doyle was involved, and gave his permission for publication, but he refused payment on the grounds that, if genuine, the images should not be \"soiled\" by money.Gardner and Doyle sought a second expert opinion from the photographic company Kodak.", "Several of the company's technicians examined the enhanced prints, and although they agreed with Snelling that the pictures \"showed no signs of being faked\", they concluded that \"this could not be taken as conclusive evidence ... that they were authentic photographs of fairies\".", "Kodak declined to issue a certificate of authenticity.", "Gardner believed that the Kodak technicians might not have examined the photographs entirely objectively, observing that one had commented \"after all, as fairies couldn't be true, the photographs must have been faked somehow\".", "The prints were also examined by another photographic company, Ilford, who reported unequivocally that there was \"some evidence of faking\".", "Gardner and Doyle, perhaps rather optimistically, interpreted the results of the three expert evaluations as two in favour of the photographs' authenticity and one against.Doyle also showed the photographs to the physicist and pioneering psychical researcher Sir Oliver Lodge, who believed the photographs to be fake.", "He suggested that a troupe of dancers had masqueraded as fairies, and expressed doubt as to their \"distinctly 'Parisienne hairstyles.On 4 October 2018 the first two of the photographs, ''Alice and the Fairies'' and ''Iris and the Gnome,'' were to be sold by Dominic Winter Auctioneers, in Gloucestershire.", "The prints, suspected to have been made in 1920 to sell at theosophical lectures, were expected to bring £700–£1000 each.", "As it turned out, 'Iris with the Gnome' sold for a hammer price of £5,400 (plus 24% buyer's premium incl.", "VAT), while 'Alice and the Fairies' sold for a hammer price of £15,000 (plus 24% buyer's premium incl.", "VAT)." ], [ "1920 photographs", "Doyle was preoccupied with organising an imminent lecture tour of Australia, and in July 1920, sent Gardner to meet the Wright family.", "By this point, Frances was living with her parents in Scarborough, but Elsie's father told Gardner that he had been so certain the photographs were fakes that while the girls were away he searched their bedroom and the area around the beck (stream), looking for scraps of pictures or cutouts, but found nothing \"incriminating\".", "''Frances and the Leaping Fairy'', the third photographGardner believed the Wright family to be honest and respectable.", "To place the matter of the photographs' authenticity beyond doubt, he returned to Cottingley at the end of July with two W. Butcher & Sons Cameo folding plate cameras and 24 secretly marked photographic plates.", "Frances was invited to stay with the Wright family during the school summer holiday so that she and Elsie could take more pictures of the fairies.", "Gardner described his briefing in his 1945 ''Fairies: A Book of Real Fairies'':Until 19 August the weather was unsuitable for photography.", "Because Frances and Elsie insisted that the fairies would not show themselves if others were watching, Elsie's mother was persuaded to visit her sister's for tea, leaving the girls alone.", "In her absence the girls took several photographs, two of which appeared to show fairies.", "In the first, ''Frances and the Leaping Fairy'', Frances is shown in profile with a winged fairy close by her nose.", "The second, ''Fairy offering Posy of Harebells to Elsie'', shows a fairy either hovering or tiptoeing on a branch, and offering Elsie a flower.", "Two days later the girls took the last picture, ''Fairies and Their Sun-Bath''.The plates were packed in cotton wool and returned to Gardner in London, who sent an \"ecstatic\" telegram to Doyle, by then in Melbourne.", "Doyle wrote back:" ], [ "Publication and reaction", "The first page of Doyle’s article in Strand MagazineThe fourth photograph, ''Fairy Offering Posy of Harebells to Elsie''Doyle's article in the December 1920 issue of ''The Strand'' contained two higher-resolution prints of the 1917 photographs, and sold out within days of publication.", "To protect the girls' anonymity, Frances and Elsie were called Alice and Iris respectively, and the Wright family was referred to as the \"Carpenters\".", "An enthusiastic and committed spiritualist, Doyle hoped that if the photographs convinced the public of the existence of fairies then they might more readily accept other psychic phenomena.", "He ended his article with the words:Early press coverage was \"mixed\", generally a combination of \"embarrassment and puzzlement\"; though Japanese scholar Kaori Inuma has noted that there were also open and positive assessments.", "The historical novelist and poet Maurice Hewlett published a series of articles in the literary journal ''John O' London's Weekly'', in which he concluded: \"And knowing children, and knowing that Sir Arthur Conan Doyle has legs, I decide that the Miss Carpenters have pulled one of them.\"", "The London newspaper ''Truth'' on 5 January 1921 expressed a similar view; \"For the true explanation of these fairy photographs what is wanted is not a knowledge of occult phenomena but a knowledge of children.\"", "Some public figures were more sympathetic.", "Margaret McMillan, the educational and social reformer, wrote: \"How wonderful that to these dear children such a wonderful gift has been vouchsafed.\"", "The novelist Henry De Vere Stacpoole decided to take the fairy photographs and the girls at face value.", "In a letter to Gardner he wrote: \"Look at Alice's Frances' face.", "Look at Iris's Elsie's face.", "There is an extraordinary thing called Truth which has 10 million faces and forms – it is God's currency and the cleverest coiner or forger can't imitate it.", "\"Major John Hall-Edwards, a keen photographer and pioneer of medical X-ray treatments in Britain, was a particularly vigorous critic:Doyle used the later photographs in 1921 to illustrate a second article in ''The Strand'', in which he described other accounts of fairy sightings.", "The article formed the foundation for his 1922 book ''The Coming of the Fairies''.", "As before, the photographs were received with mixed credulity.", "Sceptics noted that the fairies \"looked suspiciously like the traditional fairies of nursery tales\" and that they had \"very fashionable hairstyles\"." ], [ "Gardner's final visit", "Gardner made a final visit to Cottingley in August 1921.He again brought cameras and photographic plates for Frances and Elsie, but was accompanied by the occultist Geoffrey Hodson.", "Although neither of the girls claimed to see any fairies, and there were no more photographs, \"on the contrary, he Hodson saw them fairies everywhere\" and wrote voluminous notes on his observations.By now Elsie and Frances were tired of the whole fairy business.", "Years later Elsie looked at a photograph of herself and Frances taken with Hodson and said: \"Look at that, fed up with fairies.\"", "Both Elsie and Frances later admitted that they \"played along\" with Hodson \"out of mischief\", and that they considered him \"a fake\"." ], [ "Later investigations", "Public interest in the Cottingley Fairies gradually subsided after 1921.Elsie and Frances both eventually married, moved away from the area and each lived overseas for varying periods of time.", "In 1966, a reporter from the ''Daily Express'' newspaper traced Elsie, who was by then back in England.", "She admitted in an interview given that year that the fairies might have been \"figments of my imagination\", but left open the possibility she believed that she had somehow managed to photograph her thoughts.", "The media subsequently became interested in Frances and Elsie's photographs once again.", "BBC television's ''Nationwide'' programme investigated the case in 1971, but Elsie stuck to her story: \"I've told you that they're photographs of figments of our imagination, and that's what I'm sticking to\".Elsie and Frances were interviewed by journalist Austin Mitchell in September 1976, for a programme broadcast on Yorkshire Television.", "When pressed, both women agreed that \"a rational person doesn't see fairies\", but they denied having fabricated the photographs.", "In 1978 the magician and scientific sceptic James Randi and a team from the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal examined the photographs, using a \"computer enhancement process\".", "They concluded that the photographs were fakes, and that strings could be seen supporting the fairies.", "Geoffrey Crawley, editor of the ''British Journal of Photography'', undertook a \"major scientific investigation of the photographs and the events surrounding them\", published between 1982 and 1983, \"the first major postwar analysis of the affair\".", "He also concluded that the pictures were fakes." ], [ "Confession", "One of Claude Arthur Shepperson's illustrations of dancing girls, from ''Princess Mary's Gift Book''In 1983, the cousins admitted in an article published in the magazine ''The Unexplained'' that the photographs had been faked, although both maintained that they really had seen fairies.", "Elsie had copied illustrations of dancing girls from a popular children's book of the time, ''Princess Mary's Gift Book'', published in 1914, and drew wings on them.", "They said they had then cut out the cardboard figures and supported them with hatpins, disposing of their props in the beck once the photograph had been taken.", "But the cousins disagreed about the fifth and final photograph, which Doyle in his ''The Coming of the Fairies'' described in this way:''Fairies and Their Sun-Bath'', the fifth and last photograph of the Cottingley FairiesComparison of Cottingley Fairies and illustrations from ''Princess Mary's Gift Book''Elsie maintained it was a fake, just like all the others, but Frances insisted that it was genuine.", "In an interview given in the early 1980s Frances said:Both Frances and Elsie claimed to have taken the fifth photograph.", "In a letter published in ''The Times'' newspaper on 9 April 1983, Geoffrey Crawley explained the discrepancy by suggesting that the photograph was \"an unintended double exposure of fairy cutouts in the grass\", and thus \"both ladies can be quite sincere in believing that they each took it\".In a 1985 interview on Yorkshire Television's ''Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers'', Elsie said that she and Frances were too embarrassed to admit the truth after fooling Doyle, the author of Sherlock Holmes: \"Two village kids and a brilliant man like Conan Doyle – well, we could only keep quiet.\"", "In the same interview Frances said: \"I never even thought of it as being a fraud – it was just Elsie and I having a bit of fun and I can't understand to this day why they were taken in – they wanted to be taken in.\"" ], [ "Subsequent history", "Elsie Wright and Frances Griffiths, June 1917Frances died in 1986, and Elsie in 1988.Prints of their photographs of the fairies, along with a few other items including a first edition of Doyle's book ''The Coming of the Fairies'', were sold at auction in London for £21,620 in 1998.That same year, Geoffrey Crawley sold his Cottingley Fairy material to the National Museum of Film, Photography and Television in Bradford (now the National Science and Media Museum), where it is on display.", "The collection included prints of the photographs, two of the cameras used by the girls, watercolours of fairies painted by Elsie, and a nine-page letter from Elsie admitting to the hoax.The glass photographic plates were bought for £6,000 by an unnamed buyer at a London auction held in 2001.Frances's daughter, Christine Lynch, appeared in an episode of the television programme ''Antiques Roadshow'' in Belfast, broadcast on BBC One in January 2009, with the photographs and one of the cameras given to the girls by Doyle.", "Christine told the expert, Paul Atterbury, that she believed, as her mother had done, that the fairies in the fifth photograph were genuine.", "Atterbury estimated the value of the items at between £25,000 and £30,000.The first edition of Frances's memoirs was published a few months later, under the title ''Reflections on the Cottingley Fairies''.", "The book contains correspondence, sometimes \"bitter\", between Elsie and Frances.", "In one letter, dated 1983, Frances wrote:The 1997 films ''FairyTale: A True Story'' and ''Photographing Fairies'' were inspired by the events surrounding the Cottingley Fairies.", "The photographs were parodied in a 1994 book written by Terry Jones and Brian Froud, ''Lady Cottington's Pressed Fairy Book''.", "In A. J. Elwood's 2021 novel, ''The Cottingley Cuckoo'', a series of letters were written soon after the Cottingley fairy photographs were published claiming further sightings of fairies and proof of their existence.In 2017 a further two fairy photographs were presented as evidence that the girls' parents were part of the conspiracy.", "Dating from 1917 and 1918, both photographs are poorly executed copies of two of the original fairy photographs.", "One was published in 1918 in ''The Sphere'' newspaper, which was before the originals had been seen by anyone outside the girls' immediate family.In 2019, a print of the first of the five photographs sold for £1,050.A print of the second was also put up for sale but failed to sell as it did not meet its £500 reserve price.", "The pictures previously belonged to the Reverend George Vale Owen.", "In December 2019, the third camera used to take the images was acquired by the National Science and Media Museum." ], [ "References", "===Bibliography=== * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bihet, Francesca (2013). \"", "Sprites, spiritualists and sleuths: the intersecting ownership of transcendent proofs in the Cottingley Fairy Fraud\".", "In: Afterlife: 18th Postgraduate Religion and Theology Conference, 8–9 March 2013, University of Bristol.", "(Unpublished)* * * Homer, Michael W. and Massimo Introvigne, 'The Recoming of the Fairies', ''Theosophical History'' 6 (1996), 59-76.", "* Inuma, Kaori “Fairies to Be Photographed!", ": Press Reactions in ‘Scrapbooks’ to the Cottingley Fairies,” ''Correspondence: Hitotsubashi Journal of Arts and Literature'' 4 (2019), 53-84.", "* * Maher, F. R., ''Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and the Secret of the Cottingley Fairies'' (NP, 2021), ISBN 1548818941.", "* Owen, Alex Borderland Forms': Arthur Conan Doyle, Albion's Daughters, and the Politics of the Cottingley Fairies', ''History Workshop'' 38 (1994), 48-85.", "* , pp.", "89–103, * Sugg, Richard 'Cottingley Revisited', ''Fairy Investigation Society Newsletter'' 6 (2017), 19-25" ], [ "External links", "* ''The Coming of the Fairies'' – scans of the original version of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's book (1922)* ''The Coming of the Fairies''  – Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's book as an eBook in different formats at Project Gutenberg* ''Princess Mary's Gift Book''  (the original source of the drawings) – eBook in different formats at Project Gutenberg* The Case of the Cottingley Fairies at The James Randi Educational Foundation* Cottingley Fairies at Cottingley.Net – The Cottingley Network* Cottingley Fairies at Cottingley Connect*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cheka" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''All-Russian Extraordinary Commission''' ('''AREOC'''; ), abbreviated as '''VChK''' (), and commonly known as '''Cheka''' (; from the initialism ), was the first of a succession of Soviet secret-police organizations known for conducting the Red Terror.", "Established on December 5 (Old Style) 1917 by the Sovnarkom, it came under the leadership of Bolshevik revolutionary Felix Dzerzhinsky.", "By late 1918, hundreds of Cheka committees had sprung up in the Russian SFSR at all levels.Ostensibly set up to protect the revolution from reactionary forces, i.e., \"class enemies\" such as the bourgeoisie and members of the clergy, it soon became the repression tool against all political opponents of the communist regime.", "At the direction of Vladimir Lenin, the Cheka performed mass arrests, imprisonments, torture, and executions without trial.In 1921, the Troops for the Internal Defense of the Republic (a branch of the Cheka) numbered at least 200,000.They policed labor camps, ran the Gulag system, conducted requisitions of food, and put down rebellions and riots by workers and peasants and mutinies in the Red Army.The organization was dissolved in 1922 and succeeded by the State Political Directorate or GPU." ], [ "Name", "The official designation was '''All-Russian Extraordinary''' (or '''Emergency''') '''Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage under the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR''' (, ''Vserossiyskaya chrezvychaynaya komissiya po borbe s kontrrevolyutsiyey i sabotazhem pri Sovete narodnykh komisarov RSFSR'').In 1918 its name was changed, becoming '''All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Profiteering and Corruption'''.A member of Cheka was called a ''chekist'' ().", "Also, the term ''chekist'' often referred to Soviet secret police throughout the Soviet period, despite official name changes over time.", "In ''The Gulag Archipelago'', Alexander Solzhenitsyn recalls that ''zeks'' in the labor camps used ''old chekist'' as a mark of special esteem for particularly experienced camp administrators.", "The term is still found in use in Russia today (for example, President Vladimir Putin has been referred to in the Russian media as a ''chekist'' due to his career in the KGB and as head of the KGB's successor, FSB).The chekists commonly dressed in black leather, including long flowing coats, reportedly after being issued such distinctive coats early in their existence.", "Western communists adopted this clothing fashion.", "The Chekists also often carried with them Greek-style worry beads made of amber, which had become \"fashionable among high officials during the time of the 'cleansing'\"." ], [ "History", "In 1921, the Troops for the Internal Defense of the Republic (a branch of the Cheka) numbered at least 200,000.These troops policed labor camps, ran the Gulag system, conducted requisitions of food, and subjected political opponents to secret arrest, detention, torture and summary execution.", "They also put down rebellions and riots by workers or peasants, and mutinies in the desertion-plagued Red Army.After 1922 Cheka groups underwent the first of a series of reorganizations; however the theme of a government dominated by \"the organs\" persisted indefinitely afterward, and Soviet citizens continued to refer to members of the various organs as Chekists.=== Creation ===Members of the presidium of VCheKa (left to right) Yakov Peters, Józef Unszlicht, Abram Belenky (standing), Felix Dzerzhinsky, Vyacheslav Menzhinsky, 1921In the first month and half after the October Revolution (1917), the duty of \"extinguishing the resistance of exploiters\" was assigned to the Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee (or PVRK).", "It represented a temporary body working under directives of the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) and Central Committee of RDSRP(b).", "The VRK created new bodies of government, organized food delivery to cities and the Army, requisitioned products from bourgeoisie, and sent its emissaries and agitators into provinces.", "One of its most important functions was the security of revolutionary order, and the fight against counterrevolutionary activity (see: Anti-Soviet agitation).On December 1, 1917, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK or TsIK) reviewed a proposed reorganization of the VRK, and possible replacement of it.", "On December 5, the Petrograd VRK published an announcement of dissolution and transferred its functions to the department of TsIK for the fight against \"counterrevolutionaries\".", "On December 6, the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) strategized how to persuade government workers to strike across Russia.", "They decided that a special commission was needed to implement the \"most energetically revolutionary\" measures.", "Felix Dzerzhinsky (the Iron Felix) was appointed as Director and invited the participation of the following individuals: V. K. Averin, V.V Yakovlev, D. G. Yevseyev, N. A. Zhydelev, I. K. Ksenofontov, G. K. Ordjonikidze, Ya.", "Kh.", "Peters, K. A. Peterson, V. A. Trifonov.On December 7, 1917, all invited except Zhydelev and Vasilevsky gathered in the Smolny Institute to discuss the competence and structure of the commission to combat counterrevolution and sabotage.", "The obligations of the commission were: \"to liquidate to the root all of the counterrevolutionary and sabotage activities and all attempts to them in all of Russia, to hand over counter-revolutionaries and saboteurs to the revolutionary tribunals, develop measures to combat them and relentlessly apply them in real-world applications.", "The commission should only conduct a preliminary investigation\".", "The commission should also observe the press and counterrevolutionary parties, sabotaging officials and other criminals.Smolny, the seat of the Soviet government, 1917Three sections were created: informational, organizational, and a unit to combat counter-revolution and sabotage.", "Upon the end of the meeting, Dzerzhinsky reported to the Sovnarkom with the requested information.", "The commission was allowed to apply such measures of repression as 'confiscation, deprivation of ration cards, publication of lists of enemies of the people etc.'\".", "That day, Sovnarkom officially confirmed the creation of VCheKa.", "The commission was created not under the VTsIK as was previously anticipated, but rather under the Council of the People's Commissars.On December 8, 1917, some of the original members of the VCheka were replaced.", "Averin, Ordzhonikidze, and Trifonov were replaced by V. V. Fomin, S. E. Shchukin, Ilyin, and Chernov.", "On the meeting of December 8, the presidium of VChK was elected of five members, and chaired by Dzerzhinsky.", "The issues of \"speculation\" or profiteering, such as by black market grain sellers and \"corruption\" was raised at the same meeting, which was assigned to Peters to address and report with results to one of the next meetings of the commission.", "A circular, published on , gave the address of VCheka's first headquarters as \"Petrograd, Gorokhovaya 2, 4th floor\".", "On December 11, Fomin was ordered to organize a section to suppress \"speculation.\"", "And in the same day, VCheKa offered Shchukin to conduct arrests of counterfeiters.In January 1918, a subsection of the anti-counterrevolutionary effort was created to police bank officials.", "The structure of VCheKa was changing repeatedly.", "By March 1918, when the organization came to Moscow, it contained the following sections: against counterrevolution, speculation, non-residents, and information gathering.", "By the end of 1918–1919, some new units were created: secretly operative, investigatory, of transportation, military (special), operative, and instructional.", "By 1921, it changed once again, forming the following sections: directory of affairs, administrative-organizational, secretly operative, economical, and foreign affairs.=== First months ===In the first months of its existence, VCheKa consisted of only 40 officials.", "It commanded a team of soldiers, the Sveaborgesky regiment, as well as a group of Red Guardsmen.", "On January 14, 1918, Sovnarkom ordered Dzerzhinsky to organize teams of \"energetic and ideological\" sailors to combat speculation.", "By the spring of 1918, the commission had several teams: in addition to the Sveaborge team, it had an intelligence team, a team of sailors, and a strike team.", "Through the winter of 1917–1918, all activities of VCheKa were centralized mainly in the city of Petrograd.", "It was one of several other commissions in the country which fought against counterrevolution, speculation, banditry, and other activities perceived as crimes.", "Other organizations included: the Bureau of Military Commissars, and an Army-Navy investigatory commission to attack the counterrevolutionary element in the Red Army, plus the Central Requisite and Unloading Commission to fight speculation.", "The investigation of counterrevolutionary or major criminal offenses was conducted by the Investigatory Commission of Revtribunal.", "The functions of VCheKa were closely intertwined with the Commission of V. D. Bonch-Bruyevich, which beside the fight against wine pogroms was engaged in the investigation of most major political offenses (see: Bonch-Bruyevich Commission).Grigory PetrovskyAll results of its activities, VCheKa had either to transfer to the Investigatory Commission of Revtribunal, or to dismiss.", "The control of the commission's activity was provided by the People's Commissariat for Justice (Narkomjust, at that time headed by Isaac Steinberg) and Internal Affairs (NKVD, at that time headed by Grigory Petrovsky).", "Although the VCheKa was officially an independent organization from the NKVD, its chief members such as Dzerzhinsky, Latsis, Unszlicht, and Uritsky (all main chekists), since November 1917 composed the collegiate of NKVD headed by Petrovsky.", "In November 1918, Petrovsky was appointed as head of the All-Ukrainian Central Military Revolutionary Committee during VCheKa's expansion to provinces and front-lines.", "At the time of political competition between Bolsheviks and SRs (January 1918), Left SRs attempted to curb the rights of VCheKa and establish through the Narkomiust their control over its work.", "Having failed in attempts to subordinate the VCheKa to Narkomiust, the Left SRs tried to gain control of the Extraordinary Commission in a different way: they requested that the Central Committee of the party be granted the right to directly enter their representatives into the VCheKa.", "Sovnarkom recognized the desirability of including five representatives of the Left Socialist-Revolutionary faction of VTsIK.", "Left SRs were granted the post of a companion (deputy) chairman of VCheKa.", "However, Sovnarkom, in which the majority belonged to the representatives of RSDLP(b) retained the right to approve members of the collegium of the VCheKa.Originally, members of the Cheka were exclusively Bolshevik; however, in January 1918, Left SRs also joined the organization.", "The Left SRs were expelled or arrested later in 1918, following the attempted assassination of Lenin by an SR, Fanni Kaplan.=== Consolidation of VCheKa and National Establishment ===By the end of January 1918, the Investigatory Commission of Petrograd Soviet (probably same as of Revtribunal) petitioned Sovnarkom to delineate the role of detection and judicial-investigatory organs.", "It offered to leave, for the VCheKa and the Commission of Bonch-Bruyevich, only the functions of detection and suppression, while investigative functions entirely transferred to it.", "The Investigatory Commission prevailed.", "On January 31, 1918, Sovnarkom ordered to relieve VCheKa of the investigative functions, leaving for the commission only the functions of detection, suppression, and prevention of anti revolutionary crimes.", "At the meeting of the Council of People's Commissars on January 31, 1918, a merger of VCheKa and the Commission of Bonch-Bruyevich was proposed.", "The existence of both commissions, VCheKa of Sovnarkom and the Commission of Bonch-Bruyevich of VTsIK, with almost the same functions and equal rights, became impractical.", "A decision followed two weeks later.On February 23, 1918, VCheKa sent a radio telegram to all Soviets with a petition to immediately organize emergency commissions to combat counter-revolution, sabotage and speculation, if such commissions had not been yet organized.", "February 1918 saw the creation of local Extraordinary Commissions.", "One of the first founded was the Moscow Cheka.", "Sections and commissariats to combat counterrevolution were established in other cities.", "The Extraordinary Commissions arose, usually in the areas during the moments of the greatest aggravation of political situation.", "On February 25, 1918, as the counterrevolutionary organization ''Union of Front-liners'' was making advances, the executive committee of the Saratov Soviet formed a counter-revolutionary section.", "On March 7, 1918, because of the move from Petrograd to Moscow, the Petrograd Cheka was created.", "On March 9, a section for combating counterrevolution was created under the Omsk Soviet.", "Extraordinary commissions were also created in Penza, Perm, Novgorod, Cherepovets, Rostov, Taganrog.", "On March 18, VCheKa adopted a resolution, ''The Work of VCheKa on the All-Russian Scale'', foreseeing the formation everywhere of Extraordinary Commissions after the same model, and sent a letter that called for the widespread establishment of the Cheka in combating counterrevolution, speculation, and sabotage.", "Establishment of provincial Extraordinary Commissions was largely completed by August 1918.In the Soviet Republic, there were 38 gubernatorial Chekas (Gubcheks) by this time.On June 12, 1918, the All-Russian Conference of Cheka adopted the ''Basic Provisions on the Organization of Extraordinary Commissions''.", "They set out to form Extraordinary Commissions not only at Oblast and Guberniya levels, but also at the large Uyezd Soviets.", "In August 1918, in the Soviet Republic had accounted for some 75 Uyezd-level Extraordinary Commissions.", "By the end of the year, 365 Uyezd-level Chekas were established.", "Felix Dzerzhinsky in a meeting among other members of the Presidium of the Cheka, 1919In 1918, the All-Russia Extraordinary Commission and the Soviets managed to establish a local Cheka apparatus.", "It included Oblast, Guberniya, Raion, Uyezd, and Volost Chekas, with Raion and Volost Extraordinary Commissioners.", "In addition, border security Chekas were included in the system of local Cheka bodies.In the autumn of 1918, as consolidation of the political situation of the republic continued, a move toward elimination of Uyezd-, Raion-, and Volost-level Chekas, as well as the institution of Extraordinary Commissions was considered.", "On January 20, 1919, VTsIK adopted a resolution prepared by VCheKa, ''On the abolition of Uyezd Extraordinary Commissions''.", "On January 16 the presidium of VCheKa approved the draft on the establishment of the Politburo at Uyezd militsiya.", "This decision was approved by the Conference of the Extraordinary Commission IV, held in early February 1920.=== Other types of Cheka ===Portrait of Martin Latsis on a Soviet postage stamp.On August 3, a VCheKa section for combating counterrevolution, speculation and sabotage on railways was created.", "On August 7, 1918, Sovnarkom adopted a decree on the organization of the railway section at VCheKa.", "Combating counterrevolution, speculation, and crimes on railroads was passed under the jurisdiction of the railway section of VCheKa and local Cheka.", "In August 1918, railway sections were formed under the Gubcheks.", "Formally, they were part of the non-resident sections, but in fact constituted a separate division, largely autonomous in their activities.", "The gubernatorial and oblast-type Chekas retained in relation to the transportation sections only control and investigative functions.The beginning of a systematic work of organs of VCheKa in RKKA refers to July 1918, the period of extreme tension of the civil war and class struggle in the country.", "On July 16, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars formed the Extraordinary Commission for combating counterrevolution at the Czechoslovak (Eastern) Front, led by M. I. Latsis.", "In the fall of 1918, Extraordinary Commissions to combat counterrevolution on the Southern (Ukraine) Front were formed.", "In late November, the Second All-Russian Conference of the Extraordinary Commissions accepted a decision after a report from I. N. Polukarov to establish at all frontlines, and army sections of the Cheka and granted them the right to appoint their commissioners in military units.", "On December 9, 1918, the collegiate (or presidium) of VCheKa had decided to form a military section, headed by M. S. Kedrov, to combat counterrevolution in the Army.", "In early 1919, the military control and the military section of VCheKa were merged into one body, the Special Section of the Republic, with Kedrov as head.", "On January 1, he issued an order to establish the Special Section.", "The order instructed agencies everywhere to unite the Military control and the military sections of Chekas and to form special sections of frontlines, armies, military districts, and guberniyas.In November 1920 the Soviet of Labor and Defense created a Special Section of VCheKa for the security of the state border.", "On February 6, 1922, after the Ninth All-Russian Soviet Congress, the Cheka was dissolved by VTsIK, \"with expressions of gratitude for heroic work.\"", "It was replaced by the State Political Administration or GPU, a section of the NKVD of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR).", "Dzerzhinsky remained as chief of the new organization." ], [ "Operations", "=== Suppression of political opposition ===Corpses of hostages executed by Cheka in 1918 in the basement of Tulpanov`s house in Kherson, Ukrainian SSR, The Black Book of CommunismCorpses of people executed by Cheka in 1918 at a yard in Kharkiv, Ukrainian SSR, The Black Book of CommunismAs its name implied, the Extraordinary Commission had virtually unlimited powers and could interpret them in any way it wished.", "No standard procedures were ever set up, except that the commission was supposed to send the arrested to the Military-Revolutionary tribunals if outside of a war zone.", "This left an opportunity for a wide range of interpretations, as the whole country was in total chaos.", "At the direction of Lenin, the Cheka performed mass arrests, imprisonments, and executions of \"enemies of the people\".", "In this, the Cheka said that they targeted \"class enemies\" such as the bourgeoisie, and members of the clergy.Within a month, the Cheka had extended its repression to all political opponents of the communist government, including anarchists and others on the left.", "On April 11/12, 1918, some 26 anarchist political centres in Moscow were attacked.", "Forty anarchists were killed by Cheka forces, and about 500 were arrested and jailed after a pitched battle took place between the two groups.", "In response to the anarchists' resistance, the Cheka orchestrated a massive retaliatory campaign of repression, executions, and arrests against all opponents of the Bolshevik government, in what came to be known as \"Red Terror\".", "The ''Red Terror'', implemented by Dzerzhinsky on September 5, 1918, was vividly described by the Red Army journal ''Krasnaya Gazeta'':Without mercy, without sparing, we will kill our enemies in scores of hundreds.", "Let them be thousands, let them drown themselves in their own blood.", "For the blood of Lenin and Uritsky … let there be floods of blood of the bourgeoisie – more blood, as much as possible...\"An early Bolshevik, Victor Serge described in his book ''Memoirs of a Revolutionary'':The Cheka was also used against Nestor Makhno's Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine.", "After the Insurgent Army had served its purpose in aiding the Red Army to stop the Whites under Denikin, the Soviet communist government decided to eliminate the anarchist forces.", "In May 1919, two Cheka agents sent to assassinate Makhno were caught and executed.Many victims of Cheka repression were \"bourgeois hostages\" rounded up and held in readiness for summary execution in reprisal for any alleged counter-revolutionary act.", "Wholesale, indiscriminate arrests became an integral part of the system.", "The Cheka used trucks disguised as delivery trucks, called \"Black Marias\", for the secret arrest and transport of prisoners.It was during the Red Terror that the Cheka, hoping to avoid the bloody aftermath of having half-dead victims writhing on the floor, developed a technique for execution known later by the German words \"''Nackenschuss'' or \"''Genickschuss'', a shot to the nape of the neck, which caused minimal blood loss and instant death.", "The victim's head was bent forward, and the executioner fired slightly downward at point-blank range.", "This had become the standard method used later by the NKVD to liquidate Joseph Stalin's purge victims and others.=== Persecution of deserters ===It is believed that there were more than three million deserters from the Red Army in 1919 and 1920 .", "Approximately 500,000 deserters were arrested in 1919 and close to 800,000 in 1920, by troops of the 'Special Punitive Department' of the Cheka, created to punish desertions.", "These troops were used to forcibly repatriate deserters, taking and shooting hostages to force compliance or to set an example.In September 1918, according to ''The Black Book of Communism'', in only twelve provinces of Russia, 48,735 deserters and 7,325 \"bandits\" were arrested, 1,826 were killed and 2,230 were executed.", "The exact identity of these individuals is confused by the fact that the Soviet Bolshevik government used the term 'bandit' to cover ordinary criminals as well as armed and unarmed political opponents, such as the anarchists." ], [ "Repression", "=== Number of victims ===Estimates on Cheka executions vary widely.", "The lowest figures (''disputed below'') are provided by Dzerzhinsky's lieutenant Martyn Latsis, limited to RSFSR over the period 1918–1920:*For the period 1918 – July 1919, covering only twenty provinces of central Russia:::In 1918: 6,300; in 1919 (up to July): 2,089; Total: 8,389*For the whole period 1918–19:::In 1918: 6,185; in 1919: 3,456; Total: 9,641*For the whole period 1918–20:::In January–June 1918: 22; in July–December 1918: more than 6,000; in 1918–20: 12,733.Experts generally agree these semi-official figures are vastly understated.", "Pioneering historian of the Red Terror Sergei Melgunov claims that this was done deliberately in an attempt to demonstrate the government's humanity.", "For example, he refutes the claim made by Latsis that only 22 executions were carried out in the first six months of the Cheka's existence by providing evidence that the true number was 884 executions.", "W. H. Chamberlin claims, \"It is simply impossible to believe that the Cheka only put to death 12,733 people in all of Russia up to the end of the civil war.\"", "Donald Rayfield concurs, noting that, \"Plausible evidence reveals that the actual numbers … vastly exceeded the official figures.\"", "Chamberlin provides the \"reasonable and probably moderate\" estimate of 50,000, while others provide estimates ranging up to 500,000.Several scholars put the number of executions at about 250,000.Some believe it is possible more people were murdered by the Cheka than died in battle.", "Historian James Ryan gives a modest estimate of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922.Lenin himself seemed unfazed by the killings.", "On 12 January 1920, while addressing trade union leaders, he said: \"We did not hesitate to shoot thousands of people, and we shall not hesitate, and we shall save the On 14 May 1921, the Politburo, chaired by Lenin, passed a motion \"broadening the rights of the Cheka in relation to the use of the death penalty.", "\"=== Scholarly estimates ===There is no consensus among the Western historians on the number of deaths from the Red Terror.", "One source gives estimates of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922.Estimates for the number of people shot during the initial period of the Red Terror are at least 10,000.Estimates for the whole period go for a low of 50,000 to highs of 140,000 and 200,000 executed.", "Most estimations for the number of executions in total put the number at about 100,000.According to Vadim Erlikhman's investigation, the number of the Red Terror's victims is at least 1,200,000 people.", "According to Robert Conquest, a total of 140,000 people were shot in 1917–1922.Candidate of Historical Sciences Nikolay Zayats states that the number of people shot by the Cheka in 1918–1922 is about 37,300 people, shot in 1918–1921 by the verdicts of the tribunals – 14,200, i.e.", "about 50,000–55,000 people in total, although executions and atrocities were not limited to the Cheka, having been organized by the Red Army as well.According to anti-Bolshevik Socialist Revolutionary Sergei Melgunov (1879–1956), at the end of 1919, the Special Investigation Commission to investigate the atrocities of the Bolsheviks estimated the number of deaths at 1,766,188 people in 1918–1919 only." ], [ "Atrocities", "The Cheka engaged in the widespread practice of torture.", "Depending on Cheka committees in various cities, the methods included: being skinned alive, scalped, \"crowned\" with barbed wire, impaled, crucified, hanged, stoned to death, tied to planks and pushed slowly into furnaces or tanks of boiling water, or rolled around naked in internally nail-studded barrels.", "Chekists reportedly poured water on naked prisoners in the winter-bound streets until they became living ice statues.", "Others beheaded their victims by twisting their necks until their heads could be torn off.", "The Cheka detachments stationed in Kiev would attach an iron tube to the torso of a bound victim and insert a rat in the tube closed off with wire netting, while the tube was held over a flame until the rat began gnawing through the victim's guts in an effort to escape.Women and children were also victims of Cheka terror.", "Women would sometimes be tortured and raped before being shot.", "Children between the ages of 8 and 13 were imprisoned and occasionally executed.All of these atrocities were published on numerous occasions in ''Pravda'' and ''Izvestiya'': January 26, 1919 ''Izvestiya'' #18 article ''Is it really a medieval imprisonment?''", "(«Неужели средневековый застенок?»); February 22, 1919 ''Pravda'' #12 publishes details of the Vladimir Cheka's tortures, September 21, 1922 ''Socialist Herald'' publishes details of series of tortures conducted by the Stavropol Cheka (hot basement, cold basement, skull measuring, etc.", ").The Chekists were also supplemented by the militarized Units of Special Purpose (the Party's Spetsnaz or ).Cheka was actively and openly utilizing kidnapping methods.", "With kidnapping methods, Cheka was able to extinguish numerous cases of discontent especially among the rural population.", "Among the notorious ones was the Tambov rebellion.Villages were bombarded to complete annihilation, as in the case of Tretyaki, Novokhopersk uyezd, Voronezh Governorate.", "As a result of this relentless violence, more than a few Chekists ended up with psychopathic disorders, which Nikolai Bukharin said were \"an occupational hazard of the Chekist profession.\"", "Many hardened themselves to the executions by heavy drinking and drug use.", "Some developed a gangster-like slang for the verb to kill in an attempt to distance themselves from the killings, such as 'shooting partridges', or 'sealing' a victim, or giving him a ''natsokal'' (onomatopoeia of the trigger action).On November 30, 1992, by the initiative of the President of the Russian Federation the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation recognized the Red Terror as unlawful, which in turn led to the suspension of Communist Party of the RSFSR." ], [ "Regional Chekas", "Cheka departments were organized not only in big cities and guberniya seats, but also in each uyezd, at any front-lines and military formations.", "Nothing is known on what resources they were created.", "Many who were hired to head those departments were so-called \"nestlings of Alexander Kerensky\".", ";Moscow Cheka (1918–1919)* Chairman – Felix Dzerzhynsky, Deputy – Yakov Peters (initially heading the Petrograd Department), other members – Shklovsky, Kneyfis, Tseystin, Razmirovich, Kronberg, Khaikina, Karlson, Shauman, Lentovich, Rivkin, Antonov, Delafabr, Tsytkin, G.Sverdlov, Bizensky, Yakov Blumkin, Aleksandrovich, Fines, Zaks, Yakov Goldin, Galpershtein, Kniggisen, Martin Latsis (later transfer (chief of jail), Fogel, Zakis, Shillenkus, Yanson).", ";Petrograd Cheka (1918–1919)* Chairman – Meinkman, Moisei Uritsky (reiller, Kozlovsky, Model, Rozmirovich, I.Diesporov, Iselevich, Krassikov, Bukhan, Merbis, Paykis, Anvelt.", ";Kharkov Cheka* Deych, Vikhman, Timofey, Vera (Dora) Grebenshchikova, Aleksandra (ag* Ashykin." ], [ "Popular culture", "* The Cheka were popular staples in Soviet film and literature.", "This was partly due to a romanticization of the organisation in the post-Stalin period, and also because they provided a useful action/detection template.", "Films featuring the Cheka include Ostern's ''Miles of Fire'', Nikita Mikhalkov's ''At Home among Strangers'', the miniseries ''The Adjutant of His Excellency'', and also ''Dead Season'' (starring Donatas Banionis), and the 1992 Russian drama film ''The Chekist''.", "* In Spain, during the Spanish Civil War, the detention and torture centers operated by the Republicans were named \"''checas''\" after the Soviet organization.", "Alfonso Laurencic was their promoter, ideologist and builder.", "* Dzerzhinsky, who rarely drank, is said to have told Lenin – on an occasion in which he did so excessively – that secret police work could be done by \"only saints or scoundrels ... but now the saints are running away from me and I am left with the scoundrels\".", "* ''The Chekist'', directed by Aleksandr Rogozhkin, is a 1992 French–Russian film based on a 1923 short story by Vladimir Zazubrin.", "It tells the story of a bloody work and downfall of a Soviet Cheka security official involved in mass executions during the Russian Civil War." ], [ "Legacy", "Konstantin Preobrazhenskiy criticised the continuing celebration of the professional holiday of the old and the modern Russian security services on the anniversary of the creation of the Cheka, with the assent of the Presidents of Russia.", "(Vladimir Putin, former KGB officer, chose not to change the date to another): \"The successors of the KGB still haven't renounced anything; they even celebrate their professional holiday the same day, as during repression, on the 20th of December.", "It is as if the present intelligence and counterespionage services of Germany celebrated Gestapo Day.", "I can imagine how indignant our press would be!\"" ], [ "See also", "* Chekism* Commanders of the border troops USSR and RF* Central Case Examination Group* Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies* Great Purge* Ministry for State Security (Soviet Union)* Okhrana* People's Commissariat for State Security (Soviet Union)* Russian Revolution of 1917" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Andrew, Christopher M. and Vasili Mitrokhin (1999) ''The Sword and the Shield : The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB.''", "New York: Basic Books.", ".", "* Carr, E. H. (1958) ''The Origin and Status of the Cheka.''", "Soviet Studies, vol.", "10, no.", "1, pp. 1–11.", "* Chamberlin, W. H. (1935) ''The Russian Revolution 1917–1921, '' 2 vols.", "London and New York.", "The Macmillan Company.", "* Dziak, John.", "(1988) ''Chekisty: A History of the KGB.''", "Lexington, Massachusetts Lexington Books.", "* Figes, Orlando (1997) ''A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924.''", "Penguin Books.", ".", "* Leggett, George (1986) ''The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police.''", "Oxford University Press, New York.", "* Lincoln, W. Bruce (1999) ''Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War.''", "Da Capo Press.", "* * Melgounov, Sergey Petrovich (1925) ''The Red Terror in Russia.''", "London & Toronto: J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd.* Overy, Richard (2004) ''The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia.''", "W. W. Norton & Company; 1st American edition.", "* Rummel, Rudolph Joseph (1990) ''Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917.''", "Transaction Publishers.", "** Schapiro, Leonard B.", "(1984) ''The Russian Revolutions of 1917 : The Origins of Modern Communism.''", "New York: Basic Books.", "* Volkogonov, Dmitri (1994) ''Lenin: A New Biography.''", "Free Press.", "* Volkogonov, Dmitri (1998) ''Autopsy of an Empire: The Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime'' Free Press." ], [ "External links", "* * The Cheka – Spartacus Schoolnet collection of primary source extracts relating to the Cheka* Development of the Soviet system of punitive organs" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Clitic" ], [ "Introduction", "In morphology and syntax, a '''clitic''' ( , backformed from Greek \"leaning\" or \"enclitic\") is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but depends phonologically on another word or phrase.", "In this sense, it is syntactically independent but phonologically dependent—always attached to a host.", "A clitic is pronounced like an affix, but plays a syntactic role at the phrase level.", "In other words, clitics have the ''form'' of affixes, but the distribution of function words.Clitics can belong to any grammatical category, although they are commonly pronouns, determiners, or adpositions.", "Note that orthography is not always a good guide for distinguishing clitics from affixes: clitics may be written as separate words, but sometimes they are joined to the word they depend on (like the Latin clitic ''-que'', meaning \"and\") or separated by special characters such as hyphens or apostrophes (like the English clitic ''s'' in \"it's\" for \"it has\" or \"it is\")." ], [ "Classification", "Clitics fall into various categories depending on their position in relation to the word they connect to.=== Proclitic ===A proclitic appears before its host.=== Enclitic ===An enclitic appears after its host.", "*Latin: Senatus ''Populus'''''-que''' Romanus*:\"Senate ''people''-'''and''' Roman\" = \"The Senate and people of Rome\"*Spanish: ''tener'''''lo'''*:\"to have '''it'''\"*Ancient Greek: ''ánthrōpoí'' ('''-te''') ''theoí'' '''-te'''*:\"''people'' ('''and''') ''gods'' '''and'''\" = \"(both) men and gods\"*Sanskrit: ''naro gajaś'''-ca''''' नरो गजश्च i.e.", "\"naraḥ gajaḥ ca\" नरस् गजस् -च with sandhi*:\"''the man the elephant and''\" = \"the man and the elephant\"*Sanskrit: Namas'''te''' ''namas''.", "*: \"''bowing to you''\"*Czech: ''Nevím, chtělo'''-li by se mi si to tam však''' také vyzkoušet''.", "*:\"'''However''' ('''''však'''''), I do not know (''nevím''), '''if''' ('''''-li''''') '''it''' '''would''' ('''''by''''') want (''chtělo '''se''''') to try (''vyzkoušet '''si''''') '''it''' ('''''to''''') '''to me''' ('''''mi''''') '''there''' ('''''tam''''') as well (''také'').\"", "(= However, I'm not sure if I would like to try it there as well.", ")*Tamil: ''idu eṉ pū'' = இது என் பூ (This is my flower).", "With enclitic '''-vē''', which indicates certainty, this sentence becomes*:idu eṉ pū'''vē''' = இது என் பூவே (This is ''certainly'' my flower)*Telugu: ''idi nā puvvu'' = ఇది నా పువ్వు (This is my flower).", "With enclitic '''-ē''', which indicates certainty, this sentence becomes*:Idi nā puvv'''ē''' = ఇది నా పువ్వే (This is ''certainly'' my flower)*Estonian: ''Rahaga'''gi''' vaene'' means \"Poor even having money\".", "Enclitic '''-gi''' with the comitative case turns \"with/having something\" into \"even with/having something\".", "Without the enclitic, the saying would be \"rahaga vaene\", which would mean that the predicate is \"poor, but has money\" (compared to \"poor even having money\", having money won't make a difference if the predicate is poor or not).=== Endoclitic ===Some authors postulate endoclitics, which split a stem and are inserted between the two elements.", "For example, they have been claimed to occur between the elements of bipartite verbs (equivalent to English verbs such as ''take part'') in the Udi language.", "Endoclitics have also been claimed for Pashto and Degema.However, other authors treat such forms as a sequence of clitics docked to the stem." ], [ "Distinction", "One distinction drawn by some scholars divides the broad term \"clitics\" into two categories, simple clitics and special clitics.", "This distinction is, however, disputed.=== Simple clitics ===Simple clitics are free morphemes: can stand alone in a phrase or sentence.", "They are unaccented and thus phonologically dependent upon a nearby word.", "They derive meaning only from that \"host\".=== Special clitics ===Special clitics are morphemes that are bound to the word upon which they depend: they exist as a part of their host.", "That form, which is unaccented, represents a variant of a free form that carries stress.", "Both variants carry similar meaning and phonological makeup, but the special clitic is bound to a host word and is unaccented." ], [ "Properties", "Some clitics can be understood as elements undergoing a historical process of grammaticalization:lexical item → clitic → affixAccording to this model from Judith Klavans, an autonomous lexical item in a particular context loses the properties of a fully independent word over time and acquires the properties of a morphological affix (prefix, suffix, infix, etc.).", "At any intermediate stage of this evolutionary process, the element in question can be described as a \"clitic\".", "As a result, this term ends up being applied to a highly heterogeneous class of elements, presenting different combinations of word-like and affix-like properties.===Prosody===One characteristic shared by many clitics, shared with affixes, is a lack of prosodic independence.", "A clitic attaches to an adjacent word, known as its ''host''.", "Orthographic conventions treat clitics in different ways: Some are written as separate words, some are written as one word with their hosts, and some are attached to their hosts, but set off by punctuation (a hyphen or an apostrophe, for example).===Comparison with affixes===Although the term \"clitic\" can be used descriptively to refer to any element whose grammatical status is somewhere in between a typical word and a typical affix, linguists have proposed various definitions of \"clitic\" as a technical term.", "One common approach is to treat clitics as words that are prosodically deficient: that, like affixes, they cannot appear without a host, and can only form an accentual unit in combination with their host.", "The term ''postlexical clitic'' is sometimes used for this sense of the term.Given this basic definition, further criteria are needed to establish a dividing line between clitics and affixes.", "There is no natural, clear-cut boundary between the two categories (since from a diachronic point of view, a given form can move gradually from one to the other by morphologization).", "However, by identifying clusters of observable properties that are associated with core examples of clitics on the one hand, and core examples of affixes on the other, one can pick out a battery of tests that provide an empirical foundation for a clitic-affix distinction.An affix syntactically and phonologically attaches to a base morpheme of a limited part of speech, such as a verb, to form a new word.", "A clitic syntactically functions above the word level, on the phrase or clause level, and attaches only phonetically to the first, last, or only word in the phrase or clause, whichever part of speech the word belongs to.The results of applying these criteria sometimes reveal that elements that have traditionally been called \"clitics\" actually have the status of affixes (e.g., the Romance pronominal clitics discussed below).Zwicky and Pullum postulated five characteristics that distinguish clitics from affixes:* Clitics do not select their hosts.", "That is, they are \"promiscuous\", attaching to whichever word happens to be in the right place.", "Affixes do select their host: They only attach to the word they are connected to semantically, and generally attach to a particular part of speech.", "* Clitics do not exhibit arbitrary lexical gaps.", "Affixes, on the other hand, are often lexicalized and may simply not occur with certain words.", "(English plural -s, for example, does not occur with \"child\".", ")* Clitics do not exhibit morphophonological idiosyncrasies.", "That is, they follow the morphophonological rules of the rest of the language.", "Affixes may be irregular in this regard.", "* Clitics do not exhibit semantic idiosyncrasies.", "That is, the meaning of the phrase-plus-clitic is predictable from the meanings of the phrase and the clitic.", "Affixes may have irregular meanings.", "* Clitics can attach to material already containing clitics (and affixes).", "Affixes can attach to other affixes, but not to material containing clitics.", "That is, an affix may appear between a stem and a clitic, but a clitic may not occur between a stem and an affix to that stem.An example of differing analyses by different linguists is the discussion of the possessive marker ('s) in English.", "Some linguists treat it as an affix, while others treat it as a clitic.===Comparison with words===Similar to the discussion above, clitics must be distinguishable from words.", "Linguists have proposed a number of tests to differentiate between the two categories.", "Some tests, specifically, are based upon the understanding that when comparing the two, clitics resemble affixes, while words resemble syntactic phrases.", "Clitics and words resemble different categories, in the sense that they share certain properties.", "Six such tests are described below.", "These are not the only ways to differentiate between words and clitics.", "*If a morpheme is bound to a word and can never occur in complete isolation, then it is likely a clitic.", "In contrast, a word is not bound and can appear on its own.", "*If the addition of a morpheme to a word prevents further affixation, then it is likely a clitic.", "*If a morpheme combines with single words to convey a further degree of meaning, then it is likely a clitic.", "A word combines with a group of words or phrases to denote further meaning.", "*If a morpheme must be in a certain order with respect to other morphemes within the construction, then it is likely a clitic.", "Independent words enjoy free ordering with respect to other words, within the confines of the word order of the language.", "*If a morpheme's allowable behavior is determined by one principle, it is likely a clitic.", "For example, \"a\" precedes indefinite nouns in English.", "Words can rarely be described with one such description.", "*In general, words are more morphologically complex than clitics.", "Clitics are rarely composed of more than one morpheme.===Word order===Clitics do not always appear next to the word or phrase that they are associated with grammatically.", "They may be subject to global word order constraints that act on the entire sentence.", "Many Indo-European languages, for example, obey '''Wackernagel's law''' (named after Jacob Wackernagel), which requires sentential clitics to appear in \"second position\", after the first syntactic phrase or the first stressed word in a clause:*Latin had three enclitics that appeared in second or third position of a clause: ''-enim'' 'indeed, for', ''-autem'' 'but, moreover', ''-vero'' 'however'.", "For example, ''quis enim (quisenim) potest negare?''", "(from Martial's epigram LXIV, literally \"who indeed can deny her riches?\").", "Spevak (2010) reports that in her corpus of Caesar, Cicero and Sallust, these three words appear in such position in 100% of the cases.", "* Russian has one: ли ''(li)'' which acts as a general question marker.", "It always appears in second position in its sentence or proposition, and if the interrogation concerns one word in particular, that word is placed before it:** Он завтра придёт ''(on zavtra pridyot)'', He'll arrive tomorrow.", "** Придёт ли он завтра?, Will he arrive tomorrow?", "** Завтра ли он придёт?, Is it tomorrow that he'll arrive?", "** Он ли завтра придёт?, Is it he who'll arrive tomorrow?", "** Я не знаю, придёт ли он завтра ''(Ya nye znayu, pridyot li on zavtra)'', I don't know if he'll arrive tomorrow." ], [ "Indo-European languages", "===Germanic languages======= English ====English enclitics include the contracted versions of auxiliary verbs, as in ''I'm'' and ''we've''.", "Some also regard the possessive marker, as in ''The Queen of England's crown'' as an enclitic, rather than a (phrasal) genitival inflection.Some consider the infinitive marker ''to'' and the English articles ''a, an, the'' to be proclitics.The negative marker ''-n't'' as in ''couldn't'' etc.", "is typically considered a clitic that developed from the lexical item ''not''.", "Linguists Arnold Zwicky and Geoffrey Pullum argue, however, that the form has the properties of an affix rather than a syntactically independent clitic.====Other Germanic languages====*Old Norse: The definite article was the enclitic , , (masculine, feminine and neuter nominative singular), as in (\"the elf\"), (\"the gift\"), and (\"the tree\"), an abbreviated form of the independent pronoun , cognate of the German pronoun .", "It was fully declined for gender, case and number.", "Since both the noun and enclitic were declined, this led to \"double declension\".", "The situation remains similar in modern Faroese and Icelandic, but in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, the enclitics have become endings.", "Old Norse had also some enclitics of personal pronouns that were attached to verbs.", "These were (from ), (from ), (from ), and (from ).", "These could even be stacked up, e.g.", "(Hávamál, stanza 116).", "*Dutch: definite article of neuter nouns and third person singular neuter pronoun, first person pronoun, second person singular pronoun, third person masculine singular pronoun, third person plural pronoun* Plautdietsch: (\"Will he do it today?", "\")*Gothic: Sentence clitics appear in 2nd position in accordance with Wackernagel's Law, including (yes–no question), (\"and\"), (\"then\"), (\"anything\"), for example (\"of thyself?\").", "Multiple clitics could be stacked up, and split a preverb from its rest of the verb if the preverb comes at the beginning of the clause, e.g.", "(\"and then he seized them (fem.", ")\"), (\"whether he saw anything\").", "*Yiddish: The unspecified pronoun can be contracted to .===Celtic languages===In Cornish, the clitics ''ma'' ''/'' ''na'' are used after a noun and definite article to express \"this\" / \"that\" (singular) and \"these\" / \"those\" (plural).", "For example:*''an lyver'' \"the book\", ''an lyver ma'' \"this book\", ''an lyver na'' \"that book\"*''an lyvrow'' \"the books\", ''an lyvrow ma'' \"these books\", ''an lyvrow na'' \"those books\"Irish Gaelic uses ''seo'' ''/'' ''sin'' as clitics in a similar way, also to express \"this\" / \"that\" and \"these\" / \"those\".", "For example:*''an leabhar'' \"the book\", ''an leabhar seo'' \"this book\", ''an leabhar sin'' \"that book\"*''na leabhair'' \"the books\", ''na leabhair seo'' \"these books\", ''na leabhair sin'' \"those books\"===Romance languages===In Romance languages, some have treated the object personal pronoun forms as clitics, though they only attach to the verb they are the object of and so are affixes by the definition used here.", "There is no general agreement on the issue.", "For the Spanish object pronouns, for example:*'''''lo''' atamos'' (\"'''it''' tied-1PL\" = \"we tied it\" or \"we tied him\"; can only occur with the verb it is the object of)*''dá'''melo''''' (\"give '''me it'''\")Portuguese allows object suffixes before the conditional and future suffixes of the verbs:*''Ela levá-'''lo'''-ia'' (\"''She take-'''it'''-would''\" – \"She would take it\").", "*''Eles dar-'''no'''-'''lo'''-ão'' (\"''They give-'''us'''-'''it'''-will''\" – \"They will give it to us\").Colloquial Portuguese allows '''ser''' to be conjugated as a verbal clitic adverbial adjunct to emphasize the importance of the phrase compared to its context, or with the meaning of \"really\" or \"in truth\":*''Ele estava '''era''' gordo'' (\"''He was '''was''' fat''\" – \"He was very fat\").", "*''Ele ligou '''é''' para Paula'' (\"''He phoned '''is''' Paula''\" – \"He phoned Paula (''with emphasis'')\").Note that this clitic form is only for the verb '''ser''' and is restricted to only third-person singular conjugations.", "It is not used as a verb in the grammar of the sentence but introduces prepositional phrases and adds emphasis.", "It does not need to concord with the tense of the main verb, as in the second example, and can be usually removed from the sentence without affecting the simple meaning.===Proto-Indo-European===In the Indo-European languages, some clitics can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European: for example, *'''' is the original form of Sanskrit ''च'' (''-ca''), Greek ''τε'' (''-te''), and Latin ''-que''.", "*Latin: ''-que'' \"and\", ''-ve'' \"or\", ''-ne'' (yes–no question)*Greek: ''τε'' \"and\", ''δέ'' \"but\", ''γάρ'' \"for\" (in a logical argument), ''οὖν'' \"therefore\"===Slavic languages===*Russian: ли (yes–no question), же (emphasis), то (emphasis), не \"not\" (proclitic), бы (subjunctive)* Czech: special clitics: weak personal and reflexive pronouns (''mu'', \"him\"), certain auxiliary verbs (''by'', \"would\"), and various short particles and adverbs (''tu'', \"here\"; ''ale'', \"though\").", "\"''Nepodařilo '''by se mi mu to''' dát''\" \"I would not succeed in giving it to him\".", "In addition there are various simple clitics including short prepositions.", "* Polish: ''-by'' (conditional mood particle), ''się'' (reflexive, also modifies meaning of certain verbs), ''no'' and ''-że'' (emphasis), ''-m, -ś, -śmy, -ście'' (personal auxiliary), ''mi, ci, cię, go, mu'' &c. (unstressed personal pronouns in oblique cases)==== Serbo-Croatian ====Serbo-Croatian: the reflexive pronoun forms ''si'' and ''se'', ''li'' (yes–no question), unstressed present and aorist tense forms of ''biti'' (\"to be\"; ''sam, si, je, smo, ste, su''; and ''bih, bi, bi, bismo, biste, bi'', for the respective tense), unstressed personal pronouns in genitive (''me, te, ga, je, nas, vas, ih''), dative (''mi, ti, mu, joj, nam, vam, im'') and accusative (''me, te, ga (nj), je (ju), nas, vas, ih''), and unstressed present tense of ''htjeti'' (\"want/will\"; ''ću, ćeš, će, ćemo, ćete, će'')These clitics follow the first stressed word in the sentence or clause in most cases, which may have been inherited from Proto-Indo-European (see Wackernagel's Law), even though many of the modern clitics became cliticised much more recently in the language (e.g.", "auxiliary verbs or the accusative forms of pronouns).", "In subordinate clauses and questions, they follow the connector and/or the question word respectively.Examples (clitics – ''sam'' \"I am\", ''biste'' \"you would (pl.", ")\", ''mi'' \"to me\", ''vam'' \"to you (pl.", ")\", ''ih'' \"them\"):* ''Pokažite '''mi ih'''.''", "\"Show (pl.)", "them to me.\"", "* ''Pokazao '''sam vam ih''' jučer.''", "\"I showed them to you (pl.)", "yesterday.\"", "* ''Sve '''sam vam ih''' (jučer) pokazao.", "/ Sve '''sam vam ih''' pokazao (jučer).''", "\"I showed all of them to you (yesterday).\"", "(focus on \"all\") * ''Jučer '''sam vam ih''' (sve) pokazao.''", "\"I showed (all of) them to you yesterday.\"", "(focus on \"yesterday\") * ''Znam da '''sam vam ih''' već pokazao.''", "\"I know that I have already shown them to you.\"", "* ''Zašto '''sam vam ih''' jučer pokazao?''", "\"Why did I show them to you yesterday?\"", "* ''Zar '''sam vam ih''' jučer pokazao?''", "\"Did I (really) show them to you yesterday?\"", "* ''Kad '''biste mi ih''' sada dali...'' \"If you (pl.)", "gave them to me now...\" (lit.", "If you-would to-me them now give-''participle''...) * ''Što '''sam''' god vidio...'' \"Whatever I saw...\" (lit.", "What I-am ever see-''participle''...)In certain rural dialects this rule is (or was until recently) very strict, whereas elsewhere various exceptions occur.", "These include phrases containing conjunctions (e. g. ''Ivan i Ana'' \"Ivan and Ana\"), nouns with a genitival attribute (e. g. ''vrh brda'' \"the top of the hill\"), proper names and titles and the like (e. g. ''(gospođa) Ivana Marić'' \"(Mrs) Ivana Marić\", ''grad Zagreb'' \"the city (of) Zagreb\"), and in many local varieties clitics are hardly ever inserted into any phrases (e. g. ''moj najbolji prijatelj'' \"my best friend\", ''sutra ujutro'' \"tomorrow morning\").", "In cases like these, clitics normally follow the initial phrase, although some Standard grammar handbooks recommend that they should be placed immediately after the verb (many native speakers find this unnatural).Examples: * ''Ja '''smo''' i on otišli u grad.''", "\"He and I went to town.\"", "(lit.", "I are and him gone to town) – this is dialectal.", "* ''Ja i on '''smo''' otišli u grad.''", "– commonly heard* ''Ja i on otišli '''smo''' u grad.''", "– prescribed by some standard grammars* ''Moja '''mu je''' starija sestra to rekla.''", "\"My elder sister told him that.\"", "(lit.", "my to-him is elder sister that say-''participle'') – standard and usual in many dialects * ''Moja starija sestra '''mu je''' to rekla.''", "– common in many dialectsClitics are however never inserted after the negative particle ''ne'', which always precedes the verb in Serbo-Croatian, or after prefixes (earlier preverbs), and the interrogative particle ''li'' always immediately follows the verb.", "Colloquial interrogative particles such as ''da li'', ''dal'', ''jel'' appear in sentence-initial position and are followed by clitics (if there are any).Examples: * ''Ne vidim '''te'''.''", "\"I don't (or can't) see you.\"", "* ''Dovedite '''ih'''.''", "\"Bring them (over here)!\"", "(a prefixed verb: ''do+vedite'') * ''Vidiš '''li me'''?''", "\"Do/can you see me?\"", "* ''Vidiš '''li''' sestru?''", "\"Do you see the sister?\"", "(It is impossible to say, e. g. **Sestru li vidiš?, although ''Sestru vidiš.''", "\"It's the sister that you see.\"", "is natural) * ''Jel '''(me)''' vidiš?''", "\"Do/Can you see (me)?\"", "(colloquial)" ], [ "Other languages", "*Arabic: Suffixes standing for direct object pronouns and/or indirect object pronouns (as found in Indo-European languages) are suffixed to verbs, possessive determiners are suffixed to nouns, and pronouns are suffixed to particles.", "*Australian Aboriginal languages: Many Australian languages use bound pronoun enclitics to mark inanimate arguments and, in many pro-drop languages like Warlpiri, animate arguments as well.", "Pronominal enclitics may also mark possession and other less common argument structures like causal and reciprocal arguments (see Pintupi).", "In some Australian languages, case markers also seem to operate like special clitics since they are distributed at the phrasal instead of word level (indeed, clitics have been referred to as \"phrasal affixes\") see for example in Wangkatja.", "*Finnish: Finnish has seven clitics, which change according to the vowel harmony: ''-kO'' (''-ko ~ -kö''), ''-kA'' (''-ka ~ -kä''), ''-kin'', ''-kAAn'' (''-kaan ~ -kään''), ''-pA'' (''-pa'' ~ ''-pä''), ''-hAn'' (''-han ~ -hän'') and ''-s''.", "One word can have multiple clitics attached to it: ''on'''kohan'''?''", "\"'''I wonder''' '''if''' it is?", "\"**''-kO'' attached to a verb makes it a question.", "It is used in yes/no questions: ''Katsot televisiota'' \"You are watching television\" → ''Katsot'''ko''' televisiota?''", "\"Are you watching television?\".", "It can also be added to words that are not verbs but the emphasis changes: ''Televisiota'''ko''' katsot?''", "\"Is it television you're watching?", "\", ''Sinä'''kö''' katsot televisiota?''", "\"Is it you who is watching television?", "\"**''-kA'' gives the host word a colloquial tone: ''miten'' ~ ''miten'''kä''''' (\"how\").", "When attached to a negative verb it corresponds with \"and\": ''En pidä mansikoista en'''kä''' mustikoista'' \"I don't like strawberries '''nor''' blueberries\".", "It can also make a negative verb stronger: ''En'''kä''' tule!''", "\"I '''definitely''' won't come!", "\"**''-kin'' is a focus particle, often used instead of ''myös'' (\"also\" / \"as well\"): ''Minä'''kin''' olin siellä'' \"I was there, too\".", "Depending on the context when attached to a verb it can also express that something happened according to the plan or as a surprise and not according to the plan.", "It can also make exclamations stronger.", "It can be attached to several words in the same sentence, changing the focus of the host word, but can only appear once per sentence: ''Minä'''kin''' olin siellä'' (\"'''I, too,''' was there\"), ''Minä olin'''kin''' siellä'' (\"'''Surprisingly''', I '''was''' there\" or \"'''As expected''', I '''was''' there\"), ''Minä olin siellä'''kin''''' (\"I was '''there''' '''as well'''\")**''-kAAn'' is also a focus particle and it corresponds with ''-kin'' in negative sentences: ''Minä'''kään''' en ollut siellä'' \"I wasn't there '''either'''\".", "Like ''-kin'' it can be attached to several host words in the same sentence.", "The only word it cannot be attached to is a negative verb.", "In questions it acts as a confirmation, like the word ''again'' in English: ''Missä sanoit'''kaan''' asuvasi?''", "\"Where did you say you lived '''again'''?", "\"**''-pA'' is a tone particle which can either add an arguing or patronising tone, or strengthen the host word: ''Minä'''pä''' tiedän paremmin!''", "\"Well, I know better!", "\", ''On'''pa''' kaunis kissa!''", "\"'''Wow''' what a beautiful cat!", "\", ''No, kerro'''pa''', miksi teit sen!''", "\"Well, go ahead and tell why you did it\"**''-hAn'' is also a tone particle.", "In interrogative sentences it can make the question more polite and not as pressing: ''Onko'''han''' isäsi kotona?''", "\"('''I wonder''' if your dad is at home?\"", "In command phrases it makes the command softer: ''Tule'''han''' tänne'' \"Come here '''you'''\".", "It can also make a sentence more explanatory, make a claim more self-evident, express that something happened according to one's expectations, or that something came as a surprise etc.", "''Pekka tuntee minut, on'''han''' hän minun opettajani'' \"Pekka knows me, he is my teacher '''after all'''\", ''Kaikki'''han''' niin tekevät'' \"Everyone does that '''after all'''\", ''Maija'''han''' se siinä!''", "\"Well, if it isn't Maija!\"", "''Luulin, ettette osaisi, mutta te'''hän''' puhutte suomea hyvin'' \"I thought you wouldn't be able to, but you speak Finnish well\"** ''-s'' is a tone particle as well.", "It can also be used as a mitigating or softening phrase like ''-hAn'': ''Anniko'''s''' se on?''", "\"'''Oh, but''' isn't it Anni?", "\", ''Tule'''s''' tänne'' \"Come here, '''you'''\", ''Miksikä'''s''' ei?''", "\"'''Well''', why not?", "\", ''Paljonko'''s''' kello on?''", "\"'''Say,''' what time it is?", "\"*Ganda: ''-nga'' attached to a verb to form the progressive; ''-wo'' 'in' (also attached to a verb)*Georgian: ''-o'' (2nd and 3rd person speakers) and ''-metki'' (1st person speakers) is added to the end of a sentence to show reported speech.", "Examples: ''K'atsma miutxra, xval gnaxe-o'' = The man told me that he would see you tomorrow (Literally, \"The man told me, tomorrow I see you reported\") vs. ''K'atss vutxari, xval gnaxe-metki ='' I told the man that I would see you tomorrow (Literally, \"To man I told, tomorrow I see you first person reported).", "*Hungarian: the marker of indirect questions is ''-e:'' ''Nem tudja még, jön'''-e'''.''", "\"He doesn't know yet '''if''' he'll come.\"", "This clitic can also mark direct questions with a falling intonation.", "''Is'' (\"as well\") and ''se'' (\"not... either\") also function as clitics: although written separately, they are pronounced together with the preceding word, without stress: ''Ő is jön.''", "\"He'll come too.\"", "''Ő sem jön.''", "\"He won't come, either.", "\"*Korean: The copula 이다 (''ida'') and the adjectival 하다 (''hada''), as well as some nominal and verbal particles (e.g.", "는, ''neun'').", "However, alternative analysis suggests that the nominal particles do not function as clitics, but as phrasal affixes.", "*Somali: pronominal clitics, either subject or object clitics, are required in Somali.", "These exist as simple clitics postponed to the noun they apply to.", "Lexical arguments can be omitted from sentences, but pronominal clitics cannot be." ], [ "See also", "*Clitic climbing*Clitic doubling*Functional item*Genitive case*Grammatical particle*Possessive case*Separable affix*Tmesis*V2 word order*Weak and strong forms in English*Weak pronoun" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Context-free grammar" ], [ "Introduction", "C programming language (left), and a derivation of a piece of C code (right) from the nonterminal symbol .", "Nonterminal symbols are blue and terminal symbols are red.In formal language theory, a '''context-free grammar''' ('''CFG''') is a formal grammar whose production rules can be applied to a nonterminal symbol regardless of its context.In particular, in a context-free grammar, each production rule is of the form:with a ''single'' nonterminal symbol, and a string of terminals and/or nonterminals ( can be empty).", "Regardless of which symbols surround it, the single nonterminal on the left hand side can always be replaced by on the right hand side.", "This distinguishes it from a context-sensitive grammar, which can have production rules in the form with a nonterminal symbol and , , and strings of terminal and/or nonterminal symbols.A formal grammar is essentially a set of production rules that describe all possible strings in a given formal language.", "Production rules are simple replacements.", "For example, the first rule in the picture,:replaces with .", "There can be multiple replacement rules for a given nonterminal symbol.", "The language generated by a grammar is the set of all strings of terminal symbols that can be derived, by repeated rule applications, from some particular nonterminal symbol (\"start symbol\").Nonterminal symbols are used during the derivation process, but do not appear in its final result string.Languages generated by context-free grammars are known as context-free languages (CFL).", "Different context-free grammars can generate the same context-free language.", "It is important to distinguish the properties of the language (intrinsic properties) from the properties of a particular grammar (extrinsic properties).", "The language equality question (do two given context-free grammars generate the same language?)", "is undecidable.Context-free grammars arise in linguistics where they are used to describe the structure of sentences and words in a natural language, and they were invented by the linguist Noam Chomsky for this purpose.", "By contrast, in computer science, as the use of recursively-defined concepts increased, they were used more and more.", "In an early application, grammars are used to describe the structure of programming languages.", "In a newer application, they are used in an essential part of the Extensible Markup Language (XML) called the document type definition.In linguistics, some authors use the term phrase structure grammar to refer to context-free grammars, whereby phrase-structure grammars are distinct from dependency grammars.", "In computer science, a popular notation for context-free grammars is Backus–Naur form, or BNF." ], [ "Background", "Since at least the time of the ancient Indian scholar Pāṇini, linguists have described the grammars of languages in terms of their block structure, and described how sentences are recursively built up from smaller phrases, and eventually individual words or word elements.", "An essential property of these block structures is that logical units never overlap.", "For example, the sentence:: ''John, whose blue car was in the garage, walked to the grocery store.", "''can be logically parenthesized (with the logical metasymbols ''' ''') as follows:: ''''''''John'''''''', ''''''''whose ''''''''''blue car'''''''' ''''''''was ''''''''''in ''''''''''the garage'''''''','''''' ''''''''walked ''''''''''to ''''''''''the ''''''''''grocery store''''''''.A context-free grammar provides a simple and mathematically precise mechanism for describing the methods by which phrases in some natural language are built from smaller blocks, capturing the \"block structure\" of sentences in a natural way.", "Its simplicity makes the formalism amenable to rigorous mathematical study.", "Important features of natural language syntax such as agreement and reference are not part of the context-free grammar, but the basic recursive structure of sentences, the way in which clauses nest inside other clauses, and the way in which lists of adjectives and adverbs are swallowed by nouns and verbs, is described exactly.Context-free grammars are a special form of Semi-Thue systems that in their general form date back to the work of Axel Thue.The formalism of context-free grammars was developed in the mid-1950s by Noam Chomsky, and also their classification as a special type of formal grammar (which he called phrase-structure grammars).", "Some authors, however, reserve the term for more restricted grammars in the Chomsky hierarchy: context-sensitive grammars or context-free grammars.", "In a broader sense, phrase structure grammars are also known as constituency grammars.", "The defining trait of phrase structure grammars is thus their adherence to the constituency relation, as opposed to the dependency relation of dependency grammars.", "In Chomsky's generative grammar framework, the syntax of natural language was described by context-free rules combined with transformation rules.Block structure was introduced into computer programming languages by the Algol project (1957–1960), which, as a consequence, also featured a context-free grammar to describe the resulting Algol syntax.", "This became a standard feature of computer languages, and the notation for grammars used in concrete descriptions of computer languages came to be known as Backus–Naur form, after two members of the Algol language design committee.", "The \"block structure\" aspect that context-free grammars capture is so fundamental to grammar that the terms syntax and grammar are often identified with context-free grammar rules, especially in computer science.", "Formal constraints not captured by the grammar are then considered to be part of the \"semantics\" of the language.Context-free grammars are simple enough to allow the construction of efficient parsing algorithms that, for a given string, determine whether and how it can be generated from the grammar.", "An Earley parser is an example of such an algorithm, while the widely used LR and LL parsers are simpler algorithms that deal only with more restrictive subsets of context-free grammars." ], [ "Formal definitions", "A context-free grammar is defined by the 4-tuple , where# is a finite set; each element is called ''a nonterminal character'' or a ''variable''.", "Each variable represents a different type of phrase or clause in the sentence.", "Variables are also sometimes called syntactic categories.", "Each variable defines a sub-language of the language defined by .# is a finite set of ''terminal''s, disjoint from , which make up the actual content of the sentence.", "The set of terminals is the alphabet of the language defined by the grammar .# is a finite relation in , where the asterisk represents the Kleene star operation.", "The members of are called the ''(rewrite) rule''s or ''production''s of the grammar.", "(also commonly symbolized by a )# is the start variable (or start symbol), used to represent the whole sentence (or program).", "It must be an element of .=== Production rule notation ===A production rule in is formalized mathematically as a pair , where is a nonterminal and is a string of variables and/or terminals; rather than using ordered pair notation, production rules are usually written using an arrow operator with as its left hand side and as its right hand side:.It is allowed for to be the empty string, and in this case it is customary to denote it by ε.", "The form is called an -production.It is common to list all right-hand sides for the same left-hand side on the same line, using | (the vertical bar) to separate them.", "Rules and can hence be written as .", "In this case, and are called the first and second alternative, respectively.=== Rule application ===For any strings , we say directly yields , written as , if with and such that and .", "Thus, is a result of applying the rule to .=== Repetitive rule application ===For any strings we say ''yields'' or is ''derived'' from if there is a positive integer and strings such that .", "This relation is denoted , or in some textbooks.", "If , the relation holds.", "In other words, and are the reflexive transitive closure (allowing a string to yield itself) and the transitive closure (requiring at least one step) of , respectively.=== Context-free language ===The language of a grammar is the set:of all terminal-symbol strings derivable from the start symbol.A language is said to be a context-free language (CFL), if there exists a CFG , such that .Non-deterministic pushdown automata recognize exactly the context-free languages." ], [ "Examples", "=== Words concatenated with their reverse ===The grammar , with productions:,:,:,is context-free.", "It is not proper since it includes an ε-production.", "A typical derivation in this grammar is:.This makes it clear that .", "The language is context-free, however, it can be proved that it is not regular.If the productions:,:,are added, a context-free grammar for the set of all palindromes over the alphabet is obtained.=== Well-formed parentheses ===The canonical example of a context-free grammar is parenthesis matching, which is representative of the general case.", "There are two terminal symbols \"(\" and \")\" and one nonterminal symbol S. The production rules are:,:,:The first rule allows the S symbol to multiply; the second rule allows the S symbol to become enclosed by matching parentheses; and the third rule terminates the recursion.=== Well-formed nested parentheses and square brackets ===A second canonical example is two different kinds of matching nested parentheses, described by the productions::::::with terminal symbols ( ) and nonterminal S.The following sequence can be derived in that grammar::=== Matching pairs ===In a context-free grammar, we can pair up characters the way we do with brackets.", "The simplest example:::This grammar generates the language , which is not regular (according to the pumping lemma for regular languages).The special character ε stands for the empty string.", "By changing the above grammar to::we obtain a grammar generating the language instead.", "This differs only in that it contains the empty string while the original grammar did not.=== Distinct number of a's and b's ===A context-free grammar for the language consisting of all strings over {a,b} containing an unequal number of a's and b's:::::Here, the nonterminal T can generate all strings with more a's than b's, the nonterminal U generates all strings with more b's than a's and the nonterminal V generates all strings with an equal number of a's and b's.", "Omitting the third alternative in the rules for T and U does not restrict the grammar's language.=== Second block of b's of double size ===Another example of a non-regular language is .", "It is context-free as it can be generated by the following context-free grammar:::=== First-order logic formulas ===The formation rules for the terms and formulas of formal logic fit the definition of context-free grammar, except that the set of symbols may be infinite and there may be more than one start symbol." ], [ "Examples of languages that are not context free", "In contrast to well-formed nested parentheses and square brackets in the previous section, there is no context-free grammar for generating all sequences of two different types of parentheses, each separately balanced ''disregarding the other'', where the two types need not nest inside one another, for example::or:The fact that this language is not context free can be proven using pumping lemma for context-free languages and a proof by contradiction, observing that all words of the form should belong to the language.", "This language belongs instead to a more general class and can be described by a conjunctive grammar, which in turn also includes other non-context-free languages, such as the language of all words of the form." ], [ "Regular grammars", "Every regular grammar is context-free, but not all context-free grammars are regular.", "The following context-free grammar, for example, is also regular.", ":::The terminals here are and , while the only nonterminal is .The language described is all nonempty strings of s and s that end in .This grammar is regular: no rule has more than one nonterminal in its right-hand side, and each of these nonterminals is at the same end of the right-hand side.Every regular grammar corresponds directly to a nondeterministic finite automaton, so we know that this is a regular language.Using vertical bars, the grammar above can be described more tersely as follows::" ], [ "Derivations and syntax trees", "A ''derivation'' of a string for a grammar is a sequence of grammar rule applications that transform the start symbol into the string.A derivation proves that the string belongs to the grammar's language.A derivation is fully determined by giving, for each step:* the rule applied in that step* the occurrence of its left-hand side to which it is appliedFor clarity, the intermediate string is usually given as well.For instance, with the grammar:# # # the string:can be derived from the start symbol with the following derivation::: (by rule 1.on ): (by rule 1.on the second ): (by rule 2.on the first ): (by rule 2.on the second ): (by rule 3.on the third )Often, a strategy is followed that deterministically chooses the next nonterminal to rewrite:* in a ''leftmost derivation'', it is always the leftmost nonterminal;* in a ''rightmost derivation'', it is always the rightmost nonterminal.Given such a strategy, a derivation is completely determined by the sequence of rules applied.", "For instance, one leftmost derivation of the same string is:: (by rule 1 on the leftmost ): (by rule 2 on the leftmost ): (by rule 1 on the leftmost ): (by rule 2 on the leftmost ): (by rule 3 on the leftmost ),which can be summarized as:rule 1:rule 2:rule 1:rule 2:rule 3.One rightmost derivation is::: (by rule 1 on the rightmost ): (by rule 1 on the rightmost ): (by rule 3 on the rightmost ): (by rule 2 on the rightmost ): (by rule 2 on the rightmost ),which can be summarized as:rule 1:rule 1:rule 3:rule 2:rule 2.The distinction between leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation is important because in most parsers the transformation of the input is defined by giving a piece of code for every grammar rule that is executed whenever the rule is applied.", "Therefore, it is important to know whether the parser determines a leftmost or a rightmost derivation because this determines the order in which the pieces of code will be executed.", "See for an example LL parsers and LR parsers.A derivation also imposes in some sense a hierarchical structure on the string that is derived.", "For example, if the string \"1 + 1 + a\" is derived according to the leftmost derivation outlined above, the structure of the string would be::where indicates a substring recognized as belonging to .", "This hierarchy can also be seen as a tree:Rightmost derivation of This tree is called a ''parse tree'' or \"concrete syntax tree\" of the string, by contrast with the abstract syntax tree.", "In this case the presented leftmost and the rightmost derivations define the same parse tree; however, there is another rightmost derivation of the same string:: (by rule 1 on the rightmost ): (by rule 3 on the rightmost ): (by rule 1 on the rightmost ): (by rule 2 on the rightmost ): (by rule 2 on the rightmost ),which defines a string with a different structure:and a different parse tree:Leftmost derivation of Note however that both parse trees can be obtained by both leftmost and rightmost derivations.", "For example, the last tree can be obtained with the leftmost derivation as follows::: (by rule 1 on the leftmost ): (by rule 1 on the leftmost ): (by rule 2 on the leftmost ): (by rule 2 on the leftmost ): (by rule 3 on the leftmost ),If a string in the language of the grammar has more than one parsing tree, then the grammar is said to be an ''ambiguous grammar''.", "Such grammars are usually hard to parse because the parser cannot always decide which grammar rule it has to apply.", "Usually, ambiguity is a feature of the grammar, not the language, and an unambiguous grammar can be found that generates the same context-free language.", "However, there are certain languages that can only be generated by ambiguous grammars; such languages are called ''inherently ambiguous languages''.=== Example: Algebraic expressions ===Here is a context-free grammar for syntactically correct infix algebraic expressions in the variables x, y and z:########This grammar can, for example, generate the string:as follows::: (by rule 5): (by rule 6, applied to the leftmost ): (by rule 7, applied to the rightmost ): (by rule 8, applied to the leftmost ): (by rule 8, applied to the rightmost ): (by rule 4, applied to the leftmost ): (by rule 6, applied to the fourth ): (by rule 4, applied to the rightmost ): (etc.", ")::::::Note that many choices were made underway as to which rewrite was going to be performed next.These choices look quite arbitrary.", "As a matter of fact, they are, in the sense that the string finally generated is always the same.", "For example, the second and third rewrites: (by rule 6, applied to the leftmost ): (by rule 7, applied to the rightmost )could be done in the opposite order:: (by rule 7, applied to the rightmost ): (by rule 6, applied to the leftmost )Also, many choices were made on which rule to apply to each selected .Changing the choices made and not only the order they were made in usually affects which terminal string comes out at the end.Let's look at this in more detail.", "Consider the parse tree of this derivation:An example parse treeStarting at the top, step by step, an S in the tree is expanded, until no more unexpanded es (nonterminals) remain.Picking a different order of expansion will produce a different derivation, but the same parse tree.The parse tree will only change if we pick a different rule to apply at some position in the tree.But can a different parse tree still produce the same terminal string,which is in this case?Yes, for this particular grammar, this is possible.Grammars with this property are called ambiguous.For example, can be produced with these two different parse trees:Two different parse trees from the same inputHowever, the ''language'' described by this grammar is not inherently ambiguous:an alternative, unambiguous grammar can be given for the language, for example::::::::::,once again picking as the start symbol.", "This alternative grammar will produce with a parse tree similar to the left one above, i.e.", "implicitly assuming the association , which does not follow standard order of operations.", "More elaborate, unambiguous and context-free grammars can be constructed that produce parse trees that obey all desired operator precedence and associativity rules." ], [ "Normal forms", "Every context-free grammar with no ε-production has an equivalent grammar in Chomsky normal form, and a grammar in Greibach normal form.", "\"Equivalent\" here means that the two grammars generate the same language.The especially simple form of production rules in Chomsky normal form grammars has both theoretical and practical implications.", "For instance, given a context-free grammar, one can use the Chomsky normal form to construct a polynomial-time algorithm that decides whether a given string is in the language represented by that grammar or not (the CYK algorithm)." ], [ "Closure properties", "Context-free languages are closed under the various operations, that is, if the languages ''K'' and ''L'' are context-free, so is the result of the following operations:* union ''K'' ∪ ''L''; concatenation ''K'' ∘ ''L''; Kleene star ''L''** substitution (in particular homomorphism)* inverse homomorphism* intersection with a regular languageThey are not closed under general intersection (hence neither under complementation) and set difference." ], [ "Decidable problems", "The following are some decidable problems about context-free grammars.=== Parsing ===The parsing problem, checking whether a given word belongs to the language given by a context-free grammar, is decidable, using one of the general-purpose parsing algorithms:* CYK algorithm (for grammars in Chomsky normal form)* Earley parser* GLR parser* LL parser (only for the proper subclass of for LL(''k'') grammars)Context-free parsing for Chomsky normal form grammars was shown by Leslie G. Valiant to be reducible to boolean matrix multiplication, thus inheriting its complexity upper bound of ''O''(''n''2.3728639).", "Conversely, Lillian Lee has shown ''O''(''n''3−ε) boolean matrix multiplication to be reducible to ''O''(''n''3−3ε) CFG parsing, thus establishing some kind of lower bound for the latter.=== Reachability, productiveness, nullability === Example grammar: ''Ee'' ''b'' ''C'' → ''C'' ''d'' ''E'' → ''Ee''A nonterminal symbol is called ''productive'', or ''generating'', if there is a derivation for some string of terminal symbols.", "is called ''reachable'' if there is a derivation for some strings of nonterminal and terminal symbols from the start symbol.", "is called ''useless'' if it is unreachable or unproductive.", "is called ''nullable'' if there is a derivation .", "A rule is called an ''ε-production''.", "A derivation is called a ''cycle''.Algorithms are known to eliminate from a given grammar, without changing its generated language,* unproductive symbols,* unreachable symbols,* ε-productions, with one possible exception, and* cycles.In particular, an alternative containing a useless nonterminal symbol can be deleted from the right-hand side of a rule.Such rules and alternatives are called ''useless''.In the depicted example grammar, the nonterminal ''D'' is unreachable, and ''E'' is unproductive, while ''C'' → ''C'' causes a cycle.Hence, omitting the last three rules does not change the language generated by the grammar, nor does omitting the alternatives \"| ''Cc'' | ''Ee''\" from the right-hand side of the rule for ''S''.A context-free grammar is said to be ''proper'' if it has neither useless symbols nor ε-productions nor cycles.", "Combining the above algorithms, every context-free grammar not generating ε can be transformed into a weakly equivalent proper one.=== Regularity and LL(''k'') checks ===It is decidable whether a given ''grammar'' is a regular grammar, as well as whether it is an LL(''k'') grammar for a given ''k''≥0.If ''k'' is not given, the latter problem is undecidable.Given a context-free grammar, it is not decidable whether its language is regular, nor whether it is an LL(''k'') language for a given ''k''.=== Emptiness and finiteness ===There are algorithms to decide whether the language of a given context-free grammar is empty, as well as whether it is finite." ], [ "Undecidable problems", "Some questions that are undecidable for wider classes of grammars become decidable for context-free grammars; e.g.", "the emptiness problem (whether the grammar generates any terminal strings at all), is undecidable for context-sensitive grammars, but decidable for context-free grammars.However, many problems are undecidable even for context-free grammars; the most prominent ones are handled in the following.=== Universality ===Given a CFG, does it generate the language of all strings over the alphabet of terminal symbols used in its rules?A reduction can be demonstrated to this problem from the well-known undecidable problem of determining whether a Turing machine accepts a particular input (the halting problem).", "The reduction uses the concept of a ''computation history'', a string describing an entire computation of a Turing machine.", "A CFG can be constructed that generates all strings that are not accepting computation histories for a particular Turing machine on a particular input, and thus it will accept all strings only if the machine does not accept that input.=== Language equality ===Given two CFGs, do they generate the same language?The undecidability of this problem is a direct consequence of the previous: it is impossible to even decide whether a CFG is equivalent to the trivial CFG defining the language of all strings.=== Language inclusion ===Given two CFGs, can the first one generate all strings that the second one can generate?If this problem was decidable, then language equality could be decided too: two CFGs G1 and G2 generate the same language if L(G1) is a subset of L(G2) and L(G2) is a subset of L(G1).=== Being in a lower or higher level of the Chomsky hierarchy ===Using Greibach's theorem, it can be shown that the two following problems are undecidable:* Given a context-sensitive grammar, does it describe a context-free language?", "* Given a context-free grammar, does it describe a regular language?=== Grammar ambiguity ===Given a CFG, is it ambiguous?The undecidability of this problem follows from the fact that if an algorithm to determine ambiguity existed, the Post correspondence problem could be decided, which is known to be undecidable.", "This may be proved by Ogden's lemma.=== Language disjointness ===Given two CFGs, is there any string derivable from both grammars?If this problem was decidable, the undecidable Post correspondence problem could be decided, too: given strings over some alphabet , let the grammar consist of the rule:;where denotes the reversed string and does not occur among the ; and let grammar consist of the rule:;Then the Post problem given by has a solution if and only if and share a derivable string." ], [ "Extensions", "An obvious way to extend the context-free grammar formalism is to allow nonterminals to have arguments, the values of which are passed along within the rules.", "This allows natural language features such as agreement and reference, and programming language analogs such as the correct use and definition of identifiers, to be expressed in a natural way.", "E.g.", "we can now easily express that in English sentences, the subject and verb must agree in number.", "In computer science, examples of this approach include affix grammars, attribute grammars, indexed grammars, and Van Wijngaarden two-level grammars.", "Similar extensions exist in linguistics.An '''extended context-free grammar''' (or '''regular right part grammar''') is one in which the right-hand side of the production rules is allowed to be a regular expression over the grammar's terminals and nonterminals.", "Extended context-free grammars describe exactly the context-free languages.Another extension is to allow additional terminal symbols to appear at the left-hand side of rules, constraining their application.", "This produces the formalism of context-sensitive grammars." ], [ "Subclasses", "There are a number of important subclasses of the context-free grammars:* LR(''k'') grammars (also known as deterministic context-free grammars) allow parsing (string recognition) with deterministic pushdown automata (PDA), but they can only describe deterministic context-free languages.", "* Simple LR, Look-Ahead LR grammars are subclasses that allow further simplification of parsing.", "SLR and LALR are recognized using the same PDA as LR, but with simpler tables, in most cases.", "* LL(''k'') and LL(''*'') grammars allow parsing by direct construction of a leftmost derivation as described above, and describe even fewer languages.", "* Simple grammars are a subclass of the LL(1) grammars mostly interesting for its theoretical property that language equality of simple grammars is decidable, while language inclusion is not.", "* Bracketed grammars have the property that the terminal symbols are divided into left and right bracket pairs that always match up in rules.", "* Linear grammars have no rules with more than one nonterminal on the right-hand side.", "* Regular grammars are a subclass of the linear grammars and describe the regular languages, i.e.", "they correspond to finite automata and regular expressions.LR parsing extends LL parsing to support a larger range of grammars; in turn, generalized LR parsing extends LR parsing to support arbitrary context-free grammars.", "On LL grammars and LR grammars, it essentially performs LL parsing and LR parsing, respectively, while on nondeterministic grammars, it is as efficient as can be expected.", "Although GLR parsing was developed in the 1980s, many new language definitions and parser generators continue to be based on LL, LALR or LR parsing up to the present day." ], [ "Linguistic applications", "Chomsky initially hoped to overcome the limitations of context-free grammars by adding transformation rules.Such rules are another standard device in traditional linguistics; e.g.", "passivization in English.", "Much of generative grammar has been devoted to finding ways of refining the descriptive mechanisms of phrase-structure grammar and transformation rules such that exactly the kinds of things can be expressed that natural language actually allows.", "Allowing arbitrary transformations does not meet that goal: they are much too powerful, being Turing complete unless significant restrictions are added (e.g.", "no transformations that introduce and then rewrite symbols in a context-free fashion).Chomsky's general position regarding the non-context-freeness of natural language has held up since then, although his specific examples regarding the inadequacy of context-free grammars in terms of their weak generative capacity were later disproved.", "Gerald Gazdar and Geoffrey Pullum have argued that despite a few non-context-free constructions in natural language (such as cross-serial dependencies in Swiss German and reduplication in Bambara), the vast majority of forms in natural language are indeed context-free." ], [ "See also", "* Parsing expression grammar* Stochastic context-free grammar* Algorithms for context-free grammar generation* Pumping lemma for context-free languages" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "*.", "Chapter 4: Context-Free Grammars, pp.", "77–106; Chapter 6: Properties of Context-Free Languages, pp. 125–137.", "* *.", "Chapter 2: Context-Free Grammars, pp.", "91–122; Section 4.1.2: Decidable problems concerning context-free languages, pp.", "156–159; Section 5.1.1: Reductions via computation histories: pp. 176–183.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Computer programmers may find the stack exchange answer to be useful.", "* CFG Developer created by Christopher Wong at Stanford University in 2014; modified by Kevin Gibbons in 2015." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cryonics" ], [ "Introduction", "Technicians preparing a body for cryopreservation in 1985'''Cryonics''' (from ''kryos'' meaning 'cold') is the low-temperature freezing (usually at ) and storage of human remains, with the speculative hope that resurrection may be possible in the future.", "Cryonics is regarded with skepticism within the mainstream scientific community.", "It is generally viewed as a pseudoscience, and its practice has been characterized as quackery.Cryonics procedures can begin only after the \"patients\" are clinically and legally dead.", "Cryonics procedures may begin within minutes of death, and use cryoprotectants to try to prevent ice formation during cryopreservation.", "It is, however, not possible for a corpse to be reanimated after undergoing vitrification, as this causes damage to the brain including its neural circuits.", "The first corpse to be frozen was that of James Bedford in 1967.As of 2014, about 250 bodies had been cryopreserved in the United States, and 1,500 people had made arrangements for cryopreservation of their remains.Economic reality means it is highly improbable that any cryonics corporation could continue in business long enough to take advantage of the claimed long-term benefits offered.", "Early attempts at cryonic preservation were performed in the 1960s and early 1970s; these ended in failure, with all but one of the companies going out of business, and their stored corpses thawed and disposed of." ], [ "Conceptual basis", "Cryonicists argue that as long as brain structure remains intact, there is no fundamental barrier, given our current understanding of physical law, to recovering its information content.", "Cryonics proponents go further than the mainstream consensus in saying that the brain does not have to be continuously active to survive or retain memory.", "Cryonics controversially states that a human survives even within an inactive brain that has been badly damaged, provided that original encoding of memory and personality can, in theory, be adequately inferred and reconstituted from what structure remains.Cryonics uses temperatures below −130 °C, called cryopreservation, in an attempt to preserve enough brain information to permit the future revival of the cryopreserved person.", "Cryopreservation may be accomplished by freezing, freezing with cryoprotectant to reduce ice damage, or by vitrification to avoid ice damage.", "Even using the best methods, cryopreservation of whole bodies or brains is very damaging and irreversible with current technology.Cryonics advocates hold that in the future the use of some kind of presently-nonexistent nanotechnology may be able to help bring the dead back to life and treat the diseases which killed them.", "Mind uploading has also been proposed." ], [ "Cryonics in practice", "Cryonics can be expensive.", ", the cost of preparing and storing corpses using cryonics ranged from US$28,000 to $200,000.When used at high concentrations, cryoprotectants can stop ice formation completely.", "Cooling and solidification without crystal formation is called vitrification.", "The first cryoprotectant solutions able to vitrify at very slow cooling rates while still being compatible with whole organ survival were developed in the late 1990s by cryobiologists Gregory Fahy and Brian Wowk for the purpose of banking transplantable organs.", "This has allowed animal brains to be vitrified, warmed back up, and examined for ice damage using light and electron microscopy.", "No ice crystal damage was found; cellular damage was due to dehydration and toxicity of the cryoprotectant solutions.Costs can include payment for medical personnel to be on call for death, vitrification, transportation in dry ice to a preservation facility, and payment into a trust fund intended to cover indefinite storage in liquid nitrogen and future revival costs.", "As of 2011, U.S. cryopreservation costs can range from $28,000 to $200,000, and are often financed via life insurance.", "KrioRus, which stores bodies communally in large dewars, charges $12,000 to $36,000 for the procedure.", "Some customers opt to have only their brain cryopreserved (\"neuropreservation\"), rather than their whole body.As of 2014, about 250 corpses have been cryogenically preserved in the U.S., and around 1,500 people have signed up to have their remains preserved.", "As of 2016, four facilities exist in the world to retain cryopreserved bodies: three in the U.S. and one in Russia.A more recent development is Tomorrow Biostasis GmbH, which is a Berlin-based firm offering cryonics and standby and transportation services in Europe.", "Founded in December 2019 by Emil Kendziorra and Fernando Azevedo Pinheiro, it partners with the European Biostasis Foundation in Switzerland for long-term corpse storage, with their facility completed in 2022.Considering the lifecycle of corporations, it is extremely unlikely that any cryonics company could continue to exist for sufficient time to take advantage even of the supposed benefits offered: historically, even the most robust corporations have only a one-in-a-thousand chance of surviving even one hundred years.", "Many cryonics companies have failed; , all but one of the pre-1973 batch had gone out of business, and their stored corpses have been defrosted and disposed of." ], [ "Obstacles to success", "=== Preservation damage ===Cryopreservation has long been used by medical laboratories to maintain animal cells, human embryos, and even some organized tissues, for periods as long as three decades.", "Recovering large animals and organs from a frozen state is however not considered possible at the current level of scientific knowledge.", "Large vitrified organs tend to develop fractures during cooling, a problem worsened by the large tissue masses and very low temperatures of cryonics.", "Without cryoprotectants, cell shrinkage and high salt concentrations during freezing usually prevent frozen cells from functioning again after thawing.", "Ice crystals can also disrupt connections between cells that are necessary for organs to function.Some cryonics organizations use vitrification without a chemical fixation step, sacrificing some structural preservation quality for less damage at the molecular level.", "Some scientists, like João Pedro Magalhães, have questioned whether using a deadly chemical for fixation eliminates the possibility of biological revival, making chemical fixation unsuitable for cryonics.Outside of cryonics firms and cryonics-linked interest groups, many scientists show strong skepticism toward cryonics methods.", "Cryobiologist Dayong Gao states that \"we simply don't know if (subjects have) been damaged to the point where they've 'died' during vitrification because the subjects are now inside liquid nitrogen canisters.\"", "Biochemist Ken Storey argues (based on experience with organ transplants) that \"even if you only wanted to preserve the brain, it has dozens of different areas, which would need to be cryopreserved using different protocols.", "\"===Revival===Revival would require repairing damage from lack of oxygen, cryoprotectant toxicity, thermal stress (fracturing) and freezing in tissues that do not successfully vitrify, finally followed by reversing the cause of death.", "In many cases, extensive tissue regeneration would be necessary.", "This revival technology remains speculative and does not currently exist.===Legal issues===Historically, a person had little control regarding how their body was treated after death as religion held jurisdiction over the ultimate fate of their body.", "However, secular courts began to exercise jurisdiction over the body and use discretion in carrying out of the wishes of the deceased person.", "Most countries legally treat preserved individuals as deceased persons because of laws that forbid vitrifying someone who is medically alive.", "In France, cryonics is not considered a legal mode of body disposal; only burial, cremation, and formal donation to science are allowed.", "However, bodies may legally be shipped to other countries for cryonic freezing.", "As of 2015, the Canadian province of British Columbia prohibits the sale of arrangements for body preservation based on cryonics.", "In Russia, cryonics falls outside both the medical industry and the funeral services industry, making it easier in Russia than in the U.S. to get hospitals and morgues to release cryonics candidates.In London in 2016, the English High Court ruled in favor of a mother's right to seek cryopreservation of her terminally ill 14-year-old daughter, as the girl wanted, contrary to the father's wishes.", "The decision was made on the basis that the case represented a conventional dispute over the disposal of the girl's body, although the judge urged ministers to seek \"proper regulation\" for the future of cryonic preservation following concerns raised by the hospital about the competence and professionalism of the team that conducted the preservation procedures.", "In ''Alcor Life Extension Foundation v. Richardson'', the Iowa Court of Appeals ordered for the disinterment of Richardson, who was buried against his wishes, for cryopreservation.A detailed legal examination by Jochen Taupitz concludes that cryonic storage is legal in Germany for an indefinite period of time." ], [ "Ethics", "In 2009, writing in ''Bioethics'', David Shaw examined cryonics.", "The arguments against it included changing the concept of death, the expense of preservation and revival, lack of scientific advancement to permit revival, temptation to use premature euthanasia, and failure due to catastrophe.", "Arguments in favor of cryonics include the potential benefit to society, the prospect of immortality, and the benefits associated with avoiding death.", "Shaw explores the expense and the potential payoff, and applies an adapted version of Pascal's Wager to the question.In 2016, Charles Tandy wrote in favor of cryonics, arguing that honoring someone's last wishes is seen as a benevolent duty in American and many other cultures." ], [ "History", "Cryopreservation was applied to human cells beginning in 1954 with frozen sperm, which was thawed and used to inseminate three women.", "The freezing of humans was first scientifically proposed by Michigan professor Robert Ettinger when he wrote ''The Prospect of Immortality'' (1962).", "In April 1966, the first human body was frozen—though it had been embalmed for two months—by being placed in liquid nitrogen and stored at just above freezing.", "The middle-aged woman from Los Angeles, whose name is unknown, was soon thawed out and buried by relatives.The first body to be cryopreserved and then frozen with the hope of future revival was that of James Bedford, claimed by Alcor's Mike Darwin to have occurred within around two hours of his death from cardiorespiratory arrest (secondary to metastasized kidney cancer) on January 12, 1967.Bedford's corpse is the only one frozen before 1974 still preserved today.", "In 1976, Ettinger founded the Cryonics Institute; his corpse was cryopreserved in 2011.Robert Nelson, \"a former TV repairman with no scientific background\" who led the Cryonics Society of California, was sued in 1981 for allowing nine bodies to thaw and decompose in the 1970s; in his defense, he claimed that the Cryonics Society had run out of money.", "This led to the lowered reputation of cryonics in the U.S.In 2018, a Y-Combinator startup called Nectome was recognized for developing a method of preserving brains with chemicals rather than by freezing.", "The method is fatal, performed as euthanasia under general anesthesia, but the hope is that future technology would allow the brain to be physically scanned into a computer simulation, neuron by neuron." ], [ "Demographics", "According to ''The New York Times'', cryonicists are predominantly non-religious white males, outnumbering women by about three to one.", "According to ''The Guardian'', as of 2008, while most cryonicists used to be young, male, and \"geeky\", recent demographics have shifted slightly towards whole families.In 2015, Du Hong, a 61-year-old female writer of children's literature, became the first known Chinese national to have her head cryopreserved." ], [ "Reception", "Cryonics is generally regarded as a fringe pseudoscience.", "The Society for Cryobiology rejected members who practiced cryonics, and issued a public statement saying that cryonics is \"not science\", and that it is a \"personal choice\" how people want to have their dead bodies disposed of.Russian company KrioRus is the first non-US vendor of cryonics services.", "Yevgeny Alexandrov, chair of the Russian Academy of Sciences commission against pseudoscience, said there was \"no scientific basis\" for cryonics, and that the company's offering was based on \"unfounded speculation\".Scientists have expressed skepticism about cryonics in media sources, and the Norwegian philosopher Ole Martin Moen has written that the topic receives a \"minuscule\" amount of attention from academia.While some neuroscientists contend that all the subtleties of a human mind are contained in its anatomical structure, few neuroscientists will comment directly upon the topic of cryonics due to its speculative nature.", "Individuals who intend to be frozen are often \"looked at as a bunch of kooks\".", "Cryobiologist Kenneth B. Storey said in 2004 that cryonics is impossible and will never be possible, as cryonics proponents are proposing to \"over-turn the laws of physics, chemistry, and molecular science\".", "Neurobiologist Michael Hendricks has said that \"Reanimation or simulation is an abjectly false hope that is beyond the promise of technology and is certainly impossible with the frozen, dead tissue offered by the 'cryonics' industry\".Anthropologist Simon Dein write that cryonics is a typical pseudoscience because of its lack of falsifiability and testability.", "In Dein's view cryonics is not science, but religion: it places faith in non-existent technology and promises to overcome death itself.William T. Jarvis has written that \"Cryonics might be a suitable subject for scientific research, but marketing an unproven method to the public is quackery\".According to cryonicist Aschwin de Wolf and others, cryonics can often produce intense hostility from spouses who are not cryonicists.", "James Hughes, the executive director of the pro-life-extension Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies, chooses not to personally sign up for cryonics, calling it a worthy experiment but stating laconically that \"I value my relationship with my wife.", "\"Cryobiologist Dayong Gao states that \"People can always have hope that things will change in the future, but there is no scientific foundation supporting cryonics at this time.\"", "While it is universally agreed that \"personal identity\" is uninterrupted when brain activity temporarily ceases during incidents of accidental drowning (where people have been restored to normal functioning after being completely submerged in cold water for up to 66 minutes), one argument against cryonics is that a centuries-long absence from life might interrupt the conception of personal identity, such that the revived person would \"not be themself\".Maastricht University bioethicist David Shaw raises the argument that there would be no point in being revived in the far future if one's friends and families are dead, leaving them all alone; he notes, however, that family and friends can also be frozen, that there is \"nothing to prevent the thawed-out freezee from making new friends\", and that a lonely existence may be preferable to no existence at all for the revived." ], [ "In fiction", "Suspended animation is a popular subject in science fiction and fantasy settings.", "It is often the means by which a character is transported into the future.", "The characters Philip J. Fry from ''Futurama'' and Khan Noonien Singh from ''Star Trek'' are prominent examples of this trope.A survey in Germany found that about half of the respondents were familiar with cryonics, and about half of those familiar with cryonics had learned of the subject from films or television." ], [ "In popular culture", "The town of Nederland, Colorado, hosts an annual Frozen Dead Guy Days festival to commemorate a substandard attempt at cryopreservation." ], [ "Notable people", "Corpses subjected to the cryonics process include those of baseball players Ted Williams and his son John Henry Williams (in 2002 and 2004, respectively), engineer and doctor L. Stephen Coles (in 2014), economist and entrepreneur Phil Salin, and software engineer Hal Finney (in 2014).People known to have arranged for cryonics upon death include PayPal founders Luke Nosek and Peter Thiel, Oxford transhumanists Nick Bostrom and Anders Sandberg, and transhumanist philosopher David Pearce.", "Larry King previously arranged for cryonics but, according to ''Inside Edition'', later changed his mind.Disgraced financier and sex offender Jeffrey Epstein wanted to have his head and penis frozen after death so that he could \"seed the human race with his DNA\".The corpses of some are mistakenly believed to have undergone cryonics – for instance, the urban legend suggesting Walt Disney's corpse was cryopreserved is false; it was cremated and interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery.", "Timothy Leary was a long-time cryonics advocate and signed up with a major cryonics provider, but he changed his mind shortly before his death and was not cryopreserved." ], [ "See also", "* Brain in a vat* Cryptobiosis* Extropianism* Hibernation* Life extension* Supercooling* Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation" ], [ "References", "=== Footnotes ====== Citations ===" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Unitary patent" ], [ "Introduction", "+ European patent with unitary effect340px The '''European patent with unitary effect''', also known as the '''unitary patent''', is a European patent which benefits from unitary effect in the 17 participating member states of the European Union.", "Unitary effect may be requested by the proprietor within one month of grant of a European patent, replacing validation of the European patent in the individual countries concerned.", "Infringement and revocation proceedings are conducted before the Unified Patent Court (UPC), which decisions have a uniform effect for the unitary patent in the participating member states as a whole rather than in each country individually.", "The unitary patent may be only limited, transferred or revoked, or lapse, in respect of all the participating Member States.", "Licensing is however possible for part of the unitary territory.", "The unitary patent may coexist with nationally enforceable patents (\"classical\" patents) in the non-participating states.", "The unitary patent's stated aims are to make access to the patent system \"easier, less costly and legally secure within the European Union\" and \"the creation of uniform patent protection throughout the Union\".European patents are granted in English, French, or German and the unitary effect will not require further translations after a transition period.", "The maintenance fees of the unitary patents are lower than the sum of the renewal fees for national patents of the corresponding area, being equivalent to the combined maintenance fees of Germany, France, the UK and the Netherlands (although the UK is no longer participating following Brexit).The negotiations which resulted in the unitary patent can be traced back to various initiatives dating to the 1970s.", "At different times, the project, or very similar projects, have been referred to as the \"European Union patent\" (the name used in the EU treaties, which serve as the legal basis for EU competency), \"EU patent\", \"Community patent\", \"European Community Patent\", \"EC patent\" and \"COMPAT\".On 17 December 2012, agreement was reached between the European Council and European Parliament on the two EU regulations that made the unitary patent possible through enhanced cooperation at EU level.", "The legality of the two regulations was challenged by Spain and Italy, but all their claims were rejected by the European Court of Justice.", "Italy subsequently joined the unitary patent regulation in September 2015, so that all EU member states except Spain and Croatia now participate in the enhanced cooperation for a unitary patent.", "Unitary effect of newly granted European patents will be available from the date when the related Unified Patent Court Agreement enters into force for those EU countries that have also ratified the UPC, and will extend to those participating member states for which the UPC Agreement enters into force at the time of registration of the unitary patent.", "Previously granted unitary patents will not automatically get their unitary effect extended to the territory of participating states which ratify the UPC agreement at a later date.The unitary patent system applies since 1 June 2023, the date of entry into force of the UPC Agreement." ], [ "Background", "===Legislative history===In 2011, Mikołaj Dowgielewicz, Polish Minister for European and Economic Affairs, said: \"We have our backs to the wall: one or two member states are not willing to compromise and there will not be a breakthrough before the end of our Presidency.", "\"In 2009, three draft documents were published regarding a community patent: a European patent in which the European Community was designated:# Council regulation on the community patent, # Agreement on the European and Community Patents Court (open to the European Community and all states of the European Patent Convention) # Decision to open negotiations regarding this AgreementBased on those documents, the European Council requested on 6 July 2009 an opinion from the Court of Justice of the European Union, regarding the compatibility of the envisioned Agreement with EU law: \"'Is the envisaged agreement creating a Unified Patent Litigation System (currently named European and Community Patents Court) compatible with the provisions of the Treaty establishing the European Community?’\"In December 2010, the use of the enhanced co-operation procedure, under which Articles 326–334 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union provides that a group of member states of the European Union can choose to co-operate on a specific topic, was proposed by twelve Member States to set up a unitary patent applicable in all participating European Union Member States.", "The use of this procedure had only been used once in the past, for harmonising rules regarding the applicable law in divorce across several EU Member States.In early 2011, the procedure leading to the enhanced co-operation was reported to be progressing.", "Twenty-five Member States had written to the European Commission requesting to participate, with Spain and Italy remaining outside, primarily on the basis of ongoing concerns over translation issues.", "On 15 February, the European Parliament approved the use of the enhanced co-operation procedure for unitary patent protection by a vote of 471 to 160, and on 10 March 2011 the Council gave their authorisation.", "Two days earlier, on 8 March 2011, the Court of Justice of the European Union had issued its opinion, stating that the draft Agreement creating the European and Community Patent Court would be incompatible with EU law.", "The same day, the Hungarian Presidency of the Council insisted that this opinion would not affect the enhanced co-operation procedure.In November 2011, negotiations on the enhanced co-operation system were reportedly advancing rapidly—too fast, in some views.", "It was announced that implementation required an enabling European Regulation, and a Court agreement between the states that elect to take part.", "The European Parliament approved the continuation of negotiations in September.", "A draft of the agreement was issued on 11 November 2011 and was open to all member states of the European Union, but not to other European Patent Convention states.", "However, serious criticisms of the proposal remained mostly unresolved.", "A meeting of the Competitiveness Council on 5 December failed to agree on the final text.", "In particular, there was no agreement on where the Central Division of a Unified Patent Court should be located, \"with London, Munich and Paris the candidate cities.", "\"The Polish Presidency acknowledged on 16 December 2011 the failure to reach an agreement \"on the question of the location of the seat of the central division.\"", "The Danish Presidency therefore inherited the issue.", "According to the President of the European Commission in January 2012, the only question remaining to be settled was the location of the Central Division of the Court.", "However, evidence presented to the UK House of Commons European Scrutiny Committee in February suggested that the position was more complicated.", "At an EU summit at the end of January 2012, participants agreed to press on and finalise the system by June.", "On 26 April, Herman Van Rompuy, President of the European Council, wrote to members of the council, saying \"This important file has been discussed for many years and we are now very close to a final deal,....", "This deal is needed now, because this is an issue of crucial importance for innovation and growth.", "I very much hope that the last outstanding issue will be sorted out at the May Competitiveness Council.", "If not, I will take it up at the June European Council.\"", "The Competitiveness Council met on 30 May and failed to reach agreement.A compromise agreement on the seat(s) of the unified court was eventually reached at the June European Council (28–29 June 2012), splitting the central division according to technology between Paris (the main seat), London and Munich.", "However, on 2 July 2012, the European Parliament decided to postpone the vote following a move by the European Council to modify the arrangements previously approved by MEPs in negotiations with the European Council.", "The modification was considered controversial and included the deletion of three key articles (6–8) of the legislation, seeking to reduce the competence of the European Union Court of Justice in unitary patent litigation.", "On 9 July 2012, the Committee on Legal Affairs of the European Parliament debated the patent package following the decisions adopted by the General Council on 28–29 June 2012 in camera in the presence of MEP Bernhard Rapkay.", "A later press release by Rapkay quoted from a legal opinion submitted by the Legal Service of the European Parliament, which affirmed the concerns of MEPs to approve the decision of a recent EU summit to delete said articles as it \"nullifies central aspects of a substantive patent protection\".", "A Europe-wide uniform protection of intellectual property would thus not exist with the consequence that the requirements of the corresponding EU treaty would not be met and that the European Court of Justice could therefore invalidate the legislation.", "By the end of 2012 a new compromise was reached between the European Parliament and the European Council, including a limited role for the European Court of Justice.", "The Unified Court will apply the Unified Patent Court Agreement, which is considered national patent law from an EU law point of view, but still is equal for each participant.", "However the draft statutory instrument aimed at implementation of the Unified Court and UPC in the UK provides for different infringement laws for: European patents (unitary or not) litigated through the Unified Court; European patents (UK) litigated before UK courts; and national patents.", "The legislation for the enhanced co-operation mechanism was approved by the European Parliament on 11 December 2012 and the regulations were signed by the European Council and European Parliament officials on 17 December 2012.On 30 May 2011, Italy and Spain challenged the council's authorisation of the use of enhanced co-operation to introduce the trilingual (English, French, German) system for the unitary patent, which they viewed as discriminatory to their languages, with the CJEU on the grounds that it did not comply with the EU treaties.", "In January 2013, Advocate General Yves Bot delivered his recommendation that the court reject the complaint.", "Suggestions by the Advocate General are advisory only, but are generally followed by the court.", "The case was dismissed by the court in April 2013, however Spain launched two new challenges with the EUCJ in March 2013 against the regulations implementing the unitary patent package.", "The court hearing for both cases was scheduled for 1 July 2014.Advocate-General Yves Bot published his opinion on 18 November 2014, suggesting that both actions be dismissed ( and ).", "The court handed down its decisions on 5 May 2015 as and fully dismissing the Spanish claims.", "Following a request by its government, Italy became a participant of the unitary patent regulations in September 2015.===European patents===European patents are granted in accordance with the provisions of the European Patent Convention (EPC), via a unified procedure before the European Patent Office (EPO).", "While upon filing of a European patent application, all 39 Contracting States are automatically designated, a European patent becomes a bundle of \"national\" European patents upon grant.", "In contrast to the unified character of a European patent application, a granted European patent has, in effect, no unitary character, except for the centralized opposition procedure (which can be initiated within 9 months from grant, by somebody else than the patent proprietor), and the centralized limitation and revocation procedures (which can only be instituted by the patent proprietor).", "In other words, a European patent in one Contracting State, i.e.", "a \"national\" European patent, is effectively independent of the same European patent in each other Contracting State, except for the opposition, limitation and revocation procedures.", "The enforcement of a European patent is dealt with by national law.", "The abandonment, revocation or limitation of the European patent in one state does not affect the European patent in other states.While the EPC already provided the possibility for a group of member states to allow European patents to have a unitary character also after grant, until now, only Liechtenstein and Switzerland have opted to create a unified protection area (see Unitary patent (Switzerland and Liechtenstein)).By requesting unitary effect within one month of grant, the patent proprietor is now able to obtain uniform protection in the participating members states of the European Union in a single step, considerably simplifying obtaining patent protection in a large part of the EU.", "The unitary patent system co-exists with national patent systems and European patent without unitary effects.", "The unitary patent does not cover EPC countries that are not member of the European Union, such as UK or Turkey." ], [ "Legal basis and implementation", "The implementation of the unitary patent is based on three legal instruments:* Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council implementing enhanced co-operation in the area of the creation of unitary patent protection* Council Regulation implementing enhanced co-operation in the area of the creation of unitary patent protection with regard to the applicable translation arrangements* Agreement on a Unified Patent CourtThus the unitary patent is based on EU law as well as the European Patent Convention (EPC).", "provides the legal basis for establishing a common system of patents for Parties to the EPC.", "Previously, only Liechtenstein and Switzerland had used this possibility to create a unified protection area (see Unitary patent (Switzerland and Liechtenstein)).===Regulations regarding the unitary patent===The first two regulations were approved by the European Parliament on 11 December 2012, with future application set for the 25 member states then participating in the enhanced cooperation for a unitary patent (all then EU member states except Croatia, Italy and Spain).", "The instruments were adopted as regulations EU 1257/2012 and 1260/2012 on 17 December 2012, and entered into force in January 2013.Following a request by its government, Italy became a participant of the unitary patent regulations in September 2015.As of March 2022, neither of the two remaining non-participants in the unitary patent (Spain and Croatia) had requested the European Commission to participate.Although formally the Regulations will apply to all 25 participating states from the moment the UPC Agreement enters into force for the first group of ratifiers, the unitary effect of newly granted unitary patents will only extend to those of the 25 states where the UPC Agreement has entered into force, while patent coverage for other participating states without UPC Agreement ratification will be covered by a coexisting normal European patent in each of those states.The unitary effect of unitary patents means a single renewal fee, a single ownership, a single object of property, a single court (the Unified Patent Court) and uniform protection, which means that revocation as well as infringement proceedings are to be decided for the unitary patent as a whole rather than for each country individually.", "Licensing is however to remain possible for part of the unitary territory.=== Role of the European Patent Office ===Some administrative tasks relating to the European patents with unitary effect are performed by the European Patent Office, as authorized by .", "These tasks include the collection of renewal fees and registration of unitary effect upon grant, recording licenses and statements that licenses are available to any person.", "Decisions of the European Patent Office regarding the unitary patent are open to appeal to the Unified Patent Court, rather than to the EPO Boards of Appeal.=== Translation requirements for the European patent with unitary effect ===For a unitary patent, ultimately no translation will be required (except under certain circumstances in the event of a dispute), which is expected to significantly reduce the cost for protection in the whole area.", "However, Article 6 of Regulation 1260/2012 provides that, during a transitional period of minimum six years and no more than twelve years, one translation needs to be provided.", "Namely, a full translation of the European patent specification needs to be provided either into English if the language of the proceedings at the EPO was French or German, or into any other EU official language if the language of the proceedings at the EPO was English.", "Such translation will have no legal effect and will be \"for information purposes only”.", "In addition, machine translations will be provided, which will be, in the words of the regulation, \"for information purposes only and should not have any legal effect\".==== Comparison with the current translation requirements for traditional bundle European patents ====In several EPC contracting states, for the national part of a traditional bundle European patent (i.e., for a European patent without unitary effect), a translation has to be filed within a three-month time limit after the publication of grant in the European Patent Bulletin under , otherwise the patent is considered never to have existed (void ab initio) in that state.", "For the 22 parties to the London Agreement, this requirement has already been abolished or reduced (e.g.", "by dispensing with the requirement if the patent is available in English, and/or only requiring translation of the claims).Translation requirements for the participating states in the enhanced cooperation for a unitary patent are shown below: Participating member State ('''bold: unitary patents apply''') Translation requirements for a European patent without unitary effect Translation requirements for a European patent with unitary effect '''Belgium, France, Germany,''' Ireland, '''Luxembourg''' None During a transitional period of minimum 6 years and maximum 12 years: one translation, so that the unitary patent is available in English and at least another EU official language.", "After the transitional period: none.", "'''Latvia, Lithuania''', Slovenia Claims in the official language of the concerned State '''Denmark, Finland,''' Hungary, '''Netherlands, Sweden''' Description in English, claims in the official language of the concerned State '''Austria, Bulgaria,''' Cyprus, '''Czech Republic, Estonia,''' Greece, '''Malta''', Poland, '''Portugal,''' Romania, Slovakia Translation of the complete patent in an official language of the concerned State=== Unitary patent as an object of property ===Article 7 of Regulation 1257/2012 provides that, as an object of property, a European patent with unitary effect will be treated \"in its entirety and in all participating Member States as a national patent of the participating Member State in which that patent has unitary effect and in which the applicant had her/his residence or principal place of business or, by default, had a place of business on the date of filing the application for the European patent.\"", "When the applicant had no domicile in a participating Member State, German law will apply.", "Ullrich has the criticized the system, which is similar to the Community Trademark and the Community Design, as being \"in conflict with both the purpose of the creation of unitary patent protection and with primary EU law.", "\"===Agreement on a Unified Patent Court===The Agreement on a Unified Patent Court provides the legal basis for the Unified Patent Court (UPC): a patent court for European patents (with and without unitary effect), with jurisdiction in those countries where the Agreement is in effect.", "In addition to regulations regarding the court structure, it also contains substantive provisions relating to the right to prevent use of an invention and allowed use by non-patent proprietors (e.g.", "for private non-commercial use), preliminary and permanent injunctions.", "Entry into force for the UPC took place after Germany deposited its instrument of ratification of the UPC Agreement, which triggered the countdown until the Agreement's entry into force on June 1, 2023.====Parties====The UPC Agreement was signed on 19 February 2013 by 24 EU member states, including all states then participating in the enhanced co-operation measures except Bulgaria and Poland.", "Bulgaria signed the agreement on 5 March 2013 following internal administrative procedures.", "Italy, which did not originally join the enhanced co-operation measures but subsequently signed up, did sign the UPC agreement.", "The agreement remains open to accession for all remaining EU member states, with all European Union Member States except Spain and Poland having signed the Agreement.", "States which do not participate in the unitary patent regulations can still become parties to the UPC agreement, which would allow the new court to handle European patents validated in the country.On 18 January 2019, Kluwer Patent Blog wrote, \"a recurring theme for some years has been that 'the UPC will start next year'\".", "Then, Brexit and German constitutional court complaint were considered as the main obstacles.", "The German constitutional court first decided in a decision of 13 February 2020 against the German ratification of the Agreement on the ground that the German Parliament did not vote with the required majority (2/3 according to the judgement).", "After a second vote and further, this time unsuccessful, constitutional complaints, Germany formally ratified the UPC Agreement on 7 August 2021.While the UK ratified the agreement in April 2018, the UK later withdrew from the Agreement following Brexit.As of 21 February 2023, 17 countries finally ratified the Agreement.====Jurisdiction====The Unified Patent Court has exclusive jurisdiction in infringement and revocation proceedings involving European patents with unitary effect, and during a transition period non-exclusive jurisdiction regarding European patents without unitary effect in the states where the Agreement applies, unless the patent proprietor decides to opt out.", "It furthermore has jurisdiction to hear cases against decisions of the European Patent Office regarding unitary patents.", "As a court of several member states of the European Union it may (Court of First Instance) or must (Court of Appeal) ask prejudicial questions to the European Court of Justice when the interpretation of EU law (including the two unitary patent regulations, but excluding the UPC Agreement) is not obvious.====Organization====The court has two instances: a court of first instance and a court of appeal.", "The court of appeal and the registry have their seats in Luxembourg, while the central division of the court of first instance would have its seat in Paris.", "The central division has a thematic branch in Munich (the London location has yet to be replaced by a new location within the EU).", "The court of first instance may further have local and regional divisions in all member states that wish to set up such divisions.===Geographical scope of and request for unitary effect===While the regulations formally apply to all 25 member states participating in the enhanced cooperation for a unitary patent, from the date the UPC agreement has entered into force for the first group of ratifiers, unitary patents will only extend to the territory of those participating member states where the UPC Agreement had entered into force when the unitary effect was registered.", "If the unitary effect territory subsequently expands to additional participating member states for which the UPC Agreement later enters into force, this will be reflected for all subsequently registered unitary patents, but the territorial scope of the unitary effect of existing unitary patents will not be extended to these states.Unitary effect can be requested up to one month after grant of the European patent directly at the EPO, with retroactive effect from the date of grant.", "However, according to the ''Draft Rules Relating to Unitary Patent Protection'', unitary effect would be registered only if the European patent has been granted with the same set of claims for all the 25 participating member states in the regulations, whether the unitary effect applies to them or not.", "European patents automatically become a bundle of \"national\" European patents upon grant.", "Upon the grant of unitary effect, the \"national\" European patents will retroactively be considered to never have existed in the territories where the unitary patent has effect.", "The unitary effect does not affect \"national\" European patents in states where the unitary patent does not apply.", "Any \"national\" European patents applying outside the \"unitary effect\" zone will co-exist with the unitary patent.====Special territories of participating member states====As the unitary patent is introduced by an EU regulation, it is expected to not only be valid in the mainland territory of the participating member states that are party to the UPC, but also in those of their special territories that are part of the European Union.", "As of April 2014, this includes the following fourteen territories:* Cyprus: UN Buffer Zone* Finland: Åland* France: French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, Réunion, Saint Martin* Germany: Büsingen am Hochrhein, Helgoland* Greece: Mount Athos* Portugal: Azores, MadeiraIn addition to the territories above, the European Patent Convention has been extended by two member states participating in the enhanced cooperation for a unitary patent to cover some of their dependent territories outside the European Union: In following of those territories, the unitary patent is de facto extended through application of national (French, or Dutch) law:* France: French Southern and Antarctic Lands, Saint Barthélemy, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon and Wallis and Futuna* Netherlands: Caribbean Netherlands, Curaçao, Sint MaartenHowever, the unitary patent does not apply in the French territories French Polynesia and New Caledonia as implementing legislation would need to be passed by those jurisdictions (rather than the French national legislation required in the other territories) and this has not been done." ], [ "Costs", "+Yearly renewal fee for the unitary patent ImageSize = width:auto height:180 barincrement:40PlotArea = left:50 bottom:15 top:10 right:18AlignBars = justifyDateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:0 till:5000TimeAxis = orientation:verticalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:1000 start:0PlotData= color:skyblue width:40 bar:2 from:start till:35 text:€ 35 bar:3 from:start till:105 text:€ 105 bar:4 from:start till:145 text:€ 145 bar:5 from:start till:315 text:€ 315 bar:6 from:start till:475 text:€ 475 bar:7 from:start till:630 text:€ 630 bar:8 from:start till:815 text:€ 815 bar:9 from:start till:990 text:€ 990 bar:10 from:start till:1175 text:€ 1175 bar:11 from:start till:1460 text:€ 1460 bar:12 from:start till:1775 text:€ 1775 bar:13 from:start till:2105 text:€ 2105 bar:14 from:start till:2455 text:€ 2455 bar:15 from:start till:2830 text:€ 2830 bar:16 from:start till:3240 text:€ 3240 bar:17 from:start till:3640 text:€ 3640 bar:18 from:start till:4055 text:€ 4055 bar:19 from:start till:4455 text:€ 4455 bar:20 from:start till:4855 text:€ 4855The renewal fees are planned to be based on the cumulative renewal fees due in the four countries where European patents were most often validated in 2015 (Germany, France, the UK and the Netherlands).", "This is despite the UK leaving the unitary patent system following Brexit.", "The renewal fees of the unitary patent would thus be ranging from 35 Euro in the second year to 4855 in the 20th year.", "The renewal fees will be collected by the EPO, with the EPO keeping 50% of the fees and the other 50% being redistributed to the participating member states.Translation requirements as well as the requirement to pay yearly patent maintenance fees in individual countries presently renders the European patent system costly to obtain protection in the whole of the European Union.In an impact assessment from 2011, the European Commission estimated that the costs of obtaining a patent in all 27 EU countries would drop from over 32 000 euro (mainly due to translation costs) to 6 500 euro (for the combination of an EU, Spanish and Italian patent) due to introduction of the Unitary patent.", "Per capita costs of an EU patent were estimated at just 6 euro/million in the original 25 participating countries (and 12 euro/million in the 27 EU countries for protection with a Unitary, Italian and Spanish patent).How the EU Commission has presented the expected cost savings has however been sharply criticized as exaggerated and based on unrealistic assumptions.", "The EU Commission has notably considered the costs for validating a European patent in 27 countries while in reality only about 1% of all granted European patents are currently validated in all 27 EU states.", "Based on more realistic assumptions, the cost savings are expected to be much lower than actually claimed by the commission.", "For example, the EPO calculated that for an average EP patent validated and maintained in 4 countries, the overall savings to be between 3% and 8%." ], [ "Earlier attempts", "===1970s and 1980s: proposed Community Patent Convention===Work on a Community patent started in the 1970s, but the resulting Community Patent Convention (CPC) was a failure.The \"Luxembourg Conference on the Community Patent\" took place in 1975 and the '''Convention for the European Patent for the common market''', or (Luxembourg) Community Patent Convention (CPC), was signed at Luxembourg on 15 December 1975, by the 9 member states of the European Economic Community at that time.", "However, the CPC never entered into force.", "It was not ratified by enough countries.Fourteen years later, the '''Agreement relating to Community patents''' was made at Luxembourg on 15 December 1989.It attempted to revive the CPC project, but also failed.", "This Agreement consisted of an amended version of the original Community Patent Convention.", "Twelve states signed the Agreement: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and United Kingdom.", "All of those states would need to have ratified the Agreement to cause it to enter into force, but only seven did so: Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and United Kingdom.Nevertheless, a majority of member states of the EEC at that time introduced some harmonisation into their national patent laws in anticipation of the entry in force of the CPC.", "A more substantive harmonisation took place at around the same time to take account of the European Patent Convention and the Strasbourg Convention.===2000 to 2004: EU Regulation proposal===In 2000, renewed efforts from the European Union resulted in a Community Patent Regulation proposal, sometimes abbreviated as '''CPR'''.", "It provides that the patent, once it has been granted by the European Patent Office (EPO) in one of its procedural languages (English, German or French) and published in that language, with a translation of the claims into the two other procedural languages, will be valid without any further translation.", "This proposal is aimed to achieve a considerable reduction in translation costs.Nevertheless, additional translations could become necessary in legal proceedings against a suspected infringer.", "In such a situation, a suspected infringer who has been unable to consult the text of the patent in the official language of the Member State in which he is domiciled, is presumed, until proven otherwise, not to have knowingly infringed the patent.", "To protect a suspected infringer who, in such a situation, has not acted in a deliberate manner, it is provided that the proprietor of the patent will not be able to obtain damages in respect of the period prior to the translation of the patent being notified to the infringer.The proposed Community Patent Regulation should also establish a court holding exclusive jurisdiction to invalidate issued patents; thus, a Community Patent's validity will be the same in all EU member states.", "This court will be attached to the present European Court of Justice and Court of First Instance through use of provisions in the Treaty of Nice.Discussion regarding the Community patent had made clear progress in 2003 when a political agreement was reached on 3 March 2003.However, one year later in March 2004 under the Irish presidency, the Competitiveness Council failed to agree on the details of the Regulation.", "In particular the time delays for translating the claims and the authentic text of the claims in case of an infringement remained problematic issues throughout discussions and in the end proved insoluble.In view of the difficulties in reaching an agreement on the community patent, other legal agreements have been proposed outside the European Union legal framework to reduce the cost of translation (of patents when granted) and litigation, namely the London Agreement, which entered into force on 1 May 2008—and which has reduced the number of countries requiring translation of European patents granted nowadays under the European Patent Convention, and the corresponding costs to obtain a European patent—and the European Patent Litigation Agreement (EPLA), a proposal that has now lapsed.====Reactions to the failure====Romano Prodi (here on a picture taken in 2006) cited the failure to agree on a Europewide patent as a weak point of his five-year term as President of the European Commission.After the council in March 2004, EU Commissioner Frits Bolkestein said that \"The failure to agree on the Community Patent I am afraid undermines the credibility of the whole enterprise to make Europe the most competitive economy in the world by 2010.\"", "Adding:Jonathan Todd, Commission's Internal Market spokesman, declared:European Commission President Romano Prodi, asked to evaluate his five-year term, cites as his weak point the failure of many EU governments to implement the \"Lisbon Agenda\", agreed in 2001.In particular, he cited the failure to agree on a Europewide patent, or even the languages to be used for such a patent, \"because member states did not accept a change in the rules; they were not coherent\".====Support for regulation====There is support for the Community patent from various quarters.", "From the point of view of the European Commission the Community Patent is an essential step towards creating a level playing field for trade within the European Union.", "For smaller businesses, if the Community patent achieves its aim of providing a relatively inexpensive way of obtaining patent protection across a wide trading area, then there is also support.", "For larger businesses, however, other issues come into play, which have tended to dilute overall support.", "In general, these businesses recognise that the current European Patent system provides the best possible protection given the need to satisfy national sovereignty requirements such as regarding translation and enforcement.", "The Community Patent proposal was generally supported if it would do away with both of these issues, but there was some concern about the level of competence of the proposed European Patent Court.", "A business would be reluctant to obtain a Europe-wide patent if it ran the risk of being revoked by an inexperienced judge.", "Also, the question of translations would not go away – unless the users of the system could see significant change in the position of some of the countries holding out for more of a patent specification to be translated on grant or before enforcement, it was understood that larger businesses (the bulk of the users of the patent system) would be unlikely to move away from the tried and tested European Patent.===Since 2005: stalemate and new debate===In 2007, Charlie McCreevy was quoted as saying that the proposal for an EU-wide patent was stuck in the mud.Thus, in 2005, the Community patent looked unlikely to be implemented in the near future.", "However, on 16 January 2006 the European Commission \"launched a public consultation on how future action in patent policy to create an EU-wide system of protection can best take account of stakeholders' needs.\"", "The Community patent was one of the issues the consultation focused on.", "More than 2500 replies were received.", "According to the European Commission, the consultation showed that there is widespread support for the Community patent but not at any cost, and \"in particular not on the basis of the Common Political Approach reached by EU Ministers in 2003\".In February 2007, EU Commissioner Charlie McCreevy was quoted as saying:The European Commission released a white paper in April 2007 seeking to \"improve the patent system in Europe and revitalise the debate on this issue.\"", "On 18 April 2007, at the European Patent Forum in Munich, Germany, Günter Verheugen, Vice-President of the European Commission, said that his proposal to support the European economy was \"to have the London Agreement ratified by all member states, and to have a European patent judiciary set up, in order to achieve rapid implementation of the Community patent, which is indispensable\".", "He further said that he believed this could be done within five years.In October 2007, the Portuguese presidency of the Council of the European Union proposed an EU patent jurisdiction, \"borrowing heavily from the rejected draft European Patent Litigation Agreement (EPLA)\".", "In November 2007, EU ministers were reported to have made some progress towards a community patent legal system, with \"some specific results\" expected in 2008.In 2008, the idea of using machine translations to translate patents was proposed to solve the language issue, which is partially responsible for blocking progress on the community patent.", "Meanwhile, European Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry Günter Verheugen declared at the European Patent Forum in May 2008 that there was an \"urgent need\" for a community patent.===Agreement in December 2009, and language issue===In December 2009, it was reported that the Swedish EU presidency had achieved a breakthrough in negotiations concerning the community patent.", "The breakthrough was reported to involve setting up a single patent court for the EU, however ministers conceded much work remained to be done before the community patent would become a reality.According to the agreed plan, the EU would accede to the European Patent Convention as a contracting state, and patents granted by the European Patent Office will, when validated for the EU, have unitary effect in the territory of the European Union.", "On 10 November 2010, it was announced that no agreement had been reached and that, \"in spite of the progress made, the Competitiveness Council of the European Union had fallen short of unanimity by a small margin,\" with commentators reporting that the Spanish representative, citing the aim to avoid any discrimination, had \"re-iterated at length the stubborn rejection of the Madrid Government of taking the 'Munich' three languages regime (English, German, French) of the European Patent Convention (EPC) as a basis for a future EU Patent.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property* Strasbourg Convention (1963)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * L. McDonagh, 'Exploring perspectives of the Unified Patent Court and the Unitary Patent within the Business and Legal Communities' A Report Commissioned by the Intellectual Property Office (July 2014) available at UKIPO" ], [ "External links", "* Unitary patent on the European Patent Office web site* European Commission official website (Patents, Patent reform);Formal texts of the European Union Patent and status of adoption* Regulation 1257/2012 Implementing Enhanced co-operation in the area of the creation of unitary patent protection (published 31 December 2012)* Agreement on a Unified Patent Court (international treaty between the 25 states, not in force)* Regulation 1260/2012 implementing enhanced co-operation in the area of the creation of unitary patent protection with regard to the applicable translation arrangements (published 31 December 2012)* Rules of procedure, draft version 14 (published 31 January 2013)* Rules Relating to Unitary Patent Protection , Draft of 6 June 2014;Non implemented instruments* Amended Community Patent Convention (1989)** ** ** Protocols related to , , and ; Proposal for a Council Regulation on the Community patent (2000)** ** Current state of the legislation process; Positions by various organisations** April: Unitary patent: For a democratic innovation policy in Europe** EPO: on the EU patent ** FFII: The Community Patent Consultation ** FSFE: EU: the unitary patent** Eurolinux 2001: Appeal for a Lean and Balanced Community Patent" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cistron" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''cistron''' is a region of DNA that is conceptually equivalent to some definitions of a gene, such that the terms are synonymous from certain viewpoints, especially with regard to the molecular gene as contrasted with the Mendelian gene.", "The question of which scope of a subset of DNA (that is, how large a segment of DNA) constitutes a unit of selection is the question that governs whether cistrons are the same thing as genes.", "The word ''cistron'' is used to emphasize that molecular genes exhibit a specific behavior in a complementation test (cis-trans test); distinct positions (or loci) within a genome are '''cistronic'''." ], [ "History", "The words ''cistron'' and ''gene'' were coined before the advancing state of biology made it clear to many people that the concepts they refer to, at least in some senses of the word ''gene'', are either equivalent or nearly so.", "The same historical naming practices are responsible for many of the synonyms in the life sciences.The term ''cistron'' was coined by Seymour Benzer in an article entitled ''The elementary units of heredity''.", "The cistron was defined by an operational test applicable to most organisms that is sometimes referred to as a cis-trans test, but more often as a complementation test.", "Richard Dawkins in his influential book ''The Selfish Gene'' argues ''against'' the cistron being the unit of selection and against it being the best definition of a gene.", "(He also argues against group selection.)", "He doesn't argue against the existence of cistrons, or their being elementary, but rather against the idea that natural selection selects them; he argues that it used to, back in earlier eras of life's development, but not anymore.", "He defines a gene as a larger unit, which others may now call gene clusters, as the unit of selection.", "He also defines replicators, more general than cistrons and genes." ], [ "Definition", "For example, suppose a mutation at a chromosome position is responsible for a change in recessive trait in a diploid organism (where chromosomes come in pairs).", "We say that the mutation is recessive because the organism will exhibit the wild type phenotype (ordinary trait) unless both chromosomes of a pair have the mutation (homozygous mutation).", "Similarly, suppose a mutation at another position, , is responsible for the same recessive trait.", "The positions and are said to be within the same cistron when an organism that has the mutation at on one chromosome and has the mutation at position on the paired chromosome exhibits the recessive trait even though the organism is not homozygous for either mutation.", "When instead the wild type trait is expressed, the positions are said to belong to distinct cistrons / genes.", "Or simply put, mutations on the same cistrons will not complement; as opposed to mutations on different cistrons may complement (see Benzer's T4 bacteriophage experiments T4 rII system).For example, an operon is a stretch of DNA that is transcribed to create a contiguous segment of RNA, but contains more than one cistron / gene.", "The operon is said to be polycistronic, whereas ordinary genes are said to be monocistronic." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Commonwealth" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''commonwealth''' is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common good.", "The noun \"commonwealth\", meaning \"public welfare, general good or advantage\", dates from the 15th century.", "Originally a phrase (the common-wealth or the common wealth – echoed in the modern synonym \"public wealth\"), it comes from the old meaning of \"wealth\", which is \"well-being\", and is itself a loose translation of the Latin ''res publica''.", "The term literally meant \"common well-being\".", "In the 17th century, the definition of \"commonwealth\" expanded from its original sense of \"public welfare\" or \"commonweal\" to mean \"a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people; a republic or democratic state\".The term evolved to become a title to a number of political entities.", "Three countries – Australia, the Bahamas, and Dominica – have the official title \"Commonwealth\", as do four U.S. states and two U.S. territories.", "Since the early 20th century, the term has been used to name some fraternal associations of states, most notably the Commonwealth of Nations, an organisation primarily of former territories of the British Empire.", "It is also used in the translation for the organisation made up of formerly Soviet states, the Commonwealth of Independent States.", "Informerly, by analogy to the Commonwealth of Nations, the French-influenced post-colonial Organisation internationale de la Francophonie is sometimes referred to in the English language as the \"French Commonwealth\", although the organisation itself never uses the term." ], [ "Historical use", "===Rome===Translations of Ancient Roman writers' works to English have on occasion translated \"''Res publica''\", and variants thereof, to \"the commonwealth\", a term referring to the Roman state as a whole.===England===The Commonwealth of England was the official name of the political unit (''de facto'' military rule in the name of parliamentary supremacy) that replaced the Kingdom of England (after the English Civil War) from 1649–53 and 1659–60, under the rule of Oliver Cromwell and his son and successor Richard.", "From 1653 to 1659, although still legally known as a Commonwealth, the republic, united with the former Kingdom of Scotland, operated under different institutions (at times as a ''de facto'' monarchy) and is known by historians as the Protectorate.", "In a British context, it is sometimes referred to as the \"Old Commonwealth\".In the later 20th century a socialist political party known as the Common Wealth Party was active.", "Previously a similarly named party, the Commonwealth Land Party, was in existence.===Iceland===The Icelandic Commonwealth or the Icelandic Free State () was the state existing in Iceland between the establishment of the Althing in 930 and the pledge of fealty to the Norwegian king in 1262.It was initially established by a public consisting largely of recent immigrants from Norway who had fled the unification of that country under King Harald Fairhair.===Philippines===The Commonwealth of the Philippines was the administrative body that governed the Philippines from 1935 to 1946, aside from a period of exile in the Second World War from 1942 to 1945 when Japan occupied the country.", "It replaced the Insular Government, a United States territorial government, and was established by the Tydings–McDuffie Act.", "The Commonwealth was designed as a transitional administration in preparation for the country's full achievement of independence, which was achieved in 1946.The Commonwealth of the Philippines was a founding member of the United Nations.===Poland–Lithuania===''Republic'' is still an alternative translation of the traditional name ''Rzeczpospolita'' of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "Wincenty Kadłubek (Vincent Kadlubo, 1160–1223) used for the first time the original Latin term ''res publica'' in the context of Poland in his \"Chronicles of the Kings and Princes of Poland\".", "The name was used officially for the confederal union formed by Poland and Lithuania 1569–1795.It is also often referred as \"Nobles' Commonwealth\" (1505–1795, i.e., before the union).", "In the contemporary political doctrine of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, \"our state is a Republic (or Commonwealth) under the presidency of the King\".", "The Commonwealth introduced a doctrine of religious tolerance called Warsaw Confederation, had its own parliament ''Sejm'' (although elections were restricted to nobility and elected kings, who were bound to certain contracts ''Pacta conventa'' from the beginning of the reign).", "\"A commonwealth of good counsaile\" was the title of the 1607 English translation of the work of Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki \"De optimo senatore\" that presented to English readers many of the ideas present in the political system of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.===Catalonia===Between 1914 and 1925, Catalonia was an autonomous region of Spain.", "Its government during that time was given the title ''mancomunidad'' (Catalan: ''mancomunitat''), which is translated into English as \"commonwealth\".", "The Commonwealth of Catalonia had limited powers and was formed as a federation of the four Catalan provinces.", "A number of Catalan-language institutions were created during its existence.===Liberia===Between 1838 and 1847, Liberia was officially known as the \"Commonwealth of Liberia\".", "It changed its name to the \"Republic of Liberia\" when it declared independence (and adopted a new constitution) in 1847." ], [ "Current use", "===Australia===\"Commonwealth\" was first proposed as a term for a federation of the six Australian crown colonies at the 1891 constitutional convention in Sydney.", "Its adoption was initially controversial, as it was associated by some with the republicanism of Oliver Cromwell (see above), but it was retained in all subsequent drafts of the constitution.", "The term was finally incorporated into law in the ''Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900'', which established the federation.", "Australia operates under a federal system, in which power is divided between the federal (national) government and the state governments (the successors of the six colonies).", "So, in an Australian context, the term \"Commonwealth\" (capitalised), which is often abbreviated to Cth, refers to the federal government, and \"Commonwealth of Australia\" is the official name of the country.===The Bahamas===The Bahamas, a Commonwealth realm, has used the official style ''Commonwealth of The Bahamas'' since its independence in 1973.===Dominica===The small Caribbean republic of Dominica has used the official style ''Commonwealth of Dominica'' since 1978.===Certain U.S. states and territories=======States====Four states of the United States of America officially designate themselves as \"commonwealths\".", "All four were part of Great Britain's possessions along the Atlantic coast of North America prior to the American Revolution.", "As such, they share a strong influence of English common law in some of their laws and institutions.", "The four are:*Kentucky is designated a commonwealth by the Kentucky Constitution as the \"Commonwealth of Kentucky\".", "*Massachusetts is a commonwealth, declaring itself as such in its constitution, which states: \"The body politic is formed by a voluntary association of individuals: it is a social compact, by which the whole people covenants with each citizen, and each citizen with the whole people, that all shall be governed by certain laws for the common good.", "\"*Pennsylvania uses the \"Commonwealth of Pennsylvania\" constitutionally and in its official title.", "*Virginia has been known as the \"Commonwealth of Virginia\" since before the American Revolutionary War, and is referred to as a commonwealth in its constitution.====Territories====Two organized but unincorporated U.S. territories are called commonwealths.", "The two are:*Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, since 1952*Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, since 1978In 2016, the Washington, D.C. city council also selected \"Douglass Commonwealth\" as the potential name of State of Washington, D.C., following the 2016 statehood referendum, at least partially in order to retain the initials \"D.C.\" as the state's abbreviation.===International bodies=======Commonwealth of Nations====The Commonwealth of Nations—formerly the British Commonwealth—is a voluntary association of 54 independent sovereign states, most of which were once part of the British Empire.", "The Commonwealth's membership includes both republics and monarchies.", "The Head of the Commonwealth was Queen Elizabeth II, who also reigned as monarch directly in the 16 member states known as Commonwealth realms until her death in 2022.====Commonwealth of Independent States====The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a loose alliance or confederation consisting of nine of the 15 former Soviet Republics, the exceptions being Turkmenistan (a CIS associate member), Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Ukraine, and Georgia.", "Georgia left the CIS in August 2008 following the 2008 invasion of the Russian military into South Ossetia and Abkhazia.", "Its creation signalled the dissolution of the Soviet Union, its purpose being to \"allow a civilised divorce\" between the Soviet Republics.", "The CIS has developed as a forum by which the member-states can co-operate in economics, defence, and foreign policy." ], [ "Proposed use", "===United Kingdom===Labour MP Tony Benn sponsored a ''Commonwealth of Britain Bill'' several times between 1991 and 2001, intended to abolish the monarchy and establish a British republic.", "It never reached second reading." ], [ "See also", "* Confederation* Democracy* Federation* League" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Commonwealth of Nations** The Commonwealth—UK government site** Commonwealth of Nations Secretariat** Commonwealth Foundation** Royal Commonwealth Society* Commonwealth of Independent States** CIS Executive Committee** CIS Statistical Committee* Countries** Commonwealth of Australia* United States** Commonwealth of Kentucky** Commonwealth of Massachusetts** Commonwealth of Pennsylvania** Commonwealth of Virginia** Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ** Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands* Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth** Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures: Poland's Heritage*Commonwealth New** The Commonwealth Secretariat ** Commonwealth News at YOCOMM NEWS" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Commodore 1541" ], [ "Introduction", "A rear view of the Commodore 1541 disk drive, with the top cover and shielding removedThe '''Commodore 1541''' (also known as the '''CBM 1541''' and '''VIC-1541''') is a floppy disk drive which was made by Commodore International for the Commodore 64 (C64), Commodore's most popular home computer.", "The best-known floppy disk drive for the C64, the 1541 is a single-sided 170-kilobyte drive for 5¼\" disks.", "The 1541 directly followed the Commodore 1540 (meant for the VIC-20).The disk drive uses group coded recording (GCR) and contains a MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor, doubling as a disk controller and on-board disk operating system processor.", "The number of sectors per track varies from 17 to 21 (an early implementation of zone bit recording).", "The drive's built-in disk operating system is CBM DOS 2.6." ], [ "History", "=== Introduction ===The 1541 was priced at under at its introduction.", "A C64 plus a 1541 cost about $900, while an Apple II with no disk drive cost $1,295.The first 1541 drives produced in 1982 have a label on the front reading VIC-1541 and have an off-white case to match the VIC-20.In 1983, the 1541 switched to having the familiar beige case and a front label reading simply \"1541\" along with rainbow stripes to match the Commodore 64.By 1983 a 1541 sold for $300 or less.", "After a home-computer price war instigated by Commodore, the C64 and 1541 together cost under $500.The drive became very popular and difficult to find.", "The company said that the shortage occurred because 90% of C64 owners bought the 1541 compared to its 30% expectation, but the press discussed what ''Creative Computing'' described as \"an absolutely alarming return rate\" because of defects.", "The magazine reported in March 1984 that it received three defective drives in two weeks, and ''Compute!", "'s Gazette'' reported in December 1983 that four of the magazine's seven drives had failed; \"COMPUTE!", "Publications sorely needs additional 1541s for in-house use, yet we can't find any to buy.", "After numerous phone calls over several days, we were able to locate only two units in the entire continental United States\", reportedly because of Commodore's attempt to resolve a manufacturing issue that caused the high failures.The early (1982 to 1983) 1541s have a spring-eject mechanism (Alps drive), and the disks often fail to release.", "This style of drive has the popular nickname \"Toaster Drive\", because it requires the use of a knife or other hard thin object to pry out the stuck media just like a piece of toast stuck in an actual toaster.", "This was fixed later when Commodore changed the vendor of the drive mechanism (Mitsumi) and adopted the flip-lever Newtronics mechanism, greatly improving reliability.", "In addition, Commodore made the drive's controller board smaller and reduced its chip count compared to the early 1541s (which had a large PCB running the length of the case, with dozens of TTL chips).", "The beige-case Newtronics 1541 was produced from 1984 to 1986.=== Versions and third-party clones ===1541C, the first upgrade versionAll but the very earliest non-II model 1541s can use either the Alps or Newtronics mechanism.", "Visually, the first models, of the ''VIC-1541'' denomination, have an off-white color like the VIC-20 and VIC-1540.Then, to match the look of the C64, CBM changed the drive's color to brown-beige and the name to ''Commodore 1541''.Commodore 1541-II, the second of two upgraded versions of the CBM 1541.The 1541-II has the more modern \"radial handle\" locking mechanism.The 1541's numerous shortcomings opened a market for a number of third-party clones of the disk drive.", "Examples include the ''Oceanic OC-118'' a.k.a.", "''Excelerator+'', the MSD Super Disk single and dual drives, the ''Enhancer 2000'', the ''Indus GT'', Blue Chip Electronics's BCD/5.25, and ''CMD''s ''FD-2000'' and ''FD-4000''.", "Nevertheless, the 1541 became the first disk drive to see widespread use in the home and Commodore sold millions of the units.In 1986, Commodore released the 1541C, a revised version that offers quieter and slightly more reliable operation and a light beige case matching the color scheme of the Commodore 64C.", "It was replaced in 1988 by the 1541-II, which uses an external power supply to provide cooler operation and allows the drive to have a smaller desktop footprint (the power supply \"brick\" being placed elsewhere, typically on the floor).", "Later ROM revisions fixed assorted problems, including a software bug that causes the save-and-replace command to corrupt data.=== Successors ===The Commodore 1570 is an upgrade from the 1541 for use with the Commodore 128, available in Europe.", "It offers MFM capability for accessing CP/M disks, improved speed, and somewhat quieter operation, but was only manufactured until Commodore got its production lines going with the 1571, the double-sided drive.", "Finally, the small, external-power-supply-based, MFM-based Commodore 1581 3½-inch drive was made, giving 800 KB access to the C128 and C64." ], [ "Design", "=== Hardware ===The 1541 does not have DIP switches to change the device number.", "If a user adds more than one drive to a system, the user has to cut a trace in the circuit board to permanently change the drive's device number, or hand-wire an external switch to allow it to be changed externally.", "It is also possible to change the drive number via a software command, which is temporary and would be erased as soon as the drive was powered off.1541 drives at power up always default to device #8.If multiple drives in a chain are used, then the startup procedure is to power on the first drive in the chain, alter its device number via a software command to the highest number in the chain (if three drives were used, then the first drive in the chain would be set to device #10), then power on the next drive, alter its device number to the next lowest, and repeat the procedure until the final drive at the end of the chain was powered on and left as device #8.Unlike the Apple II, where support for two drives is normal, it is relatively uncommon for Commodore software to support this setup, and the CBM DOS copy file command is not able to copy files between drives – a third party copy utility is necessary.The pre-II 1541s also have an internal power source, which generates a lot of heat.", "The heat generation was a frequent source of humour.", "For example, ''Compute!''", "stated in 1988 that \"Commodore 64s used to be a favorite with amateur and professional chefs since they could compute and cook on top of their 1500-series disk drives at the same time\".", "A series of humorous tips in ''MikroBitti'' in 1989 said \"When programming late, coffee and kebab keep nicely warm on top of the 1541.\"", "The ''MikroBitti'' review of the 1541-II said that its external power source \"should end the jokes about toasters\".The drive-head mechanism installed in the early production years is notoriously easy to misalign.", "The most common cause of the 1541's drive head knocking and subsequent misalignment is copy-protection schemes on commercial software.", "The main cause of the problem is that the disk drive itself does not feature any means of detecting when the read/write head reaches track zero.", "Accordingly, when a disk is not formatted or a disk error occurs, the unit tries to move the head 40 times in the direction of track zero (although the 1541 DOS only uses 35 tracks, the drive mechanism itself is a 40-track unit, so this ensured track zero would be reached no matter where the head was before).", "Once track zero is reached, every further attempt to move the head in that direction would cause it to be rammed against a solid stop: for example, if the head happened to be on track 18 (where the directory is located) before this procedure, the head would be actually moved 18 times, and then rammed against the stop 22 times.", "This ramming gives the characteristic \"machine gun\" noise and sooner or later throws the head out of alignment.A defective head-alignment part likely caused many of the reliability issues in early 1541 drives; one dealer told ''Compute!s Gazette'' in 1983 that the part had caused all but three of several hundred drive failures that he had repaired.", "The drives were so unreliable that ''Info'' magazine joked, \"Sometimes it seems as if one of the original design specs ... must have said 'Mean time between failure: 10 accesses.'\"", "Users can realign the drive themselves with a software program and a calibration disk.", "The user can remove the drive from its case and then loosen the screws holding the stepper motor that move the head, then with the calibration disk in the drive gently turn the stepper motor back and forth until the program shows a good alignment.", "The screws are then tightened and the drive is put back into its case.A third-party fix for the 1541 appeared in which the solid head stop was replaced by a sprung stop, giving the head a much easier life.", "The later 1571 drive (which is 1541-compatible) incorporates track-zero detection by photo-interrupter and is thus immune to the problem.", "Also, a software solution, which resides in the drive controller's ROM, prevents the rereads from occurring, though this can cause problems when genuine errors do occur.Due to the alignment issues on the Alps drive mechanisms, Commodore switched suppliers to Newtronics in 1984.The Newtronics mechanism drives have a lever rather than a pull-down tab to close the drive door.", "Although the alignment issues were resolved after the switch, the Newtronics drives add a new reliability problem in that many of the read/write heads are improperly sealed, causing moisture to penetrate the head and short it out.The 1541's PCB consists mainly of a 6502 CPU, two 6522 VIA chips, and 2k of work RAM.", "Up to 48k of RAM can be added; this is mainly useful for defeating copy protection schemes since an entire disk track could be loaded into drive RAM, while the standard 2k only accommodates a few sectors (theoretically eight, but some of the RAM was used by CBM DOS as work space).", "Some Commodore users use 1541s as an impromptu math coprocessor by uploading math-intensive code to the drive for background processing.=== Interface ===The 1541 uses a proprietary serialized derivative of the IEEE-488 parallel interface, found in previous disk drives for the PET/CBM range of personal and business computers, but when the VIC-20 was in development, a cheaper alternative to the expensive IEEE-488 cables was sought.", "To ensure a ready supply of inexpensive cabling for its home computer peripherals, Commodore chose standard DIN connectors for the serial interface.", "Disk drives and other peripherals such as printers connect to the computer via a daisy chain setup, necessitating only a single connector on the computer itself.=== Control ===" ], [ "Throughput and software", "''IEEE Spectrum'' in 1985 stated that:The C-64's designers blamed the 1541's slow speed on the marketing department's insistence that the computer be compatible with the 1540, which is slow because of a flaw in the 6522 VIA interface controller.", "Initially, Commodore intended to use a hardware shift register (one component of the 6522) to maintain fast drive speeds with the new serial interface.", "However, a hardware bug with this chip prevents the initial design from working as anticipated, and the ROM code was hastily rewritten to handle the entire operation in software.", "According to Jim Butterfield, this causes a speed reduction by a factor of five; had 1540 compatibility not been a requirement, the disk interface would have been much faster.", "In any case, the C64 normally cannot work with a 1540 unless the VIC-II display output is disabled via a register write to the DEN bit (register $D011, bit 4), which stops the halting of the CPU during certain video lines to ensure correct serial timing.As implemented on the VIC-20 and C64, Commodore DOS transfers 300 bytes per second, compared to the Atari 810's 2,400 bytes per second, the Apple Disk II's 15,000 bytes per second, and the 300-baud data rate of the Commodore Datasette storage system.", "About 20 minutes are needed to copy one disk—10 minutes of reading time, and 10 minutes of writing time.", "However, since both the computer and the drive can easily be reprogrammed, third parties quickly wrote more efficient firmware that would speed up drive operations drastically.", "Without hardware modifications, some \"fast loader\" utilities (which bypassed routines in the 1541's onboard ROM) managed to achieve speeds of up to 4 KB/s.", "The most common of these products are the Epyx Fast Load, the Final Cartridge, and the Action Replay plug-in ROM cartridges, which all have machine code monitor and disk editor software on board as well.", "The popular Commodore computer magazines of the era also entered the arena with type-in fast-load utilities, with ''Compute!", "'s Gazette'' publishing ''TurboDisk'' in 1985 and ''RUN'' publishing ''Sizzle'' in 1987.Even though each 1541 has its own on-board disk controller and disk operating system, it is not possible for a user to command two 1541 drives to copy a disk (one drive reading and the other writing) as with older dual drives like the 4040 that was often found with the PET computer, and which the 1541 is backward-compatible with (it can read 4040 disks but not write to them as a minor difference in the number of header bytes makes the 4040 and 1541 only read-compatible).", "Originally, to copy from drive to drive, software running on the C64 was needed and it would first read from one drive into computer memory, then write out to the other.", "Only when Fast Hack'em and, later, other disk backup programs were released, was true drive-to-drive copying possible for a pair of 1541s.", "The user could, if they wished, unplug the C64 from the drives (i.e., from the first drive in the daisy chain) and do something else with the computer as the drives proceeded to copy the entire disk." ], [ "Media", "The 1541 drive uses standard 5¼-inch double-density floppy media; high-density media will not work due to its different magnetic coating requiring a higher magnetic coercivity.", "As the GCR encoding scheme does not use the index hole, the drive was also compatible with hard-sectored disks.", "The standard CBM DOS format is 170 KB with 35 tracks and 256-byte sectors.", "It is similar to the format used on the PET 2031, 2040 & 4040 drives, but a minor difference in the number of header bytes makes these drives and the 1541 only read-compatible; disks formatted with one drive cannot be written to by the other.", "The drives will allow writes to occur, but the inconsistent header size will damage the data in the data portions of each track.The 4040 drives use Shugart SA-400s, which were 35-track units, thus the format there is due to physical limitations of the drive mechanism.", "The 1541 uses 40 track mechanisms, but Commodore intentionally limited the CBM DOS format to 35 tracks because of reliability issues with the early units.", "It is possible via low-level programming to move the drive head to tracks 36–40 and write on them, this is sometimes done by commercial software for copy protection purposes and/or to get additional data on the disk.However, one track is reserved by DOS for directory and file allocation information (the BAM, block availability map).", "And since for normal files, two bytes of each physical sector are used by DOS as a pointer to the next physical track and sector of the file, only 254 out of the 256 bytes of a block are used for file contents.If the disk side is not otherwise prepared with a custom format, (e.g.", "for data disks), 664 blocks would be free after formatting, giving 664254 = (or almost ) for user data.By using custom formatting and load/save routines (sometimes included in third-party DOSes, see below), all of the mechanically possible 40 tracks can be used.Owing to the drive's non-use of the index hole, it is also possible to make \"flippy floppies\" by inserting the diskette upside-down and formatting the other side, and it is commonplace and normal for commercial software to be distributed on such disks.Tracks Sectors(256 bytes) bits/s1–17 21 16M/4/(13+0) = 307,692 18–24 19 16M/4/(13+1) = 285,714 25–30 18 16M/4/(13+2) = 266,667 31–35 17 16M/4/(13+3) = 250,000 36–42 17 16M/4/(13+3) = 250,000Tracks 36–42 are non-standard.", "The bitrate is the raw one between the read/write head and signal circuitry so actual useful data rate is a factor 5/4 less due to GCR encoding.The 1541 disk typically has 35 tracks.", "Track 18 is reserved; the remaining tracks are available for data storage.", "The header is on 18/0 (track 18, sector 0) along with the BAM, and the directory starts on 18/1 (track 18, sector 1).", "The file interleave is 10 blocks, while the directory interleave is 3 blocks.Header contents: The header is similar to other Commodore disk headers, the structural differences being the BAM offset () and size, and the label+ID+type offset ().", "$00–01 T/S reference to first directory sector (18/1) 02 DOS version ('A') 04-8F BAM entries (4 bytes per track: Free Sector Count + 24 bits for sectors) 90-9F Disk Label, $A0 padded A2-A3 Disk ID A5-A6 DOS type ('2A')" ], [ "Uses", "Early copy protection schemes deliberately introduce read errors on the disk, the software refusing to load unless the correct error message is returned.", "The general idea is that simple disk-copy programs are incapable of copying the errors.", "When one of these errors is encountered, the disk drive (as do many floppy disk drives) will attempt one or more reread attempts after first resetting the head to track zero.", "Few of these schemes have much deterrent effect, as various software companies soon released \"nibbler\" utilities that enable protected disks to be copied and, in some cases, the protection removed.Commodore copy protection sometimes fails on specific hardware configurations.", "''Gunship'', for example, does not load if a second disk drive or printer is connected to the computer.", "Similarly ''Roland's Ratrace'' will crash if additional hardware is detected.", "The tape version will even crash if a floppy drive is switched on while the game is running." ], [ "See also", "* Commodore 64* Commodore 64 peripherals* 1541 Ultimate" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* CBM (1982).", "''VIC-1541 Single Drive Floppy Disk User's Manual''.", "2nd ed.", "Commodore Business Machines, Inc. P/N 1540031-02.", "* Neufeld, Gerald G. (1985).", "''1541 User's Guide.", "The Complete Guide to Commodore's 1541 Disk Drive''.", "Second Printing, June 1985.413 pp.", "Copyright © 1984 by DATAMOST, Inc. (Brady).", ".", "* Immers, Richard; Neufeld, Gerald G. (1984).", "''Inside Commodore DOS.", "The Complete Guide to the 1541 Disk Operating System.''", "DATAMOST, Inc & Reston Publishing Company, Inc. (Prentice-Hall).", ".", "* Englisch, Lothar; Szczepanowski, Norbert (1984).", "''The Anatomy of the 1541 Disk Drive''.", "Grand Rapids, MI: Abacus Software (translated from the original 1983 German edition, Düsseldorf: Data Becker GmbH).", "." ], [ "External links", "* Disk Preservation Project: internal drive mechanics and copy protection* Undocumented 1541 drive functions from the Project 64 website* RUN Magazine Issue 64* devili.iki.fi: Beyond the 1541, Mass Storage For The 64 And 128, COMPUTE!", "'s Gazette, issue 32, February 1986 (market overview)* 1541 Maintenance Guide from Bitsavers* Freespin, the Commodore 1541 graphical demo running on the floppy drive* The Ultimate Commodore 1541 Disk Drive Talk (video), a recording of a talk in Aug 2021 at the VCF West 2021" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Commodore 1581" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Commodore 1581''' is a 3½-inch double-sided double-density floppy disk drive that was released by Commodore Business Machines (CBM) in 1987, primarily for its C64 and C128 home/personal computers.", "The drive stores 800 kilobytes using an MFM encoding but formats different from the MS-DOS (720 kB), Amiga (880 kB), and Mac Plus (800 kB) formats.", "With special software it's possible to read C1581 disks on an x86 PC system, and likewise, read MS-DOS and other formats of disks in the C1581 (using Big Blue Reader), provided that the PC or other floppy handles the size format.", "This capability was most frequently used to read MS-DOS disks.", "The drive was released in the summer of 1987 and quickly became popular with bulletin board system (BBS) operators and other users.Like the 1541 and 1571, the 1581 has an onboard MOS Technology 6502 CPU with its own ROM and RAM, and uses a serial version of the IEEE-488 interface.", "Inexplicably, the drive's ROM contains commands for parallel use, although no parallel interface was available.", "Unlike the 1571, which is nearly 100% backward-compatible with the 1541, the 1581 is only compatible with previous Commodore drives at the DOS level and cannot utilize software that performs low-level disk access (as the vast majority of Commodore 64 games do).The version of Commodore DOS built into the 1581 added support for partitions, which could also function as fixed-allocation subdirectories.", "PC-style subdirectories were rejected as being too difficult to work with in terms of block availability maps, which were still very much in vogue, and which for some time had been the traditional way of inquiring into block availability.", "The 1581 supports the C128's burst mode for fast disk access, but not when connected to an older Commodore machine like the Commodore 64.The 1581 provides a total of 3160 blocks free when formatted (a block being equal to 256 bytes).", "The number of permitted directory entries was also increased, to 296 entries.", "With a storage capacity of 800 kB, the 1581 is the highest-capacity serial-bus drive that was ever made by Commodore (the 1-MB SFD-1001 uses the parallel IEEE-488), and the only 3½\" one.", "However, starting in 1991, Creative Micro Designs (CMD) made the FD-2000 high density (1.6 MB) and FD-4000 extra-high density (3.2 MB) 3½\" drives, both of which offered not only a 1581-emulation mode but also 1541- and 1571-compatibility modes.Like the 1541 and 1571, a nearly identical job queue is available to the user in zero page (except for job 0), providing for exceptional degrees of compatibility.Unlike the cases of the 1541 and 1571, the low-level disk format used by the 1581 is similar enough to the MS-DOS format as the 1581 is built around a WD1770 FM/MFM floppy controller chip.", "The 1581 disk format consists of 80 tracks and ten 512 byte sectors per track, used as 20 logical sectors of 256 bytes each.", "Special software is required to read 1581 disks on a PC due to the different file system.", "An internal floppy drive and controller are required as well; USB floppy drives operate strictly at the file system level and do not allow low-level disk access.", "The WD1770 controller chip, however, was the seat of some early problems with 1581 drives when the first production runs were recalled due to a high failure rate; the problem was quickly corrected.", "Later versions of the 1581 drive have a smaller, more streamlined-looking external power supply provided with them." ], [ "Specifications", " Quantity Value Onboard CPU MOS Technology 6502 @ 2 MHz RAM 8 kB ROM 32 kB Disk controller WD1770 or WD1772 Communications controller MOS Technology 8520A Transfer protocols Standard and fast serial; burst mode; and commands for parallel interface (the latter not used) Disk type 3.5\" inch Storage format MFM, double density, double-sided Interface CBM's proprietary serial IEEE-488 Power === 1581 Image Layout ===The 1581 disk has 80 logical tracks, each with 40 logical sectors (the actual physical layout of the diskette is abstracted and managed by a hardware translation layer).", "The directory starts on 40/3 (track 40, sector 3).", "The disk header is on 40/0, and the BAM (block availability map) resides on 40/1 and 40/2.Header Contents $00–01 T/S reference to first directory sector (40/3) 02 DOS version ('D') 04-13 Disk Label, $A0 padded 16-17 Disk ID 19-1A DOS type ('3D')BAM Contents, 40/1 $00–01 T/S to next BAM sector (40/2) 02 DOS version ('D') 04-05 Disk ID 06 I/O byte 07 Autoboot flag 10-FF BAM entries for Tracks 1-40BAM Contents, 40/2 $00–01 00/FF 02 DOS version ('D') 04-05 Disk ID 06 I/O byte 07 Autoboot flag 10-FF BAM entries for Tracks 41-80" ], [ "See also", "* Commodore 64 peripherals* Commodore 128" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "***" ], [ "External links", "* d81.de: Permanent home of 1581-Copy, A MS-Windows based Tool uses any standard x86-PC 3.5\" drive to WRITE & READ 1581 disk images (d81).", "* optusnet.com.au: 1581 Games, Commodore 1581 Games, D81, CMD FD2000 & FD4000 Games, Tools & Games specifically for the 1581 disk drive.", "* optusnet.com.au: SEGA SF-7000 with PC 3.5\" Floppy Drive, Copy disk to PC and vice versa, How to use a PC 3.5\" floppy drive in the 1581 device* vice-emu: Commodore compatible Disk Drives, drive info* tut.fi: DCN-2692 floppy controller board, C1581 clone (complete)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "College football" ], [ "Introduction", "'''College football''' refers to gridiron football that is played by teams of amateur student-athletes at universities and colleges.", "It was through collegiate competition that gridiron football first gained popularity in the United States.Like gridiron football generally, college football is most popular in the United States and Canada.", "While no single governing body exists for college football in the United States, most schools, especially those at the highest levels of play, are members of the NCAA.", "In Canada, collegiate football competition is governed by U Sports for universities.", "The Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association (for colleges) governs soccer and other sports but not gridiron football.", "Other countries, such as Mexico, Japan and South Korea, also host college football leagues with modest levels of support.Unlike most other major sports in North America, no official minor league farm organizations exist for American football or Canadian football.", "Therefore, college football is generally considered to be the second tier of American and Canadian football; ahead of high school competition, but below professional competition.", "In some parts of the United States, especially the South and Midwest, college football is more popular than professional football.", "For much of the 20th century, college football was generally considered to be more prestigious than professional football.As the second highest tier of gridiron football competition in the United States, many college football players later play professionally in the NFL or other leagues.", "The NFL draft each spring sees 224 players selected and offered a contract to play in the league, with the vast majority coming from the NCAA.", "Other professional leagues, such as the CFL and XFL, additionally hold their own drafts each year which see many college players selected.", "Players who are not selected can still attempt to land a professional roster spot as an undrafted free agent.", "Despite these opportunities, only around 1.6% of NCAA college football players end up playing professionally in the NFL." ], [ "History", "Even after the emergence of the professional National Football League (NFL), college football has remained extremely popular throughout the U.S.", "Although the college game has a much larger margin for talent than its pro counterpart, the sheer number of fans following major colleges provides a financial equalizer for the game, with Division I programs — the highest level — playing in huge stadiums, six of which have seating capacity exceeding 100,000 people.", "In many cases, college stadiums employ bench-style seating, as opposed to individual seats with backs and arm rests (although many stadiums do have a small number of chair back seats in addition to the bench seating).", "This allows them to seat more fans in a given amount of space than the typical professional stadium, which tends to have more features and comforts for fans.", "Only three stadiums owned by U.S. colleges or universities, L&N Stadium at the University of Louisville, Center Parc Stadium at Georgia State University, and FAU Stadium at Florida Atlantic University, consist entirely of chair back seating.College athletes, unlike players in the NFL, are not permitted by the NCAA to be paid salaries.", "Colleges are only allowed to provide non-monetary compensation such as athletic scholarships that provide for tuition, housing, and books.", "With new bylaws made by the NCAA, college athletes can now receive \"name, image, and likeness\" (NIL) deals, a way to get sponsorships and money before their pro debut.===Rugby football in Great Britain and Canada===Modern North American football has its origins in various games, all known as \"football\", played at public schools in Great Britain in the mid-19th century.", "By the 1840s, students at Rugby School were playing a game in which players were able to pick up the ball and run with it, a sport later known as rugby football.", "The game was taken to Canada by British soldiers stationed there and was soon being played at Canadian colleges.The first documented gridiron football game was played at University College, a college of the University of Toronto, on November 9, 1861.One of the participants in the game involving University of Toronto students was William Mulock, later chancellor of the school.", "A football club was formed at the university soon afterward, although its rules of play then are unclear.In 1864, at Trinity College, also a college of the University of Toronto, F. Barlow Cumberland and Frederick A. Bethune devised rules based on rugby football.", "Modern Canadian football is widely regarded as having originated with a game played in Montreal, in 1865, when British Army officers played local civilians.", "The game gradually gained a following, and the Montreal Football Club was formed in 1868, the first recorded non-university football club in Canada.===American college football===Early games appear to have had much in common with the traditional \"mob football\" played in Great Britain.", "The games remained largely unorganized until the 19th century, when intramural games of football began to be played on college campuses.", "Each school played its own variety of football.", "Princeton University students played a game called \"ballown\" as early as 1820.In 1927, a Harvard tradition known as \"Bloody Monday\" began, which consisted of a mass ballgame between the freshman and sophomore classes.", "In 1860, both the town police and the college authorities agreed the Bloody Monday had to go.", "Harvard students responded by going into mourning for a mock figure called \"Football Fightum\", for whom they conducted funeral rites.", "The authorities held firm, and it was another dozen years before football was once again played at Harvard.", "Dartmouth played its own version called \"Old division football\", the rules of which were first published in 1871, though the game dates to at least the 1830s.", "All of these games, and others, shared certain commonalities.", "They remained largely \"mob\" style games, with huge numbers of players attempting to advance the ball into a goal area, often by any means necessary.", "Rules were simple, and violence and injury were common.", "The violence of these mob-style games led to widespread protests and a decision to abandon them.", "Yale, under pressure from the city of New Haven, banned the play of all forms of football in 1860.American football historian Parke H. Davis described the period between 1869 and 1875 as the 'Pioneer Period'; the years 1876–93 he called the 'Period of the American Intercollegiate Football Association'; and the years 1894–1933 he dubbed the \"Period of Rules Committees and Conferences\".====Princeton–Columbia–Yale–Rutgers====On November 6, 1869, Rutgers University faced Princeton University, then known as the College of New Jersey, in the first collegiate football game.", "The game more closely resembled soccer than football as it is played in the 21st century.", "It was played with a round ball, and used a set of rules suggested by Rutgers captain William J. Leggett, based on The Football Association's first set of rules, which were an early attempt by the former pupils of England's public schools, to unify the rules of their various public schools.", "The game was played at a Rutgers Field in New Brunswick, New Jersey.", "Two teams of 25 players attempted to score by kicking the ball into the opposing team's goal.", "Throwing or carrying the ball was not allowed, but there was plenty of physical contact between players.", "The first team to reach six goals was declared the winner.", "Rutgers won by a score of six to four.", "A rematch was played at Princeton a week later under Princeton's own set of rules (one notable difference was the awarding of a \"free kick\" to any player that caught the ball on the fly, which was a feature adopted from The Football Association's rules; the fair catch kick rule has survived through to modern American game).", "Princeton won that game by a score of 8 – 0.Columbia joined the series in 1870 and by 1872 several schools were fielding intercollegiate teams, including Yale and Stevens Institute of Technology.Columbia University was the third school to field a team.", "The Lions traveled from New York City to New Brunswick on November 12, 1870, and were defeated by Rutgers 6 to 3.The game suffered from disorganization and the players kicked and battled each other as much as the ball.", "Later in 1870, Princeton and Rutgers played again with Princeton defeating Rutgers 6–0.This game's violence caused such an outcry that no games at all were played in 1871.Football came back in 1872, when Columbia played Yale for the first time.", "The Yale team was coached and captained by David Schley Schaff, who had learned to play football while attending Rugby School.", "Schaff himself was injured and unable to play the game, but Yale won the game 3-0 nonetheless.", "Later in 1872, Stevens Tech became the fifth school to field a team.", "Stevens lost to Columbia, but beat both New York University and City College of New York during the following year.By 1873, the college students playing football had made significant efforts to standardize their fledgling game.", "Teams had been scaled down from 25 players to 20.The only way to score was still to bat or kick the ball through the opposing team's goal, and the game was played in two 45 minute halves on fields 140 yards long and 70 yards wide.", "On October 20, 1873, representatives from Yale, Columbia, Princeton, and Rutgers met at the Fifth Avenue Hotel in New York City to codify the first set of intercollegiate football rules.", "Before this meeting, each school had its own set of rules and games were usually played using the home team's own particular code.", "At this meeting, a list of rules, based more on the Football Association's rules than the rules of the recently founded Rugby Football Union, was drawn up for intercollegiate football games.====Harvard–McGill (1874)====McGill vs. Harvard football game in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1874; Harvard won 3-0.Old \"Football Fightum\" had been resurrected at Harvard in 1872, when Harvard resumed playing football.", "Harvard, however, preferred to play a rougher version of football called \"the Boston Game\" in which the kicking of a round ball was the most prominent feature though a player could run with the ball, pass it, or dribble it (known as \"babying\").", "The man with the ball could be tackled, although hitting, tripping, \"hacking\" and other unnecessary roughness was prohibited.", "There was no limit to the number of players, but there were typically ten to fifteen per side.", "A player could carry the ball only when being pursued.As a result of this, Harvard refused to attend the rules conference organized by Rutgers, Princeton and Columbia at the Fifth Avenue Hotel in New York City on October 20, 1873, to agree on a set of rules and regulations that would allow them to play a form of football that was essentially Association football; and continued to play under its own code.", "While Harvard's voluntary absence from the meeting made it hard for them to schedule games against other American universities, it agreed to a challenge to play the rugby team of McGill University, from Montreal, in a two-game series.", "It was agreed that two games would be played on Harvard's Jarvis baseball field in Cambridge, Massachusetts on May 14 and 15, 1874: one to be played under Harvard rules, another under the stricter rugby regulations of McGill.", "Jarvis Field was at the time a patch of land at the northern point of the Harvard campus, bordered by Everett and Jarvis Streets to the north and south, and Oxford Street and Massachusetts Avenue to the east and west.", "Harvard beat McGill in the \"Boston Game\" on the Thursday and held McGill to a 0–0 tie on the Friday.", "The Harvard students took to the rugby rules and adopted them as their own, The games featured a round ball instead of a rugby-style oblong ball.", "This series of games represents an important milestone in the development of the modern game of American football.", "In October 1874, the Harvard team once again traveled to Montreal to play McGill in rugby, where they won by three tries.In as much as Rugby football had been transplanted to Canada from England, the McGill team played under a set of rules which allowed a player to pick up the ball and run with it whenever he wished.", "Another rule, unique to McGill, was to count tries (the act of grounding the football past the opposing team's goal line; it is important to note that there was no end zone during this time), as well as goals, in the scoring.", "In the Rugby rules of the time, a try only provided the attempt to kick a free goal from the field.", "If the kick was missed, the try did not score any points itself.====Harvard–Tufts, Harvard–Yale (1875)====Harvard quickly took a liking to the rugby game, and its use of the try which, until that time, was not used in American football.", "The try would later evolve into the score known as the touchdown.", "On June 4, 1875, Harvard faced Tufts University in the first game between two American colleges played under rules similar to the McGill/Harvard contest, which was won by Tufts.", "The rules included each side fielding 11 men at any given time, the ball was advanced by kicking or carrying it, and tackles of the ball carrier stopped play – actions of which have carried over to the modern version of football played todayHarvard later challenged its closest rival, Yale, to which the Bulldogs accepted.", "The two teams agreed to play under a set of rules called the \"Concessionary Rules\", which involved Harvard conceding something to Yale's soccer and Yale conceding a great deal to Harvard's rugby.", "They decided to play with 15 players on each team.", "On November 13, 1875, Yale and Harvard played each other for the first time ever, where Harvard won 4–0.At the first The Game (as the annual contest between Harvard and Yale came to be named) the future \"father of American football\" Walter Camp was among the 2000 spectators in attendance.", "Walter, who would enroll at Yale the next year, was torn between an admiration for Harvard's style of play and the misery of the Yale defeat, and became determined to avenge Yale's defeat.", "Spectators from Princeton also carried the game back home, where it quickly became the most popular version of football.On November 23, 1876, representatives from Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and Columbia met at the Massasoit House hotel in Springfield, Massachusetts to standardize a new code of rules based on the rugby game first introduced to Harvard by McGill University in 1874.Three of the schools—Harvard, Columbia, and Princeton—formed the Intercollegiate Football Association, as a result of the meeting.", "Yale initially refused to join this association because of a disagreement over the number of players to be allowed per team (relenting in 1879) and Rutgers were not invited to the meeting.", "The rules that they agreed upon were essentially those of rugby union at the time with the exception that points be awarded for scoring a try, not just the conversion afterwards (extra point).", "Incidentally, rugby was to make a similar change to its scoring system 10 years later.====Walter Camp: Father of American football====Walter Camp, the \"Father of American Football\", then the captain of the Yale University football team, in 1878Walter Camp is widely considered to be the most important figure in the development of American football.", "As a youth, he excelled in sports like track, baseball, and association football, and after enrolling at Yale in 1876, he earned varsity honors in every sport the school offered.Following the introduction of rugby-style rules to American football, Camp became a fixture at the Massasoit House conventions where rules were debated and changed.", "Dissatisfied with what seemed to him to be a disorganized mob, he proposed his first rule change at the first meeting he attended in 1878: a reduction from fifteen players to eleven.", "The motion was rejected at that time but passed in 1880.The effect was to open up the game and emphasize speed over strength.", "Camp's most famous change, the establishment of the line of scrimmage and the snap from center to quarterback, was also passed in 1880.Originally, the snap was executed with the foot of the center.", "Later changes made it possible to snap the ball with the hands, either through the air or by a direct hand-to-hand pass.", "Rugby league followed Camp's example, and in 1906 introduced the play-the-ball rule, which greatly resembled Camp's early scrimmage and center-snap rules.", "In 1966, rugby league introduced a four-tackle rule (changed in 1972 to a six-tackle rule) based on Camp's early down-and-distance rules.Camp's new scrimmage rules revolutionized the game, though not always as intended.", "Princeton, in particular, used scrimmage play to slow the game, making incremental progress towards the end zone during each down.", "Rather than increase scoring, which had been Camp's original intent, the rule was exploited to maintain control of the ball for the entire game, resulting in slow, unexciting contests.", "At the 1882 rules meeting, Camp proposed that a team be required to advance the ball a minimum of five yards within three downs.", "These down-and-distance rules, combined with the establishment of the line of scrimmage, transformed the game from a variation of rugby football into the distinct sport of American football.Camp was central to several more significant rule changes that came to define American football.", "In 1881, the field was reduced in size to its modern dimensions of 120 by 53 yards (109.7 by 48.8 meters).", "Several times in 1883, Camp tinkered with the scoring rules, finally arriving at four points for a touchdown, two points for kicks after touchdowns, two points for safeties, and five for field goals.", "Camp's innovations in the area of point scoring influenced rugby union's move to point scoring in 1890.In 1887, game time was set at two halves of 45 minutes each.", "Also in 1887, two paid officials—a referee and an umpire—were mandated for each game.", "A year later, the rules were changed to allow tackling below the waist, and in 1889, the officials were given whistles and stopwatches.After leaving Yale in 1882, Camp was employed by the New Haven Clock Company until his death in 1925.Though no longer a player, he remained a fixture at annual rules meetings for most of his life, and he personally selected an annual All-American team every year from 1889 through 1924.The Walter Camp Football Foundation continues to select All-American teams in his honor.===Scoring table===+Historical college football scoring Era Touchdown Field goal Conversion (kick) Conversion (touchdown) Safety Conversion safety Defensive conversion 1883 2 5 4 – 1 – – 1883–1897 4 2 2 1898–1903 5 1 1904–1908 4 1909–1911 3 1912–1957 6 1958–1987 2 1 1988–present 2 Note: For brief periods in the late 19th century, some penalties awarded one or more points for the opposing teams, and some teams in the late 19th and early 20th centuries chose to negotiate their own scoring system for individual games.===Expansion===College football expanded greatly during the last two decades of the 19th century.", "Several major rivalries date from this time period.November 1890 was an active time in the sport.", "In Baldwin City, Kansas, on November 22, 1890, college football was first played in the state of Kansas.", "Baker beat Kansas 22–9.On the 27th, Vanderbilt played Nashville (Peabody) at Athletic Park and won 40–0.It was the first time organized football played in the state of Tennessee.", "The 29th also saw the first instance of the Army–Navy Game.", "Navy won 24–0.====East====Rutgers was first to extend the reach of the game.", "An intercollegiate game was first played in the state of New York when Rutgers played Columbia on November 2, 1872.It was also the first scoreless tie in the history of the fledgling sport.", "Yale football starts the same year and has its first match against Columbia, the nearest college to play football.", "It took place at Hamilton Park in New Haven and was the first game in New England.", "The game was essentially soccer with 20-man sides, played on a field 400 by 250 feet.", "Yale wins 3–0, Tommy Sherman scoring the first goal and Lew Irwin the other two.After the first game against Harvard, Tufts took its squad to Bates College in Lewiston, Maine for the first football game played in Maine.", "This occurred on November 6, 1875.Penn's Athletic Association was looking to pick \"a twenty\" to play a game of football against Columbia.", "This \"twenty\" never played Columbia, but did play twice against Princeton.", "Princeton won both games 6 to 0.The first of these happened on November 11, 1876, in Philadelphia and was the first intercollegiate game in the state of Pennsylvania.Brown enters the intercollegiate game in 1878.The first game where one team scored over 100 points happened on October 25, 1884, when Yale routed Dartmouth 113–0.It was also the first time one team scored over 100 points and the opposing team was shut out.", "The next week, Princeton outscored Lafayette 140 to 0.The first intercollegiate game in the state of Vermont happened on November 6, 1886, between Dartmouth and Vermont at Burlington, Vermont.", "Dartmouth won 91 to 0.Penn State played its first season in 1887, but had no head coach for their first five years, from 1887 to 1891.The teams played its home games on the Old Main lawn on campus in State College, Pennsylvania.", "They compiled a 12–8–1 record in these seasons, playing as an independent from 1887 to 1890.In 1891, the Pennsylvania Intercollegiate Football Association (PIFA) was formed.", "It consisted of Bucknell (University of Lewisburg), Dickinson, Franklin & Marshall, Haverford, Penn State and Swarthmore.", "Lafayette and Lehigh were excluded because it was felt they would dominate the Association.", "Penn State won the championship with a 4–1–0 record.", "Bucknell's record was 3–1–1 (losing to Franklin & Marshall and tying Dickinson).", "The Association was dissolved prior to the 1892 season.The first nighttime football game was played in Mansfield, Pennsylvania on September 28, 1892, between Mansfield State Normal and Wyoming Seminary and ended at halftime in a 0–0 tie.", "The Army–Navy game of 1893 saw the first documented use of a football helmet by a player in a game.", "Joseph M. Reeves had a crude leather helmet made by a shoemaker in Annapolis and wore it in the game after being warned by his doctor that he risked death if he continued to play football after suffering an earlier kick to the head.====Middle West====University of Minnesota and the University of MichiganUniversity of Wisconsin football team in 1903In 1879, the University of Michigan became the first school west of Pennsylvania to establish a college football team.", "On May 30, 1879, Michigan beat Racine College 1–0 in a game played in Chicago.", "The ''Chicago Daily Tribune'' called it \"the first rugby-football game to be played west of the Alleghenies.\"", "Other Midwestern schools soon followed suit, including the University of Chicago, Northwestern University, and the University of Minnesota.", "The first western team to travel east was the 1881 Michigan team, which played at Harvard, Yale and Princeton.", "The nation's first college football league, the Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives (also known as the Western Conference), a precursor to the Big Ten Conference, was founded in 1895.Led by coach Fielding H. Yost, Michigan became the first \"western\" national power.", "From 1901 to 1905, Michigan had a 56-game undefeated streak that included a 1902 trip to play in the first college football bowl game, which later became the Rose Bowl Game.", "During this streak, Michigan scored 2,831 points while allowing only 40.Organized intercollegiate football was first played in the state of Minnesota on September 30, 1882, when Hamline was convinced to play Minnesota.", "Minnesota won 2 to 0.It was the first game west of the Mississippi River.November 30, 1905, saw Chicago defeat Michigan 2 to 0.Dubbed \"The First Greatest Game of the Century\", it broke Michigan's 56-game unbeaten streak and marked the end of the \"Point-a-Minute\" years.====South====Auburn and GeorgiaAn 1894 football game in Staunton, Virginia between VMI and Virginia TechSewanee's 1899 \"Iron Men\"The 1904 Vanderbilt team in action; note the grid pattern on the fieldOrganized collegiate football was first played in the state of Virginia and the south on November 2, 1873, in Lexington between Washington and Lee and VMI.", "Washington and Lee won 4–2.Some industrious students of the two schools organized a game for October 23, 1869, but it was rained out.", "Students of the University of Virginia were playing pickup games of the kicking-style of football as early as 1870, and some accounts even claim it organized a game against Washington and Lee College in 1871; but no record has been found of the score of this contest.", "Due to scantiness of records of the prior matches some will claim Virginia v. Pantops Academy November 13, 1887, as the first game in Virginia.On April 9, 1880, at Stoll Field, Transylvania University (then called Kentucky University) beat Centre College by the score of –0 in what is often considered the first recorded game played in the South.", "The first game of \"scientific football\" in the South was the first instance of the Victory Bell rivalry between North Carolina and Duke (then known as Trinity College) held on Thanksgiving Day, 1888, at the North Carolina State Fairgrounds in Raleigh, North Carolina.On November 13, 1887, the Virginia Cavaliers and Pantops Academy fought to a scoreless tie in the first organized football game in the state of Virginia.", "Students at UVA were playing pickup games of the kicking-style of football as early as 1870, and some accounts even claim that some industrious ones organized a game against Washington and Lee College in 1871, just two years after Rutgers and Princeton's historic first game in 1869.But no record has been found of the score of this contest.", "Washington and Lee also claims a 4 to 2 win over VMI in 1873.On October 18, 1888, the Wake Forest Demon Deacons defeated the North Carolina Tar Heels 6 to 4 in the first intercollegiate game in the state of North Carolina.On December 14, 1889, Wofford defeated Furman 5 to 1 in the first intercollegiate game in the state of South Carolina.", "The game featured no uniforms, no positions, and the rules were formulated before the game.January 30, 1892, saw the first football game played in the Deep South when the Georgia Bulldogs defeated Mercer 50–0 at Herty Field.The beginnings of the contemporary Southeastern Conference and Atlantic Coast Conference start in 1894.The Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) was founded on December 21, 1894, by William Dudley, a chemistry professor at Vanderbilt.", "The original members were Alabama, Auburn, Georgia, Georgia Tech, North Carolina, Sewanee, and Vanderbilt.", "Clemson, Cumberland, Kentucky, LSU, Mercer, Mississippi, Mississippi A&M (Mississippi State), Southwestern Presbyterian University, Tennessee, Texas, Tulane, and the University of Nashville joined the following year in 1895 as invited charter members.", "The conference was originally formed for \"the development and purification of college athletics throughout the South\".The first forward pass in football likely occurred on October 26, 1895, in a game between Georgia and North Carolina when, out of desperation, the ball was thrown by the North Carolina back Joel Whitaker instead of punted and George Stephens caught the ball.", "On November 9, 1895, John Heisman executed a hidden ball trick utilizing quarterback Reynolds Tichenor to get Auburn's only touchdown in a 6 to 9 loss to Vanderbilt.", "It was the first game in the south decided by a field goal.", "Heisman later used the trick against Pop Warner's Georgia team.", "Warner picked up the trick and later used it at Cornell against Penn State in 1897.He then used it in 1903 at Carlisle against Harvard and garnered national attention.The 1899 Sewanee Tigers are one of the all-time great teams of the early sport.", "The team went 12–0, outscoring opponents 322 to 10.Known as the \"Iron Men\", with just 13 men they had a six-day road trip with five shutout wins over Texas A&M; Texas; Tulane; LSU; and Ole Miss.", "It is recalled memorably with the phrase \"... and on the seventh day they rested.\"", "Grantland Rice called them \"the most durable football team I ever saw.", "\"Organized intercollegiate football was first played in the state of Florida in 1901.A 7-game series between intramural teams from Stetson and Forbes occurred in 1894.The first intercollegiate game between official varsity teams was played on November 22, 1901.Stetson beat Florida Agricultural College at Lake City, one of the four forerunners of the University of Florida, 6–0, in a game played as part of the Jacksonville Fair.On September 27, 1902, Georgetown beat Navy 4 to 0.It is claimed by Georgetown authorities as the game with the first ever \"roving center\" or linebacker when Percy Given stood up, in contrast to the usual tale of Germany Schulz.", "The first linebacker in the South is often considered to be Frank Juhan.On Thanksgiving Day 1903, a game was scheduled in Montgomery, Alabama between the best teams from each region of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association for an \"SIAA championship game\", pitting Cumberland against Heisman's Clemson.", "The game ended in an 11–11 tie causing many teams to claim the title.", "Heisman pressed hardest for Cumberland to get the claim of champion.", "It was his last game as Clemson head coach.1904 saw big coaching hires in the south: Mike Donahue at Auburn, John Heisman at Georgia Tech, and Dan McGugin at Vanderbilt were all hired that year.", "Both Donahue and McGugin just came from the north that year, Donahue from Yale and McGugin from Michigan, and were among the initial inductees of the College Football Hall of Fame.", "The undefeated 1904 Vanderbilt team scored an average of 52.7 points per game, the most in college football that season, and allowed just four points.====Southwest====The first college football game in Oklahoma Territory occurred on November 7, 1895, when the \"Oklahoma City Terrors\" defeated the Oklahoma Sooners 34 to 0.The Terrors were a mix of Methodist college and high school students.", "The Sooners did not manage a single first down.", "By next season, Oklahoma coach John A. Harts had left to prospect for gold in the Arctic.", "Organized football was first played in the territory on November 29, 1894, between the Oklahoma City Terrors and Oklahoma City High School.", "The high school won 24 to 0.====Pacific Coast====USC football team in 1888; before they were nicknamed the \"Trojans\", they were known as the USC Methodists.The 1893 Stanford University football teamBig Game between Stanford and California was played as rugby union from 1906 to 1914The University of Southern California first fielded an American football team in 1888.Playing its first game on November 14 of that year against the Alliance Athletic Club, in which USC gained a 16–0 victory.", "Frank Suffel and Henry H. Goddard were playing coaches for the first team which was put together by quarterback Arthur Carroll; who in turn volunteered to make the pants for the team and later became a tailor.", "USC faced its first collegiate opponent the following year in fall 1889, playing St. Vincent's College to a 40–0 victory.", "In 1893, USC joined the Intercollegiate Football Association of Southern California (the forerunner of the SCIAC), which was composed of USC, Occidental College, Throop Polytechnic Institute (Caltech), and Chaffey College.", "Pomona College was invited to enter, but declined to do so.", "An invitation was also extended to Los Angeles High School.In 1891, the first Stanford football team was hastily organized and played a four-game season beginning in January 1892 with no official head coach.", "Following the season, Stanford captain John Whittemore wrote to Yale coach Walter Camp asking him to recommend a coach for Stanford.", "To Whittemore's surprise, Camp agreed to coach the team himself, on the condition that he finish the season at Yale first.", "As a result of Camp's late arrival, Stanford played just three official games, against San Francisco's Olympic Club and rival California.", "The team also played exhibition games against two Los Angeles area teams that Stanford does not include in official results.", "Camp returned to the East Coast following the season, then returned to coach Stanford in 1894 and 1895.On December 25, 1894, Amos Alonzo Stagg's Chicago Maroons agreed to play Camp's Stanford football team in San Francisco in the first postseason intersectional contest, foreshadowing the modern bowl game.", "Future president Herbert Hoover was Stanford's student financial manager.", "Chicago won 24 to 4.Stanford won a rematch in Los Angeles on December 29 by 12 to 0.The Big Game between Stanford and California is the oldest college football rivalry in the West.", "The first game was played on San Francisco's Haight Street Grounds on March 19, 1892, with Stanford winning 14–10.The term \"Big Game\" was first used in 1900, when it was played on Thanksgiving Day in San Francisco.", "During that game, a large group of men and boys, who were observing from the roof of the nearby S.F.", "and Pacific Glass Works, fell into the fiery interior of the building when the roof collapsed, resulting in 13 dead and 78 injured.", "On December 4, 1900, the last victim of the disaster (Fred Lilly) died, bringing the death toll to 22; and, to this day, the \"Thanksgiving Day Disaster\" remains the deadliest accident to kill spectators at a U.S. sporting event.The University of Oregon began playing American football in 1894 and played its first game on March 24, 1894, defeating Albany College 44–3 under head coach Cal Young.", "Cal Young left after that first game and J.A.", "Church took over the coaching position in the fall for the rest of the season.", "Oregon finished the season with two additional losses and a tie, but went undefeated the following season, winning all four of its games under head coach Percy Benson.", "In 1899, the Oregon football team left the state for the first time, playing the California Golden Bears in Berkeley, California.American football at Oregon State University started in 1893 shortly after athletics were initially authorized at the college.", "Athletics were banned at the school in May 1892, but when the strict school president, Benjamin Arnold, died, President John Bloss reversed the ban.", "Bloss's son William started the first team, on which he served as both coach and quarterback.", "The team's first game was an easy 63–0 defeat over the home team, Albany College.In May 1900, Yost was hired as the football coach at Stanford University, and, after traveling home to West Virginia, he arrived in Palo Alto, California, on August 21, 1900.Yost led the 1900 Stanford team to a 7–2–1, outscoring opponents 154 to 20.The next year in 1901, Yost was hired by Charles A. Baird as the head football coach for the Michigan Wolverines football team.", "On January 1, 1902, Yost's dominating 1901 Michigan Wolverines football team agreed to play a 3–1–2 team from Stanford University in the inaugural \"Tournament East-West football game\" what is now known as the ''Rose Bowl Game'' by a score of 49–0 after Stanford captain Ralph Fisher requested to quit with eight minutes remaining.The 1905 season marked the first meeting between Stanford and USC.", "Consequently, Stanford is USC's oldest existing rival.", "The Big Game between Stanford and Cal on November 11, 1905, was the first played at Stanford Field, with Stanford winning 12–5.In 1906, citing concerns about the violence in American Football, universities on the West Coast, led by California and Stanford, replaced the sport with rugby union.", "At the time, the future of American football was very much in doubt and these schools believed that rugby union would eventually be adopted nationwide.", "Other schools followed suit and also made the switch included Nevada, St. Mary's, Santa Clara, and USC (in 1911).", "However, due to the perception that West Coast football was inferior to the game played on the East Coast anyway, East Coast and Midwest teams shrugged off the loss of the teams and continued playing American football.", "With no nationwide movement, the available pool of rugby teams to play remained small.", "The schools scheduled games against local club teams and reached out to rugby union powers in Australia, New Zealand, and especially, due to its proximity, Canada.", "The annual Big Game between Stanford and California continued as rugby, with the winner invited by the British Columbia Rugby Union to a tournament in Vancouver over the Christmas holidays, with the winner of that tournament receiving the Cooper Keith Trophy.During 12 seasons of playing rugby union, Stanford was remarkably successful: the team had three undefeated seasons, three one-loss seasons, and an overall record of 94 wins, 20 losses, and 3 ties for a winning percentage of .816.However, after a few years, the school began to feel the isolation of its newly adopted sport, which was not spreading as many had hoped.", "Students and alumni began to clamor for a return to American football to allow wider intercollegiate competition.", "The pressure at rival California was stronger (especially as the school had not been as successful in the Big Game as they had hoped), and in 1915 California returned to American football.", "As reasons for the change, the school cited rule change back to American football, the overwhelming desire of students and supporters to play American football, interest in playing other East Coast and Midwest schools, and a patriotic desire to play an \"American\" game.", "California's return to American football increased the pressure on Stanford to also change back in order to maintain the rivalry.", "Stanford played its 1915, 1916, and 1917 \"Big Games\" as rugby union against Santa Clara and California's football \"Big Game\" in those years was against Washington, but both schools desired to restore the old traditions.", "The onset of American involvement in World War I gave Stanford an out: In 1918, the Stanford campus was designated as the Students' Army Training Corps headquarters for all of California, Nevada, and Utah, and the commanding officer Sam M. Parker decreed that American football was the appropriate athletic activity to train soldiers and rugby union was dropped.====Mountain West====Colorado's first football team in 1890Kickoff during the 1916 Colorado – Utah gameThe 1905 Utah football teamThe University of Colorado began playing American football in 1890.Colorado found much success in its early years, winning eight Colorado Football Association Championships (1894–97, 1901–08).The following was taken from the ''Silver & Gold'' newspaper of December 16, 1898.It was a recollection of the birth of Colorado football written by one of CU's original gridders, John C. Nixon, also the school's second captain.", "It appears here in its original form:In 1909, the Rocky Mountain Athletic Conference was founded, featuring four members: Colorado, Colorado College, Colorado School of Mines, and Colorado Agricultural College.", "The University of Denver and the University of Utah joined the RMAC in 1910.For its first thirty years, the RMAC was considered a major conference equivalent to today's Division I, before 7 larger members left and formed the Mountain States Conference (also called the Skyline Conference).===Violence, formation of NCAA===College football increased in popularity through the remainder of the 19th and early 20th century.", "It also became increasingly violent.", "Between 1890 and 1905, 330 college athletes died as a direct result of injuries sustained on the football field.", "These deaths could be attributed to the mass formations and gang tackling that characterized the sport in its early years.The 1894 Harvard–Yale game, known as the \"Hampden Park Blood Bath\", resulted in crippling injuries for four players; the contest was suspended until 1897.The annual Army–Navy game was suspended from 1894 to 1898 for similar reasons.", "One of the major problems was the popularity of mass-formations like the flying wedge, in which a large number of offensive players charged as a unit against a similarly arranged defense.", "The resultant collisions often led to serious injuries and sometimes even death.", "Georgia fullback Richard Von Albade Gammon notably died on the field from concussions received against Virginia in 1897, causing Georgia, Georgia Tech, and Mercer to suspend their football programs.The situation came to a head in 1905 when there were 19 fatalities nationwide.", "President Theodore Roosevelt reportedly threatened to shut down the game if drastic changes were not made.", "However, the threat by Roosevelt to eliminate football is disputed by sports historians.", "What is absolutely certain is that on October 9, 1905, Roosevelt held a meeting of football representatives from Harvard, Yale, and Princeton.", "Though he lectured on eliminating and reducing injuries, he never threatened to ban football.", "He also lacked the authority to abolish football and was, in fact, actually a fan of the sport and wanted to preserve it.", "The President's sons were also playing football at the college and secondary levels at the time.Meanwhile, John H. Outland held an experimental game in Wichita, Kansas that reduced the number of scrimmage plays to earn a first down from four to three in an attempt to reduce injuries.", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' reported an increase in punts and considered the game much safer than regular play but that the new rule was not \"conducive to the sport\".", "In 1906, President Roosevelt organized a meeting among thirteen school leaders at the White House to find solutions to make the sport safer for the athletes.", "Because the college officials could not agree upon a change in rules, it was decided over the course of several subsequent meetings that an external governing body should be responsible.", "Finally, on December 28, 1905, 62 schools met in New York City to discuss rule changes to make the game safer.", "As a result of this meeting, the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States was formed in 1906.The IAAUS was the original rule making body of college football, but would go on to sponsor championships in other sports.", "The IAAUS would get its current name of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in 1910, and still sets rules governing the sport.The rules committee considered widening the playing field to \"open up\" the game, but Harvard Stadium (the first large permanent football stadium) had recently been built at great expense; it would be rendered useless by a wider field.", "The rules committee legalized the forward pass instead.", "Though it was underutilized for years, this proved to be one of the most important rule changes in the establishment of the modern game.", "Another rule change banned \"mass momentum\" plays (many of which, like the infamous \"flying wedge\", were sometimes literally deadly).===Modernization and innovation (1906–1930)===A 1906 ''St.", "Louis Post-Dispatch'' photograph of Brad Robinson, who threw the first legal forward pass and was the sport's first triple threatAs a result of the 1905–1906 reforms, mass formation plays became illegal and forward passes legal.", "Bradbury Robinson, playing for visionary coach Eddie Cochems at Saint Louis University, threw the first legal pass in a September 5, 1906, game against Carroll College at Waukesha.", "Other important changes, formally adopted in 1910, were the requirements that at least seven offensive players be on the line of scrimmage at the time of the snap, that there be no pushing or pulling, and that interlocking interference (arms linked or hands on belts and uniforms) was not allowed.", "These changes greatly reduced the potential for collision injuries.", "Several coaches emerged who took advantage of these sweeping changes.", "Amos Alonzo Stagg introduced such innovations as the huddle, the tackling dummy, and the pre-snap shift.", "Other coaches, such as Pop Warner and Knute Rockne, introduced new strategies that still remain part of the game.Besides these coaching innovations, several rules changes during the first third of the 20th century had a profound impact on the game, mostly in opening up the passing game.", "In 1914, the first roughing-the-passer penalty was implemented.", "In 1918, the rules on eligible receivers were loosened to allow eligible players to catch the ball anywhere on the field—previously strict rules were in place allowing passes to only certain areas of the field.", "Scoring rules also changed during this time: field goals were lowered to three points in 1909 and touchdowns raised to six points in 1912.Star players that emerged in the early 20th century include Jim Thorpe, Red Grange, and Bronko Nagurski; these three made the transition to the fledgling NFL and helped turn it into a successful league.", "Sportswriter Grantland Rice helped popularize the sport with his poetic descriptions of games and colorful nicknames for the game's biggest players, including Notre Dame's \"Four Horsemen\" backfield and Fordham University's linemen, known as the \"Seven Blocks of Granite\".In 1907 at Champaign, Illinois Chicago and Illinois played in the first game to have a halftime show featuring a marching band.", "Chicago won 42–6.On November 25, 1911 Kansas played at Missouri in the first homecoming football game.", "The game was \"broadcast\" play-by-play over telegraph to at least 1,000 fans in Lawrence, Kansas.", "It ended in a 3–3 tie.", "The game between West Virginia and Pittsburgh on October 8, 1921, saw the first live radio broadcast of a college football game when Harold W. Arlin announced that year's Backyard Brawl played at Forbes Field on KDKA.", "Pitt won 21–13.On October 28, 1922, Princeton and Chicago played the first game to be nationally broadcast on radio.", "Princeton won 21–18 in a hotly contested game which had Princeton dubbed the \"Team of Destiny\".====Rise of the South====One publication claims \"The first scouting done in the South was in 1905, when Dan McGugin and Captain Innis Brown, of Vanderbilt went to Atlanta to see Sewanee play Georgia Tech.\"", "Fuzzy Woodruff claims Davidson was the first in the south to throw a legal forward pass in 1906.The following season saw Vanderbilt execute a double pass play to set up the touchdown that beat Sewanee in a meeting of the unbeaten for the SIAA championship.", "Grantland Rice cited this event as the greatest thrill he ever witnessed in his years of watching sports.", "Vanderbilt coach Dan McGugin in ''Spalding's Football Guide'' summation of the season in the SIAA wrote \"The standing.", "First, Vanderbilt; second, Sewanee, a might good second;\" and that Aubrey Lanier \"came near winning the Vanderbilt game by his brilliant dashes after receiving punts.\"", "Bob Blake threw the final pass to center Stein Stone, catching it near the goal amongst defenders.", "Honus Craig then ran in the winning touchdown.=====Heisman shift=====Utilizing the \"jump shift\" offense, John Heisman's Georgia Tech Golden Tornado won 222 to 0 over Cumberland on October 7, 1916, at Grant Field in the most lopsided victory in college football history.", "Tech went on a 33-game winning streak during this period.", "The 1917 team was the first national champion from the South, led by a powerful backfield.", "It also had the first two players from the Deep South selected first-team All-American in Walker Carpenter and Everett Strupper.", "Pop Warner's Pittsburgh Panthers were also undefeated, but declined a challenge by Heisman to a game.", "When Heisman left Tech after 1919, his shift was still employed by protégé William Alexander.=====Notable intersectional games=====Tom Davies runs against undefeated and unscored upon Georgia Tech in the 1918 game at Forbes FieldIn 1906, Vanderbilt defeated Carlisle 4 to 0, the result of a Bob Blake field goal.", "In 1907 Vanderbilt fought Navy to a 6 to 6 tie.", "In 1910 Vanderbilt held defending national champion Yale to a scoreless tie.Helping Georgia Tech's claim to a title in 1917, the Auburn Tigers held undefeated, Chic Harley-led Big Ten champion Ohio State to a scoreless tie the week before Georgia Tech beat the Tigers 68 to 7.The next season, with many players gone due to World War I, a game was finally scheduled at Forbes Field with Pittsburgh.", "The Panthers, led by freshman Tom Davies, defeated Georgia Tech 32 to 0.Tech center Bum Day was the first player on a Southern team ever selected first-team All-American by Walter Camp.1917 saw the rise of another Southern team in Centre of Danville, Kentucky.", "In 1921 Bo McMillin-led Centre upset defending national champion Harvard 6 to 0 in what is widely considered one of the greatest upsets in college football history.", "The next year Vanderbilt fought Michigan to a scoreless tie at the inaugural game at Dudley Field (now Vanderbilt Stadium), the first stadium in the South made exclusively for college football.", "Michigan coach Fielding Yost and Vanderbilt coach Dan McGugin were brothers-in-law, and the latter the protégé of the former.", "The game featured the season's two best defenses and included a goal line stand by Vanderbilt to preserve the tie.", "Its result was \"a great surprise to the sporting world\".", "Commodore fans celebrated by throwing some 3,000 seat cushions onto the field.", "The game features prominently in Vanderbilt's history.", "That same year, Alabama upset Penn 9 to 7.Vanderbilt's line coach then was Wallace Wade, who coached Alabama to the South's first Rose Bowl victory in 1925.This game is commonly referred to as \"the game that changed the south\".", "Wade followed up the next season with an undefeated record and Rose Bowl tie.", "Georgia's 1927 \"dream and wonder team\" defeated Yale for the first time.", "Georgia Tech, led by Heisman protégé William Alexander, gave the dream and wonder team its only loss, and the next year were national and Rose Bowl champions.", "The Rose Bowl included Roy Riegels' wrong-way run.", "On October 12, 1929, Yale lost to Georgia in Sanford Stadium in its first trip to the south.", "Wade's Alabama again won a national championship and Rose Bowl in 1930.====Coaches of the era=========Glenn \"Pop\" Warner=====Glenn \"Pop\" Warner coached at several schools throughout his career, including the University of Georgia, Cornell University, University of Pittsburgh, Stanford University, Iowa State University, and Temple University.", "One of his most famous stints was at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, where he coached Jim Thorpe, who went on to become the first president of the National Football League, an Olympic Gold Medalist, and is widely considered one of the best overall athletes in history.", "Warner wrote one of the first important books of football strategy, ''Football for Coaches and Players'', published in 1927.Though the shift was invented by Stagg, Warner's single wing and double wing formations greatly improved upon it; for almost 40 years, these were among the most important formations in football.", "As part of his single and double wing formations, Warner was one of the first coaches to effectively utilize the forward pass.", "Among his other innovations are modern blocking schemes, the three-point stance, and the reverse play.", "The youth football league, Pop Warner Little Scholars, was named in his honor.=====Knute Rockne=====Knute Rockne rose to prominence in 1913 as an end for the University of Notre Dame, then a largely unknown Midwestern Catholic school.", "When Army scheduled Notre Dame as a warm-up game, they thought little of the small school.", "Rockne and quarterback Gus Dorais made innovative use of the forward pass, still at that point a relatively unused weapon, to defeat Army 35–13 and helped establish the school as a national power.", "Rockne returned to coach the team in 1918, and devised the powerful Notre Dame Box offense, based on Warner's single wing.", "He is credited with being the first major coach to emphasize offense over defense.", "Rockne is also credited with popularizing and perfecting the forward pass, a seldom used play at the time.", "The 1924 team featured the Four Horsemen backfield.", "In 1927, his complex shifts led directly to a rule change whereby all offensive players had to stop for a full second before the ball could be snapped.", "Rather than simply a regional team, Rockne's \"Fighting Irish\" became famous for barnstorming and played any team at any location.", "It was during Rockne's tenure that the annual Notre Dame-University of Southern California rivalry began.", "He led his team to an impressive 105–12–5 record before his premature death in a plane crash in 1931.He was so famous at that point that his funeral was broadcast nationally on radio.===From a regional to a national sport (1930–1958)===Don Hutson in 1940In the early 1930s, the college game continued to grow, particularly in the South, bolstered by fierce rivalries such as the \"South's Oldest Rivalry\", between Virginia and North Carolina and the \"Deep South's Oldest Rivalry\", between Georgia and Auburn.", "Although before the mid-1920s most national powers came from the Northeast or the Midwest, the trend changed when several teams from the South and the West Coast achieved national success.", "Wallace William Wade's 1925 Alabama team won the 1926 Rose Bowl after receiving its first national title and William Alexander's 1928 Georgia Tech team defeated California in the 1929 Rose Bowl.", "College football quickly became the most popular spectator sport in the South.Several major modern college football conferences rose to prominence during this time period.", "The Southwest Athletic Conference had been founded in 1915.Consisting mostly of schools from Texas, the conference saw back-to-back national champions with Texas Christian University (TCU) in 1938 and Texas A&M in 1939.The Pacific Coast Conference (PCC), a precursor to the Pac-12 Conference (Pac-12), had its own back-to-back champion in the University of Southern California which was awarded the title in 1931 and 1932.The Southeastern Conference (SEC) formed in 1932 and consisted mostly of schools in the Deep South.", "As in previous decades, the Big Ten continued to dominate in the 1930s and 1940s, with Minnesota winning 5 titles between 1934 and 1941, and Michigan (1933, 1947, and 1948) and Ohio State (1942) also winning titles.As it grew beyond its regional affiliations in the 1930s, college football garnered increased national attention.", "Four new bowl games were created: the Orange Bowl, Sugar Bowl, the Sun Bowl in 1935, and the Cotton Bowl in 1937.In lieu of an actual national championship, these bowl games, along with the earlier Rose Bowl, provided a way to match up teams from distant regions of the country that did not otherwise play.", "In 1936, the Associated Press began its weekly poll of prominent sports writers, ranking all of the nation's college football teams.", "Since there was no national championship game, the final version of the AP poll was used to determine who was crowned the National Champion of college football.The 1930s saw growth in the passing game.", "Though some coaches, such as General Robert Neyland at Tennessee, continued to eschew its use, several rules changes to the game had a profound effect on teams' ability to throw the ball.", "In 1934, the rules committee removed two major penalties—a loss of five yards for a second incomplete pass in any series of downs and a loss of possession for an incomplete pass in the end zone—and shrunk the circumference of the ball, making it easier to grip and throw.", "Players who became famous for taking advantage of the easier passing game included Alabama end Don Hutson and TCU passer \"Slingin\" Sammy Baugh.In 1935, New York City's Downtown Athletic Club awarded the first Heisman Trophy to University of Chicago halfback Jay Berwanger, who was also the first ever NFL Draft pick in 1936.The trophy was designed by sculptor Frank Eliscu and modeled after New York University player Ed Smith.", "The trophy recognizes the nation's \"most outstanding\" college football player and has become one of the most coveted awards in all of American sports.During World War II, college football players enlisted in the armed forces, some playing in Europe during the war.", "As most of these players had eligibility left on their college careers, some of them returned to college at West Point, bringing Army back-to-back national titles in 1944 and 1945 under coach Red Blaik.", "Doc Blanchard (known as \"Mr.", "Inside\") and Glenn Davis (known as \"Mr. Outside\") both won the Heisman Trophy, in 1945 and 1946.On the coaching staff of those 1944–1946 Army teams was future Pro Football Hall of Fame coach Vince Lombardi.The 1950s saw the rise of yet more dynasties and power programs.", "Oklahoma, under coach Bud Wilkinson, won three national titles (1950, 1955, 1956) and all ten Big Eight Conference championships in the decade while building a record 47-game winning streak.", "Woody Hayes led Ohio State to two national titles, in 1954 and 1957, and won three Big Ten titles.", "The Michigan State Spartans were known as the \"football factory\" during the 1950s, where coaches Clarence Munn and Duffy Daugherty led the Spartans to two national titles and two Big Ten titles after joining the Big Ten athletically in 1953.Wilkinson and Hayes, along with Robert Neyland of Tennessee, oversaw a revival of the running game in the 1950s.", "Passing numbers dropped from an average of 18.9 attempts in 1951 to 13.6 attempts in 1955, while teams averaged just shy of 50 running plays per game.", "Nine out of ten Heisman Trophy winners in the 1950s were runners.", "Notre Dame, one of the biggest passing teams of the decade, saw a substantial decline in success; the 1950s were the only decade between 1920 and 1990 when the team did not win at least a share of the national title.", "Paul Hornung, Notre Dame quarterback, did, however, win the Heisman in 1956, becoming the only player from a losing team ever to do so.The 1956 Sugar Bowl also gained international attention when Georgia's pro-segregationist Gov.", "Griffin publicly threatened Georgia Tech and its President Blake Van Leer over allowing the first African American player to play in a collegiate bowl game in the south.===Modern college football (since 1958)===Virginia Cavaliers (orange and blue home uniforms) playing Penn State Nittany Lions (all-white away uniforms) in 2012 at Scott StadiumFollowing the enormous success of the 1958 NFL Championship Game, college football no longer enjoyed the same popularity as the NFL, at least on a national level.", "While both games benefited from the advent of television, since the late 1950s, the NFL has become a nationally popular sport while college football has maintained strong regional ties.As professional football became a national television phenomenon, college football did as well.", "In the 1950s, Notre Dame, which had a large national following, formed its own network to broadcast its games, but by and large the sport still retained a mostly regional following.", "In 1952, the NCAA claimed all television broadcasting rights for the games of its member institutions, and it alone negotiated television rights.", "This situation continued until 1984, when several schools brought a suit under the Sherman Antitrust Act; the Supreme Court ruled against the NCAA and schools are now free to negotiate their own television deals.", "ABC Sports began broadcasting a national Game of the Week in 1966, bringing key matchups and rivalries to a national audience for the first time.New formations and play sets continued to be developed.", "Emory Bellard, an assistant coach under Darrell Royal at the University of Texas, developed a three-back option style offense known as the wishbone.", "The wishbone is a run-heavy offense that depends on the quarterback making last second decisions on when and to whom to hand or pitch the ball to.", "Royal went on to teach the offense to other coaches, including Bear Bryant at Alabama, Chuck Fairbanks at Oklahoma and Pepper Rodgers at UCLA; who all adapted and developed it to their own tastes.", "The strategic opposite of the wishbone is the spread offense, developed by professional and college coaches throughout the 1960s and 1970s.", "Though some schools play a run-based version of the spread, its most common use is as a passing offense designed to \"spread\" the field both horizontally and vertically.", "Some teams have managed to adapt with the times to keep winning consistently.", "In the rankings of the most victorious programs, Michigan, Ohio State, and Alabama ranked first, second, and third in total wins.====Growth of bowl games==== '''Growth of bowlgames 1930–2022''' Year # of games 1930 1 1940 5 1950 8 1960 8 1970 8 1980 15 1990 19 2000 25 2010 35202242 (Plus CFP national championship game)In 1940, for the highest level of college football, there were only five bowl games (Rose, Orange, Sugar, Sun, and Cotton).", "By 1950, three more had joined that number and in 1970, there were still only eight major college bowl games.", "The number grew to eleven in 1976.At the birth of cable television and cable sports networks like ESPN, there were fifteen bowls in 1980.With more national venues and increased available revenue, the bowls saw an explosive growth throughout the 1980s and 1990s.", "In the thirty years from 1950 to 1980, seven bowl games were added to the schedule.", "From 1980 to 2008, an additional 20 bowl games were added to the schedule.", "Some have criticized this growth, claiming that the increased number of games has diluted the significance of playing in a bowl game.", "Yet others have countered that the increased number of games has increased exposure and revenue for a greater number of schools, and see it as a positive development.", "Teams participating in bowl games also get to practice up to four hours per day or 20 hours per week until their bowl game concludes.", "There is no limit on the number of practices during the bowl season, so teams that play later in the season (usually ones with more wins) get more opportunity to practice than ones that play earlier.", "This bowl practice period can be compared to the spring practice schedule when teams can have 15 on-field practice sessions.", "Many teams that play late in the bowl season use the first few practices for evaluation and development of younger players while resting the starters." ], [ "Determination of national champion", "Currently, the NCAA Division I football teams are divided into two divisions - the \"football bowl subdivision\" (FBS) and the \"football championship subdivision\"(FCS).", "As indicated by the name, the FBS teams are eligible to play in post-season bowls.", "The FCS teams, Division II, Division III, National Junior College teams play in sanctioned tournaments to determine their annual champions.", "There is not now, and never has been, an NCAA-sanctioned tournament to determine the champion of the top-level football teams.With the growth of bowl games, it became difficult to determine a national champion in a fair and equitable manner.", "As conferences became contractually bound to certain bowl games (a situation known as a tie-in), match-ups that guaranteed a consensus national champion became increasingly rare.===Bowl Coalition===In 1992, seven conferences and independent Notre Dame formed the Bowl Coalition, which attempted to arrange an annual No.1 versus No.2 matchup based on the final AP poll standings.", "The Coalition lasted for three years; however, several scheduling issues prevented much success; tie-ins still took precedence in several cases.", "For example, the Big Eight and SEC champions could never meet, since they were contractually bound to different bowl games.", "The coalition also excluded the Rose Bowl, arguably the most prestigious game in the nation, and two major conferences—the Pac-10 and Big Ten—meaning that it had limited success.===Bowl Alliance===In 1995, the Coalition was replaced by the Bowl Alliance, which reduced the number of bowl games to host a national championship game to three—the Fiesta, Sugar, and Orange Bowls—and the participating conferences to five—the ACC, SEC, Southwest, Big Eight, and Big East.", "It was agreed that the No.1 and No.2 ranked teams gave up their prior bowl tie-ins and were guaranteed to meet in the national championship game, which rotated between the three participating bowls.", "The system still did not include the Big Ten, Pac-10, or the Rose Bowl, and thus still lacked the legitimacy of a true national championship.", "However, one positive side effect is that if there were three teams at the end of the season vying for a national title, but one of them was a Pac-10/Big Ten team bound to the Rose Bowl, then there would be no difficulty in deciding which teams to place in the Bowl Alliance \"national championship\" bowl; if the Pac-10 / Big Ten team won the Rose Bowl and finished with the same record as whichever team won the other bowl game, they could have a share of the national title.", "This happened in the final year of the Bowl Alliance, with Michigan winning the 1998 Rose Bowl and Nebraska winning the 1998 Orange Bowl.", "Without the Pac-10/Big Ten team bound to a bowl game, it would be difficult to decide which two teams should play for the national title.===Bowl Championship Series===The BCS National Championship trophy on display at Florida State University; the 2013 championship game marked the end of the BCS era.In 1998, a new system was put into place called the Bowl Championship Series.", "For the first time, it included all major conferences (ACC, Big East, Big 12, Big Ten, Pac-10, and SEC) and four major bowl games (Rose, Orange, Sugar and Fiesta).", "The champions of these six conferences, along with two \"at-large\" selections, were invited to play in the four bowl games.", "Each year, one of the four bowl games served as a national championship game.", "Also, a complex system of human polls, computer rankings, and strength of schedule calculations was instituted to rank schools.", "Based on this ranking system, the No.1 and No.2 teams met each year in the national championship game.", "Traditional tie-ins were maintained for schools and bowls not part of the national championship.", "For example, in years when not a part of the national championship, the Rose Bowl still hosted the Big Ten and Pac-10 champions.The system continued to change, as the formula for ranking teams was tweaked from year to year.", "At-large teams could be chosen from any of the Division I-A conferences, though only one selection—Utah in 2005—came from a BCS non-AQ conference.", "Starting with the 2006 season, a fifth game—simply called the BCS National Championship Game—was added to the schedule, to be played at the site of one of the four BCS bowl games on a rotating basis, one week after the regular bowl game.", "This opened up the BCS to two additional at-large teams.", "Also, rules were changed to add the champions of five additional conferences (Conference USA C-USA, the Mid-American Conference MAC, the Mountain West Conference MW, the Sun Belt Conference and the Western Athletic Conference WAC), provided that said champion ranked in the top twelve in the final BCS rankings, or was within the top 16 of the BCS rankings and ranked higher than the champion of at least one of the BCS Automatic Qualifying (AQ) conferences.", "Several times since this rule change was implemented, schools from non-AQ conferences have played in BCS bowl games.", "In 2009, Boise State played TCU in the Fiesta Bowl, the first time two schools from non-AQ conferences played each other in a BCS bowl game.", "The last team from the non-AQ ranks to reach a BCS bowl game in the BCS era was Northern Illinois in 2012, which played in (and lost) the 2013 Orange Bowl.===College Football Playoff===The longtime resistance to a playoff system at the FBS level finally ended with the creation of the College Football Playoff (CFP) beginning with the 2014 season.", "The CFP is a Plus-One system, a concept that became popular as a BCS alternative following controversies in 2003 and 2004.The CFP is a four-team tournament whose participants are chosen and seeded by a 13-member selection committee.", "The semifinals are hosted by two of a group of traditional bowl games known as the New Year's Six, with semifinal hosting rotating annually among three pairs of games in the following order: Rose/Sugar, Orange/Cotton, and Fiesta/Peach.", "The two semifinal winners then advance to the College Football Playoff National Championship, whose host is determined by open bidding several years in advance.The 10 FBS conferences are formally and popularly divided into two groups:* Power Five – Five of the six AQ conferences of the BCS era, specifically the ACC, Big Ten, Big 12, Pac-12, and SEC.", "Each champion of these conferences is assured of a spot in a New Year's Six bowl, though not necessarily in a semifinal game.", "Notre Dame remains a football independent, but is counted among the Power Five because of its full but non-football ACC membership, including a football scheduling alliance with that conference.", "In the 2020 season, Notre Dame played as a full-time member of the conference due to the effects that COVID-19 had on the college football season, causing many conferences to play conference-only regular seasons.", "It has its own arrangement for access to the New Year's Six games should it meet certain standards.", "* Group of Five – The remaining five FBS conferences – American, C-USA, MAC, MW, and Sun Belt.", "The other three current FBS independents, Army, UConn, and UMass, are also considered to be part of this group.", "One conference champion from this group receives a spot in a New Year's Six game.", "In the first seven seasons of the CFP, the Group of Five did not place a team in a semifinal.", "In 2021, Cincinnati, then a member of The American, qualified for the Playoff, becoming the first Group of 5 team to qualify.", "Of the nine Group of Five teams selected for New Year's Six bowls, four have won their games." ], [ "Official rules and notable rule distinctions", "A night game between Harvard and Brown on September 25, 2009Although rules for the high school, college, and NFL games are generally consistent, there are several minor differences.", "Before 2023, a single NCAA Football Rules Committee determined the playing rules for Division I (both Bowl and Championship Subdivisions), II, and III games (the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) is a separate organization, but uses the NCAA rules).", "As part of an NCAA initiative to give each division more autonomy over its governance, separate rules committees have been established for each NCAA division.", "* A pass is ruled complete if one of the receiver's feet is inbounds at the time of the catch.", "In the NFL both feet must be inbounds.", "* A player is considered down when any part of his body other than the feet or hands touches the ground or when the ball carrier is tackled or otherwise falls and loses possession of the ball as he contacts the ground with any part of his body, with the sole exception of the holder for field goal and extra point attempts.", "In the NFL a player is active until he is tackled or forced down by a member of the opposing team (down by contact).", "* Before the 2023 season, the clock stopped after the offense completed a first down and began again—assuming it is following a play in which the clock would not normally stop—once the referee declared the ball ready for play.", "Starting in 2023, this will only be the case in the last two minutes of a half in NCAA Divisions I and II.", "NCAA Division III is still using the pre-2023 rule; the NAIA has not announced whether it will adopt this change.", "In the NFL the clock does not explicitly stop for a first down.", "* Overtime was introduced in 1996, eliminating most ties except in the regular season.", "Since 2021, during each of the first two overtime periods, each team is given one possession from its opponent's 25-yard line with no game clock.", "The play clock remains in use, and each team is allowed one timeout per period.", "Any team that scores a touchdown in double overtime must attempt a two-point conversion.", "Beginning with triple overtime, each team takes possession at the opponent's 3-yard line and can only score by conversion.", "A coin toss determines which team will have possession first at the start of each overtime period.", "Play continues until one team leads the other at the end of a period.", "In the NFL overtime is decided by a modified sudden-death period of 10 minutes in regular-season games (no overtime in preseason up to & since ) and 15 minutes in playoff games, and regular-season games can still end in a tie if neither team scores.", "Overtime for regular-season games in the NFL began with the 1974 season; the overtime period for all games was 15 minutes until it was shortened for non-playoff games effective in .", "In the postseason, if the teams are still tied, teams will play multiple overtime periods until either team scores.", "** A tie game is still possible, per NCAA Rule 3-3-3 (c) and (d).", "If a game is suspended because of inclement weather while tied, typically in the second half or at the end of regulation, and the game is unable to be continued, the game ends in a tie.", "Similar to baseball, if one team has scored in its possession and the other team has not completed its possession, the score during the overtime can be wiped out and the game ruled a tie.", "Some conferences may enforce a curfew for the safety of the players.", "If, because of numerous overtimes or weather, the game reaches the time-certain finish imposed by the curfew tied, the game is ruled a tie.", "* Extra point tries are attempted from the three-yard line.", "Kicked tries count as one point.", "Teams can also go for \"the two-point conversion\" which is when a team will line up at the three-yard line and try to score.", "If they are successful, they receive two points, if they are not, then they receive zero points.", "Starting with the 2015 season, the NFL uses the 15-yard line as the line of scrimmage for placekick attempts, but the two-yard line for two-point attempts.", "The two-point conversion was not implemented in the NFL until 1994, but it had been previously used in the old American Football League (AFL) before it merged with the NFL in 1970.", "* The defensive team may score two points on a point-after touchdown attempt by returning a blocked kick, fumble, or interception into the opposition's end zone.", "In addition, if the defensive team gains possession, but then moves backwards into the end zone and is stopped, a one-point safety will be awarded to the offense, although, unlike a real safety, the offense kicks off, opposed to the team charged with the safety.", "This college rule was added in 1988.The NFL, which previously treated the ball as dead during a conversion attempt—meaning that the attempt ended when the defending team gained possession of the football—adopted the college rule in 2015.", "* The two-minute warning is not used in college football, except in rare cases where the scoreboard clock has malfunctioned and is not being used.", "* There is an option to use instant replay review of officiating decisions.", "Division I FBS schools use replay in virtually all games; replay is rarely used in lower division games.", "Every play is subject to booth review with coaches only having one challenge.", "In the NFL, only scoring plays, turnovers, the final 2:00 of each half and all overtime periods are reviewed, and coaches are issued two challenges (with the option for a 3rd if the first two are successful).", "* Since the 2012 season, the ball is placed on the 25-yard line following a touchback on either a kickoff or a free kick following a safety.", "The NFL adopted this rule in 2018.In all other touchback situations at all levels of the game, the ball is placed on the 20.", "* Among other rule changes in 2007, kickoffs were moved from the 35-yard line back five yards to the 30-yard line, matching a change that the NFL had made in 1994.Some coaches and officials questioned this rule change as it could lead to more injuries to the players as there will likely be more kickoff returns.", "The rationale for the rule change was to help reduce dead time in the game.", "The NFL returned its kickoff location to the 35-yard line effective in 2011; college football did not do so until 2012.", "* Several changes were made to college rules in 2011, all of which differ from NFL practice:** If a player is penalized for unsportsmanlike conduct for actions that occurred during a play ending in a touchdown by that team, but before the goal line was crossed, the touchdown will be nullified.", "In the NFL, the same foul would result in a penalty on the conversion attempt or ensuing kickoff, at the option of the non-penalized team.", "** If a team is penalized in the final minute of a half and the penalty causes the clock to stop, the opposing team now has the right to have 10 seconds run off the clock in addition to the yardage penalty.", "The NFL has a similar rule in the final minute of the half, but it applies only to specified violations against the offensive team.", "The new NCAA rule applies to penalties on both sides of the ball.", "** Players lined up outside the tackle box—more specifically, those lined up more than 7 yards from the center—will now be allowed to block below the waist only if they are blocking straight ahead or toward the nearest sideline.", "** On placekicks, offensive linemen now can not be engaged by at least three defensive players.", "They risk a 5-yard penalty upon violation.", "* In 2018, the NCAA made a further change to touchback rules that the NFL adopted in ; a fair catch on a kickoff or a free kick following a safety that takes place between the receiving team's goal line and 25-yard lines is treated as a touchback, with the ball placed at the 25.", "* Yards lost on quarterback sacks are included in individual rushing yardage under NCAA rules.", "In the NFL, yards lost on sacks are included in team passing yardage, but are not included in individual passing statistics." ], [ "Organization", "College teams mostly play other similarly sized schools through the NCAA's divisional system.", "Division I generally consists of the major collegiate athletic powers with larger budgets, more elaborate facilities, and (with the exception of a few conferences such as the Pioneer Football League) more athletic scholarships.", "Division II primarily consists of smaller public and private institutions that offer fewer scholarships than those in Division I.", "Division III institutions also field teams, but do not offer any scholarships.Football teams in Division I are further divided into the Bowl Subdivision (consisting of the largest programs) and the Championship Subdivision.", "The Bowl Subdivision has historically not used an organized tournament to determine its champion, and instead teams compete in post-season bowl games.", "That changed with the debut of the four-team College Football Playoff at the end of the 2014 season.Teams in each of these four divisions are further divided into various regional conferences.Several organizations operate college football programs outside the jurisdiction of the NCAA:* The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics has jurisdiction over more than 80 college football teams, mostly in the Midwest.", "* The National Junior College Athletic Association has jurisdiction over two-year institutions, except in California.", "* The California Community College Athletic Association governs sports, including football, at that state's two-year institutions.", "CCCAA members compete for their own championships and do not participate in the NJCAA.", "* Club football, a sport in which student clubs run the teams instead of the colleges themselves, is overseen by two organizations: the National Club Football Association and the Intercollegiate Club Football Federation.", "The two competing sanctioning bodies have some overlap, and several clubs are members of both organizations.", "* As of the current 2023 season, 16 schools play sprint football, played under standard NCAA rules but with a requirement that all players must weigh less than the average college student (that threshold is set, , at , with the added requirement of a minimum body fat content of 5%).", "Eight schools, all in the northeastern quadrant of the U.S., play in the Collegiate Sprint Football League, which has operated since 1934.The Midwest Sprint Football League started play in 2022 with six members, all in the Midwest and Upper South, and added two members in that region in 2023.A college that fields a team in the NCAA is not restricted from fielding teams in club or sprint football, and several colleges field two teams, a varsity (NCAA) squad and a club or sprint squad (no schools, , field both club ''and'' sprint teams at the same time)." ], [ "Coaching" ], [ "National championships", "* College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS – Overview of systems for determining national champions at the highest level of college football from 1869 to present.", "** College Football Playoff – Four-team playoff for determining national champions at the highest level of college football beginning in 2014.After a vote by the College Football Playoff's Board of Managers, the Playoff will be expanded to 12 teams in 2024.", "** Bowl Championship Series – The primary method of determining the national champion at the highest level of college football from 1998 to 2013; preceded by the Bowl Alliance (1995–1997) and the Bowl Coalition (1992–1994).", "* NCAA Division I Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champion at the second highest level of college football, Division I FCS, from 1978 to present.", "** NCAA Division I FCS Consensus Mid-Major Football National Championship – Awarded by poll from 2001 to 2007 for a subset of the second-highest level of play in college football, FCS.", "* NCAA Division II Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champion at the third highest level of college football from 1973 to present.", "* NCAA Division III Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champion at the fourth highest level of college football from 1973 to present.", "* NAIA National Football Championship - Playoff for determining the national champions of college football governed by the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics.", "* NJCAA National Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champions of college football governed by the National Junior College Athletic Association.", "* CSFL Championship – Champions of the Collegiate Sprint Football League, a conference that plays the weight-restricted variant of sprint football.", "* MSFL Championship — Launched in 2022 as the championship for the Midwest Sprint Football League, another sprint football league." ], [ "Team maps", "File:2015 NCAA FBS Football Programs.png|Map of Division I (A) FBSFile:FCS map 2011.png|Map of Division I (AA) FCSFile:NCAA D2 FB Map.png|Map of NCAA Division IIFile:NCAA Division 3 football map 2014.gif|Map of NCAA Division IIIFile:Map of National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics schools playing college football.png|Map of NAIAFile:NJCAA fb.png|Map of NJCAAFile:CCCAA fb.png|Map of CCCAA" ], [ "Playoff games", "Started in the 2014 season, four Division I FBS teams are selected at the end of regular season to compete in a playoff for the FBS national championship.", "The inaugural champion was Ohio State University.", "The College Football Playoff replaced the Bowl Championship Series, which had been used as a selection method to determine the national championship game participants since in the 1998 season.", "The Michigan Wolverines won the most recent playoff 34-13 over the Washington Huskies in the 2024 College Football Playoff.At the Division I FCS level, the teams participate in a 24-team playoff (most recently expanded from 20 teams in 2013) to determine the national championship.", "Under the current playoff structure, the top eight teams are all seeded, and receive a bye week in the first round.", "The highest seed receives automatic home field advantage.", "Starting in 2013, non-seeded teams can only host a playoff game if both teams involved are unseeded; in such a matchup, the schools must bid for the right to host the game.", "Selection for the playoffs is determined by a selection committee, although usually a team must have an 8–4 record to even be considered.", "Losses to an FBS team count against their playoff eligibility, while wins against a Division II opponent do not count towards playoff consideration.", "Thus, only Division I wins (whether FBS, FCS, or FCS non-scholarship) are considered for playoff selection.", "The Division I National Championship game is held in Frisco, Texas.Division II and Division III of the NCAA also participate in their own respective playoffs, crowning national champions at the end of the season.", "The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics also holds a playoff." ], [ "Bowl games", "Unlike other college football divisions and most other sports—collegiate or professional—the Football Bowl Subdivision, formerly known as Division I-A college football, has historically not employed a playoff system to determine a champion.", "Instead, it has a series of postseason \"bowl games\".", "The annual National Champion in the Football Bowl Subdivision is then instead traditionally determined by a vote of sports writers and other non-players.This system has been challenged often, beginning with an NCAA committee proposal in 1979 to have a four-team playoff following the bowl games.", "However, little headway was made in instituting a playoff tournament until 2014, given the entrenched vested economic interests in the various bowls.", "Although the NCAA publishes lists of claimed FBS-level national champions in its official publications, it has never recognized an official FBS national championship; this policy continues even after the establishment of the College Football Playoff (which is not directly run by the NCAA) in 2014.As a result, the official Division I National Champion is the winner of the Football Championship Subdivision, as it is the highest level of football with an NCAA-administered championship tournament.", "(This also means that FBS student-athletes are the only NCAA athletes who are ineligible for the Elite 90 Award, an academic award presented to the upper class player with the highest grade-point average among the teams that advance to the championship final site.", ")The first bowl game was the 1902 Rose Bowl, played between Michigan and Stanford; Michigan won 49–0.It ended when Stanford requested and Michigan agreed to end it with 8 minutes on the clock.", "That game was so lopsided that the game was not played annually until 1916, when the Tournament of Roses decided to reattempt the postseason game.", "The term \"bowl\" originates from the shape of the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena, California, which was built in 1923 and resembled the Yale Bowl, built in 1915.This is where the name came into use, as it became known as the Rose Bowl Game.", "Other games came along and used the term \"bowl\", whether the stadium was shaped like a bowl or not.At the Division I FBS level, teams must earn the right to be bowl eligible by winning at least 6 games during the season (teams that play 13 games in a season, which is allowed for Hawaii and any of its home opponents, must win 7 games).", "They are then invited to a bowl game based on their conference ranking and the tie-ins that the conference has to each bowl game.", "For the 2009 season, there were 34 bowl games, so 68 of the 120 Division I FBS teams were invited to play at a bowl.", "These games are played from mid-December to early January and most of the later bowl games are typically considered more prestigious.After the Bowl Championship Series, additional all-star bowl games round out the post-season schedule through the beginning of February.===Division I FBS National Championship Games===Partly as a compromise between both bowl game and playoff supporters, the NCAA created the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) in 1998 in order to create a definitive national championship game for college football.", "The series included the four most prominent bowl games (Rose Bowl, Orange Bowl, Sugar Bowl, Fiesta Bowl), while the national championship game rotated each year between one of these venues.", "The BCS system was slightly adjusted in 2006, as the NCAA added a fifth game to the series, called the National Championship Game.", "This allowed the four other BCS bowls to use their normal selection process to select the teams in their games while the top two teams in the BCS rankings would play in the new National Championship Game.The BCS selection committee used a complicated, and often controversial, computer system to rank all Division I-FBS teams and the top two teams at the end of the season played for the national championship.", "This computer system, which factored in newspaper polls, online polls, coaches' polls, strength of schedule, and various other factors of a team's season, led to much dispute over whether the two best teams in the country were being selected to play in the National Championship Game.The BCS ended after the 2013 season and, since the 2014 season, the FBS national champion has been determined by a four-team tournament known as the College Football Playoff (CFP).", "A selection committee of college football experts decides the participating teams.", "Six major bowl games known as the New Year's Six (NY6)—the Rose, Sugar, Cotton, Orange, Peach, and Fiesta Bowls—rotate on a three-year cycle as semifinal games, with the winners advancing to the College Football Playoff National Championship.", "This arrangement was contractually locked in until the 2026 season, but an agreement was reached on CFP expansion to 12 teams effective with the 2024 season.In the new CFP format, no conferences will receive automatic bids.", "Playoff berths will be awarded to the top six conference champions in the CFP rankings, plus the top six remaining teams (which may include other conference champions).", "The top four conference champions receive first-round byes.", "All first-round games will be played at the home field of the higher seed.", "The winners of these games advance to meet the top four seeds in the quarterfinals.", "The NY6 games will host the quarterfinals and semifinals, rotating so that each bowl game will host two quarterfinals and one semifinal in a three-year cycle.", "The CFP National Championship will continue to be held at a site determined by open bidding several years in advance." ], [ "Controversy", "College football is a controversial institution within American higher education, where the amount of money involved—what people will pay for the entertainment provided—is a corrupting factor within universities that they are usually ill-equipped to deal with.", "According to William E. Kirwan, chancellor of the University of Maryland System and co-director of the Knight Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics, \"We've reached a point where big-time intercollegiate athletics is undermining the integrity of our institutions, diverting presidents and institutions from their main purpose.\"", "Football coaches often make more than the presidents of the universities which employ them.", "Athletes are alleged to receive preferential treatment both in academics and when they run afoul of the law.", "Although in theory football is an extra-curricular activity engaged in as a sideline by students, it is widely believed to turn a substantial profit, from which the athletes receive no direct benefit.", "There has been serious discussion about making student-athletes university employees to allow them to be paid.", "In reality, the majority of major collegiate football programs operated at a financial loss in 2014.There had been discussions on changing rules that prohibited compensation for the use of a player's name, image, and likeness (NIL), but change did not start to come until the mid-2010s.", "This reform first took place in the NAIA, which initially allowed all student-athletes at its member schools to receive NIL compensation in 2014, and beginning in 2020 specifically allowed these individuals to reference their athletic participation in their endorsement deals.", "The NCAA passed its own NIL reform, very similar to the NAIA's most recent reform, in July 2021, after its hand was forced by multiple states that had passed legislation allowing NIL compensation, most notably California.On June 3 of 2021, \"The NCAA's Board of Directors adopts a temporary rule change that opens the door for NIL activity, instructing schools to set their own policy for what should be allowed with minimal guidelines\" (Murphy 2021).", "On July 1 of 2021, the new rules set in and student athletes could start signing endorsements using their name, image and likeness.", "\"The NCAA has asked Congress for help in creating a federal NIL law.", "While several federal options have been proposed, it's becoming increasingly likely that state laws will start to go into effect before a nationwide change is made.", "There are 28 states with NIL laws already in place and multiple others that are actively pursuing legislation\" (Murphy 2021)." ], [ "College football outside the United States", "Canadian football, which parallels American football, is played by university teams in Canada under the auspices of U Sports.", "(Unlike in the United States, no junior colleges play football in Canada, and the sanctioning body for junior college athletics in Canada, CCAA, does not sanction the sport.)", "However, amateur football outside of colleges is played in Canada, such as in the Canadian Junior Football League.", "Organized competition in American football also exists at the collegiate level in Mexico (ONEFA), the UK (British Universities American Football League), Japan (Japan American Football Association, Koshien Bowl), and South Korea (Korea American Football Association)." ], [ "Injuries", "According to 2017 study on brains of deceased gridiron football players, 99% of tested brains of NFL players, 88% of CFL players, 64% of semi-professional players, 91% of college football players, and 21% of high school football players had various stages of CTE.", "The study noted it has limitations due to \"selection bias\" in that the brains donated are from families who suspected CTE, but \"The fact that we were able to gather so many instances of a disease that was previously considered quite rare, in eight years, speaks volumes.", "\"Other common injuries include: injuries of legs, arms, and lower back." ], [ "Awards", "===Division I FBS===* Heisman Trophy* Maxwell Award* Walter Camp Award* Outland Trophy* Associated Press Player of the Year* Johnny Rodgers Award* Fred Biletnikoff Award* Lou Groza Award* Lombardi Award* Bronko Nagurski Trophy* Dick Butkus Award* Jim Thorpe Award* Doak Walker Award* Campbell Trophy* Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award* Home Depot Award* Ray Guy Award* John Mackey Award* Burlsworth Trophy* Jet Award* Paul Hornung Award* Jon Cornish Trophy* Patrick Mannelly Award===Division I FCS===* Walter Payton Award* Buck Buchanan Award* Jerry Rice Award" ], [ "See also", "* Concussions in American football* College athletics in the United States* College athletics** College rugby** College basketball** College baseball** College ice hockey** College soccer** College lacrosse* Helmet stickers* Homosexuality in American football* List of sports attendance figures* Sports injury" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* \"The Invention Of Football\".", "''Current Events'', 00113492, November 14, 2011, Vol.", "111, Issue 8* Anderson, Christian K., and Amber C. Fallucca, eds.", "''The history of American college football: institutional policy, culture, and reform'' (Routledge, 2021) online.", "* Chiles, Marvin T. \"Gideon Edward Smith: The Player and Coach Who Gave Meaning to Black College Football, 1892–1942\".", "''Journal of African American Studies'' (2023): 1–19.", "* De Oca, Jeffrey Montez.", "''Discipline and indulgence: College football, media, and the American way of life during the cold war'' (Rutgers University Press, 2013) online.", "* Harrison, Emily A.", "\"The first concussion crisis: head injury and evidence in early American football\".", "''American journal of public health'' 104.5 (2014): 822–833.online* Hobson, J. Hardin.", "\"Football Culture at New South Universities: Lost Cause and Old South Memory, Modernity, and Martial Manhood\".", "in ''The History of American College Football'' ed Christian K. Anderson, and Amber C. Fallucca, (Routledge, 2021) pp. 37–63.", "* Hunter, Bob.", "''Saint Woody: The History and Fanaticism of Ohio State Football'' (U of Nebraska Press, 2022); on Woody Hayes* Ingrassia, Brian M. ''The Rise of Gridiron University: Higher Education's Uneasy Alliance with Big-Time Football.''", "Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 2012.", "* McGregor, Andrew.", "\"The Anti-Intellectual Coach: The Cultural Politics of College Football Coaching from the New Left to the Present\".", "''Journal of Sport and Social Issues'' (2022): 01937235221098915.", "* Nite, Calvin, and Marvin Washington.", "\"Institutional adaptation to technological innovation: Lessons from the NCAA’s regulation of football television broadcasts (1938–1984)\".", "''Journal of Sport Management'' 31.6 (2017): 575–590.", "* Rowley, Christopher.", "''The Shared Origins of Football, Rugby, and Soccer'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015) Rowley, Christopher.", "The Shared Origins of Football, Rugby, and Soccer.", "Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.online.", "* Smith, Ronald A.", "\"American football becomes the dominant intercollegiate national pastime\".", "''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 31.1-2 (2014): 109–119.online* Tutka, Patrick, and Chad Seifried.", "\"An Innovation Diffusion Ideal-type on the History of American College Football Stadia\".", "''Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics'' (2020).", "online* VanOverbeke, Marc A. \"", "'Out of the Quietness, a Clamor: \"We Want Football!", "\"’ The California State Colleges, Educational Opportunity, and Athletics\".", "''History of Education Quarterly'' 53.4 (2013): 430–454.online* Watterson, John Sayle.", "''College football: History, spectacle, controversy'' (JHU Press, 2000) online in project MUSE.", "* White, Derrick E. ''Blood, sweat, and tears: Jake Gaither, Florida A&M, and the history of black college football'' (UNC Press Books, 2019)." ], [ "External links", "* College football at NCAA, NAIA, CCCAA, NCCAA, NJCAA, USCAA===Statistics===* College Football at Sports-Reference.com * Stassen College Football, comprehensive college football database* College Football Data Warehouse===Rules===* NCAA Football 2011 and 2012 Rules and Interpretations" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ciprofloxacin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ciprofloxacin''' is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic used to treat a number of bacterial infections.", "This includes bone and joint infections, intra-abdominal infections, certain types of infectious diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, skin infections, typhoid fever, and urinary tract infections, among others.", "For some infections it is used in addition to other antibiotics.", "It can be taken by mouth, as eye drops, as ear drops, or intravenously.Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.", "Severe side effects include an increased risk of tendon rupture, hallucinations, and nerve damage.", "In people with myasthenia gravis, there is worsening muscle weakness.", "Rates of side effects appear to be higher than some groups of antibiotics such as cephalosporins but lower than others such as clindamycin.", "Studies in other animals raise concerns regarding use in pregnancy.", "No problems were identified, however, in the children of a small number of women who took the medication.", "It appears to be safe during breastfeeding.", "It is a second-generation fluoroquinolone with a broad spectrum of activity that usually results in the death of the bacteria.Ciprofloxacin was patented in 1980 and introduced in 1987.It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.", "The World Health Organization classifies ciprofloxacin as critically important for human medicine.", "It is available as a generic medication.", "In 2021, it was the 141st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 4million prescriptions." ], [ "Medical uses", "Ciprofloxacin is used to treat a wide variety of infections, including infections of bones and joints, endocarditis, gastroenteritis, malignant otitis externa, respiratory tract infections, cellulitis, urinary tract infections, prostatitis, anthrax, and chancroid.Ciprofloxacin only treats bacterial infections; it does not treat viral infections such as the common cold.", "For certain uses including acute sinusitis, lower respiratory tract infections and uncomplicated gonorrhea, ciprofloxacin is not considered a first-line agent.Ciprofloxacin occupies an important role in treatment guidelines issued by major medical societies for the treatment of serious infections, especially those likely to be caused by Gram-negative bacteria, including ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa''.", "For example, ciprofloxacin in combination with metronidazole is one of several first-line antibiotic regimens recommended by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of community-acquired abdominal infections in adults.", "It also features prominently in treatment guidelines for acute pyelonephritis, complicated or hospital-acquired urinary tract infection, acute or chronic prostatitis, certain types of endocarditis, certain skin infections, and prosthetic joint infections.In other cases, treatment guidelines are more restrictive, recommending in most cases that older, narrower-spectrum drugs be used as first-line therapy for less severe infections to minimize fluoroquinolone-resistance development.", "For example, the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommends the use of ciprofloxacin and other fluoroquinolones in urinary tract infections be reserved to cases of proven or expected resistance to narrower-spectrum drugs such as nitrofurantoin or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole.", "The European Association of Urology recommends ciprofloxacin as an alternative regimen for the treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infections, but cautions that the potential for \"adverse events have to be considered\".Although approved by regulatory authorities for the treatment of respiratory infections, ciprofloxacin is not recommended for respiratory infections by most treatment guidelines due in part to its modest activity against the common respiratory pathogen ''Streptococcus pneumoniae''.", "\"Respiratory quinolones\" such as levofloxacin, having greater activity against this pathogen, are recommended as first line agents for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in patients with important co-morbidities and in patients requiring hospitalization (Infectious Diseases Society of America 2007).", "Similarly, ciprofloxacin is not recommended as a first-line treatment for acute sinusitis.Ciprofloxacin is approved for the treatment of gonorrhea in many countries, but this recommendation is widely regarded as obsolete due to resistance development.===Pregnancy===An expert review of published data on experiences with ciprofloxacin use during pregnancy concluded therapeutic doses during pregnancy are unlikely to pose a substantial teratogenic risk (quantity and quality of data=fair), but the data are insufficient to state no risk exists.", "Exposure to quinolones, including levofloxacin, during the first-trimester is not associated with an increased risk of stillbirths, premature births, birth defects, or low birth weight.Two small post-marketing epidemiology studies of mostly short-term, first-trimester exposure found that fluoroquinolones did not increase risk of major malformations, spontaneous abortions, premature birth, or low birth weight.===Breastfeeding===Fluoroquinolones have been reported as present in a mother's milk and thus passed on to the nursing child.===Children===Oral and intravenous ciprofloxacin are approved by the FDA for use in children for only two indications due to the risk of permanent injury to the musculoskeletal system:# Inhalational anthrax (postexposure)# Complicated urinary tract infections and pyelonephritis due to ''Escherichia coli'', but never as first-line agents.===Spectrum of activity===Its spectrum of activity includes most strains of bacterial pathogens responsible for community-acquired pneumonias, bronchitis, urinary tract infections, and gastroenteritis.", "Ciprofloxacin is particularly effective against Gram-negative bacteria (such as ''Escherichia coli'', ''Haemophilus influenzae'', ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'', ''Legionella pneumophila'', ''Moraxella catarrhalis'', ''Proteus mirabilis'', and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa''), but is less effective against Gram-positive bacteria (such as methicillin-sensitive ''Staphylococcus aureus'', ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'', and ''Enterococcus faecalis'') than newer fluoroquinolones.===Bacterial resistance===As a result of its widespread use to treat minor infections readily treatable with older, narrower-spectrum antibiotics, many bacteria have developed resistance to this drug, leaving it significantly less effective than it would have been otherwise.Resistance to ciprofloxacin and other fluoroquinolones may evolve rapidly, even during a course of treatment.", "Numerous pathogens, including enterococci, ''Streptococcus pyogenes'' , and ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'' (quinolone-resistant) now exhibit resistance.", "Widespread veterinary usage of fluoroquinolones, particularly in Europe, has been implicated.", "Meanwhile, some ''Burkholderia cepacia'', ''Clostridium innocuum'', and ''Enterococcus faecium'' strains have developed resistance to ciprofloxacin to varying degrees.Fluoroquinolones had become the class of antibiotics most commonly prescribed to adults in 2002.Nearly half (42%) of those prescriptions in the US were for conditions not approved by the FDA, such as acute bronchitis, otitis media, and acute upper respiratory tract infection." ], [ "Contraindications", "Contraindications include:* Taking tizanidine at the same time* Use by those who are hypersensitive to any member of the quinolone class of antimicrobial agents* Use by those who are diagnosed with myasthenia gravis, as muscle weakness may be exacerbatedCiprofloxacin is also considered to be contraindicated in children (except for the indications outlined above), in pregnancy, to nursing mothers, and in people with epilepsy or other seizure disorders.Caution may be required in people with Marfan syndrome or Ehlers-Danlos syndrome." ], [ "Adverse effects", "Adverse effects can involve the tendons, muscles, joints, nerves, and the central nervous system.Rates of adverse effects appear to be higher than with some groups of antibiotics such as cephalosporins but lower than with others such as clindamycin.", "Compared to other antibiotics some studies find a higher rate of adverse effects while others find no difference.In clinical trials most of the adverse events were described as mild or moderate in severity, abated soon after the drug was discontinued, and required no treatment.", "Some adverse effects may be permanent.", "Ciprofloxacin was stopped because of an adverse event in 1% of people treated with the medication by mouth.", "The most frequently reported drug-related events, from trials of all formulations, all dosages, all drug-therapy durations, and for all indications, were nausea (2.5%), diarrhea (1.6%), abnormal liver function tests (1.3%), vomiting (1%), and rash (1%).", "Other adverse events occurred at rates of 2).", "Results from photo co-carcinogenicity testing indicate ciprofloxacin does not reduce the time to appearance of UV-induced skin tumors as compared to vehicle control.===Other===The other black box warning is that ciprofloxacin should not be used in people with myasthenia gravis due to possible exacerbation of muscle weakness which may lead to breathing problems resulting in death or ventilator support.", "Fluoroquinolones are known to block neuromuscular transmission.", "There are concerns that fluoroquinolones including ciprofloxacin can affect cartilage in young children.", "''Clostridium difficile''-associated diarrhea is a serious adverse effect of ciprofloxacin and other fluoroquinolones; it is unclear whether the risk is higher than with other broad-spectrum antibiotics.A wide range of rare but potentially fatal adverse effects reported to the US FDA or the subject of case reports includes aortic dissection, toxic epidermal necrolysis, Stevens–Johnson syndrome, low blood pressure, allergic pneumonitis, bone marrow suppression, hepatitis or liver failure, and sensitivity to light.", "The medication should be discontinued if a rash, jaundice, or other sign of hypersensitivity occurs.Children and the elderly are at a much greater risk of experiencing adverse reactions." ], [ "Overdose", "Overdose of ciprofloxacin may result in reversible renal toxicity.", "Treatment of overdose includes emptying of the stomach by induced vomiting or gastric lavage, as well as administration of antacids containing magnesium, aluminium, or calcium to reduce drug absorption.", "Renal function and urinary pH should be monitored.", "Important support includes adequate hydration and urine acidification if necessary to prevent crystalluria.", "Hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis can only remove less than 10% of ciprofloxacin.", "Ciprofloxacin may be quantified in plasma or serum to monitor for drug accumulation in patients with hepatic dysfunction or to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in acute overdose victims." ], [ "Interactions", "Ciprofloxacin interacts with certain foods and several other drugs leading to undesirable increases or decreases in the serum levels or distribution of one or both drugs.Ciprofloxacin should not be taken with antacids containing magnesium or aluminum, highly buffered drugs (sevelamer, lanthanum carbonate, sucralfate, didanosine), or with supplements containing calcium, iron, or zinc.", "It should be taken two hours before or six hours after these products.", "Magnesium or aluminum antacids turn ciprofloxacin into insoluble salts that are not readily absorbed by the intestinal tract, reducing peak serum concentrations by 90% or more, leading to therapeutic failure.", "Additionally, it should not be taken with dairy products or calcium-fortified juices alone, as peak serum concentration and the area under the serum concentration-time curve can be reduced up to 40%.", "However, ciprofloxacin may be taken with dairy products or calcium-fortified juices as part of a meal.Ciprofloxacin inhibits the drug-metabolizing enzyme CYP1A2 and thereby can reduce the clearance of drugs metabolized by that enzyme.", "CYP1A2 substrates that exhibit increased serum levels in ciprofloxacin-treated patients include tizanidine, theophylline, caffeine, methylxanthines, clozapine, olanzapine, and ropinirole.", "Co-administration of ciprofloxacin with the CYP1A2 substrate tizanidine (Zanaflex) is contraindicated due to a 583% increase in the peak serum concentrations of tizanidine when administered with ciprofloxacin as compared to administration of tizanidine alone.", "Use of ciprofloxacin is cautioned in patients on theophylline due to its narrow therapeutic index.", "The authors of one review recommended that patients being treated with ciprofloxacin reduce their caffeine intake.", "Evidence for significant interactions with several other CYP1A2 substrates such as cyclosporine is equivocal or conflicting.The Committee on Safety of Medicines and the FDA warn that central nervous system adverse effects, including seizure risk, may be increased when NSAIDs are combined with quinolones.", "The mechanism for this interaction may involve a synergistic increased antagonism of GABA neurotransmission.Altered serum levels of the antiepileptic drugs phenytoin and carbamazepine (increased and decreased) have been reported in patients receiving concomitant ciprofloxacin.Ciprofloxacin is a potent inhibitor of CYP1A2, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4." ], [ "Mechanism of action", "Ciprofloxacin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic of the fluoroquinolone class.", "It is active against some Gram-positive and many Gram-negative bacteria.", "It functions by inhibiting a type II topoisomerase (DNA gyrase) and topoisomerase IV, necessary to separate bacterial DNA, thereby inhibiting cell division.", "Bacterial DNA fragmentation will occur as a result of inhibition of the enzymes." ], [ "Pharmacokinetics", "Ciprofloxacin for systemic administration is available as immediate-release tablets, extended-release tablets, an oral suspension, and as a solution for intravenous administration.", "When administered over one hour as an intravenous infusion, ciprofloxacin rapidly distributes into the tissues, with levels in some tissues exceeding those in the serum.", "Penetration into the central nervous system is relatively modest, with cerebrospinal fluid levels normally less than 10% of peak serum concentrations.", "The serum half-life of ciprofloxacin is about 4–6 hours, with 50–70% of an administered dose being excreted in the urine as unmetabolized drug.", "An additional 10% is excreted in urine as metabolites.", "Urinary excretion is virtually complete 24 hours after administration.", "Dose adjustment is required in the elderly and in those with renal impairment.Ciprofloxacin is weakly bound to serum proteins (20–40%).", "It is an inhibitor of the drug-metabolizing enzyme cytochrome P450 1A2, which leads to the potential for clinically important drug interactions with drugs metabolized by that enzyme.", "Ciprofloxacin is about 70% available when administered orally.The extended release tablets allow once-daily administration by releasing the drug more slowly in the gastrointestinal tract.", "These tablets contain 35% of the administered dose in an immediate-release form and 65% in a slow-release matrix.", "Maximum serum concentrations are achieved between 1 and 4 hours after administration.", "Compared to the 250- and 500-mg immediate-release tablets, the 500-mg and 1000-mg XR tablets provide higher Cmax, but the 24‑hour AUCs are equivalent.Ciprofloxacin immediate-release tablets contain ciprofloxacin as the hydrochloride salt, and the XR tablets contain a mixture of the hydrochloride salt and the free base." ], [ "Chemical properties", "Ciprofloxacin is 1-cyclopropyl-6-fluoro-1,4-dihydro-4-oxo-7-(1-piperazinyl)-3-quinolinecarboxylic acid.", "Its empirical formula is C17H18FN3O3 and its molecular weight is 331.4 g/mol.", "It is a faintly yellowish to light yellow crystalline substance.Ciprofloxacin hydrochloride (USP) is the monohydrochloride monohydrate salt of ciprofloxacin.", "It is a faintly yellowish to light yellow crystalline substance with a molecular weight of 385.8 g/mol.", "Its empirical formula is C17H18FN3O3HCl•H2O." ], [ "Usage", "Ciprofloxacin is the most widely used of the second-generation quinolones.", "In 2010, over 20 million prescriptions were written, making it the 35th-most-commonly prescribed generic drug and the 5th-most-commonly prescribed antibacterial in the US." ], [ "History", "Ciprofloxacin 250-mg tablets from UkraineThe first members of the quinolone antibacterial class were relatively low-potency drugs such as nalidixic acid, used mainly in the treatment of urinary tract infections owing to their renal excretion and propensity to be concentrated in urine.", "In 1979, the publication of a patent filed by the pharmaceutical arm of Kyorin Seiyaku Kabushiki Kaisha disclosed the discovery of norfloxacin, and the demonstration that certain structural modifications including the attachment of a fluorine atom to the quinolone ring leads to dramatically enhanced antibacterial potency.", "In the aftermath of this disclosure, several other pharmaceutical companies initiated research and development programs with the goal of discovering additional antibacterial agents of the fluoroquinolone class.The fluoroquinolone program at Bayer focused on examining the effects of very minor changes to the norfloxacin structure.", "In 1983, the company published ''in vitro'' potency data for ciprofloxacin, a fluoroquinolone antibacterial having a chemical structure differing from that of norfloxacin by the presence of a single carbon atom.", "This small change led to a two- to 10-fold increase in potency against most strains of Gram-negative bacteria.", "Importantly, this structural change led to a four-fold improvement in activity against the important Gram-negative pathogen ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', making ciprofloxacin one of the most potent known drugs for the treatment of this intrinsically antibiotic-resistant pathogen.The oral tablet form of ciprofloxacin was approved in October 1987, just one year after the approval of norfloxacin.", "In 1991, the intravenous formulation was introduced.", "Ciprofloxacin sales reached a peak of about 2 billion euros in 2001, before Bayer's patent expired in 2004, after which annual sales have averaged around €200 million.The name probably originates from the International Scientific Nomenclature: ci- (alteration of cycl-) + propyl + fluor- + ox- + az- + -mycin." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Economics===It is available as a generic medication and not very expensive.===Generic equivalents===In October 2001, the Prescription Access Litigation (PAL) project filed suit to dissolve an agreement between Bayer and three of its competitors which produced generic versions of drugs (Barr Laboratories, Rugby Laboratories, and Hoechst-Marion-Roussel) that PAL claimed was blocking access to adequate supplies and cheaper, generic versions of ciprofloxacin.", "The plaintiffs charged that Bayer Corporation, a unit of Bayer AG, had unlawfully paid the three competing companies a total of $200 million to prevent cheaper, generic versions of ciprofloxacin from being brought to the market, as well as manipulating its price and supply.", "Numerous other consumer advocacy groups joined the lawsuit.", "On 15 October 2008, five years after Bayer's patent had expired, the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York granted Bayer's and the other defendants' motion for summary judgment, holding that any anticompetitive effects caused by the settlement agreements between Bayer and its codefendants were within the exclusionary zone of the patent and thus could not be redressed by federal antitrust law, in effect upholding Bayer's agreement with its competitors.===Available forms===Ciprofloxacin for systemic administration is available as immediate-release tablets, as extended-release tablets, as an oral suspension, and as a solution for intravenous infusion.", "It is available for local administration as eye drops and ear drops.", "It is available in combination with dexamethasone, with celecoxib, with hydrocortisone, and with fluocinolone acetonide.===Litigation===A class action was filed against Bayer AG on behalf of employees of the Brentwood Post Office in Washington, D.C., and workers at the U.S. Capitol, along with employees of American Media, Inc. in Florida and postal workers in general who alleged they developed serious adverse effects from taking ciprofloxacin in the aftermath of the anthrax attacks in 2001.The action alleged Bayer failed to warn class members of the potential side effects of the drug, thereby violating the Pennsylvania Unfair Trade Practices and Consumer Protection Laws.", "The class action was defeated and the litigation abandoned by the plaintiffs.", "A similar action was filed in 2003 in New Jersey by four New Jersey postal workers but was withdrawn for lack of grounds, as workers had been informed of the risks of ciprofloxacin when they were given the option of taking the drug." ], [ "Research", "As resistance to ciprofloxacin has grown since its introduction, research has been conducted to discover and develop analogs that can be effective against resistant bacteria; some have been looked at in antiviral models as well." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Consubstantiation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Consubstantiation''' is a Christian theological doctrine that (like transubstantiation) describes the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist.", "It holds that during the sacrament, the substance of the body and blood of Christ are present alongside the substance of the bread and wine, which remain present.", "It was part of the doctrines of Lollardy, and considered a heresy by the Roman Catholic Church.", "It was later championed by Edward Pusey of the Oxford Movement, and is therefore held by many high church Anglicans.", "The Irvingian Churches (such as the New Apostolic Church) adhere to consubstantiation as the explanation of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist." ], [ "Development", "In England in the late 14th century, there was a political and religious movement known as Lollardy.", "Among much broader goals, the Lollards affirmed a form of consubstantiation—that the Eucharist remained physically bread and wine, while becoming spiritually the body and blood of Christ.", "Lollardy survived up until the time of the English Reformation.Whilst ultimately rejected by him on account of the authority of the Church of Rome, William of Ockham entertains a version of consubstantiation in his ''Fourth Quodlibet, Question 30'', where he claims that \"the substance of the bread and the substance of the wine remain there and that the substance of the body of Christ remains in the same place, together with the substance of the bread\".", "Literary critic Kenneth Burke's dramatism takes this concept and utilizes it in secular rhetorical theory to look at the dialectic of unity and difference within the context of logology.The doctrine of consubstantiation is often held in contrast to the doctrine of transubstantiation.", "To explain the manner of Christ's presence in Holy Communion, many high church Anglicans teach the philosophical explanation of consubstantiation.", "A major leader in the Anglo-Catholic Oxford Movement, Edward Pusey, championed the view of consubstantiation.", "Pusey's view is that:The Irvingian Churches adhere to the doctrine of consubstantiation; for example, ''The Catechism of the New Apostolic Church'' states:The term ''consubstantiation'' has been used to describe Martin Luther's Eucharistic doctrine, the sacramental union.", "Lutheran theologians reject the term because it refers to a philosophical construct that differs from the Lutheran doctrine of the sacramental union, denotes a mixing of substances (bread and wine with body and blood), and suggests a \"gross, Capernaitic, carnal\" presence of the body and blood of Christ." ], [ "See also", "*Eucharistic theology*Impanation*Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist*Transignification" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chlorophyta" ], [ "Introduction", "Shihtiping in Taiwan'''Chlorophyta''' is a taxon of green algae informally called '''chlorophytes'''.", "The name is used in two very different senses, so care is needed to determine the use by a particular author.", "In older classification systems, it is a highly paraphyletic group of ''all'' the green algae within the green plants (Viridiplantae) and thus includes about 7,000 species of mostly aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms.", "In newer classifications, it is the sister clade of the streptophytes/charophytes.", "The clade Streptophyta consists of the Charophyta in which the Embryophyta (land plants) emerged.", "In this latter sense the Chlorophyta includes only about 4,300 species.", "About 90% of all known species live in freshwater.Like the land plants (embryophytes: bryophytes and tracheophytes), green algae (chlorophytes and charophytes besides embryophytes) contain chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b and store food as starch in their plastids.With the exception of the three classes Ulvophyceae, Trebouxiophyceae and Chlorophyceae in the UTC clade, which show various degrees of multicellularity, all the Chlorophyta lineages are unicellular.", "Some members of the group form symbiotic relationships with protozoa, sponges, and cnidarians.", "Others form symbiotic relationships with fungi to form lichens, but the majority of species are free-living.", "Some conduct sexual reproduction, which is oogamous or isogamous.", "All members of the clade have motile flagellated swimming cells.", "While most species live in freshwater habitats and a large number in marine habitats, other species are adapted to a wide range of land environments.", "For example, ''Chlamydomonas nivalis'', which causes Watermelon snow, lives on summer alpine snowfields.", "Others, such as ''Trentepohlia'' species, live attached to rocks or woody parts of trees.", "''Monostroma kuroshiense'', an edible green alga cultivated worldwide and most expensive among green algae, belongs to this group." ], [ "Ecology", "Species of Chlorophyta (treated as what is now considered one of the two main clades of Viridiplantae) are common inhabitants of marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments.", "Several species have adapted to specialised and extreme environments, such as deserts, arctic environments, hypersaline habitats, marine deep waters, deep-sea hydrothermal vents and habitats that experiences extreme changes in temperature, light and salinity.", "Some groups, such as the Trentepohliales are exclusively found on land.", "Several species of Chlorophyta live in symbiosis with a diverse range of eukaryotes, including fungi (to form lichens), ciliates, forams, cnidarians and molluscs.", "Some species of Chlorophyta are heterotrophic, either free-living or parasitic.", "Others are mixotrophic bacterivores through phagocytosis.", "Two common species of the heterotrophic green alga ''Prototheca'' are pathogenic and can cause the disease protothecosis in humans and animals." ], [ "Classifications", "\"Siphoneae\" from Ernst Haeckel's ''Kunstformen der Natur'', 1904Characteristics used for the classification of Chlorophyta are: type of zoid, mitosis (karyokinesis), cytokinesis, organization level, life cycle, type of gametes, cell wall polysaccharides and more recently genetic data.===Phylogeny===Leliaert ''et al''.", "2012 proposed the following phylogeny.", "He marked the \"prasinophytes\" as paraphyletic, with the remaining Chlorophyta groups as \"core chlorophytes\".", "He described all Streptophyta except the land plants as paraphyletic \"charophytes\".A 2020 paper places the \"Prasinodermophyta\" (i.e.", "Prasinodermophyceae + Palmophyllophyceae) as the basal Viridiplantae clade.=== Leliaert ''et al''.", "2012 ===Simplified phylogeny of the Chlorophyta, according to Leliaert ''et al''.", "2012.Note that many algae previously classified in Chlorophyta are placed here in Streptophyta.", "* Viridiplantae**Chlorophyta***core chlorophytes****Ulvophyceae*****Cladophorales*****Dasycladales*****Bryopsidales*****Trentepohliales*****Ulvales-Ulotrichales*****Oltmannsiellopsidales****Chlorophyceae*****Oedogoniales*****Chaetophorales*****Chaetopeltidales*****Chlamydomonadales*****Sphaeropleales****Trebouxiophyceae*****Chlorellales*****Oocystaceae*****Microthamniales*****Trebouxiales*****''Prasiola'' clade****Chlorodendrophyceae***prasinophytes (paraphyletic)****Pyramimonadales****Mamiellophyceae****Pycnococcaceae****Nephroselmidophyceae****Prasinococcales****Palmophyllales**Streptophyta***charophytes****Mesostigmatophyceae****Chlorokybophyceae****Klebsormidiophyceae****Charophyceae****Zygnematophyceae****Coleochaetophyceae***Embryophyta (land plants)=== Pombert ''et al''.", "2005 ===A possible classification when Chlorophyta refers to one of the two clades of the Viridiplantae is shown below.", "* Class Prasinophyceae T. A. Chr.", "ex Ø. Moestrup & J. Throndsen* Class Chlorophyceae Wille* Class Trebouxiophyceae T. Friedl* Class Ulvophyceae=== Lewis & McCourt 2004 ===* Division Chlorophyta (green algae sensu stricto)** Subdivision Chlorophytina*** Class Chlorophyceae (chlorophytes)**** Order Chlamydomonadales (+ some Chlorococcales + some Tetrasporales + some Chlorosarcinales)**** Order Sphaeropleales (sensu Deason, plus ''Bracteacoccus, Schroederia, Scenedesmaceae, Selanastraceae'')**** Order Oedogoniales**** Order Chaetopeltidales**** Order Chaetophorales**** Incertae Sedis (''Cylindrocapsa'' clade, ''Mychonastes'' clade)*** Class Ulvophyceae (ulvophytes)**** Order Ulotrichales**** Order Ulvales**** Order Siphoncladales/Cladophorales**** Order Caulerpales**** Order Dasycladales*** Class Trebouxiophyceae (trebouxiophytes)**** Order Trebouxiales**** Order Microthamniales**** Order Prasiolales**** Order Chlorellales*** Class Prasinophyceae (prasinophytes)**** Order Pyramimonadales**** Order Mamiellales**** Order Pseudoscourfieldiales**** Order Chlorodendrales**** Incertae sedis (Unnamed clade of coccoid taxa)* Division Charophyta (charophyte algae and embryophytes)** Class Mesostigmatophyceae (mesostigmatophytes)** Class Chlorokybophyceae (chlorokybophytes)** Class Klebsormidiophyceae (klebsormidiophytes)** Class Zygnemophyceae (conjugates)*** Order Zygnematales (filamentous conjugates and saccoderm desmids)*** Order Desmidiales (placoderm desmids)** Class Coleochaetophyceae (coleochaetophytes)*** Order Coleochaetales** Subdivision Streptophytina*** Class Charophyceae (reverts to use of GM Smith)**** Order Charales (charophytes sensu stricto)*** Class Embryophyceae (embryophytes)===Hoek, Mann and Jahns 1995===Classification of the Chlorophyta, treated as all green algae, according to Hoek, Mann and Jahns 1995.", "* Class Prasinophyceae (orders Mamiellales, Pseudocourfeldiales, Pyramimonadales, Chlorodendrales)* Class Chlorophyceae (orders Volvocales including the Tetrasporales, Chlorococcales, Chaetophorales, Oedogoniales)* Class Ulvophyceae (orders Codiolales, Ulvales)* Class Cladophorophyceae (order Cladophorales)* Class Bryopsidophyceae (orders Bryopsidales, Halimedales)* Class Dasycladophyceae (order Dasycladales)* Class Trentepohliophyceae (order Trentepohliales)* Class Pleurastrophyceae (order Pleurastrales)* ''Incertae sedis'' (order Prasiolales)* Class Klebsormidiophyceae (orders Klebsormidiales, Coleochaetales)* Class Zygnematophyceae (order Zygnematales, Desmidiales)* Class Charophyceae (order Charales)In a note added in proof, an alternative classification is presented for the algae of the class Chlorophyceae:* Class Chlamydophyceae (orders Volvocales, Chlorococcales, Chaetophorales)* Class Oedogoniophyceae (order Oedogoniales)* Class Chlorophyceae (order Chlorellales)===Bold and Wynne 1985===Classification of the Chlorophyta and Charophyta according to Bold and Wynne 1985.", "* Chlorophyta, Chlorophyceae (16 orders)** Volvocales** Tetrasporales** Chlorococcales** Chlorosarcinales** Ulotrichales** Sphaeropleales** Chaetophorales** Trentepohliales** Oedogoniales** Ulvales** Cladophorales** Acrosiphoniales** Caulerpales** Siphonocladales** Dasycladales** Zygnematales* Charophyta, Charophyceae (1 order)** Charales===Mattox & Stewart 1984===Classification of the Chlorophyta according to Mattox & Stewart 1984:* Micromonadophyceae (similar to Prasinophyceae; Tetraselmidiales transferred to Pleurastrophyceae)* Charophyceae Rabenhorst** Chlorokybales** Klebsormidiales** Zygnematales** Coleochaetales** Charales* Ulvophyceae* Pleurastrophyceae** Tetraselmidiales** Pleurastrales* Chlorophyceae Wille in Warming** Chlamydomonadales** Volvocales** Chlorococcales** Sphaeropleales** Chlorosarcinales** Chaetophorales** Oedogoniales===Fott 1971===Classification of the Chlorophyta according to Fott 1971.", "*Class Chlorophyceae:*Order Volvocales:*Order Tetrasporales:*Order Chlorococcales:*Order Ulotrichales::*Suborder Chlorosarcineae::*Suborder Ulotrichineae::*Suborder Oedogoniineae::*Suborder Chaetophorineae:*Order Siphonocladales:*Order Bryopsidales*Class Conjugatophyceae*Class Charophyceae===Round 1971===Classification of the Chlorophyta and related algae according to Round 1971.", "* \"green algae\"** Euglenophyta** Prasinophyta** Charophyta** Chlorophyta*** Zygnemaphyceae (= Conjugatophyceae; orders Mesotaeniales, Zygnematales, Gonatozygales, Desmidiales)*** Oedogoniophyceae (order Oedogoniales)*** Bryopsidophyceae **** Hemisiphoniidae (orders Cladophorales, Sphaeropleales, Acrosiphoniales**** Cystosiphoniidae (orders Dasycladales, Siphonocladales, Chlorochytriales)**** Eusiphoniidae (orders Derbesiales, Codiales, Caulerpales, Dichotomosiphonales, Phyllosiphonales)*** Chlorophyceae**** orders Chlamydomonadales, Volvocales, Polyblepharidales, Tetrasporales, Chlorodendrales, Chlorosarcinales, Chlorococcales**** orders Ulotrichales, Codiolales, Ulvales, Prasiolales, Cylindrocapsales, Microsporales**** orders Chaetophorales, Coleochaetales, Trentepohliales, Pleurococcales, Ulvellales===Smith 1938===Classification of the Chlorophyta according to Smith 1938:*Class 1.Chlorophyceae::*Order 1.Volvocales::::*Family 1.Chlamydomonadaceae::::*Family 2.Volvocaceae::*Order 2.Tetrasporales::*Order 3.Ulotrichales::::*Family 1.Ulotrichaceae::::*Family 2.Microsporaceae::::*Family 3.Cylindrocapsaceae::::*Family 4.Chaetophoraceae::::*Family 5.Protococcaceae::::*Family 6.Coleochaetaceae::::*Family 7.Trentepohliaceae::*Order 4.Ulvales::::*Family 1.Ulvaceae::::*Family 2 Schizomeridaceae::*Order 5.Schizogoniales::::*Family Schizogoniaceae::*Order 6.Cladophorales::::*Family 1.Cladophoraceae::::*Family 2.Sphaeropleaceae::*Order 7.Oedogoniales::::*Family Oedogoniaceae::*Order 8.Zygnematales::::*Family 1.Zygnemataceae::::*Family 2.Mesotaeniaceae::::*Family 3.Desmidiaceae::*Order 9.Chlorococcales::::*Family 1.Chlorococcaceae::::*Family 2.Endosphaeraceae::::*Family 3.Characiaceae::::*Family 4.Protosiphonaceae::::*Family 5.Hydrodictyaceae::::*Family 6.Oöcystaceae::::*Family 7.Scenedesmaceae::*Order 10.Siphonales::::*Family 1.Bryopsidaceae::::*Family 2.Caulerpaceae::::*Family 3.Halicystaceae::::*Family 4.Codiaceae::::*Family 5.Derbesiaceae::::*Family 6.Vaucheriaceae::::*Family 7.Phyllosiphonaceae::*Order 11.Siphonocladiales::::*Family 1.Valoniaceae::::*Family 2.Dasycladaceae*Class 2.Charophyceae::*Order Charales::::*Family Characeae" ], [ "Research and discoveries", "In February 2020, the fossilized remains of green algae, named ''Proterocladus antiquus'' were discovered in the northern province of Liaoning, China.", "At around a billion years old, it is believed to be one of the oldest examples of a multicellular chlorophyte." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Capybara" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''capybara''' or '''greater capybara''' ('''''Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris''''') is a giant cavy rodent native to South America.", "It is the largest living rodent and a member of the genus ''Hydrochoerus''.", "The only other extant member is the lesser capybara (''Hydrochoerus isthmius'').", "Its close relatives include guinea pigs and rock cavies, and it is more distantly related to the agouti, the chinchilla, and the nutria.", "The capybara inhabits savannas and dense forests, and lives near bodies of water.", "It is a highly social species and can be found in groups as large as 100 individuals, but usually live in groups of 10–20 individuals.", "The capybara is hunted for its meat and hide and also for grease from its thick fatty skin." ], [ "Etymology", "Its common name is derived from Tupi , a complex agglutination of (leaf) + (slender) + (eat) + (a suffix for agent nouns), meaning \"one who eats slender leaves\", or \"grass-eater\".", "The scientific name, both ''hydrochoerus'' and ''hydrochaeris'', comes from Greek ('''' \"water\") and ('''' \"pig, hog\")." ], [ "Classification and phylogeny", "The capybara and the lesser capybara both belong to the subfamily Hydrochoerinae along with the rock cavies.", "The living capybaras and their extinct relatives were previously classified in their own family Hydrochoeridae.", "Since 2002, molecular phylogenetic studies have recognized a close relationship between ''Hydrochoerus'' and ''Kerodon'', the rock cavies, supporting placement of both genera in a subfamily of Caviidae.Paleontological classifications previously used Hydrochoeridae for all capybaras, while using Hydrochoerinae for the living genus and its closest fossil relatives, such as ''Neochoerus'', but more recently have adopted the classification of Hydrochoerinae within Caviidae.", "The taxonomy of fossil hydrochoerines is also in a state of flux.", "In recent years, the diversity of fossil hydrochoerines has been substantially reduced.", "This is largely due to the recognition that capybara molar teeth show strong variation in shape over the life of an individual.", "In one instance, material once referred to four genera and seven species on the basis of differences in molar shape is now thought to represent differently aged individuals of a single species, ''Cardiatherium paranense''.Among fossil species, the name \"capybara\" can refer to the many species of Hydrochoerinae that are more closely related to the modern ''Hydrochoerus'' than to the \"cardiomyine\" rodents like ''Cardiomys''.", "The fossil genera ''Cardiatherium'', ''Phugatherium'', ''Hydrochoeropsis'', and ''Neochoerus'' are all capybaras under that concept." ], [ "Description", "Taxidermy specimen of a capybaraThe capybara has a heavy, barrel-shaped body and short head, with reddish-brown fur on the upper part of its body that turns yellowish-brown underneath.", "Its sweat glands can be found in the surface of the hairy portions of its skin, an unusual trait among rodents.", "The animal lacks down hair, and its guard hair differs little from over hair.Capybara skeletonAdult capybaras grow to in length, stand tall at the withers, and typically weigh , with an average in the Venezuelan llanos of .", "Females are slightly heavier than males.", "The top recorded weights are for a wild female from Brazil and for a wild male from Uruguay.", "Also, an 81 kg individual was reported in São Paulo in 2001 or 2002.The dental formula is .", "Capybaras have slightly webbed feet and vestigial tails.", "Their hind legs are slightly longer than their forelegs; they have three toes on their rear feet and four toes on their front feet.", "Their muzzles are blunt, with nostrils, and the eyes and ears are near the top of their heads.Its karyotype has 2n = 66 and FN = 102, meaning it has 66 chromosomes with a total of 102 arms." ], [ "Ecology", "Yellow-headed caracara sat upon a capybaraA family of capybara swimmingCapybaras are semiaquatic mammals found throughout all countries of South America except Chile.", "They live in densely forested areas near bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, swamps, ponds, and marshes, as well as flooded savannah and along rivers in the tropical rainforest.", "They are superb swimmers and can hold their breath underwater for up to five minutes at a time.", "Capybara have flourished in cattle ranches.", "They roam in home ranges averaging in high-density populations.Many escapees from captivity can also be found in similar watery habitats around the world.", "Sightings are fairly common in Florida, although a breeding population has not yet been confirmed.", "In 2011, one specimen was spotted on the Central Coast of California.", "These escaped populations occur in areas where prehistoric capybaras inhabited; late Pleistocene capybaras inhabited Florida and ''Hydrochoerus hesperotiganites'' in California and ''Hydrochoerus gaylordi'' in Grenada, and feral capybaras in North America may actually fill the ecological niche of the Pleistocene species.===Diet and predation===A capybara eating hay at Franklin Park Zoo, Boston, MassachusettsCapybaras are herbivores, grazing mainly on grasses and aquatic plants, as well as fruit and tree bark.", "They are very selective feeders and feed on the leaves of one species and disregard other species surrounding it.", "They eat a greater variety of plants during the dry season, as fewer plants are available.", "While they eat grass during the wet season, they have to switch to more abundant reeds during the dry season.", "Plants that capybaras eat during the summer lose their nutritional value in the winter, so they are not consumed at that time.", "The capybara's jaw hinge is not perpendicular, so they chew food by grinding back-and-forth rather than side-to-side.", "Capybaras are autocoprophagous, meaning they eat their own feces as a source of bacterial gut flora, to help digest the cellulose in the grass that forms their normal diet, and to extract the maximum protein and vitamins from their food.", "They also regurgitate food to masticate again, similar to cud-chewing by cattle.", "As is the case with other rodents, the front teeth of capybaras grow continually to compensate for the constant wear from eating grasses; their cheek teeth also grow continuously.", "Cattle tyrant on a capybaraLike its relative the guinea pig, the capybara does not have the capacity to synthesize vitamin C, and capybaras not supplemented with vitamin C in captivity have been reported to develop gum disease as a sign of scurvy.They can have a lifespan of 8–10 years, but tend to live less than four years in the wild due to predation from big cats like the jaguars and pumas and non-mammalian predators like eagles and the caimans.", "The capybara is also the preferred prey of the green anaconda." ], [ "Social organization", "Capybaras have a scent gland on their noses.Capybaras are known to be gregarious.", "While they sometimes live solitarily, they are more commonly found in groups of around 10–20 individuals, with two to four adult males, four to seven adult females, and the remainder juveniles.", "Capybara groups can consist of as many as 50 or 100 individuals during the dry season when the animals gather around available water sources.", "Males establish social bonds, dominance, or general group consensus.", "They can make dog-like barks when threatened or when females are herding young.Capybaras have two types of scent glands: a morrillo, located on the snout, and anal glands.", "Both sexes have these glands, but males have much larger morrillos and use their anal glands more frequently.", "The anal glands of males are also lined with detachable hairs.", "A crystalline form of scent secretion is coated on these hairs and is released when in contact with objects such as plants.", "These hairs have a longer-lasting scent mark and are tasted by other capybaras.", "Capybaras scent-mark by rubbing their morrillos on objects, or by walking over scrub and marking it with their anal glands.", "Capybaras can spread their scent further by urinating; however, females usually mark without urinating and scent-mark less frequently than males overall.", "Females mark more often during the wet season when they are in estrus.", "In addition to objects, males also scent-mark females.===Reproduction===Mother with typical litter of about four pupsCapybara mother with her pupsWhen in estrus, the female's scent changes subtly and nearby males begin pursuit.", "In addition, a female alerts males she is in estrus by whistling through her nose.", "During mating, the female has the advantage and mating choice.", "Capybaras mate only in water, and if a female does not want to mate with a certain male, she either submerges or leaves the water.", "Dominant males are highly protective of the females, but they usually cannot prevent some of the subordinates from copulating.", "The larger the group, the harder it is for the male to watch all the females.", "Dominant males secure significantly more matings than each subordinate, but subordinate males, as a class, are responsible for more matings than each dominant male.", "The lifespan of the capybara's sperm is longer than that of other rodents.Mother and three pupsCapybara gestation is 130–150 days, and produces a litter of four young on average, but may produce between one and eight in a single litter.", "Birth is on land and the female rejoins the group within a few hours of delivering the newborn capybaras, which join the group as soon as they are mobile.", "Within a week, the young can eat grass, but continue to suckle—from any female in the group—until weaned around 16 weeks.", "The young form a group within the main group.", "Alloparenting has been observed in this species.", "Breeding peaks between April and May in Venezuela and between October and November in Mato Grosso, Brazil.===Activities===Though quite agile on land, capybaras are equally at home in the water.", "They are excellent swimmers, and can remain completely submerged for up to five minutes, an ability they use to evade predators.", "Capybaras can sleep in water, keeping only their noses out.", "As temperatures increase during the day, they wallow in water and then graze during the late afternoon and early evening.", "They also spend time wallowing in mud.", "They rest around midnight and then continue to graze before dawn.A capybara in captivity, 2009" ], [ "Conservation and human interaction", "Capybaras are not considered a threatened species; their population is stable throughout most of their South American range, though in some areas hunting has reduced their numbers.", "Capybaras are hunted for their meat and pelts in some areas, and otherwise killed by humans who see their grazing as competition for livestock.", "In some areas, they are farmed, which has the effect of ensuring the wetland habitats are protected.", "Their survival is aided by their ability to breed rapidly.Capybaras have adapted well to urbanization in South America.", "They can be found in many areas in zoos and parks, and may live for 12 years in captivity, more than double their wild lifespan.", "Capybaras are docile and usually allow humans to pet and hand-feed them, but physical contact is normally discouraged, as their ticks can be vectors to Rocky Mountain spotted fever.", "The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria asked Drusillas Park in Alfriston, Sussex, England, to keep the studbook for capybaras, to monitor captive populations in Europe.", "The studbook includes information about all births, deaths and movements of capybaras, as well as how they are related.Capybaras are farmed for meat and skins in South America.", "The meat is considered unsuitable to eat in some areas, while in other areas it is considered an important source of protein.", "In parts of South America, especially in Venezuela, capybara meat is popular during Lent and Holy Week as the Catholic Church previously issued special dispensation to allow it to be eaten while other meats are generally forbidden.", "After several attempts a 1784 Papal bull was obtained that allowed the consumption of capybara during Lent.", "There is widespread perception in Venezuela that consumption of capybaras is exclusive to rural people.Although it is illegal in some states, capybaras are occasionally kept as pets in the United States.", "The image of a capybara features on the 2-peso coin of Uruguay.", "In Japan, following the lead of Izu Shaboten Zoo in 1982, multiple establishments or zoos in Japan that raise capybaras have adopted the practice of having them relax in onsen during the winter.", "They are seen as an attraction by Japanese people.", "Capybaras became big in Japan due to the popular cartoon character .In August 2021, Argentine and international media reported that capybaras had been causing serious problems for residents of Nordelta, an affluent gated community north of Buenos Aires built atop wetland habitat.", "This inspired social media users to jokingly adopt the capybara as a symbol of class struggle and communism.", "Brazilian Lyme-like borreliosis likely involves capybaras as reservoirs and ''Amblyomma'' and ''Rhipicephalus'' ticks as vectors." ], [ "Popularity and meme culture", "In the early 2020s, capybaras became a growing figure of meme culture due to many factors, including the disturbances in Nordelta which led to them being comically postulated as figures of class struggle.", "Also, a common meme format includes capybaras in various situations with the song \"After Party\" by Don Toliver, leading to a tremendous growth in popularity.", "Capybaras are also associated with the phrase \"Ok I pull up\", the opening lyric in Toliver’s song." ], [ "See also", "* ''Josephoartigasia monesi'', an extinct species identified as the largest known rodent ever* Kurloff cell, a type of cell found in capybaras and guinea pigs* ''Capybara Walking'', a historical animal locomotion film by Eadweard Muybridge" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Animal Diversity Web ''Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris''* Capybara information" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Computer animation" ], [ "Introduction", "An example of computer animation which is produced from the \"motion capture\" technique'''Computer animation''' is the process used for digitally generating animations.", "The more general term computer-generated imagery (CGI) encompasses both static scenes (still images) and dynamic images (moving images), while computer animation refers to moving images.", "Modern computer animation usually uses 3D computer graphics.", "The animation's target is sometimes the computer itself, while other times it is film.Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to stop motion techniques, but using models and traditional animation techniques using frame-by-frame animation illustrations.", "Also computer-generated animations allow a single graphic artist to produce such content without using actors, expensive set pieces, or props.", "To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer monitor and repeatedly replaced by a new similar image but advanced slightly in time (usually at a rate of 24, 25, or 30 frames/second).", "This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures.For 3D animations, objects (models) are built on the computer monitor (modeled) and 3D figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton.", "Then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc.", "of the figure are moved by the animator on key frames.", "The differences in appearance between key frames are automatically calculated by the computer in a process known as tweening or morphing.", "Finally, the animation is rendered.For 3D animations, all frames must be rendered after the modeling is complete.", "For pre-recorded presentations, the rendered frames are transferred to a different format or medium, like digital video.", "The frames may also be rendered in real-time as they are presented to the end-user audience.", "Low bandwidth animations transmitted via the internet (e.g.", "Adobe Flash, X3D) often use the software on the end user's computer to render in real-time as an alternative to streaming or pre-loaded high bandwidth animations." ], [ "Explanation", "To trick the visual system into seeing a smoothly moving object, the pictures should be drawn at around 12 frames per second or faster.", "(A frame is one complete image.)", "With rates above 75 to 120 frames per second, no improvement in realism or smoothness is perceivable due to the way the eye and the brain both process images.", "At rates below 12 frames per second, most people can detect jerkiness associated with the drawing of new images that detracts from the illusion of realistic movement.", "Conventional hand-drawn cartoon animation often uses 15 frames per second in order to save on the number of drawings needed, but this is usually accepted because of the stylized nature of cartoons.", "To produce more realistic imagery, computer animation demands higher frame rates.Films seen in theaters in the United States run at 24 frames per second, which is sufficient to create the illusion of continuous movement.", "For high resolution, adapters are used." ], [ "History", "Early digital computer animation was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1960s by Edward E. Zajac, Frank W. Sinden, Kenneth C. Knowlton, and A. Michael Noll.", "Other digital animation was also practiced at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.In 1967, a computer animation named \"Hummingbird\" was created by Charles Csuri and James Shaffer.", "In 1968, a computer animation called \"Kitty\" was created with BESM-4 by Nikolai Konstantinov, depicting a cat moving around.", "In 1971, a computer animation called \"Metadata\" was created, showing various shapes.An early step in the history of computer animation was the sequel to the 1973 film ''Westworld,'' a science-fiction film about a society in which robots live and work among humans.", "The sequel, ''Futureworld'' (1976), used the 3D wire-frame imagery, which featured a computer-animated hand and face both created by University of Utah graduates Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke.", "This imagery originally appeared in their student film ''A Computer Animated Hand'', which they completed in 1972.Developments in CGI technologies are reported each year at SIGGRAPH, an annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques that is attended by thousands of computer professionals each year.", "Developers of computer games and 3D video cards strive to achieve the same visual quality on personal computers in real-time as is possible for CGI films and animation.", "With the rapid advancement of real-time rendering quality, artists began to use game engines to render non-interactive movies, which led to the art form Machinima.===Film and television===BlenderCGI short films have been produced as independent animation since 1976.Early examples of feature films incorporating CGI animation include the live-action films ''Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan'' and ''Tron'' (both 1982), and the Japanese anime film ''Golgo 13: The Professional'' (1983).", "''VeggieTales'' is the first American fully 3D computer-animated series sold directly (made in 1993); its success inspired other animation series, such as ''ReBoot'' (1994) and ''Transformers: Beast Wars'' (1996) to adopt a fully computer-generated style.The first full length computer-animated television series was ''ReBoot'', which debuted in September 1994; the series followed the adventures of characters who lived inside a computer.", "The first feature-length computer-animated film is ''Toy Story'' (1995), which was made by Disney and Pixar: following an adventure centered around anthropomorphic toys and their owners, this groundbreaking film was also the first of many fully computer-animated movies.The popularity of computer animation (especially in the field of special effects) skyrocketed during the modern era of U.S. animation.", "Films like ''Avatar'' (2009) and ''The Jungle Book'' (2016) use CGI for the majority of the movie runtime, but still incorporate human actors into the mix.", "Computer animation in this era has achieved photorealism, to the point that computer-animated films such as ''The Lion King'' (2019) are able to be marketed as if they were live-action." ], [ "Animation methods", "3D game character animated using skeletal animation.gif of a 2D Flash animation, each 'stick' of the figure is keyframed over time to create motion.In most 3D computer animation systems, an animator creates a simplified representation of a character's anatomy, which is analogous to a skeleton or stick figure.", "They are arranged into a default position known as a bind pose, or T-Pose.", "The position of each segment of the skeletal model is defined by animation variables, or Avars for short.", "In human and animal characters, many parts of the skeletal model correspond to the actual bones, but skeletal animation is also used to animate other things, with facial features (though other methods for facial animation exist).", "The character \"Woody\" in ''Toy Story'', for example, uses 712 Avars (212 in the face alone).", "The computer does not usually render the skeletal model directly (it is invisible), but it does use the skeletal model to compute the exact position and orientation of that certain character, which is eventually rendered into an image.", "Thus by changing the values of Avars over time, the animator creates motion by making the character move from frame to frame.There are several methods for generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion.", "Traditionally, animators manipulate the Avars directly.", "Rather than set Avars for every frame, they usually set Avars at strategic points (frames) in time and let the computer interpolate or tween between them in a process called ''keyframing''.", "Keyframing puts control in the hands of the animator and has roots in hand-drawn traditional animation.In contrast, a newer method called ''motion capture'' makes use of live action footage.", "When computer animation is driven by motion capture, a real performer acts out the scene as if they were the character to be animated.", "Their motion is recorded to a computer using video cameras and markers and that performance is then applied to the animated character.Each method has its advantages and as of 2007, games and films are using either or both of these methods in productions.", "Keyframe animation can produce motions that would be difficult or impossible to act out, while motion capture can reproduce the subtleties of a particular actor.", "For example, in the 2006 film ''Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest'', Bill Nighy provided the performance for the character Davy Jones.", "Even though Nighy does not appear in the movie himself, the movie benefited from his performance by recording the nuances of his body language, posture, facial expressions, etc.", "Thus motion capture is appropriate in situations where believable, realistic behavior and action is required, but the types of characters required exceed what can be done throughout the conventional costuming." ], [ "Modeling", "3D computer animation combines 3D models of objects and programmed or hand \"keyframed\" movement.", "These models are constructed out of geometrical vertices, faces, and edges in a 3D coordinate system.", "Objects are sculpted much like real clay or plaster, working from general forms to specific details with various sculpting tools.", "Unless a 3D model is intended to be a solid color, it must be painted with \"textures\" for realism.", "A bone/joint animation system is set up to deform the CGI model (e.g., to make a humanoid model walk).", "In a process known as ''rigging'', the virtual marionette is given various controllers and handles for controlling movement.", "Animation data can be created using motion capture, or keyframing by a human animator, or a combination of the two.3D models rigged for animation may contain thousands of control points — for example, \"Woody\" from ''Toy Story'' uses 700 specialized animation controllers.", "Rhythm and Hues Studios labored for two years to create Aslan in the movie ''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', which had about 1,851 controllers (742 in the face alone).", "In the 2004 film ''The Day After Tomorrow'', designers had to design forces of extreme weather with the help of video references and accurate meteorological facts.", "For the 2005 remake of ''King Kong'', actor Andy Serkis was used to help designers pinpoint the gorilla's prime location in the shots and used his expressions to model \"human\" characteristics onto the creature.", "Serkis had earlier provided the voice and performance for Gollum in J. R. R. Tolkien's ''The Lord of the Rings'' trilogy." ], [ "Equipment", "A ray-traced 3-D model of a jack inside a cube, and the jack alone belowComputer animation can be created with a computer and an animation software.", "Some impressive animation can be achieved even with basic programs; however, the rendering can require much time on an ordinary home computer.", "Professional animators of movies, television and video games could make photorealistic animation with high detail.", "This level of quality for movie animation would take hundreds of years to create on a home computer.", "Instead, many powerful workstation computers are used.", "Graphics workstation computers use two to four processors, and they are a lot more powerful than an actual home computer and are specialized for rendering.", "Many workstations (known as a ''\"render farm\"'') are networked together to effectively act as a giant computer, resulting in a computer-animated movie that can be completed in about one to five years (however, this process is not composed solely of rendering).", "A workstation typically costs $2,000 to $16,000 with the more expensive stations being able to render much faster due to the more technologically-advanced hardware that they contain.", "Professionals also use digital movie cameras, motion/performance capture, bluescreens, film editing software, props, and other tools used for movie animation.", "Programs like Blender allow for people who can not afford expensive animation and rendering software to be able to work in a similar manner to those who use the commercial grade equipment." ], [ "Facial animation", "The realistic modeling of human facial features is both one of the most challenging and sought after elements in computer-generated imagery.", "Computer facial animation is a highly complex field where models typically include a very large number of animation variables.", "Historically speaking, the first SIGGRAPH tutorials on ''State of the art in Facial Animation'' in 1989 and 1990 proved to be a turning point in the field by bringing together and consolidating multiple research elements and sparked interest among a number of researchers.The Facial Action Coding System (with 46 \"action units\", \"lip bite\" or \"squint\"), which had been developed in 1976, became a popular basis for many systems.", "As early as 2001, MPEG-4 included 68 Face Animation Parameters (FAPs) for lips, jaws, etc., and the field has made significant progress since then and the use of facial microexpression has increased.In some cases, an affective space, the PAD emotional state model, can be used to assign specific emotions to the faces of avatars.", "In this approach, the PAD model is used as a high level emotional space and the lower level space is the MPEG-4 Facial Animation Parameters (FAP).", "A mid-level Partial Expression Parameters (PEP) space is then used to in a two-level structure – the PAD-PEP mapping and the PEP-FAP translation model." ], [ "Realism", "Joy & Heron – a typical example of realistic animationRealism in computer animation can mean making each frame look photorealistic, in the sense that the scene is rendered to resemble a photograph or make the characters' animation believable and lifelike.", "Computer animation can also be realistic with or without the photorealistic rendering.One of the greatest challenges in computer animation has been creating human characters that look and move with the highest degree of realism.", "Part of the difficulty in making pleasing, realistic human characters is the uncanny valley, the concept where the human audience (up to a point) tends to have an increasingly negative, emotional response as a human replica looks and acts more and more human.", "Films that have attempted photorealistic human characters, such as ''The Polar Express'', ''Beowulf'', and ''A Christmas Carol''have been criticized as \"disconcerting\" and \"creepy\".The goal of computer animation is not always to emulate live action as closely as possible, so many animated films instead feature characters who are anthropomorphic animals, legendary creatures and characters, superheroes, or otherwise have non-realistic, cartoon-like proportions.", "Computer animation can also be tailored to mimic or substitute for other kinds of animation, like traditional stop-motion animation (as shown in ''Flushed Away'' or ''The Peanuts Movie'').", "Some of the long-standing basic principles of animation, like squash and stretch, call for movement that is not strictly realistic, and such principles still see widespread application in computer animation." ], [ "Animation studios", "Some notable producers of computer-animated feature films include:* Animal Logic – Films include ''Happy Feet'' (2006), ''Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole'' (2010), ''Walking with Dinosaurs'' (2013), ''The Lego Movie'' (2014)* Aardman Animations – Films include ''Flushed Away'' (2006), ''Arthur Christmas'' (2011)* Big Idea Entertainment – ''Jonah: A VeggieTales Movie'' (2002) and ''The Pirates Who Don't Do Anything: A VeggieTales Movie'' (2008)* Bron Animation – Films include ''The Addams Family'' (2019), ''The Willoughbys'' (2020)* Blue Sky Studios – Films include ''Ice Age'' (2002), ''Robots'' (2005), ''Horton Hears a Who!''", "(2008), ''Rio'' (2011), ''Epic'' (2013), ''The Peanuts Movie'' (2015)* DNA Productions – Films include ''Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius'' (2001), ''Santa vs. the Snowman 3D'' (2002) and ''The Ant Bully'' (2006)* DNEG - Films include ''Ron's Gone Wrong'' (2021)* DreamWorks Animation – Films include ''Shrek'' (2001), ''Shark Tale'' (2004), ''Madagascar'' (2005), ''Over the Hedge'' (2006), ''Bee Movie'' (2007), ''Kung Fu Panda'' (2008), ''Monsters vs. Aliens'' (2009), ''How to Train Your Dragon'' (2010), ''Rise of the Guardians'' (2012), ''The Croods'' (2013), ''Trolls'' (2016), ''The Boss Baby'' (2017), ''Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie'' (2017), ''The Bad Guys'' (2022)* ImageMovers – Films include ''The Polar Express'' (2004), ''Monster House'' (2006), ''Beowulf'' (2007), ''A Christmas Carol'' (2009), ''Mars Needs Moms'' (2011)* Imagi Animation Studios – Films include ''TMNT'' (2007), ''Astro Boy'' (2009)* Ilion Animation Studios — Films include ''Planet 51'' (2009), ''Mortadelo and Filemon: Mission Implausible'' (2014), ''Wonder Park'' (2019)* Illumination — Films include ''Despicable Me'' (2010), The Lorax (2012), ''Minions'' (2015), ''The Secret Life of Pets'' (2016), ''Sing'' (2016), ''The Grinch'' (2018), ''The Secret Life of Pets 2'' (2019), ''The Super Mario Bros. Movie'' (2023)* Industrial Light & Magic – Films include ''Rango'' (2011) and ''Strange Magic'' (2015)* Omation Animation Studios – Films include ''Barnyard'' (2006)* Pacific Data Images – Films include ''Antz'' (1998), ''Shrek'' (2001), ''Shrek 2'' (2004), ''Madagascar'' (2005), ''Megamind'' (2010), ''Mr.", "Peabody and Sherman'' (2014)* Paramount Animation – Films include ''The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water'' (2015), ''Monster Trucks'' (2017), ''Sherlock Gnomes'' (2018), ''Wonder Park'' (2019), ''The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run'' (2020) and ''Under the Boardwalk'' (2023)* Pixar Animation Studios – Films include ''Toy Story'' (1995), ''Monsters, Inc.'' (2001), ''Finding Nemo'' (2003), ''The Incredibles'' (2004), ''Cars'' (2006), ''Ratatouille'' (2007), ''WALL-E'' (2008), ''Up'' (2009), ''Inside Out'' (2015), '' Coco'' (2017), ''Soul'' (2020) and ''Luca'' (2021)* Rainmaker Studios – Films include ''Escape from Planet Earth'' (2013) and ''Ratchet & Clank'' (2016)* Reel FX Animation Studios – Films include ''Free Birds'' (2013) and ''The Book of Life'' (2014)* Wizart Animation – Films include ''The Snow Queen'' (2012), ''Sheep and Wolves'' (2016)* Shirogumi – Films include ''Friends: Mononoke Shima no Naki'' (2011), ''Stand by Me Doraemon'' (2014) and ''Dragon Quest: Your Story'' (2019)* Skydance Animation  – Films include ''Luck'' (2022), ''Spellbound'' (2024)* Square Pictures - Films include ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' (2001)* Sony Pictures Animation – Films include ''Open Season'' (2006), ''Surf's Up'' (2007), ''Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs'' (2009), ''Hotel Transylvania'' (2012), ''Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse'' (2018), and ''The Mitchells vs. the Machines'' (2021)* Sony Pictures Imageworks – Films include ''The Angry Birds Movie'' (2016) and ''Over the Moon'' (2020)* Triggerfish Animation Studios – Films include ''Zambezia'' (2013), ''Khumba'' (2014)* Vanguard Animation - Films include ''Valiant'' (2005), ''Space Chimps'' (2008), ''Gnome Alone'' (2017)* Walt Disney Animation Studios – Films include ''Chicken Little'' (2005), ''Meet the Robinsons'' (2007), ''Bolt'' (2008), ''Tangled'' (2010), ''Wreck-It Ralph'' (2012), ''Frozen'' (2013), ''Big Hero 6'' (2014), ''Zootopia'' (2016), ''Moana'' (2016) and ''Encanto'' (2021)* Warner Bros. Pictures Animation – Films include ''The Lego Movie'' (2014), ''Storks'' (2016), ''The Lego Batman Movie'' (2017), ''Smallfoot'' (2018), ''Scoob!''", "(2020)* Weta Digital – Films include ''The Adventures of Tintin'' (2011)" ], [ "Web animations", "The popularity of websites that allow members to upload their own movies for others to view has created a growing community of independent and amateur computer animators.", "With utilities and programs often included free with modern operating systems, many users can make their own animated movies and shorts.", "Several free and open-source animation software applications exist as well.", "The ease at which these animations can be distributed has attracted professional animation talent also.", "Companies such as PowToon and Vyond attempt to bridge the gap by giving amateurs access to professional animations as clip art.The oldest (most backward compatible) web-based animations are in the animated GIF format, which can be uploaded and seen on the web easily.", "However, the raster graphics format of GIF animations slows the download and frame rate, especially with larger screen sizes.", "The growing demand for higher quality web-based animations was met by a vector graphics alternative that relied on the use of a plugin.", "For decades, Flash animations were the most popular format, until the web development community abandoned support for the Flash Player plugin.", "Web browsers on mobile devices and mobile operating systems never fully supported the Flash plugin.By this time, internet bandwidth and download speeds increased, making raster graphic animations more convenient.", "Some of the more complex vector graphic animations had a slower frame rate due to complex rendering compared to some of the raster graphic alternatives.", "Many of the GIF and Flash animations were already converted to digital video formats, which were compatible with mobile devices and reduced file sizes via video compression technology.", "However, compatibility was still problematic as some of the popular video formats such as Apple's QuickTime and Microsoft Silverlight required plugins.", "YouTube, the most popular video sharing website, was also relying on the Flash plugin to deliver digital video in the Flash Video format.The latest alternatives are HTML5 compatible animations.", "Technologies such as JavaScript and CSS animations made sequencing the movement of images in HTML5 web pages more convenient.", "SVG animations offered a vector graphic alternative to the original Flash graphic format, SmartSketch.", "YouTube offers an HTML5 alternative for digital video.", "APNG (Animated PNG) offered a raster graphic alternative to animated GIF files that enables multi-level transparency not available in GIFs." ], [ "Detailed examples", "Computer animation uses different techniques to produce animations.", "Most frequently, sophisticated mathematics is used to manipulate complex three-dimensional polygons, apply \"textures\", lighting and other effects to the polygons and finally rendering the complete image.", "A sophisticated graphical user interface may be used to create the animation and arrange its choreography.", "Another technique called constructive solid geometry defines objects by conducting Boolean operations on regular shapes, and has the advantage that animations may be accurately produced at any resolution." ], [ "Computer-generated animation", "''To animate means, figuratively, to \"give life to\".", "There are two basic methods that animators commonly use to accomplish this.", "''Computer-generated animation is known as three-dimensional (3D) animation.", "Creators design an object or character with an X, a Y and a Z axis.", "No pencil-to-paper drawings create the way computer-generated animation works.", "The object or character created will then be taken into a software.", "Key-framing and tweening are also carried out in computer-generated animation but so are many techniques unrelated to traditional animation.", "Animators can break physical laws by using mathematical algorithms to cheat mass, force and gravity rulings.", "Fundamentally, time scale and quality could be said to be a preferred way to produce animation as they are major aspects enhanced by using computer-generated animation.", "Another positive aspect of CGA is the fact one can create a flock of creatures to act independently when created as a group.", "An animal's fur can be programmed to wave in the wind and lie flat when it rains instead of separately programming each strand of hair.A few examples of computer-generated animation movies are ''Toy Story'', ''Antz'', ''Ice Age'', ''Happy Feet'', ''Despicable Me'', ''Frozen'', and ''Shrek''." ], [ "2D computer animation", "2D computer graphics are still used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time renderings.", "Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to stop motion techniques, but using 3D models, and traditional animation techniques using frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations.For 2D figure animations, separate objects (illustrations) and separate transparent layers are used with or without that virtual skeleton.", "===2D sprites and pseudocode===In 2D computer animation, moving objects are often referred to as \"sprites.\"", "A sprite is an image that has a location associated with it.", "The location of the sprite is changed slightly, between each displayed frame, to make the sprite appear to move.", "The following pseudocode makes a sprite move from left to right: '''var''' ''int'' x := 0, y := screenHeight / 2; '''while''' x < screenWidth drawBackground() drawSpriteAtXY (x, y) ''// draw on top of the background'' x := x + 5 ''// move to the right''===Computer-assisted animation===Computer-assisted animation is usually classed as two-dimensional (2D) animation.", "Drawings are either hand drawn (pencil to paper) or interactively drawn (on the computer) using different assisting appliances and are positioned into specific software packages.", "Within the software package, the creator places drawings into different key frames which fundamentally create an outline of the most important movements.", "The computer then fills in the \"in-between frames\", a process commonly known as Tweening.", "Computer-assisted animation employs new technologies to produce content faster than is possible with traditional animation, while still retaining the stylistic elements of traditionally drawn characters or objects.Examples of films produced using computer-assisted animation are ''The Little Mermaid'', ''The Rescuers Down Under'', ''Beauty and the Beast'', ''Aladdin'', ''The Lion King'', ''Pocahontas'', ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame'', ''Hercules'', ''Mulan'', ''Tarzan'', ''Anastasia'', ''Titan A.E.", "'', ''The Prince of Egypt'', ''The Road to El Dorado'', ''Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron'' and ''Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas''.===Text-to-video===" ], [ "See also", "* Animation* Animation database* Autodesk* Avar (animation variable)*Computer facial animation* Computer-generated imagery (CGI)* New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Lab* Computer representation of surfaces* Hand-Over* Humanoid animation* List of animation studios* List of computer-animated films* List of computer-animated television series* Medical animation* Morph target animation* Machinima (recording video from games and virtual worlds)* Motion capture* Procedural animation* Ray tracing* Rich Representation Language* Skeletal animation* Stop motion*Traditional animation* Timeline of computer animation in film and television* Virtual artifact* Wire-frame model* Twelve basic principles of animation" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Works cited===* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ceawlin of Wessex" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ceawlin''' ( ; also spelled '''Ceaulin''', '''Caelin''', '''Celin''', died ''ca.''", "593) was a King of Wessex.", "He may have been the son of Cynric of Wessex and the grandson of Cerdic of Wessex, whom the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' represents as the leader of the first group of Saxons to come to the land which later became Wessex.", "Ceawlin was active during the last years of the Anglo-Saxon expansion, with little of southern England remaining in the control of the native Britons by the time of his death.The chronology of Ceawlin's life is highly uncertain.", "The historical accuracy and dating of many of the events in the later ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' have been called into question, and his reign is variously listed as lasting seven, seventeen, or thirty-two years.", "The ''Chronicle'' records several battles of Ceawlin's between the years 556 and 592, including the first record of a battle between different groups of Anglo-Saxons, and indicates that under Ceawlin Wessex acquired significant territory, some of which was later to be lost to other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.", "Ceawlin is also named as one of the eight \"''bretwaldas''\", a title given in the ''Chronicle'' to eight rulers who had overlordship over southern Britain, although the extent of Ceawlin's control is not known.Ceawlin died in 593, having been deposed the year before, possibly by his successor, Ceol.", "He is recorded in various sources as having two sons, Cutha and Cuthwine, but the genealogies in which this information is found are known to be unreliable." ], [ "Historical context", "The history of the sub-Roman period in Britain is poorly sourced and the subject of a number of important disagreements among historians.", "It appears, however, that in the fifth century, raids on Britain by continental peoples developed into migrations.", "The newcomers included Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians.", "These peoples captured territory in the east and south of England, but at about the end of the fifth century, a British victory at the battle of Mons Badonicus halted the Anglo-Saxon advance for fifty years.", "Near the year 550, however, the British began to lose ground once more, and within twenty-five years, it appears that control of almost all of southern England was in the hands of the invaders.The peace following the battle of Mons Badonicus is attested partly by Gildas, a monk, who wrote ''De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae'' or ''On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain'' during the middle of the sixth century.", "This essay is a polemic against corruption and Gildas provides little in the way of names and dates.", "He appears, however, to state that peace had lasted from the year of his birth to the time he was writing.", "The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' is the other main source that bears on this period, in particular in an entry for the year 827 that records a list of the kings who bore the title \"''bretwalda''\", or \"Britain-ruler\".", "That list shows a gap in the early sixth century that matches Gildas's version of events.Ceawlin's reign belongs to the period of Anglo-Saxon expansion at the end of the sixth century.", "Though there are many unanswered questions about the chronology and activities of the early West Saxon rulers, it is clear that Ceawlin was one of the key figures in the final Anglo-Saxon conquest of southern Britain." ], [ "Early West Saxon sources", "The two main written sources for early West Saxon history are the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' and the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List.", "The ''Chronicle'' is a set of annals which were compiled near the year 890, during the reign of King Alfred the Great of Wessex.", "They record earlier material for the older entries, which were assembled from earlier annals that no longer survive, as well as from saga material that might have been transmitted orally.", "The ''Chronicle'' dates the arrival of the future \"West Saxons\" in Britain to 495, when Cerdic and his son, Cynric, land at ''Cerdices ora'', or Cerdic's shore.", "Almost twenty annals describing Cerdic's campaigns and those of his descendants appear interspersed through the next hundred years of entries in the ''Chronicle''.", "Although these annals provide most of what is known about Ceawlin, the historicity of many of the entries is uncertain.The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List is a list of rulers of Wessex, including the lengths of their reigns.", "It survives in several forms, including as a preface to the B manuscript of the ''Chronicle''.", "Like the ''Chronicle'', the List was compiled in its present form during the reign of Alfred the Great, but an earlier version of the List was also one of the sources of the ''Chronicle'' itself.", "Both the list and the ''Chronicle'' are influenced by the desire of their writers to use a single line of descent to trace the lineage of the Kings of Wessex through Cerdic to Gewis, the legendary eponymous ancestor of the West Saxons, who is made to descend from Woden.", "The result served the political purposes of the scribe, but is riddled with contradictions for historians.The contradictions may be seen clearly by calculating dates by different methods from the various sources.", "The first event in West Saxon history whose date can be regarded as reasonably certain is the baptism of Cynegils, which occurred in the late 630s, perhaps as late as 640.The ''Chronicle'' dates Cerdic's arrival to 495, but adding up the lengths of the reigns as given in the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List leads to the conclusion that Cerdic's reign might have started in 532, a difference of 37 years.", "Neither 495 nor 532 may be treated as reliable; however, the latter date relies on the presumption that the Regnal List is correct in presenting the Kings of Wessex as having succeeded one another, with no omitted kings, and no joint kingships, and that the durations of the reigns are correct as given.", "None of these presumptions may be made safely.The sources also are inconsistent on the length of Ceawlin's reign.", "The ''Chronicle'' gives it as thirty-two years, from 560 to 592, but the manuscripts of the Regnal List disagree: different copies give it as seven or seventeen years.", "David Dumville's detailed study of the Regnal List finds that it originally dated the arrival of the West Saxons in England to 532, and favours seven years as the earliest claimed length of Ceawlin's reign, with dates of 581–588 proposed.", "Dumville suggests that Ceawlin's reign length was then inflated to help extend the longevity of the Cerdicing dynasty further back into the past, and that Ceawlin's reign specifically was extended because he is mentioned by Bede, giving him a status which led later West Saxon historians to conclude that he deserved a more impressive-looking reign.", "The sources do agree that Ceawlin is the son of Cynric and he usually is named as the father of Cuthwine.", "There is one discrepancy in this case: the entry for 685 in the A version of the ''Chronicle'' assigns Ceawlin a son, Cutha, but in the 855 entry in the same manuscript, Cutha is listed as the son of Cuthwine.", "Cutha also is named as Ceawlin's brother in the E and F versions of the ''Chronicle'', in the 571 and 568 entries, respectively.Whether Ceawlin is a descendant of Cerdic is a matter of debate.", "Subgroupings of different West Saxon lineages give the impression of separate groups, of which Ceawlin's line is one.", "Some of the problems in the Wessex genealogies may have come about because of efforts to integrate Ceawlin's line with the other lineages: it became very important to the West Saxons to be able to trace the ancestors of their rulers back to Cerdic.", "Another reason for doubting the literal nature of these early genealogies is that the etymology of the names of several early members of the dynasty do not appear to be Germanic, as would be expected in the names of leaders of an apparently Anglo-Saxon dynasty.", "The name ''Ceawlin'' has no convincing Old English etymology; it seems more likely to be of British origin.The earliest sources do not use the term \"West Saxon\".", "According to Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', the term is interchangeable with the Gewisse.", "The term \"West Saxon\" appears only in the late seventh century, after the reign of Cædwalla." ], [ "West Saxon expansion", "alt=A map showing places in central southern England, including Gloucester, Cirencester, Bath, and AylesburyUltimately, the kingdom of Wessex occupied the southwest of England, but the initial stages in this expansion are not apparent from the sources.", "Cerdic's landing, whenever it is to be dated, seems to have been near the Isle of Wight, and the annals record the conquest of the island in 530.In 534, according to the ''Chronicle'', Cerdic died and his son Cynric took the throne; the ''Chronicle'' adds that \"they gave the Isle of Wight to their nephews, Stuf and Wihtgar\".", "These records are in direct conflict with Bede, who states that the Isle of Wight was settled by Jutes, not Saxons; the archaeological record is somewhat in favour of Bede on this.Subsequent entries in the ''Chronicle'' give details of some of the battles by which the West Saxons won their kingdom.", "Ceawlin's campaigns are not given as near the coast.", "They range along the Thames Valley and beyond, as far as Surrey in the east and the mouth of the Severn in the west.", "Ceawlin clearly is part of the West Saxon expansion, but the military history of the period is difficult to understand.", "In what follows the dates are as given in the ''Chronicle'', although, as noted above, these are earlier than now thought accurate.===556: ===The first record of a battle fought by Ceawlin is in 556, when he and his father, Cynric, fought the native Britons at \"\", or Bera's Stronghold.", "This now is identified as Barbury Castle, an Iron Age hill fort in Wiltshire, near Swindon.", "Cynric would have been king of Wessex at this time.===568: Wibbandun===The first battle Ceawlin fought as king is dated by the ''Chronicle'' to 568, when he and Cutha fought with Æthelberht, the king of Kent.", "The entry says \"Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against Aethelberht and drove him into Kent; and they killed two ealdormen, Oslaf and Cnebba, on Wibbandun.\"", "The location of \"Wibbandun\", which can be translated as \"Wibba's Mount\", has not been identified definitely; it was at one time thought to be Wimbledon, but this now is known to be incorrect.David Cooper proposes Wyboston, a small village 8 miles north-east of Bedford on the west bank of the Great Ouse.", "Wibbandun is often written as Wibba's Dun, which is close phonetically to Wyboston and Æthelberht's dominance, from Kent to the Humber according to Bede, extended across those Anglian territories south of the Wash.", "It was this region that came under threat from Ceawlin as he looked to establish a defensible boundary on the Great Ouse River in the easternmost part of his territory.", "In addition, Cnebba, named as slain in this battle, has been associated with Knebworth, which lies 20 miles to the south of Wyboston.", "Half-a-mile south of Wyboston is a village called Chawston.", "The origin of the place-name is unknown but might be derived from the Old English ''Ceawston'' or ''Ceawlinston''.", "A defeat at Wyboston for Æthelberht would have damaged his overlord status and diminished his influence over the Anglians.", "The idea that he was driven or 'pursued' into Kent (depending on which Anglo-Saxon Chronicle translation is preferred) should not be taken literally.", "Similar phraseology is often found in the Chronicle when one king bests another.", "A defeat suffered as part of an expedition to help his Anglian clients would have caused Æthelberht to withdraw into Kent to recover.This battle is notable as the first recorded conflict between the invading peoples: previous battles recorded in the ''Chronicle'' are between the Anglo-Saxons and the native Britons.There are multiple examples of joint kingship in Anglo-Saxon history, and this may be another: it is not clear what Cutha's relationship to Ceawlin is, but it certainly is possible he was also a king.", "The annal for 577, below, is another possible example.===571: Bedcanford===The annal for 571 reads: \"Here Cuthwulf fought against the Britons at Bedcanford, and took four settlements: Limbury and Aylesbury, Benson and Eynsham; and in the same year he passed away.\"", "Cuthwulf's relationship with Ceawlin is unknown, but the alliteration common to Anglo-Saxon royal families suggests Cuthwulf may be part of the West Saxon royal line.", "The location of the battle itself is unidentified.", "It has been suggested that it was Bedford, but what is known of the early history of Bedford's names does not support this.", "This battle is of interest because it is surprising that an area so far east should still be in Briton hands this late: there is ample archaeological evidence of early Saxon and Anglian presence in the Midlands, and historians generally have interpreted Gildas's ''De Excidio'' as implying that the Britons had lost control of this area by the mid-sixth century.", "One possible explanation is that this annal records a reconquest of land that was lost to the Britons in the campaigns ending in the battle of Mons Badonicus.===577: Lower Severn===The annal for 577 reads \"Here Cuthwine and Ceawlin fought against the Britons, and they killed three kings, Coinmail and Condidan and Farinmail, in the place which is called Dyrham, and took three cities: Gloucester and Cirencester and Bath.\"", "This entry is all that is known of these Briton kings; their names are in an archaic form that makes it very likely that this annal derives from a much older written source.", "The battle itself has long been regarded as a key moment in the Saxon advance, since in reaching the Bristol Channel, the West Saxons divided the Britons west of the Severn from land communication with those in the peninsula to the south of the Channel.", "Wessex almost certainly lost this territory to Penda of Mercia in 628, when the ''Chronicle'' records that \"Cynegils and Cwichelm fought against Penda at Cirencester and then came to an agreement.", "\"It is possible that when Ceawlin and Cuthwine took Bath, they found the Roman baths still operating to some extent.", "Nennius, a ninth-century historian, mentions a \"Hot Lake\" in the land of the Hwicce, which was along the Severn, and adds \"It is surrounded by a wall, made of brick and stone, and men may go there to bathe at any time, and every man can have the kind of bath he likes.", "If he wants, it will be a cold bath; and if he wants a hot bath, it will be hot\".", "Bede also describes hot baths in the geographical introduction to the ''Ecclesiastical History'' in terms very similar to those of Nennius.Wansdyke, an early-medieval defensive linear earthwork, runs from south of Bristol to near Marlborough, Wiltshire, passing not far from Bath.", "It probably was built in the fifth or sixth centuries, perhaps by Ceawlin.===584: Fethan leag===Ceawlin's last recorded victory is in 584.The entry reads \"Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against the Britons at the place which is named Fethan leag, and Cutha was killed; and Ceawlin took many towns and countless war-loot, and in anger he turned back to his own territory.\"", "There is a wood named \"Fethelée\" mentioned in a twelfth-century document that relates to Stoke Lyne, in Oxfordshire, and it now is thought that the battle of Fethan leag must have been fought in this area.The phrase \"in anger he turned back to his own\" probably indicates that this annal is drawn from saga material, as perhaps are all of the early Wessex annals.", "It also has been used to argue that perhaps, Ceawlin did not win the battle and that the chronicler chose not to record the outcome fully—a king does not usually come home \"in anger\" after taking \"many towns and countless war-loot\".", "It may be that Ceawlin's overlordship of the southern Britons came to an end with this battle." ], [ "Bretwaldaship", "Image:Entry_for_827_in_the_Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle,_which_lists_the_eight_bretwaldas.gif|thumb|right|350px|In the entry for 827 in the C manuscript of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,'' listing the eight ''bretwaldas'', Ceawlin's name can be seen in the fifth line, spelled \"Ceaulin\".|alt=Part of a manuscript page showing eleven lines of lettering in an old style, with a Roman numeral in reddish ink at the start of the first lineAbout 731, Bede, a Northumbrian monk and chronicler, wrote a work called the ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People''.", "The work was not primarily a secular history, but Bede provides much information about the history of the Anglo-Saxons, including a list early in the history of seven kings who, he said, held \"imperium\" over the other kingdoms south of the Humber.", "The usual translation for \"imperium\" is \"overlordship\".", "Bede names Ceawlin as the second on the list, although he spells it \"Caelin\", and adds that he was \"known in the speech of his own people as Ceaulin\".", "Bede also makes it clear that Ceawlin was not a Christian—Bede mentions a later king, Æthelberht of Kent, as \"the first to enter the kingdom of heaven\".The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,'' in an entry for the year 827, repeats Bede's list, adds Egbert of Wessex, and also mentions that they were known as \"bretwalda\", or \"Britain-ruler\".", "A great deal of scholarly attention has been given to the meaning of this word.", "It has been described as a term \"of encomiastic poetry\", but there also is evidence that it implied a definite role of military leadership.Bede says that these kings had authority \"south of the Humber\", but the span of control, at least of the earlier bretwaldas, likely was less than this.", "In Ceawlin's case the range of control is hard to determine accurately, but Bede's inclusion of Ceawlin in the list of kings who held ''imperium'', and the list of battles he is recorded as having won, indicate an energetic and successful leader who, from a base in the upper Thames valley, dominated much of the surrounding area and held overlordship over the southern Britons for some period.", "Despite Ceawlin's military successes, the northern conquests he made could not always be retained: Mercia took much of the upper Thames valley, and the north-eastern towns won in 571 were among territory subsequently under the control of Kent and Mercia at different times.Bede's concept of the power of these overlords also must be regarded as the product of his eighth-century viewpoint.", "When the ''Ecclesiastical History'' was written, Æthelbald of Mercia dominated the English south of the Humber, and Bede's view of the earlier kings was doubtless strongly coloured by the state of England at that time.", "For the earlier ''bretwaldas'', such as Ælle and Ceawlin, there must be some element of anachronism in Bede's description.", "It also is possible that Bede only meant to refer to power over Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, not the native Britons.Ceawlin is the second king in Bede's list.", "All the subsequent bretwaldas followed more or less consecutively, but there is a long gap, perhaps fifty years, between Ælle of Sussex, the first bretwalda, and Ceawlin.", "The lack of gaps between the overlordships of the later bretwaldas has been used to make an argument for Ceawlin's dates matching the later entries in the ''Chronicle'' with reasonable accuracy.", "According to this analysis, the next bretwalda, Æthelberht of Kent, must have been already a dominant king by the time Pope Gregory the Great wrote to him in 601, since Gregory would have not written to an underking.", "Ceawlin defeated Æthelberht in 568 according to the ''Chronicle''.", "Æthelberht's dates are a matter of debate, but recent scholarly consensus has his reign starting no earlier than 580.The 568 date for the battle at Wibbandun is thought to be unlikely because of the assertion in various versions of the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List that Ceawlin's reign lasted either seven or seventeen years.", "If this battle is placed near the year 590, before Æthelberht had established himself as a powerful king, then the subsequent annals relating to Ceawlin's defeat and death may be reasonably close to the correct date.", "In any case, the battle with Æthelberht is unlikely to have been more than a few years on either side of 590.The gap between Ælle and Ceawlin, on the other hand, has been taken as supporting evidence for the story told by Gildas in ''De Excidio'' of a peace lasting a generation or more following a Briton victory at Mons Badonicus.Æthelberht of Kent succeeds Ceawlin on the list of bretwaldas, but the reigns may overlap somewhat: recent evaluations give Ceawlin a likely reign of 581–588, and place Æthelberht's accession near to the year 589, but these analyses are no more than scholarly guesses.", "Ceawlin's eclipse in 592, probably by Ceol, may have been the occasion for Æthelberht to rise to prominence; Æthelberht very likely was the dominant Anglo-Saxon king by 597.Æthelberht's rise may have been earlier: the 584 annal, even if it records a victory, is the last victory of Ceawlin's in the ''Chronicle'', and the period after that may have been one of Æthelberht's ascent and Ceawlin's decline." ], [ "Wessex at Ceawlin's death", "alt=A map showing England and Wales, with the locations of Celtic and Anglo-Saxon kingdoms marked, and some townsCeawlin lost the throne of Wessex in 592.The annal for that year reads, in part: \"Here there was great slaughter at Woden's Barrow, and Ceawlin was driven out.\"", "Woden's Barrow is a tumulus, now called Adam's Grave, at Alton Priors, Wiltshire.", "No details of his opponent are given.", "The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury, writing in about 1120, says that it was \"the Angles and the British conspiring together\".", "Alternatively, it may have been Ceol, who is supposed to have been the next king of Wessex, ruling for six years according to the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List.", "According to the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', Ceawlin died the following year.", "The relevant part of the annal reads: \"Here Ceawlin and Cwichelm and Crida perished.\"", "Nothing more is known of Cwichelm and Crida, although they may have been members of the Wessex royal house—their names fit the alliterative pattern common to royal houses of the time.According to the Regnal List, Ceol was a son of Cutha, who was a son of Cynric; and Ceolwulf, his brother, reigned for seventeen years after him.", "It is possible that some fragmentation of control among the West Saxons occurred at Ceawlin's death: Ceol and Ceolwulf may have been based in Wiltshire, as opposed to the upper Thames valley.", "This split also may have contributed to Æthelberht's ability to rise to dominance in southern England.", "The West Saxons remained influential in military terms, however: the ''Chronicle'' and Bede record continued military activity against Essex and Sussex within twenty or thirty years of Ceawlin's death." ], [ "See also", "* List of monarchs of Wessex" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "'''Primary sources'''* * '''Secondary sources'''* * * * (2003 edition: )* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * – separate PASE entry for \"Celm\" (Celin ?", "), a variant for Ceawlin found in the genealogical preface of Anglo-Saxon Chronicle texts A and G" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Christchurch (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Christchurch''' is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand.", "'''Christchurch''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Christchurch, New Zealand**Christchurch (New Zealand electorate), a former electorate in New Zealand, also called Town (or City) of Christchurch** Christchurch Central, the current electorate of Christchurch in New Zealand** Christchurch mosque shootings, a 2019 terrorist attack in Christchurch, New Zealand* Christchurch, Cambridgeshire, in England* Christchurch, Dorset, town on the south coast of England** RAF Christchurch, a WW II airfield near the town** Christchurch (UK Parliament constituency), England, centred on the town**Christchurch (Dorset) railway station, a railway station serving the town* Christchurch, Gloucestershire, hamlet in the west of the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire, England* Christchurch, Newport, in Wales* Christchurch, Virginia, United States* Christchurch Mansion, a stately home in Ipswich, Suffolk**Christchurch Park, a park surrounding Christchurch Mansion*Christ Church, Barbados, Barbados*Southwark Christchurch, England" ], [ "Educational institutions", "* Canterbury Christ Church University* Christchurch School, Christchurch, Virginia, U.S.* Christchurch Boys' High School, Christchurch, New Zealand* Christchurch Girls' High School, Christchurch, New Zealand* Christ Church, Oxford* University of Otago Christchurch School of Medicine, one of three medical schools of University of Otago, New Zealand* Christchurch Anglo-Indian Higher Secondary School, Christchurch, Chennai, India" ], [ "Sports teams", "* Christchurch F.C., England* Christchurch United, New Zealand* Christchurch Technical, New Zealand* Christchurch High School Old Boys, New Zealand" ], [ "Other uses", "* Christchurch-Campbell, an automobile made in 1922* ChristChurch London, an evangelic church in London, England* Christchurch, Ilkley, a church in West Yorkshire, England" ], [ "See also", "* Christ Church (disambiguation)* Christ Church Cathedral (disambiguation)* Church of Christ (disambiguation)* Christian Church (disambiguation)* Christchurch railway station (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "CD-R" ], [ "Introduction", "'''CD-R''' ('''Compact disc-recordable''') is a digital optical disc storage format.", "A CD-R disc is a compact disc that can be written once and read arbitrarily many times.CD-R discs (CD-Rs) are readable by most CD readers manufactured prior to the introduction of CD-R, unlike CD-RW discs." ], [ "History", "Assorted CD-RsOriginally named CD Write-Once (WO), the CD-R specification was first published in 1988 by Philips and Sony in the Orange Book, which consists of several parts that provide details of the CD-WO, CD-MO (Magneto-Optic), and later CD-RW (Re Writable).", "The latest editions have abandoned the use of the term ''CD-WO'' in favor of ''CD-R'', while ''CD-MO'' was rarely used.", "Written CD-Rs and CD-RWs are, in the aspect of low-level encoding and data format, fully compatible with the audio CD (''Red Book'' CD-DA) and data CD (''Yellow Book'' CD-ROM) standards.", "The Yellow Book standard for CD-ROM only specifies a high-level data format and refers to the Red Book for all physical format and low-level code details, such as track pitch, linear bit density, and bitstream encoding.", "This means they use Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation, CIRC error correction, and, for CD-ROM, the third error correction layer defined in the Yellow Book.", "Properly written CD-R discs on blanks of less than 80 minutes in length are fully compatible with the audio CD and CD-ROM standards in all details including physical specifications.", "80-minute CD-R discs marginally violate the Red Book physical format specifications, and longer discs are non-compliant.", "CD-RW discs have lower reflectivity than CD-R or pressed (non-writable) CDs and for this reason cannot meet the Red Book standard.", "Some hardware compatible with Red Book CDs may have difficulty reading CD-Rs and, because of their lower reflectivity, especially CD-RWs.", "To the extent that CD hardware can read extended-length discs or CD-RW discs, it is because that hardware has capability beyond the minimum required by the Red Book and Yellow Book standards (the hardware is more capable than it needs to be to bear the Compact Disc logo).CD-R recording systems available in 1990 were similar to the washing machine-sized Meridian CD Publisher, based on the two-piece rack mount Yamaha PDS audio recorder costing $35,000, not including the required external ECC circuitry for data encoding, SCSI hard drive subsystem, and MS-DOS control computer.", "On July 3, 1991, the first recording of a concert directly to CD was made using a Yamaha YPDR 601.The concert was performed by Claudio Baglioni at the Stadio Flaminio in Rome, Italy.", "At that time, it was generally anticipated that recordable CDs would have a lifetime of no more than 10 years.", "However, as of July 2020 the CD from this live recording still plays back with no uncorrectable errors.In the same year, the first company to successfully & professionally duplicate CD-R media was CDRM Recordable Media.", "With quality technical media being limited from Taiyo Yuden, Early CD-R Media used Phthalocyanine dye for duplication, which has a light aqua color.", "By 1992, the cost of typical recorders was down to $10,000–12,000, and in September 1995, Hewlett-Packard introduced its model 4020i manufactured by Philips, which, at $995, was the first recorder to cost less than $1000.As of the 2010s, devices capable of writing to CD-Rs and other types of writable CDs could be found under $20.The dye materials developed by Taiyo Yuden made it possible for CD-R discs to be compatible with Audio CD and CD-ROM discs.In the United States, there is a market separation between \"music\" CD-Rs and \"data\" CD-Rs, the former being notably more expensive than the latter due to industry copyright arrangements with the RIAA.", "Specifically, the price of every music CD-R includes a mandatory royalty disbursed to RIAA members by the disc manufacturer; this grants the disc an \"application flag\" indicating that the royalty has been paid.", "Consumer standalone music recorders refuse to burn CD-Rs that are missing this flag.", "Professional CD recorders are not subject to this restriction and can record music to data discs.", "The two types of discs are functionally and physically identical other than this, and computer CD burners can record data and/or music to either.", "New music CD-Rs are still being manufactured as of the late 2010s, although demand for them has declined as CD-based music recorders have been supplanted by other devices incorporating the same or similar functionality.Prior to CD-R, Tandy Corporation had announced a rewritable CD system known as the Tandy High-Density Optical Recording (THOR) system, claiming to offer support for erasable and rewritable discs, made possible by a \"secret coating material\" on which Tandy had applied for patents, and reportedly based partly on a process developed by Optical Data Inc., with research and development undertaken at Tandy's Magnetic Media Research Center.", "Known also as the Tandy High-Intensity Optical Recording system, THOR-CD media was intended to be playable in existing CD players, being compatible with existing CD audio and CD-ROM equipment, with the discs themselves employing a layer in which the \"marks\", \"bumps\" or \"pits\" readable by a conventional CD player could be established in, and removed from, the medium by a laser operating at a different frequency.", "Tandy's announcement was surprising enough to \"catch half a dozen industries off guard\", claiming availability of consumer-level audio and video products below $500 by the end of 1990, and inviting other organisations to license the technology.", "The announcement attracted enthusiasm but also skepticism of Tandy's capability to deliver the system, with the latter proving to be justified, the technology having been \"announced... heavily promoted; then it was delayed, and finally, it just never appeared\"." ], [ "Physical characteristics", "Isolated data layer of a CD-RThis graphic demonstrates some of the visible features of a CD-R, including the lead-in, program area, and lead-out.", "A microscopic spiral of digital information begins near the disc's center and progresses toward the edge.", "The end of the data region and the lead-out can actually be anywhere, depending on how much data is recorded.", "Data-free areas of the disc and silent portions of the spiral reflect light differently, sometimes allowing track boundaries to be seenA standard CD-R is a thick disc made of polycarbonate about 120 mm (5\") in diameter.", "The 120 mm (5\") disc has a storage capacity of 74 minutes of audio or 650 Megabytes (MBs) of data.", "CD-R/RWs are available with capacities of 80 minutes of audio or 737,280,000 bytes (700 MB), which they achieve by molding the disc at the tightest allowable tolerances specified in the Orange Book CD-R/CD-RW standards.", "The engineering margin that was reserved for manufacturing tolerance has been used for data capacity instead, leaving no tolerance for manufacturing; for these discs to be truly compliant with the Orange Book standard, the manufacturing process must be perfect.Despite the foregoing, most CD-Rs on the market have an 80-minute capacity.", "There are also 90 minute/790 MB and 99 minute/870 MB discs, although they are less common and depart from the Orange Book standard.", "Due to the limitations of the data structures in the ATIP, 90 and 99-minute blanks will identify as 80-minute ones.", "As the ATIP is part of the Orange Book standard, its design does not support some nonstandard disc configurations.", "In order to use the additional capacity, these discs have to be burned using overburn options in the CD recording software.", "Overburning itself is so named because it is outside the written standards, but, due to market demand, it has nonetheless become a de facto standard function in most CD writing drives and software for them.Some drives use special techniques, such as Plextor's GigaRec or Sanyo's HD-BURN, to write more data onto a given disc; these techniques are deviations from the compact disc (Red, Yellow, and/or Orange Book) standards, making the recorded discs proprietary-formatted and not fully compatible with standard CD players and drives.", "In certain applications where discs will not be distributed or exchanged outside a private group and will not be archived for a long time, a proprietary format may be an acceptable way to obtain greater capacity (up to 1.2 GB with GigaRec or 1.8 GB with HD-BURN on 99-minute media).", "The greatest risk in using such a proprietary data storage format, assuming that it works reliably as designed, is that it may be difficult or impossible to repair or replace the hardware used to read the media if it fails, is damaged, or is lost after its original vendor discontinues it.Nothing in the Red, Yellow, or Orange Book standards prohibits disc reading/writing devices from having the capacity to read/write discs beyond the compact disc standards.", "The standards do require discs to meet precise requirements in order to be called compact discs, but the other discs may be called by other names; if this were not true, no DVD drive could legally bear the compact disc logo.", "While disc players and drives may have capabilities beyond the standards, enabling them to read and write nonstandard discs, there is no assurance, in the absence of explicit additional manufacturer specifications beyond normal compact disc logo certification, that any particular player or drive will perform beyond the standards at all or consistently.", "If the same device with no explicit performance specs beyond the compact disc logo initially handles nonstandard discs reliably, there is no assurance that it will not later stop doing so, and in that case, there is no assurance that it can be made to do so again by service or adjustment.", "Discs with capacities larger than 650 MB, and especially those larger than 700 MB, are less interchangeable among players/drives than standard discs and are not very suitable for archival use, as their readability on future equipment, or even on the same equipment at a future time, is not assured unless specifically tested and certified in that combination, even under the assumption that the discs will not degrade at all.Photomicrograph of the groove in a CD-R discThe polycarbonate disc contains a spiral groove, called the pregroove because it is molded in before data are written to the disc; it guides the laser beam upon writing and reading information.", "The pregroove is molded into the top side of the polycarbonate disc, where the pits and lands would be molded if it were a pressed, nonrecordable Red Book CD.", "The bottom side, which faces the laser beam in the player or drive, is flat and smooth.", "The polycarbonate disc is coated on the pregroove side with a very thin layer of organic dye.", "Then, on top of the dye is coated a thin, reflecting layer of silver, a silver alloy, or gold.", "Finally, a protective coating of a photo-polymerizable lacquer is applied on top of the metal reflector and cured with UV light.A blank CD-R is not \"empty\"; the pregroove has a wobble (the ATIP), which helps the writing laser to stay on track and to write the data to the disc at a constant rate.", "Maintaining a constant rate is essential to ensure the proper size and spacing of the pits and lands burned into the dye layer.", "As well as providing timing information, the ATIP (absolute time in pregroove) is also a data track containing information about the CD-R manufacturer, the dye used, and media information (disc length and so on).", "The pregroove is not destroyed when the data are written to the CD-R, a point which some copy protection schemes use to distinguish copies from an original CD.=== Dyes ===There are three basic formulations of dye used in CD-Rs:# Cyanine dye CD-Rs were the earliest ones developed, and their formulation is patented by Taiyo Yuden.", "CD-Rs based on this dye are mostly green in color.", "The earlier models were very chemically unstable and this made cyanine-based discs unsuitable for archival use; they could fade and become unreadable in a few years.", "Many manufacturers like Taiyo Yuden use proprietary chemical additives, typically a metal atom bonded to the cyanine molecule, to make more stable cyanine discs (\"metal-stabilized Cyanine\", \"Super Cyanine\").", "Older cyanine dye-based CD-Rs, as well as all the hybrid dyes based on cyanine, are very sensitive to UV-rays and can become unreadable after only a few days if they were exposed to direct sunlight.", "Although the additives used have made cyanine more stable, it is still the most sensitive of the dyes in UV rays (showing signs of degradation within a week of direct sunlight exposure).", "A common mistake users make is to leave the CD-Rs with the \"clear\" (recording) surface upwards, in order to protect it from scratches, as this lets the sun hit the recording surface directly.# Phthalocyanine dye CD-Rs are usually silver, gold, or light green.", "The patents on phthalocyanine CD-Rs are held by Mitsui and Ciba Specialty Chemicals.", "Phthalocyanine is a natively stable dye (has no need for stabilizers) and CD-Rs based on this are often given a rated lifetime of hundreds of years.", "Unlike cyanine, phthalocyanine is more resistant to UV rays, and CD-Rs based on this dye show signs of degradation only after two weeks of direct sunlight exposure.", "However, phthalocyanine is more sensitive than cyanine to writing laser power calibration, meaning that the power level used by the writing laser has to be more accurately adjusted for the disc in order to get a good recording; this may erode the benefits of dye stability, as marginally written discs (with higher correctable error rates) will lose data (i.e.", "have uncorrectable errors) after less dye degradation than well-written discs (with lower correctable error rates).# Azo dye CD-Rs are dark blue in color, and their formulation is patented by Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation.", "Azo dyes are also chemically stable, and Azo CD-Rs are typically rated with a lifetime of decades.", "Azo is the most resistant dye against UV light and begins to degrade only after the third or fourth week of direct sunlight exposure.", "More modern implementations of this kind of dye include Super Azo which is not as deep blue as the earlier Metal Azo.", "This change of composition was necessary in order to achieve higher writing speeds.There are many hybrid variations of the dye formulations, such as Formazan by Kodak (a hybrid of cyanine and phthalocyanine).Many manufacturers have added additional coloring to disguise their unstable cyanine CD-Rs in the past, so the formulation of a disc cannot be determined based purely on its color.", "Similarly, a gold reflective layer does not guarantee the use of phthalocyanine dye.", "The quality of the disc is also not only dependent on the dye used, it is also influenced by sealing, the top layer, the reflective layer, and the polycarbonate.", "Simply choosing a disc based on its dye type may be problematic.", "Furthermore, correct power calibration of the laser in the writer, as well as correct timing of the laser pulses, stable disc speed, and so on, is critical to not only the immediate readability but the longevity of the recorded disc, so for archiving it is important to have not only a high-quality disc but a high-quality writer.", "In fact, a high-quality writer may produce adequate results with medium-quality media, but high-quality media cannot compensate for a mediocre writer, and discs written by such a writer cannot achieve their maximum potential archival lifetime." ], [ "Speed", "Data writing speedData writing rateWrite time for 80 minute/700 MB CD-R1×150 kB/s80 minutes2×300 kB/s40 minutes4×600 kB/s20 minutes8×1.2 MB/s10 minutes12×1.8 MB/s7 minutes16×2.4 MB/s5 minutes20×3.0 MB/s4 minutes24×3.6 MB/s3.4 minutes (see below)32×4.8 MB/s2.5 minutes (see below)40×6.0 MB/s2 minutes (see below)48×7.2 MB/s1.7 minutes (see below)52×7.8 MB/s1.5 minutes (see below)These times only include the actual optical writing pass over the disc.", "For most disc recording operations, additional time is used for overhead processes, such as organizing the files and tracks, which adds to the theoretical minimum total time required to produce a disc.", "(An exception might be making a disc from a prepared ISO image, for which the overhead would likely be trivial.)", "At the lowest write speeds, this overhead takes so much less time than the actual disc writing pass that it may be negligible, but at higher write speeds, the overhead time becomes a larger proportion of the overall time taken to produce a finished disc and may add significantly to it.Also, above 20× speed, drives use a Zoned-CLV or CAV strategy, where the advertised maximum speed is only reached near the outer rim of the disc.", "This is not taken into account by the above table.", "(If this were not done, the faster rotation that would be required at the inner tracks could cause the disc to fracture and/or could cause excessive vibration which would make accurate and successful writing impossible.)" ], [ "Writing methods", "The blank disc has a pre-groove track onto which the data are written.", "The pre-groove track, which also contains timing information, ensures that the recorder follows the same spiral path as a conventional CD.", "A CD recorder writes data to a CD-R disc by pulsing its laser to heat areas of the organic dye layer.", "The writing process does not produce indentations (pits); instead, the heat permanently changes the optical properties of the dye, changing the reflectivity of those areas.", "Using a low power laser, so as not to further alter the dye, the disc is read back in the same way as a CD-ROM.", "However, the reflected light is modulated not by pits, but by the alternating regions of heated and unaltered dye.", "The change of the intensity of the reflected laser radiation is transformed into an electrical signal, from which the digital information is recovered (\"decoded\").", "Once a section of a CD-R is written, it cannot be erased or rewritten, unlike a CD-RW.", "A CD-R can be recorded in multiple sessions.A CD recorder can write to a CD-R using several methods including:# Disc At Once – the whole CD-R is written in one session with no gaps and the disc is \"closed\" meaning no more data can be added and the CD-R effectively becomes a standard read-only CD.", "With no gaps between the tracks, the Disc At Once format is useful for \"live\" audio recordings.# Track At Once – data are written to the CD-R one track at a time but the CD is left \"open\" for further recording at a later stage.", "It also allows data and audio to reside on the same CD-R.# Packet Writing – used to record data to a CD-R in \"packets\", allowing extra information to be appended to a disc at a later time, or for information on the disc to be made \"invisible\".", "In this way, CD-R can emulate CD-RW; however, each time information on the disc is altered, more data has to be written to the disc.", "There can be compatibility issues with this format and some CD drives.With careful examination, the written and unwritten areas can be distinguished by the naked eye.", "CD-Rs are written from the center outwards, so the written area appears as an inner band with slightly different shading.CDs have a Power Calibration Area, used to calibrate the writing laser before and during recording.", "CDs contain two such areas: one close to the inner edge of the disc, for low-speed calibration, and another on the outer edge on the disc, for high-speed calibration.", "The calibration results are recorded on a Recording Management Area (RMA) that can hold up to 99 calibrations.", "The disc cannot be written after the RMA is full, however, the RMA may be emptied in CD-RW discs." ], [ "Lifespan", "An example of a CD-R burned in 2000 showing dye degradation in 2008.Part of the data on it has been lost.Real-life (not accelerated aging) tests have revealed that some CD-Rs degrade quickly even if stored normally.", "The quality of a CD-R disc has a large and direct influence on longevity—low-quality discs should not be expected to last very long.", "According to research conducted by J. Perdereau, CD-Rs are expected to have an average life expectancy of 10 years.", "Branding is not a reliable guide to quality, because many brands (major as well as no name) do not manufacture their own discs.", "Instead, they are sourced from different manufacturers of varying quality.", "For best results, the actual manufacturer and material components of each batch of discs should be verified.Burned CD-Rs suffer from material degradation, just like most writable media.", "CD-R media have an internal layer of dye used to store data.", "In a CD-RW disc, the recording layer is made of an alloy of silver and other metals—indium, antimony, and tellurium.", "In CD-R media, the dye itself can degrade, causing data to become unreadable.As well as degradation of the dye, failure of a CD-R can be due to the reflective surface.", "While silver is less expensive and more widely used, it is more prone to oxidation resulting in a non-reflecting surface.", "Gold on the other hand, although more expensive and no longer widely used, is an inert material, so gold-based CD-Rs do not suffer from this problem.", "Manufacturers have estimated the longevity of gold-based CD-Rs to be as high as 100 years.By measuring the rate of correctable data errors, the data integrity and/or manufacturing quality of CD-R media can be measured, allowing for a reliable prediction of future data losses caused by media degradation." ], [ "Labeling", "It is recommended if using adhesive-backed paper labels that the labels be specially made for CD-Rs.", "A balanced CD vibrates only slightly when rotated at high speed.", "Bad or improperly made labels, or labels applied off-center, unbalance the CD and can cause it to vibrate when it spins, which causes read errors and even risks damaging the drive.A professional alternative to CD labels is pre-printed CDs using a 5-color silkscreen or offset press.", "Using a permanent marker pen is also a common practice.", "However, solvents from such pens can affect the dye layer." ], [ "Disposal", "===Data confidentiality===Since CD-Rs, in general, cannot be logically erased to any degree, the disposal of CD-Rs presents a possible security issue if they contain sensitive/private data.", "Destroying the data requires physically destroying the disc or data layer.", "Heating the disc in a microwave oven for 10–15 seconds effectively destroys the data layer by causing arcing in the metal reflective layer, but this same arcing may cause damage or excessive wear to the microwave oven.", "Many office paper shredders are also designed to shred CDs.Some recent burners (Plextor, LiteOn) support erase operations on -R media, by \"overwriting\" the stored data with strong laser power, although the erased area cannot be overwritten with new data.===Recycling===The polycarbonate material and possible gold or silver in the reflective layer would make CD-Rs highly recyclable.", "However, the polycarbonate is of very little value and the quantity of precious metals is so small that it is not profitable to recover them.", "Consequently, recyclers that accept CD-Rs typically do not offer compensation for donating or transporting the materials." ], [ "See also", "* Absolute Time In Pregroove* Blu-ray Disc* CD recorder* CD-R caddy* CD-ROM, GD-ROM* CD-RW, DVD-RW* DVD, DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD+R DL* HD DVD* Labelflash* LightScribe* MultiLevel Recording, an obsolete technology (with non-binary modulation)* Optical disc authoring* Rainbow Books* GD-ROM* MIL-CD* List of optical disc manufacturers" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ECMA-394: Recordable Compact Disc Systems CD-R Multi-Speed (standardized Orange Book, Part II, Volume 2)* The CD-R FAQ* Understanding CD-R & CD-RW at the Optical Storage Technology Association site." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cytosol" ], [ "Introduction", "The cytosol is a crowded solution of many different types of molecules that occupy up to 30% of the cytoplasmic volume.The '''cytosol''', also known as '''cytoplasmic matrix''' or '''groundplasm''', is one of the liquids found inside cells (intracellular fluid (ICF)).", "It is separated into compartments by membranes.", "For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondrion into many compartments.In the eukaryotic cell, the cytosol is surrounded by the cell membrane and is part of the cytoplasm, which also comprises the mitochondria, plastids, and other organelles (but not their internal fluids and structures); the cell nucleus is separate.", "The cytosol is thus a liquid matrix around the organelles.", "In prokaryotes, most of the chemical reactions of metabolism take place in the cytosol, while a few take place in membranes or in the periplasmic space.", "In eukaryotes, while many metabolic pathways still occur in the cytosol, others take place within organelles.The cytosol is a complex mixture of substances dissolved in water.", "Although water forms the large majority of the cytosol, its structure and properties within cells is not well understood.", "The concentrations of ions such as sodium and potassium in the cytosol are different to those in the extracellular fluid; these differences in ion levels are important in processes such as osmoregulation, cell signaling, and the generation of action potentials in excitable cells such as endocrine, nerve and muscle cells.", "The cytosol also contains large amounts of macromolecules, which can alter how molecules behave, through macromolecular crowding.Although it was once thought to be a simple solution of molecules, the cytosol has multiple levels of organization.", "These include concentration gradients of small molecules such as calcium, large complexes of enzymes that act together and take part in metabolic pathways, and protein complexes such as proteasomes and carboxysomes that enclose and separate parts of the cytosol." ], [ "Definition", "The term \"cytosol\" was first introduced in 1965 by H. A. Lardy, and initially referred to the liquid that was produced by breaking cells apart and pelleting all the insoluble components by ultracentrifugation.", "Such a soluble cell extract is not identical to the soluble part of the cell cytoplasm and is usually called a cytoplasmic fraction.The term ''cytosol'' is now used to refer to the liquid phase of the cytoplasm in an intact cell.", "This excludes any part of the cytoplasm that is contained within organelles.", "Due to the possibility of confusion between the use of the word \"cytosol\" to refer to both extracts of cells and the soluble part of the cytoplasm in intact cells, the phrase \"aqueous cytoplasm\" has been used to describe the liquid contents of the cytoplasm of living cells.Prior to this, other terms, including '''hyaloplasm''', were used for the cell fluid, not always synonymously, as its nature was not well understood (see protoplasm)." ], [ "Properties and composition", "Intracellular fluid content in humansThe proportion of cell volume that is cytosol varies: for example while this compartment forms the bulk of cell structure in bacteria, in plant cells the main compartment is the large central vacuole.", "The cytosol consists mostly of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as proteins).", "The majority of these non-protein molecules have a molecular mass of less than 300 Da.", "This mixture of small molecules is extraordinarily complex, as the variety of molecules that are involved in metabolism (the metabolites) is immense.", "For example, up to 200,000 different small molecules might be made in plants, although not all these will be present in the same species, or in a single cell.", "Estimates of the number of metabolites in single cells such as ''E.", "coli'' and baker's yeast predict that under 1,000 are made.===Water===Most of the cytosol is water, which makes up about 70% of the total volume of a typical cell.", "The pH of the intracellular fluid is 7.4.while human cytosolic pH ranges between 7.0–7.4, and is usually higher if a cell is growing.", "The viscosity of cytoplasm is roughly the same as pure water, although diffusion of small molecules through this liquid is about fourfold slower than in pure water, due mostly to collisions with the large numbers of macromolecules in the cytosol.", "Studies in the brine shrimp have examined how water affects cell functions; these saw that a 20% reduction in the amount of water in a cell inhibits metabolism, with metabolism decreasing progressively as the cell dries out and all metabolic activity halting when the water level reaches 70% below normal.Although water is vital for life, the structure of this water in the cytosol is not well understood, mostly because methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy only give information on the average structure of water, and cannot measure local variations at the microscopic scale.", "Even the structure of pure water is poorly understood, due to the ability of water to form structures such as water clusters through hydrogen bonds.The classic view of water in cells is that about 5% of this water is strongly bound in by solutes or macromolecules as water of solvation, while the majority has the same structure as pure water.", "This water of solvation is not active in osmosis and may have different solvent properties, so that some dissolved molecules are excluded, while others become concentrated.", "However, others argue that the effects of the high concentrations of macromolecules in cells extend throughout the cytosol and that water in cells behaves very differently from the water in dilute solutions.", "These ideas include the proposal that cells contain zones of low and high-density water, which could have widespread effects on the structures and functions of the other parts of the cell.", "However, the use of advanced nuclear magnetic resonance methods to directly measure the mobility of water in living cells contradicts this idea, as it suggests that 85% of cell water acts like that pure water, while the remainder is less mobile and probably bound to macromolecules.===Ions===The concentrations of the other ions in cytosol are quite different from those in extracellular fluid and the cytosol also contains much higher amounts of charged macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids than the outside of the cell structure.+ Typical ion concentrations in mammalian cytosol and plasma.", "Ion Concentration (millimolar) In cytosol In plasma Potassium 139–150 4 Sodium 12 145 Chloride 4 116 Bicarbonate 12 29 Amino acids in proteins 138 9 Magnesium 0.8 1.5 Calcium <0.0002 1.8In contrast to extracellular fluid, cytosol has a high concentration of potassium ions and a low concentration of sodium ions.", "This difference in ion concentrations is critical for osmoregulation, since if the ion levels were the same inside a cell as outside, water would enter constantly by osmosis - since the levels of macromolecules inside cells are higher than their levels outside.", "Instead, sodium ions are expelled and potassium ions taken up by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, potassium ions then flow down their concentration gradient through potassium-selection ion channels, this loss of positive charge creates a negative membrane potential.", "To balance this potential difference, negative chloride ions also exit the cell, through selective chloride channels.", "The loss of sodium and chloride ions compensates for the osmotic effect of the higher concentration of organic molecules inside the cell.Cells can deal with even larger osmotic changes by accumulating osmoprotectants such as betaines or trehalose in their cytosol.", "Some of these molecules can allow cells to survive being completely dried out and allow an organism to enter a state of suspended animation called cryptobiosis.", "In this state the cytosol and osmoprotectants become a glass-like solid that helps stabilize proteins and cell membranes from the damaging effects of desiccation.The low concentration of calcium in the cytosol allows calcium ions to function as a second messenger in calcium signaling.", "Here, a signal such as a hormone or an action potential opens calcium channel so that calcium floods into the cytosol.", "This sudden increase in cytosolic calcium activates other signalling molecules, such as calmodulin and protein kinase C. Other ions such as chloride and potassium may also have signaling functions in the cytosol, but these are not well understood.===Macromolecules===Protein molecules that do not bind to cell membranes or the cytoskeleton are dissolved in the cytosol.", "The amount of protein in cells is extremely high, and approaches 200 mg/ml, occupying about 20–30% of the volume of the cytosol.", "However, measuring precisely how much protein is dissolved in cytosol in intact cells is difficult, since some proteins appear to be weakly associated with membranes or organelles in whole cells and are released into solution upon cell lysis.", "Indeed, in experiments where the plasma membrane of cells were carefully disrupted using saponin, without damaging the other cell membranes, only about one quarter of cell protein was released.", "These cells were also able to synthesize proteins if given ATP and amino acids, implying that many of the enzymes in cytosol are bound to the cytoskeleton.", "However, the idea that the majority of the proteins in cells are tightly bound in a network called the microtrabecular lattice is now seen as unlikely.In prokaryotes the cytosol contains the cell's genome, within a structure known as a nucleoid.", "This is an irregular mass of DNA and associated proteins that control the transcription and replication of the bacterial chromosome and plasmids.", "In eukaryotes the genome is held within the cell nucleus, which is separated from the cytosol by nuclear pores that block the free diffusion of any molecule larger than about 10 nanometres in diameter.This high concentration of macromolecules in cytosol causes an effect called macromolecular crowding, which is when the effective concentration of other macromolecules is increased, since they have less volume to move in.", "This crowding effect can produce large changes in both the rates and the position of chemical equilibrium of reactions in the cytosol.", "It is particularly important in its ability to alter dissociation constants by favoring the association of macromolecules, such as when multiple proteins come together to form protein complexes, or when DNA-binding proteins bind to their targets in the genome." ], [ "Organization", "Although the components of the cytosol are not separated into regions by cell membranes, these components do not always mix randomly and several levels of organization can localize specific molecules to defined sites within the cytosol.===Concentration gradients===Although small molecules diffuse rapidly in the cytosol, concentration gradients can still be produced within this compartment.", "A well-studied example of these are the \"calcium sparks\" that are produced for a short period in the region around an open calcium channel.", "These are about 2 micrometres in diameter and last for only a few milliseconds, although several sparks can merge to form larger gradients, called \"calcium waves\".", "Concentration gradients of other small molecules, such as oxygen and adenosine triphosphate may be produced in cells around clusters of mitochondria, although these are less well understood.===Protein complexes===Proteins can associate to form protein complexes, these often contain a set of proteins with similar functions, such as enzymes that carry out several steps in the same metabolic pathway.", "This organization can allow substrate channeling, which is when the product of one enzyme is passed directly to the next enzyme in a pathway without being released into solution.", "Channeling can make a pathway more rapid and efficient than it would be if the enzymes were randomly distributed in the cytosol, and can also prevent the release of unstable reaction intermediates.", "Although a wide variety of metabolic pathways involve enzymes that are tightly bound to each other, others may involve more loosely associated complexes that are very difficult to study outside the cell.", "Consequently, the importance of these complexes for metabolism in general remains unclear.Carboxysomes are protein-enclosed bacterial microcompartments within the cytosol.", "On the left is an electron microscope image of carboxysomes, and on the right a model of their structure.===Protein compartments===Some protein complexes contain a large central cavity that is isolated from the remainder of the cytosol.", "One example of such an enclosed compartment is the proteasome.", "Here, a set of subunits form a hollow barrel containing proteases that degrade cytosolic proteins.", "Since these would be damaging if they mixed freely with the remainder of the cytosol, the barrel is capped by a set of regulatory proteins that recognize proteins with a signal directing them for degradation (a ubiquitin tag) and feed them into the proteolytic cavity.Another large class of protein compartments are bacterial microcompartments, which are made of a protein shell that encapsulates various enzymes.", "These compartments are typically about 100–200 nanometres across and made of interlocking proteins.", "A well-understood example is the carboxysome, which contains enzymes involved in carbon fixation such as RuBisCO.===Biomolecular condensates===Non-membrane bound organelles can form as biomolecular condensates, which arise by clustering, oligomerisation, or polymerisation of macromolecules to drive colloidal phase separation of the cytoplasm or nucleus.===Cytoskeletal sieving===Although the cytoskeleton is not part of the cytosol, the presence of this network of filaments restricts the diffusion of large particles in the cell.", "For example, in several studies tracer particles larger than about 25 nanometres (about the size of a ribosome) were excluded from parts of the cytosol around the edges of the cell and next to the nucleus.", "These \"excluding compartments\" may contain a much denser meshwork of actin fibres than the remainder of the cytosol.", "These microdomains could influence the distribution of large structures such as ribosomes and organelles within the cytosol by excluding them from some areas and concentrating them in others." ], [ "Function", "The cytosol is the site of multiple cell processes.", "Examples of these processes include signal transduction from the cell membrane to sites within the cell, such as the cell nucleus, or organelles.", "This compartment is also the site of many of the processes of cytokinesis, after the breakdown of the nuclear membrane in mitosis.", "Another major function of cytosol is to transport metabolites from their site of production to where they are used.", "This is relatively simple for water-soluble molecules, such as amino acids, which can diffuse rapidly through the cytosol.", "However, hydrophobic molecules, such as fatty acids or sterols, can be transported through the cytosol by specific binding proteins, which shuttle these molecules between cell membranes.", "Molecules taken into the cell by endocytosis or on their way to be secreted can also be transported through the cytosol inside vesicles, which are small spheres of lipids that are moved along the cytoskeleton by motor proteins.The cytosol is the site of most metabolism in prokaryotes, and a large proportion of the metabolism of eukaryotes.", "For instance, in mammals about half of the proteins in the cell are localized to the cytosol.", "The most complete data are available in yeast, where metabolic reconstructions indicate that the majority of both metabolic processes and metabolites occur in the cytosol.", "Major metabolic pathways that occur in the cytosol in animals are protein biosynthesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.", "The localization of pathways can be different in other organisms, for instance fatty acid synthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plants and in apicoplasts in apicomplexa." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Compound" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Compound''' may refer to:" ], [ "Architecture and built environments", "* Compound (enclosure), a cluster of buildings having a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall** Compound (fortification), a version of the above fortified with defensive structures* Compound (migrant labour), a hostel for migrant workers such as those historically connected with mines in South Africa* The Compound, an area of Palm Bay, Florida, US* Komboni or compound, a type of slum in Zambia" ], [ "Government and law", "* Composition (fine), a legal procedure in use after the English Civil War** Committee for Compounding with Delinquents, an English Civil War institution that allowed Parliament to compound the estates of Royalists* Compounding treason, an offence under the common law of England* Compounding a felony, a previous offense under the common law of England" ], [ "Linguistics", "* Compound (linguistics), a word that consists of more than one radical element* Compound sentence (linguistics), a type of sentence made up of two or more independent clauses and no subordinate (dependent) clauses" ], [ "Science, technology, and mathematics", "===Biology and medicine===* Compounding, the mixing of drugs in pharmacy* Compound fracture, a complete fractures of bone where at least one fragment has damaged the skin, soft tissue or surrounding body cavity* Compound leaf, a type of leaf being divided into smaller leaflets===Chemistry and materials science===* Chemical compound, combination of two or more elements* Plastic compounding, a method of preparing plastic formulations===Vehicles and engines===* Compound engine, a steam engine in which steam is expanded through a series of two or three cylinders before exhaust* Turbo-compound engine, an internal combustion engine where exhaust gases expand through power-turbines* Compounding pressure, a method in which pressure in a steam turbine is made to drop in a number of stages===Other uses in science, technology, and mathematics===* Compound bow, a type of bow for archery* Polyhedral compound, a polyhedron composed of multiple polyhedra sharing the same centre" ], [ "Other uses", "===Common names===* Compound (music), an attribute of a time signature* Compound interest, in finance, unpaid interest that is added to the principal* Compound chocolate, an inexpensive chocolate substitute that uses cocoa but excludes cocoa butter===Proper names===* ''The Compound'' (book), a 2008 young adult novel by S. A. Bodeen* Compound (company), a venture capital firm previously known as Metamorphic Ventures* Eisenhuth Horseless Vehicle Company, or Compound, a former US automobile manufacturer" ], [ "See also", "* Compound operation (disambiguation)* Composite (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Citizenship" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Citizenship''' is a membership and allegiance to a sovereign state.Though citizenship is often legally conflated with nationality in today's Anglo-Saxon world, international law does not usually use the term citizenship to refer to nationality, these two notions being conceptually different dimensions of collective membership.Generally citizenships have no expiration and allow persons to work, reside and vote in the polity, as well as identify with the polity, possibly acquiring a passport.", "Though through discriminatory laws, like disfranchisement and outright apartheid citizens have been made second-class citizens.", "Historically, populations of states were mostly subjects, while citizenship was a particular status which originated in the rights of urban populations, like the rights of the male public of cities and republics, particularly ancient city-states, giving rise to a civitas and the social class of the burgher or bourgeoisie.", "Since then states have expanded the status of citizenship to most of their national people, while the extent of citizen rights remain contested." ], [ "Definition" ], [ "Determining factors", "A person can be recognized as a citizen on a number of bases.", "* Nationality.", "Nationality and citizenship are generally indissociable, citizenship being in most cases a consequence of nationality.", "* Place of residence.", "In some countries, foreign residents have citizenship rights and can vote.", "* Citizenship by honorary conferment.", "This type of citizenship is conferred to an individual as a sign of honour.", "* Excluded categories.", "In most countries, minors are not considered as full citizens.", "In the past, there have been exclusions on entitlement to citizenship on grounds such as skin color, ethnicity, sex, land ownership status, and free status (not being a slave).", "Most of these exclusions no longer apply in most places.", "Modern examples include some Gulf countries which rarely grant citizenship to non-Muslims, e.g.", "Qatar is known for granting citizenship to foreign athletes, but they all have to profess the Islamic faith in order to receive citizenship.", "The United States grants citizenship to those born as a result of reproductive technologies, and internationally adopted children born after February 27, 1983.Some exclusions still persist for internationally adopted children born before February 27, 1983, even though their parents meet citizenship criteria.=== Responsibilities of a citizen ===Every citizen has obligations that are required by law and some responsibilities that benefit the community.", "Obeying the laws of a country and paying taxes are some of the obligations required of citizens by law.", "Voting and community services form part of responsibilities of a citizen that benefits the community.The Constitution of Ghana (1992), Article 41, obligates citizens to promote the prestige and good name of Ghana and respect the symbols of Ghana.", "Examples of national symbols includes the Ghanaian flag, coat of arms, money, and state sword.", "These national symbols must be treated with respect and high esteem by citizens since they best represent Ghanaians.Apart from responsibilities, citizens also have rights.", "Some of the rights are the right to pursue life, liberty and happiness, the right to worship, right to run for elected office and right to express oneself.=== ''Polis'' ===Many thinkers such as Giorgio Agamben in his work extending the biopolitical framework of Foucault's History of Sexuality in the book, ''Homo Sacer'', point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states of ancient Greece, although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years and, for humanity, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first laws.", "''Polis'' meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society.", "Citizenship concept has generally been identified as a western phenomenon.", "There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny.", "The relation of citizenship has not been a fixed or static relation but constantly changed within each society, and that according to one view, citizenship might \"really have worked\" only at select periods during certain times, such as when the Athenian politician Solon made reforms in the early Athenian state.", "Citizenship was also contingent on a variety of biopolitical assemblages, such as the bioethics of emerging Theo-Philosophical traditions.", "It was necessary to fit Aristotle's definition of the besouled (the animate) to obtain citizenship: neither the sacred olive tree nor spring would have any rights.An essential part of the framework of Greco-Roman ethics is the figure of ''Homo Sacer'' or the bare life.Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 ''Modern Scholar'' lecture course suggested that citizenship in ancient Greece arose from an appreciation for the importance of freedom.", "Hosking explained:Geoffrey Hosking suggests that fear of being enslaved was a central motivating force for the development of the Greek sense of citizenship.", "Sculpture: a Greek woman being served by a slave-child.Slavery permitted slave-owners to have substantial free time and enabled participation in public life.", "Polis citizenship was marked by exclusivity.", "Inequality of status was widespread; citizens (πολίτης ''politēs'' < πόλις 'city') had a higher status than non-citizens, such as women, slaves, and resident foreigners (metics).", "The first form of citizenship was based on the way people lived in the ancient Greek times, in small-scale organic communities of the polis.", "The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected to one's everyday life in the polis.", "These small-scale organic communities were generally seen as a new development in world history, in contrast to the established ancient civilizations of Egypt or Persia, or the hunter-gatherer bands elsewhere.", "From the viewpoint of the ancient Greeks, a person's public life could not be separated from their private life, and Greeks did not distinguish between the two worlds according to the modern western conception.", "The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected with everyday life.", "To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which Aristotle famously expressed: \"To take no part in the running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god!\"", "This form of citizenship was based on the obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to the citizens of the community.", "This was not a problem because they all had a strong affinity with the polis; their own destiny and the destiny of the community were strongly linked.", "Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to be virtuous, it was a source of honor and respect.", "In Athens, citizens were both rulers and ruled, important political and judicial offices were rotated and all citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly.===Roman ideas===In the Roman Empire, citizenship expanded from small-scale communities to the entirety of the empire.", "Romans realized that granting citizenship to people from all over the empire legitimized Roman rule over conquered areas.", "Roman citizenship was no longer a status of political agency, as it had been reduced to a judicial safeguard and the expression of rule and law.", "Rome carried forth Greek ideas of citizenship such as the principles of equality under the law, civic participation in government, and notions that \"no one citizen should have too much power for too long\", but Rome offered relatively generous terms to its captives, including chances for lesser forms of citizenship.", "If Greek citizenship was an \"emancipation from the world of things\", the Roman sense increasingly reflected the fact that citizens could act upon material things as well as other citizens, in the sense of buying or selling property, possessions, titles, goods.", "One historian explained:Roman citizenship reflected a struggle between the upper-class patrician interests against the lower-order working groups known as the plebeian class.", "A citizen came to be understood as a person \"free to act by law, free to ask and expect the law's protection, a citizen of such and such a legal community, of such and such a legal standing in that community\".", "Citizenship meant having rights to have possessions, immunities, expectations, which were \"available in many kinds and degrees, available or unavailable to many kinds of person for many kinds of reason\".", "The law itself was a kind of bond uniting people.", "Roman citizenship was more impersonal, universal, multiform, having different degrees and applications.===Middle Ages===During the European Middle Ages, citizenship was usually associated with cities and towns (see medieval commune), and applied mainly to middle-class folk.", "Titles such as burgher, grand burgher (German ''Großbürger'') and the bourgeoisie denoted political affiliation and identity in relation to a particular locality, as well as membership in a mercantile or trading class; thus, individuals of respectable means and socioeconomic status were interchangeable with citizens.During this era, members of the nobility had a range of privileges above commoners (see aristocracy), though political upheavals and reforms, beginning most prominently with the French Revolution, abolished privileges and created an egalitarian concept of citizenship.===Renaissance=== During the Renaissance, people transitioned from being subjects of a king or queen to being citizens of a city and later to a nation.", "Each city had its own law, courts, and independent administration.", "And being a citizen often meant being subject to the city's law in addition to having power in some instances to help choose officials.", "City dwellers who had fought alongside nobles in battles to defend their cities were no longer content with having a subordinate social status but demanded a greater role in the form of citizenship.", "Membership in guilds was an indirect form of citizenship in that it helped their members succeed financially.", "The rise of citizenship was linked to the rise of republicanism, according to one account, since independent citizens meant that kings had less power.", "Citizenship became an idealized, almost abstract, concept, and did not signify a submissive relation with a lord or count, but rather indicated the bond between a person and the state in the rather abstract sense of having rights and duties.===Modern times===The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of political participation, but it is usually done through \"elaborate systems of political representation at a distance\" such as representative democracy.", "Modern citizenship is much more passive; action is delegated to others; citizenship is often a constraint on acting, not an impetus to act.", "Nevertheless, citizens are usually aware of their obligations to authorities and are aware that these bonds often limit what they can do.====United States====Portrait of Dred Scott, the plaintiff in the infamous ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'' case at the Supreme Court of the United States, commissioned by a \"group of Negro citizens\" and presented to the Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis, in 1888From 1790 until the mid-twentieth century, United States law used racial criteria to establish citizenship rights and regulate who was eligible to become a naturalized citizen.", "The Naturalization Act of 1790, the first law in U.S. history to establish rules for citizenship and naturalization, barred citizenship to all people who were not of European descent, stating that \"any alien being a free white person, who shall have resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the United States for the term of two years, maybe admitted to becoming a citizen thereof.", "\"Under early U.S. laws, African Americans were not eligible for citizenship.", "In 1857, these laws were upheld in the US Supreme Court case ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'', which ruled that \"a free negro of the African race, whose ancestors were brought to this country and sold as slaves, is not a 'citizen' within the meaning of the Constitution of the United States,\" and that \"the special rights and immunities guaranteed to citizens do not apply to them.", "\"It was not until the abolition of slavery following the American Civil War that African Americans were granted citizenship rights.", "The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified on July 9, 1868, stated that \"all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.\"", "Two years later, the Naturalization Act of 1870 would extend the right to become a naturalized citizen to include \"aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent\".Despite the gains made by African Americans after the Civil War, Native Americans, Asians, and others not considered \"free white persons\" were still denied the ability to become citizens.", "The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act explicitly denied naturalization rights to all people of Chinese origin, while subsequent acts passed by the US Congress, such as laws in 1906, 1917, and 1924, would include clauses that denied immigration and naturalization rights to people based on broadly defined racial categories.", "Supreme Court cases such as ''Ozawa v. the United States'' (1922) and ''U.S.", "v. Bhagat Singh Thind'' (1923), would later clarify the meaning of the phrase \"free white persons,\" ruling that ethnically Japanese, Indian, and other non-European people were not \"white persons\", and were therefore ineligible for naturalization under U.S. law.Native Americans were not granted full US citizenship until the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924.However, even well into the 1960s, some state laws prevented Native Americans from exercising their full rights as citizens, such as the right to vote.", "In 1962, New Mexico became the last state to enfranchise Native Americans.It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 that the racial and gender restrictions for naturalization were explicitly abolished.", "However, the act still contained restrictions regarding who was eligible for US citizenship and retained a national quota system which limited the number of visas given to immigrants based on their national origin, to be fixed \"at a rate of one-sixth of one percent of each nationality's population in the United States in 1920\".", "It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that these immigration quota systems were drastically altered in favor of a less discriminatory system.====Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics====The 1918 constitution of revolutionary Russia granted citizenship to any foreigners who were living within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, so long as they were \"engaged in work and belonged to the working class.\"", "It recognized \"the equal rights of all citizens, irrespective of their racial or national connections\" and declared oppression of any minority group or race \"to be contrary to the fundamental laws of the Republic.\"", "The 1918 constitution also established the right to vote and be elected to soviets for both men and women \"irrespective of religion, nationality, domicile, etc.", "... who shall have completed their eighteenth year by the day of the election.\"", "The later constitutions of the USSR would grant universal Soviet citizenship to the citizens of all member republics in concord with the principles of non-discrimination laid out in the original 1918 constitution of Russia.====Nazi Germany====Nazism, the German variant of twentieth-century fascism, classified inhabitants of the country into three main hierarchical categories, each of which would have different rights in relation to the state: citizens, subjects, and aliens.", "The first category, citizens, were to possess full civic rights and responsibilities.", "Citizenship was conferred only on males of German (or so-called \"Aryan\") heritage who had completed military service, and could be revoked at any time by the state.", "The Reich Citizenship Law of 1935 established racial criteria for citizenship in the German Reich, and because of this law Jews and others who could not \"prove German racial heritage\" were stripped of their citizenship.The second category, subjects, referred to all others who were born within the nation's boundaries who did not fit the racial criteria for citizenship.", "Subjects would have no voting rights, could not hold any position within the state, and possessed none of the other rights and civic responsibilities conferred on citizens.", "All women were to be conferred \"subject\" status upon birth, and could only obtain \"citizen\" status if they worked independently or if they married a German citizen (see women in Nazi Germany).The final category, aliens, referred to those who were citizens of another state, who also had no rights.In 2021, the German government passed Article 116 (2) of the Basic Law, which entitles the restoration of citizenship to individuals who had their German citizenship revoked \"on political, racial, or religious grounds\" between 30 January 1933 and 8 May 1945.This also entitles their descendants to German citizenship.====Israel====The primary principles of Israeli citizenship is ''jus sanguinis'' (citizenship by descent) for Jews and ''jus soli'' (citizenship by place of birth) for others." ], [ "Different senses", "Many theorists suggest that there are two opposing conceptions of citizenship: an economic one, and a political one.", "For further information, see History of citizenship.", "Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and duties.", "In this sense, citizenship was described as \"a bundle of rights -- primarily, political participation in the life of the community, the right to vote, and the right to receive certain protection from the community, as well as obligations.\"", "Citizenship is seen by most scholars as culture-specific, in the sense that the meaning of the term varies considerably from culture to culture, and over time.", "In China, for example, there is a cultural politics of citizenship which could be called \"peopleship\", argued by an academic article.How citizenship is understood depends on the person making the determination.", "The relation of citizenship has never been fixed or static, but constantly changes within each society.", "While citizenship has varied considerably throughout history, and within societies over time, there are some common elements but they vary considerably as well.", "As a bond, citizenship extends beyond basic kinship ties to unite people of different genetic backgrounds.", "It usually signifies membership in a political body.", "It is often based on or was a result of, some form of military service or expectation of future service.", "It usually involves some form of political participation, but this can vary from token acts to active service in government.It generally describes a person with legal rights within a given political order.", "It almost always has an element of exclusion, meaning that some people are not citizens and that this distinction can sometimes be very important, or not important, depending on a particular society.", "Citizenship as a concept is generally hard to isolate intellectually and compare with related political notions since it relates to many other aspects of society such as the family, military service, the individual, freedom, religion, ideas of right, and wrong, ethnicity, and patterns for how a person should behave in society.", "When there are many different groups within a nation, citizenship may be the only real bond that unites everybody as equals without discrimination—it is a \"broad bond\" linking \"a person with the state\" and gives people a universal identity as a legal member of a specific nation.Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas:* The liberal-individualist or sometimes liberal conception of citizenship suggests that citizens should have entitlements necessary for human dignity.", "It assumes people act for the purpose of enlightened self-interest.", "According to this viewpoint, citizens are sovereign, morally autonomous beings with duties to pay taxes, obey the law, engage in business transactions, and defend the nation if it comes under attack, but are essentially passive politically, and their primary focus is on economic betterment.", "This idea began to appear around the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and became stronger over time, according to one view.", "According to this formulation, the state exists for the benefit of citizens and has an obligation to respect and protect the rights of citizens, including civil rights and political rights.", "It was later that so-called social rights became part of the obligation for the state.", "* The civic-republican or sometimes classical or civic humanist conception of citizenship emphasizes man's political nature and sees citizenship as an active process, not a passive state or legal marker.", "It is relatively more concerned that government will interfere with popular places to practice citizenship in the public sphere.", "Citizenship means being active in government affairs.", "According to one view, most people today live as citizens according to the liberal-individualist conception but wished they lived more according to the civic-republican ideal.", "An ideal citizen is one who exhibits \"good civic behavior\".", "Free citizens and a republic government are \"mutually interrelated.\"", "Citizenship suggested a commitment to \"duty and civic virtue\".", "'''Responsibilities of citizens'''Responsibility is an action that individuals of a state or country must take note of in the interest of a common good.", "These responsibilities can be categorised into personal and civic responsibilities.Scholars suggest that the concept of citizenship contains many unresolved issues, sometimes called tensions, existing within the relation, that continue to reflect uncertainty about what citizenship is supposed to mean.", "Some unresolved issues regarding citizenship include questions about what is the proper balance between duties and rights.", "Another is a question about what is the proper balance between political citizenship versus social citizenship.", "Some thinkers see benefits with people being absent from public affairs, since too much participation such as revolution can be destructive, yet too little participation such as total apathy can be problematic as well.", "Citizenship can be seen as a special elite status, and it can also be seen as a democratizing force and something that everybody has; the concept can include both senses.", "According to sociologist Arthur Stinchcombe, citizenship is based on the extent that a person can control one's own destiny within the group in the sense of being able to influence the government of the group.", "One last distinction within citizenship is the so-called consent descent distinction, and this issue addresses whether citizenship is a fundamental matter determined by a person choosing to belong to a particular nation––by their consent––or is citizenship a matter of where a person was born––that is, by their descent." ], [ "International", "Some intergovernmental organizations have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level, where it is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined.", "Citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with rights deriving from national citizenship.===European Union===The Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union.", "Article 17 (1) of the Treaty on European Union stated that: Citizenship of the Union is hereby established.", "Every person holding the nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union.", "Citizenship of the Union shall be additional to and not replace national citizenship.An agreement is known as the amended EC Treaty established certain minimal rights for European Union citizens.", "Article 12 of the amended EC Treaty guaranteed a general right of non-discrimination within the scope of the Treaty.", "Article 18 provided a limited right to free movement and residence in the Member States other than that of which the European Union citizen is a national.", "Articles 18-21 and 225 provide certain political rights.Union citizens have also extensive rights to move in order to exercise economic activity in any of the Member States which predate the introduction of Union citizenship.===Mercosur===Citizenship of the Mercosur is granted to eligible citizens of the Southern Common Market member states.", "It was approved in 2010 through the Citizenship Statute and should be fully implemented by the member countries in 2021 when the program will be transformed in an international treaty incorporated into the national legal system of the countries, under the concept of \"Mercosur Citizen\".===Commonwealth===Citizenship ceremony on beach near Cooktown, Queensland.", "2012The concept of \"Commonwealth Citizenship\" has been in place ever since the establishment of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizen of a Commonwealth member state.", "This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within some Commonwealth countries:* Some such countries do not require tourist visas of citizens of other Commonwealth countries or allow some Commonwealth citizens to stay in the country for tourism purposes without a visa for longer than citizens of other countries.", "* In some Commonwealth countries, resident citizens of other Commonwealth countries are entitled to political rights, e.g., the right to vote in local and national elections and in some cases even the right to stand for election.", "* In some instances the right to work in any position (including the civil service) is granted, except for certain specific positions, such as in the defense departments, Governor-General or President or Prime Minister.", "*In the United Kingdom, all Commonwealth citizens legally residing in the country can vote and stand for office at all elections.Although Ireland was excluded from the Commonwealth in 1949 because it declared itself a republic, Ireland is generally treated as if it were still a member.", "Legislation often specifically provides for equal treatment between Commonwealth countries and Ireland and refers to \"Commonwealth countries and Ireland\".", "Ireland's citizens are not classified as foreign nationals in the United Kingdom.Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921.In 1935 the Irish Free State was the first to introduce its own citizenship.", "However, Irish citizens were still treated as subjects of the Crown, and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth.", "The ''Canadian Citizenship Act'' of 1946 provided for a distinct Canadian Citizenship, automatically conferred upon most individuals born in Canada, with some exceptions, and defined the conditions under which one could become a naturalized citizen.", "The concept of Commonwealth citizenship was introduced in 1948 in the British Nationality Act 1948.Other dominions adopted this principle such as New Zealand, by way of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948." ], [ "Subnational", "Diagram of relationship between; Citizens, Politicians + LawsCitizenship most usually relates to membership of the nation-state, but the term can also apply at the subnational level.", "Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity.", "But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as \"citizens\" of the relevant state, province, or region.", "An example of this is how the fundamental basis of Swiss citizenship is a citizenship of an individual commune, from which follows citizenship of a canton and of the Confederation.", "Another example is Åland where the residents enjoy special provincial citizenship within Finland, ''hembygdsrätt''.The United States has a federal system in which a person is a citizen of their specific state of residence, such as New York or California, as well as a citizen of the United States.", "State constitutions may grant certain rights above and beyond what is granted under the United States Constitution and may impose their own obligations including the sovereign right of taxation and military service; each state maintains at least one military force subject to national militia transfer service, the state's national guard, and some states maintain a second military force not subject to nationalization." ], [ "Education", "\"Active citizenship\" is the philosophy that citizens should work towards the betterment of their community through economic participation, public, volunteer work, and other such efforts to improve life for all citizens.", "In this vein, citizenship education is taught in schools, as an academic subject in some countries.", "By the time children reach secondary education there is an emphasis on such unconventional subjects to be included in an academic curriculum.", "While the diagram on citizenship to the right is rather facile and depthless, it is simplified to explain the general model of citizenship that is taught to many secondary school pupils.", "The idea behind this model within education is to instill in young pupils that their actions (i.e.", "their vote) affect collective citizenship and thus in turn them.===Republic of Ireland===It is taught in the Republic of Ireland as an exam subject for the Junior Certificate.", "It is known as Civic, Social and Political Education (CSPE).", "A new Leaving Certificate exam subject with the working title 'Politics & Society' is being developed by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) and is expected to be introduced to the curriculum sometime after 2012.===United Kingdom===Citizenship is offered as a General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) course in many schools in the United Kingdom.", "As well as teaching knowledge about democracy, parliament, government, the justice system, human rights and the UK's relations with the wider world, students participate in active citizenship, often involving a social action or social enterprise in their local community.", "*Citizenship is a compulsory subject of the National Curriculum in state schools in England for all pupils aged 11–16.Some schools offer a qualification in this subject at GCSE and A level.", "All state schools have a statutory requirement to teach the subject, assess pupil attainment and report student's progress in citizenship to parents.", "*In Wales the model used is personal and social education.", "*Citizenship is not taught as a discrete subject in Scottish schools, but is a cross-curricular strand of the Curriculum for Excellence.", "However they do teach a subject called \"Modern Studies\" which covers the social, political and economic study of local, national and international issues.", "*Citizenship is taught as a standalone subject in all state schools in Northern Ireland and most other schools in some forms from year 8 to 10 prior to GCSEs.", "Components of Citizenship are then also incorporated into GCSE courses such as 'Learning for Life and Work'." ], [ "Criticism", "The concept of citizenship is criticized by open borders advocates, who argue that it functions as a caste, feudal, or apartheid system in which people are assigned dramatically different opportunities based on the accident of birth.", "It is also criticized by some libertarians, especially anarcho-capitalists.", "In 1987, moral philosopher Joseph Carens argued that \"citizenship in Western liberal democracies is the modern equivalent of feudal privilege—an inherited status that greatly enhances one's life chances.", "Like feudal birthright privileges, restrictive citizenship is hard to justify when one thinks about it closely\"." ], [ "See also", "* Citizen's dividend* Citizenship Studies* Civic virtue* Credit score* Honorary citizenship* Loss of citizenship* Nationalism* Non-citizens (Latvia)* Peoples* Spatial citizenship* Transnational citizenship" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "********* ** Beaven, Brad, and John Griffiths.", "\"Creating the Exemplary Citizen: The Changing Notion of Citizenship in Britain 1870–1939,\" ''Contemporary British History'' (2008) 22#2 pp 203–225 * * ** * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "**** BBC PSHE & Citizenship * The Life in the UK Citizenship Test Report by Thom Brooks* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chiapas" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chiapas''' (; Tzotzil and Tzeltal: ''Chyapas'' ), officially the '''Free and Sovereign State of Chiapas''' (), is one of the states that make up the 32 federal entities of Mexico.", "It comprises 124 municipalities and its capital and largest city is Tuxtla Gutiérrez.", "Other important population centers in Chiapas include Ocosingo, Tapachula, San Cristóbal de las Casas, Comitán, and Arriaga.", "Chiapas is the southernmost state in Mexico, and it borders the states of Oaxaca to the west, Veracruz to the northwest, and Tabasco to the north, and the Petén, Quiché, Huehuetenango, and San Marcos departments of Guatemala to the east and southeast.", "Chiapas has a significant coastline on the Pacific Ocean to the southwest.In general, Chiapas has a humid, tropical climate.", "In the northern area bordering Tabasco, near Teapa, rainfall can average more than per year.", "In the past, natural vegetation in this region was lowland, tall perennial rainforest, but this vegetation has been almost completely cleared to allow agriculture and ranching.", "Rainfall decreases moving towards the Pacific Ocean, but it is still abundant enough to allow the farming of bananas and many other tropical crops near Tapachula.", "On the several parallel ''sierras'' or mountain ranges running along the center of Chiapas, the climate can be quite moderate and foggy, allowing the development of cloud forests like those of Reserva de la Biosfera El Triunfo, home to a handful of horned guans, resplendent quetzals, and azure-rumped tanagers.Chiapas is home to the ancient Mayan ruins of Palenque, Yaxchilán, Bonampak, Chinkultic and Toniná.", "It is also home to one of the largest indigenous populations in the country, with ten federally recognized ethnicities." ], [ "History", "The official name of the state is Chiapas, which is believed to have come from the ancient city of Chiapan, which in Náhuatl means \"the place where the chia sage grows.\"", "After the Spanish arrived (1522), they established two cities called Chiapas de los Indios and Chiapas de los Españoles (1528), with the name of Provincia de Chiapas for the area around the cities.", "The first coat of arms of the region dates from 1535 as that of the Ciudad Real (San Cristóbal de las Casas).", "Chiapas painter Javier Vargas Ballinas designed the modern coat of arms.===Pre-Columbian Era===Jaguar sculpture from Cintalapa dating between 1000 and 400 BCE on display at the Regional Museum of Anthropology and History of Chiapas.Hunter gatherers began to occupy the central valley of the state around 7000 BCE, but little is known about them.", "The oldest archaeological remains in the seat are located at the Santa Elena Ranch in Ocozocoautla whose finds include tools and weapons made of stone and bone.", "It also includes burials.", "In the pre Classic period from 1800 BCE to 300 CE, agricultural villages appeared all over the state although hunter gather groups would persist for long after the era.Recent excavations in the Soconusco region of the state indicate that the oldest civilization to appear in what is now modern Chiapas is that of the Mokaya, which were cultivating corn and living in houses as early as 1500 BCE, making them one of the oldest in Mesoamerica.", "There is speculation that these were the forefathers of the Olmec, migrating across the Grijalva Valley and onto the coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico to the north, which was Olmec territory.", "One of these people's ancient cities is now the archeological site of Chiapa de Corzo, in which was found the oldest calendar known on a piece of ceramic with a date of 36 BCE.", "This is three hundred years before the Mayans developed their calendar.", "The descendants of Mokaya are the Mixe-Zoque.During the pre Classic era, it is known that most of Chiapas was not Olmec, but had close relations with them, especially the Olmecs of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.", "Olmec-influenced sculpture can be found in Chiapas and products from the state including amber, magnetite, and ilmenite were exported to Olmec lands.", "The Olmecs came to what is now the northwest of the state looking for amber with one of the main pieces of evidence for this called the Simojovel Ax.The Palace at PalenqueMayan civilization began in the pre-Classic period as well, but did not come into prominence until the Classic period (300–900 CE).", "Development of this culture was agricultural villages during the pre-Classic period with city building during the Classic as social stratification became more complex.", "The Mayans built cities on the Yucatán Peninsula and west into Guatemala.", "In Chiapas, Mayan sites are concentrated along the state's borders with Tabasco and Guatemala, near Mayan sites in those entities.", "Most of this area belongs to the Lacandon Jungle.Mayan civilization in the Lacandon area is marked by rising exploitation of rain forest resources, rigid social stratification, fervent local identity, waging war against neighboring peoples.", "At its height, it had large cities, a writing system, and development of scientific knowledge, such as mathematics and astronomy.", "Cities were centered on large political and ceremonial structures elaborately decorated with murals and inscriptions.", "Among these cities are Palenque, Bonampak, Yaxchilan, Chinkultic, Toniná and Tenón.", "The Mayan civilization had extensive trade networks and large markets trading in goods such as animal skins, indigo, amber, vanilla and quetzal feathers.", "It is not known what ended the civilization but theories range from over population size, natural disasters, disease, and loss of natural resources through over exploitation or climate change.Nearly all Mayan cities collapsed around the same time, 900 CE.", "From then until 1500 CE, social organization of the region fragmented into much smaller units and social structure became much less complex.", "There was some influence from the rising powers of central Mexico but two main indigenous groups emerged during this time, the Zoques and the various Mayan descendants.", "The Chiapans, for whom the state is named, migrated into the center of the state during this time and settled around Chiapa de Corzo, the old Mixe–Zoque stronghold.", "There is evidence that the Aztecs appeared in the center of the state around Chiapa de Corza in the 15th century, but were unable to displace the native Chiapa tribe.", "However, they had enough influence so that the name of this area and of the state would come from Nahuatl.===Colonial period===Chiapa de Corzo built in 1562.When the Spanish arrived in the 16th century, they found the indigenous peoples divided into Mayan and non-Mayan, with the latter dominated by the Zoques and Chiapanecas.", "The first contact between Spaniards and the people of Chiapas came in 1522, when Hernán Cortés sent tax collectors to the area after Aztec Empire was subdued.", "The first military incursion was headed by Luis Marín, who arrived in 1523.After three years, Marín was able to subjugate a number of the local peoples, but met with fierce resistance from the Tzotzils in the highlands.", "The Spanish colonial government then sent a new expedition under Diego de Mazariegos.", "Mazariegos had more success than his predecessor, but many natives preferred to commit suicide rather than submit to the Spanish.", "One famous example of this is the Battle of Tepetchia, where many jumped to their deaths in the Sumidero Canyon.Indigenous resistance was weakened by continual warfare with the Spaniards and disease.", "By 1530 almost all of the indigenous peoples of the area had been subdued with the exception of the Lacandons in the deep jungles who actively resisted until 1695.However, the main two groups, the Tzotzils and Tzeltals of the central highlands were subdued enough to establish the first Spanish city, today called San Cristóbal de las Casas, in 1528.It was one of two settlements initially called Villa Real de Chiapa de los Españoles and the other called Chiapa de los Indios.Remnants of frescos at the Saint Mark Cathedral of Tuxtla GutiérrezSoon after, the encomienda system was introduced, which reduced most of the indigenous population to serfdom and many even as slaves as a form of tribute and way of locking in a labor supply for tax payments.", "The conquistadors brought previously unknown diseases.", "This, as well as overwork on plantations, dramatically decreased the indigenous population.", "The Spanish also established missions, mostly under the Dominicans, with the Diocese of Chiapas established in 1538 by Pope Paul III.", "The Dominican evangelizers became early advocates of the indigenous' people's plight, with Bartolomé de las Casas winning a battle with the passing of a law in 1542 for their protection.", "This order also worked to make sure that communities would keep their indigenous name with a saint's prefix leading to names such as San Juan Chamula and San Lorenzo Zinacantán.", "He also advocated adapting the teaching of Christianity to indigenous language and culture.", "The encomienda system that had perpetrated much of the abuse of the indigenous peoples declined by the end of the 16th century, and was replaced by haciendas.", "However, the use and misuse of Indian labor remained a large part of Chiapas politics into modern times.", "Maltreatment and tribute payments created an undercurrent of resentment in the indigenous population that passed on from generation to generation.", "One uprising against high tribute payments occurred in the Tzeltal communities in the Los Alto region in 1712.Soon, the Tzoltzils and Ch'ols joined the Tzeltales in rebellion, but within a year the government was able to extinguish the rebellion.As of 1778, Thomas Kitchin described Chiapas as \"the metropolis of the original Mexicans,\" with a population of approximately 20,000, and consisting mainly of indigenous peoples.", "The Spanish introduced new crops such as sugar cane, wheat, barley and indigo as main economic staples along native ones such as corn, cotton, cacao and beans.", "Livestock such as cattle, horses and sheep were introduced as well.", "Regions would specialize in certain crops and animals depending on local conditions and for many of these regions, communication and travel were difficult.", "Most Europeans and their descendants tended to concentrate in cities such as Ciudad Real, Comitán, Chiapa and Tuxtla.", "Intermixing of the races was prohibited by colonial law but by the end of the 17th century there was a significant mestizo population.", "Added to this was a population of African slaves brought in by the Spanish in the middle of the 16th century due to the loss of native workforce.Initially, \"Chiapas\" referred to the first two cities established by the Spanish in what is now the center of the state and the area surrounding them.", "Two other regions were also established, the Soconusco and Tuxtla, all under the regional colonial government of Guatemala.", "Chiapas, Soconusco and Tuxla regions were united to the first time as an ''intendencia'' during the Bourbon Reforms in 1790 as an administrative region under the name of Chiapas.", "However, within this intendencia, the division between Chiapas and Soconusco regions would remain strong and have consequences at the end of the colonial period.===Era of Independence===From the colonial period Chiapas was relatively isolated from the colonial authorities in Mexico City and regional authorities in Guatemala.", "One reason for this was the rugged terrain.", "Another was that much of Chiapas was not attractive to the Spanish.", "It lacked mineral wealth, large areas of arable land, and easy access to markets.", "This isolation spared it from battles related to Independence.", "José María Morelos y Pavón did enter the city of Tonalá but incurred no resistance.", "The only other insurgent activity was the publication of a newspaper called ''El Pararrayos'' by Matías de Córdova in San Cristóbal de las Casas.Comitán's declaration of independence from 1823Copy of the 1825 state constitution1856 map of the stateFollowing the end of Spanish rule in New Spain, it was unclear what new political arrangements would emerge.", "The isolation of Chiapas from centers of power, along with the strong internal divisions in the intendencia caused a political crisis after the royal government collapsed in Mexico City in 1821, ending the Mexican War of Independence.", "During this war, a group of influential Chiapas merchants and ranchers sought the establishment of the Free State of Chiapas.", "This group became known as the ''La Familia Chiapaneca''.", "However, this alliance did not last with the lowlands preferring inclusion among the new republics of Central America and the highlands annexation to Mexico.", "In 1821, a number of cities in Chiapas, starting in Comitán, declared the state's separation from the Spanish empire.", "In 1823, Guatemala became part of the United Provinces of Central America, which united to form a federal republic that would last from 1823 to 1839.With the exception of the pro-Mexican Ciudad Real (San Cristóbal) and some others, many Chiapanecan towns and villages favored a Chiapas independent of Mexico and some favored unification with Guatemala.Elites in highland cities pushed for incorporation into Mexico.", "In 1822, then-Emperor Agustín de Iturbide decreed that Chiapas was part of Mexico.", "In 1823, the Junta General de Gobierno was held and Chiapas declared independence again.", "In July 1824, the Soconusco District of southwestern Chiapas split off from Chiapas, announcing that it would join the Central American Federation.", "In September of the same year, a referendum was held on whether the intendencia would join Central America or Mexico, with many of the elite endorsing union with Mexico.", "This referendum ended in favor of incorporation with Mexico (allegedly through manipulation of the elite in the highlands), but the Soconusco region maintained a neutral status until 1842, when Oaxacans under General Antonio López de Santa Anna occupied the area, and declared it reincorporated into Mexico.", "Elites of the area would not accept this until 1844.Guatemala would not recognize Mexico's annexation of the Soconusco region until 1895, even though the border between Chiapas and Guatemala had been agreed upon in 1882.The State of Chiapas was officially declared in 1824, with its first constitution in 1826.Ciudad Real was renamed San Cristóbal de las Casas in 1828.In the decades after the official end of the war, the provinces of Chiapas and Soconusco unified, with power concentrated in San Cristóbal de las Casas.", "The state's society evolved into three distinct spheres: indigenous peoples, mestizos from the farms and haciendas and the Spanish colonial cities.", "Most of the political struggles were between the last two groups especially over who would control the indigenous labor force.", "Economically, the state lost one of its main crops, indigo, to synthetic dyes.", "There was a small experiment with democracy in the form of \"open city councils\" but it was short-lived because voting was heavily rigged.The Universidad Pontificia y Literaria de Chiapas was founded in 1826, with Mexico's second teacher's college founded in the state in 1828.===Era of the Liberal Reform===With the ouster of conservative Antonio López de Santa Anna, Mexican liberals came to power.", "The Reform War (1858–1861) fought between Liberals, who favored federalism and sought economic development, decreased power of the Roman Catholic Church, and Mexican army, and Conservatives, who favored centralized autocratic government, retention of elite privileges, did not lead to any military battles in the state.", "Despite that it strongly affected Chiapas politics.", "In Chiapas, the Liberal-Conservative division had its own twist.", "Much of the division between the highland and lowland ruling families was for whom the Indians should work for and for how long as the main shortage was of labor.", "These families split into Liberals in the lowlands, who wanted further reform and Conservatives in the highlands who still wanted to keep some of the traditional colonial and church privileges.", "For most of the early and mid 19th century, Conservatives held most of the power and were concentrated in the larger cities of San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapa (de Corzo), Tuxtla and Comitán.", "As Liberals gained the upper hand nationally in the mid-19th century, one Liberal politician Ángel Albino Corzo gained control of the state.", "Corzo became the primary exponent of Liberal ideas in the southeast of Mexico and defended the Palenque and Pichucalco areas from annexation by Tabasco.", "However, Corzo's rule would end in 1875, when he opposed the regime of Porfirio Díaz.Liberal land reforms would have negative effects on the state's indigenous population unlike in other areas of the country.", "Liberal governments expropriated lands that were previously held by the Spanish Crown and Catholic Church in order to sell them into private hands.", "This was not only motivated by ideology, but also due to the need to raise money.", "However, many of these lands had been in a kind of \"trust\" with the local indigenous populations, who worked them.", "Liberal reforms took away this arrangement and many of these lands fell into the hands of large landholders who when made the local Indian population work for three to five days a week just for the right to continue to cultivate the lands.", "This requirement caused many to leave and look for employment elsewhere.", "Most became \"free\" workers on other farms, but they were often paid only with food and basic necessities from the farm shop.", "If this was not enough, these workers became indebted to these same shops and then unable to leave.The opening up of these lands also allowed many whites and mestizos (often called Ladinos in Chiapas) to encroach on what had been exclusively indigenous communities in the state.", "These communities had had almost no contact with the Ladino world, except for a priest.", "The new Ladino landowners occupied their acquired lands as well as others, such as shopkeepers, opened up businesses in the center of Indian communities.", "In 1848, a group of Tzeltals plotted to kill the new mestizos in their midst, but this plan was discovered, and was punished by the removal of large number of the community's male members.", "The changing social order had severe negative effects on the indigenous population with alcoholism spreading, leading to more debts as it was expensive.", "The struggles between Conservatives and Liberals nationally disrupted commerce and confused power relations between Indian communities and Ladino authorities.", "It also resulted in some brief respites for Indians during times when the instability led to uncollected taxes.One other effect that Liberal land reforms had was the start of coffee plantations, especially in the Soconusco region.", "One reason for this push in this area was that Mexico was still working to strengthen its claim on the area against Guatemala's claims on the region.", "The land reforms brought colonists from other areas of the country as well as foreigners from England, the United States and France.", "These foreign immigrants would introduce coffee production to the areas, as well as modern machinery and professional administration of coffee plantations.", "Eventually, this production of coffee would become the state's most important crop.Although the Liberals had mostly triumphed in the state and the rest of the country by the 1860s, Conservatives still held considerable power in Chiapas.", "Liberal politicians sought to solidify their power among the indigenous groups by weakening the Roman Catholic Church.", "The more radical of these even allowed indigenous groups the religious freedoms to return to a number of native rituals and beliefs such as pilgrimages to natural shrines such as mountains and waterfalls.This culminated in the Chiapas \"caste war\", which was an uprising of Tzotzils beginning in 1868.The basis of the uprising was the establishment of the \"three stones cult\" in Tzajahemal.", "Agustina Gómez Checheb was a girl tending her father's sheep when three stones fell from the sky.", "Collecting them, she put them on her father's altar and soon claimed that the stone communicated with her.", "Word of this soon spread and the \"talking stones\" of Tzajahemel soon became a local indigenous pilgrimage site.", "The cult was taken over by one pilgrim, Pedro Díaz Cuzcat, who also claimed to be able to communicate with the stones, and had knowledge of Catholic ritual, becoming a kind of priest.", "However, this challenged the traditional Catholic faith and non Indians began to denounce the cult.", "Stories about the cult include embellishments such as the crucifixion of a young Indian boy.This led to the arrest of Checheb and Cuzcat in December 1868.This caused resentment among the Tzotzils.", "Although the Liberals had earlier supported the cult, Liberal landowners had also lost control of much of their Indian labor and Liberal politicians were having a harder time collecting taxes from indigenous communities.", "An Indian army gathered at Zontehuitz then attacked various villages and haciendas.", "By the following June the city of San Cristóbal was surrounded by several thousand Indians, who offered the exchanged of several Ladino captives for their religious leaders and stones.", "Chiapas governor Dominguéz came to San Cristóbal with about three hundred heavily armed men, who then attacked the Indian force armed only with sticks and machetes.", "The indigenous force was quickly dispersed and routed with government troops pursuing pockets of guerrilla resistance in the mountains until 1870.The event effectively returned control of the indigenous workforce back to the highland elite.===Porfiriato, 1876–1911===The Porfirio Díaz era at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th was initially thwarted by regional bosses called caciques, bolstered by a wave of Spanish and mestizo farmers who migrated to the state and added to the elite group of wealthy landowning families.", "There was some technological progress such as a highway from San Cristóbal to the Oaxaca border and the first telephone line in the 1880s, but Porfirian era economic reforms would not begin until 1891 with Governor Emilio Rabasa.", "This governor took on the local and regional caciques and centralized power into the state capital, which he moved from San Cristóbal de las Casas to Tuxtla in 1892.He modernized public administration, transportation and promoted education.", "Rabasa also introduced the telegraph, limited public schooling, sanitation and road construction, including a route from San Cristóbal to Tuxtla then Oaxaca, which signaled the beginning of favoritism of development in the central valley over the highlands.", "He also changed state policies to favor foreign investment, favored large land mass consolidation for the production of cash crops such as henequen, rubber, guayule, cochineal and coffee.", "Agricultural production boomed, especially coffee, which induced the construction of port facilities in Tonalá.", "The economic expansion and investment in roads also increased access to tropical commodities such as hardwoods, rubber and chicle.These still required cheap and steady labor to be provided by the indigenous population.", "By the end of the 19th century, the four main indigenous groups, Tzeltals, Tzotzils, Tojolabals and Ch’ols were living in \"reducciones\" or reservations, isolated from one another.", "Conditions on the farms of the Porfirian era was serfdom, as bad if not worse than for other indigenous and mestizo populations leading to the Mexican Revolution.", "While this coming event would affect the state, Chiapas did not follow the uprisings in other areas that would end the Porfirian era.Japanese immigration to Mexico began in 1897 when the first thirty five migrants arrived in Chiapas to work on coffee farms, so that Mexico was the first Latin American country to receive organized Japanese immigration.", "Although this colony ultimately failed, there remains a small Japanese community in Acacoyagua, Chiapas.===Early 20th century to 1960===The Palace of Government of Chiapas (Governor's Office) at Tuxtla GutiérrezPalacio Legislativo (Legislative Palace) at Tuxtla Gutiérrez.Sugar cane mill from Tapachula on display at the Regional Museum in ChiapasIn the early 20th century and into the Mexican Revolution, the production of coffee was particularly important but labor-intensive.", "This would lead to a practice called ''enganche'' (hook), where recruiters would lure workers with advanced pay and other incentives such as alcohol and then trap them with debts for travel and other items to be worked off.", "This practice would lead to a kind of indentured servitude and uprisings in areas of the state, although they never led to large rebel armies as in other parts of Mexico.A small war broke out between Tuxtla Gutiérrez and San Cristobal in 1911.San Cristóbal, allied with San Juan Chamula, tried to regain the state's capital but the effort failed.", "San Cristóbal de las Casas, which had a very limited budget, to the extent that it had to ally with San Juan Chamula challenged Tuxtla Gutierrez which, with only a small ragtag army overwhelmingly defeated the army helped by chamulas from San Cristóbal.", "There were three years of peace after that until troops allied with the \"First Chief\" of the revolutionary Constitutionalist forces, Venustiano Carranza, entered in 1914 taking over the government, with the aim of imposing the ''Ley de Obreros'' (Workers' Law) to address injustices against the state's mostly indigenous workers.", "Conservatives responded violently months later when they were certain the Carranza forces would take their lands.", "This was mostly by way of guerrilla actions headed by farm owners who called themselves the ''Mapaches''.", "This action continued for six years, until President Carranza was assassinated in 1920 and revolutionary general Álvaro Obregón became president of Mexico.", "This allowed the Mapaches to gain political power in the state and effectively stop many of the social reforms occurring in other parts of Mexico.The Mapaches continued to fight against socialists and communists in Mexico from 1920 to 1936, to maintain their control over the state.", "In general, elite landowners also allied with the nationally dominant party founded by Plutarco Elías Calles following the assassination of president-elect Obregón in 1928; that party was renamed the Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1946.Through that alliance, they could block land reform in this way as well.", "The Mapaches were first defeated in 1925 when an alliance of socialists and former Carranza loyalists had Carlos A. Vidal selected as governor, although he was assassinated two years later.", "The last of the Mapache resistance was overcome in the early 1930s by Governor Victorico Grajales, who pursued President Lázaro Cárdenas' social and economic policies including persecution of the Catholic Church.", "These policies would have some success in redistributing lands and organizing indigenous workers but the state would remain relatively isolated for the rest of the 20th century.", "The territory was reorganized into municipalities in 1916.The current state constitution was written in 1921.There was political stability from the 1940s to the early 1970s; however, regionalism regained with people thinking of themselves as from their local city or municipality over the state.", "This regionalism impeded the economy as local authorities restrained outside goods.", "For this reason, construction of highways and communications were pushed to help with economic development.", "Most of the work was done around Tuxtla Gutiérrez and Tapachula.", "This included the Sureste railroad connecting northern municipalities such as Pichucalco, Salto de Agua, Palenque, Catazajá and La Libertad.", "The Cristobal Colon highway linked Tuxtla to the Guatemalan border.", "Other highways included El Escopetazo to Pichucalco, a highway between San Cristóbal and Palenque with branches to Cuxtepeques and La Frailesca.", "This helped to integrate the state's economy, but it also permitted the political rise of communal land owners called ejidatarios.Area of the Lacandon Jungle burned to plant crops===Mid-20th century to 1990===In the mid-20th century, the state experienced a significant rise in population, which outstripped local resources, especially land in the highland areas.", "Since the 1930s, many indigenous and mestizos have migrated from the highland areas into the Lacandon Jungle with the populations of Altamirano, Las Margaritas, Ocosingo and Palenque rising from less than 11,000 in 1920 to over 376,000 in 2000.These migrants came to the jungle area to clear forest and grow crops and raise livestock, especially cattle.", "Economic development in general raised the output of the state, especially in agriculture, but it had the effect of deforesting many areas, especially the Lacandon.", "Added to this was there were still serf like conditions for many workers and insufficient educational infrastructure.", "Population continued to increase faster than the economy could absorb.", "There were some attempts to resettle peasant farmers onto non cultivated lands, but they were met with resistance.", "President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz awarded a land grant to the town of Venustiano Carranza in 1967, but that land was already being used by cattle-ranchers who refused to leave.", "The peasants tried to take over the land anyway, but when violence broke out, they were forcibly removed.", "In Chiapas poor farmland and severe poverty afflict the Mayan Indians which led to unsuccessful non violent protests and eventually armed struggle started by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in January 1994.These events began to lead to political crises in the 1970s, with more frequent land invasions and takeovers of municipal halls.", "This was the beginning of a process that would lead to the emergence of the Zapatista movement in the 1990s.", "Another important factor to this movement would be the role of the Catholic Church from the 1960s to the 1980s.", "In 1960, Samuel Ruiz became the bishop of the Diocese of Chiapas, centered in San Cristóbal.", "He supported and worked with Marist priests and nuns following an ideology called liberation theology.", "In 1974, he organized a statewide \"Indian Congress\" with representatives from the Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Tojolabal and Ch'ol peoples from 327 communities as well as Marists and the Maoist People's Union.", "This congress was the first of its kind with the goal of uniting the indigenous peoples politically.", "These efforts were also supported by leftist organizations from outside Mexico, especially to form unions of ejido organizations.", "These unions would later form the base of the EZLN organization.", "One reason for the Church's efforts to reach out to the indigenous population was that starting in the 1970s, a shift began from traditional Catholic affiliation to Protestant, Evangelical and other Christian sects.The 1980s saw a large wave of refugees coming into the state from Central America as a number of these countries, especially Guatemala, were in the midst of violent political turmoil.", "The Chiapas/Guatemala border had been relatively porous with people traveling back and forth easily in the 19th and 20th centuries, much like the Mexico/U.S.", "border around the same time.", "This is in spite of tensions caused by Mexico's annexation of the Soconusco region in the 19th century.", "The border between Mexico and Guatemala had been traditionally poorly guarded, due to diplomatic considerations, lack of resources and pressure from landowners who need cheap labor sources.The arrival of thousands of refugees from Central America stressed Mexico's relationship with Guatemala, at one point coming close to war as well as a politically destabilized Chiapas.", "Although Mexico is not a signatory to the UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, international pressure forced the government to grant official protection to at least some of the refugees.", "Camps were established in Chiapas and other southern states, and mostly housed Mayan peoples.", "However, most Central American refugees from that time never received any official status, estimated by church and charity groups at about half a million from El Salvador alone.", "The Mexican government resisted direct international intervention in the camps, but eventually relented somewhat because of finances.", "By 1984, there were 92 camps with 46,000 refugees in Chiapas, concentrated in three areas, mostly near the Guatemalan border.", "To make matters worse, the Guatemalan army conducted raids into camps on Mexican territories with significant casualties, terrifying the refugees and local populations.", "From within Mexico, refugees faced threats by local governments who threatened to deport them, legally or not, and local paramilitary groups funded by those worried about the political situation in Central America spilling over into the state.", "The official government response was to militarize the areas around the camps, which limited international access and migration into Mexico from Central America was restricted.", "By 1990, it was estimated that there were over 200,000 Guatemalans and half a million from El Salvador, almost all peasant farmers and most under age twenty.In the 1980s, the politization of the indigenous and rural populations of the state that began in the 1960s and 1970s continued.", "In 1980, several ejido (communal land organizations) joined to form the Union of Ejidal Unions and United Peasants of Chiapas, generally called the Union of Unions, or UU.", "It had a membership of 12,000 families from over 180 communities.", "By 1988, this organization joined with other to form the ARIC-Union of Unions (ARIC-UU) and took over much of the Lacandon Jungle portion of the state.", "Most of the members of these organization were from Protestant and Evangelical sects as well as \"Word of God\" Catholics affiliated with the political movements of the Diocese of Chiapas.", "What they held in common was indigenous identity vis-à-vis the non-indigenous, using the old 19th century \"caste war\" word \"Ladino\" for them.===Economic liberalization and the EZLN===Zapatistas Territory sign in Chiapas, MexicoZapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) graffiti in Chiapas, MexicoAn EZLN mural in Chiapas, Mexico depicting a story about Compañero José written in Spanish and MayanThe adoption of liberal economic reforms by the Mexican federal government clashed with the leftist political ideals of these groups, notably as the reforms were believed to have begun to have negative economic effects on poor farmers, especially small-scale indigenous coffee-growers.", "Opposition would coalesce into the Zapatista movement in the 1990s.", "Although the Zapatista movement couched its demands and cast its role in response to contemporary issues, especially in its opposition to neoliberalism, it operates in the tradition of a long line of peasant and indigenous uprisings that have occurred in the state since the colonial era.", "This is reflected in its indigenous vs.", "Mestizo character.", "However, the movement was an economic one as well.", "Although the area has extensive resources, much of the local population of the state, especially in rural areas, did not benefit from this bounty.", "In the 1990s, two thirds of the state's residents did not have sewage service, only a third had electricity and half did not have potable water.", "Over half of the schools offered education only to the third grade and most pupils dropped out by the end of first grade.", "Grievances, strongest in the San Cristóbal and Lacandon Jungle areas, were taken up by a small leftist guerrilla band led by a man called only \"Subcomandante Marcos.", "\"This small band, called the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, EZLN), came to the world's attention when on January 1, 1994 (the day the NAFTA treaty went into effect) EZLN forces occupied and took over the towns of San Cristobal de las Casas, Las Margaritas, Altamirano, Ocosingo and three others.", "They read their proclamation of revolt to the world and then laid siege to a nearby military base, capturing weapons and releasing many prisoners from the jails.", "This action followed previous protests in the state in opposition to neoliberal economic policies.Although it has been estimated as having no more than 300 armed guerrilla members, the EZLN paralyzed the Mexican government, which balked at the political risks of direct confrontation.", "The major reason for this was that the rebellion caught the attention of the national and world press, as Marcos made full use of the then-new Internet to get the group's message out, putting the spotlight on indigenous issues in Mexico in general.", "Furthermore, the opposition press in Mexico City, especially ''La Jornada'', actively supported the rebels.", "These factors encouraged the rebellion to go national.", "Many blamed the unrest on infiltration of leftists among the large Central American refugee population in Chiapas, and the rebellion opened up splits in the countryside between those supporting and opposing the EZLN.", "Zapatista sympathizers have included mostly Protestants and Word of God Catholics, opposing those \"traditionalist\" Catholics who practiced a syncretic form of Catholicism and indigenous beliefs.", "This split had existed in Chiapas since the 1970s, with the latter group supported by the caciques and others in the traditional power-structure.", "Protestants and Word of God Catholics (allied directly with the bishopric in San Cristóbal) tended to oppose traditional power structures.The Bishop of Chiapas, Samuel Ruiz, and the Diocese of Chiapas reacted by offering to mediate between the rebels and authorities.", "However, because of this diocese's activism since the 1960s, authorities accused the clergy of being involved with the rebels.", "There was some ambiguity about the relationship between Ruiz and Marcos and it was a constant feature of news coverage, with many in official circles using such to discredit Ruiz.", "Eventually, the activities of the Zapatistas began to worry the Roman Catholic Church in general and to upstage the diocese's attempts to re establish itself among Chiapan indigenous communities against Protestant evangelization.", "This would lead to a breach between the Church and the Zapatistas.The Zapatista story remained in headlines for a number of years.", "One reason for this was the December 1997 massacre of forty-five unarmed Tzotzil peasants, mostly women and children, in the Zapatista-controlled village of Acteal in the Chenhaló municipality just north of San Cristóbal.", "This allowed many media outlets in Mexico to step up their criticisms of the government.Despite this, the armed conflict was brief, mostly because the Zapatistas, unlike many other guerilla movements, did not try to gain traditional political power.", "It focused more on trying to manipulate public opinion in order to obtain concessions from the government.", "This has linked the Zapatistas to other indigenous and identity-politics movements that arose in the late-20th century.", "The main concession that the group received was the San Andrés Accords (1996), also known as the Law on Indian Rights and Culture.", "The Accords appear to grant certain indigenous zones autonomy, but this is against the Mexican constitution, so its legitimacy has been questioned.", "Zapatista declarations since the mid-1990s have called for a new constitution.", "the government had not found a solution to this problem.", "The revolt also pressed the government to institute anti-poverty programs such as \"Progresa\" (later called \"Oportunidades\") and the \"Puebla-Panama Plan\" – aiming to increase trade between southern Mexico and Central America.As of the first decade of the 2000s the Zapatista movement remained popular in many indigenous communities.", "The uprising gave indigenous peoples a more active role in the state's politics.", "However, it did not solve the economic issues that many peasant farmers face, especially the lack of land to cultivate.", "This problem has been at crisis proportions since the 1970s, and the government's reaction has been to encourage peasant farmers—mostly indigenous—to migrate into the sparsely populated Lacandon Jungle, a trend since earlier in the century.From the 1970s on, some 100,000 people set up homes in this rainforest area, with many being recognized as ''ejidos'', or communal land-holding organizations.", "These migrants included Tzeltals, Tojolabals, Ch'ols and mestizos, mostly farming corn and beans and raising livestock.", "However, the government changed policies in the late 1980s with the establishment of the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve, as much of the Lacandon Jungle had been destroyed or severely damaged.", "While armed resistance has wound down, the Zapatistas have remained a strong political force, especially around San Cristóbal and the Lacandon Jungle, its traditional bases.", "Since the Accords, they have shifted focus in gaining autonomy for the communities they control.Since the 1994 uprising, migration into the Lacandon Jungle has significantly increased, involving illegal settlements and cutting in the protected biosphere reserve.", "The Zapatistas support these actions as part of indigenous rights, but that has put them in conflict with international environmental groups and with the indigenous inhabitants of the rainforest area, the Lacandons.", "Environmental groups state that the settlements pose grave risks to what remains of the Lacandon, while the Zapatistas accuse them of being fronts for the government, which wants to open the rainforest up to multinational corporations.", "Added to this is the possibility that significant oil and gas deposits exist under this area.The Zapatista movement has had some successes.", "The agricultural sector of the economy now favors ''ejidos'' and other commonly-owned land.", "There have been some other gains economically as well.", "In the last decades of the 20th century, Chiapas's traditional agricultural economy has diversified somewhat with the construction of more roads and better infrastructure by the federal and state governments.", "Tourism has become important in some areas of the state, especially in San Cristóbal de las Casas and Palenque.", "Its economy is important to Mexico as a whole as well, producing coffee, corn, cacao, tobacco, sugar, fruit, vegetables and honey for export.", "It is also a key state for the nation's petrochemical and hydroelectric industries.", "A significant percentage of PEMEX's drilling and refining takes place in Chiapas and Tabasco, and Chiapas produces fifty-five percent of Mexico's hydroelectric energy.However, Chiapas remains one of the poorest states in Mexico.", "Ninety-four of its 111 municipalities have a large percentage of the population living in poverty.", "In areas such as Ocosingo, Altamirano and Las Margaritas, the towns where the Zapatistas first came into prominence in 1994, 48% of the adults were illiterate.", "Chiapas is still considered isolated and distant from the rest of Mexico, both culturally and geographically.", "It has significantly underdeveloped infrastructure compared to the rest of the country, and its significant indigenous population with isolationist tendencies keep the state distinct culturally.", "Cultural stratification, neglect and lack of investment by the Mexican federal government has exacerbated this problem.==== Dissolution of the Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities ====In early November 2023, signed by rebel Subcomandante Moises and EZLN that announced the dissolution of the Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities due to the cartel violence generated by Sinaloa Cartel and Jalisco New Generation Cartel and violent border clashes in Guatemala due to the increasing violence growing on the border.", "''Caracoles'' will remain open to locals but remain closed to outsiders, and the previous MAREZ system will be reorganized into a new autonomous system." ], [ "Geography", "===Political geography===Chiapas is located in the south east of Mexico, bordering the states of Tabasco, Veracruz and Oaxaca with the Pacific Ocean to the south and Guatemala to the east.", "It has a territory of 74,415 km2, the eighth largest state in Mexico.", "The state consists of 118 municipalities organized into nine political regions called Center, Altos, Fronteriza, Frailesca, Norte, Selva, Sierra, Soconusco and Istmo-Costa.", "There are 18 cities, twelve towns (villas) and 111 pueblos (villages).", "Major cities include Tuxtla Gutiérrez, San Cristóbal de las Casas, Tapachula, Palenque, Comitán, and Chiapa de Corzo.===Geographical regions===Mount TacanáView of the Sumidero Canyon from atop the ridgeLake at the Parque Nacional Lagunas de MontebelloThe state has a complex geography with seven distinct regions according to the Mullerried classification system.", "These include the Pacific Coast Plains, the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Central Depression, the Central Highlands, the Eastern Mountains, the Northern Mountains and the Gulf Coast Plains.", "The Pacific Coast Plains is a strip of land parallel to the ocean.", "It is composed mostly of sediment from the mountains that border it on the northern side.", "It is uniformly flat, and stretches from the Bernal Mountain south to Tonalá.", "It has deep salty soils due to its proximity to the sea.", "It has mostly deciduous rainforest although most has been converted to pasture for cattle and fields for crops.", "It has numerous estuaries with mangroves and other aquatic vegetation.The Sierra Madre de Chiapas runs parallel to the Pacific coastline of the state, northwest to southeast as a continuation of the Sierra Madre del Sur.", "This area has the highest altitudes in Chiapas including the Tacaná Volcano, which rises above sea level.", "Most of these mountains are volcanic in origin although the nucleus is metamorphic rock.", "It has a wide range of climates but little arable land.", "It is mostly covered in middle altitude rainforest, high altitude rainforest, and forests of oaks and pines.", "The mountains partially block rain clouds from the Pacific, a process known as Orographic lift, which creates a particularly rich coastal region called the Soconusco.", "The main commercial center of the sierra is the town of Motozintla, also near the Guatemalan border.The Central Depression is in the center of the state.", "It is an extensive semi flat area bordered by the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Central Highlands and the Northern Mountains.", "Within the depression there are a number of distinct valleys.", "The climate here can be very hot and humid in the summer, especially due to the large volume of rain received in July and August.", "The original vegetation was lowland deciduous forest with some rainforest of middle altitudes and some oaks above above sea level.The Central Highlands, also referred to as Los Altos, are mountains oriented from northwest to southeast with altitudes ranging from above sea level.", "The western highlands are displaced faults, while the eastern highlands are mainly folds of sedimentary formationsmainly limestone, shale, and sandstone.", "These mountains, along the Sierra Madre of Chiapas become the Cuchumatanes where they extend over the border into Guatemala.", "Its topography is mountainous with many narrow valleys and karst formations called uvalas or poljés, depending on the size.", "Most of the rock is limestone allowing for a number of formations such as caves and sinkholes.", "There are also some isolated pockets of volcanic rock with the tallest peaks being the Tzontehuitz and Huitepec volcanos.", "There are no significant surface water systems as they are almost all underground.", "The original vegetation was forest of oak and pine but these have been heavily damaged.", "The highlands climate in the Koeppen modified classification system for Mexico is humid temperate C(m) and subhumid temperate C (w 2 ) (w).", "This climate exhibits a summer rainy season and a dry winter, with possibilities of frost from December to March.", "The Central Highlands have been the population center of Chiapas since the Conquest.", "European epidemics were hindered by the tierra fría climate, allowing the indigenous peoples in the highlands to retain their large numbers.The Eastern Mountains (Montañas del Oriente) are in the east of the state, formed by various parallel mountain chains mostly made of limestone and sandstone.", "Its altitude varies from .", "This area receives moisture from the Gulf of Mexico with abundant rainfall and exuberant vegetation, which creates the Lacandon Jungle, one of the most important rainforests in Mexico.", "The Northern Mountains (Montañas del Norte) are in the north of the state.", "They separate the flatlands of the Gulf Coast Plains from the Central Depression.", "Its rock is mostly limestone.", "These mountains also receive large amounts of rainfall with moisture from the Gulf of Mexico giving it a mostly hot and humid climate with rains year round.", "In the highest elevations around , temperatures are somewhat cooler and do experience a winter.", "The terrain is rugged with small valleys whose natural vegetation is high altitude rainforest.The Gulf Coast Plains (Llanura Costera del Golfo) stretch into Chiapas from the state of Tabasco, which gives it the alternate name of the Tabasqueña Plains.", "These plains are found only in the extreme north of the state.", "The terrain is flat and prone to flooding during the rainy season as it was built by sediments deposited by rivers and streams heading to the Gulf.====Lacandon Jungle====Jungle area near Group C at the Palenque archeological siteThe Lacandon Jungle is situated in north eastern Chiapas, centered on a series of canyonlike valleys called the Cañadas, between smaller mountain ridges oriented from northwest to southeast.", "The ecosystem covers an area of approximately extending from Chiapas into northern Guatemala and southern Yucatán Peninsula and into Belize.", "This area contains as much as 25% of Mexico's total species diversity, most of which has not been researched.", "It has a predominantly hot and humid climate (Am w\" i g) with most rain falling from summer to part of fall, with an average of between 2300 and 2600 mm per year.", "There is a short dry season from March to May.", "The predominant wild vegetation is perennial high rainforest.", "The Lacandon comprises a biosphere reserve (Montes Azules); four natural protected areas (Bonampak, Yaxchilan, Chan Kin, and Lacantum); and the communal reserve (La Cojolita), which functions as a biological corridor with the area of Petén in Guatemala.", "Flowing within the Rainforest is the Usumacinta River, considered to be one of the largest rivers in Mexico and seventh largest in the world based on volume of water.Miramar Lake surrounded by the Lacandon JungleDuring the 20th century, the Lacandon has had a dramatic increase in population and along with it, severe deforestation.", "The population of municipalities in this area, Altamirano, Las Margaritas, Ocosingo and Palenque have risen from 11,000 in 1920 to over 376,000 in 2000.Migrants include Ch'ol, Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Tojolabal indigenous peoples along with mestizos, Guatemalan refugees and others.", "Most of these migrants are peasant farmers, who cut forest to plant crops.", "However, the soil of this area cannot support annual crop farming for more than three or four harvests.", "The increase in population and the need to move on to new lands has pitted migrants against each other, the native Lacandon people, and the various ecological reserves for land.", "It is estimated that only ten percent of the original Lacandon rainforest in Mexico remains, with the rest strip-mined, logged and farmed.", "It once stretched over a large part of eastern Chiapas but all that remains is along the northern edge of the Guatemalan border.", "Of this remaining portion, Mexico is losing over five percent each year.The best preserved portion of the Lacandon is within the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve.", "It is centered on what was a commercial logging grant by the Porfirio Díaz government, which the government later nationalized.", "However, this nationalization and conversion into a reserve has made it one of the most contested lands in Chiapas, with the already existing ejidos and other settlements within the park along with new arrivals squatting on the land.====Soconusco====View of Sierra Madre de Chiapas from the Soconusco RegionThe Soconusco region encompasses a coastal plain and a mountain range with elevations of up to above sea levels paralleling the Pacific Coast.", "The highest peak in Chiapas is the Tacaná Volcano at above sea level.", "In accordance with an 1882 treaty, the dividing line between Mexico and Guatemala goes right over the summit of this volcano.", "The climate is tropical, with a number of rivers and evergreen forests in the mountains.", "This is Chiapas's major coffee-producing area, as it has the best soils and climate for coffee.", "Before the arrival of the Spanish, this area was the principal source of cocoa seeds in the Aztec empire, which they used as currency, and for the highly prized quetzal feathers used by the nobility.", "It would become the first area to produce coffee, introduced by an Italian entrepreneur on the La Chacara farm.", "Coffee is cultivated on the slopes of these mountains mostly between asl.", "Mexico produces about 4 million sacks of green coffee each year, fifth in the world behind Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia and Vietnam.", "Most producers are small with plots of land under .", "From November to January, the annual crop is harvested and processed employing thousands of seasonal workers.", "Lately, a number of coffee haciendas have been developing tourism infrastructure as well.===Environment and protected areas===View of the waterfalls at Agua AzulUsumacinta River and Lacandon Jungle on the Chiapas sideGrijalva River flowing through the central regionChiapas is located in the tropical belt of the planet, but the climate is moderated in many areas by altitude.", "For this reason, there are hot, semi-hot, temperate and even cold climates.", "Some areas have abundant rainfall year-round and others receive most of their rain between May and October, with a dry season from November to April.", "The mountain areas affect wind and moisture flow over the state, concentrating moisture in certain areas of the state.", "They also are responsible for some cloud-covered rainforest areas in the Sierra Madre.Chiapas's rainforests are home to thousands of animals and plants, some of which cannot be found anywhere else in the world.", "Natural vegetation varies from lowland to highland tropical forest, pine and oak forests in the highest altitudes and plains area with some grassland.", "Chiapas is ranked second in forest resources in Mexico with valued woods such as pine, cypress, ''Liquidambar'', oak, cedar, mahogany and more.", "The Lacandon Jungle is one of the last major tropical rainforests in the northern hemisphere with an extension of .", "It contains about sixty percent of Mexico's tropical tree species, 3,500 species of plants, 1,157 species of invertebrates and over 500 of vertebrate species.", "Chiapas has one of the greatest diversities in wildlife in the Americas.", "There are more than 100 species of amphibians, 700 species of birds, fifty of mammals and just over 200 species of reptiles.", "In the hot lowlands, there are armadillos, monkeys, pelicans, wild boar, jaguars, crocodiles, iguanas and many others.", "In the temperate regions there are species such as bobcats, salamanders, a large red lizard Abronia lythrochila, weasels, opossums, deer, ocelots and bats.", "The coastal areas have large quantities of fish, turtles, and crustaceans, with many species in danger of extinction or endangered as they are endemic only to this area.", "The total biodiversity of the state is estimated at over 50,000 species of plants and animals.", "The diversity of species is not limited to the hot lowlands.", "The higher altitudes also have mesophile forests, oak/pine forests in the Los Altos, Northern Mountains and Sierra Madre and the extensive estuaries and mangrove wetlands along the coast.Chiapas has about thirty percent of Mexico's fresh water resources.", "The Sierra Madre divides them into those that flow to the Pacific and those that flow to the Gulf of Mexico.", "Most of the first are short rivers and streams; most longer ones flow to the Gulf.", "Most Pacific side rivers do not drain directly into this ocean but into lagoons and estuaries.", "The two largest rivers are the Grijalva and the Usumacinta, with both part of the same system.", "The Grijalva has four dams built on it the Belisario Dominguez (La Angostura); Manuel Moreno Torres (Chicoasén); Nezahualcóyotl (Malpaso); and Angel Albino Corzo (Peñitas).", "The Usumacinta divides the state from Guatemala and is the longest river in Central America.", "In total, the state has of surface waters, of coastline, control of of ocean, of estuaries and ten lake systems.", "Laguna Miramar is a lake in the Montes Azules reserve and the largest in the Lacandon Jungle at 40 km in diameter.", "The color of its waters varies from indigo to emerald green and in ancient times, there were settlements on its islands and its caves on the shoreline.", "The Catazajá Lake is 28 km north of the city of Palenque.", "It is formed by rainwater captured as it makes its way to the Usumacinta River.", "It contains wildlife such as manatees and iguanas and it is surrounded by rainforest.", "Fishing on this lake is an ancient tradition and the lake has an annual bass fishing tournament.", "The Welib Já Waterfall is located on the road between Palenque and Bonampak.Overlooking part of the Malpaso or Nezahualcoyotl ReservoirThe state has thirty-six protected areas at the state and federal levels along with 67 areas protected by various municipalities.", "The Sumidero Canyon National Park was decreed in 1980 with an extension of .", "It extends over two of the regions of the state, the Central Depression and the Central Highlands over the municipalities of Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Nuevo Usumacinta, Chiapa de Corzo and San Fernando.", "The canyon has steep and vertical sides that rise to up to 1000 meters from the river below with mostly tropical rainforest but some areas with xerophile vegetation such as cactus can be found.", "The river below, which has cut the canyon over the course of twelve million years, is called the Grijalva.", "The canyon is emblematic for the state as it is featured in the state seal.", "The Sumidero Canyon was once the site of a battle between the Spaniards and Chiapanecan Indians.", "Many Chiapanecans chose to throw themselves from the high edges of the canyon rather than be defeated by Spanish forces.", "Today, the canyon is a popular destination for ecotourism.", "Visitors can take boat trips down the river that runs through the canyon and see the area's many birds and abundant vegetation.The Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve was decreed in 1978.It is located in the northeast of the state in the Lacandon Jungle.", "It covers in the municipalities of Maravilla Tenejapa, Ocosingo and Las Margaritas.", "It conserves highland perennial rainforest.", "The jungle is in the Usumacinta River basin east of the Chiapas Highlands.", "It is recognized by the United Nations Environment Programme for its global biological and cultural significance.", "In 1992, the Lacantun Reserve, which includes the Classic Maya archaeological sites of Yaxchilan and Bonampak, was added to the biosphere reserve.Agua Azul Waterfall Protection Area is in the Northern Mountains in the municipality of Tumbalá.", "It covers an area of of rainforest and pine-oak forest, centered on the waterfalls it is named after.", "It is located in an area locally called the \"Mountains of Water\", as many rivers flow through there on their way to the Gulf of Mexico.", "The rugged terrain encourages waterfalls with large pools at the bottom, that the falling water has carved into the sedimentary rock and limestone.", "Agua Azul is one of the best known in the state.", "The waters of the Agua Azul River emerge from a cave that forms a natural bridge of thirty meters and five small waterfalls in succession, all with pools of water at the bottom.", "In addition to Agua Azul, the area has other attractions—such as the Shumuljá River, which contains rapids and waterfalls, the Misol Há Waterfall with a thirty-meter drop, the Bolón Ajau Waterfall with a fourteen-meter drop, the Gallito Copetón rapids, the Blacquiazules Waterfalls, and a section of calm water called the Agua Clara.The El Ocote Biosphere Reserve was decreed in 1982 located in the Northern Mountains at the boundary with the Sierra Madre del Sur in the municipalities of Ocozocoautla, Cintalapa and Tecpatán.", "It has a surface area of and preserves a rainforest area with karst formations.", "The Lagunas de Montebello National Park was decreed in 1959 and consists of near the Guatemalan border in the municipalities of La Independencia and La Trinitaria.", "It contains two of the most threatened ecosystems in Mexico the \"cloud rainforest\" and the Soconusco rainforest.", "The El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve, decreed in 1990, is located in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas in the municipalities of Acacoyagua, Ángel Albino Corzo, Montecristo de Guerrero, La Concordia, Mapastepec, Pijijiapan, Siltepec and Villa Corzo near the Pacific Ocean with .", "It conserves areas of tropical rainforest and many freshwater systems endemic to Central America.", "It is home to around 400 species of birds including several rare species such as the horned guan, the quetzal and the azure-rumped tanager.", "The Palenque National Forest is centered on the archaeological site of the same name and was decreed in 1981.It is located in the municipality of Palenque where the Northern Mountains meet the Gulf Coast Plain.", "It extends over of tropical rainforest.", "The Laguna Bélgica Conservation Zone is located in the north west of the state in the municipality of Ocozocoautla.", "It covers forty-two hectares centered on the Bélgica Lake.", "The El Zapotal Ecological Center was established in 1980.Nahá–Metzabok is an area in the Lacandon Forest whose name means \"place of the black lord\" in Nahuatl.", "It extends over and in 2010, it was included in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.", "Two main communities in the area are called Nahá and Metzabok.", "They were established in the 1940s, but the oldest communities in the area belong to the Lacandon people.", "The area has large numbers of wildlife including endangered species such as eagles, quetzals and jaguars.", "'''Flora and fauna of Chiapas'''125px125px125px125px125x125px''Cuniculus paca''''Alouatta palliata''''Eretmochelys imbricata''''Pharomachrus mocinno''''Tapirus bairdii''120px120px120px120px120px''Panthera onca''''Ramphastidae''''Tayassu pecari''''Leopardus pardalis''''Boa constrictor''120px120px120px120px120px''Ceiba pentandra''''Abies religiosa''''Cedrela odorata''''Bursera simaruba''" ], [ "Demographics", "=== Largest cities======General statistics===As of 2010, the population is 4,796,580, the eighth most populous state in Mexico.", "The 20th century saw large population growth in Chiapas.", "From fewer than one million inhabitants in 1940, the state had about two million in 1980, and over 4 million in 2005.Overcrowded land in the highlands was relieved when the rainforest to the east was subject to land reform.", "Cattle ranchers, loggers, and subsistence farmers migrated to the rain forest area.", "The population of the Lacandon was only one thousand people in 1950, but by the mid-1990s this had increased to 200 thousand.", "As of 2010, 78% lives in urban communities with 22% in rural communities.", "While birthrates are still high in the state, they have come down in recent decades from 7.4 per woman in 1950.However, these rates still mean significant population growth in raw numbers.", "About half of the state's population is under age 20, with an average age of 19.In 2005, there were 924,967 households, 81% headed by men and the rest by women.", "Most households were nuclear families (70.7%) with 22.1% consisting of extended families.More migrate out of Chiapas than migrate in, with emigrants leaving for Tabasco, Oaxaca, Veracruz, State of Mexico and the Federal District (Mexico City) primarily.While Catholics remain the majority, their numbers have dropped as many have converted to Protestant denominations in recent decades.", "Islam is also a small but growing religion due to the Indigenous Muslims as well as Muslim immigrants from Africa continuously rising in numbers.", "The National Presbyterian Church in Mexico has a large following in Chiapas; some estimate that 40% of the population are followers of the Presbyterian church.There are a number of people in the state with African features.", "These are the descendants of slaves brought to the state in the 16th century.", "There are also those with predominantly European features who are the descendants of the original Spanish colonizers as well as later immigrants to Mexico.", "The latter mostly came at the end of the 19th and early 20th century under the Porfirio Díaz regime to start plantations.", "According to the 2020 Census, 1.02% of Chiapas's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent.===Indigenous population=======Numbers and influence====Over the history of Chiapas, there have been three main indigenous groups: the Mixes-Zoques, the Mayas and the .", "Today, there are an estimated fifty-six linguistic groups.", "As of the 2005 Census, there were 957,255 people who spoke an indigenous language out of a total population of about 3.5 million.", "Of this one million, one third do not speak Spanish.", "Out of Chiapas's 111 municipios, 99 have majority indigenous populations.", "22 municipalities have indigenous populations over 90%, and 36 municipalities have native populations exceeding 50%.", "However, despite population growth in indigenous villages, the percentage of indigenous to non indigenous continues to fall with less than 35% indigenous.", "Indian populations are concentrated in a few areas, with the largest concentration of indigenous-language-speaking individuals is living in 5 of Chiapas's 9 economic regions: Los Altos, Selva, Norte, Fronteriza, and Sierra.", "The remaining three regions, Soconusco, Centro and Costa, have populations that are considered to be predominantly mestizo.The state has about 13.5% of all of Mexico's indigenous population, and it has been ranked among the ten \"most indianized\" states, with only Campeche, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo and Yucatán having been ranked above it between 1930 and the present.", "These indigenous peoples have been historically resistant to assimilation into the broader Mexican society, with it best seen in the retention rates of indigenous languages and the historic demands for autonomy over geographic areas as well as cultural domains.", "Much of the latter has been prominent since the Zapatista uprising in 1994.Most of Chiapas's indigenous groups are descended from the Mayans, speaking languages that are closely related to one another, belonging to the Western Maya language group.", "The state was part of a large region dominated by the Mayans during the Classic period.", "The most numerous of these Mayan groups include the Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Ch'ol, Zoque, Tojolabal, Lacandon and Mam, which have traits in common such as syncretic religious practices, and social structure based on kinship.", "The most common Western Maya languages are Tzeltal and Tzotzil along with Chontal, Ch’ol, Tojolabal, Chuj, Kanjobal, Acatec, Jacaltec and Motozintlec.12 of Mexico's officially recognized native peoples living in the state have conserved their language, customs, history, dress and traditions to a significant degree.", "The primary groups include the Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Ch'ol, Tojolabal, Zoque, Chuj, Kanjobal, Mam, Jacalteco, Mochó Cakchiquel and Lacandon.", "Most indigenous communities are found in the municipalities of the Centro, Altos, Norte and Selva regions, with many having indigenous populations of over fifty percent.", "These include Bochil, Sitalá, Pantepec, Simojovel to those with over ninety percent indigenous such as San Juan Cancuc, Huixtán, Tenejapa, Tila, Oxchuc, Tapalapa, Zinacantán, Mitontic, Ocotepec, Chamula, and Chalchihuitán.", "The most numerous indigenous communities are the Tzeltal and Tzotzil peoples, who number about 400,000 each, together accounting for about half of the state's indigenous population.", "The next most numerous are the Ch’ol with about 200,000 people and the Tojolabal and Zoques, who number about 50,000 each.", "The top 3 municipalities in Chiapas with indigenous language speakers three years of age and older are: Ocosingo (133,811), Chilon (96,567), and San Juan Chamula (69,475).", "These 3 municipalities accounted for 24.8% (299,853) of all indigenous language speakers three years or older in the state of Chiapas, out of a total of 1,209,057 indigenous language speakers three years or older.Although most indigenous language speakers are bilingual, especially in the younger generations, many of these languages have shown resilience.", "Four of Chiapas's indigenous languages, Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Tojolabal and Chol, are high-vitality languages, meaning that a high percentage of these ethnicities speak the language and that there is a high rate of monolingualism in it.", "It is used in over 80% of homes.", "Zoque is considered to be of medium-vitality with a rate of bilingualism of over 70% and home use somewhere between 65% and 80%.", "Maya is considered to be of low-vitality with almost all of its speakers bilingual with Spanish.", "The most spoken indigenous languages as of 2010 are Tzeltal with 461,236 speakers, Tzotzil with 417,462, Ch’ol with 191,947 and Zoque with 53,839.In total, there are 1,141,499 who speak an indigenous language or 27% of the total population.", "Of these, 14% do not speak Spanish.", "Studies done between 1930 and 2000 have indicated that Spanish is not dramatically displacing these languages.", "In raw number, speakers of these languages are increasing, especially among groups with a long history of resistance to Spanish/Mexican domination.", "Language maintenance has been strongest in areas related to where the Zapatista uprising took place such as the municipalities of Altamirano, Chamula, Chanal, Larráinzar, Las Margaritas, Ocosingo, Palenque, Sabanilla, San Cristóbal de Las Casas and Simojovel.The state's rich indigenous tradition along with its associated political uprisings, especially that of 1994, has great interest from other parts of Mexico and abroad.", "It has been especially appealing to a variety of academics including many anthropologists, archeologists, historians, psychologists and sociologists.", "The concept of \"mestizo\" or mixed indigenous European heritage became important to Mexico's identity by the time of Independence, but Chiapas has kept its indigenous identity to the present day.", "Since the 1970s, this has been supported by the Mexican government as it has shifted from cultural policies that favor a \"multicultural\" identity for the country.", "One major exception to the separatist, indigenous identity has been the case of the Chiapa people, from whom the state's name comes, who have mostly been assimilated and intermarried into the mestizo population.Most Indigenous communities have economies based primarily on traditional agriculture such as the cultivation and processing of corn, beans and coffee as a cash crop and in the last decade, many have begun producing sugarcane and jatropha for refinement into biodiesel and ethanol for automobile fuel.", "The raising of livestock, particularly chicken and turkey and to a lesser extent beef and farmed fish is also a major economic activity.", "Many indigenous people, in particular the Maya, are employed in the production of traditional clothing, fabrics, textiles, wood items, artworks and traditional goods such as jade and amber works.", "Tourism has provided a number of a these communities with markets for their handcrafts and works, some of which are very profitable.San Cristóbal de las Casas and San Juan Chamula maintain a strong indigenous identity.", "On market day, many indigenous people from rural areas come into San Cristóbal to buy and sell mostly items for everyday use such as fruit, vegetables, animals, cloth, consumer goods and tools.", "San Juan Chamula is considered to be a center of indigenous culture, especially its elaborate festivals of Carnival and Day of Saint John.", "It was common for politicians, especially during Institutional Revolutionary Party's dominance to visit here during election campaigns and dress in indigenous clothing and carry a carved walking stick, a traditional sign of power.", "Relations between the indigenous ethnic groups is complicated.", "While there has been inter-ethnic political activism such as that promoted by the Diocese of Chiapas in the 1970s and the Zapatista movement in the 1990s, there has been inter-indigenous conflict as well.", "Much of this has been based on religion, pitting those of the traditional Catholic/indigenous beliefs who support the traditional power structure against Protestants, Evangelicals and Word of God Catholics (directly allied with the Diocese) who tend to oppose it.", "This is particularly significant problem among the Tzeltals and Tzotzils.", "Starting in the 1970s, traditional leaders in San Juan Chamula began expelling dissidents from their homes and land, amounting to about 20,000 indigenous forced to leave over a thirty-year period.", "It continues to be a serious social problem although authorities downplay it.", "Recently there has been political, social and ethnic conflict between the Tzotzil who are more urbanized and have a significant number of Protestant practitioners and the Tzeltal who are predominantly Catholic and live in smaller farming communities.", "Many Protestant Tzotzil have accused the Tzeltal of ethnic discrimination and intimidation due to their religious beliefs and the Tzeltal have in return accused the Tzotzil of singling them out for discrimination.Clothing, especially women's clothing, varies by indigenous group.", "For example, women in Ocosingo tend to wear a blouse with a round collar embroidered with flowers and a black skirt decorated with ribbons and tied with a cloth belt.", "The Lacandon people tend to wear a simple white tunic.", "They also make a ceremonial tunic from bark, decorated with astronomy symbols.", "In Tenejapa, women wear a huipil embroidered with Mayan fretwork along with a black wool rebozo.", "Men wear short pants, embroidered at the bottom.====Tzeltals====The Tzeltals call themselves Winik atel, which means \"working men.\"", "This is the largest ethnicity in the state, mostly living southeast of San Cristóbal with the largest number in Amatenango.", "Today, there are about 500,000 Tzeltal Indians in Chiapas.", "Tzeltal Mayan, part of the Mayan language family, today is spoken by about 375,000 people making it the fourth-largest language group in Mexico.", "There are two main dialects; highland (or Oxchuc) and lowland (or Bachajonteco).", "This language, along with Tzotzil, is from the Tzeltalan subdivision of the Mayan language family.", "Lexico-statistical studies indicate that these two languages probably became differentiated from one another around 1200 Most children are bilingual in the language and Spanish although many of their grandparents are monolingual Tzeltal speakers.Each Tzeltal community constitutes a distinct social and cultural unit with its own well-defined lands, wearing apparel, kinship system, politico-religious organization, economic resources, crafts, and other cultural features.", "Women are distinguished by a black skirt with a wool belt and an undyed cotton bloused embroidered with flowers.", "Their hair is tied with ribbons and covered with a cloth.", "Most men do not use traditional attire.", "Agriculture is the basic economic activity of the Tzeltal people.", "Traditional Mesoamerican crops such as maize, beans, squash, and chili peppers are the most important, but a variety of other crops, including wheat, manioc, sweet potatoes, cotton, chayote, some fruits, other vegetables, and coffee.====Tzotzils====Tzotzil speakers number just slightly less than theTzeltals at 226,000, although those of the ethnicity are probably higher.", "Tzotzils are found in the highlands or Los Altos and spread out towards the northeast near the border with Tabasco.", "However, Tzotzil communities can be found in almost every municipality of the state.", "They are concentrated in Chamula, Zinacantán, Chenalhó, and Simojovel.", "Their language is closely related to Tzeltal and distantly related to Yucatec Mayan and Lacandon.", "Men dress in short pants tied with a red cotton belt and a shirt that hangs down to their knees.", "They also wear leather huaraches and a hat decorated with ribbons.", "The women wear a red or blue skirt, a short huipil as a blouse, and use a chal or rebozo to carry babies and bundles.", "Tzotzil communities are governed by a katinab who is selected for life by the leaders of each neighborhood.", "The Tzotzils are also known for their continued use of the temazcal for hygiene and medicinal purposes.====Ch’ols====Tzeltal woman in PalenqueThe Ch’ols of Chiapas migrated to the northwest of the state starting about 2,000 years ago, when they were concentrated in Guatemala and Honduras.", "Those Ch’ols who remained in the south are distinguished by the name Chortís.", "Chiapas Ch’ols are closely related to the Chontal in Tabasco as well.", "Choles are found in Tila, Tumbalá, Sabanilla, Palenque, and Salto de Agua, with an estimated population of about 115,000 people.", "The Ch’ol language belongs to the Maya family and is related to Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Lacandon, Tojolabal, and Yucatec Mayan.", "There are three varieties of Chol (spoken in Tila, Tumbalá, and Sabanilla), all mutually intelligible.", "Over half of speakers are monolingual in the Chol language.", "Women wear a long navy blue or black skirt with a white blouse heavily embroidered with bright colors and a sash with a red ribbon.", "The men only occasionally use traditional dress for events such as the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe.", "This dress usually includes pants, shirts and huipils made of undyed cotton, with leather huaraches, a carrying sack and a hat.", "The fundamental economic activity of the Ch’ols is agriculture.", "They primarily cultivate corn and beans, as well as sugar cane, rice, coffee, and some fruits.", "They have Catholic beliefs strongly influenced by native ones.", "Harvests are celebrated on the Feast of Saint Rose on 30 August.====Tojolabals====The Totolabals are estimated at 35,000 in the highlands.", "According to oral tradition, the Tojolabales came north from Guatemala.", "The largest community is Ingeniero González de León in the La Cañada region, an hour outside the municipal seat of Las Margaritas.", "Tojolabales are also found in Comitán, Trinitaria, Altamirano and La Independencia.", "This area is filled with rolling hills with a temperate and moist climate.", "There are fast moving rivers and jungle vegetation.", "Tojolabal is related to Kanjobal, but also to Tzeltal and Tzotzil.", "However, most of the youngest of this ethnicity speak Spanish.", "Women dress traditionally from childhood with brightly colored skirts decorated with lace or ribbons and a blouse decorated with small ribbons, and they cover their heads with kerchiefs.", "They embroider many of their own clothes but do not sell them.", "Married women arrange their hair in two braids and single women wear it loose decorated with ribbons.", "Men no longer wear traditional garb daily as it is considered too expensive to make.====Zoques====The Zoques are found in 3,000 square kilometers the center and west of the state scattered among hundreds of communities.", "These were one of the first native peoples of Chiapas, with archeological ruins tied to them dating back as far as 3500 BCE.", "Their language is not Mayan but rather related to Mixe, which is found in Oaxaca and Veracruz.", "By the time the Spanish arrived, they had been reduced in number and territory.", "Their ancient capital was Quechula, which was covered with water by the creation of the Malpaso Dam, along with the ruins of Guelegas, which was first buried by an eruption of the Chichonal volcano.", "There are still Zoque ruins at Janepaguay, the Ocozocuautla and La Ciénega valleys.====Lacandons====The Lacandons are one of the smallest native indigenous groups of the state with a population estimated between 600 and 1,000.They are mostly located in the communities of Lacanjá Chansayab, Najá, and Mensabak in the Lacandon Jungle.", "They live near the ruins of Bonampak and Yaxchilan and local lore states that the gods resided here when they lived on Earth.", "They inhabit about a million hectares of rainforest but from the 16th century to the present, migrants have taken over the area, most of which are indigenous from other areas of Chiapas.", "This dramatically altered their lifestyle and worldview.", "Traditional Lacandon shelters are huts made with fonds and wood with an earthen floor, but this has mostly given way to modern structures.====Mochós====The Mochós or Motozintlecos are concentrated in the municipality of Motozintla on the Guatemalan border.", "According to anthropologists, these people are an \"urban\" ethnicity as they are mostly found in the neighborhoods of the municipal seat.", "Other communities can be found near the Tacaná volcano, and in the municipalities of Tuzantán and Belisario Dominguez.", "The name \"Mochó\" comes from a response many gave the Spanish whom they could not understand and means \"I don't know.\"", "This community is in the process of disappearing as their numbers shrink.====Mams====The Mams are a Mayan ethnicity that numbers about 20,000 found in thirty municipalities, especially Tapachula, Motozintla, El Porvenir, Cacahoatán and Amatenango in the southeastern Sierra Madre of Chiapas.", "The Mame language is one of the most ancient Mayan languages with 5,450 Mame speakers were tallied in Chiapas in the 2000 census.", "These people first migrated to the border region between Chiapas and Guatemala at the end of the nineteenth century, establishing scattered settlements.", "In the 1960s, several hundred migrated to the Lacandon rain forest near the confluence of the Santo Domingo and Jataté Rivers.", "Those who live in Chiapas are referred to locally as the \"Mexican Mam (or Mame)\" to differentiate them from those in Guatemala.", "Most live around the Tacaná volcano, which the Mams call \"our mother\" as it is considered to be the source of the fertility of the area's fields.", "The masculine deity is the Tajumulco volcano, which is in Guatemala.====Guatemalan migrant groups====In the last decades of the 20th century, Chiapas received a large number of indigenous refugees, especially from Guatemala, many of whom remain in the state.", "These have added ethnicities such as the Kekchi, Chuj, Ixil, Kanjobal, K'iche' and Cakchikel to the population.", "The Kanjobal mainly live along the border between Chiapas and Guatemala, with almost 5,800 speakers of the language tallied in the 2000 census.", "It is believed that a significant number of these Kanjobal-speakers may have been born in Guatemala and immigrated to Chiapas, maintaining strong cultural ties to the neighboring nation." ], [ "Economy", "===Economic indicators===Chiapas accounts for 1.73% of Mexico's GDP.", "The primary sector, agriculture, produces 15.2% of the state's GDP.", "The secondary sector, mostly energy production, but also commerce, services and tourism, accounts for 21.8%.", "The share of the GDP coming from services is rising while that of agriculture is falling.", "The state is divided into nine economic regions.", "These regions were established in the 1980s in order to facilitate statewide economic planning.", "Many of these regions are based on state and federal highway systems.", "These include Centro, Altos, Fronteriza, Frailesca, Norte, Selva, Sierra, Soconusco and Istmo-Costa.Despite being rich in resources, Chiapas, along with Oaxaca and Guerrero, lags behind the rest of the country in almost all socioeconomic indicators.", ", there were 889,420 residential units; 71% had running water, 77.3% sewerage, and 93.6% electricity.", "Construction of these units varies from modern construction of block and concrete to those constructed of wood and laminate.Because of its high rate of economic marginalization, more people migrate from Chiapas than migrate to it.", "Most of its socioeconomic indicators are the lowest in the country including income, education, health and housing.", "It has a significantly higher percentage of illiteracy than the rest of the country, although that situation has improved since the 1970s when over 45% were illiterate and 1980s, about 32%.", "The tropical climate presents health challenges, with most illnesses related to the gastro-intestinal tract and parasites.", "As of 2005, the state has 1,138 medical facilities: 1098 outpatient and 40 inpatient.", "Most are run by IMSS and ISSSTE and other government agencies.", "The implementation of NAFTA had negative effects on the economy, particularly by lowering prices for agricultural products.", "It made the southern states of Mexico poorer in comparison to those in the north, with over 90% of the poorest municipalities in the south of the country.", "As of 2006, 31.8% work in communal services, social services and personal services.", "18.4% work in financial services, insurance and real estate, 10.7% work in commerce, restaurants and hotels, 9.8% work in construction, 8.9% in utilities, 7.8% in transportation, 3.4% in industry (excluding handcrafts), and 8.4% in agriculture.Although until the 1960s, many indigenous communities were considered by scholars to be autonomous and economically isolated, this was never the case.", "Economic conditions began forcing many to migrate to work, especially in agriculture for non-indigenous.", "However, unlike many other migrant workers, most indigenous in Chiapas have remained strongly tied to their home communities.", "A study as early as the 1970s showed that 77 percent of heads of household migrated outside of the Chamula municipality as local land did not produce sufficiently to support families.", "In the 1970s, cuts in the price of corn forced many large landowners to convert their fields into pasture for cattle, displacing many hired laborers, cattle required less work.", "These agricultural laborers began to work for the government on infrastructure projects financed by oil revenue.", "It is estimated that in the 1980s to 1990s as many as 100,000 indigenous people moved from the mountain areas into cities in Chiapas, with some moving out of the state to Mexico City, Cancún and Villahermosa in search of employment.===Agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing===Ranch near PalenqueAgriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing employ over 53% of the state's population; however, its productivity is considered to be low.", "Agriculture includes both seasonal and perennial plants.", "Major crops include corn, beans, sorghum, soybeans, peanuts, sesame seeds, coffee, cacao, sugar cane, mangos, bananas, and palm oil.", "These crops take up 95% of the cultivated land in the state and 90% of the agricultural production.", "Only four percent of fields are irrigated with the rest dependent on rainfall either seasonally or year round.", "Chiapas ranks second among the Mexican states in the production of cacao, the product used to make chocolate, and is responsible for about 60 percent of Mexico's total coffee output.", "The production of bananas, cacao and corn make Chiapas Mexico's second largest agricultural producer overall.Coffee is the state's most important cash crop with a history from the 19th century.", "The crop was introduced in 1846 by Jeronimo Manchinelli who brought 1,500 seedlings from Guatemala on his farm La Chacara.", "This was followed by a number of other farms as well.", "Coffee production intensified during the regime of Porfirio Díaz and the Europeans who came to own many of the large farms in the area.", "By 1892, there were 22 coffee farms in the region, among them Nueva Alemania, Hamburgo, Chiripa, Irlanda, Argovia, San Francisco, and Linda Vista in the Soconusco region.", "Since then coffee production has grown and diversified to include large plantations, the use and free and forced labor and a significant sector of small producers.", "While most coffee is grown in the Soconusco, other areas grow it, including the municipalities of Oxchuc, Pantheló, El Bosque, Tenejapa, Chenalhó, Larráinzar, and Chalchihuitán, with around six thousand producers.", "It also includes organic coffee producers with 18 million tons grown annually 60,000 producers.", "One third of these producers are indigenous women and other peasant farmers who grow the coffee under the shade of native trees without the use of agro chemicals.", "Some of this coffee is even grown in environmentally protected areas such as the El Triunfo reserve, where ejidos with 14,000 people grow the coffee and sell it to cooperativers who sell it to companies such as Starbucks, but the main market is Europe.", "Some growers have created cooperatives of their own to cut out the middleman.Ranching occupies about three million hectares of natural and induced pasture, with about 52% of all pasture induced.", "Most livestock is done by families using traditional methods.", "Most important are meat and dairy cattle, followed by pigs and domestic fowl.", "These three account for 93% of the value of production.", "Annual milk production in Chiapas totals about 180 million liters per year.", "The state's cattle production, along with timber from the Lacandon Jungle and energy output gives it a certain amount of economic clouts compared to other states in the region.Forestry is mostly based on conifers and common tropical species producing 186,858 m3 per year at a value of 54,511,000 pesos.", "Exploited non-wood species include the Camedor palm tree for its fronds.", "The fishing industry is underdeveloped but includes the capture of wild species as well as fish farming.", "Fish production is generated both from the ocean as well as the many freshwater rivers and lakes.", "In 2002, 28,582 tons of fish valued at 441.2 million pesos was produced.", "Species include tuna, shark, shrimp, mojarra and crab.===Industry and energy===The state's abundant rivers and streams have been dammed to provide about fifty-five percent of the country's hydroelectric energy.", "Much of this is sent to other states accounting for over six percent of all of Mexico's energy output.", "Main power stations are located at Malpaso, La Angostura, Chicoasén and Peñitas, which produce about eight percent of Mexico's hydroelectric energy.", "Manuel Moreno Torres plant on the Grijalva River the most productive in Mexico.", "All of the hydroelectric plants are owned and operated by the Federal Electricity Commission (Comisión Federal de Electricidad, CFE).Chiapas is rich in petroleum reserves.", "Oil production began during the 1980s and Chiapas has become the fourth largest producer of crude oil and natural gas among the Mexican states.", "Many reserves are yet untapped, but between 1984 and 1992, PEMEX drilled nineteen oil wells in the Lacandona Jungle.", "Currently, petroleum reserves are found in the municipalities of Juárez, Ostuacán, Pichucalco and Reforma in the north of the state with 116 wells accounting for about 6.5% of the country's oil production.", "It also provides about a quarter of the country's natural gas.", "This production equals of natural gas and 17,565,000 barrels of oil per year.Industry is limited to small and micro enterprises and include auto parts, bottling, fruit packing, coffee and chocolate processing, production of lime, bricks and other construction materials, sugar mills, furniture making, textiles, printing and the production of handcrafts.", "The two largest enterprises is the Comisión Federal de Electricidad and a Petróleos Mexicanos refinery.", "Chiapas opened its first assembly plant in 2002, a fact that highlights the historical lack of industry in this area.===Handcrafts===Chiapas is one of the states that produces a wide variety of handcrafts and folk art in Mexico.", "One reason for this is its many indigenous ethnicities who produce traditional items out of identity as well as commercial reasons.", "One commercial reason is the market for crafts provided by the tourism industry.", "Another is that most indigenous communities can no longer provide for their own needs through agriculture.", "The need to generate outside income has led to many indigenous women producing crafts communally, which has not only had economic benefits but also involved them in the political process as well.", "Unlike many other states, Chiapas has a wide variety of wood resources such as cedar and mahogany as well as plant species such as reeds, ixtle and palm.", "It also has minerals such as obsidian, amber, jade and several types of clay and animals for the production of leather, dyes from various insects used to create the colors associated with the region.", "Items include various types of handcrafted clothing, dishes, jars, furniture, roof tiles, toys, musical instruments, tools and more.Chiapas's most important handcraft is textiles, most of which is cloth woven on a backstrap loom.", "Indigenous girls often learn how to sew and embroider before they learn how to speak Spanish.", "They are also taught how to make natural dyes from insects, and weaving techniques.", "Many of the items produced are still for day-to-day use, often dyed in bright colors with intricate embroidery.", "They include skirts, belts, rebozos, blouses, huipils and shoulder wraps called chals.", "Designs are in red, yellow, turquoise blue, purple, pink, green and various pastels and decorated with designs such as flowers, butterflies, and birds, all based on local flora and fauna.", "Commercially, indigenous textiles are most often found in San Cristóbal de las Casas, San Juan Chamula and Zinacantán.", "The best textiles are considered to be from Magdalenas, Larráinzar, Venustiano Carranza and Sibaca.One of the main minerals of the state is amber, much of which is 25 million years old, with quality comparable to that found in the Dominican Republic.", "Chiapan amber has a number of unique qualities, including much that is clear all the way through and some with fossilized insects and plants.", "Most Chiapan amber is worked into jewelry including pendants, rings and necklaces.", "Colors vary from white to yellow/orange to a deep red, but there are also green and pink tones as well.", "Since pre-Hispanic times, native peoples have believed amber to have healing and protective qualities.", "The largest amber mine is in Simojovel, a small village 130 km from Tuxtla Gutiérrez, which produces 95% of Chiapas's amber.", "Other mines are found in Huitiupán, Totolapa, El Bosque, Pueblo Nuevo Solistahuacán, Pantelhó and San Andrés Duraznal.", "According to the Museum of Amber in San Cristóbal, almost 300 kg of amber is extracted per month from the state.", "Prices vary depending on quality and color.The major center for ceramics in the state is the city of Amatenango del Valle, with its barro blanco (white clay) pottery.", "The most traditional ceramic in Amatenango and Aguacatenango is a type of large jar called a cantaro used to transport water and other liquids.", "Many pieces created from this clay are ornamental as well as traditional pieces for everyday use such as comals, dishes, storage containers and flowerpots.", "All pieces here are made by hand using techniques that go back centuries.", "Other communities that produce ceramics include Chiapa de Corzo, Tonalá, Ocuilpa, Suchiapa and San Cristóbal de las Casas.Wood crafts in the state center on furniture, brightly painted sculptures and toys.", "The Tzotzils of San Juan de Chamula are known for their sculptures as well as for their sturdy furniture.", "Sculptures are made from woods such as cedar, mahogany and strawberry tree.", "Another town noted for their sculptures is Tecpatán.", "The making lacquer to use in the decoration of wooden and other items goes back to the colonial period.", "The best-known area for this type of work, called \"laca\" is Chiapa de Corzo, which has a museum dedicated to it.", "One reason this type of decoration became popular in the state was that it protected items from the constant humidity of the climate.", "Much of the laca in Chiapa de Corzo is made in the traditional way with natural pigments and sands to cover gourds, dipping spoons, chests, niches and furniture.", "It is also used to create the Parachicos masks.Traditional Mexican toys, which have all but disappeared in the rest of Mexico, are still readily found here and include the cajita de la serpiente, yo yos, ball in cup and more.", "Other wooden items include masks, cooking utensils, and tools.", "One famous toy is the \"muñecos zapatistas\" (Zapatista dolls), which are based on the revolutionary group that emerged in the 1990s.===Tourism and general commerce/services===Boats at the docks of Frontera Corozal, which mostly serves the nearby Yaxchilan archeological siteNinety-four percent of the state's commercial outlets are small retail stores with about 6% wholesalers.", "There are 111 municipal markets, 55 tianguis, three wholesale food markets and 173 large vendors of staple products.", "The service sector is the most important to the economy, with mostly commerce, warehousing and tourism.Tourism brings large numbers of visitors to the state each year.", "Most of Chiapas's tourism is based on its culture, colonial cities and ecology.", "The state has a total of 491 ranked hotels with 12,122 rooms.", "There are also 780 other establishments catering primarily to tourism, such as services and restaurants.Misol-Há WaterfallThere are three main tourist routes: the Maya Route, the Colonial Route and the Coffee Route.", "The Maya Route runs along the border with Guatemala in the Lacandon Jungle and includes the sites of Palenque, Bonampak, Yaxchilan along with the natural attractions of Agua Azul Waterfalls, Misol-Há Waterfall, and the Catazajá Lake.", "Palenque is the most important of these sites, and one of the most important tourist destinations in the state.", "Yaxchilan was a Mayan city along the Usumacinta River.", "It developed between 350 and 810 CE.", "Bonampak is known for its well preserved murals.", "These Mayan sites have made the state an attraction for international tourism.", "These sites contain a large number of structures, most of which date back thousands of years, especially to the sixth century.", "In addition to the sites on the Mayan Route, there are others within the state away from the border such as Toniná, near the city of Ocosingo.The Colonial Route is mostly in the central highlands with a significant number of churches, monasteries and other structures from the colonial period along with some from the 19th century and even into the early 20th.", "The most important city on this route is San Cristóbal de las Casas, located in the Los Altos region in the Jovel Valley.", "The historic center of the city is filled with tiled roofs, patios with flowers, balconies, Baroque facades along with Neoclassical and Moorish designs.", "It is centered on a main plaza surrounded by the cathedral, the municipal palace, the Portales commercial area and the San Nicolás church.", "In addition, it has museums dedicated to the state's indigenous cultures, one to amber and one to jade, both of which have been mined in the state.", "Other attractions along this route include Comitán de Domínguez and Chiapa de Corzo, along with small indigenous communities such as San Juan Chamula.", "The state capital of Tuxtla Gutiérrez does not have many colonial era structures left, but it lies near the area's most famous natural attraction of the Sumidero Canyon.", "This canyon is popular with tourists who take boat tours into it on the Grijalva River to see such features such as caves (La Cueva del Hombre, La Cueva del Silencio) and the Christmas Tree, which is a rock and plant formation on the side of one of the canyon walls created by a seasonal waterfall.The Coffee Route begins in Tapachula and follows a mountainous road into the Suconusco regopm.", "The route passes through Puerto Chiapas, a port with modern infrastructure for shipping exports and receiving international cruises.", "The route visits a number of coffee plantations, such as Hamburgo, Chiripa, Violetas, Santa Rita, Lindavista, Perú-París, San Antonio Chicarras and Rancho Alegre.", "These haciendas provide visitors with the opportunity to see how coffee is grown and initially processed on these farms.", "They also offer a number of ecotourism activities such as mountain climbing, rafting, rappelling and mountain biking.", "There are also tours into the jungle vegetation and the Tacaná Volcano.", "In addition to coffee, the region also produces most of Chiapas's soybeans, bananas and cacao.The state has a large number of ecological attractions most of which are connected to water.", "The main beaches on the coastline include Puerto Arista, Boca del Cielo, Playa Linda, Playa Aventuras, Playa Azul and Santa Brigida.", "Others are based on the state's lakes and rivers.", "Laguna Verde is a lake in the Coapilla municipality.", "The lake is generally green but its tones constantly change through the day depending on how the sun strikes it.", "In the early morning and evening hours there can also be blue and ochre tones as well.", "The El Chiflón Waterfall is part of an ecotourism center located in a valley with reeds, sugarcane, mountains and rainforest.", "It is formed by the San Vicente River and has pools of water at the bottom popular for swimming.", "The Las Nubes Ecotourism center is located in the Las Margaritas municipality near the Guatemalan border.", "The area features a number of turquoise blue waterfalls with bridges and lookout points set up to see them up close.Still others are based on conservation, local culture and other features.", "The Las Guacamayas Ecotourism Center is located in the Lacandon Jungle on the edge of the Montes Azules reserve.", "It is centered on the conservation of the red macaw, which is in danger of extinction.", "The Tziscao Ecotourism Center is centered on a lake with various tones.", "It is located inside the Lagunas de Montebello National Park, with kayaking, mountain biking and archery.", "Lacanjá Chansayab is located in the interior of the Lacandon Jungle and a major Lacandon people community.", "It has some activities associated with ecotourism such as mountain biking, hiking and cabins.", "The Grutas de Rancho Nuevo Ecotourism Center is centered on a set of caves in which appear capricious forms of stalagmite and stalactites.", "There is horseback riding as well." ], [ "Culture", "===Architecture===Architecture in the state begins with the archeological sites of the Mayans and other groups who established color schemes and other details that echo in later structures.", "After the Spanish subdued the area, the building of Spanish style cities began, especially in the highland areas.Many of the colonial-era buildings are related to Dominicans who came from Seville.", "This Spanish city had much Arabic influence in its architecture, and this was incorporated into the colonial architecture of Chiapas, especially in structures dating from the 16th to 18th centuries.", "However, there are a number of architectural styles and influences present in Chiapas colonial structures, including colors and patterns from Oaxaca and Central America along with indigenous ones from Chiapas.The main colonial structures are the cathedral and Santo Domingo church of San Cristóbal, the Santo Domingo monastery and La Pila in Chiapa de Corzo.", "The San Cristóbal cathedral has a Baroque facade that was begun in the 16th century but by the time it was finished in the 17th, it had a mix of Spanish, Arabic, and indigenous influences.", "It is one of the most elaborately decorated in Mexico.The churches and former monasteries of Santo Domingo, La Merced and San Francisco have ornamentation similar to that of the cathedral.", "The main structures in Chiapa de Corzo are the Santo Domingo monastery and the La Pila fountain.", "Santo Domingo has indigenous decorative details such as double headed eagles as well as a statue of the founding monk.", "In San Cristóbal, the Diego de Mazariegos house has a Plateresque facade, while that of Francisco de Montejo, built later in the 18th century has a mix of Baroque and Neoclassical.", "Art Deco structures can be found in San Cristóbal and Tapachula in public buildings as well as a number of rural coffee plantations from the Porfirio Díaz era.===Art and literature===Art in Chiapas is based on the use of color and has strong indigenous influence.", "This dates back to cave paintings such as those found in Sima de las Cotorras near Tuxtla Gutiérrez and the caverns of Rancho Nuevo where human remains and offerings were also found.", "The best-known pre-Hispanic artwork is the Maya murals of Bonampak, which are the only Mesoamerican murals to have been preserved for over 1500 years.", "In general, Mayan artwork stands out for its precise depiction of faces and its narrative form.", "Indigenous forms derive from this background and continue into the colonial period with the use of indigenous color schemes in churches and modern structures such as the municipal palace in Tapachula.", "Since the colonial period, the state has produced a large number of painters and sculptors.", "Noted 20th-century artists include Lázaro Gómez, Ramiro Jiménez Chacón, Héctor Ventura Cruz, Máximo Prado Pozo, and Gabriel Gallegos Ramos.The two best-known poets from the state are Jaime Sabines and Rosario Castellanos, both from prominent Chiapan families.", "The first was a merchant and diplomat and the second was a teacher, diplomat, theatre director and the director of the Instituto Nacional Indigenista.", "Jaime Sabines is widely regarded as Mexico's most influential contemporary poet.", "His work celebrates everyday people in common settings.===Music===The most important instrument in the state is the marimba.", "In the pre-Hispanic period, indigenous peoples had already been producing music with wooden instruments.", "The marimba was introduced by African slaves brought to Chiapas by the Spanish.", "However, it achieved its widespread popularity in the early 20th century due to the formation of the Cuarteto Marimbistico de los Hermanos Gómez in 1918, who popularized the instrument and the popular music that it plays not only in Chiapas but in various parts of Mexico and into the United States.", "Along with Cuban Juan Arozamena, they composed the piece \"Las chiapanecas\" considered to be the unofficial anthem of the state.", "In the 1940s, they were also featured in a number of Mexican films.", "Marimbas are constructed in Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas de Corzo and Tuxtla Gutiérrez.===Cuisine===Drink called taxcalateLike the rest of Mesoamerica, the basic diet has been based on corn and Chiapas cooking retains strong indigenous influence.", "One important ingredient is chipilin, a fragrant and strongly flavored herb that is used on most of the indigenous plates and hoja santa, the large anise-scented leaves used in much of southern Mexican cuisine.", "Chiapan dishes do not incorporate many chili peppers as part of their dishes.", "Rather, chili peppers are most often found in the condiments.", "One reason for that is that a local chili pepper, called the simojovel, is far too hot to use except very sparingly.", "Chiapan cuisine tends to rely more on slightly sweet seasonings in their main dishes such as cinnamon, plantains, prunes and pineapple are often found in meat and poultry dishes.Tamales are a major part of the diet and often include chipilín mixed into the dough and hoja santa, within the tamale itself or used to wrap it.", "One tamale native to the state is the \"picte\", a fresh sweet corn tamale.", "Tamales juacanes are filled with a mixture of black beans, dried shrimp, and pumpkin seeds.Meats are centered on the European introduced beef, pork and chicken as many native game animals are in danger of extinction.", "Meat dishes are frequently accompanied by vegetables such as squash, chayote and carrots.", "Black beans are the favored type.", "Beef is favored, especially a thin cut called tasajo usually served in a sauce.", "Pepita con tasajo is a common dish at festivals especially in Chiapa de Corzo.", "It consists of a squash seed based sauced over reconstituted and shredded dried beef.", "As a cattle raising area, beef dishes in Palenque are particularly good.", "Pux-Xaxé is a stew with beef organ meats and mole sauce made with tomato, chili bolita and corn flour.", "Tzispolá is a beef broth with chunks of meat, chickpeas, cabbage and various types of chili peppers.", "Pork dishes include cochito, which is pork in an adobo sauce.", "In Chiapa de Corzo, their version is cochito horneado, which is a roast suckling pig flavored with adobo.", "Seafood is a strong component in many dishes along the coast.", "Turula is dried shrimp with tomatoes.", "Sausages, ham and other cold cuts are most often made and consumed in the highlands.In addition to meat dishes, there is chirmol, a cooked tomato sauced flavored with chili pepper, onion and cilantro and zats, butterfly caterpillars from the Altos de Chiapas that are boiled in salted water, then sautéed in lard and eaten with tortillas, limes, and green chili pepper.Sopa de pan consists of layers of bread and vegetables covered with a broth seasoned with saffron and other flavorings.", "A Comitán speciality is hearts of palm salad in vinaigrette and Palenque is known for many versions of fried plaintains, including filled with black beans or cheese.Cheese making is important, especially in the municipalities of Ocosingo, Rayon and Pijijiapan.", "Ocosingo has its own self-named variety, which is shipped to restaurants and gourmet shops in various parts of the country.", "Regional sweets include crystallized fruit, coconut candies, flan and compotes.", "San Cristobal is noted for its sweets, as well as chocolates, coffee and baked goods.While Chiapas is known for good coffee, there are a number of other local beverages.", "The oldest is pozol, originally the name for a fermented corn dough.", "This dough has its origins in the pre-Hispanic period.", "To make the beverage, the dough is dissolved in water and usually flavored with cocoa and sugar, but sometimes it is left to ferment further.", "It is then served very cold with much ice.", "Taxcalate is a drink made from a powder of toasted corn, achiote, cinnamon and sugar prepared with milk or water.", "Pumbo is a beverage made with pineapple, club soda, vodka, sugar syrup and much ice.", "Pox is a drink distilled from sugar cane." ], [ "Religion", "''Cristo de Chiapas'', a monumental cross in Tuxtla Gutiérrez constructed in 2011Like in the rest of Mexico, Christianity was introduced to the native populations of Chiapas by the Spanish conquistadors.", "However, Catholic beliefs were mixed with indigenous ones to form what is now called \"traditionalist\" Catholic belief.", "The Diocese of Chiapas comprises almost the entire state, and centered on San Cristobal de las Casas.", "It was founded in 1538 by Pope Paul III to evangelize the area with its most famous bishop of that time Bartolomé de las Casas.", "Evangelization focused on grouping indigenous peoples into communities centered on a church.", "This bishop not only graciously evangelized the people in their own language, he worked to introduce many of the crafts still practiced today.", "While still a majority, only 53.9% percent of Chiapas residents profess the Catholic faith as of 2020, compared to 78.6% of the total national population.Some indigenous people mix Christianity with Indian beliefs.", "One particular area where this is strong is the central highlands in small communities such as San Juan Chamula.", "In one church in San Cristobal, Mayan rites including the sacrifice of animals is permitted inside the church to ask for good health or to \"ward off the evil eye.", "\"Starting in the 1970s, there has been a shift away from traditional Catholic affiliation to Protestant, Evangelical and other Christian denominations.", "Presbyterians and Pentecostals attracted a large number of converts, with percentages of Protestants in the state rising from five percent in 1970 to twenty-one percent in 2000.This shift has had a political component as well, with those making the switch tending to identify across ethnic boundaries, especially across indigenous ethnic boundaries and being against the traditional power structure.", "The National Presbyterian Church in Mexico is particularly strong in Chiapas, the state can be described as one of the strongholds of the denomination.Both Protestants and Word of God Catholics tend to oppose traditional cacique leadership and often worked to prohibit the sale of alcohol.", "The latter had the effect of attracting many women to both movements.The growing number of Protestants, Evangelicals and Word of God Catholics challenging traditional authority has caused religious strife in a number of indigenous communities.", "Tensions have been strong, at times, especially in rural areas such as San Juan Chamula.", "Tension among the groups reached its peak in the 1990s with a large number of people injured during open clashes.", "In the 1970s, caciques began to expel dissidents from their communities for challenging their power, initially with the use of violence.", "By 2000, more than 20,000 people had been displaced, but state and federal authorities did not act to stop the expulsions.", "Today, the situation has quieted but the tension remains, especially in very isolated communities.Subcomandante Marcos of the Zapatistas entered into an alliance with Chiapas Muslims in the 1990s.===Islam===The Spanish Murabitun community, the ''Comunidad Islámica en España'', based in Granada in Spain, and one of its missionaries, Muhammad Nafia (formerly Aureliano Pérez), now emir of the Comunidad Islámica en México, arrived in the state of Chiapas shortly after the Zapatista uprising and established a commune in the city of San Cristóbal.", "The group, characterized as anti-capitalistic, entered an ideological pact with the socialist Zapatistas group.", "President Vicente Fox voiced concerns about the influence of the fundamentalism and possible connections to the Zapatistas and the Basque terrorist organization (ETA), but it appeared that converts had no interest in political extremism.", "By 2015, many indigenous Mayans and more than 700 Tzotzils have converted to Islam.", "In San Cristóbal, the Murabitun established a pizzeria, a carpentry workshop and a Quranic school (madrasa) where children learned Arabic and prayed five times a day in the backroom of a residential building, and women in head scarves have become a common sight.", "Nowadays, most of the Mayan Muslims have left the Murabitun and established ties with the CCIM, now following the orthodox Sunni school of Islam.", "They built the Al-Kausar Mosque in San Cristobal de las Casas." ], [ "Archaeology", "Olmec style stone sculpture from Tiltepec at the Regional Museum of ChiapasThe earliest population of Chiapas was in the coastal Soconusco region, where the Chantuto peoples appeared, going back to 5500 BC.", "This was the oldest Mesoamerican culture discovered to date.The largest and best-known archaeological sites in Chiapas belong to the Mayan civilization.", "Apart from a few works by Franciscan friars, knowledge of Maya civilisation largely disappeared after the Spanish Conquest.", "In the mid-19th century, John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood traveled though the sites in Chiapas and other Mayan areas and published their writings and illustrations.", "This led to serious work on the culture including the deciphering of its hieroglyphic writing.In Chiapas, principal Mayan sites include Palenque, Toniná, Bonampak, Chinkoltic and Tenam Puentes, all or near in the Lacandon Jungle.", "They are technically more advanced than earlier Olmec sites, which can best be seen in the detailed sculpting and novel construction techniques, including structures of four stories in height.", "Mayan sites are not only noted for large numbers of structures, but also for glyphs, other inscriptions, and artwork that has provided a relatively complete history of many of the sites.Palenque is the most important Mayan and archaeological site.", "Though much smaller than the huge sites at Tikal or Copán, Palenque contains some of the finest architecture, sculpture and stucco reliefs the Mayans ever produced.", "The history of the Palenque site begins in 431 with its height under Pakal I (615–683), Chan-Bahlum II (684–702) and Kan-Xul who reigned between 702 and 721.However, the power of Palenque would be lost by the end of the century.", "Pakal's tomb was not discovered inside the Temple of Inscriptions until 1949.Today, Palenque is a World Heritage Site and one of the best-known sites in Mexico.", "The similarly-aged site (750/700–600) of Pampa el Pajón preserves burials and cultural items, including cranial modifications.Yaxchilan flourished in the 8th and 9th centuries.", "The site contains impressive ruins, with palaces and temples bordering a large plaza upon a terrace above the Usumacinta River.", "The architectural remains extend across the higher terraces and the hills to the south of the river, overlooking both the river itself and the lowlands beyond.", "Yaxchilan is known for the large quantity of excellent sculpture at the site, such as the monolithic carved stelae and the narrative stone reliefs carved on lintels spanning the temple doorways.", "Over 120 inscriptions have been identified on the various monuments from the site.", "The major groups are the Central Acropolis, the West Acropolis and the South Acropolis.", "The South Acropolis occupies the highest part of the site.", "The site is aligned with relation to the Usumacinta River, at times causing unconventional orientation of the major structures, such as the two ballcourts.The city of Bonampak features some of the finest remaining Maya murals.", "The realistically rendered paintings depict human sacrifices, musicians and scenes of the royal court.", "In fact the name means “painted murals.” It is centered on a large plaza and has a stairway that leads to the Acropolis.", "There are also a number of notable steles.Toniná is near the city of Ocosingo with its main features being the Casa de Piedra (House of Stone) and Acropolis.", "The latter is a series of seven platforms with various temples and steles.", "This site was a ceremonial center that flourished between 600 and 900 CE.The capital of Sak Tz’i’ (an Ancient Maya kingdom) now named Lacanja Tzeltal, was revealed by researchers led by associate anthropology professor Charles Golden and bioarchaeologist Andrew Scherer in the Chiapas in the backyard of a Mexican farmer in 2020.Multiple domestic constructions used by the population for religious purposes.", "“Plaza Muk’ul Ton” or Monuments Plaza where people used to gather for ceremonies was also unearthed by the team.===Pre-Mayan cultures===While the Mayan sites are the best-known, there are a number of other important sites in the state, including many older than the Maya civilization.The oldest sites are in the coastal Soconusco region.", "This includes the Mokaya culture, the oldest ceramic culture of Mesoamerica.", "Later, Paso de la Amada became important.", "Many of these sites are in Mazatan, Chiapas area.Izapa became an important pre-Mayan site as well.There are also other ancient sites including Tapachula and Tecpatán, and Pijijiapan.", "These sites contain numerous embankments and foundations that once lay beneath pyramids and other buildings.", "Some of these buildings have disappeared and others have been covered by jungle for about 3,000 years, unexplored.Pijijiapan and Izapa are on the Pacific coast and were the most important pre Hispanic cities for about 1,000 years, as the most important commercial centers between the Mexican Plateau and Central America.", "Sima de las Cotorras is a sinkhole 140 meters deep with a diameter of 160 meters in the municipality of Ocozocoautla.", "It contains ancient cave paintings depicting warriors, animals and more.", "It is best known as a breeding area for parrots, thousands of which leave the area at once at dawn and return at dusk.", "The state as its Museo Regional de Antropologia e Historia located in Tuxtla Gutiérrez focusing on the pre Hispanic peoples of the state with a room dedicated to its history from the colonial period." ], [ "Education", "The average number of years of schooling is 6.7, which is the beginning of middle school, compared to the Mexico average of 8.6.16.5% have no schooling at all, 59.6% have only primary school/secondary school, 13.7% finish high school or technical school and 9.8% go to university.", "Eighteen out of every 100 people 15 years or older cannot read or write, compared to 7/100 nationally.", "Most of Chiapas's illiterate population are indigenous women, who are often prevented from going to school.", "School absenteeism and dropout rates are highest among indigenous girls.There are an estimated 1.4 million students in the state from preschool on up.", "The state has about 61,000 teachers and just over 17,000 centers of educations.", "Preschool and primary schools are divided into modalities called general, indigenous, private and community educations sponsored by CONAFE.", "Middle school is divided into technical, telesecundaria (distance education) and classes for working adults.", "About 98% of the student population of the state is in state schools.", "Higher levels of education include \"professional medio\" (vocational training), general high school and technology-focused high school.", "At this level, 89% of students are in public schools.", "There are 105 universities and similar institutions with 58 public and 47 private serving over 60,500 students.The state university is the (UNACH).", "It was begun when an organization to establish a state level institution was formed in 1965, with the university itself opening its doors ten years later in 1975.The university project was partially supported by UNESCO in Mexico.", "It integrated older schools such as the Escuela de Derecho (Law School), which originated in 1679; the Escuela de Ingeniería Civil (School of Civil Engineering), founded in 1966; and the Escuela de Comercio y Administración, which was located in Tuxtla Gutiérrez." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transport===The state has approximately of highway with 10,857 federally maintained and 11,660 maintained by the state.", "Almost all of these kilometers are paved.", "Major highways include the Las Choapas-Raudales-Ocozocoautla, which links the state to Oaxaca, Veracruz, Puebla and Mexico City.", "Major airports include Llano San Juan in Ocozocoautla, Francisco Sarabia National Airport (which was replaced by Ángel Albino Corzo International Airport) in Tuxtla Gutiérrez and Corazón de María Airport (which closed in 2010) in San Cristóbal de las Casas.", "These are used for domestic flights with the airports in Palenque and Tapachula providing international service into Guatemala.", "There are 22 other airfields in twelve other municipalities.", "Rail lines extend over 547.8 km.", "There are two major lines: one in the north of the state that links the center and southeast of the country, and the Costa Panamericana route, which runs from Oaxaca to the Guatemalan border.Chiapas's main port is just outside the city of Tapachula called the Puerto Chiapas.", "It faces of ocean, with of warehouse space.", "Next to it there is an industrial park that covers .", "Puerto Chiapas has of area with a capacity to receive 1,800 containers as well as refrigerated containers.", "The port serves the state of Chiapas and northern Guatemala.", "Puerto Chiapas serves to import and export products across the Pacific to Asia, the United States, Canada and South America.", "It also has connections with the Panama Canal.", "A marina serves yachts in transit.", "There is an international airport located away as well as a railroad terminal ending at the port proper.", "Over the past five years the port has grown with its newest addition being a terminal for cruise ships with tours to the Izapa site, the Coffee Route, the city of Tapachula, Pozuelos Lake and an Artesanal Chocolate Tour.", "Principal exports through the port include banana and banana trees, corn, fertilizer and tuna.File:Puertochis1.JPG|View of Port ChiapasFile:TGZ Airport.jpg|Ángel Albino Corzo International Airport===Media===There are thirty-six AM radio stations and sixteen FM stations.", "There are thirty-seven local television stations and sixty-six repeaters.", "Newspapers of Chiapas include: ''Chiapas Hoy'', ''Cuarto Poder '', ''El Heraldo de Chiapas'', ''El Orbe'', ''La Voz del Sureste'', and ''Noticias de Chiapas.''" ], [ "See also", "*2017 Chiapas earthquake*Ciudad Hidalgo" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Benjamin, Thomas.", "''A Rich Land, a Poor People: Politics and Society in Modern Chiapas''.", "Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.", "1996.", "*Benjamin, Thomas.", "\"A Time of Reconquest: History, the Maya Revival, and the Zapatista Rebellion.\"", "''The American Historical Review'', Vol.", "105, no.", "2 (April 2000): pp. 417–450.", "*Collier, George A, and Elizabeth Lowery Quaratiello.", "''Basta!", "Land and the Zapatista Rebellion in Chiapas''.", "Oakland: The Institute for Food and Development Policy, 1994.", "*Collier, George A.", "\"The Rebellion in Chiapas and the Legacy of Energy Development.\"", "''Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos'', Vol.", "10, no.", "2 (Summer 1994): pp.", "371–382*García, María Cristina.", "''Seeking Refuge: Central American Migration to Mexico, the United States, and Canada''.", "Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 2006 *Hamnett, Brian R. ''Concise History of Mexico''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1999.", "*Hidalgo, Margarita G. (Editor).", "''Contributions to the Sociology of Language: Mexican Indigenous Languages at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century''.", "Berlin: DEU: Walter de Gruyter & Co. kg Publishers, Berlin, 2009.", "*Higgins, Nicholas P. ''Understanding the Chiapas Rebellion: Modernist Visions and the Invisible Indian''.", "Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004, *Jiménez González, Victor Manuel (Editor).", "''Chiapas: Guía para descubrir los encantos del estado''.", "Mexico City: Editorial Océano de México, SA de CV 2009.", "*Lowe, G. W., “Chiapas de Corzo”, in Evans, Susan, ed., ''Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America'', Taylor & Francis, London.", "*Whitmeyer, Joseph M. and Hopcroft, Rosemary L. \"Community, Capitalism, and Rebellion in Chiapas.\"", "''Sociological Perspectives'' Vol.", "39, no.", "4 (Winter 1996): pp.", "517–538." ], [ "External links", "** Chiapas State Government * Zapatista National Army of Liberation * brief history of the conflict in Chiapas (1994–2007) *Acosta et al., 2018.", "\"Climate change and peopling of the Neotropics during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition\".", "''Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana''.", "* Guide to the University of Chicago Department of Anthropology Chiapas Project Records 1942-circa 1990s at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chrysler Building" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Chrysler Building''' is an Art Deco skyscraper on the East Side of Manhattan in New York City, at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue in Midtown Manhattan.", "At , it is the tallest brick building in the world with a steel framework, and it was the world's tallest building for 11 months after its completion in 1930., the Chrysler is the 12th-tallest building in the city, tied with The New York Times Building.Originally a project of real estate developer and former New York State Senator William H. Reynolds, the building was constructed by Walter Chrysler, the head of the Chrysler Corporation.", "The construction of the Chrysler Building, an early skyscraper, was characterized by a competition with 40 Wall Street and the Empire State Building to become the world's tallest building.", "The Chrysler Building was designed and funded by Walter Chrysler personally as a real estate investment for his children, but it was not intended as the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters.", "An annex was completed in 1952, and the building was sold by the Chrysler family the next year, with numerous subsequent owners.When the Chrysler Building opened, there were mixed reviews of the building's design, some calling it inane and unoriginal, others hailing it as modernist and iconic.", "Reviewers in the late 20th and early 21st centuries regarded the building as a paragon of the Art Deco architectural style.", "In 2007, it was ranked ninth on the American Institute of Architects' list of America's Favorite Architecture.", "The facade and interior became New York City designated landmarks in 1978, and the structure was added to the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark in 1976." ], [ "Site", "The Chrysler Building is on the eastern side of Lexington Avenue between 42nd and 43rd streets in Midtown Manhattan in New York City.", "The land was donated to The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art in 1902.The site is roughly a trapezoid with a frontage on Lexington Avenue; a frontage on 42nd Street; and a frontage on 43rd Street.", "The site bordered the old Boston Post Road, which predated, and ran aslant of, the Manhattan street grid established by the Commissioners' Plan of 1811.As a result, the east side of the building's base is similarly aslant.", "The building is assigned its own ZIP Code, 10174; it was one of 41 buildings in Manhattan that had their own ZIP Codes .The Grand Hyatt New York hotel and the Graybar Building are across Lexington Avenue, while the Socony–Mobil Building is across 42nd Street.", "In addition, the Chanin Building is to the southwest, diagonally across Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street." ], [ "Architecture", "The Chrysler Building was designed by William Van Alen in the Art Deco style and is named after one of its original tenants, automotive executive Walter Chrysler.", "With a height of , the Chrysler is the 12th-tallest building in the city , tied with The New York Times Building.", "The building is constructed of a steel frame infilled with masonry, with areas of decorative metal cladding.", "The structure contains 3,862 exterior windows.", "Approximately fifty metal ornaments protrude at the building's corners on five floors reminiscent of gargoyles on Gothic cathedrals.", "The 31st-floor contains gargoyles as well as replicas of the 1929 Chrysler radiator caps, and the 61st-floor is adorned with eagles as a nod to America's national bird.The design of the Chrysler Building makes extensive use of bright \"Nirosta\" stainless steel, an austenitic alloy developed in Germany by Krupp.", "It was the first use of this \"18-8 stainless steel\" in an American project, composed of 18% chromium and 8% nickel.", "Nirosta was used in the exterior ornaments, the window frames, the crown, and the needle.", "The steel was an integral part of Van Alen's design, as E.E.", "Thum explains: \"The use of permanently bright metal was of greatest aid in the carrying of rising lines and the diminishing circular forms in the roof treatment, so as to accentuate the gradual upward swing until it literally dissolves into the sky....\" Stainless steel producers used the Chrysler Building to evaluate the durability of the product in architecture.", "In 1929, the American Society for Testing Materials created an inspection committee to study its performance, which regarded the Chrysler Building as the best location to do so; a subcommittee examined the building's panels every five years until 1960, when the inspections were canceled because the panels had shown minimal deterioration.=== Form ===leftThe Chrysler Building's height and legally mandated setbacks influenced Van Alen in his design.", "The walls of the lowermost sixteen floors rise directly from the sidewalk property lines, except for a recess on one side that gives the building a U-shaped floor plan above the fourth floor.", "There are setbacks on floors 16, 18, 23, 28, and 31, making the building compliant with the 1916 Zoning Resolution.", "This gives the building the appearance of a ziggurat on one side and a U-shaped palazzo on the other.", "Above the 31st floor, there are no more setbacks until the 60th floor, above which the structure is funneled into a Maltese cross shape that \"blends the square shaft to the finial\", according to author and photographer Cervin Robinson.The floor plans of the first sixteen floors were made as large as possible to optimize the amount of rental space nearest ground level, which was seen as most desirable.", "The U-shaped cut above the fourth floor served as a shaft for air flow and illumination.", "The area between floors 28 and 31 added \"visual interest to the middle of the building, preventing it from being dominated by the heavy detail of the lower floors and the eye-catching design of the finial.", "They provide a base to the column of the tower, effecting a transition between the blocky lower stories and the lofty shaft.", "\"=== Facade ======= Base and shaft ====The lower walls are clad with white brick, interrupted by white-marble bands in a manner similar to a basket weaving.The ground floor exterior is covered in polished black granite from Shastone, while the three floors above it are clad in white marble from Georgia.", "There are two main entrances, on Lexington Avenue and on 42nd Street, each three floors high with Shastone granite surrounding each proscenium-shaped entryway.", "At some distance into each main entryway, there are revolving doors \"beneath intricately patterned metal and glass screens\", designed so as to embody the Art Deco tenet of amplifying the entrance's visual impact.", "A smaller side entrance on 43rd Street is one story high.", "There are storefronts consisting of large Nirosta-steel-framed windows at ground level.", "Office windows penetrate the second through fourth floors.The west and east elevations contain the air shafts above the fourth floor, while the north and south sides contain the receding setbacks.", "Below the 16th floor, the facade is clad with white brick, interrupted by white-marble bands in a manner similar to basket weaving.", "The inner faces of the brick walls are coated with a waterproof grout mixture measuring about thick.", "The windows, arranged in grids, do not have window sills, the frames being flush with the facade.", "Between the 16th and 24th floors, the exterior exhibits vertical white brick columns that are separated by windows on each floor.", "This visual effect is made possible by the presence of aluminum spandrels between the columns of windows on each floor.", "There are abstract reliefs on the 20th through 22nd-floor spandrels, while the 24th floor contains decorative pineapples.Above the third setback, consisting of the 24th through 27th floors, the facade contains horizontal bands and zigzagged gray-and-black brick motifs.", "The section above the fourth setback, between the 27th and 31st floors, serves as a podium for the main shaft of the building.", "There are Nirosta-steel decorations above the setbacks.", "At each corner of the 31st floor, large car-hood ornaments were installed to make the base look larger.", "These corner extensions help counter a common optical illusion seen in tall buildings with horizontal bands, whose taller floors would normally look larger.", "The 31st floor also contains a gray and white frieze of hubcaps and fenders, which both symbolizes the Chrysler Corporation and serves as a visual signature of the building's Art Deco design.", "The bonnet embellishments take the shape of Mercury's winged helmet and resemble hood ornaments installed on Chrysler vehicles at the time.The shaft of the tower was designed to emphasize both the horizontal and vertical: each of the tower's four sides contains three columns of windows, each framed by bricks and an unbroken marble pillar that rises along the entirety of each side.", "The spandrels separating the windows contain \"alternating vertical stripes in gray and white brick\", while each corner contains horizontal rows of black brick.====Crown and spire====leftThe Chrysler Building is renowned for, and recognized by its terraced crown, which is an extension of the main tower.", "Composed of seven radiating terraced arches, Van Alen's design of the crown is a cruciform groin vault of seven concentric members with transitioning setbacks.", "The entire crown is clad with Nirosta steel, ribbed and riveted in a radiating sunburst pattern with many triangular vaulted windows, reminiscent of the spokes of a wheel.", "The windows are repeated, in smaller form, on the terraced crown's seven narrow setbacks.", "Due to the curved shape of the dome, the Nirosta sheets had to be measured on site, so most of the work was carried out in workshops on the building's 67th and 75th floors.", "According to Robinson, the terraced crown \"continues the wedding-cake layering of the building itself.", "This concept is carried forward from the 61st floor, whose eagle gargoyles echo the treatment of the 31st, to the spire, which extends the concept of 'higher and narrower' forward to infinite height and infinitesimal width.", "This unique treatment emphasizes the building's height, giving it an other worldly atmosphere reminiscent of the fantastic architecture of Coney Island or the Far East.", "\"Television station WCBS-TV (Channel 2) originated its transmission from the top of the Chrysler Building in 1938.WCBS-TV transmissions were shifted to the Empire State Building in 1960 in response to competition from RCA's transmitter on that building.", "For many years WPAT-FM and WTFM (now WKTU) also transmitted from the Chrysler Building, but their move to the Empire State Building by the 1970s ended commercial broadcasting from the structure.The crown and spire are illuminated by a combination of fluorescent lights framing the crown's distinctive triangular windows and colored floodlights that face toward the building, allowing it to be lit in a variety of schemes for special occasions.", "The V-shaped fluorescent \"tube lighting\" – hundreds of 480V 40W bulbs framing 120 window openings – was added in 1981, although it had been part of the original design.", "Until 1998, the lights were turned off at 2 a.m., but ''The New York Observer'' columnist Ron Rosenbaum convinced Tishman Speyer to keep the lights on until 6 a.m.", "Since 2015, the Chrysler Building and other city skyscrapers have been part of the Audubon Society's Lights Out program, turning off their lights during bird migration seasons.=== Interior ===The interior of the building has several elements that were innovative when the structure was constructed.", "The partitions between the offices are soundproofed and divided into interchangeable sections, so the layout of any could be changed quickly and comfortably.", "Pipes under the floors carry both telephone and electricity cables.==== Lobby ====The lobby is triangular in plan, connecting with entrances on Lexington Avenue, 42nd Street, and 43rd Street.", "The lobby was the only publicly accessible part of the Chrysler Building by the 2000s.", "The three entrances contain Nirosta steel doors, above which are etched-glass panels that allow natural light to illuminate the space.", "The floors contain bands of yellow travertine from Siena, which mark the path between the entrances and elevator banks.", "The writer Eric Nash described the lobby as a paragon of the Art Deco style, with clear influences of German Expressionism.", "Chrysler wanted the design to impress other architects and automobile magnates, so he imported various materials regardless of the extra costs incurred.The walls are covered with huge slabs of African red granite.", "The walls also contain storefronts and doors made of Nirosta steel.", "There is a wall panel dedicated to the work of clinchers, surveyors, masons, carpenters, plasterers, and builders.", "Fifty different figures were modeled after workers who participated in its construction.", "In 1999, the mural was returned to its original state after a restoration that removed the polyurethane coating and filled-in holes added in the 1970s.", "Originally, Van Alen's plans for the lobby included four large supporting columns, but they were removed after Chrysler objected on the grounds that the columns made the lobby appear \"cramped\".", "The lobby has dim lighting which combined with the appliqués of the lamps, create an intimate atmosphere and highlight the space.", "Vertical bars of fluorescent light are covered with Belgian blue marble and Mexican amber onyx bands, which soften and diffuse the light.", "The marble and onyx bands are designed as inverted chevrons.Opposite the Lexington Avenue entrance is a security guard's desk topped by a digital clock.", "The panel behind the desk is made of marble, surrounded by Nirosta steel.", "The lobby connects to four elevator banks, each of a different design.", "To the north and south of the security desk are terrazzo staircases leading to the second floor and basement.", "The stairs contain marble walls and Nirosta-steel railings.", "The outer walls are flat but are clad with marble strips that are slightly angled to each other, which give the impression of being curved.", "The inner railings of each stair are designed with zigzagging Art Deco motifs, ending at red-marble newel posts on the ground story.", "Above each stair are aluminum-leaf ceilings with etched-glass chandeliers.The ceiling contains a mural, ''Transport and Human Endeavor'', designed by Edward Trumbull.", "The mural's theme is \"energy and man's application of it to the solution of his problems\", and it pays homage to the Golden Age of Aviation and the Machine Age.", "The mural is painted in the shape of a \"Y\" with ocher and golden tones.", "The central image of the mural is a \"muscled giant whose brain directs his boundless energy to the attainment of the triumphs of this mechanical era\", according to a 1930 pamphlet that advertised the building.", "The mural's Art Deco style is manifested in characteristic triangles, sharp angles, slightly curved lines, chrome ornaments, and numerous patterns.", "The mural depicts several silver planes, including the ''Spirit of St. Louis'', as well as furnaces of incandescent steel and the building itself.When the building opened, the first and second floors housed a public exhibition of Chrysler vehicles.", "The exhibition, known as the Chrysler Automobile Salon, was near the corner of Lexington Avenue and 42nd Streets, and opened in 1936.The ground floor featured \"invisible glass\" display windows, a diameter turntable upon which automobiles were displayed, and a ceiling with lights arranged in concentric circles.", "Escalators led to the showroom's second floor where Plymouths, Dodges, and DeSotos were sold.", "The Chrysler Salon remained operational through at least the 1960s.==== Elevators ====There are 32 elevators in the skyscraper, clustered into four banks.", "At the time of opening, 28 of the elevators were for passenger use.", "Each bank serves different floors within the building, with several \"express\" elevators going from the lobby to a few landings in between, while \"local\" elevators connect the landings with the floors above these intermediate landings.", "As per Walter Chrysler's wishes, the elevators were designed to run at a rate of , despite the speed restriction enforced in all city elevators at the time.", "This restriction was loosened soon after the Empire State Building opened in 1931, as that building had also been equipped with high-speed elevators.", "The Chrysler Building also had three of the longest elevator shafts in the world at the time of completion.Over the course of a year, Van Alen painstakingly designed these elevators with the assistance of L.T.M.", "Ralston, who was in charge of developing the elevator cabs' mechanical parts.", "The cabs were manufactured by the Otis Elevator Company, while the doors were made by the Tyler Company.", "The dimensions of each elevator were deep by wide.", "Within the lobby, there are ziggurat-shaped Mexican onyx panels above the elevator doors.", "The doors are designed in a lotus pattern and are clad with steel and wood.", "When the doors are closed, they resemble \"tall fans set off by metallic palm fronds rising through a series of silver parabolas, whose edges were set off by curved lilies\" from the outside, as noted by Curcio.", "However, when a set of doors is open, the cab behind the doors resembles \"an exquisite Art Deco room\".", "These elements were influenced by ancient Egyptian designs, which significantly impacted the Art Deco style.", "According to Vincent Curcio, \"these elevator interiors were perhaps the single most beautiful and, next to the dome, the most important feature of the entire building.", "\"Even though the woods in the elevator cabs were arranged in four basic patterns, each cab had a unique combination of woods.", "Curcio stated that \"if anything the building is based on patterned fabrics, the elevators certainly are.", "Three of the designs could be characterized as having 'geometric', 'Mexican' and vaguely 'art nouveau' motifs, which reflect the various influences on the design of the entire building.\"", "The roof of each elevator was covered with a metal plate whose design was unique to that cab, which in turn was placed on a polished wooden pattern that was also customized to the cab.", "Hidden behind these plates were ceiling fans.", "Curcio wrote that these elevators \"are among the most beautiful small enclosed spaces in New York, and it is fair to say that no one who has seen or been in them has forgotten them\".", "Curcio compared the elevators to the curtains of a Ziegfeld production, noting that each lobby contains lighting that peaks in the middle and slopes down on either side.", "The decoration of the cabs' interiors was also a nod to the Chrysler Corporation's vehicles: cars built during the building's early years had dashboards with wooden moldings.", "Both the doors and cab interiors were considered to be works of extraordinary marquetry.==== Basement ====On the 42nd Street side of the Chrysler Building, a staircase from the street leads directly under the building to the New York City Subway's at Grand Central–42nd Street station.", "It is part of the structure's original design.", "The Interborough Rapid Transit Company, which at the time was the operator of all the routes serving the 42nd Street station, originally sued to block construction of the new entrance because it would cause crowding, but the New York City Board of Transportation pushed to allow the corridor anyway.", "Chrysler eventually built and paid for the building's subway entrance.", "Work on the new entrance started in March 1930 and it opened along with the Chrysler Building two months later.The basement also had a \"hydrozone water bottling unit\" that would filter tap water into drinkable water for the building's tenants.", "The drinkable water would then be bottled and shipped to higher floors.==== Upper stories ========= Cloud Club =====View from one of the north-facing triangular windowsThe private Cloud Club formerly occupied the 66th through 68th floors.", "It opened in July 1930 with some three hundred members, all wealthy males who formed the city's elite.", "Its creation was spurred by Texaco's wish for a proper restaurant for its executives prior to renting fourteen floors in the building.", "The Cloud Club was a compromise between William Van Alen's modern style and Walter Chrysler's stately and traditional tastes.", "A member had to be elected and, if accepted, paid an initial fee of $200, plus a $150 to $300 annual fee.", "Texaco executives comprised most of the Cloud Club's membership.", "The club and its dining room may have inspired the Rainbow Room and the Rockefeller Center Luncheon Club at 30 Rockefeller Plaza.There was a Tudor-style foyer on the 66th floor with oak paneling, as well as an old English-style grill room with wooden floors, wooden beams, wrought-iron chandeliers, and glass and lead doors.", "The main dining room had a futuristic appearance, with polished granite columns and etched glass appliqués in Art Deco style.", "There was a mural of a cloud on the ceiling and a mural of Manhattan on the dining room's north side.", "The 66th and 67th floors were connected by a Renaissance-style marble and bronze staircase.", "The 67th floor had an open bar with dark-wood paneling and furniture.", "On the same floor, Walter Chrysler and Texaco both had private dining rooms.", "Chrysler's dining room had a black and frosted-blue glass frieze of automobile workers.", "Texaco's dining room contained a mural across two walls; one wall depicted a town in New England with a Texaco gas station, while the other depicted an oil refinery and Texaco truck.", "The south side of the 67th floor also contained a library with wood-paneled walls and fluted pilasters.", "The 68th floor mainly contained service spaces.In the 1950s and 1960s, members left the Cloud Club for other clubs.", "Texaco moved to Westchester County in 1977, and the club closed two years later.", "Although there have been several projects to rehabilitate the club or transform it into a disco or a gastronomic club, these plans have never materialized, as then-owner Cooke reportedly did not want a \"conventional\" restaurant operating within the old club.", "Tishman Speyer rented the top two floors of the old Cloud Club.", "The old staircase has been removed, as have many of the original decorations, which prompted objections from the Art Deco Society of New York.===== Private Chrysler offices =====Originally, Walter Chrysler had a two-story apartment on the 69th and 70th floors with a fireplace and a private office.", "The office also contained a gymnasium and the loftiest bathrooms in the city.", "The office had a medieval ambience with leaded windows, elaborate wooden doors, and heavy plaster.", "Chrysler did not use his gym much, instead choosing to stay at the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters in Detroit.", "Subsequently, the 69th and 70th floors were converted into a dental clinic.", "In 2005, a report by ''The New York Times'' found that one of the dentists, Charles Weiss, had operated at the clinic's current rooftop location since 1969.The office still had the suite's original bathroom and gymnasium.", "Chrysler also had a unit on the 58th through 60th floors, which served as his residence.===== Observation deck and attic =====From the building's opening until 1945, it contained a observation deck on the 71st floor, called \"Celestial\".", "For fifty cents visitors could transit its circumference through a corridor with vaulted ceilings painted with celestial motifs and bedecked with small hanging glass planets.", "The center of the observatory contained the toolbox that Walter P. Chrysler used at the beginning of his career as a mechanic; it was later preserved at the Chrysler Technology Center in Auburn Hills, Michigan.", "An image of the building resembling a rocket hung above it.", "According to a contemporary brochure, views of up to were possible on a clear day; but the small triangular windows of the observatory created strange angles that made viewing difficult, depressing traffic.", "When the Empire State Building opened in 1931 with two observatories at a higher elevation, the Chrysler observatory lost its clientele.", "After the observatory closed, it was used to house radio and television broadcasting equipment.", "Since 1986, the old observatory has housed the office of architects Harvey Morse and Cowperwood Interests.The stories above the 71st floor are designed mostly for exterior appearance, functioning mainly as landings for the stairway to the spire and do not contain office space.", "They are very narrow, have low and sloping roofs, and are only used to house radio transmitters and other mechanical and electrical equipment.", "For example, the 73rd floor houses the motors of the elevators and a water tank, of which are reserved for extinguishing fires." ], [ "History", "The Chrysler Building from the Empire State Building, both erected as part of New York City's 1920s building boomIn the mid-1920s, New York's metropolitan area surpassed London's as the world's most populous metropolitan area and its population exceeded ten million by the early 1930s.", "The era was characterized by profound social and technological changes.", "Consumer goods such as radio, cinema, and the automobile became widespread.", "In 1927, Walter Chrysler's automotive company, the Chrysler Corporation, became the third-largest car manufacturer in the United States, behind Ford and General Motors.", "The following year, Chrysler was named ''Time'' magazine's \"Person of the Year\".The economic boom of the 1920s and speculation in the real estate market fostered a wave of new skyscraper projects in New York City.", "The Chrysler Building was built as part of an ongoing building boom that resulted in the city having the world's tallest building from 1908 to 1974.Following the end of World War I, European and American architects came to see simplified design as the epitome of the modern era and Art Deco skyscrapers as symbolizing progress, innovation, and modernity.", "The 1916 Zoning Resolution restricted the height that street-side exterior walls of New York City buildings could rise before needing to be setback from the street.", "This led to the construction of Art Deco structures in New York City with significant setbacks, large volumes, and striking silhouettes that were often elaborately decorated.", "Art Deco buildings were constructed for only a short period of time; but because that period was during the city's late-1920s real estate boom, the numerous skyscrapers built in the Art Deco style predominated in the city skyline, giving it the romantic quality seen in films and plays.", "The Chrysler Building project was shaped by these circumstances.=== Development ===Originally, the Chrysler Building was to be the Reynolds Building, a project of real estate developer and former New York state senator William H. Reynolds.", "Prior to his involvement in planning the building, Reynolds was best known for developing Coney Island's Dreamland amusement park.", "When the amusement park was destroyed by a fire in 1911, Reynolds turned his attention to Manhattan real estate, where he set out to build the tallest building in the world.==== Planning ====In 1921, Reynolds rented a large plot of land at the corner of Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street with the intention of building a tall building on the site.", "Reynolds did not develop the property for several years, prompting the Cooper Union to try to increase the assessed value of the property in 1924.The move, which would force Reynolds to pay more rent, was unusual because property owners usually sought to decrease their property assessments and pay fewer taxes.", "Reynolds hired the architect William Van Alen to design a forty-story building there in 1927.Van Alen's original design featured many Modernist stylistic elements, with glazed, curved windows at the corners.Chrysler Building from The SUMMIT at One Vanderbilt with the United Nations headquarters in the background Van Alen was respected in his field for his work on the Albemarle Building at Broadway and 24th Street, designing it in collaboration with his partner H. Craig Severance.", "Van Alen and Severance complemented each other, with Van Alen being an original, imaginative architect and Severance being a shrewd businessperson who handled the firm's finances.", "The relationship between them became tense over disagreements on how best to run the firm.", "A 1924 article in the ''Architectural Review'', praising the Albemarle Building's design, had mentioned Van Alen as the designer in the firm and ignored Severance's role.", "The architects' partnership dissolved acrimoniously several months later, with lawsuits over the firm's clients and assets lasting over a year.", "The rivalry influenced the design of the future Chrysler Building, since Severance's more traditional architectural style would otherwise have restrained Van Alen's more modern outlook.==== Refinement of designs ====By February 2, 1928, the proposed building's height had been increased to 54 stories, which would have made it the tallest building in Midtown.", "The proposal was changed again two weeks later, with official plans for a 63-story building.", "A little more than a week after that, the plan was changed for the third time, with two additional stories added.", "By this time, 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue were both hubs for construction activity, due to the removal of the Third Avenue Elevated's 42nd Street spur, which was seen as a blight on the area.", "The adjacent 56-story Chanin Building was also under construction.", "Because of the elevated spur's removal, real estate speculators believed that Lexington Avenue would become the \"Broadway of the East Side\", causing a ripple effect that would spur developments farther east.In April 1928, Reynolds signed a 67-year lease for the plot and finalized the details of his ambitious project.", "Van Alen's original design for the skyscraper called for a base with first-floor showroom windows that would be triple-height, and above would be 12 stories with glass-wrapped corners, to create the impression that the tower was floating in mid-air.", "Reynolds's main contribution to the building's design was his insistence that it have a metallic crown, despite Van Alen's initial opposition; the metal-and-crystal crown would have looked like \"a jeweled sphere\" at night.", "Originally, the skyscraper would have risen , with 67 floors.", "These plans were approved in June 1928.Van Alen's drawings were unveiled in the following August and published in a magazine run by the American Institute of Architects (AIA).Reynolds ultimately devised an alternate design for the Reynolds Building, which was published in August 1928.The new design was much more conservative, with an Italianate dome that a critic compared to Governor Al Smith's bowler hat, and a brick arrangement on the upper floors that simulated windows in the corners, a detail that remains in the current Chrysler Building.", "This design almost exactly reflected the shape, setbacks, and the layout of the windows of the current building, but with a different dome.====Final plans and start of construction====With the design complete, groundbreaking for the Reynolds Building took place on September 19, 1928,but by late 1928, Reynolds did not have the means to carry on construction.", "Walter Chrysler offered to buy the building in early October 1928, and Reynolds sold the plot, lease, plans, and architect's services to Chrysler on October 15, 1928, for more than $2.5 million.", "That day, the Goodwin Construction Company began demolition of what had been built.", "A contract was awarded on October 28, and demolition was completed on November 9.Chrysler's initial plans for the building were similar to Reynolds's, but with the 808-foot building having 68 floors instead of 67.The plans entailed a ground-floor pedestrian arcade; a facade of stone below the fifth floor and brick-and-terracotta above; and a three-story bronze-and-glass \"observation dome\" at the top.", "However, Chrysler wanted a more progressive design, and he worked with Van Alen to redesign the skyscraper to be tall.", "At the new height, Chrysler's building would be taller than the Woolworth Building, a building in lower Manhattan that was the world's tallest at the time.", "At one point, Chrysler had requested that Van Alen shorten the design by ten floors, but reneged on that decision after realizing that the increased height would also result in increased publicity.radiator cap–themed ornamentsFrom late 1928 to early 1929, modifications to the design of the dome continued.", "In March 1929, the press published details of an \"artistic dome\" that had the shape of a giant thirty-pointed star, which would be crowned by a sculpture five meters high.", "The final design of the dome included several arches and triangular windows.", "Lower down, various architectural details were modeled after Chrysler automobile products, such as the hood ornaments of the Plymouth (see ).", "The building's gargoyles on the 31st floor and the eagles on the 61st floor, were created to represent flight, and to embody the machine age of the time.", "Even the topmost needle was built using a process similar to one Chrysler used to manufacture his cars, with precise \"hand craftmanship\".", "In his autobiography, Chrysler says he suggested that his building be taller than the Eiffel Tower.Meanwhile, excavation of the new building's foundation began in mid-November 1928 and was completed in mid-January 1929, when bedrock was reached.", "A total of of rock and of soil were excavated for the foundation, equal to 63% of the future building's weight.", "Construction of the building proper began on January 21, 1929.The Carnegie Steel Company provided the steel beams, the first of which was installed on March 27; and by April 9, the first upright beams had been set into place.", "The steel structure was \"a few floors\" high by June 1929, 35 floors high by early August, and completed by September.", "Despite a frantic steelwork construction pace of about four floors per week, no workers died during the construction of the skyscraper's steelwork.", "Chrysler lauded this achievement, saying, \"It is the first time that any structure in the world has reached such a height, yet the entire steel construction was accomplished without loss of life\".", "In total, 391,881 rivets were used, and approximately 3,826,000 bricks were laid to create the non-loadbearing walls of the skyscraper.", "Walter Chrysler personally financed the construction with his income from his car company.", "The Chrysler Building's height officially surpassed the Woolworth's on October 16, 1929, thereby becoming the world's tallest structure.====Competition for \"world's tallest building\" title====The same year that the Chrysler Building's construction started, banker George L. Ohrstrom proposed the construction of a 47-story office building at 40 Wall Street downtown, designed by Van Alen's former partner Severance.", "Shortly thereafter, Ohrstrom expanded his project to 60 floors, but it was still shorter than the Woolworth and Chrysler buildings.", "That April, Severance increased 40 Wall's height to with 62 floors, exceeding the Woolworth's height by and the Chrysler's by .", "40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building started competing for the title of \"world's tallest building\".", "The Empire State Building, on 34th Street and Fifth Avenue, entered the competition in 1929.The race was defined by at least five other proposals, although only the Empire State Building would survive the Wall Street Crash of 1929.The \"Race into the Sky\", as popular media called it at the time, was representative of the country's optimism in the 1920s, which helped fuel the building boom in major cities.", "Van Alen expanded the Chrysler Building's height to , prompting Severance to increase the height of 40 Wall Street to in April 1929.Construction of 40 Wall Street began that May and was completed twelve months later.In response, Van Alen obtained permission for a spire and had it secretly constructed inside the frame of his building.", "The spire was delivered to the site in four different sections.", "On October 23, 1929, one week after surpassing the Woolworth Building's height and one day before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the spire was assembled.", "According to one account, \"the bottom section of the spire was hoisted to the top of the building's dome and lowered into the 66th floor of the building.\"", "Then, within 90 minutes the rest of the spire's pieces were raised and riveted in sequence, raising the tower to 1,046 feet.", "Van Alen, who witnessed the process from the street along with its engineers and Walter Chrysler, compared the experience to watching a butterfly leaving its cocoon.", "In the October 1930 edition of ''Architectural Forum'', Van Alen explained the design and construction of the crown and needle:The steel tip brought the Chrysler Building to a height of , greatly exceeding 40 Wall Street's height.", "Contemporary news media did not write of the spire's erection, nor were there any press releases celebrating the spire's erection.", "Even the ''New York Herald Tribune'', which had virtually continuous coverage of the tower's construction, did not report on the spire's installation until days after the spire had been raised.Chrysler realized that his tower's height would exceed the Empire State Building's as well, having ordered Van Alen to change the Chrysler's original roof from a stubby Romanesque dome to the narrow steel spire.", "However, the Empire State's developer John J. Raskob reviewed the plans and realized that he could add five more floors and a spire of his own to his 80-story building and acquired additional plots to support that building's height extension.", "Two days later, the Empire State Building's co-developer, former governor Al Smith, announced the updated plans for that skyscraper, with an observation deck on the 86th-floor roof at a height of , higher than the Chrysler's 71st-floor observation deck at .=== Completion ===The Chrysler Building in 1932In January 1930, it was announced that the Chrysler Corporation would maintain satellite offices in the Chrysler Building during Automobile Show Week.", "The skyscraper was never intended to become the Chrysler's Corporation's headquarters, which remained in Detroit.", "The first leases by outside tenants were announced in April 1930, before the building was officially completed.", "The building was formally opened on May 27, 1930, in a ceremony that coincided with the 42nd Street Property Owners and Merchants Association's meeting that year.", "In the lobby of the building, a bronze plaque that read \"in recognition of Mr. Chrysler's contribution to civic advancement\" was unveiled.", "Former Governor Smith, former Assemblyman Martin G. McCue, and 42nd Street Association president George W. Sweeney were among those in attendance.", "By June, it was reported that 65% of the available space had been leased.", "By August, the building was declared complete, but the New York City Department of Construction did not mark it as finished until February 1932.The added height of the spire allowed the Chrysler Building to surpass 40 Wall Street as the tallest building in the world and the Eiffel Tower as the tallest structure.", "The Chrysler Building was thus the first man-made structure to be taller than ; and as one newspaper noted, the tower was also taller than the highest points of five states.", "The tower remained the world's tallest for 11 months after its completion.", "The Chrysler Building was appraised at $14 million, but was exempt from city taxes per an 1859 law that gave tax exemptions to sites owned by the Cooper Union.", "The city had attempted to repeal the tax exemption, but Cooper Union had opposed that measure.", "Because the Chrysler Building retains the tax exemption, it has paid Cooper Union for the use of their land since opening.", "While the Chrysler Corporation was a tenant, it was not involved in the construction or ownership of the Chrysler Building; rather, the tower was a project of Walter P. Chrysler for his children.", "In his autobiography, Chrysler wrote that he wanted to erect the building \"so that his sons would have something to be responsible for\".Van Alen's satisfaction at these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee.", "Chrysler alleged that Van Alen had received bribes from suppliers, and Van Alen had not signed any contracts with Walter Chrysler when he took over the project.", "Van Alen sued and the courts ruled in his favor, requiring Chrysler to pay Van Alen $840,000, or six percent of the total budget of the building.", "However, the lawsuit against Chrysler markedly diminished Van Alen's reputation as an architect, which, along with the effects of the Great Depression and negative criticism, ended up ruining his career.", "Van Alen ended his career as professor of sculpture at the nearby Beaux-Arts Institute of Design and died in 1954.According to author Neal Bascomb, \"The Chrysler Building was his greatest accomplishment, and the one that guaranteed his obscurity.", "\"The Chrysler Building's distinction as the world's tallest building was short-lived.", "John Raskob realized the 1,050-foot Empire State Building would only be taller than the Chrysler Building, and Raskob was afraid that Walter Chrysler might try to \"pull a trick like hiding a rod in the spire and then sticking it up at the last minute.\"", "Another revision brought the Empire State Building's roof to , making it the tallest building in the world by far when it opened on May 1, 1931.However, the Chrysler Building is still the world's tallest steel-supported brick building.", "The Chrysler Building fared better commercially than the Empire State Building did: by 1935, the Chrysler had already rented 70 percent of its floor area.", "By contrast, Empire State had only leased 23 percent of its space and was popularly derided as the \"Empty State Building\".=== Use ======= 1940s to 1960s====Height comparison of buildings in New York CityThe Chrysler family inherited the property after the death of Walter Chrysler in 1940, with the property being under the ownership of W.P.", "Chrysler Building Corporation.", "In 1944, the corporation filed plans to build a 38-story annex to the east of the building, at 666 Third Avenue.", "In 1949, this was revised to a 32-story annex costing $9 million.", "The annex building, designed by Reinhard, Hofmeister & Walquist, had a facade similar to that of the original Chrysler Building.", "The stone for the original building was no longer manufactured, and had to be specially replicated.", "Construction started on the annex in June 1950, and the first tenants started leasing in June 1951.The building itself was completed by 1952, and a sky bridge connecting the two buildings' seventh floors was built in 1959.The family sold the building in 1953 to William Zeckendorf for its assessed price of $18 million.", "The 1953 deal included the annex and the nearby Graybar Building, which, along with the Chrysler Building, sold for a combined $52 million.", "The new owners were Zeckendorf's company Webb and Knapp, who held a 75% interest in the sale, and the Graysler Corporation, who held a 25% stake.", "At the time, it was reported to be the largest real estate sale in New York City's history.", "In 1957, the Chrysler Building, its annex, and the Graybar Building were sold for $66 million to Lawrence Wien's realty syndicate, setting a new record for the largest sale in the city.The Chrysler Building in 1965In 1960, the complex was purchased by Sol Goldman and Alex DiLorenzo, who received a mortgage from the Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company.", "The next year, the building's stainless steel elements, including the needle, crown, gargoyles, and entrance doors, were polished for the first time.", "A group of ten workers steam-cleaned the facade below the 30th floor, and manually cleaned the portion of the tower above the 30th floor, for a cost of about $200,000.Under Goldman and DiLorenzo's operation, the building began to develop leaks and cracked walls, and about of garbage piled up in the basement.", "The scale of the deterioration led one observer to say that the Chrysler Building was being operated \"like a tenement in the South Bronx\".", "The Chrysler Building remained profitable until 1974, when the owners faced increasing taxes and fuel costs.====1970s to 1990s====Foreclosure proceedings against the building began in August 1975, when Goldman and DiLorenzo defaulted on the $29 million first mortgage and a $15 million second mortgage.", "The building was about 17 percent vacant at the time.", "Massachusetts Mutual acquired the Chrysler Building for $35 million, purchasing all the outstanding debt on the building via several transactions.", "The next year, the Chrysler Building was designated as a National Historic Landmark.", "Texaco, one of the building's major tenants, was relocating to Westchester County, New York, by then, vacating hundreds of thousands of square feet at the Chrysler Building.", "In early 1978, Mass Mutual devised plans to renovate the facade, heating, ventilation, air‐conditioning, elevators, lobby murals, and Cloud Club headquarters for $23 million.", "At a press conference announcing the renovation, mayor Ed Koch proclaimed that \"the steel eagles and the gargoyles of the Chrysler Building are all shouting the renaissance of New York\".", "Massachusetts Mutual had hired Josephine Sokolski, who had proposed modifying Van Alen's original lobby design substantially.After the renovation was announced, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) considered designating the Chrysler Building as a city landmark.", "Though Mass Mutual had proclaimed \"sensitivity and respect\" for the building's architecture, it had opposed the city landmark designation, concerned that the designation would hinder leasing.", "At the time, the building had of vacant floor space, representing 40% of the total floor area.", "The owners hired the Edward S. Gordon Company as the building's leasing agent, and the firm leased of vacant space within five years.", "The LPC designated the lobby and facade as city landmarks in September 1978.Massachusetts Mutual had hired Josephine Sokolski to renovate the lobby, but the LPC objected that many aspects of Sokolski's planned redesign had deviated too much from Van Alen's original design.", "As a result of these disputes, the renovation of the lobby was delayed.leftThe building was sold again in August 1979, this time to entrepreneur and Washington Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke, in a deal that also transferred ownership of the Los Angeles Kings and Lakers to Jerry Buss.", "At the time, the building was 96 percent occupied.", "The new owners hired Kenneth Kleiman of Descon Interiors to redesign the lobby and elevator cabs in a style that was much more closer to Van Alen's original design.", "Cooke also oversaw the completion of a lighting scheme at the pinnacle, which had been part of the original design but was never completed.", "The lighting system, consisting of 580 fluorescent tubes installed within the triangular windows of the top stories, was first illuminated in September 1981.Cooke next hired Hoffman Architects to restore the exterior and spire from 1995 to 1996.The joints in the now-closed observation deck were polished, and the facade restored, as part of a $1.5 million project.", "Some damaged steel strips of the needle were replaced and several parts of the gargoyles were re-welded together.", "The cleaning received the New York Landmarks Conservancy's Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award for 1997.Cooke died in April 1997, and his mortgage lender Fuji Bank moved to foreclose on the building the next month.", "Shortly after Fuji announced its intent to foreclose, several developers and companies announced that they were interested in buying the building.", "Ultimately, 20 potential buyers submitted bids to buy the Chrysler Building and several adjacent buildings.Tishman Speyer Properties and the Travelers Insurance Group won the right to buy the building in November 1997, having submitted a bid for about $220 million (equal to $ million in ).", "Tishman Speyer had negotiated a 150-year lease from the Cooper Union, which continued to own the land under the Chrysler Building.", "In 1998, Tishman Speyer announced that it had hired Beyer Blinder Belle to renovate the building and incorporate it into a commercial complex known as the Chrysler Center.", "As part of this project, EverGreene Architectural Arts restored the ''Transport and Human Endeavor'' mural in the lobby, which had been covered up during the late-1970s renovation.", "The renovation cost $100 million.==== 2000s to present====In 2001, a 75 percent stake in the building was sold, for US$300 million (equal to $ million in ), to TMW, the German arm of an Atlanta-based investment fund.", "In June 2008, it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75 percent ownership stake, Tishman Speyer's 15 percent stake, and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$800 million.", "In July 2008, it was announced that the transaction had been completed, and that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council now owned a 90 percent stake in the building, with Tishman Speyer retaining 10 percent.From 2010 to 2011, the building's energy, plumbing, and waste management systems were renovated.", "This resulted in a 21 percent decrease in the building's total energy consumption and 64 percent decrease in water consumption.", "In addition, 81 percent of waste was recycled.", "In 2012, the building received a LEED Gold accreditation from the U.S. Green Building Council, which recognized the building's environmental sustainability and energy efficiency.The Abu Dhabi Investment Council and Tishman Speyer put the Chrysler Building on sale again in January 2019.That March, the media reported that Aby Rosen's RFR Holding LLC, in a joint venture with the Austrian SIGNA Group, had reached an agreement to purchase the Chrysler Building at a steeply discounted US$150 million.", "Rosen had initially planned to convert the building into a hotel, but he dropped these plans in April 2019, citing difficulties with the ground lease.", "Rosen then announced plans for an observation deck on the 61st-story setback, which the LPC approved in May 2020.Rosen also sought to renegotiate the terms of his ground lease with Cooper Union, and he evicted storeowners from all of the shops in the building's lobby.", "To attract tenants following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City in 2020, Rosen spent $200 million converting the Chrysler Building's ground-floor space into a tenant amenity center." ], [ "Chrysler Center", "Chrysler Center is the name of the building complex consisting of the Chrysler Building to the west, Chrysler Building East to the east, and the Chrysler Trylons commercial pavilion in the middle.", "After Tishman Speyer had acquired the entire complex, the firm renovated it completely from 1998 to 2000.The structure at 666 Third Avenue, known as the Kent Building at the time, was renovated and renamed Chrysler Building East.", "This International Style building, built in 1952, is high and has 32 floors.", "The mechanical systems were modernized and the interior was modified.", "Postmodern architect Philip Johnson designed a new facade of dark-blue glass, which was placed about in front of the Kent Building's existing facade.", "The structure did not resemble its western neighbor; Johnson explained that he did not \"even like the architecture\" of the Chrysler Building, despite acknowledging it as \"the most loved building in New York\".", "His design also included a extension.", "which surrounded the elevator core on the western end of the original Kent Building.", "The expansion utilized of unused air rights above the buildings in the middle of the block.", "The Kent Building was not a New York City designated landmark, unlike the Chrysler Building, so its renovation did not require the LPC's approval.", "After the addition, the total area of the Kent building was .A new building, also designed by Philip Johnson, was built between the original skyscraper and the annex.", "This became the Chrysler Trylons, a commercial pavilion three stories high with a retail area of .", "Its design consists of three triangular glass \"trylons\" measuring , , and tall; each is slanted in a different direction.", "The trylons are supported by vertical steel mullions measuring wide; between the mullions are 535 panes of reflective gray glass.", "The retail structures themselves are placed on either side of the trylons.", "Due to the complexity of the structural work, structural engineer Severud Associates built a replica at Rimouski, Quebec.", "Johnson designed the Chrysler Trylons as \"a monument for 42nd Street ... to give you the top of the Chrysler Building at street level.", "\"After these modifications, the total leasable area of the complex was .", "The total cost of this project was about one hundred million dollars.", "This renovation has won several awards and commendations, including an Energy Star rating from the Environmental Protection Agency; a LEED Gold designation; and the Skyscraper Museum Outstanding Renovation Award of 2001." ], [ "Tenants", "In January 1930, the Chrysler Corporation opened satellite offices in the Chrysler Building during Automobile Show Week.", "In addition to the Chrysler Salon product showroom on the first and second floors, the building had a lounge and a theater for showing films of Chrysler products.", "Other original large tenants included Time, Inc. and Texaco oil.", "Needing more office space, Time moved to Rockefeller Center in 1937.Texaco relocated to a more suburban workplace in Purchase, New York, in 1977.In addition, the offices of Shaw Walker and J. S. Bache & Company were immediately atop the Chrysler Salon, while A.", "B. Dick, Pan American World Airways, Adams Hats, Schrafft's, and Florsheim Shoes also had offices in the building.Notable modern tenants include:* Creative Artists Agency* Clyde & Co* InterMedia Partners* IWG* Outfront Media* PA Consulting* Troutman Sanders* YES Network" ], [ "Impact <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Influence\"></span>", "=== Reception ===The completed Chrysler Building garnered mixed reviews in the press.", "Van Alen was hailed as the \"Doctor of Altitude\" by ''Architect'' magazine, while architect Kenneth Murchison called Van Alen the \"Ziegfeld of his profession\", comparing him to popular Broadway producer Florenz Ziegfeld Jr.", "The building was praised for being \"an expression of the intense activity and vibrant life of our day\", and for \"teeming with the spirit of modernism, ... the epitome of modern business life, standing for progress in architecture and in modern building methods.\"", "An anonymous critic wrote in ''Architectural Forum'' October 1930 issue: \"The Chrysler...stands by itself, something apart and alone.", "It is simply the realization, the fulfillment in metal and masonry, of a one-man dream, a dream of such ambitions and such magnitude as to defy the comprehension and the criticism of ordinary men or by ordinary standards.", "\"The journalist George S. Chappell called the Chrysler's design \"distinctly a stunt design, evolved to make the man in the street look up\".", "Douglas Haskell stated that the building \"embodies no compelling, organic idea\", and alleged that Van Alen had abandoned \"some of his best innovations in behalf of stunts and new 'effects'\".", "Others compared the Chrysler Building to \"an upended swordfish\", or claimed it had a \"Little Nemo\"-like design.", "Lewis Mumford, a supporter of the International Style and one of the foremost architectural critics of the United States at the time, despised the building for its \"inane romanticism, meaningless voluptuousness, and void symbolism\".", "The public also had mixed reviews of the Chrysler Building, as Murchison wrote: \"Some think it's a freak; some think it's a stunt.", "\"Later reviews were more positive.", "Architect Robert A. M. Stern wrote that the Chrysler Building was \"the most extreme example of the 1920s and 1930s period's stylistic experimentation\", as contrasted with 40 Wall Street and its \"thin\" detailing.", "George H. Douglas wrote in 2004 that the Chrysler Building \"remains one of the most appealing and awe-inspiring of skyscrapers\".", "Architect Le Corbusier called the building \"hot jazz in stone and steel\".", "Architectural critic Ada Louise Huxtable stated that the building had \"a wonderful, decorative, evocative aesthetic\", while Paul Goldberger noted the \"compressed, intense energy\" of the lobby, the \"magnificent\" elevators, and the \"magical\" view from the crown.", "Anthony W. Robins said the Chrysler Building was \"one-of-a-kind, staggering, romantic, soaring, the embodiment of 1920s skyscraper pizzazz, the great symbol of Art Deco New York\".The LPC said that the tower \"embodies the romantic essence of the New York City skyscraper\".", "Pauline Frommer, in the travel guide ''Frommer's'', gave the building an \"exceptional\" recommendation, saying: \"In the Chrysler Building we see the roaring-twenties version of what Alan Greenspan called 'irrational exuberance'—a last burst of corporate headquarter building before stocks succumbed to the thudding crash of 1929.", "\"=== As icon ===The Chrysler Building appears in several films set in New York and is widely considered one of the most positively acclaimed buildings in the city.", "A 1996 survey of New York architects revealed it as their favorite, and ''The New York Times'' described it in 2005 as \"the single most important emblem of architectural imagery on the New York skyline\".", "In mid-2005, the Skyscraper Museum in Lower Manhattan asked 100 architects, builders, critics, engineers, historians, and scholars, among others, to choose their 10 favorites among 25 of the city's towers.", "The Chrysler Building came in first place, with 90 respondents placing it on their ballots.", "In 2007, the building ranked ninth among 150 buildings in the AIA's ''List of America's Favorite Architecture''.The Chrysler Building is widely heralded as an Art Deco icon.", "''Fodor's New York City 2010'' described the building as being \"one of the great art deco masterpieces\" which \"wins many a New Yorker's vote for the city's most iconic and beloved skyscraper\".", "''Frommer's'' states that the Chrysler was \"one of the most impressive Art Deco buildings ever constructed\".", "''Insight Guides'' 2016 edition maintains that the Chrysler Building is considered among the city's \"most beautiful\" buildings.", "Its distinctive profile has inspired similar skyscrapers worldwide, including One Liberty Place in Philadelphia, Two Prudential Plaza in Chicago, and the Al Kazim Towers in Dubai.", "In addition, the New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Paradise, Nevada, contains the \"Chrysler Tower\", a replica of the Chrysler Building measuring 35 or 40 stories tall.", "A portion of the hotel's interior was also designed to resemble the Chrysler Building's interior.=== In media ===While seen in many films, the Chrysler Building almost never appears as a main setting in them, prompting architect and author James Sanders to quip it should win \"the Award for Best Supporting Skyscraper\".", "The building was supposed to be featured in the 1933 film ''King Kong'', but only makes a cameo at the end thanks to its producers opting for the Empire State Building in a central role.", "The Chrysler Building notably appears in the background of ''The Wiz'' (1978); as the setting of much of ''Q - The Winged Serpent'' (1982); in the initial credits of ''The Shadow of the Witness'' (1987); and during or after apocalyptic events in ''Independence Day'' (1996), ''Armageddon'' (1998), ''Deep Impact'' (1998), ''Godzilla'' (1998), and ''A.I.", "Artificial Intelligence'' (2001).", "The building also appears in other films, such as ''Spider-Man'' (2002), ''Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer'' (2007), ''Two Weeks Notice'' (2002), ''The Sorcerer's Apprentice'' (2010), ''The Avengers'' (2012) and ''Men in Black 3'' (2012).", "The building is mentioned in the number \"It's the Hard Knock Life\" for the musical ''Annie'', and it is the setting for the post-game content in the Squaresoft video game ''Parasite Eve''.The Chrysler Building is frequently a subject of photographs.", "In December 1929, Walter Chrysler hired Margaret Bourke-White to take publicity images from a scaffold high.", "She was deeply inspired by the new structure and especially smitten by the massive eagle's-head figures projecting off the building.", "In her autobiography, Portrait of Myself, Bourke-White wrote, \"On the sixty-first floor, the workmen started building some curious structures which overhung 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue below.", "When I learned these were to be gargoyles à la Notre Dame, but made of stainless steel as more suitable for the twentieth century, I decided that here would be my new studio.", "There was no place in the world that I would accept as a substitute.", "\"According to one account, Bourke-White wanted to live in the building for the duration of the photo shoot, but the only person able to do so was the janitor, so she was instead relegated to co-leasing a studio with Time Inc.", "In 1930, several of her photographs were used in a special report on skyscrapers in the then-new ''Fortune'' magazine.", "Bourke-White worked in a 61st-floor studio designed by John Vassos until she was evicted in 1934.In 1934, Bourke-White's partner Oscar Graubner took a famous photo called \"Margaret Bourke-White atop the Chrysler Building\", which depicts her taking a photo of the city's skyline while sitting on one of the 61st-floor eagle ornaments.", "On October 5, 1998, Christie's auctioned the photograph for $96,000.In addition, during a January 1931 dance organized by the Society of Beaux-Arts, six architects, including Van Alen, were photographed while wearing costumes resembling the buildings that each architect designed." ], [ "See also", "* Architecture of New York City* List of buildings and structures* List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets* List of tallest buildings and structures in the world* List of tallest buildings in the United States* List of tallest buildings in New York City* List of tallest freestanding structures in the world* List of tallest freestanding steel structures* National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Cape Breton (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cape Breton Island''' is an island in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, in Canada.", "'''Cape Breton''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "===On Cape Breton Island===* Cape Breton, a cape at the eastern tip of Cape Breton Island, Canada* Cape Breton Highlands, a mountain range in the north of Cape Breton Island, Canada* Cape Breton Highlands National Park* Cape Breton Regional Municipality, a regional municipality in Nova Scotia* Cape Breton—Canso, a federal electoral district=== Elsewhere in Canada ===* Cape Breton, New Brunswick===In France===* Capbreton or Cap Berton, a commune of the Landes département in southwestern France" ], [ "Organizations", "* Cape Breton Eagles, a Sydney-based ice hockey team* ''Cape Breton Post''* Cape Breton Development Corporation* Cape Breton University" ], [ "Other uses", "* Cape Breton and Central Nova Scotia Railway* Jeanneau Cape Breton, a French sailboat design" ], [ "See also", "* * Breton (disambiguation)* Cape (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9''' (formally designated '''D/1993 F2''') broke apart in July 1992 and collided with Jupiter in July 1994, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects.", "This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media, and the comet was closely observed by astronomers worldwide.", "The collision provided new information about Jupiter and highlighted its possible role in reducing space debris in the inner Solar System.The comet was discovered by astronomers Carolyn and Eugene M. Shoemaker, and David Levy in 1993.Shoemaker–Levy 9 (SL9) had been captured by Jupiter and was orbiting the planet at the time.", "It was located on the night of March 24 in a photograph taken with the Schmidt telescope at the Palomar Observatory in California.", "It was the first active comet observed to be orbiting a planet, and had probably been captured by Jupiter around 20 to 30 years earlier.Calculations showed that its unusual fragmented form was due to a previous closer approach to Jupiter in July 1992.At that time, the orbit of Shoemaker–Levy 9 passed within Jupiter's Roche limit, and Jupiter's tidal forces had acted to pull apart the comet.", "The comet was later observed as a series of fragments ranging up to in diameter.", "These fragments collided with Jupiter's southern hemisphere between July 16 and 22, 1994 at a speed of approximately (Jupiter's escape velocity) or .", "The prominent scars from the impacts were more easily visible than the Great Red Spot and persisted for many months." ], [ "Discovery", "While conducting a program of observations designed to uncover near-Earth objects, the Shoemakers and Levy discovered Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 on the night of March 24, 1993, in a photograph taken with the Schmidt telescope at the Palomar Observatory in California.", "The comet was thus a serendipitous discovery, but one that quickly overshadowed the results from their main observing program.Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 was the ninth periodic comet (a comet whose orbital period is 200 years or less) discovered by the Shoemakers and Levy, hence its name.", "It was their eleventh comet discovery overall including their discovery of two non-periodic comets, which use a different nomenclature.", "The discovery was announced in IAU Circular 5725 on March 26, 1993.The discovery image gave the first hint that comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 was an unusual comet, as it appeared to show multiple nuclei in an elongated region about 50 arcseconds long and 10 arcseconds wide.", "Brian G. Marsden of the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams noted that the comet lay only about 4 degrees from Jupiter as seen from Earth, and that although this could be a line-of-sight effect, its apparent motion in the sky suggested that the comet was physically close to the planet." ], [ "Comet with a Jovian orbit", "Orbital studies of the new comet soon revealed that it was orbiting Jupiter rather than the Sun, unlike all other comets known at the time.", "Its orbit around Jupiter was very loosely bound, with a period of about 2 years and an apoapsis (the point in the orbit farthest from the planet) of .", "Its orbit around the planet was highly eccentric (''e'' = 0.9986).Tracing back the comet's orbital motion revealed that it had been orbiting Jupiter for some time.", "It is likely that it was captured from a solar orbit in the early 1970s, although the capture may have occurred as early as the mid-1960s.", "Several other observers found images of the comet in precovery images obtained before March 24, including Kin Endate from a photograph exposed on March 15, S. Otomo on March 17, and a team led by Eleanor Helin from images on March 19.An image of the comet on a Schmidt photographic plate taken on March 19 was identified on March 21 by M. Lindgren, in a project searching for comets near Jupiter.", "However, as his team were expecting comets to be inactive or at best exhibit a weak dust coma, and SL9 had a peculiar morphology, its true nature was not recognised until the official announcement 5 days later.", "No precovery images dating back to earlier than March 1993 have been found.", "Before the comet was captured by Jupiter, it was probably a short-period comet with an aphelion just inside Jupiter's orbit, and a perihelion interior to the asteroid belt.The volume of space within which an object can be said to orbit Jupiter is defined by Jupiter's Hill sphere.", "When the comet passed Jupiter in the late 1960s or early 1970s, it happened to be near its aphelion, and found itself slightly within Jupiter's Hill sphere.", "Jupiter's gravity nudged the comet towards it.", "Because the comet's motion with respect to Jupiter was very small, it fell almost straight toward Jupiter, which is why it ended up on a Jove-centric orbit of very high eccentricity—that is to say, the ellipse was nearly flattened out.The comet had apparently passed extremely close to Jupiter on July 7, 1992, just over above its cloud tops—a smaller distance than Jupiter's radius of , and well within the orbit of Jupiter's innermost moon Metis and the planet's Roche limit, inside which tidal forces are strong enough to disrupt a body held together only by gravity.", "Although the comet had approached Jupiter closely before, the July 7 encounter seemed to be by far the closest, and the fragmentation of the comet is thought to have occurred at this time.", "Each fragment of the comet was denoted by a letter of the alphabet, from \"fragment A\" through to \"fragment W\", a practice already established from previously observed fragmented comets.More exciting for planetary astronomers was that the best orbital calculations suggested that the comet would pass within of the center of Jupiter, a distance smaller than the planet's radius, meaning that there was an extremely high probability that SL9 would collide with Jupiter in July 1994.Studies suggested that the train of nuclei would plow into Jupiter's atmosphere over a period of about five days." ], [ "Predictions for the collision", "The discovery that the comet was likely to collide with Jupiter caused great excitement within the astronomical community and beyond, as astronomers had never before seen two significant Solar System bodies collide.", "Intense studies of the comet were undertaken, and as its orbit became more accurately established, the possibility of a collision became a certainty.", "The collision would provide a unique opportunity for scientists to look inside Jupiter's atmosphere, as the collisions were expected to cause eruptions of material from the layers normally hidden beneath the clouds.Astronomers estimated that the visible fragments of SL9 ranged in size from a few hundred metres (around ) to across, suggesting that the original comet may have had a nucleus up to across—somewhat larger than Comet Hyakutake, which became very bright when it passed close to the Earth in 1996.One of the great debates in advance of the impact was whether the effects of the impact of such small bodies would be noticeable from Earth, apart from a flash as they disintegrated like giant meteors.", "The most optimistic prediction was that large, asymmetric ballistic fireballs would rise above the limb of Jupiter and into sunlight to be visible from Earth.Other suggested effects of the impacts were seismic waves travelling across the planet, an increase in stratospheric haze on the planet due to dust from the impacts, and an increase in the mass of the Jovian ring system.", "However, given that observing such a collision was completely unprecedented, astronomers were cautious with their predictions of what the event might reveal." ], [ "Impacts", "Jupiter in ultraviolet (about 2.5 hours after R's impact).", "The black dot near the top is Io transiting Jupiter.Anticipation grew as the predicted date for the collisions approached, and astronomers trained terrestrial telescopes on Jupiter.", "Several space observatories did the same, including the Hubble Space Telescope, the ROSAT X-ray-observing satellite, the W. M. Keck Observatory, and the ''Galileo'' spacecraft, then on its way to a rendezvous with Jupiter scheduled for 1995.Although the impacts took place on the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth, ''Galileo'', then at a distance of from the planet, was able to see the impacts as they occurred.", "Jupiter's rapid rotation brought the impact sites into view for terrestrial observers a few minutes after the collisions.Two other space probes made observations at the time of the impact: the ''Ulysses'' spacecraft, primarily designed for solar observations, was pointed towards Jupiter from its location away, and the distant ''Voyager 2'' probe, some from Jupiter and on its way out of the Solar System following its encounter with Neptune in 1989, was programmed to look for radio emission in the 1–390 kHz range and make observations with its ultraviolet spectrometer.fireball from the first impact appearing over the limb of the planetAnimation of Shoemaker-Levy 9's orbit around JupiterAstronomer Ian Morison described the impacts as following:The first impact occurred at 20:13 UTC on July 16, 1994, when fragment A of the comet nucleus|comet's nucleus slammed into Jupiter's southern hemisphere at about .", "Instruments on ''Galileo'' detected a fireball that reached a peak temperature of about , compared to the typical Jovian cloud-top temperature of about .", "It then expanded and cooled rapidly to about .", "The plume from the fireball quickly reached a height of over and was observed by the HST.A few minutes after the impact fireball was detected, ''Galileo'' measured renewed heating, probably due to ejected material falling back onto the planet.", "Earth-based observers detected the fireball rising over the limb of the planet shortly after the initial impact.Despite published predictions, astronomers had not expected to see the fireballs from the impacts and did not have any idea how visible the other atmospheric effects of the impacts would be from Earth.", "Observers soon saw a huge dark spot after the first impact; the spot was visible from Earth.", "This and subsequent dark spots were thought to have been caused by debris from the impacts, and were markedly asymmetric, forming crescent shapes in front of the direction of impact.Over the next six days, 21 distinct impacts were observed, with the largest coming on July 18 at 07:33 UTC when fragment G struck Jupiter.", "This impact created a giant dark spot over (almost one Earth diameter) across, and was estimated to have released an energy equivalent to 6,000,000 megatons of TNT (600 times the world's nuclear arsenal).", "Two impacts 12 hours apart on July 19 created impact marks of similar size to that caused by fragment G, and impacts continued until July 22, when fragment W struck the planet." ], [ "Observations and discoveries", "=== Chemical studies ===Brown spots mark impact sites on Jupiter's southern hemisphereObservers hoped that the impacts would give them a first glimpse of Jupiter beneath the cloud tops, as lower material was exposed by the comet fragments punching through the upper atmosphere.", "Spectroscopic studies revealed absorption lines in the Jovian spectrum due to diatomic sulfur (S2) and carbon disulfide (CS2), the first detection of either in Jupiter, and only the second detection of S2 in any astronomical object.", "Other molecules detected included ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).", "The amount of sulfur implied by the quantities of these compounds was much greater than the amount that would be expected in a small cometary nucleus, showing that material from within Jupiter was being revealed.", "Oxygen-bearing molecules such as sulfur dioxide were not detected, to the surprise of astronomers.As well as these molecules, emission from heavy atoms such as iron, magnesium and silicon was detected, with abundances consistent with what would be found in a cometary nucleus.", "Although a substantial amount of water was detected spectroscopically, it was not as much as predicted, meaning that either the water layer thought to exist below the clouds was thinner than predicted, or that the cometary fragments did not penetrate deeply enough.=== Waves ===As predicted, the collisions generated enormous waves that swept across Jupiter at speeds of and were observed for over two hours after the largest impacts.", "The waves were thought to be travelling within a stable layer acting as a waveguide, and some scientists thought the stable layer must lie within the hypothesised tropospheric water cloud.", "However, other evidence seemed to indicate that the cometary fragments had not reached the water layer, and the waves were instead propagating within the stratosphere.=== Other observations ===''Galileo'' images, taken several seconds apart, showing the appearance of the fireball of fragment W on the dark side of JupiterRadio observations revealed a sharp increase in continuum emission at a wavelength of after the largest impacts, which peaked at 120% of the normal emission from the planet.", "This was thought to be due to synchrotron radiation, caused by the injection of relativistic electrons—electrons with velocities near the speed of light—into the Jovian magnetosphere by the impacts.About an hour after fragment K entered Jupiter, observers recorded auroral emission near the impact region, as well as at the antipode of the impact site with respect to Jupiter's strong magnetic field.", "The cause of these emissions was difficult to establish due to a lack of knowledge of Jupiter's internal magnetic field and of the geometry of the impact sites.", "One possible explanation was that upwardly accelerating shock waves from the impact accelerated charged particles enough to cause auroral emission, a phenomenon more typically associated with fast-moving solar wind particles striking a planetary atmosphere near a magnetic pole.Some astronomers had suggested that the impacts might have a noticeable effect on the Io torus, a torus of high-energy particles connecting Jupiter with the highly volcanic moon Io.", "High resolution spectroscopic studies found that variations in the ion density, rotational velocity, and temperatures at the time of impact and afterwards were within the normal limits.", "''Voyager 2'' failed to detect anything with calculations showing that the fireballs were just below the craft's limit of detection; no abnormal levels of UV radiation or radio signals were registered after the blast.", "''Ulysses'' also failed to detect any abnormal radio frequencies." ], [ "Post-impact analysis", "A reddish, asymmetric ejecta patternSeveral models were devised to compute the density and size of Shoemaker–Levy 9.Its average density was calculated to be about ; the breakup of a much less dense comet would not have resembled the observed string of objects.", "The size of the parent comet was calculated to be about in diameter.", "These predictions were among the few that were actually confirmed by subsequent observation.One of the surprises of the impacts was the small amount of water revealed compared to prior predictions.", "Before the impact, models of Jupiter's atmosphere had indicated that the break-up of the largest fragments would occur at atmospheric pressures of anywhere from 30 kilopascals to a few tens of megapascals (from 0.3 to a few hundred bar), with some predictions that the comet would penetrate a layer of water and create a bluish shroud over that region of Jupiter.Astronomers did not observe large amounts of water following the collisions, and later impact studies found that fragmentation and destruction of the cometary fragments in a meteor air burst probably occurred at much higher altitudes than previously expected, with even the largest fragments being destroyed when the pressure reached , well above the expected depth of the water layer.", "The smaller fragments were probably destroyed before they even reached the cloud layer." ], [ "Longer-term effects", "The visible scars from the impacts could be seen on Jupiter for many months.", "They were extremely prominent, and observers described them as more easily visible than the Great Red Spot.", "A search of historical observations revealed that the spots were probably the most prominent transient features ever seen on the planet, and that although the Great Red Spot is notable for its striking color, no spots of the size and darkness of those caused by the SL9 impacts had ever been recorded before, or since.Spectroscopic observers found that ammonia and carbon disulfide persisted in the atmosphere for at least fourteen months after the collisions, with a considerable amount of ammonia being present in the stratosphere as opposed to its normal location in the troposphere.Counterintuitively, the atmospheric temperature dropped to normal levels much more quickly at the larger impact sites than at the smaller sites: at the larger impact sites, temperatures were elevated over a region wide, but dropped back to normal levels within a week of the impact.", "At smaller sites, temperatures 10 K (10 '''°'''C; 18 '''°'''F) higher than the surroundings persisted for almost two weeks.", "Global stratospheric temperatures rose immediately after the impacts, then fell to below pre-impact temperatures 2–3 weeks afterwards, before rising slowly to normal temperatures." ], [ "Frequency of impacts", "Enki Catena, a chain of craters on Ganymede, probably caused by a similar impact event.", "The picture covers an area approximately acrossSL9 is not unique in having orbited Jupiter for a time; five comets, (including 82P/Gehrels, 147P/Kushida–Muramatsu, and 111P/Helin–Roman–Crockett) are known to have been temporarily captured by the planet.Cometary orbits around Jupiter are unstable, as they will be highly elliptical and likely to be strongly perturbed by the Sun's gravity at apojove (the farthest point on the orbit from the planet).By far the most massive planet in the Solar System, Jupiter can capture objects relatively frequently, but the size of SL9 makes it a rarity: one post-impact study estimated that comets in diameter impact the planet once in approximately 500 years and those in diameter do so just once in every 6,000 years.There is very strong evidence that comets have previously been fragmented and collided with Jupiter and its satellites.", "During the Voyager missions to the planet, planetary scientists identified 13 crater chains on Callisto and three on Ganymede, the origin of which was initially a mystery.", "Crater chains seen on the Moon often radiate from large craters, and are thought to be caused by secondary impacts of the original ejecta, but the chains on the Jovian moons did not lead back to a larger crater.", "The impact of SL9 strongly implied that the chains were due to trains of disrupted cometary fragments crashing into the satellites.=== Impact of July 19, 2009 ===On July 19, 2009, exactly 15 years after the SL9 impacts, a new black spot about the size of the Pacific Ocean appeared in Jupiter's southern hemisphere.", "Thermal infrared measurements showed the impact site was warm and spectroscopic analysis detected the production of excess hot ammonia and silica-rich dust in the upper regions of Jupiter's atmosphere.", "Scientists have concluded that another impact event had occurred, but this time a more compact and stronger object, probably a small undiscovered asteroid, was the cause." ], [ "Jupiter's role in protection of the inner Solar System", "The events of SL9's interaction with Jupiter greatly highlighted Jupiter's role in protecting the inner planets from both interstellar and in-system debris by acting as a \"cosmic vacuum cleaner\" for the Solar System (Jupiter barrier).", "The planet's strong gravitational influence attracts many small comets and asteroids and the rate of cometary impacts on Jupiter is thought to be between 2,000 and 8,000 times higher than the rate on Earth.The extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous period is generally thought to have been caused by the Cretaceous–Paleogene impact event, which created the Chicxulub crater, demonstrating that cometary impacts are indeed a serious threat to life on Earth.", "Astronomers have speculated that without Jupiter's immense gravity, extinction events might have been more frequent on Earth and complex life might not have been able to develop.", "This is part of the argument used in the Rare Earth hypothesis.In 2009, it was shown that the presence of a smaller planet at Jupiter's position in the Solar System might increase the impact rate of comets on the Earth significantly.", "A planet of Jupiter's mass still seems to provide increased protection against asteroids, but the total effect on all orbital bodies within the Solar System is unclear.", "This and other recent models call into question the nature of Jupiter's influence on Earth impacts." ], [ "See also", "* List of Jupiter events* Impact events on Jupiter* Atmosphere of Jupiter* 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann, a near-Earth comet in the process of disintegrating" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Bibliography ===* Chodas P. W., and Yeomans D. K. (1996), ''The Orbital Motion and Impact Circumstances of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9'', in ''The Collision of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 and Jupiter'', edited by K. S. Noll, P. D. Feldman, and H. A. Weaver, Cambridge University Press, pp.", "1–30* Chodas P. W. (2002), ''Communication of Orbital Elements to Selden E. Ball, Jr.'' Accessed February 21, 2006" ], [ "External links", "* First Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 website that collected photos submitted from observatories around the world and from Galileo spacecraft, curated by Ron Baalke, Jet Propulsion Laboratory software engineer* Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 FAQ* Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 Photo Gallery* Downloadable gif Animation showing time course of impact and size relative to earthsize* Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 Dan Bruton, Texas A&M University* Jupiter Swallows Comet Shoemaker Levy 9 APOD: November 5, 2000* Comet Shoemaker–Levy Collision with Jupiter* National Space Science Data Center information* Simulation of the orbit of SL-9 showing the passage that fragmented the comet and the collision 2 years later* Interactive space simulator that includes accurate 3D simulation of the Shoemaker Levy 9 collision* ''Shoemaker-Levy 9'' Jupiter Impact Observing Campaign Archive at the NASA Planetary Data System, Small Bodies Node" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ceres Brewery" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Ceres Brewery''' was a beer and soft drink producing facility in Århus, Denmark, that operated from 1856 until 2008.Although the brewery was closed by its owner Royal Unibrew the Ceres brand continues, with the product brewed at other facilities.", "The area where the brewery stood is being redeveloped for residential and commercial use and has been named CeresByen (Ceres City)." ], [ "History", "Redevelopment of the site of the former Ceres brewery in 2014\"Ceres Brewery\" was founded in 1856 by Malthe Conrad Lottrup, a grocer, with chemists \"A. S. Aagard\" and \"Knud Redelien\", as the city's seventh brewery.", "It was named after the Roman goddess Ceres, and its opening was announced in the local newspaper, ''Århus Stiftstidende''.", "Lottrup expanded the brewery after ten years, adding a grand new building as his private residence.He was succeeded by his son-in-law, Laurits Christian Meulengracht, who ran the brewery for almost thirty years, expanding it further before selling it to \"Østjyske Bryggerier\", another brewing firm.The Ceres brewery was named an official purveyor to the \"Royal Danish Court\" in 1914." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Ceres Brewery" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "COBOL" ], [ "Introduction", "'''COBOL''' (; an acronym for \"common business-oriented language\") is a compiled English-like computer programming language designed for business use.", "It is an imperative, procedural and, since 2002, object-oriented language.", "COBOL is primarily used in business, finance, and administrative systems for companies and governments.", "COBOL is still widely used in applications deployed on mainframe computers, such as large-scale batch and transaction processing jobs.", "Many large financial institutions were developing new systems in the language as late as 2006, but most programming in COBOL today is purely to maintain existing applications.", "Programs are being moved to new platforms, rewritten in modern languages or replaced with other software.COBOL was designed in 1959 by CODASYL and was partly based on the programming language FLOW-MATIC designed by Grace Hopper.", "It was created as part of a U.S. Department of Defense effort to create a portable programming language for data processing.", "It was originally seen as a stopgap, but the Defense Department promptly forced computer manufacturers to provide it, resulting in its widespread adoption.", "It was standardized in 1968 and has been revised five times.", "Expansions include support for structured and object-oriented programming.", "The current standard is ISO/IEC 1989:2023.COBOL statements have prose syntax such as , which was designed to be self-documenting and highly readable.", "However, it is verbose and uses over 300 reserved words.", "This contrasts with the succinct and mathematically inspired syntax of other languages (in this case, ).COBOL code is split into four ''divisions'' (identification, environment, data, and procedure) containing a rigid hierarchy of sections, paragraphs and sentences.", "Lacking a large standard library, the standard specifies 43 statements, 87 functions and just one class.Academic computer scientists were generally uninterested in business applications when COBOL was created and were not involved in its design; it was (effectively) designed from the ground up as a computer language for business, with an emphasis on inputs and outputs, whose only data types were numbers and strings of text.COBOL has been criticized for its verbosity, design process, and poor support for structured programming.", "These weaknesses result in monolithic programs that are hard to comprehend as a whole, despite their local readability.For years, COBOL has been assumed as a programming language for business operations in mainframes, although in recent years, many COBOL operations have been moved to cloud computing." ], [ "History and specification", "+Timeline of COBOL language Year Informal name ANSI INCITS Standard ISO/IEC Standard 1960 COBOL-60 1961 COBOL-61 1963 COBOL-61 Extended 1965 COBOL-65 1968 COBOL-68 X3.23-1968 1974 COBOL-74 X3.23-1974 1985 COBOL-85 X3.23-1985 1989:1985 2002 COBOL-2002 1989:2002 2014 COBOL-2014 1989:2014 2023 COBOL-2023 1989:2023===Background===In the late 1950s, computer users and manufacturers were becoming concerned about the rising cost of programming.", "A 1959 survey had found that in any data processing installation, the programming cost US$800,000 on average and that translating programs to run on new hardware would cost $600,000.At a time when new programming languages were proliferating, the same survey suggested that if a common business-oriented language were used, conversion would be far cheaper and faster.On 8 April 1959, Mary K. Hawes, a computer scientist at Burroughs Corporation, called a meeting of representatives from academia, computer users, and manufacturers at the University of Pennsylvania to organize a formal meeting on common business languages.", "Representatives included Grace Hopper (inventor of the English-like data processing language FLOW-MATIC), Jean Sammet and Saul Gorn.At the April meeting, the group asked the Department of Defense (DoD) to sponsor an effort to create a common business language.", "The delegation impressed Charles A. Phillips, director of the Data System Research Staff at the DoD, who thought that they \"thoroughly understood\" the DoD's problems.", "The DoD operated 225 computers, had 175 more on order and had spent over $200 million on implementing programs to run on them.", "Portable programs would save time, reduce costs and ease modernization.Charles Phillips agreed to sponsor the meeting and tasked the delegation with drafting the agenda.===COBOL 60===On 28 and 29 May 1959 (exactly one year after the Zürich ALGOL 58 meeting), a meeting was held at the Pentagon to discuss the creation of a common programming language for business.", "It was attended by 41 people and was chaired by Phillips.", "The Department of Defense was concerned about whether it could run the same data processing programs on different computers.", "FORTRAN, the only mainstream language at the time, lacked the features needed to write such programs.Representatives enthusiastically described a language that could work in a wide variety of environments, from banking and insurance to utilities and inventory control.", "They agreed unanimously that more people should be able to program and that the new language should not be restricted by the limitations of contemporary technology.", "A majority agreed that the language should make maximal use of English, be capable of change, be machine-independent and be easy to use, even at the expense of power.The meeting resulted in the creation of a steering committee and short, intermediate and long-range committees.", "The short-range committee was given to September (three months) to produce specifications for an interim language, which would then be improved upon by the other committees.", "Their official mission, however, was to identify the strengths and weaknesses of existing programming languages and did not explicitly direct them to create a new language.The deadline was met with disbelief by the short-range committee.", "One member, Betty Holberton, described the three-month deadline as \"gross optimism\" and doubted that the language really would be a stopgap.The steering committee met on 4 June and agreed to name the entire activity as the ''Committee on Data Systems Languages'', or CODASYL, and to form an executive committee.The short-range committee members represented six computer manufacturers and three government agencies.", "The computer manufacturers were Burroughs Corporation, IBM, Minneapolis-Honeywell (Honeywell Labs), RCA, Sperry Rand, and Sylvania Electric Products.", "The government agencies were the U.S. Air Force, the Navy's David Taylor Model Basin, and the National Bureau of Standards (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology).", "The committee was chaired by Joseph Wegstein of the U.S. National Bureau of Standards.", "Work began by investigating data description, statements, existing applications and user experiences.The committee mainly examined the FLOW-MATIC, AIMACO and COMTRAN programming languages.", "The FLOW-MATIC language was particularly influential because it had been implemented and because AIMACO was a derivative of it with only minor changes.", "FLOW-MATIC's inventor, Grace Hopper, also served as a technical adviser to the committee.", "FLOW-MATIC's major contributions to COBOL were long variable names, English words for commands and the separation of data descriptions and instructions.Hopper is sometimes called \"the mother of COBOL\" or \"the grandmother of COBOL\", although Jean Sammet, a lead designer of COBOL, said Hopper \"was not the mother, creator or developer of Cobol\".IBM's COMTRAN language, invented by Bob Bemer, was regarded as a competitor to FLOW-MATIC by a short-range committee made up of colleagues of Grace Hopper.", "Some of its features were not incorporated into COBOL so that it would not look like IBM had dominated the design process, and Jean Sammet said in 1981 that there had been a \"strong anti-IBM bias\" from some committee members (herself included).", "In one case, after Roy Goldfinger, author of the COMTRAN manual and intermediate-range committee member, attended a subcommittee meeting to support his language and encourage the use of algebraic expressions, Grace Hopper sent a memo to the short-range committee reiterating Sperry Rand's efforts to create a language based on English.In 1980, Grace Hopper commented that \"COBOL 60 is 95% FLOW-MATIC\" and that COMTRAN had had an \"extremely small\" influence.", "Furthermore, she said that she would claim that work was influenced by both FLOW-MATIC and COMTRAN only to \"keep other people happy so they wouldn't try to knock us out\".Features from COMTRAN incorporated into COBOL included formulas, the clause, an improved IF statement, which obviated the need for GO TOs, and a more robust file management system.The usefulness of the committee's work was subject of great debate.", "While some members thought the language had too many compromises and was the result of design by committee, others felt it was better than the three languages examined.", "Some felt the language was too complex; others, too simple.Controversial features included those some considered useless or too advanced for data processing users.", "Such features included Boolean expressions, formulas and table '''' (indices).", "Another point of controversy was whether to make keywords context-sensitive and the effect that would have on readability.", "Although context-sensitive keywords were rejected, the approach was later used in PL/I and partially in COBOL from 2002.Little consideration was given to interactivity, interaction with operating systems (few existed at that time) and functions (thought of as purely mathematical and of no use in data processing).The specifications were presented to the executive committee on 4 September.", "They fell short of expectations: Joseph Wegstein noted that \"it contains rough spots and requires some additions\", and Bob Bemer later described them as a \"hodgepodge\".", "The subcommittee was given until December to improve it.At a mid-September meeting, the committee discussed the new language's name.", "Suggestions included \"BUSY\" (Business System), \"INFOSYL\" (Information System Language) and \"COCOSYL\" (Common Computer Systems Language).", "It is unclear who coined the name \"COBOL\", although Bob Bemer later claimed it had been his suggestion.In October, the intermediate-range committee received copies of the FACT language specification created by Roy Nutt.", "Its features impressed the committee so much that they passed a resolution to base COBOL on it.This was a blow to the short-range committee, who had made good progress on the specification.", "Despite being technically superior, FACT had not been created with portability in mind or through manufacturer and user consensus.", "It also lacked a demonstrable implementation, allowing supporters of a FLOW-MATIC-based COBOL to overturn the resolution.", "RCA representative Howard Bromberg also blocked FACT, so that RCA's work on a COBOL implementation would not go to waste.It soon became apparent that the committee was too large for any further progress to be made quickly.", "A frustrated Howard Bromberg bought a $15 tombstone with \"COBOL\" engraved on it and sent it to Charles Phillips to demonstrate his displeasure.A sub-committee was formed to analyze existing languages and was made up of six individuals:* William Selden and Gertrude Tierney of IBM,* Howard Bromberg and Howard Discount of RCA,* Vernon Reeves and Jean E. Sammet of Sylvania Electric Products.The sub-committee did most of the work creating the specification, leaving the short-range committee to review and modify their work before producing the finished specification.The specifications were approved by the executive committee on 8 January 1960, and sent to the government printing office, which printed them as ''COBOL 60''.", "The language's stated objectives were to allow efficient, portable programs to be easily written, to allow users to move to new systems with minimal effort and cost, and to be suitable for inexperienced programmers.The CODASYL Executive Committee later created the COBOL Maintenance Committee to answer questions from users and vendors and to improve and expand the specifications.During 1960, the list of manufacturers planning to build COBOL compilers grew.", "By September, five more manufacturers had joined CODASYL (Bendix, Control Data Corporation, General Electric (GE), National Cash Register and Philco), and all represented manufacturers had announced COBOL compilers.", "GE and IBM planned to integrate COBOL into their own languages, GECOM and COMTRAN, respectively.", "In contrast, International Computers and Tabulators planned to replace their language, CODEL, with COBOL.Meanwhile, RCA and Sperry Rand worked on creating COBOL compilers.", "The first COBOL program ran on 17 August on an RCA 501.On 6 and 7 December, the same COBOL program (albeit with minor changes) ran on an RCA computer and a Remington-Rand Univac computer, demonstrating that compatibility could be achieved.The relative influences of which languages were used continues to this day in the recommended advisory printed in all COBOL reference manuals:===COBOL-61 to COBOL-65===Many logical flaws were found in ''COBOL 60'', leading General Electric's Charles Katz to warn that it could not be interpreted unambiguously.", "A reluctant short-term committee performed a total cleanup and, by March 1963, it was reported that COBOL's syntax was as definable as ALGOL's, although semantic ambiguities remained.COBOL is a difficult language to write a compiler for, due to the large syntax and many optional elements within syntactic constructs as well as to the need to generate efficient code for a language with many possible data representations, implicit type conversions, and necessary set-ups for I/O operations.", "Early COBOL compilers were primitive and slow.", "A 1962 US Navy evaluation found compilation speeds of 3–11 statements per minute.", "By mid-1964, they had increased to 11–1000 statements per minute.", "It was observed that increasing memory would drastically increase speed and that compilation costs varied wildly: costs per statement were between $0.23 and $18.91.In late 1962, IBM announced that COBOL would be their primary development language and that development of COMTRAN would cease.The COBOL specification was revised three times in the five years after its publication.", "COBOL-60 was replaced in 1961 by COBOL-61.This was then replaced by the COBOL-61 Extended specifications in 1963, which introduced the sort and report writer facilities.", "The added facilities corrected flaws identified by Honeywell in late 1959 in a letter to the short-range committee.", "COBOL Edition 1965 brought further clarifications to the specifications and introduced facilities for handling mass storage files and tables.===COBOL-68===Efforts began to standardize COBOL to overcome incompatibilities between versions.", "In late 1962, both ISO and the United States of America Standards Institute (now ANSI) formed groups to create standards.", "ANSI produced ''USA Standard COBOL X3.23'' in August 1968, which became the cornerstone for later versions.", "This version was known as American National Standard (ANS) COBOL and was adopted by ISO in 1972.===COBOL-74===By 1970, COBOL had become the most widely used programming language in the world.Independently of the ANSI committee, the CODASYL Programming Language Committee was working on improving the language.", "They described new versions in 1968, 1969, 1970 and 1973, including changes such as new inter-program communication, debugging and file merging facilities as well as improved string-handling and library inclusion features.Although CODASYL was independent of the ANSI committee, the ''CODASYL Journal of Development'' was used by ANSI to identify features that were popular enough to warrant implementing.", "The Programming Language Committee also liaised with ECMA and the Japanese COBOL Standard committee.The Programming Language Committee was not well-known, however.", "The vice-president, William Rinehuls, complained that two-thirds of the COBOL community did not know of the committee's existence.", "It also lacked the funds to make public documents, such as minutes of meetings and change proposals, freely available.In 1974, ANSI published a revised version of (ANS) COBOL, containing new features such as file organizations, the statement and the segmentation module.", "Deleted features included the statement, the statement (which was replaced by ) and the implementer-defined random access module (which was superseded by the new sequential and relative I/O modules).", "These made up 44 changes, which rendered existing statements incompatible with the new standard.", "The report writer was slated to be removed from COBOL, but was reinstated before the standard was published.", "ISO later adopted the updated standard in 1978.===COBOL-85===In June 1978, work began on revising COBOL-74.The proposed standard (commonly called COBOL-80) differed significantly from the previous one, causing concerns about incompatibility and conversion costs.", "In January 1981, Joseph T. Brophy, Senior Vice-president of Travelers Insurance, threatened to sue the standard committee because it was not upwards compatible with COBOL-74.Mr.", "Brophy described previous conversions of their 40-million-line code base as \"non-productive\" and a \"complete waste of our programmer resources\".", "Later that year, the Data Processing Management Association (DPMA) said it was \"strongly opposed\" to the new standard, citing \"prohibitive\" conversion costs and enhancements that were \"forced on the user\".During the first public review period, the committee received 2,200 responses, of which 1,700 were negative form letters.", "Other responses were detailed analyses of the effect COBOL-80 would have on their systems; conversion costs were predicted to be at least 50 cents per line of code.", "Fewer than a dozen of the responses were in favor of the proposed standard.ISO TC97-SC5 installed in 1979 the international COBOL Experts Group, on initiative of Wim Ebbinkhuijsen.", "The group consisted of COBOL experts from many countries, including the United States.", "Its goal was to achieve mutual understanding and respect between ANSI and the rest of the world with regard to the need of new COBOL features.", "After three years, ISO changed the status of the group to a formal Working Group: WG 4 COBOL.", "The group took primary ownership and development of the COBOL standard, where ANSI made most of the proposals.In 1983, the DPMA withdrew its opposition to the standard, citing the responsiveness of the committee to public concerns.", "In the same year, a National Bureau of Standards study concluded that the proposed standard would present few problems.", "A year later, DEC released a VAX/VMS COBOL-80, and noted that conversion of COBOL-74 programs posed few problems.", "The new EVALUATE statement and inline PERFORM were particularly well received and improved productivity, thanks to simplified control flow and debugging.The second public review drew another 1,000 (mainly negative) responses, while the last drew just 25, by which time many concerns had been addressed.In 1985, the ISO Working Group 4 accepted the then-version of the ANSI proposed standard, made several changes and set it as the new ISO standard COBOL 85.It was published in late 1985.Sixty features were changed or deprecated and 115 were added, such as:* Scope terminators (END-IF, END-PERFORM, END-READ, etc.", ")* Nested subprograms* CONTINUE, a no-operation statement* EVALUATE, a switch statement* INITIALIZE, a statement that can set groups of data to their default values* Inline PERFORM loop bodies – previously, loop bodies had to be specified in a separate procedure* Reference modification, which allows access to substrings* I/O status codes.The new standard was adopted by all national standard bodies, including ANSI.Two amendments followed in 1989 and 1993, the first introducing intrinsic functions and the other providing corrections.===COBOL 2002 and object-oriented COBOL===In 1997, Gartner Group estimated that there were a total of 200 billion lines of COBOL in existence, which ran 80% of all business programs.In the early 1990s, work began on adding object-orientation in the next full revision of COBOL.", "Object-oriented features were taken from C++ and Smalltalk.The initial estimate was to have this revision completed by 1997, and an ISO Committee Draft (CD) was available by 1997.Some vendors (including Micro Focus, Fujitsu, and IBM) introduced object-oriented syntax based on drafts of the full revision.", "The final approved ISO standard was approved and published in late 2002.Fujitsu/GTSoftware, Micro Focus introduced object-oriented COBOL compilers targeting the .NET Framework.There were many other new features, many of which had been in the ''CODASYL COBOL Journal of Development'' since 1978 and had missed the opportunity to be included in COBOL-85.These other features included:* Free-form code* User-defined functions* Recursion* Locale-based processing* Support for extended character sets such as Unicode* Floating-point and binary data types (until then, binary items were truncated based on their declaration's base-10 specification)* Portable arithmetic results*Bit and Boolean data types* Pointers and syntax for getting and freeing storage* The for text-based user interfaces* The facility* Improved interoperability with other programming languages and framework environments such as .NET and Java.Three corrigenda were published for the standard: two in 2006 and one in 2009.===COBOL 2014===Between 2003 and 2009, three technical reports were produced describing object finalization, XML processing and collection classes for COBOL.COBOL 2002 suffered from poor support: no compilers completely supported the standard.", "Micro Focus found that it was due to a lack of user demand for the new features and due to the abolition of the NIST test suite, which had been used to test compiler conformance.", "The standardization process was also found to be slow and under-resourced.COBOL 2014 includes the following changes:* Portable arithmetic results have been replaced by IEEE 754 data types* Major features have been made optional, such as the VALIDATE facility, the report writer and the screen-handling facility* Method overloading* Dynamic capacity tables (a feature dropped from the draft of COBOL 2002)===COBOL 2023===The COBOL 2023 standard added a few new features:* Asynchronous messaging syntax using the SEND and RECEIVE statements* A transaction processing facility with COMMIT and ROLLBACK* XOR logical operator* The CONTINUE statement can be extended as to pause the program for a specified duration* A DELETE FILE statement* LINE SEQUENTIAL file organization* Defined infinite looping with PERFORM UNTIL EXIT* SUBSTITUTE intrinsic function allowing for substring substitution of different length* CONVERT function for base-conversion* Boolean shifting operatorsThere is as yet no known complete implementation of this standard.===Legacy===COBOL programs are used globally in governments and businesses and are running on diverse operating systems such as z/OS, z/VSE, VME, Unix, NonStop OS, OpenVMS and Windows.", "In 1997, the Gartner Group reported that 80% of the world's business ran on COBOL with over 200 billion lines of code and 5 billion lines more being written annually.Near the end of the 20th century, the year 2000 problem (Y2K) was the focus of significant COBOL programming effort, sometimes by the same programmers who had designed the systems decades before.", "The particular level of effort required to correct COBOL code has been attributed to the large amount of business-oriented COBOL, as business applications use dates heavily, and to fixed-length data fields.", "Some studies attribute as much as \"24% of Y2K software repair costs to Cobol\".", "After the clean-up effort put into these programs for Y2K, a 2003 survey found that many remained in use.", "The authors said that the survey data suggest \"a gradual decline in the importance of COBOL in application development over the following 10 years unless ... integration with other languages and technologies can be adopted\".In 2006 and 2012, ''Computerworld'' surveys (of 352 readers) found that over 60% of organizations used COBOL (more than C++ and Visual Basic .NET) and that for half of those, COBOL was used for the majority of their internal software.", "36% of managers said they planned to migrate from COBOL, and 25% said that they would do so if not for the expense of rewriting legacy code.", "Alternatively, some businesses have migrated their COBOL programs from mainframes to cheaper, faster hardware.Testimony before the House of Representatives in 2016 indicated that COBOL is still in use by many federal agencies.", "Reuters reported in 2017 that 43% of banking systems still used COBOL with over 220 billion lines of COBOL code in use.By 2019, the number of COBOL programmers was shrinking fast due to retirements, leading to an impending skills gap in business and government organizations which still use mainframe systems for high-volume transaction processing.", "Efforts to rewrite systems in newer languages have proven expensive and problematic, as has the outsourcing of code maintenance, thus proposals to train more people in COBOL are advocated.During the COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing surge of unemployment, several US states reported a shortage of skilled COBOL programmers to support the legacy systems used for unemployment benefit management.", "Many of these systems had been in the process of conversion to more modern programming languages prior to the pandemic, but the process was put on hold.", "Similarly, the US Internal Revenue Service rushed to patch its COBOL-based Individual Master File in order to disburse the tens of millions of payments mandated by the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act." ], [ "Features", "===Syntax===COBOL has an English-like syntax, which is used to describe nearly everything in a program.", "For example, a condition can be expressed as   or more concisely as    or  .", "More complex conditions can be abbreviated by removing repeated conditions and variables.", "For example,    can be shortened to .", "To support this syntax, COBOL has over 300 keywords.", "Some of the keywords are simple alternative or pluralized spellings of the same word, which provides for more grammatically appropriate statements and clauses; e.g., the and keywords can be used interchangeably, as can and , and and .Each COBOL program is made up of four basic lexical items: words, literals, picture character-strings (see ) and separators.", "Words include reserved words and user-defined identifiers.", "They are up to 31 characters long and may include letters, digits, hyphens and underscores.", "Literals include numerals (e.g. )", "and strings (e.g.", ").", "Separators include the space character and commas and semi-colons followed by a space.A COBOL program is split into four divisions: the identification division, the environment division, the data division and the procedure division.", "The identification division specifies the name and type of the source element and is where classes and interfaces are specified.", "The environment division specifies any program features that depend on the system running it, such as files and character sets.", "The data division is used to declare variables and parameters.", "The procedure division contains the program's statements.", "Each division is sub-divided into sections, which are made up of paragraphs.====Metalanguage====COBOL's syntax is usually described with a unique metalanguage using braces, brackets, bars and underlining.", "The metalanguage was developed for the original COBOL specifications.", "Although Backus–Naur form did exist at the time, the committee had not heard of it.+ Elements of COBOL's metalanguage Element Appearance Function All capitals EXAMPLE Reserved word Underlining The reserved word is compulsory Braces { } Only one option may be selected Brackets Zero or one options may be selected Ellipsis ...", "The preceding element may be repeated Bars { } One or more options may be selected.", "Any option may only be selected once.", "Zero or more options may be selected.", "Any option may only be selected once.As an example, consider the following description of an ADD statement: This description permits the following variants:ADD 1 TO xADD 1, a, b TO x ROUNDED, y, z ROUNDEDADD a, b TO c ON SIZE ERROR DISPLAY \"Error\"END-ADDADD a TO b NOT SIZE ERROR DISPLAY \"No error\" ON SIZE ERROR DISPLAY \"Error\"===Code format===COBOL program deck of punched cards, from the 1970sThe height of COBOL's popularity coincided with the era of keypunch machines and punched cards.", "The program itself was written onto punched cards, then read in and compiled, and the data fed into the program was sometimes on cards as well.COBOL can be written in two formats: fixed (the default) or free.", "In fixed-format, code must be aligned to fit in certain areas (a hold-over from using punched cards).", "Until COBOL 2002, these were: Name Column(s) Usage Sequence number area 1–6 Originally used for card/line numbers (facilitating mechanical punched card sorting to assure intended program code sequence after manual editing/handling), this area is ignored by the compiler Indicator area 7 The following characters are allowed here:* * – Comment line* / – Comment line that will be printed on a new page of a source listing* - – Continuation line, where words or literals from the previous line are continued* D – Line enabled in debugging mode, which is otherwise ignored Area A 8–11 This contains: DIVISION, SECTION and procedure headers; 01 and 77 level numbers and file/report descriptors Area B 12–72 Any other code not allowed in Area A Program name area 73– Historically up to column 80 for punched cards, it is used to identify the program or sequence the card belongs toIn COBOL 2002, Areas A and B were merged to form the program-text area, which now ends at an implementor-defined column.COBOL 2002 also introduced free-format code.", "Free-format code can be placed in any column of the file, as in newer programming languages.", "Comments are specified using *>, which can be placed anywhere and can also be used in fixed-format source code.", "Continuation lines are not present, and the >>PAGE directive replaces the / indicator.===Identification division===The identification division identifies the following code entity and contains the definition of a class or interface.====Object-oriented programming====Classes and interfaces have been in COBOL since 2002.Classes have factory objects, containing class methods and variables, and instance objects, containing instance methods and variables.", "Inheritance and interfaces provide polymorphism.", "Support for generic programming is provided through parameterized classes, which can be instantiated to use any class or interface.", "Objects are stored as references which may be restricted to a certain type.", "There are two ways of calling a method: the statement, which acts similarly to , or through inline method invocation, which is analogous to using functions.", "*> These are equivalent.INVOKE my-class \"foo\" RETURNING varMOVE my-class::\"foo\" TO var *> Inline method invocationCOBOL does not provide a way to hide methods.", "Class data can be hidden, however, by declaring it without a clause, which leaves external code no way to access it.", "Method overloading was added in COBOL 2014.===Environment division===The environment division contains the configuration section and the input-output section.", "The configuration section is used to specify variable features such as currency signs, locales and character sets.", "The input-output section contains file-related information.====Files====COBOL supports three file formats, or '''': sequential, indexed and relative.", "In sequential files, records are contiguous and must be traversed sequentially, similarly to a linked list.", "Indexed files have one or more indexes which allow records to be randomly accessed and which can be sorted on them.", "Each record must have a unique key, but other, '''', record keys need not be unique.", "Implementations of indexed files vary between vendors, although common implementations, such as C-ISAM and VSAM, are based on IBM's ISAM.", "other implementations are Record Management Services on OpenVMS and Enscribe on HPE NonStop (Tandem).", "Relative files, like indexed files, have a unique record key, but they do not have alternate keys.", "A relative record's key is its ordinal position; for example, the 10th record has a key of 10.This means that creating a record with a key of 5 may require the creation of (empty) preceding records.", "Relative files also allow for both sequential and random access.A common non-standard extension is the '''' organization, used to process text files.", "Records in a file are terminated by a newline and may be of varying length.===Data division===The data division is split into six sections which declare different items: the file section, for file records; the working-storage section, for static variables; the local-storage section, for automatic variables; the linkage section, for parameters and the return value; the report section and the screen section, for text-based user interfaces.====Aggregated data====Data items in COBOL are declared hierarchically through the use of level-numbers which indicate if a data item is part of another.", "An item with a higher level-number is subordinate to an item with a lower one.", "Top-level data items, with a level-number of 1, are called ''''.", "Items that have subordinate aggregate data are called ''''; those that do not are called ''''.", "Level-numbers used to describe standard data items are between 1 and 49.01 some-record.", "*> Aggregate group record item 05 num PIC 9(10).", "*> Elementary item 05 the-date.", "*> Aggregate (sub)group record item 10 the-year PIC 9(4).", "*> Elementary item 10 the-month PIC 99.", "*> Elementary item 10 the-day PIC 99.", "*> Elementary itemIn the above example, elementary item and group item are subordinate to the record , while elementary items , , and are part of the group item .Subordinate items can be disambiguated with the (or ) keyword.", "For example, consider the example code above along with the following example: 01 sale-date.", "05 the-year PIC 9(4).", "05 the-month PIC 99.05 the-day PIC 99.The names , , and are ambiguous by themselves, since more than one data item is defined with those names.", "To specify a particular data item, for instance one of the items contained within the group, the programmer would use (or the equivalent ).", "This syntax is similar to the \"dot notation\" supported by most contemporary languages.====Other data levels====A level-number of 66 is used to declare a re-grouping of previously defined items, irrespective of how those items are structured.", "This data level, also referred to by the associated , is rarely used and, circa 1988, was usually found in old programs.", "Its ability to ignore the hierarchical and logical structure data meant its use was not recommended and many installations forbade its use.", "01 customer-record.", "05 cust-key PIC X(10).", "05 cust-name.", "10 cust-first-name PIC X(30).", "10 cust-last-name PIC X(30).", "05 cust-dob PIC 9(8).", "05 cust-balance PIC 9(7)V99.66 cust-personal-details RENAMES cust-name THRU cust-dob.", "66 cust-all-details RENAMES cust-name THRU cust-balance.A 77 level-number indicates the item is stand-alone, and in such situations is equivalent to the level-number 01.For example, the following code declares two 77-level data items, and , which are non-group data items that are independent of (not subordinate to) any other data items: 77 property-name PIC X(80).", "77 sales-region PIC 9(5).An 88 level-number declares a '''' (a so-called 88-level) which is true when its parent data item contains one of the values specified in its clause.", "For example, the following code defines two 88-level condition-name items that are true or false depending on the current character data value of the data item.", "When the data item contains a value of , the condition-name is true, whereas when it contains a value of or , the condition-name is true.", "If the data item contains some other value, both of the condition-names are false.", "01 wage-type PIC X.", "88 wage-is-hourly VALUE \"H\".", "88 wage-is-yearly VALUE \"S\", \"Y\".====Data types====Standard COBOL provides the following data types: Data type Sample declaration Notes Alphabetic May contain only letters or spaces.", "Alphanumeric May contain any characters.", "Boolean Data stored in the form of 0s and 1s, as a binary number.", "Index Used to reference table elements.", "National Similar to alphanumeric, but using an extended character set, e.g.", "UTF-8.Numeric Contains exactly 7 digits (7=5+2).", "'V' locates the implicit decimal in a fixed point number.", "Object May reference either an object or NULL.", "Pointer Type safety is variable in COBOL.", "Numeric data is converted between different representations and sizes silently and alphanumeric data can be placed in any data item that can be stored as a string, including numeric and group data.", "In contrast, object references and pointers may only be assigned from items of the same type and their values may be restricted to a certain type.=====PICTURE clause=====A (or ) clause is a string of characters, each of which represents a portion of the data item and what it may contain.", "Some picture characters specify the type of the item and how many characters or digits it occupies in memory.", "For example, a indicates a decimal digit, and an indicates that the item is signed.", "Other picture characters (called '''' and '''' characters) specify how an item should be formatted.", "For example, a series of characters define character positions as well as how a leading sign character is to be positioned within the final character data; the rightmost non-numeric character will contain the item's sign, while other character positions corresponding to a to the left of this position will contain a space.", "Repeated characters can be specified more concisely by specifying a number in parentheses after a picture character; for example, is equivalent to .", "Picture specifications containing only digit () and sign () characters define purely '''' data items, while picture specifications containing alphabetic () or alphanumeric () characters define '''' data items.", "The presence of other formatting characters define '''' or '''' data items.+ Examples clause Value in Value out (this is legal, but results in undefined behavior) \"  -10\" (note leading spaces) 0 =====USAGE clause=====The clause declares the format in which data is stored.", "Depending on the data type, it can either complement or be used instead of a clause.", "While it can be used to declare pointers and object references, it is mostly geared towards specifying numeric types.", "These numeric formats are:* Binary, where a minimum size is either specified by the PICTURE clause or by a USAGE clause such as BINARY-LONG* , where data may be stored in whatever format the implementation provides; often equivalent to  * , the default format, where data is stored as a string* Floating-point, in either an implementation-dependent format or according to IEEE 754* , where data is stored as a string using an extended character set* , where data is stored in the smallest possible decimal format (typically packed binary-coded decimal)====Report writer====The report writer is a declarative facility for creating reports.", "The programmer need only specify the report layout and the data required to produce it, freeing them from having to write code to handle things like page breaks, data formatting, and headings and footings.Reports are associated with report files, which are files which may only be written to through report writer statements.", "FD report-out REPORT sales-report.Each report is defined in the report section of the data division.", "A report is split into report groups which define the report's headings, footings and details.", "Reports work around hierarchical ''''.", "Control breaks occur when a key variable changes it value; for example, when creating a report detailing customers' orders, a control break could occur when the program reaches a different customer's orders.", "Here is an example report description for a report which gives a salesperson's sales and which warns of any invalid records: RD sales-report PAGE LIMITS 60 LINES FIRST DETAIL 3 CONTROLS seller-name.", "01 TYPE PAGE HEADING.", "03 COL 1 VALUE \"Sales Report\".", "03 COL 74 VALUE \"Page\".", "03 COL 79 PIC Z9 SOURCE PAGE-COUNTER.", "01 sales-on-day TYPE DETAIL, LINE + 1.03 COL 3 VALUE \"Sales on\".", "03 COL 12 PIC 99/99/9999 SOURCE sales-date.", "03 COL 21 VALUE \"were\".", "03 COL 26 PIC $$$$9.99 SOURCE sales-amount.", "01 invalid-sales TYPE DETAIL, LINE + 1.03 COL 3 VALUE \"INVALID RECORD:\".", "03 COL 19 PIC X(34) SOURCE sales-record.", "01 TYPE CONTROL HEADING seller-name, LINE + 2.03 COL 1 VALUE \"Seller:\".", "03 COL 9 PIC X(30) SOURCE seller-name.The above report description describes the following layout:Sales Report Page 1Seller: Howard Bromberg Sales on 10/12/2008 were $1000.00 Sales on 12/12/2008 were $0.00 Sales on 13/12/2008 were $31.47 INVALID RECORD: Howard Bromberg XXXXYYSeller: Howard Discount...Sales Report Page 12 Sales on 08/05/2014 were $543.98 INVALID RECORD: William Selden 12O52014FOOFOO Sales on 30/05/2014 were $0.00Four statements control the report writer: , which prepares the report writer for printing; , which prints a report group; , which suppresses the printing of a report group; and , which terminates report processing.", "For the above sales report example, the procedure division might look like this: OPEN INPUT sales, OUTPUT report-out INITIATE sales-report PERFORM UNTIL 1 1 READ sales AT END EXIT PERFORM END-READ VALIDATE sales-record IF valid-record GENERATE sales-on-day ELSE GENERATE invalid-sales END-IF END-PERFORM TERMINATE sales-report CLOSE sales, report-out .Use of the Report Writer facility tends to vary considerably; some organizations use it extensively and some not at all.", "In addition, implementations of Report Writer ranged in quality, with those at the lower end sometimes using excessive amounts of memory at runtime.===Procedure division=======Procedures====The sections and paragraphs in the procedure division (collectively called procedures) can be used as labels and as simple subroutines.", "Unlike in other divisions, paragraphs do not need to be in sections.Execution goes down through the procedures of a program until it is terminated.To use procedures as subroutines, the verb is used.A statement somewhat resembles a procedure call in a newer languages in the sense that execution returns to the code following the statement at the end of the called code; however, it does not provide a mechanism for parameter passing or for returning a result value.", "If a subroutine is invoked using a simple statement like , then control returns at the end of the called procedure.", "However, is unusual in that it may be used to call a range spanning a sequence of several adjacent procedures.", "This is done with the construct:PROCEDURE so-and-so.", "PERFORM ALPHA PERFORM ALPHA THRU GAMMA STOP RUN.ALPHA.", "DISPLAY 'A'.BETA.", "DISPLAY 'B'.GAMMA.", "DISPLAY 'C'.The output of this program will be: \"A A B C\".", "also differs from conventional procedure calls in that there is, at least traditionally, no notion of a call stack.", "As a consequence, nested invocations are possible (a sequence of code being 'ed may execute a statement itself), but require extra care if parts of the same code are executed by both invocations.", "The problem arises when the code in the inner invocation reaches the exit point of the outer invocation.", "More formally, if control passes through the exit point of a invocation that was called earlier but has not yet completed, the COBOL 2002 standard stipulates that the behavior is undefined.The reason is that COBOL, rather than a \"return address\", operates with what may be called a continuation address.", "When control flow reaches the end of any procedure, the continuation address is looked up and control is transferred to that address.", "Before the program runs, the continuation address for every procedure is initialized to the start address of the procedure that comes next in the program text so that, if no statements happen, control flows from top to bottom through the program.", "But when a statement executes, it modifies the continuation address of the called procedure (or the last procedure of the called range, if was used), so that control will return to the call site at the end.", "The original value is saved and is restored afterwards, but there is only one storage position.", "If two nested invocations operate on overlapping code, they may interfere which each other's management of the continuation address in several ways.The following example (taken from ) illustrates the problem:LABEL1.DISPLAY '1' PERFORM LABEL2 THRU LABEL3 STOP RUN.LABEL2.DISPLAY '2' PERFORM LABEL3 THRU LABEL4.LABEL3.DISPLAY '3'.LABEL4.DISPLAY '4'.One might expect that the output of this program would be \"1 2 3 4 3\": After displaying \"2\", the second causes \"3\" and \"4\" to be displayed, and then the first invocation continues on with \"3\".", "In traditional COBOL implementations, this is not the case.", "Rather, the first statement sets the continuation address at the end of so that it will jump back to the call site inside .", "The second statement sets the return at the end of but does not modify the continuation address of , expecting it to be the default continuation.", "Thus, when the inner invocation arrives at the end of , it jumps back to the outer statement, and the program stops having printed just \"1 2 3\".", "On the other hand, in some COBOL implementations like the open-source TinyCOBOL compiler, the two statements do not interfere with each other and the output is indeed \"1 2 3 4 3\".", "Therefore, the behavior in such cases is not only (perhaps) surprising, it is also not portable.A special consequence of this limitation is that cannot be used to write recursive code.", "Another simple example to illustrate this (slightly simplified from ): MOVE 1 TO A PERFORM LABEL STOP RUN.LABEL.", "DISPLAY A IF A One might expect that the output is \"1 2 3 END END END\", and in fact that is what some COBOL compilers will produce.", "But other compilers, like IBM COBOL, will produce code that prints \"1 2 3 END END END END ...\" and so on, printing \"END\" over and over in an endless loop.", "Since there is limited space to store backup continuation addresses, the backups get overwritten in the course of recursive invocations, and all that can be restored is the jump back to .====Statements====COBOL 2014 has 47 statements (also called ''''), which can be grouped into the following broad categories: control flow, I/O, data manipulation and the report writer.", "The report writer statements are covered in the report writer section.=====Control flow=====COBOL's conditional statements are and .", "is a switch-like statement with the added capability of evaluating multiple values and conditions.", "This can be used to implement decision tables.", "For example, the following might be used to control a CNC lathe: EVALUATE TRUE ALSO desired-speed ALSO current-speed WHEN lid-closed ALSO min-speed THRU max-speed ALSO LESS THAN desired-speed PERFORM speed-up-machine WHEN lid-closed ALSO min-speed THRU max-speed ALSO GREATER THAN desired-speed PERFORM slow-down-machine WHEN lid-open ALSO ANY ALSO NOT ZERO PERFORM emergency-stop WHEN OTHER CONTINUEEND-EVALUATEThe statement is used to define loops which are executed a condition is true (not true, which is more common in other languages).", "It is also used to call procedures or ranges of procedures (see the procedures section for more details).", "and call subprograms and methods, respectively.", "The name of the subprogram/method is contained in a string which may be a literal or a data item.", "Parameters can be passed by reference, by content (where a copy is passed by reference) or by value (but only if a prototype is available).", "unloads subprograms from memory.", "causes the program to jump to a specified procedure.The statement is a return statement and the statement stops the program.", "The statement has six different formats: it can be used as a return statement, a break statement, a continue statement, an end marker or to leave a procedure.Exceptions are raised by a statement and caught with a handler, or '''', defined in the portion of the procedure division.", "Declaratives are sections beginning with a statement which specify the errors to handle.", "Exceptions can be names or objects.", "is used in a declarative to jump to the statement after the one that raised the exception or to a procedure outside the .", "Unlike other languages, uncaught exceptions may not terminate the program and the program can proceed unaffected.=====I/O=====File I/O is handled by the self-describing , , , and statements along with a further three: , which updates a record; , which selects subsequent records to access by finding a record with a certain key; and , which releases a lock on the last record accessed.User interaction is done using and .=====Data manipulation=====The following verbs manipulate data:* , which sets data items to their default values.", "* , which assigns values to data items ; ''MOVE CORRESPONDING'' assigns corresponding like-named fields.", "* , which has 15 formats: it can modify indices, assign object references and alter table capacities, among other functions.", "* , , , , and , which handle arithmetic (with assigning the result of a formula to a variable).", "* and , which handle dynamic memory.", "* , which validates and distributes data as specified in an item's description in the data division.", "* and , which concatenate and split strings, respectively.", "* , which tallies or replaces instances of specified substrings within a string.", "* , which searches a table for the first entry satisfying a condition.Files and tables are sorted using and the verb merges and sorts files.", "The verb provides records to sort and retrieves sorted records in order.====Scope termination====Some statements, such as and , may themselves contain statements.", "Such statements may be terminated in two ways: by a period (''''), which terminates ''all'' unterminated statements contained, or by a scope terminator, which terminates the nearest matching open statement.", "*> Terminator period (\"implicit termination\")IF invalid-record IF no-more-records NEXT SENTENCE ELSE READ record-file AT END SET no-more-records TO TRUE.", "*> Scope terminators (\"explicit termination\")IF invalid-record IF no-more-records CONTINUE ELSE READ record-file AT END SET no-more-records TO TRUE END-READ END-IFEND-IFNested statements terminated with a period are a common source of bugs.", "For example, examine the following code:IF x DISPLAY y.", "DISPLAY z.Here, the intent is to display y and z if condition x is true.", "However, z will be displayed whatever the value of x because the IF statement is terminated by an erroneous period after .Another bug is a result of the dangling else problem, when two IF statements can associate with an ELSE.IF x IF y DISPLAY aELSE DISPLAY b.In the above fragment, the ELSE associates with the    statement instead of the    statement, causing a bug.", "Prior to the introduction of explicit scope terminators, preventing it would require    to be placed after the inner IF.====Self-modifying code====The original (1959) COBOL specification supported the infamous    statement, for which many compilers generated self-modifying code.", "X and Y are procedure labels, and the single    statement in procedure X executed after such an statement means    instead.", "Many compilers still support it, but it was deemed obsolete in the COBOL 1985 standard and deleted in 2002.The statement was poorly regarded because it undermined \"locality of context\" and made a program's overall logic difficult to comprehend.", "As textbook author Daniel D. McCracken wrote in 1976, when \"someone who has never seen the program before must become familiar with it as quickly as possible, sometimes under critical time pressure because the program has failed ... the sight of a GO TO statement in a paragraph by itself, signaling as it does the existence of an unknown number of ALTER statements at unknown locations throughout the program, strikes fear in the heart of the bravest programmer.", "\"===Hello, world===A \"Hello, World!\"", "program in COBOL: IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.", "PROGRAM-ID.", "hello-world.", "PROCEDURE DIVISION.", "DISPLAY \"Hello, world!\"", ".When the now famous \"Hello, World!\"", "program example in ''The C Programming Language'' was first published in 1978 a similar mainframe COBOL program sample would have been submitted through JCL, very likely using a punch card reader, and 80 column punch cards.", "The listing below, ''with an empty DATA DIVISION'', was tested using Linux and the System/370 Hercules emulator running MVS 3.8J.", "The JCL, written in July 2015, is derived from the Hercules tutorials and samples hosted by Jay Moseley.", "In keeping with COBOL programming of that era, HELLO, WORLD is displayed in all capital letters.//COBUCLG JOB (001),'COBOL BASE TEST', 00010000// CLASS=A,MSGCLASS=A,MSGLEVEL=(1,1) 00020000//BASETEST EXEC COBUCLG 00030000//COB.SYSIN DD * 00040000 00000* VALIDATION OF BASE COBOL INSTALL 00050000 01000 IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.", "00060000 01100 PROGRAM-ID.", "'HELLO'.", "00070000 02000 ENVIRONMENT DIVISION.", "00080000 02100 CONFIGURATION SECTION.", "00090000 02110 SOURCE-COMPUTER.", "GNULINUX.", "00100000 02120 OBJECT-COMPUTER.", "HERCULES.", "00110000 02200 SPECIAL-NAMES.", "00120000 02210 CONSOLE IS CONSL.", "00130000 03000 DATA DIVISION.", "00140000 04000 PROCEDURE DIVISION.", "00150000 04100 00-MAIN.", "00160000 04110 DISPLAY 'HELLO, WORLD' UPON CONSL.", "00170000 04900 STOP RUN.", "00180000//LKED.SYSLIB DD DSNAME=SYS1.COBLIB,DISP=SHR 00190000// DD DSNAME=SYS1.LINKLIB,DISP=SHR 00200000//GO.SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=A 00210000// 00220000After submitting the JCL, the MVS console displayed: 19.52.48 JOB 3 $HASP100 COBUCLG ON READER1 COBOL BASE TEST 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEF677I WARNING MESSAGE(S) FOR JOB COBUCLG ISSUED 19.52.48 JOB 3 $HASP373 COBUCLG STARTED - INIT 1 - CLASS A - SYS BSP1 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEC130I SYSPUNCH DD STATEMENT MISSING 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEC130I SYSLIB DD STATEMENT MISSING 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEC130I SYSPUNCH DD STATEMENT MISSING 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEFACTRT - Stepname Procstep Program Retcode 19.52.48 JOB 3 COBUCLG BASETEST COB IKFCBL00 RC= 0000 19.52.48 JOB 3 COBUCLG BASETEST LKED IEWL RC= 0000 19.52.48 JOB 3 +HELLO, WORLD 19.52.48 JOB 3 COBUCLG BASETEST GO PGM=*.DD RC= 0000 19.52.48 JOB 3 $HASP395 COBUCLG ENDED''Line 10 of the console listing above is highlighted for effect, the highlighting is not part of the actual console output''.The associated compiler listing generated over four pages of technical detail and job run information, for the single line of output from the 14 lines of COBOL." ], [ "Reception", "===Lack of structure===In the 1970s, adoption of the structured programming paradigm was becoming increasingly widespread.", "Edsger Dijkstra, a preeminent computer scientist, wrote a letter to the editor of Communications of the ACM, published in 1975 entitled \"How do we tell truths that might hurt?", "\", in which he was critical of COBOL and several other contemporary languages; remarking that \"the use of COBOL cripples the mind\".In a published dissent to Dijkstra's remarks, the computer scientist Howard E. Tompkins claimed that unstructured COBOL tended to be \"written by programmers that have never had the benefit of structured COBOL taught well\", arguing that the issue was primarily one of training.One cause of spaghetti code was the statement.", "Attempts to remove s from COBOL code, however, resulted in convoluted programs and reduced code quality.", "s were largely replaced by the statement and procedures, which promoted modular programming and gave easy access to powerful looping facilities.", "However, could be used only with procedures so loop bodies were not located where they were used, making programs harder to understand.COBOL programs were infamous for being monolithic and lacking modularization.COBOL code could be modularized only through procedures, which were found to be inadequate for large systems.", "It was impossible to restrict access to data, meaning a procedure could access and modify data item.", "Furthermore, there was no way to pass parameters to a procedure, an omission Jean Sammet regarded as the committee's biggest mistake.Another complication stemmed from the ability to a specified sequence of procedures.", "This meant that control could jump to and return from any procedure, creating convoluted control flow and permitting a programmer to break the single-entry single-exit rule.This situation improved as COBOL adopted more features.", "COBOL-74 added subprograms, giving programmers the ability to control the data each part of the program could access.", "COBOL-85 then added nested subprograms, allowing programmers to hide subprograms.", "Further control over data and code came in 2002 when object-oriented programming, user-defined functions and user-defined data types were included.Nevertheless, much important legacy COBOL software uses unstructured code, which has become practically unmaintainable.", "It can be too risky and costly to modify even a simple section of code, since it may be used from unknown places in unknown ways.===Compatibility issues===COBOL was intended to be a highly portable, \"common\" language.", "However, by 2001, around 300 dialects had been created.", "One source of dialects was the standard itself: the 1974 standard was composed of one mandatory nucleus and eleven functional modules, each containing two or three levels of support.", "This permitted 104,976 possible variants.COBOL-85 was not fully compatible with earlier versions, and its development was controversial.", "Joseph T. Brophy, the CIO of Travelers Insurance, spearheaded an effort to inform COBOL users of the heavy reprogramming costs of implementing the new standard.", "As a result, the ANSI COBOL Committee received more than 2,200 letters from the public, mostly negative, requiring the committee to make changes.", "On the other hand, conversion to COBOL-85 was thought to increase productivity in future years, thus justifying the conversion costs.===Verbose syntax===COBOL syntax has often been criticized for its verbosity.", "Proponents say that this was intended to make the code self-documenting, easing program maintenance.", "COBOL was also intended to be easy for programmers to learn and use, while still being readable to non-technical staff such as managers.The desire for readability led to the use of English-like syntax and structural elements, such as nouns, verbs, clauses, sentences, sections, and divisions.", "Yet by 1984, maintainers of COBOL programs were struggling to deal with \"incomprehensible\" code and the main changes in COBOL-85 were there to help ease maintenance.Jean Sammet, a short-range committee member, noted that \"little attempt was made to cater to the professional programmer, in fact people whose main interest is programming tend to be very unhappy with COBOL\" which she attributed to COBOL's verbose syntax.===Isolation from the computer science community===The COBOL community has always been isolated from the computer science community.", "No academic computer scientists participated in the design of COBOL: all of those on the committee came from commerce or government.", "Computer scientists at the time were more interested in fields like numerical analysis, physics and system programming than the commercial file-processing problems which COBOL development tackled.", "Jean Sammet attributed COBOL's unpopularity to an initial \"snob reaction\" due to its inelegance, the lack of influential computer scientists participating in the design process and a disdain for business data processing.", "The COBOL specification used a unique \"notation\", or metalanguage, to define its syntax rather than the new Backus–Naur form which the committee did not know of.", "This resulted in \"severe\" criticism.Later, COBOL suffered from a shortage of material covering it; it took until 1963 for introductory books to appear (with Richard D. Irwin publishing a college textbook on COBOL in 1966).", "By 1985, there were twice as many books on FORTRAN and four times as many on BASIC as on COBOL in the Library of Congress.", "University professors taught more modern, state-of-the-art languages and techniques instead of COBOL which was said to have a \"trade school\" nature.", "Donald Nelson, chair of the CODASYL COBOL committee, said in 1984 that \"academics ... hate COBOL\" and that computer science graduates \"had 'hate COBOL' drilled into them\".By the mid-1980s, there was also significant condescension towards COBOL in the business community from users of other languages, for example FORTRAN or assembler, implying that COBOL could be used only for non-challenging problems.In 2003, COBOL featured in 80% of information systems curricula in the United States, the same proportion as C++ and Java.", "Ten years later, a poll by Micro Focus found that 20% of university academics thought COBOL was outdated or dead and that 55% believed their students thought COBOL was outdated or dead.", "The same poll also found that only 25% of academics had COBOL programming on their curriculum even though 60% thought they should teach it.===Concerns about the design process===Doubts have been raised about the competence of the standards committee.", "Short-term committee member Howard Bromberg said that there was \"little control\" over the development process and that it was \"plagued by discontinuity of personnel and ... a lack of talent.\"", "Jean Sammet and Jerome Garfunkel also noted that changes introduced in one revision of the standard would be reverted in the next, due as much to changes in who was in the standard committee as to objective evidence.COBOL standards have repeatedly suffered from delays: COBOL-85 arrived five years later than hoped, COBOL 2002 was five years late, and COBOL 2014 was six years late.", "To combat delays, the standard committee allowed the creation of optional addenda which would add features more quickly than by waiting for the next standard revision.", "However, some committee members raised concerns about incompatibilities between implementations and frequent modifications of the standard.===Influences on other languages===COBOL's data structures influenced subsequent programming languages.", "Its record and file structure influenced PL/I and Pascal, and the REDEFINES clause was a predecessor to Pascal's variant records.", "Explicit file structure definitions preceded the development of database management systems and aggregated data was a significant advance over Fortran's arrays.PICTURE data declarations were incorporated into PL/I, with minor changes.COBOL's facility, although considered \"primitive\", influenced the development of include directives.The focus on portability and standardization meant programs written in COBOL could be portable and facilitated the spread of the language to a wide variety of hardware platforms and operating systems.", "Additionally, the well-defined division structure restricts the definition of external references to the Environment Division, which simplifies platform changes in particular." ], [ "See also", "* Alphabetical list of programming languages* BLIS/COBOL* CODASYL* Comparison of programming languages* *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * (Link goes to draft N 0147)* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * COBOL Language Standard (1991; COBOL-85 with Amendment 1), from The Open Group" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Crew" ], [ "Introduction", "Crew of a spacecraft (Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', STS-112, 2002)A '''crew''' is a body or a class of people who work at a common activity, generally in a structured or hierarchical organization.", "A location in which a crew works is called a '''crewyard''' or a '''workyard'''.", "The word has nautical resonances: the tasks involved in operating a ship, particularly a sailing ship, providing numerous specialities within a ship's crew, often organised with a chain of command.", "Traditional nautical usage strongly distinguishes officers from crew, though the two groups combined form the ship's company.", "Members of a crew are often referred to by the title ''crewman'' or ''crew-member''.", "''Crew'' also refers to the sport of rowing, where teams row competitively in racing shells." ], [ "See also", "* For a specific sporting usage, see rowing crew.", "* For filmmaking usage, see film crew.", "* For live music usage, see road crew.", "* For analogous entities in research on human judgment and decision-making, see team and judge–advisor system.", "* For stagecraft usage, see stage crew.", "* For video production usage, see television crew.", "* For the comic strip, see ''Motley's Crew''.", "* For the American soccer team, see Columbus Crew.", "* For the 2014 video game, see ''The Crew''.", "* For crews in aviation and the airline industry, see groundcrew and aircrew.", "* For crews in human spaceflight, see astronaut.", "* Tank crew* Boat crew" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Yacht Job Descriptions and Salary Guide" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "CCD" ], [ "Introduction", "'''CCD''' may refer to:" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Charge-coupled device, an electronic light sensor used in various devices including digital cameras* .ccd, the filename extension for CloneCD's CD image file* Carbonate compensation depth, a property of oceans* Colony collapse disorder, a phenomenon involving the abrupt disappearance of honey bees in a beehive or Western honey bee colony* centicandela (ccd), an SI unit of luminous intensity denoting one hundredth of a candela* Central composite design, an experimental design in response surface methodology for building a second order model for a response variable without a complete three-level factorial* Complementary cumulative distribution function* Continuous collision detection, especially in rigid-body dynamics* Countercurrent distribution, used for separating mixtures* Core complex die, an element of AMD Zen 2 and later microprocessor architectures===Medicine===* Canine compulsive disorder, a behavioral condition in dogs, similar to human obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)* Caput-collum-diaphyseal angle, the angle between the neck and the shaft of the femur in the hip* Cleidocranial dysostosis (also called cleidocranial dysplasia), a genetic abnormality in humans* Central core disease, a rare neuromuscular disorder* Congenital chloride diarrhea, a rare disorder in babies* Continuity of Care Document, an XML-based markup standard for patient medical document exchange* Cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants, protein-linked carbohydrate structures that have a role in the phenomenon of cross-reactivity in allergic patients*Cortical collecting duct, a segment of the kidney" ], [ "Politics and government", "* Census county division, a term used by the US Census Bureau* Center City District, an economic development agency for the Center City area of Philadelphia* Consular Consolidated Database, a database used for visa processing by the Bureau of Consular Affairs, US Department of State" ], [ "Religion", "* Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, a religious instruction program of the Catholic Church" ], [ "Organizations", "* Café Coffee Day, a chain of coffee shops in India* Country Club of Detroit* Centre of Cricket Development, a cricket team; see Namibia Cricket Board* Cricket Club of Dhakuria; see Gopal Bose===Education===* Community College of Denver, a public college in Denver, Colorado* Cincinnati Country Day School, a non-parochial, private school in Indian Hill, Ohio===Non-governmental===* Christian Care Foundation for Children with Disabilities, in Thailand* Council for a Community of Democracies, in the US* Canadian Coalition for Democracies, a former advocacy organization in Canada===Politics and government===* ''Centro Cristiano Democratico'' (Christian Democratic Centre), a defunct Italian political party" ], [ "Other uses", "* Convention Centre Dublin, Ireland" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Charge-coupled device" ], [ "Introduction", "A specially developed CCD in a wire-bonded package used for ultraviolet imaging A '''charge-coupled device''' ('''CCD''') is an integrated circuit containing an array of linked, or coupled, capacitors.", "Under the control of an external circuit, each capacitor can transfer its electric charge to a neighboring capacitor.", "CCD sensors are a major technology used in digital imaging." ], [ "Overview", "In a CCD image sensor, pixels are represented by p-doped metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) capacitors.", "These MOS capacitors, the basic building blocks of a CCD, are biased above the threshold for inversion when image acquisition begins, allowing the conversion of incoming photons into electron charges at the semiconductor-oxide interface; the CCD is then used to read out these charges.Although CCDs are not the only technology to allow for light detection, CCD image sensors are widely used in professional, medical, and scientific applications where high-quality image data are required.In applications with less exacting quality demands, such as consumer and professional digital cameras, active pixel sensors, also known as CMOS sensors (complementary MOS sensors), are generally used.However, the large quality advantage CCDs enjoyed early on has narrowed over time and since the late 2010s CMOS sensors are the dominant technology, having largely if not completely replaced CCD image sensors." ], [ "History", "George E. Smith and Willard Boyle, 2009, photographed on a Nikon D80, which uses a CCD sensorThe basis for the CCD is the metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) structure, with MOS capacitors being the basic building blocks of a CCD, and a depleted MOS structure used as the photodetector in early CCD devices.In the late 1960s, Willard Boyle and George E. Smith at Bell Labs were researching MOS technology while working on semiconductor bubble memory.", "They realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor.", "As it was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next.", "This led to the invention of the charge-coupled device by Boyle and Smith in 1969.They conceived of the design of what they termed, in their notebook, \"Charge 'Bubble' Devices\".The initial paper describing the concept in April 1970 listed possible uses as memory, a delay line, and an imaging device.", "The device could also be used as a shift register.", "The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a semiconductor from one storage capacitor to the next.", "The concept was similar in principle to the bucket-brigade device (BBD), which was developed at Philips Research Labs during the late 1960s.The first experimental device demonstrating the principle was a row of closely spaced metal squares on an oxidized silicon surface electrically accessed by wire bonds.", "It was demonstrated by Gil Amelio, Michael Francis Tompsett and George Smith in April 1970.This was the first experimental application of the CCD in image sensor technology, and used a depleted MOS structure as the photodetector.", "The first patent () on the application of CCDs to imaging was assigned to Tompsett, who filed the application in 1971.The first working CCD made with integrated circuit technology was a simple 8-bit shift register, reported by Tompsett, Amelio and Smith in August 1970.This device had input and output circuits and was used to demonstrate its use as a shift register and as a crude eight pixel linear imaging device.", "Development of the device progressed at a rapid rate.", "By 1971, Bell researchers led by Michael Tompsett were able to capture images with simple linear devices.Several companies, including Fairchild Semiconductor, RCA and Texas Instruments, picked up on the invention and began development programs.", "Fairchild's effort, led by ex-Bell researcher Gil Amelio, was the first with commercial devices, and by 1974 had a linear 500-element device and a 2D 100 × 100 pixel device.", "Peter Dillon, a scientist at Kodak Research Labs, invented the first color CCD image sensor by overlaying a color filter array on this Fairchild 100 x 100 pixel Interline CCD starting in 1974.Steven Sasson, an electrical engineer working for the Kodak Apparatus Division, invented a digital still camera using this same Fairchild CCD in 1975.The interline transfer (ILT) CCD device was proposed by L. Walsh and R. Dyck at Fairchild in 1973 to reduce smear and eliminate a mechanical shutter.", "To further reduce smear from bright light sources, the frame-interline-transfer (FIT) CCD architecture was developed by K. Horii, T. Kuroda and T. Kunii at Matsushita (now Panasonic) in 1981.The first KH-11 KENNEN reconnaissance satellite equipped with charge-coupled device array ( pixels) technology for imaging was launched in December 1976.Under the leadership of Kazuo Iwama, Sony started a large development effort on CCDs involving a significant investment.", "Eventually, Sony managed to mass-produce CCDs for their camcorders.", "Before this happened, Iwama died in August 1982.Subsequently a CCD chip was placed on his tombstone to acknowledge his contribution.", "The first mass-produced consumer CCD video camera, the CCD-G5, was released by Sony in 1983, based on a prototype developed by Yoshiaki Hagiwara in 1981.Early CCD sensors suffered from shutter lag.", "This was largely resolved with the invention of the pinned photodiode (PPD).", "It was invented by Nobukazu Teranishi, Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at NEC in 1980.They recognized that lag can be eliminated if the signal carriers could be transferred from the photodiode to the CCD.", "This led to their invention of the pinned photodiode, a photodetector structure with low lag, low noise, high quantum efficiency and low dark current.", "It was first publicly reported by Teranishi and Ishihara with A. Kohono, E. Oda and K. Arai in 1982, with the addition of an anti-blooming structure.", "The new photodetector structure invented at NEC was given the name \"pinned photodiode\" (PPD) by B.C.", "Burkey at Kodak in 1984.In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD devices, becoming a fixture in consumer electronic video cameras and then digital still cameras.", "Since then, the PPD has been used in nearly all CCD sensors and then CMOS sensors.In January 2006, Boyle and Smith were awarded the National Academy of Engineering Charles Stark Draper Prize, and in 2009 they were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for their invention of the CCD concept.", "Michael Tompsett was awarded the 2010 National Medal of Technology and Innovation, for pioneering work and electronic technologies including the design and development of the first CCD imagers.", "He was also awarded the 2012 IEEE Edison Medal for \"pioneering contributions to imaging devices including CCD Imagers, cameras and thermal imagers\"." ], [ "Basics of operation", "The charge packets (electrons, blue) are collected in ''potential wells'' (yellow) created by applying positive voltage at the gate electrodes (G).", "Applying positive voltage to the gate electrode in the correct sequence transfers the charge packets.In a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region (an epitaxial layer of silicon), and a transmission region made out of a shift register (the CCD, properly speaking).An image is projected through a lens onto the capacitor array (the photoactive region), causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric charge proportional to the light intensity at that location.", "A one-dimensional array, used in line-scan cameras, captures a single slice of the image, whereas a two-dimensional array, used in video and still cameras, captures a two-dimensional picture corresponding to the scene projected onto the focal plane of the sensor.", "Once the array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbor (operating as a shift register).", "The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a charge amplifier, which converts the charge into a voltage.", "By repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire contents of the array in the semiconductor to a sequence of voltages.", "In a digital device, these voltages are then sampled, digitized, and usually stored in memory; in an analog device (such as an analog video camera), they are processed into a continuous analog signal (e.g.", "by feeding the output of the charge amplifier into a low-pass filter), which is then processed and fed out to other circuits for transmission, recording, or other processing." ], [ "Detailed physics of operation", "Sony ICX493AQA 10.14-megapixel APS-C (23.4 × 15.6 mm) CCD from digital camera Sony α DSLR-A200 or DSLR-A300, sensor side=== Charge generation ===Before the MOS capacitors are exposed to light, they are biased into the depletion region; in n-channel CCDs, the silicon under the bias gate is slightly ''p''-doped or intrinsic.", "The gate is then biased at a positive potential, above the threshold for strong inversion, which will eventually result in the creation of an ''n'' channel below the gate as in a MOSFET.", "However, it takes time to reach this thermal equilibrium: up to hours in high-end scientific cameras cooled at low temperature.", "Initially after biasing, the holes are pushed far into the substrate, and no mobile electrons are at or near the surface; the CCD thus operates in a non-equilibrium state called deep depletion.Then, when electron–hole pairs are generated in the depletion region, they are separated by the electric field, the electrons move toward the surface, and the holes move toward the substrate.", "Four pair-generation processes can be identified:* photo-generation (up to 95% of quantum efficiency),* generation in the depletion region,* generation at the surface, and* generation in the neutral bulk.The last three processes are known as dark-current generation, and add noise to the image; they can limit the total usable integration time.", "The accumulation of electrons at or near the surface can proceed either until image integration is over and charge begins to be transferred, or thermal equilibrium is reached.", "In this case, the well is said to be full.", "The maximum capacity of each well is known as the well depth, typically about 105 electrons per pixel.", "CCDs are normally susceptible to ionizing radiation and energetic particles whivh causes noise in the output of the CCD, and this must be taken into consideration in sattelites using CCDs.=== Design and manufacturing ===The photoactive region of a CCD is, generally, an epitaxial layer of silicon.", "It is lightly ''p'' doped (usually with boron) and is grown upon a substrate material, often p++.", "In buried-channel devices, the type of design utilized in most modern CCDs, certain areas of the surface of the silicon are ion implanted with phosphorus, giving them an n-doped designation.", "This region defines the channel in which the photogenerated charge packets will travel.", "Simon Sze details the advantages of a buried-channel device:This thin layer (= 0.2–0.3 micron) is fully depleted and the accumulated photogenerated charge is kept away from the surface.", "This structure has the advantages of higher transfer efficiency and lower dark current, from reduced surface recombination.", "The penalty is smaller charge capacity, by a factor of 2–3 compared to the surface-channel CCD.", "The gate oxide, i.e.", "the capacitor dielectric, is grown on top of the epitaxial layer and substrate.Later in the process, polysilicon gates are deposited by chemical vapor deposition, patterned with photolithography, and etched in such a way that the separately phased gates lie perpendicular to the channels.", "The channels are further defined by utilization of the LOCOS process to produce the channel stop region.Channel stops are thermally grown oxides that serve to isolate the charge packets in one column from those in another.", "These channel stops are produced before the polysilicon gates are, as the LOCOS process utilizes a high-temperature step that would destroy the gate material.", "The channel stops are parallel to, and exclusive of, the channel, or \"charge carrying\", regions.Channel stops often have a p+ doped region underlying them, providing a further barrier to the electrons in the charge packets (this discussion of the physics of CCD devices assumes an electron transfer device, though hole transfer is possible).The clocking of the gates, alternately high and low, will forward and reverse bias the diode that is provided by the buried channel (n-doped) and the epitaxial layer (p-doped).", "This will cause the CCD to deplete, near the p–n junction and will collect and move the charge packets beneath the gates—and within the channels—of the device.CCD manufacturing and operation can be optimized for different uses.", "The above process describes a frame transfer CCD.", "While CCDs may be manufactured on a heavily doped p++ wafer it is also possible to manufacture a device inside p-wells that have been placed on an n-wafer.", "This second method, reportedly, reduces smear, dark current, and infrared and red response.", "This method of manufacture is used in the construction of interline-transfer devices.Another version of CCD is called a peristaltic CCD.", "In a peristaltic charge-coupled device, the charge-packet transfer operation is analogous to the peristaltic contraction and dilation of the digestive system.", "The peristaltic CCD has an additional implant that keeps the charge away from the silicon/silicon dioxide interface and generates a large lateral electric field from one gate to the next.", "This provides an additional driving force to aid in transfer of the charge packets." ], [ "Architecture", "CCD from a 2.1-megapixel Argus digital cameraOne-dimensional CCD image sensor from a fax machineThe CCD image sensors can be implemented in several different architectures.", "The most common are full-frame, frame-transfer, and interline.", "The distinguishing characteristic of each of these architectures is their approach to the problem of shuttering.In a full-frame device, all of the image area is active, and there is no electronic shutter.", "A mechanical shutter must be added to this type of sensor or the image smears as the device is clocked or read out.With a frame-transfer CCD, half of the silicon area is covered by an opaque mask (typically aluminum).", "The image can be quickly transferred from the image area to the opaque area or storage region with acceptable smear of a few percent.", "That image can then be read out slowly from the storage region while a new image is integrating or exposing in the active area.", "Frame-transfer devices typically do not require a mechanical shutter and were a common architecture for early solid-state broadcast cameras.", "The downside to the frame-transfer architecture is that it requires twice the silicon real estate of an equivalent full-frame device; hence, it costs roughly twice as much.The interline architecture extends this concept one step further and masks every other column of the image sensor for storage.", "In this device, only one pixel shift has to occur to transfer from image area to storage area; thus, shutter times can be less than a microsecond and smear is essentially eliminated.", "The advantage is not free, however, as the imaging area is now covered by opaque strips dropping the fill factor to approximately 50 percent and the effective quantum efficiency by an equivalent amount.", "Modern designs have addressed this deleterious characteristic by adding microlenses on the surface of the device to direct light away from the opaque regions and on the active area.", "Microlenses can bring the fill factor back up to 90 percent or more depending on pixel size and the overall system's optical design.The choice of architecture comes down to one of utility.", "If the application cannot tolerate an expensive, failure-prone, power-intensive mechanical shutter, an interline device is the right choice.", "Consumer snap-shot cameras have used interline devices.", "On the other hand, for those applications that require the best possible light collection and issues of money, power and time are less important, the full-frame device is the right choice.", "Astronomers tend to prefer full-frame devices.", "The frame-transfer falls in between and was a common choice before the fill-factor issue of interline devices was addressed.", "Today, frame-transfer is usually chosen when an interline architecture is not available, such as in a back-illuminated device.CCDs containing grids of pixels are used in digital cameras, optical scanners, and video cameras as light-sensing devices.", "They commonly respond to 70 percent of the incident light (meaning a quantum efficiency of about 70 percent) making them far more efficient than photographic film, which captures only about 2 percent of the incident light.Most common types of CCDs are sensitive to near-infrared light, which allows infrared photography, night-vision devices, and zero lux (or near zero lux) video-recording/photography.", "For normal silicon-based detectors, the sensitivity is limited to 1.1 μm.", "One other consequence of their sensitivity to infrared is that infrared from remote controls often appears on CCD-based digital cameras or camcorders if they do not have infrared blockers.Cooling reduces the array's dark current, improving the sensitivity of the CCD to low light intensities, even for ultraviolet and visible wavelengths.", "Professional observatories often cool their detectors with liquid nitrogen to reduce the dark current, and therefore the thermal noise, to negligible levels.===Frame transfer CCD===A frame transfer CCD sensorThe frame transfer CCD imager was the first imaging structure proposed for CCD Imaging by Michael Tompsett at Bell Laboratories.", "A '''frame transfer CCD''' is a specialized CCD, often used in astronomy and some professional video cameras, designed for high exposure efficiency and correctness.The normal functioning of a CCD, astronomical or otherwise, can be divided into two phases: exposure and readout.", "During the first phase, the CCD passively collects incoming photons, storing electrons in its cells.", "After the exposure time is passed, the cells are read out one line at a time.", "During the readout phase, cells are shifted down the entire area of the CCD.", "While they are shifted, they continue to collect light.", "Thus, if the shifting is not fast enough, errors can result from light that falls on a cell holding charge during the transfer.", "These errors are referred to as \"vertical smear\" and cause a strong light source to create a vertical line above and below its exact location.", "In addition, the CCD cannot be used to collect light while it is being read out.", "A faster shifting requires a faster readout, and a faster readout can introduce errors in the cell charge measurement, leading to a higher noise level.A frame transfer CCD solves both problems: it has a shielded, not light sensitive, area containing as many cells as the area exposed to light.", "Typically, this area is covered by a reflective material such as aluminium.", "When the exposure time is up, the cells are transferred very rapidly to the hidden area.", "Here, safe from any incoming light, cells can be read out at any speed one deems necessary to correctly measure the cells' charge.", "At the same time, the exposed part of the CCD is collecting light again, so no delay occurs between successive exposures.The disadvantage of such a CCD is the higher cost: the cell area is basically doubled, and more complex control electronics are needed.===Intensified charge-coupled device===An intensified charge-coupled device (ICCD) is a CCD that is optically connected to an image intensifier that is mounted in front of the CCD.An image intensifier includes three functional elements: a photocathode, a micro-channel plate (MCP) and a phosphor screen.", "These three elements are mounted one close behind the other in the mentioned sequence.", "The photons which are coming from the light source fall onto the photocathode, thereby generating photoelectrons.", "The photoelectrons are accelerated towards the MCP by an electrical control voltage, applied between photocathode and MCP.", "The electrons are multiplied inside of the MCP and thereafter accelerated towards the phosphor screen.", "The phosphor screen finally converts the multiplied electrons back to photons which are guided to the CCD by a fiber optic or a lens.An image intensifier inherently includes a shutter functionality: If the control voltage between the photocathode and the MCP is reversed, the emitted photoelectrons are not accelerated towards the MCP but return to the photocathode.", "Thus, no electrons are multiplied and emitted by the MCP, no electrons are going to the phosphor screen and no light is emitted from the image intensifier.", "In this case no light falls onto the CCD, which means that the shutter is closed.", "The process of reversing the control voltage at the photocathode is called ''gating'' and therefore ICCDs are also called gateable CCD cameras.Besides the extremely high sensitivity of ICCD cameras, which enable single photon detection, the gateability is one of the major advantages of the ICCD over the EMCCD cameras.", "The highest performing ICCD cameras enable shutter times as short as 200 picoseconds.ICCD cameras are in general somewhat higher in price than EMCCD cameras because they need the expensive image intensifier.", "On the other hand, EMCCD cameras need a cooling system to cool the EMCCD chip down to temperatures around .", "This cooling system adds additional costs to the EMCCD camera and often yields heavy condensation problems in the application.ICCDs are used in night vision devices and in various scientific applications.=== Electron-multiplying CCD ===EMCCD.", "The high voltages used in these serial transfers induce the creation of additional charge carriers through impact ionisation.EMCCD there is a dispersion (variation) in the number of electrons output by the multiplication register for a given (fixed) number of input electrons (shown in the legend on the right).", "The probability distribution for the number of output electrons is plotted logarithmically on the vertical axis for a simulation of a multiplication register.", "Also shown are results from the empirical fit equation shown on this page.An electron-multiplying CCD (EMCCD, also known as an L3Vision CCD, a product commercialized by e2v Ltd., GB, L3CCD or Impactron CCD, a now-discontinued product offered in the past by Texas Instruments) is a charge-coupled device in which a gain register is placed between the shift register and the output amplifier.", "The gain register is split up into a large number of stages.", "In each stage, the electrons are multiplied by impact ionization in a similar way to an avalanche diode.", "The gain probability at every stage of the register is small (''P'' 500), the overall gain can be very high (), with single input electrons giving many thousands of output electrons.", "Reading a signal from a CCD gives a noise background, typically a few electrons.", "In an EMCCD, this noise is superimposed on many thousands of electrons rather than a single electron; the devices' primary advantage is thus their negligible readout noise.", "The use of avalanche breakdown for amplification of photo charges had already been described in the in 1973 by George E. Smith/Bell Telephone Laboratories.EMCCDs show a similar sensitivity to intensified CCDs (ICCDs).", "However, as with ICCDs, the gain that is applied in the gain register is stochastic and the ''exact'' gain that has been applied to a pixel's charge is impossible to know.", "At high gains (> 30), this uncertainty has the same effect on the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) as halving the quantum efficiency (QE) with respect to operation with a gain of unity.", "This effect is referred to as the Excess Noise Factor (ENF).", "However, at very low light levels (where the quantum efficiency is most important), it can be assumed that a pixel either contains an electron—or not.", "This removes the noise associated with the stochastic multiplication at the risk of counting multiple electrons in the same pixel as a single electron.", "To avoid multiple counts in one pixel due to coincident photons in this mode of operation, high frame rates are essential.", "The dispersion in the gain is shown in the graph on the right.", "For multiplication registers with many elements and large gains it is well modelled by the equation:where ''P'' is the probability of getting ''n'' output electrons given ''m'' input electrons and a total mean multiplication register gain of ''g''.", "For very large numbers of input electrons, this complex distribution function converges towards a Gaussian.Because of the lower costs and better resolution, EMCCDs are capable of replacing ICCDs in many applications.", "ICCDs still have the advantage that they can be gated very fast and thus are useful in applications like range-gated imaging.", "EMCCD cameras indispensably need a cooling system—using either thermoelectric cooling or liquid nitrogen—to cool the chip down to temperatures in the range of .", "This cooling system adds additional costs to the EMCCD imaging system and may yield condensation problems in the application.", "However, high-end EMCCD cameras are equipped with a permanent hermetic vacuum system confining the chip to avoid condensation issues.The low-light capabilities of EMCCDs find use in astronomy and biomedical research, among other fields.", "In particular, their low noise at high readout speeds makes them very useful for a variety of astronomical applications involving low light sources and transient events such as lucky imaging of faint stars, high speed photon counting photometry, Fabry-Pérot spectroscopy and high-resolution spectroscopy.", "More recently, these types of CCDs have broken into the field of biomedical research in low-light applications including small animal imaging, single-molecule imaging, Raman spectroscopy, super resolution microscopy as well as a wide variety of modern fluorescence microscopy techniques thanks to greater SNR in low-light conditions in comparison with traditional CCDs and ICCDs.In terms of noise, commercial EMCCD cameras typically have clock-induced charge (CIC) and dark current (dependent on the extent of cooling) that together lead to an effective readout noise ranging from 0.01 to 1 electrons per pixel read.", "However, recent improvements in EMCCD technology have led to a new generation of cameras capable of producing significantly less CIC, higher charge transfer efficiency and an EM gain 5 times higher than what was previously available.", "These advances in low-light detection lead to an effective total background noise of 0.001 electrons per pixel read, a noise floor unmatched by any other low-light imaging device." ], [ "Use in astronomy", "Array of 30 CCDs used on the Sloan Digital Sky Survey telescope imaging camera, an example of \"drift-scanning\".Due to the high quantum efficiencies of charge-coupled device (CCD) (the ideal quantum efficiency is 100%, one generated electron per incident photon), linearity of their outputs, ease of use compared to photographic plates, and a variety of other reasons, CCDs were very rapidly adopted by astronomers for nearly all UV-to-infrared applications.Thermal noise and cosmic rays may alter the pixels in the CCD array.", "To counter such effects, astronomers take several exposures with the CCD shutter closed and opened.", "The average of images taken with the shutter closed is necessary to lower the random noise.", "Once developed, the dark frame average image is then subtracted from the open-shutter image to remove the dark current and other systematic defects (dead pixels, hot pixels, etc.)", "in the CCD.", "Newer Skipper CCDs counter noise by collecting data with the same collected charge multiple times and has applications in precision light Dark Matter searches and neutrino measurements.The Hubble Space Telescope, in particular, has a highly developed series of steps (“data reduction pipeline”) to convert the raw CCD data to useful images.CCD cameras used in astrophotography often require sturdy mounts to cope with vibrations from wind and other sources, along with the tremendous weight of most imaging platforms.", "To take long exposures of galaxies and nebulae, many astronomers use a technique known as auto-guiding.", "Most autoguiders use a second CCD chip to monitor deviations during imaging.", "This chip can rapidly detect errors in tracking and command the mount motors to correct for them.An unusual astronomical application of CCDs, called drift-scanning, uses a CCD to make a fixed telescope behave like a tracking telescope and follow the motion of the sky.", "The charges in the CCD are transferred and read in a direction parallel to the motion of the sky, and at the same speed.", "In this way, the telescope can image a larger region of the sky than its normal field of view.", "The Sloan Digital Sky Survey is the most famous example of this, using the technique to produce a survey of over a quarter of the sky.", "The Gaia space telescope is another instrument operating in this mode, rotating about its axis at a constant rate of 1 revolution in 6 hours and scanning a 360° by 0.5° strip on the sky during this time; a star traverses the entire focal plane in about 40 seconds (effective exposure time).In addition to imagers, CCDs are also used in an array of analytical instrumentation including spectrometers and interferometers." ], [ "Color cameras", "A Bayer filter on a CCDx80 microscope view of an RGGB Bayer filter on a 240 line Sony CCD PAL Camcorder CCD sensorDigital color cameras, including the digital color cameras in smartphones, generally use a integral color image sensor, which has a color filter array fabricated on top of the monochrome pixels of the CCD.", "The most popular CFA pattern is known as the Bayer filter, which is named for its inventor, Kodak scientist Bryce Bayer.", "In the Bayer pattern, each square of four pixels has one filtered red, one blue, and two green pixels (the human eye has greater acuity for luminance, which is more heavily weighted in green than in either red or blue).", "As a result, the luminance information is collected in each row and column using a checkerboard pattern, and the color resolution is lower than the luminance resolution.Better color separation can be reached by three-CCD devices (3CCD) and a dichroic beam splitter prism, that splits the image into red, green and blue components.", "Each of the three CCDs is arranged to respond to a particular color.", "Many professional video camcorders, and some semi-professional camcorders, use this technique, although developments in competing CMOS technology have made CMOS sensors, both with beam-splitters and Bayer filters, increasingly popular in high-end video and digital cinema cameras.", "Another advantage of 3CCD over a Bayer mask device is higher quantum efficiency (higher light sensitivity), because most of the light from the lens enters one of the silicon sensors, while a Bayer mask absorbs a high proportion (more than 2/3) of the light falling on each pixel location.For still scenes, for instance in microscopy, the resolution of a Bayer mask device can be enhanced by microscanning technology.", "During the process of color co-site sampling, several frames of the scene are produced.", "Between acquisitions, the sensor is moved in pixel dimensions, so that each point in the visual field is acquired consecutively by elements of the mask that are sensitive to the red, green, and blue components of its color.", "Eventually every pixel in the image has been scanned at least once in each color and the resolution of the three channels become equivalent (the resolutions of red and blue channels are quadrupled while the green channel is doubled).===Sensor sizes===Sensors (CCD / CMOS) come in various sizes, or image sensor formats.", "These sizes are often referred to with an inch fraction designation such as 1/1.8″ or 2/3″ called the optical format.", "This measurement originates back in the 1950s and the time of Vidicon tubes.== Blooming ==Vertical smearWhen a CCD exposure is long enough, eventually the electrons that collect in the \"bins\" in the brightest part of the image will overflow the bin, resulting in blooming.", "The structure of the CCD allows the electrons to flow more easily in one direction than another, resulting in vertical streaking.Some anti-blooming features that can be built into a CCD reduce its sensitivity to light by using some of the pixel area for a drain structure.James M. Early developed a vertical anti-blooming drain that would not detract from the light collection area, and so did not reduce light sensitivity." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Journal Article On Basics of CCDs* Nikon microscopy introduction to CCDs* Concepts in Digital Imaging Technology* More statistical properties* L3CCDs used in astronomy" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Computer memory" ], [ "Introduction", "DDR4 SDRAM module.", ", over 90 percent of computer memory used in PCs and servers was of this type.", "'''Computer memory''' stores information, such as data and programs, for immediate use in the computer.", "The term ''memory'' is often synonymous with the term ''primary storage'' or ''main memory''.", "An archaic synonym for memory is '''store'''.Main memory operates at a high speed compared to storage which is slower but less expensive and higher in capacity.", "Besides storing opened programs, computer memory serves as disk cache and write buffer to improve both reading and writing performance.", "Operating systems borrow RAM capacity for caching so long as not needed by running software.", "If needed, contents of the computer memory can be transferred to storage; a common way of doing this is through a memory management technique called ''virtual memory''.Modern computer memory is implemented as semiconductor memory, where data is stored within memory cells built from MOS transistors and other components on an integrated circuit.", "There are two main kinds of semiconductor memory: volatile and non-volatile.", "Examples of non-volatile memory are flash memory and ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM memory.", "Examples of volatile memory are dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) used for primary storage, and static random-access memory (SRAM) used mainly for CPU cache.Most semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells each storing one bit (0 or 1).", "Flash memory organization includes both one bit per memory cell and multi-level cell capable of storing multiple bits per cell.", "The memory cells are grouped into words of fixed word length, for example, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bits.", "Each word can be accessed by a binary address of ''N'' bits, making it possible to store 2''N'' words in the memory." ], [ "History", "Electromechanical memory used in the IBM 602, an early punch multiplying calculatorDetail of the back of a section of ENIAC, showing vacuum tubes Williams tube used as memory in the IAS computer GB microSDHC card on top of 8bytes of magnetic-core memory (1core is 1bit.", ")In the early 1940s, memory technology often permitted a capacity of a few bytes.", "The first electronic programmable digital computer, the ENIAC, using thousands of vacuum tubes, could perform simple calculations involving 20 numbers of ten decimal digits stored in the vacuum tubes.The next significant advance in computer memory came with acoustic delay-line memory, developed by J. Presper Eckert in the early 1940s.", "Through the construction of a glass tube filled with mercury and plugged at each end with a quartz crystal, delay lines could store bits of information in the form of sound waves propagating through the mercury, with the quartz crystals acting as transducers to read and write bits.", "Delay-line memory was limited to a capacity of up to a few thousand bits.Two alternatives to the delay line, the Williams tube and Selectron tube, originated in 1946, both using electron beams in glass tubes as means of storage.", "Using cathode-ray tubes, Fred Williams invented the Williams tube, which was the first random-access computer memory.", "The Williams tube was able to store more information than the Selectron tube (the Selectron was limited to 256 bits, while the Williams tube could store thousands) and was less expensive.", "The Williams tube was nevertheless frustratingly sensitive to environmental disturbances.Efforts began in the late 1940s to find non-volatile memory.", "Magnetic-core memory allowed for recall of memory after power loss.", "It was developed by Frederick W. Viehe and An Wang in the late 1940s, and improved by Jay Forrester and Jan A. Rajchman in the early 1950s, before being commercialized with the Whirlwind I computer in 1953.Magnetic-core memory was the dominant form of memory until the development of MOS semiconductor memory in the 1960s.The first semiconductor memory was implemented as a flip-flop circuit in the early 1960s using bipolar transistors.", "Semiconductor memory made from discrete devices was first shipped by Texas Instruments to the United States Air Force in 1961.The same year, the concept of solid-state memory on an integrated circuit (IC) chip was proposed by applications engineer Bob Norman at Fairchild Semiconductor.", "The first bipolar semiconductor memory IC chip was the SP95 introduced by IBM in 1965.While semiconductor memory offered improved performance over magnetic-core memory, it remain larger and more expensive and did not displace magnetic-core memory until the late 1960s.=== MOS memory ===The invention of the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) enabled the practical use of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistors as memory cell storage elements.", "MOS memory was developed by John Schmidt at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1964.In addition to higher performance, MOS semiconductor memory was cheaper and consumed less power than magnetic core memory.", "In 1965, J.", "Wood and R. Ball of the Royal Radar Establishment proposed digital storage systems that use CMOS (complementary MOS) memory cells, in addition to MOSFET power devices for the power supply, switched cross-coupling, switches and delay-line storage.", "The development of silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) technology by Federico Faggin at Fairchild in 1968 enabled the production of MOS memory chips.", "NMOS memory was commercialized by IBM in the early 1970s.", "MOS memory overtook magnetic core memory as the dominant memory technology in the early 1970s.The two main types of volatile random-access memory (RAM) are static random-access memory (SRAM) and dynamic random-access memory (DRAM).", "Bipolar SRAM was invented by Robert Norman at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963, followed by the development of MOS SRAM by John Schmidt at Fairchild in 1964.SRAM became an alternative to magnetic-core memory, but requires six transistors for each bit of data.", "Commercial use of SRAM began in 1965, when IBM introduced their SP95 SRAM chip for the System/360 Model 95.Toshiba introduced bipolar DRAM memory cells for its Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator in 1965.While it offered improved performance, bipolar DRAM could not compete with the lower price of the then dominant magnetic-core memory.", "MOS technology is the basis for modern DRAM.", "In 1966, Robert H. Dennard at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center was working on MOS memory.", "While examining the characteristics of MOS technology, he found it was possible to build capacitors, and that storing a charge or no charge on the MOS capacitor could represent the 1 and 0 of a bit, while the MOS transistor could control writing the charge to the capacitor.", "This led to his development of a single-transistor DRAM memory cell.", "In 1967, Dennard filed a patent for a single-transistor DRAM memory cell based on MOS technology.", "This led to the first commercial DRAM IC chip, the Intel 1103 in October 1970.Synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) later debuted with the Samsung KM48SL2000 chip in 1992.The term ''memory'' is also often used to refer to non-volatile memory including read-only memory (ROM) through modern flash memory.", "Programmable read-only memory (PROM) was invented by Wen Tsing Chow in 1956, while working for the Arma Division of the American Bosch Arma Corporation.", "In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze of Bell Labs proposed that the floating gate of a MOS semiconductor device could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable ROM, which led to Dov Frohman of Intel inventing EPROM (erasable PROM) in 1971.EEPROM (electrically erasable PROM) was developed by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi and Kiyoko Naga at the Electrotechnical Laboratory in 1972.Flash memory was invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba in the early 1980s.", "Masuoka and colleagues presented the invention of NOR flash in 1984, and then NAND flash in 1987.Toshiba commercialized NAND flash memory in 1987.Developments in technology and economies of scale have made possible so-called '''''' (VLM) computers." ], [ "Volatile memory", "Various memory modules containing different types of DRAM (from top to bottom): DDR SDRAM, SDRAM, EDO DRAM, and FPM DRAMVolatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information.", "Most modern semiconductor volatile memory is either static RAM (SRAM) or dynamic RAM (DRAM).", "DRAM dominates for desktop system memory.", "SRAM is used for CPU cache.", "SRAM is also found in small embedded systems requiring little memory.", "SRAM retains its contents as long as the power is connected and may use a simpler interface, but commonly uses six transistors per bit.", "Dynamic RAM is more complicated for interfacing and control, needing regular refresh cycles to prevent losing its contents, but uses only one transistor and one capacitor per bit, allowing it to reach much higher densities and much cheaper per-bit costs." ], [ "Non-volatile memory", "Non-volatile memory can retain the stored information even when not powered.", "Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory, flash memory, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g.", "hard disk drives, floppy disks and magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punched cards.Non-volatile memory technologies under development include ferroelectric RAM, programmable metallization cell, Spin-transfer torque magnetic RAM, SONOS, resistive random-access memory, racetrack memory, Nano-RAM, 3D XPoint, and millipede memory." ], [ "Semi-volatile memory", "A third category of memory is ''semi-volatile''.", "The term is used to describe a memory that has some limited non-volatile duration after power is removed, but then data is ultimately lost.", "A typical goal when using a semi-volatile memory is to provide the high performance and durability associated with volatile memories while providing some benefits of non-volatile memory.For example, some non-volatile memory types experience wear when written.", "A ''worn'' cell has increased volatility but otherwise continues to work.", "Data locations which are written frequently can thus be directed to use worn circuits.", "As long as the location is updated within some known retention time, the data stays valid.", "After a period of time without update, the value is copied to a less-worn circuit with longer retention.", "Writing first to the worn area allows a high write rate while avoiding wear on the not-worn circuits.As a second example, an STT-RAM can be made non-volatile by building large cells, but doing so raises the cost per bit and power requirements and reduces the write speed.", "Using small cells improves cost, power, and speed, but leads to semi-volatile behavior.", "In some applications, the increased volatility can be managed to provide many benefits of a non-volatile memory, for example by removing power but forcing a wake-up before data is lost; or by caching read-only data and discarding the cached data if the power-off time exceeds the non-volatile threshold.The term semi-volatile is also used to describe semi-volatile behavior constructed from other memory types, such as nvSRAM, which combines SRAM and a non-volatile memory on the same chip, where an external signal copies data from the volatile memory to the non-volatile memory, but if power is removed before the copy occurs, the data is lost.", "Another example is battery-backed RAM, which uses an external battery to power the memory device in case of external power loss.", "If power is off for an extended period of time, the battery may run out, resulting in data loss." ], [ "Management", "Proper management of memory is vital for a computer system to operate properly.", "Modern operating systems have complex systems to properly manage memory.", "Failure to do so can lead to bugs or slow performance.=== Bugs ===Improper management of memory is a common cause of bugs and security vulnerabilities, including the following types:* A memory leak occurs when a program requests memory from the operating system and never returns the memory when it is done with it.", "A program with this bug will gradually require more and more memory until the program fails as the operating system runs out.", "* A segmentation fault results when a program tries to access memory that it does not have permission to access.", "Generally, a program doing so will be terminated by the operating system.", "* A buffer overflow occurs when a program writes data to the end of its allocated space and then continues to write data beyond this to memory that has been allocated for other purposes.", "This may result in erratic program behavior, including memory access errors, incorrect results, a crash, or a breach of system security.", "They are thus the basis of many software vulnerabilities and can be maliciously exploited.=== Virtual memory ===Virtual memory is a system where physical memory is managed by the operating system typically with assistance from a memory management unit, which is part of many modern CPUs.", "It allows multiple types of memory to be used.", "For example, some data can be stored in RAM while other data is stored on a hard drive (e.g.", "in a swapfile), functioning as an extension of the cache hierarchy.", "This offers several advantages.", "Computer programmers no longer need to worry about where their data is physically stored or whether the user's computer will have enough memory.", "The operating system will place actively used data in RAM, which is much faster than hard disks.", "When the amount of RAM is not sufficient to run all the current programs, it can result in a situation where the computer spends more time moving data from RAM to disk and back than it does accomplishing tasks; this is known as thrashing.=== Protected memory ===Protected memory is a system where each program is given an area of memory to use and is prevented from going outside that range.", "If the operating system detects that a program has tried to alter memory that does not belong to it, the program is terminated (or otherwise restricted or redirected).", "This way, only the offending program crashes, and other programs are not affected by the misbehavior (whether accidental or intentional).", "Use of protected memory greatly enhances both the reliability and security of a computer system.Without protected memory, it is possible that a bug in one program will alter the memory used by another program.", "This will cause that other program to run off of corrupted memory with unpredictable results.", "If the operating system's memory is corrupted, the entire computer system may crash and need to be rebooted.", "At times programs intentionally alter the memory used by other programs.", "This is done by viruses and malware to take over computers.", "It may also be used benignly by desirable programs which are intended to modify other programs, debuggers, for example, to insert breakpoints or hooks." ], [ "See also", " * Memory geometry* Memory hierarchy* Memory organization* Processor registers store data but normally are not considered as memory, since they only store one word and do not include an addressing mechanism." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "CDC (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Centers for Disease Control and Prevention''' is the national public health agency of the United States.", "'''CDC''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Organizations", "===Associations===* Coalition to Diversify Computing, a joint organization of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and the Computing Research Association (CRA)===Business===* '''' (\"Deposits and Consignments Fund\"), a financial institution owned by the French government* CDC Group, formerly the Commonwealth Development Corporation and Colonial Development Corporation, a British development organisation owned by the UK Government* Cameroon Development Corporation, an agribusiness company located in Limbe, Cameroon* Central Depository Company, a Pakistani central securities depository company * Control Data Corporation, former supercomputer company* ComfortDelGro Australia, a major Australian operator of buses formerly named ComfortDelGro Cabcharge* Construction Data Company, also known as CDC News and CDC Publishing, a commercial construction reporting service* Loong Air, by ICAO code===Government===* Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, a South Korean agency* Taiwan Centers for Disease Control* Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention* Africa Centres for Disease Control* Civil Defence Corps, UK, 1949-1968 * Community Development Council, Singapore* Community of Democratic Choice, of Eastern European countries* Canadian Dairy Commission* Chichester District Council, local authority in West Sussex, England* Colonial Defence Committee, a body advising on the military defence of the British Empire, 1885-1908===Non-profit===* Community development corporation, any non-profit organization that promotes and supports a community* Certified Development Company, a U.S. Small Business Administration program designed to provide financing for the purchase of fixed assets* Commission for Developing Countries, a Commission of the International Mathematical Union===Politics===* Coalition for Democratic Change, a Liberian political alliance* Congress for Democratic Change, a Liberian political party* Democratic Convergence of Catalonia (), a political party in Catalonia, Spain 1974–2016* California Democratic Council, US===Sport===* Cricket Discipline Commission (of the England and Wales Cricket Board)===Other organizations===* Cult of the Dead Cow (cDc), a computer hacker and DIY media organization" ], [ "Places", "* Center Day Camp, North Windham, Maine, U.S.* '''', library in Quebec, Canada* Communicable Disease Centre, former hospital in Novena, Singapore* Cedar City Regional Airport, by IATA code" ], [ "Science", "* Cholesterol-dependent cytolysin, exotoxins secreted by bacteria* Cell-division cycle in biology**cdc20**cdc25**Cdc42, cell-division cycle protein * Complement-dependent cytotoxicity* Conventional dendritic cell, cDC* Cross dehydrogenative coupling" ], [ "Technology", "* Change data capture, to track changed data* Clock domain crossing of a signal* Connected Device Configuration, of required Java ME features* Communications daughter card for notebook computers* Carbide-derived carbon* USB communications device class" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''CDC?", "'', a children's book by William Steig* Chef de cuisine* Combat Direction Center of an aircraft carrier* Cul de canard, duck feathers used in fly fishing* Continuous Discharge Certificate, seafarer's identity document" ], [ "See also", "* C.DC., the Swiss botany author abbreviation of Anne Casimir de Candolle* Africa CDC (Centres for Disease Control and Prevention)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Centers for Disease Control and Prevention''' ('''CDC''') is the national public health agency of the United States.", "It is a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services, and is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia.The agency's main goal is the protection of public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability in the US and worldwide.", "The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention.", "It especially focuses its attention on infectious disease, food borne pathogens, environmental health, occupational safety and health, health promotion, injury prevention, and educational activities designed to improve the health of United States citizens.", "The CDC also conducts research and provides information on non-infectious diseases, such as obesity and diabetes, and is a founding member of the International Association of National Public Health Institutes.The CDC's current Director is Mandy Cohen who assumed office on July 10, 2023." ], [ "History", "=== Establishment ===The '''Communicable Disease Center''' was founded July 1, 1946, as the successor to the World War II Malaria Control in War Areas program of the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities.Preceding its founding, organizations with global influence in malaria control were the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations and the Rockefeller Foundation.", "The Rockefeller Foundation greatly supported malaria control, sought to have the governments take over some of its efforts, and collaborated with the agency.The new agency was a branch of the U.S. Public Health Service and Atlanta was chosen as the location because malaria was endemic in the Southern United States.", "The agency changed names (see infobox on top) before adopting the name ''Communicable Disease Center'' in 1946.Offices were located on the sixth floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street.With a budget at the time of about $1million, 59 percent of its personnel were engaged in mosquito abatement and habitat control with the objective of control and eradication of malaria in the United States (see National Malaria Eradication Program).Among its 369 employees, the main jobs at CDC were originally entomology and engineering.", "In CDC's initial years, more than six and a half million homes were sprayed, mostly with DDT.", "In 1946, there were only seven medical officers on duty and an early organization chart was drawn, somewhat fancifully, in the shape of a mosquito.", "Under Joseph Walter Mountin, the CDC continued to be an advocate for public health issues and pushed to extend its responsibilities to many other communicable diseases.In 1947, the CDC made a token payment of $10 to Emory University for of land on Clifton Road in DeKalb County, still the home of CDC headquarters as of 2019.CDC employees collected the money to make the purchase.", "The benefactor behind the \"gift\" was Robert W. Woodruff, chairman of the board of The Coca-Cola Company.", "Woodruff had a long-time interest in malaria control, which had been a problem in areas where he went hunting.", "The same year, the PHS transferred its San Francisco based plague laboratory into the CDC as the Epidemiology Division, and a new Veterinary Diseases Division was established.=== Growth ===The Communicable Disease Center moved to its current headquarters in 1960.Building 1 is pictured in 1963.An Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) was established in 1951, originally due to biological warfare concerns arising from the Korean War; EIS evolved into two-year postgraduate training program in epidemiology, and a prototype for Field Epidemiology Training Programs (FETP), which began in 1980.The FETP is a large operation that has trained more than 18,000 disease detectives in over 80 countries.", "In 2020 FETP celebrated the 40th anniversary of the CDC's support for Thailand's Field Epidemiology Training Program.", "Thailand was the first FETP site created outside of North America and is found in numerous countries, reflecting CDC's influence in promoting this model internationally.", "The Training Programs in Epidemiology and Public Health Interventions Network (TEPHINET) has graduated 950 students.The mission of the CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include sexually transmitted diseases when the Venereal Disease Division of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) was transferred to the CDC in 1957.Shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred (in 1960) to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established.It became the '''National Communicable Disease Center''' effective July 1, 1967, and the '''Center for Disease Control''' on June 24, 1970.At the end of the Public Health Service reorganizations of 1966–1973, it was promoted to being a principal operating agency of PHS.=== Recent history ===thumbIt was renamed to the plural '''Centers for Disease Control''' effective October 14, 1980, as the modern organization of having multiple constituent centers was established.", "By 1990, it had four centers formed in the 1980s: the Center for Infectious Diseases, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, the Center for Environmental Health and Injury Control, and the Center for Prevention Services; as well as two centers that had been absorbed by CDC from outside: the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health in 1973, and the National Center for Health Statistics in 1987.An act of the United States Congress appended the words \"and Prevention\" to the name effective October 27, 1992.However, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition.", "Since the 1990s, the CDC focus has broadened to include chronic diseases, disabilities, injury control, workplace hazards, environmental health threats, and terrorism preparedness.", "CDC combats emerging diseases and other health risks, including birth defects, West Nile virus, obesity, avian, swine, and pandemic flu, E. coli, and bioterrorism, to name a few.", "The organization would also prove to be an important factor in preventing the abuse of penicillin.", "In May 1994 the CDC admitted having sent samples of communicable diseases to the Iraqi government from 1984 through 1989 which were subsequently repurposed for biological warfare, including Botulinum toxin, West Nile virus, ''Yersinia pestis'' and Dengue fever virus.On April 21, 2005, then–CDC Director Julie Gerberding formally announced the reorganization of CDC to \"confront the challenges of 21st-century health threats\".", "She established four Coordinating Centers.", "In 2009 the Obama Administration re-evaluated this change and ordered them cut as an unnecessary management layer.As of 2013, the CDC's Biosafety Level 4 laboratories were among the few that exist in the world.", "They included one of only two official repositories of smallpox in the world, with the other one located at the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in the Russian Federation.", "In 2014, the CDC revealed they had discovered several misplaced smallpox samples while their lab workers were \"potentially infected\" with anthrax.The city of Atlanta annexed the property of the CDC headquarters effective January 1, 2018, as a part of the city's largest annexation within a period of 65 years; the Atlanta City Council had voted to do so the prior December.", "The CDC and Emory University had requested that the Atlanta city government annex the area, paving the way for a MARTA expansion through the Emory campus, funded by city tax dollars.", "The headquarters were located in an unincorporated area, statistically in the Druid Hills census-designated place.On August 17, 2022, Dr. Walensky said the CDC would make drastic changes in the wake of mistakes during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "She outlined an overhaul of how the CDC would analyze and share data and how they would communicate information to the general public.", "In her statement to all CDC employees, she said: \"For 75 years, CDC and public health have been preparing for COVID-19, and in our big moment, our performance did not reliably meet expectations.\"", "Based on the findings of an internal report, Walensky concluded that \"The CDC must refocus itself on public health needs, respond much faster to emergencies and outbreaks of disease, and provide information in a way that ordinary people and state and local health authorities can understand and put to use\" (as summarized by the New York Times)." ], [ "Organization", "thumbthumbCDC Building 17 in Atlanta, Georgia, as seen from Emory UniversityThe CDC is organized into \"Centers, Institutes, and Offices\" (CIOs), with each organizational unit implementing the agency's activities in a particular area of expertise while also providing intra-agency support and resource-sharing for cross-cutting issues and specific health threats.As of the most recent reorganization in February 2023, the CIOs are:* Director** National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases** National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases*** Division of Global Migration Health** National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention** National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities** National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion** National Center for Environmental Health / Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry** National Center for Injury Prevention and Control** National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health** Public Health Infrastructure Center** Global Health Center** Immediate Office of the Director*** Chief of Staff*** Office of the Chief Operating Officer*** Office of Policy, Performance, and Evaluation*** Office of Equal Employment Opportunity and Workplace Equity*** Office of Communications*** Office of Health Equity*** Office of Science*** CDC Washington Office*** Office of Laboratory Science and Safety*** Office of Readiness and Response**** Center for Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics*** Office of Public Health Data, Surveillance, and Technology**** National Center for Health StatisticsThe Office of Public Health Preparedness was created during the 2001 anthrax attacks shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.Its purpose was to coordinate among the government the response to a range of biological terrorism threats.=== Locations ===Most CDC centers are located in Atlanta.", "Building 18, which opened in 2005 at the CDC's main Roybal campus (named in honor of the late Representative Edward R. Roybal), contains the premier BSL4 laboratory in the United States.A few of the centers are based in or operate other domestic locations:* The National Center for Health Statistics is primarily located in Hyattsville, Maryland, with a branch in Research Triangle Park in North Carolina.", "* The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's primary locations are Cincinnati; Morgantown, West Virginia; Pittsburgh; Spokane, Washington; and Washington, D.C., with branches in Denver; Anchorage, Alaska; and Atlanta.", "* The CDC Washington Office is based in Washington, D.C.* Two divisions of the National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases are based outside Atlanta.", "The Division of Vector-Borne Diseases is based in Fort Collins, Colorado, with a branch in San Juan, Puerto Rico.", "The Arctic Investigations Program is based in Anchorage.In addition, CDC operates quarantine facilities in 20 cities in the U.S." ], [ "Budget", "CDC's budget for fiscal year 2018 was $11.9billion.", "The CDC offers grants to help organizations advance health, safety and awareness at the community level in the United States.", "The CDC awards over 85 percent of its annual budget through these grants." ], [ "Workforce", " CDC staff numbered approximately 15,000 personnel (including 6,000 contractors and 840 United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps officers) in 170 occupations.", "Eighty percent held bachelor's degrees or higher; almost half had advanced degrees (a master's degree or a doctorate such as a PhD, D.O., or M.D.", ").Common CDC job titles include engineer, entomologist, epidemiologist, biologist, physician, veterinarian, behavioral scientist, nurse, medical technologist, economist, public health advisor, health communicator, toxicologist, chemist, computer scientist, and statistician.", "The CDC also operates a number of notable training and fellowship programs, including those indicated below.=== Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) ===The Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) is composed of \"boots-on-the-ground disease detectives\" who investigate public health problems domestically and globally.", "When called upon by a governmental body, EIS officers may embark on short-term epidemiological assistance assignments, or \"Epi-Aids\", to provide technical expertise in containing and investigating disease outbreaks.", "The EIS program is a model for the international Field Epidemiology Training Program.=== Public Health Associates Program ===The CDC also operates the Public Health Associate Program (PHAP), a two-year paid fellowship for recent college graduates to work in public health agencies all over the United States.", "PHAP was founded in 2007 and currently has 159 associates in 34 states." ], [ "Leadership", "David Sencer points to a depiction of ''Triatomine sp.", "'', which transmits Chagas disease.The Director of CDC is a Senior Executive Service position that may be filled either by a career employee, or as a political appointment that does not require Senate confirmation, with the latter method typically being used.", "The director serves at the pleasure of the President and may be fired at any time.", "On January 20, 2025, the CDC Director position will change to require Senate confirmation, due to a provision in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023.The CDC Director concurrently serves as the Administrator of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.Twenty directors have served the CDC or its predecessor agencies, including three who have served during the Trump administration (including Anne Schuchat who twice served as acting director) and three who have served during the Carter administration (including one acting director not shown here).", "Two served under Bill Clinton, but only one under the Nixon to Ford terms.PortraitDirectorTook officeLeft office100pxLouis L. Williams Jr.19421943100pxMark D. Hollis19441946100pxRaymond A. Vonderlehr19471951100pxJustin M. Andrews19521953100pxTheodore J. Bauer19531956100pxRobert J. AndersonOctober 1, 1956June 30, 1960100pxClarence A. Smith19601962100pxJames L. Goddard19621966100pxDavid J. Sencer19661977100pxWilliam H. Foege19771983100pxJames O. Mason19831989100pxWilliam L. RoperMarch 1, 1990June 30, 1993100pxDavid Satcher1993February 13, 1998100pxJeffrey P. KoplanOctober 5, 1998March 31, 2002100pxJulie GerberdingJune 3, 2002January 20, 2009100pxThomas R. FriedenJune 8, 2009January 20, 2017100pxAnne Schuchat (acting)January 20, 2017July 7, 2017100pxBrenda FitzgeraldJuly 7, 2017January 31, 2018100pxAnne Schuchat (acting)January 31, 2018March 26, 2018100pxRobert R. RedfieldMarch 26, 2018January 20, 2021100pxRochelle WalenskyJanuary 20, 2021June 30, 2023100pxNirav D. Shah (acting)July 1, 2023July 10, 2023100pxMandy CohenJuly 10, 2023Present" ], [ "Datasets and survey systems", "* CDC Scientific Data, Surveillance, Health Statistics, and Laboratory Information.", "* Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), the world's largest, ongoing telephone health-survey system.", "* Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS), a surveillance system on maternal and infant health with telephone and mail questionnaires in English and Spanish in 50 US jurisdictions.", "* Mortality Medical Data System.", "* Abortion statistics in the United States* CDC WONDER (Wide-ranging ONline Data for Epidemiologic Research)* Data systems of the National Center for Health Statistics" ], [ "Areas of focus", "Donald Henderson as part of the CDC's smallpox eradication team in 1966 MSF staff preparing to enter an Ebola treatment unit in Liberia, August 2014===Communicable diseases===The CDC's programs address more than 400 diseases, health threats, and conditions that are major causes of death, disease, and disability.", "The CDC's website has information on various infectious (and noninfectious) diseases, including smallpox, measles, and others.==== Influenza ====The CDC targets the transmission of influenza, including the H1N1 swine flu, and launched websites to educate people about hygiene.==== Division of Select Agents and Toxins ====Within the division are two programs: the Federal Select Agent Program (FSAP) and the Import Permit Program.", "The FSAP is run jointly with an office within the U.S. Department of Agriculture, regulating agents that can cause disease in humans, animals, and plants.", "The Import Permit Program regulates the importation of \"infectious biological materials.", "\"The CDC runs a program that protects the public from rare and dangerous substances such as anthrax and the Ebola virus.", "The program, called the Federal Select Agent Program, calls for inspections of labs in the U.S. that work with dangerous pathogens.During the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa, the CDC helped coordinate the return of two infected American aid workers for treatment at Emory University Hospital, the home of a special unit to handle highly infectious diseases.As a response to the 2014 Ebola outbreak, Congress passed a Continuing Appropriations Resolution allocating $30,000,000 towards CDC's efforts to fight the virus.===Non-communicable diseases===The CDC also works on non-communicable diseases, including chronic diseases caused by obesity, physical inactivity and tobacco-use.", "The work of the Division for Cancer Prevention and Control, led from 2010 by Lisa C. Richardson, is also within this remit.===Antibiotic resistance===The CDC implemented their ''National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria'' as a measure against the spread of antibiotic resistance in the United States.", "This initiative has a budget of $161million and includes the development of the Antibiotic Resistance Lab Network.=== Global health ===Globally, the CDC works with other organizations to address global health challenges and contain disease threats at their source.", "They work with many international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) as well as ministries of health and other groups on the front lines of outbreaks.", "The agency maintains staff in more than 60 countries, including some from the U.S. but more from the countries in which they operate.", "The agency's global divisions include the Division of Global HIV and TB (DGHT), the Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (DPDM), the Division of Global Health Protection (DGHP), and the Global Immunization Division (GID).The CDC has been working with the WHO to implement the ''International Health Regulations'' (IHR), an agreement between 196 countries to prevent, control, and report on the international spread of disease, through initiatives including the Global Disease Detection Program (GDD).The CDC has also been involved in implementing the U.S. global health initiatives President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and President's Malaria Initiative.===Travelers' health===The CDC collects and publishes health information for travelers in a comprehensive book, ''CDC Health Information for International Travel'', which is commonly known as the \"yellow book.\"", "The book is available online and in print as a new edition every other year and includes current travel health guidelines, vaccine recommendations, and information on specific travel destinations.", "The CDC also issues travel health notices on its website, consisting of three levels:* \"Watch\": Level 1 (practice usual precautions)* \"Alert\": Level 2 (practice enhanced precautions)* \"Warning\": Level 3 (avoid nonessential travel)=== Vaccine safety ===The CDC uses a number of tools to monitor the safety of vaccines.", "The Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), a national vaccine safety surveillance program run by CDC and the FDA.", "\"VAERS detects possible safety issues with U.S. vaccines by collecting information about adverse events (possible side effects or health problems) after vaccination.\"", "The CDC's Safety Information by Vaccine page provides a list of the latest safety information, side effects, and answers to common questions about CDC recommended vaccines.The Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD) works with a network of healthcare organizations to share data on vaccine safety and adverse events.", "The Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) project is a network of vaccine experts and health centers that research and assist the CDC in the area of vaccine safety.CDC also runs a program called V-safe, a smartphone web application that allows COVID-19 vaccine recipients to be surveyed in detail about their health in response to getting the shot." ], [ "CDC Foundation", "The CDC Foundation operates independently from CDC as a private, nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization incorporated in the State of Georgia.", "The creation of the Foundation was authorized by section 399F of the Public Health Service Act to support the mission of CDC in partnership with the private sector, including organizations, foundations, businesses, educational groups, and individuals.", "From 1995 to 2022, the Foundation raised over $1.6 billion and launched more than 1,200 health programs.", "Bill Cosby formerly served as a member of the Foundation's Board of Directors, continuing as an honorary member after completing his term.=== Activities ===The Foundation engages in research projects and health programs in more than 160 countries every year, including in focus areas such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, emergency response, and infectious diseases, particularly HIV/AIDS, Ebola, rotavirus, and COVID-19.", "* '''EmPOWERED Health Program:''' Launched in November 2019 with funding from Amgen, the program works to empower cancer patients to become actively involved in the decision making around their treatments.", "* '''Fries Prize for Improving Health:''' An annual prize first awarded in 1992 that \"recognizes an individual who has made major accomplishments in health improvement and with the general criteria of the greatest good for the greatest number\".", "=== Criticism ===In 2015, ''BMJ'' associate editor Jeanne Lenzer raised concerns that the CDC's recommendations and publications may be influenced by donations received through the Foundation, which includes pharmaceutical companies." ], [ "Controversies", "===Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis in Black men===For 15 years, the CDC had direct oversight over the Tuskegee syphilis experiment.", "In the study, which lasted from 1932 to 1972, a group of Black men (nearly 400 of whom had syphilis) were studied to learn more about the disease.", "The disease was left untreated in the men, who had not given their informed consent to serve as research subjects.", "The Tuskegee Study was initiated in 1932 by the Public Health Service, with the CDC taking over the Tuskegee Health Benefit Program in 1995.===Gun control===An area of partisan dispute related to CDC funding is studying firearms effectiveness.", "Although the CDC was one of the first government agencies to study gun related data, in 1996 the Dickey Amendment, passed with the support of the National Rifle Association of America, states \"none of the funds available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control\".", "Advocates for gun control oppose the amendment and have tried to overturn it.Looking at the history of the passage of the Dickey Amendment, in 1992, Mark L. Rosenberg and five CDC colleagues founded the CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, with an annual budget of approximately $260,000.They focused on \"identifying causes of firearm deaths, and methods to prevent them\".", "Their first report, published in the ''New England Journal of Medicine'' in 1993 entitled \"Guns are a Risk Factor for Homicide in the Home\", reported \"mere presence of a gun in a home increased the risk of a firearm-related death by 2.7 percent, and suicide fivefold—a \"huge\" increase.\"", "In response, the NRA launched a \"campaign to shut down the Injury Center.\"", "Two conservative pro-gun groups, Doctors for Responsible Gun Ownership and Doctors for Integrity and Policy Research joined the pro-gun effort, and, by 1995, politicians also supported the pro-gun initiative.", "In 1996, Jay Dickey (R) Arkansas introduced the Dickey Amendment statement stating \"none of the funds available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control\" as a rider.", "in the 1996 appropriations bill.\"", "In 1997, \"Congress re-directed all of the money for gun research to the study of traumatic brain injury.\"", "David Satcher, CDC head 1993-98 advocated for firearms research.", "In 2016 over a dozen \"public health insiders, including current and former CDC senior leaders\" told ''The Trace'' interviewers that CDC senior leaders took a cautious stance in their interpretation of the Dickey Amendment and that they could do more but were afraid of political and personal retribution.In 2013, the American Medical Association, the American Psychological Association, and the American Academy of Pediatrics sent a letter to the leaders of the Senate Appropriations Committee asking them \"to support at least $10million within the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in FY 2014 along with sufficient new taxes at the National Institutes of Health to support research into the causes and prevention of violence.", "Furthermore, we urge Members to oppose any efforts to reduce, eliminate, or condition CDC funding related to violence prevention research.\"", "Congress maintained the ban in subsequent budgets.=== Ebola ===In October 2014, the CDC gave a nurse with a fever who was later diagnosed with Ebola permission to board a commercial flight to Cleveland.=== COVID-19 ===The CDC has been widely criticized for its handling of the COVID-19 pandemic.", "In 2022, CDC director Rochelle Walensky acknowledged \"some pretty dramatic, pretty public mistakes, from testing to data to communications\", based on the findings of an internal examination.The first confirmed case of COVID-19 was discovered in the U.S. on January 20, 2020.However, widespread COVID-19 testing in the United States was effectively stalled until February 28, when federal officials revised a faulty CDC test, and days afterward, when the Food and Drug Administration began loosening rules that had restricted other labs from developing tests.", "In February 2020, as the CDC's early coronavirus test malfunctioned nationwide, CDC Director Robert R. Redfield reassured fellow officials on the White House Coronavirus Task Force that the problem would be quickly solved, according to White House officials.", "It took about three weeks to sort out the failed test kits, which may have been contaminated during their processing in a CDC lab.", "Later investigations by the FDA and the Department of Health and Human Services found that the CDC had violated its own protocols in developing its tests.", "In November 2020, ''NPR'' reported that an internal review document they obtained revealed that the CDC was aware that the first batch of tests which were issued in early January had a chance of being wrong 33 percent of the time, but they released them anyway.In May 2020, ''The Atlantic'' reported that the CDC was conflating the results of two different types of coronavirus tests — tests that diagnose current coronavirus infections, and tests that measure whether someone has ever had the virus.", "The magazine said this distorted several important metrics, provided the country with an inaccurate picture of the state of the pandemic, and overstated the country's testing ability.In July 2020, the Trump administration ordered hospitals to bypass the CDC and instead send all COVID-19 patient information to a database at the Department of Health and Human Services.", "Some health experts opposed the order and warned that the data might become politicized or withheld from the public.", "On July 15, the CDC alarmed health care groups by temporarily removing COVID-19 dashboards from its website.", "It restored the data a day later.In August 2020, the CDC recommended that people showing no COVID-19 symptoms do not need testing.", "The new guidelines alarmed many public health experts.", "The guidelines were crafted by the White House Coronavirus Task Force without the sign-off of Anthony Fauci of the NIH.", "Objections by other experts at the CDC went unheard.", "Officials said that a CDC document in July arguing for \"the importance of reopening schools\" was also crafted outside the CDC.", "On August 16, the chief of staff, Kyle McGowan, and his deputy, Amanda Campbell, resigned from the agency.", "The testing guidelines were reversed on September 18, 2020, after public controversy.In September 2020, the CDC drafted an order requiring masks on all public transportation in the United States, but the White House Coronavirus Task Force blocked the order, refusing to discuss it, according to two federal health officials.In October 2020, it was disclosed that White House advisers had repeatedly altered the writings of CDC scientists about COVID-19, including recommendations on church choirs, social distancing in bars and restaurants, and summaries of public-health reports.In the lead up to 2020 Thanksgiving, the CDC advised Americans not to travel for the holiday saying, \"It's not a requirement.", "It's a recommendation for the American public to consider.\"", "The White House coronavirus task force had its first public briefing in months on that date but travel was not mentioned.The New York Times later concluded that the CDC's decisions to \"bend to political pressure from the Trump White House to alter key public health guidance or withhold it from the public ... cost it a measure of public trust that experts say it still has not recaptured\" as of 2022.In May 2021, following criticism by scientists, the CDC updated its COVID-19 guidance to acknowledge airborne transmission of COVID-19, after having previously claimed that the majority of infections occurred via \"close contact, not airborne transmission\".In December 2021, following a request from the CEO of Delta Airlines, CDC shortened its recommended isolation period for asymptomatic individuals infected with Covid-19 from 10 days to five.Until 2022, the CDC withheld critical data about COVID-19 vaccine boosters, hospitalizations and wastewater data.On June 10, 2022, the Biden Administration ordered the CDC to remove the COVID-19 testing requirement for air travelers entering the United States.In January 2022, it was revealed that the CDC had communicated with moderators at Facebook and Instagram over COVID-19 information and discussion on the platforms, including information that the CDC considered false or misleading and that might influence people not to get the COVID-19 vaccines.====Controversy over the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report====During the pandemic, the CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) came under pressure from political appointees at the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to modify its reporting so as not to conflict with what Trump was saying about the pandemic.Starting in June 2020, Michael Caputo, the HHS assistant secretary for public affairs, and his chief advisor Paul Alexander tried to delay, suppress, change, and retroactively edit MMR releases about the effectiveness of potential treatments for COVID-19, the transmissibility of the virus, and other issues where the president had taken a public stance.", "Alexander tried unsuccessfully to get personal approval of all issues of MMWR before they went out.Caputo claimed this oversight was necessary because MMWR reports were being tainted by \"political content\"; he demanded to know the political leanings of the scientists who reported that hydroxychloroquine had little benefit as a treatment while Trump was saying the opposite.", "In emails Alexander accused CDC scientists of attempting to \"hurt the president\" and writing \"hit pieces on the administration\".In October 2020, emails obtained by ''Politico'' showed that Alexander requested multiple alterations in a report.", "The published alterations included a title being changed from \"Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults\" to \"Persons.\"", "One current and two former CDC officials who reviewed the email exchanges said they were troubled by the \"intervention to alter scientific reports viewed as untouchable prior to the Trump administration\" that \"appeared to minimize the risks of the coronavirus to children by making the report's focus on children less clear.", "\"==== Eroding trust in the CDC as a result of COVID-19 controversies ====A poll conducted in September 2020 found that nearly 8 in 10 Americans trusted the CDC, a decrease from 87 percent in April 2020.Another poll showed an even larger drop in trust with the results dropping 16 percentage points.", "By January 2022, according to an NBC News poll, only 44% of Americans trusted the CDC compared to 69% at the beginning of the pandemic.", "As the trustworthiness eroded, so too did the information it disseminates.", "The diminishing level of trust in the CDC and the information releases also incited \"vaccine hesitancy\" with the result that \"just 53 percent of Americans said they would be somewhat or extremely likely to get a vaccine.", "\"In September 2020, amid the accusations and the faltering image of the CDC, the agency's leadership was called into question.", "Former acting director at the CDC, Richard Besser, said of Redfield that \"I find it concerning that the CDC director has not been outspoken when there have been instances of clear political interference in the interpretation of science.\"", "In addition, Mark Rosenberg, the first director of CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, also questioned Redfield's leadership and his lack of defense of the science.Historically, the CDC has not been a political agency; however, the COVID-19 pandemic, and specifically the Trump Administration's handling of the pandemic, resulted in a \"dangerous shift\" according to a previous CDC director and others.", "Four previous directors claim that the agency's voice was \"muted for political reasons.\"", "Politicization of the agency has continued into the Biden administration as COVID-19 guidance is contradicted by State guidance and the agency is criticized as \"CDC's credibility is eroding\".In 2021, the CDC, then under the leadership of the Biden Administration, received criticism for its mixed messaging surrounding COVID-19 vaccines, mask-wearing guidance, and the state of the pandemic." ], [ "Publications", "* CDC publications* State of CDC report* CDC Programs in Brief* ''Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report''* ''Emerging Infectious Diseases'' (monthly journal)* ''Preventing Chronic Disease''* Vital statistics" ], [ "Popular culture", "===Zombie Apocalypse campaign===On May 16, 2011, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's blog published an article instructing the public on what to do to prepare for a zombie invasion.", "While the article did not claim that such a scenario was possible, it did use the popular culture appeal as a means of urging citizens to prepare for all potential hazards, such as earthquakes, tornadoes, and floods.According to David Daigle, the associate director for Communications, Public Health Preparedness and Response, the idea arose when his team was discussing their upcoming hurricane-information campaign and Daigle mused that \"we say pretty much the same things every year, in the same way, and I just wonder how many people are paying attention.\"", "A social-media employee mentioned that the subject of zombies had come up a lot on Twitter when she had been tweeting about the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster and radiation.", "The team realized that a campaign like this would most likely reach a different audience from the one that normally pays attention to hurricane-preparedness warnings and went to work on the zombie campaign, launching it right before hurricane season began.", "\"The whole idea was, if you're prepared for a zombie apocalypse, you're prepared for pretty much anything,\" said Daigle.Once the blog article was posted, the CDC announced an open contest for YouTube submissions of the most creative and effective videos covering preparedness for a zombie apocalypse (or apocalypse of any kind), to be judged by the \"CDC Zombie Task Force\".", "Submissions were open until October 11, 2011.They also released a zombie-themed graphic novella available on their website.", "Zombie-themed educational materials for teachers are available on the site." ], [ "See also", "* U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission* Gun violence in the United States* Haddon Matrix* Safe Kids Worldwide* List of national public health agencies* National Highway Traffic Safety Administration" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===*" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * CDC in the ''Federal Register''* CDC-Wide Activities and Program Support account on USAspending.gov* CDC Online Newsroom* CDC Public Health Image Library* CDC Global Communications Center* CDC Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratory – Atlanta, Georgia (archived 3 July 2008)* CDC WONDER online databases.", "* Vaccine Safety Monitoring Systems and Methods (CDC) a slide deck presented at October 2019 Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) meeting" ] ]
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[ [ "Chandrasekhar limit" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Chandrasekhar limit''' () is the maximum mass of a stable white dwarf star.", "The currently accepted value of the Chandrasekhar limit is about ().", "The limit was named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.", "White dwarfs resist gravitational collapse primarily through electron degeneracy pressure, compared to main sequence stars, which resist collapse through thermal pressure.", "The Chandrasekhar limit is the mass above which electron degeneracy pressure in the star's core is insufficient to balance the star's own gravitational self-attraction.", "Consequently, a white dwarf with a mass greater than the limit is subject to further gravitational collapse, evolving into a different type of stellar remnant, such as a neutron star or black hole.", "White dwarfs with masses up to the Chandrasekhar limit remain stable.", "The Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit is theoretically a next level to reach in order for a neutron star to collapse into a denser form such as a black hole." ], [ "Physics", "Radius–mass relations for a model white dwarf.", "The green curve uses the general pressure law for an ideal Fermi gas, while the blue curve is for a non-relativistic ideal Fermi gas.", "The black line marks the ultrarelativistic limit.Electron degeneracy pressure is a quantum-mechanical effect arising from the Pauli exclusion principle.", "Since electrons are fermions, no two electrons can be in the same state, so not all electrons can be in the minimum-energy level.", "Rather, electrons must occupy a band of energy levels.", "Compression of the electron gas increases the number of electrons in a given volume and raises the maximum energy level in the occupied band.", "Therefore, the energy of the electrons increases on compression, so pressure must be exerted on the electron gas to compress it, producing electron degeneracy pressure.", "With sufficient compression, electrons are forced into nuclei in the process of electron capture, relieving the pressure.In the nonrelativistic case, electron degeneracy pressure gives rise to an equation of state of the form , where is the pressure, is the mass density, and is a constant.", "Solving the hydrostatic equation leads to a model white dwarf that is a polytrope of index – and therefore has radius inversely proportional to the cube root of its mass, and volume inversely proportional to its mass.As the mass of a model white dwarf increases, the typical energies to which degeneracy pressure forces the electrons are no longer negligible relative to their rest masses.", "The velocities of the electrons approach the speed of light, and special relativity must be taken into account.", "In the strongly relativistic limit, the equation of state takes the form .", "This yields a polytrope of index 3, which has a total mass, , depending only on .For a fully relativistic treatment, the equation of state used interpolates between the equations for small and for large .", "When this is done, the model radius still decreases with mass, but becomes zero at .", "This is the Chandrasekhar limit.", "The curves of radius against mass for the non-relativistic and relativistic models are shown in the graph.", "They are colored blue and green, respectively.", "has been set equal to 2.Radius is measured in standard solar radii or kilometers, and mass in standard solar masses.Calculated values for the limit vary depending on the nuclear composition of the mass.", "Chandrasekhar gives the following expression, based on the equation of state for an ideal Fermi gas:where:* is the reduced Planck constant* is the speed of light* is the gravitational constant* is the average molecular weight per electron, which depends upon the chemical composition of the star* is the mass of the hydrogen atom* is a constant connected with the solution to the Lane–Emden equationAs is the Planck mass, the limit is of the order ofThe limiting mass can be obtained formally from the Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation by taking the limit of large central density.A more accurate value of the limit than that given by this simple model requires adjusting for various factors, including electrostatic interactions between the electrons and nuclei and effects caused by nonzero temperature.", "Lieb and Yau have given a rigorous derivation of the limit from a relativistic many-particle Schrödinger equation." ], [ "History", "In 1926, the British physicist Ralph H. Fowler observed that the relationship between the density, energy, and temperature of white dwarfs could be explained by viewing them as a gas of nonrelativistic, non-interacting electrons and nuclei that obey Fermi–Dirac statistics.", "This Fermi gas model was then used by the British physicist Edmund Clifton Stoner in 1929 to calculate the relationship among the mass, radius, and density of white dwarfs, assuming they were homogeneous spheres.", "Wilhelm Anderson applied a relativistic correction to this model, giving rise to a maximum possible mass of approximately .", "In 1930, Stoner derived the internal energy–density equation of state for a Fermi gas, and was then able to treat the mass–radius relationship in a fully relativistic manner, giving a limiting mass of approximately (for ).", "Stoner went on to derive the pressure–density equation of state, which he published in 1932.These equations of state were also previously published by the Soviet physicist Yakov Frenkel in 1928, together with some other remarks on the physics of degenerate matter.", "Frenkel's work, however, was ignored by the astronomical and astrophysical community.A series of papers published between 1931 and 1935 had its beginning on a trip from India to England in 1930, where the Indian physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar worked on the calculation of the statistics of a degenerate Fermi gas.", "In these papers, Chandrasekhar solved the hydrostatic equation together with the nonrelativistic Fermi gas equation of state, and also treated the case of a relativistic Fermi gas, giving rise to the value of the limit shown above.", "Chandrasekhar reviews this work in his Nobel Prize lecture.", "The existence of a related limit, based on the conceptual breakthrough of combining relativity with Fermi degeneracy, was first established in separate papers published by Wilhelm Anderson and E. C. Stoner for a uniform density star in 1929.This limit was initially ignored by the community of scientists because such a limit would logically require the existence of black holes, which were considered a scientific impossibility at the time.", "The fact that the roles of Stoner and Anderson are often overlooked in the astronomy community has been noted.The priority dispute has also been discussed at length by Virginia Trimble who writes that: \"Chandrasekhar famously, perhaps even notoriously did his critical calculation on board ship in 1930, and ... was not aware of either Stoner's or Anderson's work at the time.", "His work was therefore independent, but, more to the point, he adopted Eddington's polytropes for his models which could, therefore, be in hydrostatic equilibrium, which constant density stars cannot, and real ones must be.\"", "It is difficult to document exactly what he knew when he started working on the problem, separately from direct personal interviews.", "However, Chandrasekhar's first mass limit paperexplicitly refers to and compares to Stoner's mass limit and so there is no publication of a mass limit by Chandrasekhar that preceded his knowledge of Stoner's earlier result.", "This value was also computed in 1932 by the Soviet physicist Lev Landau, who, however, did not apply it to white dwarfs and concluded that quantum laws might be invalid for stars heavier than 1.5 solar mass.=== Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute ===Chandrasekhar's work on the limit aroused controversy, owing to the opposition of the British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington.", "Eddington was aware that the existence of black holes was theoretically possible, and also realized that the existence of the limit made their formation possible.", "However, he was unwilling to accept that this could happen.", "After a talk by Chandrasekhar on the limit in 1935, he replied:Eddington's proposed solution to the perceived problem was to modify relativistic mechanics so as to make the law universally applicable, even for large .", "Although Niels Bohr, Fowler, Wolfgang Pauli, and other physicists agreed with Chandrasekhar's analysis, at the time, owing to Eddington's status, they were unwilling to publicly support Chandrasekhar.", "Through the rest of his life, Eddington held to his position in his writings, including his work on his fundamental theory.", "The drama associated with this disagreement is one of the main themes of ''Empire of the Stars'', Arthur I. Miller's biography of Chandrasekhar.", "In Miller's view:However, in 1983 in recognition for his work, Chandrasekhar shared a Nobel prize \"for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars\" with William Alfred Fowler." ], [ "Applications", "The core of a star is kept from collapsing by the heat generated by the fusion of nuclei of lighter elements into heavier ones.", "At various stages of stellar evolution, the nuclei required for this process are exhausted, and the core collapses, causing it to become denser and hotter.", "A critical situation arises when iron accumulates in the core, since iron nuclei are incapable of generating further energy through fusion.", "If the core becomes sufficiently dense, electron degeneracy pressure will play a significant part in stabilizing it against gravitational collapse.If a main-sequence star is not too massive (less than approximately 8 solar masses), it eventually sheds enough mass to form a white dwarf having mass below the Chandrasekhar limit, which consists of the former core of the star.", "For more-massive stars, electron degeneracy pressure does not keep the iron core from collapsing to very great density, leading to formation of a neutron star, black hole, or, speculatively, a quark star.", "(For very massive, low-metallicity stars, it is also possible that instabilities destroy the star completely.)", "During the collapse, neutrons are formed by the capture of electrons by protons in the process of electron capture, leading to the emission of neutrinos.", "The decrease in gravitational potential energy of the collapsing core releases a large amount of energy on the order of (100 foes).", "Most of this energy is carried away by the emitted neutrinos and the kinetic energy of the expanding shell of gas; only about 1% is emitted as optical light.", "This process is believed responsible for supernovae of types Ib, Ic, and II.Type Ia supernovae derive their energy from runaway fusion of the nuclei in the interior of a white dwarf.", "This fate may befall carbon–oxygen white dwarfs that accrete matter from a companion giant star, leading to a steadily increasing mass.", "As the white dwarf's mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit, its central density increases, and, as a result of compressional heating, its temperature also increases.", "This eventually ignites nuclear fusion reactions, leading to an immediate carbon detonation, which disrupts the star and causes the supernova.A strong indication of the reliability of Chandrasekhar's formula is that the absolute magnitudes of supernovae of Type Ia are all approximately the same; at maximum luminosity, is approximately −19.3, with a standard deviation of no more than 0.3.A 1-sigma interval therefore represents a factor of less than 2 in luminosity.", "This seems to indicate that all type Ia supernovae convert approximately the same amount of mass to energy." ], [ "Super-Chandrasekhar mass supernovas", "In April 2003, the Supernova Legacy Survey observed a type Ia supernova, designated SNLS-03D3bb, in a galaxy approximately 4 billion light years away.", "According to a group of astronomers at the University of Toronto and elsewhere, the observations of this supernova are best explained by assuming that it arose from a white dwarf that had grown to twice the mass of the Sun before exploding.", "They believe that the star, dubbed the \"Champagne Supernova\" may have been spinning so fast that a centrifugal tendency allowed it to exceed the limit.", "Alternatively, the supernova may have resulted from the merger of two white dwarfs, so that the limit was only violated momentarily.", "Nevertheless, they point out that this observation poses a challenge to the use of type Ia supernovae as standard candles.Since the observation of the Champagne Supernova in 2003, several more type Ia supernovae have been observed that are very bright, and thought to have originated from white dwarfs whose masses exceeded the Chandrasekhar limit.", "These include SN 2006gz, SN 2007if, and SN 2009dc.", "The super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs that gave rise to these supernovae are believed to have had masses up to 2.4–2.8 solar masses.", "One way to potentially explain the problem of the Champagne Supernova was considering it the result of an aspherical explosion of a white dwarf.", "However, spectropolarimetric observations of SN 2009dc showed it had a polarization smaller than 0.3, making the large asphericity theory unlikely." ], [ "Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit", "After a supernova explosion, a neutron star may be left behind (except Ia type supernova explosion, which never leaves any remnants behind).", "These objects are even more compact than white dwarfs and are also supported, in part, by degeneracy pressure.", "A neutron star, however, is so massive and compressed that electrons and protons have combined to form neutrons, and the star is thus supported by neutron degeneracy pressure (as well as short-range repulsive neutron-neutron interactions mediated by the strong force) instead of electron degeneracy pressure.", "The limiting value for neutron star mass, analogous to the Chandrasekhar limit, is known as the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit." ], [ "See also", "*Bekenstein bound*Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation*Schönberg–Chandrasekhar limit" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''On Stars, Their Evolution and Their Stability'', Nobel Prize lecture, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, December 8, 1983.", "* ''White dwarf stars and the Chandrasekhar limit'', Masters' thesis, Dave Gentile, DePaul University, 1995.", "* Estimating Stellar Parameters from Energy Equipartition, sciencebits.com.", "Discusses how to find mass-radius relations and mass limits for white dwarfs using simple energy arguments." ] ]
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[ [ "Congregationalist polity" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Congregationalist polity''', or '''congregational polity''', often known as '''congregationalism''', is a system of ecclesiastical polity in which every local church (congregation) is independent, ecclesiastically sovereign, or \"autonomous\".", "Its first articulation in writing is the Cambridge Platform of 1648 in New England.Major Protestant Christian traditions that employ congregationalism include Quakerism, the Baptist churches, the Congregational Methodist Church, and Congregational churches known by the ''Congregationalist'' name and having descended from the Independent Reformed wing of the Anglo-American Puritan movement of the 17th century.", "More recent generations have witnessed a growing number of nondenominational churches, which are often congregationalist in their governance.", "Although autonomous, like minded congregations may enter into voluntary associations with other congregations, sometimes called conventions, denominations, or associations.Congregationalism is distinguished from episcopal polity which is governance by a hierarchy of bishops, and is also distinct from presbyterian polity in which higher assemblies of congregational representatives can exercise considerable authority over individual congregations.Congregationalism is not limited only to organization of Christian church congregations.", "The principles of congregationalism have been inherited by the Unitarian Universalist Association and the Canadian Unitarian Council.", "Most Jewish synagogues, many Sikh Gurdwaras, and most Islamic mosques in the US operate under congregational government, with no hierarchies." ], [ "Basic form", "The term ''congregationalist polity'' describes a form of church governance that is based on the local congregation.", "Each local congregation is independent and self-supporting, governed by its own members.", "Some band into loose voluntary associations with other congregations that share similar beliefs (e.g., the Willow Creek Association and the Unitarian Universalist Association).", "Others join \"conventions\", such as the Southern Baptist Convention, the National Baptist Convention or the American Baptist Churches USA (formerly the Northern Baptist Convention).", "In Quaker Congregationalism, monthly meetings, which are the most basic unit of administration, may be organized into larger Quarterly meetings or Yearly Meetings.", "Monthly, quarterly, or yearly meetings may also be associated with large \"umbrella\" associations such as Friends General Conference or Friends United Meeting.", "These conventions generally provide stronger ties between congregations, including some doctrinal direction and pooling of financial resources.", "Congregations that belong to associations and conventions are still independently governed.", "Most non-denominational churches are organized along congregationalist lines.", "Many do not see these voluntary associations as \"denominations\", because they \"believe that there is no church other than the local church, and denominations are in variance to Scripture.\"" ], [ "Congregational church", "Congregational churches are Protestant churches in the Calvinist tradition practising congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs." ], [ "Baptist churches", "Most Baptists hold that no denominational or ecclesiastical organization has inherent authority over an individual Baptist church.", "Churches can properly relate to each other under this polity only through voluntary cooperation, never by any sort of coercion.", "Furthermore, this Baptist polity calls for freedom from governmental control.", "Exceptions to this local form of local governance include the Episcopal Baptists that have an episcopal system.Independent Baptist churches have no formal organizational structure above the level of the local congregation.", "More generally among Baptists, a variety of parachurch agencies and evangelical educational institutions may be supported generously or not at all, depending entirely upon the local congregation's customs and predilections.", "Usually doctrinal conformity is held as a first consideration when a church makes a decision to grant or decline financial contributions to such agencies, which are legally external and separate from the congregations they serve.", "These practices also find currency among non-denominational fundamentalist or charismatic fellowships, many of which derive from Baptist origins, culturally if not theologically.Most Southern Baptist and National Baptist congregations, by contrast, generally relate more closely to external groups such as mission agencies and educational institutions than do those of independent persuasion.", "However, they adhere to a very similar ecclesiology, refusing to permit outside control or oversight of the affairs of the local church." ], [ "Churches of Christ", "Ecclesiastical government is congregational rather than denominational.", "Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level.", "Rather, the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations.", "Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles.Congregations are generally overseen by a plurality of elders (also known in some congregations as shepherds, bishops, or pastors) who are sometimes assisted in the administration of various works by deacons.", "Elders are generally seen as responsible for the spiritual welfare of the congregation, while deacons are seen as responsible for the non-spiritual needs of the church.", "Deacons serve under the supervision of the elders, and are often assigned to direct specific ministries.", "Successful service as a deacon is often seen as preparation for the eldership.", "Elders and deacons are chosen by the congregation based on the qualifications found in Timothy 3 and Titus 1.Congregations look for elders who have a mature enough understanding of scripture to enable them to supervise the minister and to teach, as well as to perform governance functions.", "In lieu of willing men who meet these qualifications, congregations are sometimes overseen by an unelected committee of the congregation's men.While the early Restoration Movement had a tradition of itinerant preachers rather than \"located Preachers\", during the 20th century a long-term, formally trained congregational minister became the norm among Churches of Christ.", "Ministers are understood to serve under the oversight of the elders.", "While the presence of a long-term professional minister has sometimes created \"significant ''de facto'' ministerial authority\" and led to conflict between the minister and the elders, the eldership has remained the \"ultimate locus of authority in the congregation\".", "There is a small group within the Churches of Christ which oppose a single preacher and, instead, rotate preaching duties among qualified elders (this group tends to overlap with groups which oppose Sunday School and also have only one cup to serve the Lord's Supper).Churches of Christ hold to the priesthood of all believers.", "No special titles are used for preachers or ministers that would identify them as clergy.", "Churches of Christ emphasize that there is no distinction between \"clergy\" and \"laity\" and that every member has a gift and a role to play in accomplishing the work of the church." ], [ "Congregational Methodist Church", "Methodists who disagreed with the episcopal polity of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South left their mother church to form the Congregational Methodist Church, which retains Wesleyan-Arminian theology but adopts congregationalist polity as a distinctive." ], [ "See also", "*United and uniting churches" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cavalry" ], [ "Introduction", "French 4th Hussars at the Battle of Friedland, 1807Historically, '''cavalry''' (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from \"cheval\" meaning \"horse\") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback.", "Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry in the roles of reconnaissance, screening, and skirmishing in many armies, or as heavy cavalry for decisive shock attacks in other armies.", "An individual soldier in the cavalry is known by a number of designations depending on era and tactics, such as a '''cavalryman''', horseman, trooper, cataphract, knight, drabant, hussar, uhlan, mamluk, cuirassier, lancer, dragoon, or horse archer.", "The designation of ''cavalry'' was not usually given to any military forces that used other animals for mounts, such as camels or elephants.", "Infantry who moved on horseback, but dismounted to fight on foot, were known in the early 17th to the early 18th century as ''dragoons'', a class of mounted infantry which in most armies later evolved into standard cavalry while retaining their historic designation.Cavalry had the advantage of improved mobility, and a soldier fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, and inertial mass over an opponent on foot.", "Another element of horse mounted warfare is the psychological impact a mounted soldier can inflict on an opponent.The speed, mobility, and shock value of cavalry was greatly appreciated and exploited in armed forces in the Ancient and Middle Ages; some forces were mostly cavalry, particularly in nomadic societies of Asia, notably the Huns of Attila and the later Mongol armies.", "In Europe, cavalry became increasingly armoured (heavy), and eventually evolving into the mounted knights of the medieval period.", "During the 17th century, cavalry in Europe discarded most of its armor, which was ineffective against the muskets and cannons that were coming into common use, and by the mid-18th century armor had mainly fallen into obsolescence, although some regiments retained a small thickened cuirass that offered protection against lances, sabres, and bayonets; including some protection against a shot from distance.In the interwar period many cavalry units were converted into motorized infantry and mechanized infantry units, or reformed as tank troops.", "The cavalry tank or cruiser tank was one designed with a speed and purpose beyond that of infantry tanks and would subsequently develop into the main battle tank.", "Nonetheless, some cavalry still served during World War II (notably in the Red Army, the Mongolian People's Army, the Royal Italian Army, the Royal Hungarian Army, the Romanian Army, the Polish Land Forces, and German light reconnaissance units within the Waffen SS).", "Most cavalry units that are horse-mounted in modern armies serve in purely ceremonial roles, or as mounted infantry in difficult terrain such as mountains or heavily forested areas.", "Modern usage of the term generally refers to units performing the role of reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (analogous to historical light cavalry) or main battle tank units (analogous to historical heavy cavalry)." ], [ "Role", "Historically, cavalry was divided into light cavalry and heavy cavalry.", "The differences were their roles in combat, the size of their mounts, and how much armor was worn by the mount and rider.Heavy cavalry, such as Byzantine cataphracts and knights of the Early Middle Ages in Europe, were used as shock troops, charging the main body of the enemy at the height of a battle; in many cases their actions decided the outcome of the battle, hence the later term ''battle cavalry''.", "Light cavalry, such as horse archers, hussars, and Cossack cavalry, were assigned all the numerous roles that were ill-suited to more narrowly-focused heavy forces.", "This includes scouting, deterring enemy scouts, foraging, raiding, skirmishing, pursuit of retreating enemy forces, screening of retreating friendly forces, linking separated friendly forces, and countering enemy light forces in all these same roles.Light and heavy cavalry roles continued through early modern warfare, but armor was reduced, with light cavalry mostly unarmored.", "Yet many cavalry units still retained cuirasses and helmets for their protective value against sword and bayonet strikes, and the morale boost these provide to the wearers, despite the actual armour giving little protection from firearms.", "By this time the main difference between light and heavy cavalry was in their training and weight; the former was regarded as best suited for harassment and reconnaissance, while the latter was considered best for close-order charges.", "By the start of the 20th century, as total battlefield firepower increased, cavalry increasingly tended to become dragoons in practice, riding mounted between battles, but dismounting to fight as infantry, even though retaining unit names that reflected their older cavalry roles.", "Military conservatism was however strong in most continental cavalry during peacetime and in these dismounted action continued to be regarded as a secondary function until the outbreak of World War I in 1914.With the development of armored warfare, the heavy cavalry role of decisive shock troops had been taken over by armored units employing medium and heavy tanks, and later main battle tanks.", "Despite horse-born cavalry becoming obsolete, the term ''cavalry'' is still used, referring in modern times to units continuing to fulfill the traditional light cavalry roles, employing fast armored cars, light tanks, and infantry fighting vehicles instead of horses, while air cavalry employs helicopters." ], [ "Early history", "===Origins===Assyrian cavalryBefore the Iron Age, the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light chariots.", "The chariot originated with the Sintashta-Petrovka culture in Central Asia and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic Indo-Iranians.", "The chariot was quickly adopted by settled peoples both as a military technology and an object of ceremonial status, especially by the pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt from 1550 BC as well as the Assyrian army and Babylonian royalty.The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of horses (then mostly small) to carry heavy armor.", "Nonetheless, there are indications that, from the 15th century BC onwards, horseback riding was practiced amongst the military elites of the great states of the ancient Near East, most notably those in Egypt, Assyria, the Hittite Empire, and Mycenaean Greece.Cavalry techniques, and the rise of true cavalry, were an innovation of equestrian nomads of the Central Asian and Iranian steppe and pastoralist tribes such as the Iranic Parthians and Sarmatians.", "Together with a core of armoured lancers, these were predominantly horse archers using the Parthian shot tactic.", "Parthian horseman, now on display at the Palazzo Madama, TurinThe photograph straight above shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC.", "At this time, the men had no spurs, saddles, saddle cloths, or stirrups.", "Fighting from the back of a horse was much more difficult than mere riding.", "The cavalry acted in pairs; the reins of the mounted archer were controlled by his neighbour's hand.", "Even at this early time, cavalry used swords, shields, spears, and bows.", "The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist.", "Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse.As early as 490 BC a breed of large horses was bred in the Nisaean plain in Media to carry men with increasing amounts of armour (Herodotus 7,40 & 9,20), but large horses were still very exceptional at this time.", "By the fourth century BC the Chinese during the Warring States period (403–221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states, and by 331 BC when Alexander the Great defeated the Persians the use of chariots in battle was obsolete in most nations; despite a few ineffective attempts to revive scythed chariots.", "The last recorded use of chariots as a shock force in continental Europe was during the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC.", "However, chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a Roman triumph, or for racing.Outside of mainland Europe, the southern Britons met Julius Caesar with chariots in 55 and 54 BC, but by the time of the Roman conquest of Britain a century later chariots were obsolete, even in Britannia.", "The last mention of chariot use in Britain was by the Caledonians at the Mons Graupius, in 84 AD.===Ancient Greece: city-states, Thebes, Thessaly and Macedonia===Athenian amphora dated 550–540 BCDuring the classical Greek period cavalry were usually limited to those citizens who could afford expensive war-horses.", "Three types of cavalry became common: light cavalry, whose riders, armed with javelins, could harass and skirmish; heavy cavalry, whose troopers, using lances, had the ability to close in on their opponents; and finally those whose equipment allowed them to fight either on horseback or foot.", "The role of horsemen did however remain secondary to that of the hoplites or heavy infantry who comprised the main strength of the citizen levies of the various city states.Cavalry played a relatively minor role in ancient Greek city-states, with conflicts decided by massed armored infantry.", "However, Thebes produced Pelopidas, their first great cavalry commander, whose tactics and skills were absorbed by Philip II of Macedon when Philip was a guest-hostage in Thebes.", "Thessaly was widely known for producing competent cavalrymen, and later experiences in wars both with and against the Persians taught the Greeks the value of cavalry in skirmishing and pursuit.", "The Athenian author and soldier Xenophon in particular advocated the creation of a small but well-trained cavalry force; to that end, he wrote several manuals on horsemanship and cavalry operations.The Macedonian Kingdom in the north, on the other hand, developed a strong cavalry force that culminated in the ''hetairoi'' (Companion cavalry) of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great.", "In addition to these heavy cavalry, the Macedonian army also employed lighter horsemen called prodromoi for scouting and screening, as well as the Macedonian pike phalanx and various kinds of light infantry.", "There were also the ''Ippiko'' (or \"Horserider\"), Greek \"heavy\" cavalry, armed with kontos (or cavalry lance), and sword.", "These wore leather armour or mail plus a helmet.", "They were medium rather than heavy cavalry, meaning that they were better suited to be scouts, skirmishers, and pursuers rather than front line fighters.", "The effectiveness of this combination of cavalry and infantry helped to break enemy lines and was most dramatically demonstrated in Alexander's conquests of Persia, Bactria, and northwestern India.===Roman Republic and Early Empire===Tombstone of a Roman auxiliary trooper from Cologne, Germany.", "Second half of the first century ADThe cavalry in the early Roman Republic remained the preserve of the wealthy landed class known as the ''equites''—men who could afford the expense of maintaining a horse in addition to arms and armor heavier than those of the common legions.", "Horses were provided by the Republic and could be withdrawn if neglected or misused, together with the status of being a cavalryman.As the class grew to be more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans began to employ Italian socii for filling the ranks of their cavalry.", "The weakness of Roman cavalry was demonstrated by Hannibal Barca during the Second Punic War where he used his superior mounted forces to win several battles.", "The most notable of these was the Battle of Cannae, where he inflicted a catastrophic defeat on the Romans.", "At about the same time the Romans began to recruit foreign auxiliary cavalry from among Gauls, Iberians, and Numidians, the last being highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts (see Numidian cavalry).", "Julius Caesar had a high opinion of his escort of Germanic mixed cavalry, giving rise to the ''Cohortes Equitatae''.", "Early emperors maintained an ala of Batavian cavalry as their personal bodyguards until the unit was dismissed by Galba after the Batavian Rebellion.For the most part, Roman cavalry during the early Republic functioned as an adjunct to the legionary infantry and formed only one-fifth of the standing force comprising a consular army.", "Except in times of major mobilisation about 1,800 horsemen were maintained, with three hundred attached to each legion.", "The relatively low ratio of horsemen to infantry does not mean that the utility of cavalry should be underestimated, as its strategic role in scouting, skirmishing, and outpost duties was crucial to the Romans' capability to conduct operations over long distances in hostile or unfamiliar territory.", "On some occasions Roman cavalry also proved its ability to strike a decisive tactical blow against a weakened or unprepared enemy, such as the final charge at the Battle of Aquilonia.After defeats such as the Battle of Carrhae, the Romans learned the importance of large cavalry formations from the Parthians.", "At the same time heavy spears and shields modelled on those favoured by the horsemen of the Greek city-states were adopted to replace the lighter weaponry of early Rome.", "These improvements in tactics and equipment reflected those of a thousand years earlier when the first Iranians to reach the Iranian Plateau forced the Assyrians to undertake similar reform.", "Nonetheless, the Romans would continue to rely mainly on their heavy infantry supported by auxiliary cavalry.===Late Roman Empire and the Migration Period===auxiliary cavalrymanIn the army of the late Roman Empire, cavalry played an increasingly important role.", "The Spatha, the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium was adopted as the standard model for the Empire's cavalry forces.", "By the 6th century these had evolved into lengthy straight weapons influenced by Persian and other eastern patterns.", "Other specialist weapons during this period included javlins, long reaching lancers, axes and maces.The most widespread employment of heavy cavalry at this time was found in the forces of the Iranian empires, the Parthians and their Persian Sasanian successors.", "Both, but especially the former, were famed for the cataphract (fully armored cavalry armed with lances) even though the majority of their forces consisted of lighter horse archers.", "The West first encountered this eastern heavy cavalry during the Hellenistic period with further intensive contacts during the eight centuries of the Roman–Persian Wars.", "At first the Parthians' mobility greatly confounded the Romans, whose armoured close-order infantry proved unable to match the speed of the Parthians.", "However, later the Romans would successfully adapt such heavy armor and cavalry tactics by creating their own units of cataphracts and ''clibanarii''.The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the 4th and 5th centuries cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the European battlefield, also in part made possible by the appearance of new, larger breeds of horses.", "The replacement of the Roman saddle by variants on the Scythian model, with pommel and cantle, was also a significant factor as was the adoption of stirrups and the concomitant increase in stability of the rider's seat.", "Armored cataphracts began to be deployed in eastern Europe and the Near East, following the precedents established by Persian forces, as the main striking force of the armies in contrast to the earlier roles of cavalry as scouts, raiders, and outflankers.The late-Roman cavalry tradition of organized units in a standing army differed fundamentally from the nobility of the Germanic invaders—individual warriors who could afford to provide their own horses and equipment.", "While there was no direct linkage with these predecessors the early medieval knight also developed as a member of a social and martial elite, able to meet the considerable expenses required by his role from grants of land and other incomes." ], [ "Asia", "===Central Asia===Chinese caltrop jarXiongnu, Tujue, Avars, Kipchaks, Khitans, Mongols, Don Cossacks and the various Turkic peoples are also examples of the horse-mounted groups that managed to gain substantial successes in military conflicts with settled agrarian and urban societies, due to their strategic and tactical mobility.", "As European states began to assume the character of bureaucratic nation-states supporting professional standing armies, recruitment of these mounted warriors was undertaken in order to fill the strategic roles of scouts and raiders.The best known instance of the continued employment of mounted tribal auxiliaries were the Cossack cavalry regiments of the Russian Empire.", "In Eastern Europe, and out onto the steppes, cavalry remained important much longer and dominated the scene of warfare until the early 17th century and even beyond, as the strategic mobility of cavalry was crucial for the semi-nomadic pastoralist lives that many steppe cultures led.", "Tibetans also had a tradition of cavalry warfare, in several military engagements with the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD).====Khanates of Central Asia====File:Mongol warrior of Genghis Khan.jpg|Mongol mounted archer of Genghis Khan late 12th century.File:Ryszkiewicz Tatars in the vanguard.jpg|Tatar vanguard in Eastern Europe 13th–14th centuries.File:DiezAlbumsArmedRiders II.jpg|Mongols at war 14th century===East Asia=======China====Further east, the military history of China, specifically northern China, held a long tradition of intense military exchange between Han Chinese infantry forces of the settled dynastic empires and the mounted nomads or \"barbarians\" of the north.", "The naval history of China was centered more to the south, where mountains, rivers, and large lakes necessitated the employment of a large and well-kept navy.In 307 BC, King Wuling of Zhao, the ruler of the former state of Jin, ordered his commanders and troops to adopt the trousers of the nomads as well as practice the nomads' form of mounted archery to hone their new cavalry skills.A bas-relief of a soldier and horse with saddle and stirrups, from the tomb of Chinese Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649), The adoption of massed cavalry in China also broke the tradition of the chariot-riding Chinese aristocracy in battle, which had been in use since the ancient Shang dynasty (–1050 BC).", "By this time large Chinese infantry-based armies of 100,000 to 200,000 troops were now buttressed with several hundred thousand mounted cavalry in support or as an effective striking force.", "The handheld pistol-and-trigger crossbow was invented in China in the fourth century BC; it was written by the Song dynasty scholars Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and Yang Weide in their book ''Wujing Zongyao'' (1044 AD) that massed missile fire by crossbowmen was the most effective defense against enemy cavalry charges.The Qianlong Emperor in ceremonial armor on horseback, painted by Giuseppe Castiglione, dated 1739 or 1758On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited the tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies; and in yet other cases nomadic empires proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry and engineering, as in the case of the Mongol Empire and its sinicized part, the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368).", "The Chinese recognized early on during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that they were at a disadvantage in lacking the number of horses the northern nomadic peoples mustered in their armies.", "Emperor Wu of Han (r 141–87 BC) went to war with the Dayuan for this reason, since the Dayuan were hoarding a massive amount of tall, strong, Central Asian bred horses in the Hellenized–Greek region of Fergana (established slightly earlier by Alexander the Great).", "Although experiencing some defeats early on in the campaign, Emperor Wu's war from 104 BC to 102 BC succeeded in gathering the prized tribute of horses from Fergana.Cavalry tactics in China were enhanced by the invention of the saddle-attached stirrup by at least the 4th century, as the oldest reliable depiction of a rider with paired stirrups was found in a Jin dynasty tomb of the year 322 AD.", "The Chinese invention of the horse collar by the 5th century was also a great improvement from the breast harness, allowing the horse to haul greater weight without heavy burden on its skeletal structure.====Korea====The horse warfare of Korea was first started during the ancient Korean kingdom Gojoseon.", "Since at least the 3rd century BC, there was influence of northern nomadic peoples and Yemaek peoples on Korean warfare.", "By roughly the first century BC, the ancient kingdom of Buyeo also had mounted warriors.", "The cavalry of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, were called ''Gaemamusa'' (개마무사, 鎧馬武士), and were renowned as a fearsome heavy cavalry force.", "King Gwanggaeto the Great often led expeditions into the Baekje, Gaya confederacy, Buyeo, Later Yan and against Japanese invaders with his cavalry.In the 12th century, Jurchen tribes began to violate the Goryeo–Jurchen borders, and eventually invaded Goryeo Korea.", "After experiencing the invasion by the Jurchen, Korean general Yun Gwan realized that Goryeo lacked efficient cavalry units.", "He reorganized the Goryeo military into a professional army that would contain decent and well-trained cavalry units.", "In 1107, the Jurchen were ultimately defeated, and surrendered to Yun Gwan.", "To mark the victory, General Yun built nine fortresses to the northeast of the Goryeo–Jurchen borders (동북 9성, 東北 九城).A mounted samurai with bow and arrows, wearing a horned helmet.", "====Japan====In the Battle of Ichi-no-Tani, Japanese cavalry moving down a mountain-sideThe ancient Japanese of the Kofun period also adopted cavalry and equine culture by the 5th century AD.", "The emergence of the samurai aristocracy led to the development of armoured horse archers, themselves to develop into charging lancer cavalry as gunpowder weapons rendered bows obsolete.", "Japanese cavalry was largely made up of landowners who would be upon a horse to better survey the troops they were called upon to bring to an engagement, rather than traditional mounted warfare seen in other cultures with massed cavalry units.An example is Yabusame (流鏑馬), a type of mounted archery in traditional Japanese archery.", "An archer on a running horse shoots three special \"turnip-headed\" arrows successively at three wooden targets.This style of archery has its origins at the beginning of the Kamakura period.", "Minamoto no Yoritomo became alarmed at the lack of archery skills his samurai had.", "He organized yabusame as a form of practice.Currently, the best places to see yabusame performed are at the Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in Kamakura and Shimogamo Shrine in Kyoto (during Aoi Matsuri in early May).", "It is also performed in Samukawa and on the beach at Zushi, as well as other locations.Kasagake or Kasakake (笠懸, かさがけ lit.", "\"hat shooting\") is a type of Japanese mounted archery.", "In contrast to yabusame, the types of targets are various and the archer shoots without stopping the horse.", "While yabusame has been played as a part of formal ceremonies, kasagake has developed as a game or practice of martial arts, focusing on technical elements of horse archery.===South Asia=======Indian subcontinent====In the Indian subcontinent, cavalry played a major role from the Gupta dynasty (320–600) period onwards.", "India has also the oldest evidence for the introduction of toe-stirrups.Indian literature contains numerous references to the mounted warriors of the Central Asian horse nomads, notably the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas.", "Numerous Puranic texts refer to a conflict in ancient India (16th century BC) in which the horsemen of five nations, called the \"Five Hordes\" (''pañca.ganan'') or Kṣatriya hordes (''Kṣatriya ganah''), attacked and captured the state of Ayudhya by dethroning its Vedic King BahuManuscript illustration of the Battle of KurukshetraThe Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas and some foreign sources attest that the Kamboja cavalry frequently played role in ancient wars.", "V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar writes: \"Both the Puranas and the epics agree that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest breed, and that the services of the Kambojas as cavalry troopers were utilised in ancient wars\".", "J.A.O.S.", "writes: \"Most famous horses are said to come either from Sindhu or Kamboja; of the latter (i.e.", "the Kamboja), the Indian epic Mahabharata speaks among the finest horsemen\".Coin of Chandragupta II or Vikramaditya, one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta empire during times referred to as the Golden Age of IndiaRajput warrior on horsebackThe Mahabharata speaks of the esteemed cavalry of the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas and Tusharas, all of whom had participated in the Kurukshetra war under the supreme command of Kamboja ruler Sudakshin Kamboj.Mahabharata and Vishnudharmottara Purana pay especial attention to the Kambojas, Yavansa, Gandharas etc.", "being ''ashva.yuddha.kushalah'' (expert cavalrymen).", "In the Mahabharata war, the Kamboja cavalry along with that of the Sakas, Yavanas is reported to have been enlisted by the Kuru king Duryodhana of Hastinapura.Herodotus ( – ) attests that the Gandarian mercenaries (i.e.", "''Gandharans/Kambojans'' of Gandari Strapy of Achaemenids) from the 20th strapy of the Achaemenids were recruited in the army of emperor Xerxes I (486–465 BC), which he led against the Hellas.", "Similarly, the ''men of the Mountain Land '' from north of Kabul-River equivalent to medieval Kohistan (Pakistan), figure in the army of Darius III against Alexander at Arbela, providing a cavalry force and 15 elephants.", "This obviously refers to Kamboja cavalry south of Hindukush.The Kambojas were famous for their horses, as well as cavalrymen (''asva-yuddha-Kushalah'').", "On account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture, they were also popularly known as Ashvakas, i.e.", "the \"horsemen\" and their land was known as \"Home of Horses\".", "They are the Assakenoi and Aspasioi of the Classical writings, and the Ashvakayanas and Ashvayanas in Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi.", "The Assakenoi had faced Alexander with 30,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry and 30 war elephants.", "Scholars have identified the Assakenoi and Aspasioi clans of Kunar and Swat valleys as a section of the Kambojas.", "These hardy tribes had offered stubborn resistance to Alexander () during latter's campaign of the Kabul, Kunar and Swat valleys and had even extracted the praise of the Alexander's historians.", "These highlanders, designated as ''\"parvatiya Ayudhajivinah\"'' in Pāṇini's Astadhyayi, were rebellious, fiercely independent and freedom-loving cavalrymen who never easily yielded to any overlord.The Sanskrit drama ''Mudra-rakashas'' by ''Visakha Dutta'' and the Jaina work ''Parishishtaparvan'' refer to Chandragupta's ( – ) alliance with Himalayan king ''Parvataka''.", "The Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a formidable composite army made up of the cavalry forces of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as attested by Mudra-Rakashas (Mudra-Rakshasa 2).", "These hordes had helped Chandragupta Maurya defeat the ruler of Magadha and placed Chandragupta on the throne, thus laying the foundations of Mauryan dynasty in Northern India.The cavalry of Hunas and the Kambojas is also attested in the Raghu Vamsa epic poem of Sanskrit poet Kalidasa.", "Raghu of Kalidasa is believed to be Chandragupta II (''Vikaramaditya'') (375–413/15 AD), of the well-known Gupta dynasty.As late as the mediaeval era, the Kamboja cavalry had also formed part of the Gurjara-Pratihara armed forces from the eighth to the 10th centuries AD.", "They had come to Bengal with the Pratiharas when the latter conquered part of the province.Ancient Kambojas organised military ''sanghas'' and shrenis (corporations) to manage their political and military affairs, as Arthashastra of Kautiliya as well as the Mahabharata record.", "They are described as ''Ayuddha-jivi'' or ''Shastr-opajivis'' (nations-in-arms), which also means that the Kamboja cavalry offered its military services to other nations as well.", "There are numerous references to Kambojas having been requisitioned as cavalry troopers in ancient wars by outside nations.====Mughal Empire====Akbar leads the Mughal Army during a campaignThe Mughal armies (''lashkar'') were primarily a cavalry force.", "The elite corps were the ''ahadi'' who provided direct service to the Emperor and acted as guard cavalry.", "Supplementary cavalry or ''dakhilis'' were recruited, equipped and paid by the central state.", "This was in contrast to the ''tabinan'' horsemen who were the followers of individual noblemen.", "Their training and equipment varied widely but they made up the backbone of the Mughal cavalry.", "Finally there were tribal irregulars led by and loyal to tributary chiefs.", "These included Hindus, Afghans and Turks summoned for military service when their autonomous leaders were called on by the Imperial government." ], [ "European Middle Ages", "Horse-mounted Normans charging in the Bayeux Tapestry, 11th centuryAs the quality and availability of heavy infantry declined in Europe with the fall of the Roman Empire, heavy cavalry became more effective.", "Infantry that lack the cohesion and discipline of tight formations are more susceptible to being broken and scattered by shock combat—the main role of heavy cavalry, which rose to become the dominant force on the European battlefield.As heavy cavalry increased in importance, it became the main focus of military development.", "The arms and armour for heavy cavalry increased, the high-backed saddle developed, and stirrups and spurs were added, increasing the advantage of heavy cavalry even more.This shift in military importance was reflected in an increasingly hierarchical society as well.", "From the late 10th century onwards heavily armed horsemen, ''milites'' or knights, emerged as an expensive elite taking centre stage both on and off the battlefield.", "This class of aristocratic warriors was considered the \"ultimate\" in heavy cavalry: well-equipped with the best weapons, state-of-the-art armour from head to foot, leading with the lance in battle in a full-gallop, close-formation \"knightly charge\" that might prove irresistible, winning the battle almost as soon as it began.A 13th-century depiction of a riding horse.", "Note resemblance to the modern Paso FinoA Hussite war wagon: it enabled peasants to defeat knightsBut knights remained the minority of total available combat forces; the expense of arms, armour, and horses was only affordable to a select few.", "While mounted men-at-arms focused on a narrow combat role of shock combat, medieval armies relied on a large variety of foot troops to fulfill all the rest (skirmishing, flank guards, scouting, holding ground, etc.).", "Medieval chroniclers tended to pay undue attention to the knights at the expense of the common soldiers, which led early students of military history to suppose that heavy cavalry was the only force that mattered on medieval European battlefields.", "But well-trained and disciplined infantry could defeat knights.Massed English longbowmen triumphed over French cavalry at Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt, while at Gisors (1188), Bannockburn (1314), and Laupen (1339), foot-soldiers proved they could resist cavalry charges as long as they held their formation.", "Once the Swiss developed their pike squares for offensive as well as defensive use, infantry started to become the principal arm.", "This aggressive new doctrine gave the Swiss victory over a range of adversaries, and their enemies found that the only reliable way to defeat them was by the use of an even more comprehensive combined arms doctrine, as evidenced in the Battle of Marignano.", "The introduction of missile weapons that required less skill than the longbow, such as the crossbow and hand cannon, also helped remove the focus somewhat from cavalry elites to masses of cheap infantry equipped with easy-to-learn weapons.", "These missile weapons were very successfully used in the Hussite Wars, in combination with Wagenburg tactics.This gradual rise in the dominance of infantry led to the adoption of dismounted tactics.", "From the earliest times knights and mounted men-at-arms had frequently dismounted to handle enemies they could not overcome on horseback, such as in the Battle of the Dyle (891) and the Battle of Bremule (1119), but after the 1350s this trend became more marked with the dismounted men-at-arms fighting as super-heavy infantry with two-handed swords and poleaxes.", "In any case, warfare in the Middle Ages tended to be dominated by raids and sieges rather than pitched battles, and mounted men-at-arms rarely had any choice other than dismounting when faced with the prospect of assaulting a fortified position." ], [ "Islamic States", "===Arabs===camelryThe Islamic Prophet Muhammad made use of cavalry in many of his military campaigns including the Expedition of Dhu Qarad, and the expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha in al-Is which took place in September, 627 AD, fifth month of 6 AH of the Islamic calendar.Early organized Arab mounted forces under the Rashidun caliphate comprised a light cavalry armed with lance and sword.", "Its main role was to attack the enemy flanks and rear.", "These relatively lightly armored horsemen formed the most effective element of the Muslim armies during the later stages of the Islamic conquest of the Levant.", "The best use of this lightly armed fast moving cavalry was revealed at the '''Battle of Yarmouk''' (636 AD) in which Khalid ibn Walid, knowing the skills of his horsemen, used them to turn the tables at every critical instance of the battle with their ability to engage, disengage, then turn back and attack again from the flank or rear.", "A strong cavalry regiment was formed by Khalid ibn Walid which included the veterans of the campaign of Iraq and Syria.", "Early Muslim historians have given it the name ''Tali'a mutaharrikah''(طليعة متحركة), or the Mobile guard.", "This was used as an advance guard and a strong striking force to route the opposing armies with its greater mobility that give it an upper hand when maneuvering against any Byzantine army.", "With this mobile striking force, the conquest of Syria was made easy.The Battle of Talas in 751 AD was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang dynasty over the control of Central Asia.", "Chinese infantry were routed by Arab cavalry near the bank of the River Talas.Until the 11th century the classic cavalry strategy of the Arab Middle East incorporated the ''razzia'' tactics of fast moving raids by mixed bodies of horsemen and infantry.", "Under the talented leadership of Saladin and other Islamic commanders the emphasis changed to Mamluk horse-archers backed by bodies of irregular light cavalry.", "Trained to rapidly disperse, harass and regroup these flexible mounted forces proved capable of withstanding the previously invincible heavy knights of the western crusaders at battles such as Hattin in 1187.===Mamluks===Originating in the 9th century as Central Asian ''ghulams'' or captives utilised as mounted auxiliaries by Arab armies, Mamluks were subsequently trained as cavalry soldiers rather than solely mounted-archers, with increased priority being given to the use of lances and swords.", "Mamluks were to follow the dictates of al-furusiyya, a code of conduct that included values like courage and generosity but also doctrine of cavalry tactics, horsemanship, archery and treatment of wounds.By the late 13th century the Manluk armies had evolved into a professional elite of cavalry, backed by more numerous but less well-trained footmen.===Maghreb===Moroccan with his Arabian horse along the Barbary coastThe Islamic Berber states of North Africa employed elite horse mounted cavalry armed with spears and following the model of the original Arab occupiers of the region.", "Horse-harness and weapons were manufactured locally and the six-monthly stipends for horsemen were double those of their infantry counterparts.", "During the 8th century Islamic conquest of Iberia large numbers of horses and riders were shipped from North Africa, to specialise in raiding and the provision of support for the massed Berber footmen of the main armies.Maghrebi traditions of mounted warfare eventually influenced a number of sub-Saharan African polities in the medieval era.", "The Esos of Ikoyi, military aristocrats of the Yoruba peoples, were a notable manifestation of this phenomenon.Kanem-Bu warriors armed with spears in the retinue of a mounted war chief.", "''The Earth and Its Inhabitants'', 1892===Al-Andalus======Iran===Qizilbash, were a class of Safavid militant warriors in Iran during the 15th to 18th centuries, who often fought as elite cavalry.File:Qezelbash.JPG|Manikin of a Safavid Qizilbash, showing characteristic red cap (Sa'dabad Palace, Tehran).File:Canonnier Persan.", "Auguste Wahlen.", "Moeurs, usages et costumes de tous les peuples du monde.", "1843.jpg|Persian Zamburak.===Ottoman===During its period of greatest expansion, from the 14th to 17th centuries, cavalry formed the powerful core of the Ottoman armies.", "Registers dated 1475 record 22,000 ''Sipahi'' feudal cavalry levied in Europe, 17,000 ''Sipahis'' recruited from Anatolia, and 3,000 ''Kapikulu'' (regular body-guard cavalry).", "During the 18th century however the Ottoman mounted troops evolved into light cavalry serving in the thinly populated regions of the Middle East and North Africa.", "Such frontier horsemen were largely raised by local governors and were separate from the main field armies of the Ottoman Empire.", "At the beginning of the 19th century modernised ''Nizam-I Credit'' (\"New Army\") regiments appeared, including full-time cavalry units officered from the horse guards of the Sultan.", "File:Sipahi.jpg|Ottoman Sipahi.File:Mamluke.jpg|An Ottoman Mamluk cavalryman from 1810, armed with a pistol.File:Sueleymanname Akinci-Beys.png|Akinci of the Balkans.File:1396-Battle of Nicopolis-Hunername-2.jpg|Ottoman Ghazi cavalrymen during the Battle of Nicopolis." ], [ "Renaissance Europe", "Knightly cavalry and noblemen, painting by Jan van Eyck (c. 1390–1441)Ironically, the rise of infantry in the early 16th century coincided with the \"golden age\" of heavy cavalry; a French or Spanish army at the beginning of the century could have up to half its numbers made up of various kinds of light and heavy cavalry, whereas in earlier medieval and later 17th-century armies the proportion of cavalry was seldom more than a quarter.Knighthood largely lost its military functions and became more closely tied to social and economic prestige in an increasingly capitalistic Western society.", "With the rise of drilled and trained infantry, the mounted men-at-arms, now sometimes called ''gendarmes'' and often part of the standing army themselves, adopted the same role as in the Hellenistic age, that of delivering a decisive blow once the battle was already engaged, either by charging the enemy in the flank or attacking their commander-in-chief.From the 1550s onwards, the use of gunpowder weapons solidified infantry's dominance of the battlefield and began to allow true mass armies to develop.", "This is closely related to the increase in the size of armies throughout the early modern period; heavily armored cavalrymen were expensive to raise and maintain and it took years to train a skilled horseman or a horse, while arquebusiers and later musketeers could be trained and kept in the field at much lower cost, and were much easier to recruit.A Polish winged hussarThe Spanish tercio and later formations relegated cavalry to a supporting role.", "The pistol was specifically developed to try to bring cavalry back into the conflict, together with manoeuvres such as the caracole.", "The caracole was not particularly successful, however, and the charge (whether with lance, sword, or pistol) remained as the primary mode of employment for many types of European cavalry, although by this time it was delivered in much deeper formations and with greater discipline than before.", "The demi-lancers and the heavily armored sword-and-pistol reiters were among the types of cavalry whose heyday was in the 16th and 17th centuries.", "During this period the Polish Winged hussars were a dominating heavy cavalry force in Eastern Europe that initially achieved great success against Swedes, Russians, Turks and other, until repeatably beaten by either combined arms tactics, increase in firepower or beaten in melee with the Drabant cavalry of the Swedish Empire.", "From their last engagement in 1702 (at the Battle of Kliszów) until 1776, the obsolete Winged hussars were demoted and largely assigned to ceremonial roles.", "The Polish Winged hussars military prowess peaked at the Siege of Vienna in 1683, when hussar banners participated in the largest cavalry charge in history and successfully repelled the Ottoman attack." ], [ "18th-century Europe and Napoleonic Wars", "Eylau, painted by Jean-Antoine-Siméon FortCavalry retained an important role in this age of regularization and standardization across European armies.", "They remained the primary choice for confronting enemy cavalry.", "Attacking an unbroken infantry force head-on usually resulted in failure, but extended linear infantry formations were vulnerable to flank or rear attacks.", "Cavalry was important at Blenheim (1704), Rossbach (1757), Marengo (1800), Eylau and Friedland (1807), remaining significant throughout the Napoleonic Wars.Dutch cavalry officer at the Battle of EkerenEven with the increasing prominence of infantry, cavalry still had an irreplaceable role in armies, due to their greater mobility.", "Their non-battle duties often included patrolling the fringes of army encampments, with standing orders to intercept suspected shirkers and deserters, as well as, serving as outpost pickets in advance of the main body.", "During battle, lighter cavalry such as hussars and uhlans might skirmish with other cavalry, attack light infantry, or charge and either capture enemy artillery or render them useless by plugging the touchholes with iron spikes.", "Heavier cavalry such as cuirassiers, dragoons, and carabiniers usually charged towards infantry formations or opposing cavalry in order to rout them.", "Both light and heavy cavalry pursued retreating enemies, the point where most battle casualties occurred.The greatest cavalry charge of modern history was at the 1807 Battle of Eylau, when the entire 11,000-strong French cavalry reserve, led by Joachim Murat, launched a huge charge on and through the Russian infantry lines.", "Cavalry's dominating and menacing presence on the battlefield was countered by the use of infantry squares.", "The most notable examples are at the Battle of Quatre Bras and later at the Battle of Waterloo, the latter which the repeated charges by up to 9,000 French cavalrymen ordered by Michel Ney failed to break the British-Allied army, who had formed into squares.The British 28th infantry Regiment formed into a square at the Battle of Quatre Bras for protection from cavalryMassed infantry, especially those formed in squares were deadly to cavalry, but offered an excellent target for artillery.", "Once a bombardment had disordered the infantry formation, cavalry were able to rout and pursue the scattered foot soldiers.", "It was not until individual firearms gained accuracy and improved rates of fire that cavalry was diminished in this role as well.", "Even then light cavalry remained an indispensable tool for scouting, screening the army's movements, and harassing the enemy's supply lines until military aircraft supplanted them in this role in the early stages of World War I." ], [ "19th century", "The charge of the Venezuelan First Division's cavalry at the Battle of Carabobo===Europe===By the beginning of the 19th century, European cavalry fell into four main categories:* Cuirassiers, heavy cavalry, adorned with body armor, especially a cuirass, and primarily armed with pistols and a sword* Dragoons, originally mounted infantry, but later regarded as medium cavalry* Hussars, light cavalry, primarily armed with sabres* Lancers or Uhlans, light cavalry, primarily armed with lances\"The Thin Red Line\" at the Battle of Balaclava, where the 93rd Regiment held off Russian CavalryThere were cavalry variations for individual nations as well: France had the ''chasseurs à cheval''; Prussia had the ''Jäger zu Pferde''; Bavaria, Saxony and Austria had the ''Chevaulegers''; and Russia had Cossacks.", "Britain, from the mid-18th century, had Light Dragoons as light cavalry and Dragoons, Dragoon Guards and Household Cavalry as heavy cavalry.", "Only after the end of the Napoleonic wars were the Household Cavalry equipped with cuirasses, and some other regiments were converted to lancers.", "In the United States Army prior to 1862 the cavalry were almost always dragoons.", "The Imperial Japanese Army had its cavalry uniformed as hussars, but they fought as dragoons.In the Crimean War, the Charge of the Light Brigade and the Thin Red Line at the Battle of Balaclava showed the vulnerability of cavalry, when deployed without effective support.====Franco-Prussian War====''Monument to the Spanish Regiment of light cavalry of Alcántara''During the Franco-Prussian War, at the Battle of Mars-la-Tour in 1870, a Prussian cavalry brigade decisively smashed the centre of the French battle line, after skilfully concealing their approach.", "This event became known as '''Von Bredow's Death Ride''' after the brigade commander Adalbert von Bredow; it would be used in the following decades to argue that massed cavalry charges still had a place on the modern battlefield.====Imperial expansion====Cavalry found a new role in colonial campaigns (irregular warfare), where modern weapons were lacking and the slow moving infantry-artillery train or fixed fortifications were often ineffective against indigenous insurgents (unless the latter offered a fight on an equal footing, as at Tel-el-Kebir, Omdurman, etc.).", "Cavalry \"flying columns\" proved effective, or at least cost-effective, in many campaigns—although an astute native commander (like Samori in western Africa, Shamil in the Caucasus, or any of the better Boer commanders) could turn the tables and use the greater mobility of their cavalry to offset their relative lack of firepower compared with European forces.In 1903 the British Indian Army maintained forty regiments of cavalry, numbering about 25,000 Indian sowars (cavalrymen), with British and Indian officers.Among the more famous regiments in the lineages of the modern Indian and Pakistani armies are:Omdurman19th Lancers near Mametz during the Battle of the Somme, 15 July 1916* Governor General's Bodyguard (now President's Bodyguard)* Skinner's Horse (now India's 1st Horse (Skinner's Horse))* Gardner's Lancers (now India's 2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse))* Hodson's Horse (now India's 3rd Horse (Hodson's)) of the Bengal Lancers fame* 6th Bengal Cavalry (later amalgamated with 7th Hariana Lancers to form 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry) now 18th Cavalry of the Indian Army* Probyn's Horse (now 5th Horse, Pakistan)* Royal Deccan Horse (now India's The Deccan Horse)* Poona Horse (now India's The Poona Horse)* Scinde Horse (now India's The Scinde Horse)* Queen's Own Guides Cavalry (now Pakistan).", "* 11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force) (now 11th Cavalry (Frontier Force), Pakistan)Several of these formations are still active, though they now are armoured formations, for example the Guides Cavalry of Pakistan.Algerian spahis of the French Army 1886The French Army maintained substantial cavalry forces in Algeria and Morocco from 1830 until the end of the Second World War.", "Much of the Mediterranean coastal terrain was suitable for mounted action and there was a long established culture of horsemanship amongst the Arab and Berber inhabitants.", "The French forces included Spahis, Chasseurs d' Afrique, Foreign Legion cavalry and mounted Goumiers.", "Both Spain and Italy raised cavalry regiments from amongst the indigenous horsemen of their North African territories (see regulares, Italian Spahis and savari respectively).Imperial Germany employed mounted formations in South West Africa as part of the Schutztruppen (colonial army) garrisoning the territory.===United States===Union Cavalry capture Confederate guns at CulpeperIn the early American Civil War the regular United States Army mounted rifle, dragoon, and two existing cavalry regiments were reorganized and renamed cavalry regiments, of which there were six.", "Over a hundred other federal and state cavalry regiments were organized, but the infantry played a much larger role in many battles due to its larger numbers, lower cost per rifle fielded, and much easier recruitment.", "However, cavalry saw a role as part of screening forces and in foraging and scouting.", "The later phases of the war saw the Federal army developing a truly effective cavalry force fighting as scouts, raiders, and, with repeating rifles, as mounted infantry.", "The distinguished 1st Virginia Cavalry ranks as one of the most effectual and successful cavalry units on the Confederate side.", "Noted cavalry commanders included Confederate general J.E.B.", "Stuart, Nathan Bedford Forrest, and John Singleton Mosby (a.k.a.", "\"The Grey Ghost\") and on the Union side, Philip Sheridan and George Armstrong Custer.Post Civil War, as the volunteer armies disbanded, the regular army cavalry regiments increased in number from six to ten, among them Custer's U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment of Little Bighorn fame, and the African-American U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment and U.S. 10th Cavalry Regiment.", "The black units, along with others (both cavalry and infantry), collectively became known as the Buffalo Soldiers.", "According to Robert M. Utley: :the frontier army was a conventional military force trying to control, by conventional military methods, a people that did not behave like conventional enemies and, indeed, quite often were not enemies at all.", "This is the most difficult of all military assignments, whether in Africa, Asia, or the American West.These regiments, which rarely took the field as complete organizations, served throughout the American Indian Wars through the close of the frontier in the 1890s.", "Volunteer cavalry regiments like the Rough Riders consisted of horsemen such as cowboys, ranchers and other outdoorsmen, that served as a cavalry in the United States Military." ], [ "Developments 1900–1914", "Italian cavalry officers practice their horsemanship in 1904 outside RomeAt the beginning of the 20th century, all armies still maintained substantial cavalry forces, although there was contention over whether their role should revert to that of mounted infantry (the historic dragoon function).", "With motorised vehicles and aircraft still under development, horse mounted troops remained the only fully mobile forces available for manoeuvre warfare until 1914.===England===Following the experience of the South African War of 1899–1902 (where mounted Boer citizen commandos fighting on foot from cover proved more effective than regular cavalry), the British Army withdrew lances for all but ceremonial purposes and placed a new emphasis on training for dismounted action in 1903.Lances were however readopted for active service in 1912.===Russia===In 1882, the Imperial Russian Army converted all its line hussar and lancer regiments to dragoons, with an emphasis on mounted infantry training.", "In 1910 these regiments reverted to their historic roles, designations and uniforms.===Germany===By 1909, official regulations dictating the role of the Imperial German cavalry had been revised to indicate an increasing realization of the realities of modern warfare.", "The massive cavalry charge in three waves which had previously marked the end of annual maneuvers was discontinued and a new emphasis was placed in training on scouting, raiding and pursuit; rather than main battle involvement.", "The perceived importance of cavalry was however still evident, with thirteen new regiments of mounted rifles (''Jäger zu Pferde'') being raised shortly before the outbreak of war in 1914.===France===In spite of significant experience in mounted warfare in Morocco during 1908–14, the French cavalry remained a highly conservative institution.", "The traditional tactical distinctions between heavy, medium, and light cavalry branches were retained.", "French cuirassiers wore breastplates and plumed helmets unchanged from the Napoleonic period, during the early months of World War I. Dragoons were similarly equipped, though they did not wear cuirasses and did carry lances.", "Light cavalry were described as being \"a blaze of colour\".", "French cavalry of all branches were well mounted and were trained to change position and charge at full gallop.", "One weakness in training was that French cavalrymen seldom dismounted on the march and their horses suffered heavily from raw backs in August 1914." ], [ "First World War", "===Opening stages===Austro-Hungarian cavalry, 1898German cavalryman in September 1914, German South-West Africa Dead German cavalry horses after the Battle of Halen - where the Belgian cavalry, fighting dismounted, decimated their still mounted German counterparts===Europe 1914===In August 1914, all combatant armies still retained substantial numbers of cavalry and the mobile nature of the opening battles on both Eastern and Western Fronts provided a number of instances of traditional cavalry actions, though on a smaller and more scattered scale than those of previous wars.", "The 110 regiments of Imperial German cavalry, while as colourful and traditional as any in peacetime appearance, had adopted a practice of falling back on infantry support when any substantial opposition was encountered.", "These cautious tactics aroused derision amongst their more conservative French and Russian opponents but proved appropriate to the new nature of warfare.", "A single attempt by the German army, on 12 August 1914, to use six regiments of massed cavalry to cut off the Belgian field army from Antwerp floundered when they were driven back in disorder by rifle fire.", "The two German cavalry brigades involved lost 492 men and 843 horses in repeated charges against dismounted Belgian lancers and infantry.", "One of the last recorded charges by French cavalry took place on the night of 9/10 September 1914 when a squadron of the 16th Dragoons overran a German airfield at Soissons, while suffering heavy losses.", "Once the front lines stabilised on the Western Front with the start of Trench Warfare, a combination of barbed wire, uneven muddy terrain, machine guns and rapid fire rifles proved deadly to horse mounted troops and by early 1915 most cavalry units were no longer seeing front line action.On the Eastern Front, a more fluid form of warfare arose from flat open terrain favorable to mounted warfare.", "On the outbreak of war in 1914 the bulk of the Russian cavalry was deployed at full strength in frontier garrisons and, during the period that the main armies were mobilizing, scouting and raiding into East Prussia and Austrian Galicia was undertaken by mounted troops trained to fight with sabre and lance in the traditional style.", "On 21 August 1914 the 4th Austro-Hungarian ''Kavalleriedivison'' fought a major mounted engagement at Jaroslavic with the Russian 10th Cavalry Division, in what was arguably the final historic battle to involve thousands of horsemen on both sides.", "While this was the last massed cavalry encounter on the Eastern Front, the absence of good roads limited the use of mechanized transport and even the technologically advanced Imperial German Army continued to deploy up to twenty-four horse-mounted divisions in the East, as late as 1917.===Europe 1915–1918===A British cavalry trooper in marching order (1914–1918)For the remainder of the War on the Western Front, cavalry had virtually no role to play.", "The British and French armies dismounted many of their cavalry regiments and used them in infantry and other roles: the Life Guards for example spent the last months of the War as a machine gun corps; and the Australian Light Horse served as light infantry during the Gallipoli campaign.", "In September 1914 cavalry comprised 9.28% of the total manpower of the British Expeditionary Force in France—by July 1918 this proportion had fallen to 1.65%.", "As early as the first winter of the war most French cavalry regiments had dismounted a squadron each, for service in the trenches.", "The French cavalry numbered 102,000 in May 1915 but had been reduced to 63,000 by October 1918.The German Army dismounted nearly all their cavalry in the West, maintaining only one mounted division on that front by January 1917.German dragoons, armed with lances, after the capture of Warsaw, August 1915Italy entered the war in 1915 with thirty regiments of line cavalry, lancers and light horse.", "While employed effectively against their Austro-Hungarian counterparts during the initial offensives across the Isonzo River, the Italian mounted forces ceased to have a significant role as the front shifted into mountainous terrain.", "By 1916 most cavalry machine-gun sections and two complete cavalry divisions had been dismounted and seconded to the infantry.Some cavalry were retained as mounted troops in reserve behind the lines, in anticipation of a penetration of the opposing trenches that it seemed would never come.", "Tanks, introduced on the Western Front by the British in September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme, had the capacity to achieve such breakthroughs but did not have the reliable range to exploit them.", "In their first major use at the Battle of Cambrai (1917), the plan was for a cavalry division to follow behind the tanks, however they were not able to cross a canal because a tank had broken the only bridge.", "On a few other occasions, throughout the war, cavalry were readied in significant numbers for involvement in major offensives; such as in the Battle of Caporetto and the Battle of Moreuil Wood.", "However it was not until the German Army had been forced to retreat in the Hundred Days Offensive of 1918, that limited numbers of cavalry were again able to operate with any effectiveness in their intended role.", "There was a successful charge by the British 7th Dragoon Guards on the last day of the war.In the wider spaces of the Eastern Front, a more fluid form of warfare continued and there was still a use for mounted troops.", "Some wide-ranging actions were fought, again mostly in the early months of the war.", "However, even here the value of cavalry was overrated and the maintenance of large mounted formations at the front by the Russian Army put a major strain on the railway system, to little strategic advantage.", "In February 1917, the Russian regular cavalry (exclusive of Cossacks) was reduced by nearly a third from its peak number of 200,000, as two squadrons of each regiment were dismounted and incorporated into additional infantry battalions.", "Their Austro-Hungarian opponents, plagued by a shortage of trained infantry, had been obliged to progressively convert most horse cavalry regiments to dismounted rifle units starting in late 1914.===Middle East===In the Middle East, during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign mounted forces (British, Indian, Ottoman, Australian, Arab and New Zealand) retained an important strategic role both as mounted infantry and cavalry.In Egypt, the mounted infantry formations like the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and Australian Light Horse of ANZAC Mounted Division, operating as mounted infantry, drove German and Ottoman forces back from Romani to Magdhaba and Rafa and out of the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula in 1916.After a stalemate on the Gaza–Beersheba line between March and October 1917, Beersheba was captured by the Australian Mounted Division's 4th Light Horse Brigade.", "Their mounted charge succeeded after a coordinated attack by the British Infantry and Yeomanry cavalry and the Australian and New Zealand Light Horse and Mounted Rifles brigades.", "A series of coordinated attacks by these Egyptian Expeditionary Force infantry and mounted troops were also successful at the Battle of Mughar Ridge, during which the British infantry divisions and the Desert Mounted Corps drove two Ottoman armies back to the Jaffa—Jerusalem line.", "The infantry with mainly dismounted cavalry and mounted infantry fought in the Judean Hills to eventually almost encircle Jerusalem which was occupied shortly after.During a pause in operations necessitated by the German spring offensive in 1918 on the Western Front, joint infantry and mounted infantry attacks towards Amman and Es Salt resulted in retreats back to the Jordan Valley which continued to be occupied by mounted divisions during the summer of 1918.The Australian Mounted Division was armed with swords and in September, after the successful breaching of the Ottoman line on the Mediterranean coast by the British Empire infantry XXI Corps was followed by cavalry attacks by the 4th Cavalry Division, 5th Cavalry Division and Australian Mounted Divisions which almost encircled two Ottoman armies in the Judean Hills forcing their retreat.", "Meanwhile, Chaytor's Force of infantry and mounted infantry in ANZAC Mounted Division held the Jordan Valley, covering the right flank to later advance eastwards to capture Es Salt and Amman and half of a third Ottoman army.", "A subsequent pursuit by the 4th Cavalry Division and the Australian Mounted Division followed by the 5th Cavalry Division to Damascus.", "Armoured cars and 5th Cavalry Division lancers were continuing the pursuit of Ottoman units north of Aleppo when the Armistice of Mudros was signed by the Ottoman Empire." ], [ "Post–World War I", "A combination of military conservatism in almost all armies and post-war financial constraints prevented the lessons of 1914–1918 being acted on immediately.", "There was a general reduction in the number of cavalry regiments in the British, French, Italian and other Western armies but it was still argued with conviction (for example in the 1922 edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'') that mounted troops had a major role to play in future warfare.", "The 1920s saw an interim period during which cavalry remained as a proud and conspicuous element of all major armies, though much less so than prior to 1914.Cavalry was extensively used in the Russian Civil War and the Soviet-Polish War.", "The last major cavalry battle was the Battle of Komarów in 1920, between Poland and the Russian Bolsheviks.", "Colonial warfare in Morocco, Syria, the Middle East and the North West Frontier of India provided some opportunities for mounted action against enemies lacking advanced weaponry.Lithuanian lancers training in the 1930sThe post-war German Army (Reichsheer) was permitted a large proportion of cavalry (18 regiments or 16.4% of total manpower) under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles.The British Army mechanised all cavalry regiments between 1929 and 1941, redefining their role from horse to armoured vehicles to form the Royal Armoured Corps together with the Royal Tank Regiment.", "The U.S. Cavalry abandoned its sabres in 1934 and commenced the conversion of its horsed regiments to mechanized cavalry, starting with the First Regiment of Cavalry in January 1933.During the Turkish War of Independence, Turkish cavalry under General Fahrettin Altay was instrumental in the Kemalist victory over the invading Greek Army in 1922 during the Battle of Dumlupınar.", "The 5th Cavalry Division was able to slip behind the main Greek army, cutting off all communication and supply lines as well as retreat options.", "This forced the surrender of the remaining Greek forces and may have been the last time in history that cavalry played a definitive role in the outcome of a battle.", "Turkish cavalry during mopping‐up operation 1922During the 1930s, the French Army experimented with integrating mounted and mechanised cavalry units into larger formations.", "Dragoon regiments were converted to motorised infantry (trucks and motor cycles), and cuirassiers to armoured units; while light cavalry (chasseurs a' cheval, hussars and spahis) remained as mounted sabre squadrons.", "The theory was that mixed forces comprising these diverse units could utilise the strengths of each according to circumstances.", "In practice mounted troops proved unable to keep up with fast moving mechanised units over any distance.The 39 cavalry regiments of the British Indian Army were reduced to 21 as the result of a series of amalgamations immediately following World War I.", "The new establishment remained unchanged until 1936 when three regiments were redesignated as permanent training units, each with six, still mounted, regiments linked to them.", "In 1938, the process of mechanization began with the conversion of a full cavalry brigade (two Indian regiments and one British) to armoured car and tank units.", "By the end of 1940, all of the Indian cavalry had been mechanized, initially and in the majority of cases, to motorized infantry transported in 15cwt trucks.", "The last horsed regiment of the British Indian Army (other than the Viceroy's Bodyguard and some Indian States Forces regiments) was the 19th King George's Own Lancers which had its final mounted parade at Rawalpindi on 28 October 1939.This unit still exists in the Pakistan Army as an armored regiment." ], [ "World War II", "While most armies still maintained cavalry units at the outbreak of World War II in 1939, significant mounted action was largely restricted to the Polish, Balkan, and Soviet campaigns.", "Rather than charge their mounts into battle, cavalry units were either used as mounted infantry (using horses to move into position and then dismounting for combat) or as reconnaissance units (especially in areas not suited to tracked or wheeled vehicles).===Polish===Polish uhlan with anti-tank rifle.", "Military instruction published in 1938.A popular myth is that Polish cavalry armed with lances charged German tanks during the September 1939 campaign.", "This arose from misreporting of a single clash on 1 September near Krojanty, when two squadrons of the Polish 18th Lancers armed with sabres scattered German infantry before being caught in the open by German armoured cars.Two examples illustrate how the myth developed.", "First, because motorised vehicles were in short supply, the Poles used horses to pull anti-tank weapons into position.", "Second, there were a few incidents when Polish cavalry was trapped by German tanks, and attempted to fight free.", "However, this did not mean that the Polish army chose to attack tanks with horse cavalry.", "Later, on the Eastern Front, the Red Army did deploy cavalry units effectively against the Germans.A German cavalry patrol in May 1940, during the Battle of FranceA more correct term would be \"mounted infantry\" instead of \"cavalry\", as horses were primarily used as a means of transportation, for which they were very suitable in view of the very poor road conditions in pre-war Poland.", "Another myth describes Polish cavalry as being armed with both sabres and lances; lances were used for peacetime ceremonial purposes only and the primary weapon of the Polish cavalryman in 1939 was a rifle.", "Individual equipment did include a sabre, probably because of well-established tradition, and in the case of a melee combat this secondary weapon would probably be more effective than a rifle and bayonet.", "Moreover, the Polish cavalry brigade order of battle in 1939 included, apart from the mounted soldiers themselves, light and heavy machine guns (wheeled), the Anti-tank rifle, model 35, anti-aircraft weapons, anti tank artillery such as the Bofors 37 mm, also light and scout tanks, etc.", "The last cavalry vs. cavalry mutual charge in Europe took place in Poland during the Battle of Krasnobród, when Polish and German cavalry units clashed with each other.The last classical cavalry charge of the war took place on March 1, 1945, during the Battle of Schoenfeld by the 1st \"Warsaw\" Independent Cavalry Brigade.", "Infantry and tanks had been employed to little effect against the German position, both of which floundered in the open wetlands only to be dominated by infantry and antitank fire from the German fortifications on the forward slope of Hill 157, overlooking the wetlands.", "The Germans had not taken cavalry into consideration when fortifying their position which, combined with the \"Warsaw\"s swift assault, overran the German anti-tank guns and consolidated into an attack into the village itself, now supported by infantry and tanks.===Greek===The Italian invasion of Greece in October 1940 saw mounted cavalry used effectively by the Greek defenders along the mountainous frontier with Albania.", "Three Greek cavalry regiments (two mounted and one partially mechanized) played an important role in the Italian defeat in this difficult terrain.===Soviet===The contribution of Soviet cavalry to the development of modern military operational doctrine and its importance in defeating Nazi Germany has been eclipsed by the higher profile of tanks and airplanes.", "Soviet cavalry contributed significantly to the defeat of the Axis armies.", "They were able to provide the most mobile troops available in the early stages, when trucks and other equipment were low in quality; as well as providing cover for retreating forces.Considering their relatively limited numbers, the Soviet cavalry played a significant role in giving Germany its first real defeats in the early stages of the war.", "The continuing potential of mounted troops was demonstrated during the Battle of Moscow, against Guderian and the powerful central German 9th Army.", "Pavel Belov was given by Stavka a mobile group including the elite 9th tank brigade, ski battalions, Katyusha rocket launcher battalion among others, the unit additionally received new weapons.", "This newly created group became the first to carry the Soviet counter-offensive in late November, when the general offensive began on December 5.These mobile units often played major roles in both defensive and offensive operations.Cavalry were amongst the first Soviet units to complete the encirclement in the Battle of Stalingrad, thus sealing the fate of the German 6th Army.", "Mounted Soviet forces also played a role in the encirclement of Berlin, with some Cossack cavalry units reaching the Reichstag in April 1945.Throughout the war they performed important tasks such as the capture of bridgeheads which is considered one of the hardest jobs in battle, often doing so with inferior numbers.", "For instance the 8th Guards Cavalry Regiment of the 2nd Guards Cavalry Division (Soviet Union), 1st Guards Cavalry Corps often fought outnumbered against elite German units.By the final stages of the war only the Soviet Union was still fielding mounted units in substantial numbers, some in combined mechanized and horse units.", "The main advantage of this tactical approach was in enabling mounted infantry to keep pace with advancing tanks.", "Other factors favoring the retention of mounted forces included the high quality of Russian Cossacks, which provided about half of all mounted Soviet cavalry throughout the war.", "They excelled in warfare manoeuvers, since the lack of roads limited the effectiveness of wheeled vehicles in many parts of the Eastern Front.", "Another consideration was that sufficient logistic capacity was often not available to support very large motorized forces, whereas cavalry was relatively easy to maintain when detached from the main army and acting on its own initiative.", "The main usage of the Soviet cavalry involved infiltration through front lines with subsequent deep raids, which disorganized German supply lines.", "Another role was the pursuit of retreating enemy forces during major front-line operations and breakthroughs.===Hungarian===During World War II, the Royal Hungarian Army's hussars were typically only used to undertake reconnaissance tasks against Soviet forces, and then only in detachments of section or squadron strength.The last documented hussar attack was conducted by Lieutenant Colonel Kálmán Mikecz on August 16, 1941, at Nikolaev.", "The hussars arriving as reinforcements, were employed to break through Russian positions ahead of German troops.", "The hussars equipped with swords and submachine guns broke through the Russian lines in a single attack.An eyewitness account of the last hussar attack by Erich Kern, a German officer, was written in his memoir in 1948:… We were again in a tough fight with the desperately defensive enemy who dug himself along a high railway embankment.", "We've been attacked four times already, and we've been kicked back all four times.", "The battalion commander swore, but the company commanders were helpless.", "Then, instead of the artillery support we asked for countless times, a Hungarian hussar regiment appeared on the scene.", "We laughed.", "What the hell do they want here with their graceful, elegant horses?", "We froze at once: these Hungarians went crazy.", "Cavalry Squadron approached after a cavalry squadron.", "The command word rang.", "The bronze-brown, slender riders almost grew to their saddle.Their shining colonel of golden parolis jerked his sword.", "Four or five armored cars cut out of the wings, and the regiment slashed across the wide plain with flashing swords in the afternoon sun.", "Seydlitz attacked like this once before.", "Forgetting all caution, we climbed out of our covers.", "It was all like a great equestrian movie.", "The first shots rumbled, then became less frequent.", "With astonished eyes, in disbelief, we watched as the Soviet regiment, which had so far repulsed our attacks with desperate determination, now turned around and left its positions in panic.", "And the triumphant Hungarians chased the Russian in front of them and shredded them with their glittering sabers.", "The hussar sword, it seems, was a bit much for the nerves of Russians.", "Now, for once, the ancient weapon has triumphed over modern equipment ....===Italian===The last mounted sabre charge by Italian cavalry occurred on August 24, 1942, at Isbuscenski (Russia), when a squadron of the Savoia Cavalry Regiment charged the 812th Siberian Infantry Regiment.", "The remainder of the regiment, together with the Novara Lancers made a dismounted attack in an action that ended with the retreat of the Russians after heavy losses on both sides.", "The final Italian cavalry action occurred on October 17, 1942, in Poloj (now Croatia) by a squadron of the Alexandria Cavalry Regiment against a large group of Yugoslav partisans.===Other Axis Powers===Romanian, Hungarian and Italian cavalry were dispersed or disbanded following the retreat of the Axis forces from Russia.", "Germany still maintained some mounted (mixed with bicycles) SS and Cossack units until the last days of the War.===Finnish===Finland used mounted troops against Russian forces effectively in forested terrain during the Continuation War.", "The last Finnish cavalry unit was not disbanded until 1947.===American===The U.S. Army's last horse cavalry actions were fought during World War II: a) by the 26th Cavalry Regiment—a small mounted regiment of Philippine Scouts which fought the Japanese during the retreat down the Bataan peninsula, until it was effectively destroyed by January 1942; and b) on captured German horses by the mounted reconnaissance section of the U.S. 10th Mountain Division in a spearhead pursuit of the German Army across the Po Valley in Italy in April 1945.The last horsed U.S. Cavalry (the Second Cavalry Division) were dismounted in March 1944.===British===All British Army cavalry regiments had been mechanised since 1 March 1942 when the Queen's Own Yorkshire Dragoons (Yeomanry) was converted to a motorised role, following mounted service against the Vichy French in Syria the previous year.", "The final cavalry charge by British Empire forces occurred on 21 March 1942 when a 60 strong patrol of the Burma Frontier Force encountered Japanese infantry near Toungoo airfield in central Myanmar.", "The Sikh sowars of the Frontier Force cavalry, led by Captain Arthur Sandeman of The Central India Horse (21st King George V's Own Horse), charged in the old style with sabres and most were killed.===Mongolian===Mongolian cavalry in the Khalkhin Gol (1939)In the early stages of World War II, mounted units of the Mongolian People's Army were involved in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol against invading Japanese forces.", "Soviet forces under the command of Georgy Zhukov, together with Mongolian forces, defeated the Japanese Sixth army and effectively ended the Soviet–Japanese Border Wars.", "After the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact of 1941, Mongolia remained neutral throughout most of the war, but its geographical situation meant that the country served as a buffer between Japanese forces and the Soviet Union.", "In addition to keeping around 10% of the population under arms, Mongolia provided half a million trained horses for use by the Soviet Army.", "In 1945 a partially mounted Soviet-Mongolian Cavalry Mechanized Group played a supporting role on the western flank of the Soviet invasion of Manchuria.", "The last active service seen by cavalry units of the Mongolian Army occurred in 1946–1948, during border clashes between Mongolia and the Republic of China." ], [ "Post–World War II to the present day", "U.S. Special Forces and Combat Controllers on horseback with the Northern Alliance of Afghanistan, which frequently used horses as military transportWhile most modern \"cavalry\" units have some historic connection with formerly mounted troops this is not always the case.", "The modern Irish Defence Forces (DF) includes a \"Cavalry Corps\" equipped with armoured cars and Scorpion tracked combat reconnaissance vehicles.", "The DF has never included horse cavalry since its establishment in 1922 (other than a small mounted escort of Blue Hussars drawn from the Artillery Corps when required for ceremonial occasions).", "However, the mystique of the cavalry is such that the name has been introduced for what was always a mechanised force.Some engagements in late 20th and early 21st century guerrilla wars involved mounted troops, particularly against partisan or guerrilla fighters in areas with poor transport infrastructure.", "Such units were not used as cavalry but rather as mounted infantry.", "Examples occurred in Afghanistan, Portuguese Africa and Rhodesia.", "The French Army used existing mounted squadrons of Spahis to a limited extent for patrol work during the Algerian War (1954–1962).", "The Swiss Army maintained a mounted dragoon regiment for combat purposes until 1973.The Portuguese Army used horse mounted cavalry with some success in the wars of independence in Angola and Mozambique in the 1960s and 1970s.", "During the 1964–1979 Rhodesian Bush War the Rhodesian Army created an elite mounted infantry unit called Grey's Scouts to fight unconventional actions against the rebel forces of Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo.", "The horse mounted infantry of the Scouts were effective and reportedly feared by their opponents in the rebel African forces.", "In the 1978 to present Afghan Civil War period there have been several instances of horse mounted combat.Central and South American armies maintained mounted cavalry for longer than those of Asia, Europe, or North America.", "The Mexican Army included a number of horse mounted cavalry regiments as late as the mid-1990s and the Chilean Army had five such regiments in 1983 as mounted mountain troops.The Soviet Army retained horse cavalry divisions until 1955.===Operational horse cavalry===Today the Indian Army's 61st Cavalry is reported to be the largest existing horse-mounted cavalry unit still having operational potential.", "It was raised in 1951 from the amalgamated state cavalry squadrons of Gwalior, Jodhpur, and Mysore.", "While primarily utilised for ceremonial purposes, the regiment can be deployed for internal security or police roles if required.", "The 61st Cavalry and the President's Body Guard parade in full dress uniform in New Delhi each year in what is probably the largest assembly of traditional cavalry still to be seen in the world.", "Both the Indian and the Pakistani armies maintain armoured regiments with the titles of Lancers or Horse, dating back to the 19th century.As of 2007, the Chinese People's Liberation Army employed two battalions of horse-mounted border guards in Xinjiang for border patrol purposes.", "PLA mounted units last saw action during border clashes with Vietnam in the 1970s and 1980s, after which most cavalry units were disbanded as part of major military downsizing in the 1980s.", "In the wake of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, there were calls to rebuild the army horse inventory for disaster relief in difficult terrain.", "Subsequent Chinese media reports confirm that the PLA maintains operational horse cavalry at squadron strength in Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia for scouting, logistical, and border security purposes.The Chilean Army still maintains a mixed armoured cavalry regiment, with elements of it acting as mounted mountain exploration troops, based in the city of Angol, being part of the III Mountain Division, and another independent exploration cavalry detachment in the town of Chaitén.", "The rugged mountain terrain calls for the use of special horses suited for that use.The Argentine Army has two mounted cavalry units: the Regiment of Horse Grenadiers, which performs mostly ceremonial duties but at the same time is responsible for the president's security (in this case, acting as infantry), and the 4th Mountain Cavalry Regiment (which comprises both horse and light armoured squadrons), stationed in San Martín de los Andes, where it has an exploration role as part the 6th Mountain Brigade.", "Most armoured cavalry units of the Army are considered successors to the old cavalry regiments from the Independence Wars, and keep their traditional names, such as Hussars, Cuirassiers, Lancers, etc., and uniforms.", "Equestrian training remains an important part of their tradition, especially among officers.===Ceremonial horse cavalry and armored cavalry retaining traditional titles===Italian Army regiment \"Lancieri di Montebello\" (8th) on public duties in Rome 2019Representative Cavalry Squadron in the Polish ArmyHorse-mounted color guard from Marine Corps Logistics Base BarstowHorse-mounted guards from the Armed Forces of Paraguay at the inauguration of President Santiago Peña in August 2023Cavalry or mounted gendarmerie units continue to be maintained for purely or primarily ceremonial purposes by the Algerian, Argentine, Bolivian, Brazilian, British, Bulgarian, Canadian, Chilean, Colombian, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, French, Hungarian, Indian, Italian, Jordanian, Malaysian, Moroccan, Nepalese, Nigerian, North Korean, Omani, Pakistani, Panamanian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Senegalese, Spanish, Swedish, Thai, Tunisian, Turkmenistan, United States, Uruguayan and Venezuelan armed forces.A number of armoured regiments in the British Army retain the historic designations of Hussars, Dragoons, Light Dragoons, Dragoon Guards, Lancers and Yeomanry.", "Only the Household Cavalry (consisting of the Life Guards' mounted squadron, The Blues and Royals' mounted squadron, the State Trumpeters of The Household Cavalry and the Household Cavalry Mounted Band) are maintained for mounted (and dismounted) ceremonial duties in London.The French Army still has regiments with the historic designations of Cuirassiers, Hussars, Chasseurs, Dragoons and Spahis.", "Only the cavalry of the Republican Guard and a ceremonial ''fanfare'' detachment of trumpeters for the cavalry/armoured branch as a whole are now mounted.In the Canadian Army, a number of regular and reserve units have cavalry roots, including The Royal Canadian Hussars (Montreal), the Governor General's Horse Guards, Lord Strathcona's Horse, The British Columbia Dragoons, The Royal Canadian Dragoons, and the South Alberta Light Horse.", "Of these, only Lord Strathcona's Horse and the Governor General's Horse Guards maintain an official ceremonial horse-mounted cavalry troop or squadron.The modern Pakistan army maintains about 40 armoured regiments with the historic titles of Lancers, Cavalry or Horse.", "Six of these date back to the 19th century, although only the President's Body Guard remains horse-mounted.In 2002, the Army of the Russian Federation reintroduced a ceremonial mounted squadron wearing historic uniforms.Both the Australian and New Zealand armies follow the British practice of maintaining traditional titles (Light Horse or Mounted Rifles) for modern mechanised units.", "However, neither country retains a horse-mounted unit.Several armored units of the modern United States Army retain the designation of \"armored cavalry\".", "The United States also has \"air cavalry\" units equipped with helicopters.", "The Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry Division, made up of active duty soldiers, still functions as an active unit, trained to approximate the weapons, tools, equipment and techniques used by the United States Cavalry in the 1880s.===Non-combat support roles===The First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry is a volunteer unit within the Pennsylvania Army National Guard which serves as a combat force when in federal service but acts in a mounted disaster relief role when in state service.", "In addition, the Parsons' Mounted Cavalry is a Reserve Officer Training Corps unit which forms part of the Corps of Cadets at Texas A&M University.", "Valley Forge Military Academy and College also has a Mounted Company, known as D-Troop .Some individual U.S. states maintain cavalry units as a part of their respective state defense forces.", "The Maryland Defense Force includes a cavalry unit, Cavalry Troop A, which serves primarily as a ceremonial unit.", "The unit training includes a saber qualification course based upon the 1926 U.S. Army course.", "Cavalry Troop A also assists other Maryland agencies as a rural search and rescue asset.", "In Massachusetts, The National Lancers trace their lineage to a volunteer cavalry militia unit established in 1836 and are currently organized as an official part of the Massachusetts Organized Militia.", "The National Lancers maintain three units, Troops A, B, and C, which serve in a ceremonial role and assist in search and rescue missions.", "In July 2004, the National Lancers were ordered into active state service to guard Camp Curtis Guild during the 2004 Democratic National Convention.", "The Governor's Horse Guard of Connecticut maintains two companies which are trained in urban crowd control.", "In 2020, the California State Guard stood up the 26th Mounted Operations Detachment, a search-and-rescue cavalry unit." ], [ "Social status", "From the beginning of civilization to the 20th century, ownership of heavy cavalry horses has been a mark of wealth amongst settled peoples.", "A cavalry horse involves considerable expense in breeding, training, feeding, and equipment, and has very little productive use except as a mode of transport.For this reason, and because of their often decisive military role, the cavalry has typically been associated with high social status.", "This was most clearly seen in the feudal system, where a lord was expected to enter combat armored and on horseback and bring with him an entourage of lightly armed peasants on foot.", "If landlords and peasant levies came into conflict, the poorly trained footmen would be ill-equipped to defeat armored knights.In later national armies, service as an officer in the cavalry was generally a badge of high social status.", "For instance prior to 1914 most officers of British cavalry regiments came from a socially privileged background and the considerable expenses associated with their role generally required private means, even after it became possible for officers of the line infantry regiments to live on their pay.", "Options open to poorer cavalry officers in the various European armies included service with less fashionable (though often highly professional) frontier or colonial units.", "These included the British Indian cavalry, the Russian Cossacks or the French Chasseurs d'Afrique.During the 19th and early 20th centuries most monarchies maintained a mounted cavalry element in their royal or imperial guards.", "These ranged from small units providing ceremonial escorts and palace guards, through to large formations intended for active service.", "The mounted escort of the Spanish Royal Household provided an example of the former and the twelve cavalry regiments of the Prussian Imperial Guard an example of the latter.", "In either case the officers of such units were likely to be drawn from the aristocracies of their respective societies." ], [ "On film", "Some sense of the noise and power of a cavalry charge can be gained from the 1970 film ''Waterloo'', which featured some 2,000 cavalrymen, some of them Cossacks.", "It included detailed displays of the horsemanship required to manage animal and weapons in large numbers at the gallop (unlike the real battle of Waterloo, where deep mud significantly slowed the horses).", "The Gary Cooper movie ''They Came to Cordura'' contains a scene of a cavalry regiment deploying from march to battle line formation.", "A smaller-scale cavalry charge can be seen in ''The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King'' (2003); although the finished scene has substantial computer-generated imagery, raw footage and reactions of the riders are shown in the Extended Version DVD Appendices.Other films that show cavalry actions include:* ''The Charge of the Light Brigade'', about the Battle of Balaclava in the Crimean War* ''40,000 Horsemen'', about the Australian Light Horse during the Sinai and Palestine campaign of World War I* ''The Lighthorsemen'', about the Battle of Beersheba, 1917* ''War Horse'', about the British cavalry in Europe during World War I* ''Hubal'', about the last months (September 1939 – April 1940) of Poland's first World War II guerrilla, Major Henryk Dobrzański, \"Hubal\"* ''The Patriot'' includes light cavalry usage.", "* ''And Quiet Flows the Don'' depicts Don Cossacks during World War I* ''Kingdom of Heaven'' includes a cavalry charge during the Siege of Kerak* ''The Life and Times of Joseph J. Dumas (film)'' semi-fictional video biography of a notable, modern cavalry officer" ], [ "Examples", "A cavalryman of Hakkapeliitta, the Finnish cavalry of Thirty Years' War, featured on a 1940 Finnish stamp===Types===* Heavy cavalry** Cataphracts** Cuirassier** Polish winged hussars* Light cavalry** Hobelars (medieval light horse)** Hussar** Numidian cavalry** Soldado de cuera** Uhlans* Horse archer* Shock troops** Companion cavalry** Lancers* Mounted infantry** Carabinier** Dragoons* Military communities** Cossacks** Equites / Roman cavalry** Kalmyks** Mamluks** Polish cavalry* Chariot** Scythed chariot* Elephantry, a cavalry unit containing elephant-mounted troops* Camel cavalry* Mounted police** Royal Canadian Mounted Police* Dubious** Moose cavalry, cavalry mounted on moose (European elk)===Units===* 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment (United States)* 278th Armored Cavalry Regiment (United States)* Australian Light Horse* Bayreuth Dragoons* The Blues and Royals (British Army)(who with the Life Guards form the Household Cavalry)* British Columbia Dragoons (Canadian Army)* 1st Cavalry Division (United States)* 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards (British Army)* Cavalry Corps (Irish Army)* Chasseurs d'Afrique (French Army)* Chinacos (Mexican irregular cavalry of the 19th century)* Garde Républicaine (French Gendarmerie)* Governor General's Horse Guards (Canada)* Guarda Nacional Republicana (Portuguese National Guard)* Guides Cavalry (Pakistan Army)* Hakkapeliitta (Finnish cavalry of Thirty Years' War)* Ironside* King's Royal Hussars (British Army)* Light Dragoons (British Army)* Panserbataljonen (Norwegian Army)* Queen's Own Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment)* Queen's Royal Hussars (British Army)* Regulares (Spanish Morocco)* Royal Dragoon Guards (British Army)* Royal Lancers (British Army)* Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers & Greys) (British Army)* Royal Wessex Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Armoured Regiment)* Royal Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment)* Savage Division (North Caucasus)* Savari (Italian North African)* Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment)* Sipahi (Ottoman)* South Alberta Light Horse (Canadian Army)* Spahi (French North African)* Tagmata (Byzantine)* United States Cavalry" ], [ "Notable horse cavalrymen", "* Georgios Stanotas, commander of the Hellenic Army's Cavalry Division during World War II*Didier Courrèges, major in the French Army, member of École Nationale d'Équitation's Cadre Noir, Olympian at 2004 Summer Olympics*Edwin Ramsey, lieutenant colonel in the 26th Cavalry Regiment during World War II, recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross, led the last cavalry charge in American military history* General Fahrettin Altay, commander of the V. Cavalry Division of the Turkish 1st Army during the Turkish War of Independence, which was instrumental in victory over the invading Greek Army.", "His name is given to the new Turkish battle tank Altay.", "Atatürk'ün Bütün Eserleri, Cilt 27, Kaynak Yayınları, 1998, ISBN 978-975-343-235-1, p. 81.", "*Lieutenant Colonel Joseph J. Dumas, 46th Professor of Military Science at Michigan State University and a notable member and representative of the distinguished cavalry lineage." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Troop B, 1st Cavalry Regiment, Washington National Guard.jpg|Washington National Guard cavalry pictured in Tacoma, Washington in 1907.File:French heavy cavalry Paris August 1914.jpg|French cuirassiers, wearing breastplates and helmets, parade through Paris on the way to battle, August 1914.File:Carga del rio Igan.jpg|Spanish light cavalry (''cazadores'') during the Rif War 1921.File:Warsaw Cavalry of Poland 1939.jpg|Cavalry of Poland in Warsaw, August 1939.File:W-3 Sokół.jpg|Polish PZL W-3 Sokół of the 66 Air Cavalry Squadron, 25th Aeromobile Cavalry Brigade.File:PBG (my own photo).JPG|The mounted President's Bodyguard of the Indian ArmyFile:Republican Guard Cavalry Regiment Bastille Day 2008.jpg|French Republican Guard – 2008 Bastille Day military paradeFile:Pakistan cavalry honor guard.jpeg|The President's Body Guard of the Pakistan Army, 2006.File:Horseguards - Blues and Royals - Relève à Whitehall - Londres.JPG|Troopers of the Blues and Royals on mounted duty in Whitehall, LondonFile:Independence Day Parade - Flickr - Kerri-Jo (36).jpg|Turkmenistan ceremonial cavalry in the Independence Day parade 2011File:A Mongolian soldier performs during the opening ceremony for exercise Khaan Quest 2013 at the Five Hills Training Area in Mongolia Aug. 3, 2013 130803-M-MG222-004.jpg|A Mongolian military horseman, 2013File:Warsaw Cavalry parade 2.JPG|Representative Cavalry Squadron of the Polish Army on military parade in Warsaw, 2006" ], [ "See also", "* Cavalry tactics* Shock tactics* Horses in warfare* Armored reconnaissance – a modern role in most militaries for 'cavalry' titled units" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*** * * * **** Pargiter, Frederick Eden, Dr., Chronology based on: Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Oxford University Press, H. Milford, 1924, Reprint 1997*** *" ], [ "External links", "* CavalryScouts.org* Napoleonic Cavalry* Cavalry tactics from Francis J. Lippitt's, ''A Treatise on the Tactical Use of the Three Arms: Infantry, Artillery and Cavalry'' (1865)* Cavalry in Mass (U.S. report on Russian cavalry organization and operations in World War II)* Society of the Military Horse* Gesellschaft der Freunde der Kavallerie (German)* The Horse and Mule in the British Army during WW1* Historic films showing cavalry during World War I at europeanfilmgateway.eu" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Citric acid cycle" ], [ "Introduction", "Overview of the citric acid cycleThe '''citric acid cycle'''—also known as the '''Krebs cycle''', '''Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle''' or the '''TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle)'''—is a series of biochemical reactions to release the energy stored in nutrients through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.", "The chemical energy released is available under the form of ATP.", "The Krebs cycle is used by organisms that respire (as opposed to organisms that ferment) to generate energy, either by anaerobic respiration or aerobic respiration.", "In addition, the cycle provides precursors of certain amino acids, as well as the reducing agent NADH, that are used in numerous other reactions.", "Its central importance to many biochemical pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest components of metabolism.", "Even though it is branded as a 'cycle', it is not necessary for metabolites to follow only one specific route; at least three alternative segments of the citric acid cycle have been recognized.The name of this metabolic pathway is derived from the citric acid (a tricarboxylic acid, often called citrate, as the ionized form predominates at biological pH) that is consumed and then regenerated by this sequence of reactions to complete the cycle.", "The cycle consumes acetate (in the form of acetyl-CoA) and water, reduces NAD+ to NADH, releasing carbon dioxide.", "The NADH generated by the citric acid cycle is fed into the oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport) pathway.", "The net result of these two closely linked pathways is the oxidation of nutrients to produce usable chemical energy in the form of ATP.In eukaryotic cells, the citric acid cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion.", "In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, which lack mitochondria, the citric acid cycle reaction sequence is performed in the cytosol with the proton gradient for ATP production being across the cell's surface (plasma membrane) rather than the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.For each pyruvate molecule (from glycolysis), the overall yield of energy-containing compounds from the citric acid cycle is three NADH, one FADH2, and one GTP." ], [ "Discovery", "Several of the components and reactions of the citric acid cycle were established in the 1930s by the research of Albert Szent-Györgyi, who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1937 specifically for his discoveries pertaining to fumaric acid, a component of the cycle.", "He made this discovery by studying pigeon breast muscle.", "Because this tissue maintains its oxidative capacity well after breaking down in the Latapie mill and releasing in aqueous solutions, breast muscle of the pigeon was very well qualified for the study of oxidative reactions.", "The citric acid cycle itself was finally identified in 1937 by Hans Adolf Krebs and William Arthur Johnson while at the University of Sheffield, for which the former received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1953, and for whom the cycle is sometimes named the \"Krebs cycle\"." ], [ "Overview", "acetyl group; the portion in black is coenzyme A.The citric acid cycle is a metabolic pathway that connects carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.", "The reactions of the cycle are carried out by eight enzymes that completely oxidize acetate (a two carbon molecule), in the form of acetyl-CoA, into two molecules each of carbon dioxide and water.", "Through catabolism of sugars, fats, and proteins, the two-carbon organic product acetyl-CoA is produced which enters the citric acid cycle.", "The reactions of the cycle also convert three equivalents of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into three equivalents of reduced NAD+ (NADH), one equivalent of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) into one equivalent of FADH2, and one equivalent each of guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) into one equivalent of guanosine triphosphate (GTP).", "The NADH and FADH2 generated by the citric acid cycle are, in turn, used by the oxidative phosphorylation pathway to generate energy-rich ATP.One of the primary sources of acetyl-CoA is from the breakdown of sugars by glycolysis which yield pyruvate that in turn is decarboxylated by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex generating acetyl-CoA according to the following reaction scheme:The product of this reaction, acetyl-CoA, is the starting point for the citric acid cycle.", "Acetyl-CoA may also be obtained from the oxidation of fatty acids.", "Below is a schematic outline of the cycle:* The citric acid cycle begins with the transfer of a two-carbon acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to the four-carbon acceptor compound (oxaloacetate) to form a six-carbon compound (citrate).", "* The citrate then goes through a series of chemical transformations, losing two carboxyl groups as CO2.The carbons lost as CO2 originate from what was oxaloacetate, not directly from acetyl-CoA.", "The carbons donated by acetyl-CoA become part of the oxaloacetate carbon backbone after the first turn of the citric acid cycle.", "Loss of the acetyl-CoA-donated carbons as CO2 requires several turns of the citric acid cycle.", "However, because of the role of the citric acid cycle in anabolism, they might not be lost, since many citric acid cycle intermediates are also used as precursors for the biosynthesis of other molecules.", "* Most of the electrons made available by the oxidative steps of the cycle are transferred to NAD+, forming NADH.", "For each acetyl group that enters the citric acid cycle, three molecules of NADH are produced.", "The citric acid cycle includes a series of oxidation reduction reaction in mitochondria.", "* In addition, electrons from the succinate oxidation step are transferred first to the FAD cofactor of succinate dehydrogenase, reducing it to FADH2, and eventually to ubiquinone (Q) in the mitochondrial membrane, reducing it to ubiquinol (QH2) which is a substrate of the electron transfer chain at the level of Complex III.", "* For every NADH and FADH2 that are produced in the citric acid cycle, 2.5 and 1.5 ATP molecules are generated in oxidative phosphorylation, respectively.", "* At the end of each cycle, the four-carbon oxaloacetate has been regenerated, and the cycle continues." ], [ "Steps", "There are ten basic steps in the citric acid cycle, as outlined below.", "The cycle is continuously supplied with new carbon in the form of acetyl-CoA, entering at step 0 in the table.Reaction typeSubstratesEnzymeProductsCommentAldol condensationOxaloacetate + Acetyl CoA + H2OCitrate synthaseCitrate + CoA-SHirreversible, extends the 4C oxaloacetate to a 6C molecule1 DehydrationCitrateAconitase''cis''-Aconitate + H2Oreversible isomerisation2Hydration''cis''-Aconitate + H2OIsocitrate3OxidationIsocitrate + NAD+Isocitrate dehydrogenaseOxalosuccinate + NADH + H +generates NADH (equivalent of 2.5 ATP)4DecarboxylationOxalosuccinateα-Ketoglutarate + CO2rate-limiting, irreversible stage, generates a 5C molecule5Oxidativedecarboxylationα-Ketoglutarate + NAD+ + CoA-SHα-Ketoglutaratedehydrogenase, Thiamine pyrophosphate, Lipoic acid, Mg++,transsuccinytaseSuccinyl-CoA + NADH + H + + CO2irreversible stage, generates NADH (equivalent of 2.5 ATP), regenerates the 4C chain (CoA excluded)6substrate-levelphosphorylationSuccinyl-CoA + GDP + PiSuccinyl-CoA synthetaseSuccinate + CoA-SH + GTPor ADP→ATP instead of GDP→GTP, generates 1 ATP or equivalent.Condensation reaction of GDP + Pi and hydrolysis of succinyl-CoA involve the H2O needed for balanced equation.7OxidationSuccinate + ubiquinone (Q)Succinate dehydrogenaseFumarate + ubiquinol (QH2)uses FAD as a prosthetic group (FAD→FADH2 in the first step of the reaction) in the enzyme.These two electrons are later transferred to QH2 during Complex II of the ETC, where they generate the equivalent of 1.5 ATP8HydrationFumarate + H2OFumarase''L''-MalateHydration of C-C double bond9OxidationL-Malate + NAD+Malate dehydrogenaseOxaloacetate + NADH + H+reversible (in fact, equilibrium favors malate), generates NADH (equivalent of 2.5 ATP)10 / 0Aldol condensationOxaloacetate + Acetyl CoA + H2OCitrate synthaseCitrate + CoA-SHThis is the same as step 0 and restarts the cycle.", "The reaction is irreversible and extends the 4C oxaloacetate to a 6C moleculeTwo carbon atoms are oxidized to CO2, the energy from these reactions is transferred to other metabolic processes through GTP (or ATP), and as electrons in NADH and QH2.The NADH generated in the citric acid cycle may later be oxidized (donate its electrons) to drive ATP synthesis in a type of process called oxidative phosphorylation.", "FADH2 is covalently attached to succinate dehydrogenase, an enzyme which functions both in the citric acid cycle and the mitochondrial electron transport chain in oxidative phosphorylation.", "FADH2, therefore, facilitates transfer of electrons to coenzyme Q, which is the final electron acceptor of the reaction catalyzed by the succinate:ubiquinone oxidoreductase complex, also acting as an intermediate in the electron transport chain.Mitochondria in animals, including humans, possess two succinyl-CoA synthetases: one that produces GTP from GDP, and another that produces ATP from ADP.", "Plants have the type that produces ATP (ADP-forming succinyl-CoA synthetase).", "Several of the enzymes in the cycle may be loosely associated in a multienzyme protein complex within the mitochondrial matrix.The GTP that is formed by GDP-forming succinyl-CoA synthetase may be utilized by nucleoside-diphosphate kinase to form ATP (the catalyzed reaction is GTP + ADP → GDP + ATP)." ], [ "Products", "Products of the first turn of the cycle are one GTP (or ATP), three NADH, one FADH2 and two CO2.Because two acetyl-CoA molecules are produced from each glucose molecule, two cycles are required per glucose molecule.", "Therefore, at the end of two cycles, the products are: two GTP, six NADH, two FADH2, and four CO2.Description Reactants Products The sum of all reactions in the citric acid cycle is: Acetyl-CoA + 3 NAD+ + FAD + GDP + Pi + 2 H2O → CoA-SH + 3 NADH + FADH2 + 3 H+ + GTP + 2 CO2 Combining the reactions occurring during the pyruvate oxidation with those occurring during the citric acid cycle, the following overall pyruvate oxidation reaction is obtained: Pyruvate ion + 4 NAD+ + FAD + GDP + Pi + 2 H2O → 4 NADH + FADH2 + 4 H+ + GTP + 3 CO2 Combining the above reaction with the ones occurring in the course of glycolysis, the following overall glucose oxidation reaction (excluding reactions in the respiratory chain) is obtained: Glucose + 10 NAD+ + 2 FAD + 2 ADP + 2 GDP + 4 Pi + 2 H2O → 10 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 10 H+ + 2 ATP + 2 GTP + 6 CO2The above reactions are balanced if Pi represents the H2PO4− ion, ADP and GDP the ADP2− and GDP2− ions, respectively, and ATP and GTP the ATP3− and GTP3− ions, respectively.The total number of ATP molecules obtained after complete oxidation of one glucose in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation is estimated to be between 30 and 38." ], [ "Efficiency", "The theoretical maximum yield of ATP through oxidation of one molecule of glucose in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation is 38 (assuming 3 molar equivalents of ATP per equivalent NADH and 2 ATP per FADH2).", "In eukaryotes, two equivalents of NADH and two equivalents of ATP are generated in glycolysis, which takes place in the cytoplasm.", "If transported using the glycerol phosphate shuttle rather than the malate-aspartate shuttle, transport of two of these equivalents of NADH into the mitochondria effectively consumes two equivalents of ATP, thus reducing the net production of ATP to 36.Furthermore, inefficiencies in oxidative phosphorylation due to leakage of protons across the mitochondrial membrane and slippage of the ATP synthase/proton pump commonly reduces the ATP yield from NADH and FADH2 to less than the theoretical maximum yield.", "The observed yields are, therefore, closer to ~2.5 ATP per NADH and ~1.5 ATP per FADH2, further reducing the total net production of ATP to approximately 30.An assessment of the total ATP yield with newly revised proton-to-ATP ratios provides an estimate of 29.85 ATP per glucose molecule." ], [ "Variation", "While the citric acid cycle is in general highly conserved, there is significant variability in the enzymes found in different taxa (note that the diagrams on this page are specific to the mammalian pathway variant).Some differences exist between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.", "The conversion of D-''threo''-isocitrate to 2-oxoglutarate is catalyzed in eukaryotes by the NAD+-dependent EC 1.1.1.41, while prokaryotes employ the NADP+-dependent EC 1.1.1.42.Similarly, the conversion of (''S'')-malate to oxaloacetate is catalyzed in eukaryotes by the NAD+-dependent EC 1.1.1.37, while most prokaryotes utilize a quinone-dependent enzyme, EC 1.1.5.4.A step with significant variability is the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate.", "Most organisms utilize EC 6.2.1.5, succinate–CoA ligase (ADP-forming) (despite its name, the enzyme operates in the pathway in the direction of ATP formation).", "In mammals a GTP-forming enzyme, succinate–CoA ligase (GDP-forming) ( EC 6.2.1.4) also operates.", "The level of utilization of each isoform is tissue dependent.", "In some acetate-producing bacteria, such as ''Acetobacter aceti'', an entirely different enzyme catalyzes this conversion – EC 2.8.3.18, succinyl-CoA:acetate CoA-transferase.", "This specialized enzyme links the TCA cycle with acetate metabolism in these organisms.", "Some bacteria, such as ''Helicobacter pylori'', employ yet another enzyme for this conversion – succinyl-CoA:acetoacetate CoA-transferase ( EC 2.8.3.5).Some variability also exists at the previous step – the conversion of 2-oxoglutarate to succinyl-CoA.", "While most organisms utilize the ubiquitous NAD+-dependent 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, some bacteria utilize a ferredoxin-dependent 2-oxoglutarate synthase ( EC 1.2.7.3).Other organisms, including obligately autotrophic and methanotrophic bacteria and archaea, bypass succinyl-CoA entirely, and convert 2-oxoglutarate to succinate via succinate semialdehyde, using EC 4.1.1.71, 2-oxoglutarate decarboxylase, and EC 1.2.1.79, succinate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase.In cancer, there are substantial metabolic derangements that occur to ensure the proliferation of tumor cells, and consequently metabolites can accumulate which serve to facilitate tumorigenesis, dubbed oncometabolites.", "Among the best characterized oncometabolites is 2-hydroxyglutarate which is produced through a heterozygous gain-of-function mutation (specifically a neomorphic one) in isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) (which under normal circumstances catalyzes the oxidation of isocitrate to oxalosuccinate, which then spontaneously decarboxylates to alpha-ketoglutarate, as discussed above; in this case an additional reduction step occurs after the formation of alpha-ketoglutarate via NADPH to yield 2-hydroxyglutarate), and hence IDH is considered an oncogene.", "Under physiological conditions, 2-hydroxyglutarate is a minor product of several metabolic pathways as an error but readily converted to alpha-ketoglutarate via hydroxyglutarate dehydrogenase enzymes (L2HGDH and D2HGDH) but does not have a known physiologic role in mammalian cells; of note, in cancer, 2-hydroxyglutarate is likely a terminal metabolite as isotope labelling experiments of colorectal cancer cell lines show that its conversion back to alpha-ketoglutarate is too low to measure.", "In cancer, 2-hydroxyglutarate serves as a competitive inhibitor for a number of enzymes that facilitate reactions via alpha-ketoglutarate in alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases.", "This mutation results in several important changes to the metabolism of the cell.", "For one thing, because there is an extra NADPH-catalyzed reduction, this can contribute to depletion of cellular stores of NADPH and also reduce levels of alpha-ketoglutarate available to the cell.", "In particular, the depletion of NADPH is problematic because NADPH is highly compartmentalized and cannot freely diffuse between the organelles in the cell.", "It is produced largely via the pentose phosphate pathway in the cytoplasm.", "The depletion of NADPH results in increased oxidative stress within the cell as it is a required cofactor in the production of GSH, and this oxidative stress can result in DNA damage.", "There are also changes on the genetic and epigenetic level through the function of histone lysine demethylases (KDMs) and ten-eleven translocation (TET) enzymes; ordinarily TETs hydroxylate 5-methylcytosines to prime them for demethylation.", "However, in the absence of alpha-ketoglutarate this cannot be done and there is hence hypermethylation of the cell's DNA, serving to promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and inhibit cellular differentiation.", "A similar phenomenon is observed for the Jumonji C family of KDMs which require a hydroxylation to perform demethylation at the epsilon-amino methyl group.", "Additionally, the inability of prolyl hydroxylases to catalyze reactions results in stabilization of hypoxia-inducible factor alpha, which is necessary to promote degradation of the latter (as under conditions of low oxygen there will not be adequate substrate for hydroxylation).", "This results in a pseudohypoxic phenotype in the cancer cell that promotes angiogenesis, metabolic reprogramming, cell growth, and migration." ], [ "Regulation", "'''Allosteric regulation by metabolites'''.", "The regulation of the citric acid cycle is largely determined by product inhibition and substrate availability.", "If the cycle were permitted to run unchecked, large amounts of metabolic energy could be wasted in overproduction of reduced coenzyme such as NADH and ATP.", "The major eventual substrate of the cycle is ADP which gets converted to ATP.", "A reduced amount of ADP causes accumulation of precursor NADH which in turn can inhibit a number of enzymes.", "NADH, a product of all dehydrogenases in the citric acid cycle with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase, inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and also citrate synthase.", "Acetyl-coA inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase, while succinyl-CoA inhibits alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and citrate synthase.", "When tested in vitro with TCA enzymes, '''ATP''' inhibits citrate synthase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase; however, ATP levels do not change more than 10% in vivo between rest and vigorous exercise.", "There is no known allosteric mechanism that can account for large changes in reaction rate from an allosteric effector whose concentration changes less than 10%.", "'''Citrate''' is used for feedback inhibition, as it inhibits phosphofructokinase, an enzyme involved in glycolysis that catalyses formation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, a precursor of pyruvate.", "This prevents a constant high rate of flux when there is an accumulation of citrate and a decrease in substrate for the enzyme.", "'''Regulation by calcium'''.", "Calcium is also used as a regulator in the citric acid cycle.", "Calcium levels in the mitochondrial matrix can reach up to the tens of micromolar levels during cellular activation.", "It activates pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase which in turn activates the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.", "Calcium also activates isocitrate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.", "This increases the reaction rate of many of the steps in the cycle, and therefore increases flux throughout the pathway.", "'''Transcriptional regulation'''.", "Recent work has demonstrated an important link between intermediates of the citric acid cycle and the regulation of hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF).", "HIF plays a role in the regulation of oxygen homeostasis, and is a transcription factor that targets angiogenesis, vascular remodeling, glucose utilization, iron transport and apoptosis.", "HIF is synthesized constitutively, and hydroxylation of at least one of two critical proline residues mediates their interaction with the von Hippel Lindau E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, which targets them for rapid degradation.", "This reaction is catalysed by prolyl 4-hydroxylases.", "Fumarate and succinate have been identified as potent inhibitors of prolyl hydroxylases, thus leading to the stabilisation of HIF." ], [ "Major metabolic pathways converging on the citric acid cycle", "Several catabolic pathways converge on the citric acid cycle.", "Most of these reactions add intermediates to the citric acid cycle, and are therefore known as anaplerotic reactions, from the Greek meaning to \"fill up\".", "These increase the amount of acetyl CoA that the cycle is able to carry, increasing the mitochondrion's capability to carry out respiration if this is otherwise a limiting factor.", "Processes that remove intermediates from the cycle are termed \"cataplerotic\" reactions.In this section and in the next, the citric acid cycle intermediates are indicated in ''italics'' to distinguish them from other substrates and end-products.Pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the matrix.", "Here they can be oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO2, ''acetyl-CoA'', and NADH, as in the normal cycle.However, it is also possible for pyruvate to be carboxylated by pyruvate carboxylase to form ''oxaloacetate''.", "This latter reaction \"fills up\" the amount of ''oxaloacetate'' in the citric acid cycle, and is therefore an anaplerotic reaction, increasing the cycle's capacity to metabolize ''acetyl-CoA'' when the tissue's energy needs (e.g.", "in muscle) are suddenly increased by activity.In the citric acid cycle all the intermediates (e.g.", "''citrate'', ''iso-citrate'', ''alpha-ketoglutarate'', ''succinate'', ''fumarate'', ''malate'', and ''oxaloacetate'') are regenerated during each turn of the cycle.", "Adding more of any of these intermediates to the mitochondrion therefore means that that additional amount is retained within the cycle, increasing all the other intermediates as one is converted into the other.", "Hence the addition of any one of them to the cycle has an anaplerotic effect, and its removal has a cataplerotic effect.", "These anaplerotic and cataplerotic reactions will, during the course of the cycle, increase or decrease the amount of ''oxaloacetate'' available to combine with ''acetyl-CoA'' to form ''citric acid''.", "This in turn increases or decreases the rate of ATP production by the mitochondrion, and thus the availability of ATP to the cell.", "''Acetyl-CoA'', on the other hand, derived from pyruvate oxidation, or from the beta-oxidation of fatty acids, is the only fuel to enter the citric acid cycle.", "With each turn of the cycle one molecule of ''acetyl-CoA'' is consumed for every molecule of ''oxaloacetate'' present in the mitochondrial matrix, and is never regenerated.", "It is the oxidation of the acetate portion of ''acetyl-CoA'' that produces CO2 and water, with the energy thus released captured in the form of ATP.", "The three steps of beta-oxidation resemble the steps that occur in the production of oxaloacetate from succinate in the TCA cycle.", "Acyl-CoA is oxidized to trans-Enoyl-CoA while FAD is reduced to FADH2, which is similar to the oxidation of succinate to fumarate.", "Following, trans-Enoyl-CoA is hydrated across the double bond to beta-hydroxyacyl-CoA, just like fumarate is hydrated to malate.", "Lastly, beta-hydroxyacyl-CoA is oxidized to beta-ketoacyl-CoA while NAD+ is reduced to NADH, which follows the same process as the oxidation of malate to oxaloacetate.In the liver, the carboxylation of cytosolic pyruvate into intra-mitochondrial ''oxaloacetate'' is an early step in the gluconeogenic pathway which converts lactate and de-aminated alanine into glucose, under the influence of high levels of glucagon and/or epinephrine in the blood.", "Here the addition of ''oxaloacetate'' to the mitochondrion does not have a net anaplerotic effect, as another citric acid cycle intermediate (''malate'') is immediately removed from the mitochondrion to be converted into cytosolic oxaloacetate, which is ultimately converted into glucose, in a process that is almost the reverse of glycolysis.In protein catabolism, proteins are broken down by proteases into their constituent amino acids.", "Their carbon skeletons (i.e.", "the de-aminated amino acids) may either enter the citric acid cycle as intermediates (e.g.", "''alpha-ketoglutarate'' derived from glutamate or glutamine), having an anaplerotic effect on the cycle, or, in the case of leucine, isoleucine, lysine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine, they are converted into ''acetyl-CoA'' which can be burned to CO2 and water, or used to form ketone bodies, which too can only be burned in tissues other than the liver where they are formed, or excreted via the urine or breath.", "These latter amino acids are therefore termed \"ketogenic\" amino acids, whereas those that enter the citric acid cycle as intermediates can only be cataplerotically removed by entering the gluconeogenic pathway via ''malate'' which is transported out of the mitochondrion to be converted into cytosolic oxaloacetate and ultimately into glucose.", "These are the so-called \"glucogenic\" amino acids.", "De-aminated alanine, cysteine, glycine, serine, and threonine are converted to pyruvate and can consequently either enter the citric acid cycle as ''oxaloacetate'' (an anaplerotic reaction) or as ''acetyl-CoA'' to be disposed of as CO2 and water.In fat catabolism, triglycerides are hydrolyzed to break them into fatty acids and glycerol.", "In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by way of gluconeogenesis.", "In skeletal muscle, glycerol is used in glycolysis by converting glycerol into glycerol-3-phosphate, then into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), then into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.In many tissues, especially heart and skeletal muscle tissue, fatty acids are broken down through a process known as beta oxidation, which results in the production of mitochondrial ''acetyl-CoA'', which can be used in the citric acid cycle.", "Beta oxidation of fatty acids with an odd number of methylene bridges produces propionyl-CoA, which is then converted into ''succinyl-CoA'' and fed into the citric acid cycle as an anaplerotic intermediate.The total energy gained from the complete breakdown of one (six-carbon) molecule of glucose by glycolysis, the formation of 2 ''acetyl-CoA'' molecules, their catabolism in the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation equals about 30 ATP molecules, in eukaryotes.", "The number of ATP molecules derived from the beta oxidation of a 6 carbon segment of a fatty acid chain, and the subsequent oxidation of the resulting 3 molecules of ''acetyl-CoA'' is 40." ], [ "Citric acid cycle intermediates serve as substrates for biosynthetic processes", "In this subheading, as in the previous one, the TCA intermediates are identified by ''italics''.Several of the citric acid cycle intermediates are used for the synthesis of important compounds, which will have significant cataplerotic effects on the cycle.", "''Acetyl-CoA'' cannot be transported out of the mitochondrion.", "To obtain cytosolic acetyl-CoA, ''citrate'' is removed from the citric acid cycle and carried across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the cytosol.", "There it is cleaved by ATP citrate lyase into acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate.", "The oxaloacetate is returned to mitochondrion as ''malate'' (and then converted back into ''oxaloacetate'' to transfer more ''acetyl-CoA'' out of the mitochondrion).", "The cytosolic acetyl-CoA is used for fatty acid synthesis and the production of cholesterol.", "Cholesterol can, in turn, be used to synthesize the steroid hormones, bile salts, and vitamin D.The carbon skeletons of many non-essential amino acids are made from citric acid cycle intermediates.", "To turn them into amino acids the alpha keto-acids formed from the citric acid cycle intermediates have to acquire their amino groups from glutamate in a transamination reaction, in which pyridoxal phosphate is a cofactor.", "In this reaction the glutamate is converted into ''alpha-ketoglutarate'', which is a citric acid cycle intermediate.", "The intermediates that can provide the carbon skeletons for amino acid synthesis are ''oxaloacetate'' which forms aspartate and asparagine; and ''alpha-ketoglutarate'' which forms glutamine, proline, and arginine.Of these amino acids, aspartate and glutamine are used, together with carbon and nitrogen atoms from other sources, to form the purines that are used as the bases in DNA and RNA, as well as in ATP, AMP, GTP, NAD, FAD and CoA.The pyrimidines are partly assembled from aspartate (derived from ''oxaloacetate'').", "The pyrimidines, thymine, cytosine and uracil, form the complementary bases to the purine bases in DNA and RNA, and are also components of CTP, UMP, UDP and UTP.The majority of the carbon atoms in the porphyrins come from the citric acid cycle intermediate, ''succinyl-CoA''.", "These molecules are an important component of the hemoproteins, such as hemoglobin, myoglobin and various cytochromes.During gluconeogenesis mitochondrial ''oxaloacetate'' is reduced to ''malate'' which is then transported out of the mitochondrion, to be oxidized back to oxaloacetate in the cytosol.", "Cytosolic oxaloacetate is then decarboxylated to phosphoenolpyruvate by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, which is the rate limiting step in the conversion of nearly all the gluconeogenic precursors (such as the glucogenic amino acids and lactate) into glucose by the liver and kidney.Because the citric acid cycle is involved in both catabolic and anabolic processes, it is known as an amphibolic pathway.Evan M.W.Duo" ], [ "Glucose feeds the TCA cycle via circulating lactate", "The metabolic role of lactate is well recognized as a fuel for tissues, mitochondrial cytopathies such as DPH Cytopathy, and the scientific field of oncology (tumors).", "In the classical Cori cycle, muscles produce lactate which is then taken up by the liver for gluconeogenesis.", "New studies suggest that lactate can be used as a source of carbon for the TCA cycle." ], [ "Evolution", "It is believed that components of the citric acid cycle were derived from anaerobic bacteria, and that the TCA cycle itself may have evolved more than once.", "It may even predate biosis: the substrates appear to undergo most of the reactions spontaneously in the presence of persulfate radicals.", "Theoretically, several alternatives to the TCA cycle exist; however, the TCA cycle appears to be the most efficient.", "If several TCA alternatives had evolved independently, they all appear to have converged to the TCA cycle." ], [ "See also", "* Calvin cycle* Glyoxylate cycle* Reverse (reductive) Krebs cycle* Krebs cycle (simple English)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* An animation of the citric acid cycle at Smith College* Citric acid cycle variants at MetaCyc* Pathways connected to the citric acid cycle at Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes* ''metpath'': Interactive representation of the citric acid cycle" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Military engineering vehicle" ], [ "Introduction", "The AEV 3 Kodiak offered by Rheinmetall is a current generation military engineering vehicle; it is built on the base of the Leopard 2 MBT.EBG combat engineering vehicle, based on the AMX 30 tank, is used by the engineers of the French Army.BAT-M engineering vehicle of Russia and the former Soviet UnionA '''military engineering vehicle''' is a vehicle built for construction work or for the transportation of combat engineers on the battlefield.", "These vehicles may be modified civilian equipment (such as the armoured bulldozers that many nations field) or purpose-built military vehicles (such as the AVRE).", "The first appearance of such vehicles coincided with the appearance of the first tanks, these vehicles were modified Mark V tanks for bridging and mine clearance.", "Modern ''military engineering vehicles'' are expected to fulfill numerous roles, as such they undertake numerous forms, examples of roles include; bulldozers, cranes, graders, excavators, dump trucks, breaching vehicles, bridging vehicles, military ferries, amphibious crossing vehicles, and combat engineer section carriers." ], [ "History", "===World War One===A Heavy RE tank was developed shortly after World War I by Major Giffard LeQuesne Martel RE.", "This vehicle was a modified Mark V tank.", "Two support functions for these Engineer Tanks were developed: bridging and mine clearance.", "The bridging component involved an assault bridge, designed by Major Charles Inglis RE, called the Canal Lock Bridge, which had sufficient length to span a canal lock.", "Major Martel mated the bridge with the tank and used hydraulic power generated by the tank's engine to maneuver the bridge into place.", "For mine clearance the tanks were equipped with 2 ton rollers.===1918-1939===Between the wars various experimental bridging tanks were used to test a series of methods for bridging obstacles and developed by the Experimental Bridging Establishment (EBE).", "Captain SG Galpin RE conceived a prototype Light Tank Mk V to test the Scissors Assault Bridge.", "This concept was realised by Captain SA Stewart RE with significant input from a Mr DM Delany, a scientific civil servant in the employ of the EBE.", "MB Wild & Co, Birmingham, also developed a bridge that could span gaps of 26 feet using a complex system of steel wire ropes and a traveling jib, where the front section was projected and then attached to the rear section prior to launching the bridge.", "This system had to be abandoned due to lack of success in getting it to work, however the idea was later used successfully on the Beaver Bridge Laying Tank.===Early World War Two===A Churchill bridgelayer of 51st Royal Tank Regiment in action during a demonstration in the Mezzano area, 30 March 1945.Once World War Two had begun, the development of armoured vehicles for use by engineers in the field was accelerated under Delaney's direction.", "The EBE rapidly developed an assault bridge carried on a modified Covenanter tank capable of deploying a 24-ton tracked load capacity bridge (Class 24) that could span gaps of 30 feet.", "However, it did not see service in the British armed forces, and all vehicles were passed onto Allied forces such as Australia and Czechoslovakia.A Class 30 design superseded the Class 24 with no real re-design, simply the substitution of the Covenanter tank with a suitably modified Valentine.As tanks in the war got heavier, a new bridge capable of supporting them was developed.", "A heavily modified Churchill used a single-piece bridge mounted on a turret-less tank and was able to lay the bridge in 90 seconds; this bridge was able to carry a 60-ton tracked or 40-ton wheeled load.===Late World War 2: Hobart's 'Funnies' and D-Day===Hobart's Funnies were a number of unusually modified tanks operated during the Second World War by the 79th Armoured Division of the British Army or by specialists from the Royal Engineers.", "They were designed in light of problems that more standard tanks experienced during the amphibious Dieppe Raid, so that the new models would be able to overcome the problems of the planned Invasion of Normandy.", "These tanks played a major part on the Commonwealth beaches during the landings.", "They were forerunners of the modern combat engineering vehicle and were named after their commander, Major General Percy Hobart.Hobart's unusual, specialized tanks, nicknamed \"funnies\", included:* AVRE (Assault Vehicle Royal Engineer), used to protect engineers in an assault role, and enable combat engineering.", "* ARK (Armoured Ramp Carrier) where the tank itself was the \"bridge\".", "Multiple vehicles could be used to span gaps in both the vertical and horizontal.", "The tank had the turret removed and trackways fitted to the hull.", "Ramps were attached at each end of the trackways extending the bridging potential and allowing its use in difficult terrain.", "The tank would need recovery after its use was no longer required.", "* Crab: A modified Sherman tank equipped with a mine flail, a rotating cylinder of weighted chains that exploded mines in the path of the tank.", "* Armoured Bulldozer: A conventional Caterpillar D7 bulldozer fitted with armour to protect the driver and the engine.", "Their job was to clear the invasion beaches of obstacles and to make roads accessible by clearing rubble and filling in bomb craters.", "Conversions were carried out by Caterpillar importer Jack Olding & Company Ltd of Hatfield.", "* Centaur Bulldozer: A Centaur tank with the turret removed and fitted with a simple winch-operated bulldozer blade.", "These were produced because of a need for a well-armoured obstacle-clearing vehicle that, unlike a conventional bulldozer, would be fast enough to keep up with tank formations.", "They were not used on D-Day but were issued to the 79th Armoured Division in Belgium during the latter part of 1944.In U.S.", "Forces, Sherman tanks were also fitted with dozer blades, and anti-mine roller devices were developed, enabling engineering operations and providing similar capabilities.===Post war===Post war, the value of the combat engineering vehicles had been proven, and armoured multi-role engineering vehicles have been added to the majority of armoured forces." ], [ "Types", "=== Civilian and militarized heavy equipment ===IDF Caterpillar D9R armored bulldozers carry out earthworks.", "Their heavy armor is developed and manufactured in Israel jointly by the Israel Defense Forces and Israeli defense industries.Military engineering can employ a wide variety of heavy equipment in the same or similar ways to how this equipment is used outside the military.", "Bulldozers, cranes, graders, excavators, dump trucks, loaders, and backhoes all see extensive use by military engineers.Military engineers may also use civilian heavy equipment which was modified for military applications.", "Typically, this involves adding armour for protection from battlefield hazards such as artillery, unexploded ordnance, mines, and small arms fire.", "Often this protection is provided by armour plates and steel jackets.", "Some examples of armoured civilian heavy equipment are the IDF Caterpillar D9, American D7 TPK, Canadian D6 armoured bulldozer, cranes, graders, excavators, and M35 2-1/2 ton cargo truck.Militarized heavy equipment may also take on the form of traditional civilian equipment designed and built to unique military specifications.", "These vehicles typically sacrifice some depth of capability from civilian models in order to gain greater speed and independence from prime movers.", "Examples of this type of vehicle include high speed backhoes such as the Australian Army's High Mobility Engineering Vehicle (HMEV) from Thales or the Canadian Army's Multi-Purpose Engineer Vehicle (MPEV) from Arva.", "''The main article for civilian heavy equipment is:'' Heavy equipment (construction)=== Armoured engineering vehicle ===''PionierPanzer Dachs'' AEV of the German Army (2008)German army Rheinmetall Keiler.", "It uses a heavy-duty rotor-powered mine flail, which causes mines it comes in contact with to safely detonate.Typically based on the platform of a main battle tank, these vehicles go by different names depending upon the country of use or manufacture.", "In the US the term \"combat engineer vehicle (CEV)\" is used, in the UK the terms \"Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE)\" or Armoured Repair and Recovery Vehicle (ARRV) are used, while in Canada and other commonwealth nations the term \"armoured engineer vehicle (AEV)\" is used.", "There is no set template for what such a vehicle will look like, yet likely features include a large dozer blade or mine ploughs, a large caliber demolition cannon, augers, winches, excavator arms and cranes or lifting booms.These vehicles are designed to directly conduct obstacle breaching operations and to conduct other earth-moving and engineering work on the battlefield.", "Good examples of this type of vehicle include the UK Trojan AVRE, the Russian IMR, and the US M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle.", "Although the term \"armoured engineer vehicle\" is used specifically to describe these multi-purpose tank based engineering vehicles, that term is also used more generically in British and Commonwealth militaries to describe all heavy tank based engineering vehicles used in the support of mechanized forces.", "Thus, \"armoured engineer vehicle\" used generically would refer to AEV, AVLB, Assault Breachers, and so on.=== Armoured earth mover ===Lighter and less multi-functional than the CEVs or AEVs described above, these vehicles are designed to conduct earth-moving work on the battlefield.", "These vehicles have greater high speed mobility than traditional heavy equipment and are protected against the effects of blast and fragmentation.", "Good examples are the American M9 ACE and the UK FV180 Combat Engineer Tractor.=== Breaching vehicle ===Marines with 2nd Combat Engineer Battalion launch a M58 MICLIC from an Assault Breacher Vehicle.Bionix Trailblazer Counter-Mine Vehicle.", "Note the high, stout appearance designed specifically to survive mine blasts.These vehicles are equipped with mechanical or other means for the breaching of man made obstacles.", "Common types of breaching vehicles include mechanical flails, mine plough vehicles, and mine roller vehicles.", "In some cases, these vehicles will also mount Mine-clearing line charges.", "Breaching vehicles may be either converted armoured fighting vehicles or purpose built vehicles.", "In larger militaries, converted AFV are likely to be used as ''assault breachers'' while the breached obstacle is still covered by enemy observation and fire, and then purpose built breaching vehicles will create additional lanes for following forces.Good examples of breaching vehicles include the US M1150 Assault Breacher Vehicle, the UK Aardvark JSFU, and the Singaporean Trailblazer.=== Bridging vehicles ===U.S.", "Army M104 Wolverine Heavy Assault BridgeSeveral types of military bridging vehicles have been developed.", "An armoured vehicle-launched bridge (AVLB) is typically a modified tank hull converted to carry a bridge into battle in order to support crossing ditches, small waterways, or other gap obstacles.Another type of bridging vehicle is the truck launched bridge.", "The Soviet TMM bridging truck could carry and launch a 10-meter bridge that could be daisy-chained with other TMM bridges to cross larger obstacles.", "More recent developments have seen the conversion of AVLB and truck launched bridge with launching systems that can be mounted on either tank or truck for bridges that are capable of supporting heavy main battle tanks.Earlier examples of bridging vehicles include a type in which a converted tank hull is the bridge.", "On these vehicles, the hull deck comprises the main portion of the tread way while ramps extend from the front and rear of the vehicle to allow other vehicles to climb over the bridging vehicle and cross obstacles.", "An example of this type of armoured bridging vehicle was the Churchill Ark used in the Second World War.=== Combat engineer section carriers ===IDF Namer CEV is used both to carry section of sappers and to operate combat engineering devices.M1132 Engineer Squad Vehicle (ESV) issued to combat engineer squads in the US Army Stryker Brigade Combat Teams.Another type of CEVs are armoured fighting vehicles which are used to transport sappers (combat engineers) and can be fitted with a bulldozer's blade and other mine-breaching devices.", "They are often used as APCs because of their carrying ability and heavy protection.", "They are usually armed with machine guns and grenade launchers and usually tracked to provide enough tractive force to push blades and rakes.", "Some examples are the U.S. M113 APC, IDF Puma, Nagmachon, Husky, and U.S. M1132 ESV (a Stryker variant).=== Military ferries and amphibious crossing vehicles ===EFA, used by the engineers of the French Army, may either be used as a bridge (deployed in a series), or as a ferryOne of the major tasks of military engineering is crossing major rivers.", "Several military engineering vehicles have been developed in various nations to achieve this task.", "One of the more common types is the amphibious ferry such as the M3 Amphibious Rig.", "These vehicles are self-propelled on land, they can transform into raft type ferries when in the water, and often multiple vehicles can connect to form larger rafts or floating bridges.", "Other types of military ferries, such as the Soviet ''Plavayushij Transportyor - Srednyj'', are able to load while still on land and transport other vehicles cross country and over water.In addition to amphibious crossing vehicles, military engineers may also employ several types of boats.", "Military assault boats are small boats propelled by oars or an outboard motor and used to ferry dismounted infantry across water." ], [ "Tank-based combat engineering vehicles", "Churchill \"Bobbin\", a rolled roadsurface (like a chespaling mat) that could be laid for following vehicles to cross loose sand on a beach.", "The raised boxes at the rear of the vehicle are radiator extensions to allow deep wading in water.", "Most CEVs are armoured fighting vehicles that may be based on a tank chassis and have special attachments in order to breach obstacles.", "Such attachments may include dozer blades, mine rollers, cranes etc.", "An example of an engineering vehicle of this kind is a bridgelaying tank, which replaces the turret with a segmented hydraulic bridge.", "The Hobart's Funnies of the Second World War were a wide variety of armoured vehicles for combat engineering tasks.", "They were allocated to the initial beachhead assaults by the British and Commonwealth forces in the D-Day landings.===Churchill tank===The British Churchill tank because of its good cross-country performance and capacious interior with side hatches became the most adapted with modifications, the base unit being the AVRE carrying a large demolition gun.===M4 Sherman===M4 with 105 mm howitzer and a dozer blade.", "*'''Dozer''': The bulldozer blade was a valuable battlefield tool on the WWII M4 Sherman tank.", "A 1943 field modification added the hydraulic dozer blade from a Caterpillar D8 to a Sherman.", "The later M1 dozer blade was standardized to fit any Sherman with VVSS suspension and the M1A1 would fit the wider HVSS.", "Some M4s made for the Engineer Corps had the blades fitted permanently and the turrets removed.", "In the early stages of the 1944 Battle of Normandy before the Culin Cutter, breaking through the Bocage hedgerows relied heavily on Sherman dozers.", "*'''M4 Doozit''': Engineer Corps' Sherman dozer with demolition charge on wooden platform and T40 ''Whizbang'' rocket launcher (the ''Doozit'' did not see combat but the ''Whizbang'' did).", "*'''Bridgelayer''': The US field-converted a few M4 in Italy with A-frame-supported bridge and heavy rear counter-weight to make the Mobile Assault Bridge.", "British developments for Shermans included the fascine (used by 79th Armoured Division), Crib, Twaby Ark, Octopus, Plymouth (Bailey bridge), and AVRE (SBG bridge).", "*'''Mine-Clearing''': British conversions included the Sherman Crab.", "The US developed an extensive array of experimental types:**'''T15/E1/E2''': Series of mine resistant Shermans based on the T14 kit.", "Cancelled at war's end.", "**'''Mine Exploder T1E1 Roller''' (''Earthworm''): Three sets of 6 discs made from armor plate.", "**'''Mine Exploder T1E2 Roller''': Two forward units with 7 discs only.", "Experimental.", "**'''Mine Exploder T1E3/M1 Roller''' (''Aunt Jemima''): Two forward units with five 10' discs.", "Most widely used T1 variant, adopted as the M1.", "( picture)**'''Mine Exploder T1E4 Roller''': 16 discs.", "**'''Mine Exploder T1E5 Roller''': T1E3/M1 w/ smaller wheels.", "Experimental.", "**'''Mine Exploder T1E6 Roller''': T1E3/M1 w/ serrated edged discs.", "Experimental**'''Mine Exploder T2 Flail''': British Crab I mine flail.", "**'''Mine Exploder T3 Flail''': Based on British Scorpion flail.", "Development stopped in 1943.", "***'''Mine Exploder T3E1 Flail''': T3 w/ longer arms and sand filled rotor.", "Cancelled.", "***'''Mine Exploder T3E2 Flail''': E1 variant, rotor replaced with steel drum of larger diameter.", "Development terminated at war's end.", "**'''Mine Exploder T4''': British Crab II mine flail.", "**'''Mine Exploder T7''': Frame with small rollers with two discs each.", "Abandoned.", "**'''Mine Exploder T8''' (''Johnny Walker''): Steel plungers on a pivot frame designed to pound on the ground.", "Vehicle steering was adversely affected.", "**'''Mine Exploder T9''': 6' Roller.", "Difficult to maneuver.", "***'''Mine Exploder T9E1''': Lightened version, but proved unsatisfactory because it failed to explode all mines.", "**'''Mine Exploder T10''': Remote control unit designed to be controlled by the following tank.", "Cancelled.", "**'''Mine Exploder T11''': Six forward firing mortars to set off mines.", "Experimental.", "**'''Mine Exploder T12''': 23 forward firing mortars.", "Apparently effective, but cancelled.", "**'''Mine Exploder T14''': Direct modification to a Sherman tank, upgraded belly armor and reinforced tracks.", "Cancelled.", "**'''Mine Excavator T4''': Plough device.", "Developed during 1942, but abandoned.", "**'''Mine Excavator T5/E1/E2''': T4 variant w/ v-shaped plough.", "E1/E2 was a further improvement.", "**'''Mine Excavator T5E3''': T5E1/E2 rigged to the hydraulic lift mechanism from the M1 dozer kit to control depth.", "**'''Mine Excavator T6''': Based on the v-shape/T5, unable to control depth.", "**'''Mine Excavator T2/E1/E2''': Based on the T4/T5's, but rigged to the hydraulic lift mechanism from the M1 dozer kit to control depth.===M60===A remotely controlled Panther armored mine clearing vehicle leads a column down a road in Bosnia and Herzegovina, May 16, 1996.", "*'''M60A1 AVLB''' - Armored Vehicle Launched Bridge, scissors bridge on M60A1 chassis.", "*'''M60 AVLM''' - Armored Vehicle Launched MICLIC (Mine-Clearing Line Charge), modified M60 AVLB with up to 2 MICLIC mounted over the rear of the vehicle.", "*'''M60 Panther''' - M60 modified into a remotely controlled mine clearing tank.", "The turret is removed with the turret ring sealed, and the front of the vehicle is fitted with mine rollers.", "*'''M728 CEV''' - M60A1-based Combat Engineer Vehicle fitted with a folding A-frame crane and winch attached to the front of the turret, and an M135 165mm demolition gun.", "Commonly fitted with the D7 bulldozer blade, or a mine-clearing equipment.", "**'''M728A1''' - Upgraded version of the M728 CEV.===M1===Grizzly Combat Mobility Vehicle (CMV)* M1 Grizzly Combat Mobility Vehicle (CMV) Grizzly Breacher* M1 Panther II Remote Controlled Mine Clearing Vehicle Panther* M104 Wolverine Heavy Assault Bridge Wolverine (Heavy Assault Bridge)* M1074 Joint Assault Bridge System* M1 Assault Breacher Vehicle===Leopard 1===*Biber (Beaver) armoured vehicle-launched bridge*Pionierpanzer 1*Pionierpanzer 2 Dachs (Badger) armoured engineer vehicle===Leopard 2===*Panzerschnellbrücke 2 (Bridge layer)*Pionierpanzer 3 Kodiak===T-55/54===MTU-12 bridgelayerMTU-20 bridgelayerIMR combat engineering vehicle* '''T-54 Dozer''' - T-54 fitted with bulldozer blades for clearing soil, obstacles and snow.", "* '''ALT-55''' - Bulldozer version of the T-55 with large flat-plate superstructure, angular concave dozer blade on front and prominent hydraulic rams for dozer blade.", "* '''T-55''' hull fitted with an excavator body and armoured cab.", "* '''T-55 MARRS''' - Fitted with a Vickers armoured recovery vehicle kit.", "It has a large flat-plate turret with slightly chamfered sides, vertical rear and very chamfered front and a large A-frame crane on the front of the turret.", "The crane has cylindrical winch rope fed between legs of crane.", "A dozer blade is fitted to the hull front.", "* '''MT-55''' or '''MTU-55''' (''Tankoviy Mostoukladchik'') - Soviet designator for Czechoslovakian MT-55A bridge-layer tank with scissors bridge.", "* '''MTU-12''' (''Tankoviy Mostoukladchik'')- Bridge-layer tank with 12 m single-span bridge that can carry 50 tonnes.", "The system entered service in 1955; today only a very small number remains in service.", "Combat weight: 34 tonnes.", "* '''MTU-20 (Ob'yekt 602)''' (''Tankoviy Mostoukladchik'') - The MTU-20 consists of a twin-treadway superstructure mounted on a modified T-54 tank chassis.", "Each treadway is made up of a box-type aluminum girder with a folding ramp attached to both ends to save space in the travel position.", "Because of that the vehicle with the bridge on board is only 11.6 m long, but the overall span length is 20 m. This is an increase of about 62% over that of the older MTU-1.The bridge is launched by the cantilever method.", "First the ramps are lowered and fully extended before the treadways are forward with the full load of the bridge resting on the forward support plate during launch.", "The span is moved out over the launching girder until the far end reaches the far bank.", "Next the near end is lowered onto the near bank.", "This method of launching gives the bridgelayer a low silhouette which makes it less vulnerable to detection and destruction.", "** '''MTU-20''' based on the T-55 chassis.", "* '''BTS-1''' (''Bronetankoviy Tyagach Sredniy'' - Medium Armoured Tractor) - This is basically a turretless T-54A with a stowage basket.", "** '''BTS-1M''' - improved or remanufactured BTS-1.", "* '''BTS-2 (Ob'yekt 9)''' (''Bronetankoviy Tyagach Sredniy'' - Medium Armoured Tractor) - BTS-1 upgraded with a hoist and a small folding crane with a capacity of 3,000 kg.", "It was developed on the T-54 hull in 1951; series production started in 1955.The prototype Ob.9 had a commander's cupola with DShK 1938/46 machine gun, but the production model has a square commander's hatch, opening to the right.", "Combat weight: 32 tons.", "Only a very small number remains in service.", "* '''BTS-3''' (''Bronetankoviy Tyagach Sredniy'' - Medium Armoured Tractor) - JVBT-55A in service with the Soviet Army.", "* '''BTS-4''' (''Bronetankoviy Tyagach Sredniy'' - Medium Armoured Tractor) - Similar to BTS-2 but with snorkel.", "In the West generally known as '''T-54T'''.", "There are many different models, based on the T-44, T-54, T-55 and T-62.", "* '''BTS-4B''' - Dozer blade equipped armoured recovery vehicle converted from the early -odd-shaped turret versions of the T-54.", "** '''BTS-4BM''' - Experimental version of the BTS-4B with the capacity to winch over the front of the vehicle.", "* '''IMR (Ob'yekt 616)''' (''Inzhenernaya Mashina Razgrazhdeniya'') - Combat engineer vehicle.", "It's a T-55 that had its turret replaced with a hydraulically operated 2t crane.", "The crane can also be fitted with a small bucket or a pair of pincer type grabs for removing trees and other obstacles.", "A hydraulically operated dozer blade mounts to the front of the hull; it can be used in a straight or V-configuration only.", "The IMR was developed in 1969 and entered service five years later.", "* '''SPK-12G''' (''Samokhodniy Pod’yomniy Kran'') - Heavy crane mounted on T-55 chassis.", "Only two were built.", "* '''BMR-2''' (''Boyevaya Mashina Razminirovaniya'') - Mine clearing tank based on T-55 chassis.", "This vehicle has no turret but a fixed superstructure, armed with an NSVT machine gun.", "It is fitted with a KMT-7 mine clearing set and entered service around 1987 during the war in Afghanistan.", "** Improved version of BMR-2 that has been seen fitted with a wide variety of mine roller designs.===T-64===* '''BAT-2''' – Fast combat engineering vehicle with the lower hull and \"small roadwheels\" & suspension of the T-64.KMDB - Vehicles Based on the MT-T Prime Mover Chassis.", "The vehicle is powered by a V-64-4 multi-fuel diesel engine, developing 700 hp.", "This engine is derived from that, used on the T-72 main battle tank.", "The 40-ton tractor sports a very large, all axis adjustable V-shaped hydraulic dozer blade at the front, a single soil ripper spike at the rear and a 2-ton crane on the top.", "The crew compartment holds 8 persons (driver, commander, radio operators plus a five-man sapper squad for dismounted tasks).", "The highly capable BAT-2 was designed to replace the old T-54/AT-T based BAT-M, but Warsaw Pact allies received only small numbers due to its high price and the old and new vehicles served alongside each other===T-72===dozer blade stowed in the transport position.", "* '''IMR-2''' (''Inzhenernaya Mashina Razgrashdeniya'') - Combat engineering vehicle (CEV).", "It has a telescoping crane arm which can lift between 5 and 11 metric tons and utilizes a pincers for uprooting trees.", "Pivoted at the front of the vehicle is a dozer blade that can be used in a V-configuration or as a straight dozer blade.", "When not required it is raised clear of the ground.", "On the vehicle's rear, a mine-clearing system is mounted.", "** '''IMR-2M1''' - Simplified model without the mine-clearing system.", "Entered service in 1987.", "** '''IMR-2M2''' - Improved version that is better suited for operations in dangerous situations, for example in contaminated areas.", "It entered service in 1990 and has a modified crane arm with bucket instead off the pincers.", "** '''IMR-2MA''' - Latest version with bigger operator's cabin armed with a 12.7 mm machine gun NSV.", "*** '''Klin-1''' - Remote controlled IMR-2.", "* '''MTU-72 (Ob'yekt 632)''' (''Tankovyj Mostoukladchik'') - bridge layer based on T-72 chassis.", "The overall layout and operating method of the system are similar to those of the MTU-20 and MTU bridgelayers.", "The bridge, when laid, has an overall length of 20 meters.", "The bridge has a maximum capacity of 50,000 kg, is 3.3 meters wide, and can span a gap of 18 m. By itself, the bridge weighs 6400 kg.", "The time required to lay the bridge is 3 minutes, and 8 minutes for retrieval.", "* '''BLP 72''' (''Brückenlegepanzer'') - The East-German army had plans to develop a new bridgelayer tank that should have been ready for series production from 1987 but after several difficulties the project was canceled." ], [ "See also", "* AM 50 automatically launched assault bridge * Armored bulldozer* Armoured recovery vehicle* Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers* Bulldozer* Caterpillar D9* Combat engineer* Hobart's funnies* Sapper* Terrier armoured combat engineer vehicle" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Australian Provincial Reconstruction Team - Afghanistan* Kodiak Armoured Engineer Vehicle" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Catalonia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Catalonia''' (; ; ; ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a ''nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy.", "Most of its territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, to the south of the Pyrenees mountain range.", "Catalonia is administratively divided into four provinces or eight regions, which are in turn divided into 42 ''comarques''.", "The capital and largest city, Barcelona, is the second-most populated municipality in Spain and the fifth-most populous urban area in the European Union.Modern-day Catalonia comprises most of the medieval and early modern Principality of Catalonia (with the remainder northern area now part of France's Pyrénées-Orientales).", "It is bordered by France (Occitanie) and Andorra to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the east, and the Spanish autonomous communities of Aragon to the west and Valencia to the south.", "The official languages are Catalan, Spanish and the Aranese dialect of Occitan.In the late 8th century, various counties across the eastern Pyrenees were established by the Frankish kingdom as a defensive barrier against Muslim invasions.", "In the 10th century, the County of Barcelona became progressively independent.", "In 1137, Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon were united by marriage, resulting in a composite monarchy known as the Crown of Aragon.", "Within the Crown, the Catalan counties merged in to a polity, the Principality of Catalonia, developing its own institutional system, such as Catalan Courts, Generalitat and constitutions, becoming the base for the Crown's Mediterranean trade and expansionism.", "In the later Middle Ages, Catalan literature flourished.", "In 1469, the king of Aragon and the queen of Castile were married and ruled their realms together, retaining all of their distinct institutions and legislation.During the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659), the Principality of Catalonia revolted (1640–1652) against a large and burdensome presence of the royal army, being briefly proclaimed a republic under French protection until it was largely reconquered by the Spanish armies.", "By the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), the northern parts of Catalonia, mostly the Roussillon, were ceded to France.", "During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), the Crown of Aragon sided against the Bourbon Philip V of Spain, but after the Peace of Utrecht (1713) the Catalans were defeated with the fall of Barcelona on 11 September 1714.Philip V subsequently imposed a unifying administration across Spain, enacting the Nueva Planta decrees which, like in the other realms of the Crown of Aragon, suppressed Catalan institutions and legislation.", "As a consequence, Catalan as a language of government and literature was eclipsed by Spanish.", "Throughout the second half of the 17th and the 18th centuries, Catalonia experienced economic growth.In the 19th century, Catalonia was severely affected by the Napoleonic and Carlist Wars.", "In the second third of the century, it experienced industrialisation.", "As wealth from the industrial expansion grew, it saw a cultural renaissance coupled with incipient nationalism while several workers' movements appeared.", "The establishment of the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939) granted self-government to Catalonia, being restored the Generalitat as the Catalan autonomus government.", "After the Spanish Civil War, the Francoist dictatorship enacted repressive measures, abolishing Catalan self-government and banning the official use of the Catalan language.", "After a period of autarky, from the late 1950s through to the 1970s Catalonia saw rapid economic growth, drawing many workers from across Spain, making Barcelona one of Europe's largest industrial metropolitan areas and turning Catalonia into a major tourist destination.", "During the Spanish transition to democracy (1975–1982), the Generalitat was reestablished and Catalonia regained self-government, remaining one of the most economically dynamic communities in Spain.Since the 2010s, there has been growing support for Catalan independence.", "On 27 October 2017, the Catalan Parliament unilaterally declared independence following a referendum that was deemed unconstitutional by the Spanish state.", "The Spanish Senate voted in favour of enforcing direct rule by removing the Catalan government and calling a snap regional election.", "The Spanish Supreme Court imprisoned seven former ministers of the Catalan government on charges of rebellion and misuse of public funds, while several others—including then-President Carles Puigdemont—fled to other European countries.", "Those in prison were pardoned by the Spanish government in 2021." ], [ "Etymology and pronunciation", "The name \"Catalonia\" (), spelled ''Cathalonia'', began to be used for the homeland of the Catalans (''Cathalanenses'') in the late 11th century and was probably used before as a territorial reference to the group of counties that comprised part of the March of Gothia and the March of Hispania under the control of the Count of Barcelona and his relatives.", "The origin of the name ''Catalunya'' is subject to diverse interpretations because of a lack of evidence.One theory suggests that ''Catalunya'' derives from the name ''Gothia'' (or ''Gauthia'') ''Launia'' (\"Land of the Goths\"), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the March of Gothia, known as ''Gothia'', whence ''Gothland'' > > > > ''Catalonia'' theoretically derived.", "During the Middle Ages, Byzantine chroniclers claimed that ''Catalania'' derives from the local medley of Goths with Alans, initially constituting a ''Goth-Alania''.Other theories suggest:*''Catalunya'' derives from the term \"land of castles\", having evolved from the term ''castlà'' or ''castlan'', the medieval term for a castellan (a ruler of a castle).", "This theory therefore suggests that the names ''Catalunya'' and ''Castile'' have a common root.", "*The source is the Celtic ''catalauni'', meaning \"chiefs of battle\", similar to the Celtic given name *Katuwalos; although the area is not known to have been occupied by the Celtiberians, a Celtic culture was present within the interior of the Iberian Peninsula in pre-Roman times.", "*The Lacetani, an Iberian tribe that lived in the area and whose name, due to the Roman influence, could have evolved by metathesis to ''Katelans'' and then ''Catalans''.", "*Miguel Vidal, finding serious shortcomings with earlier proposals (such as that an original -''t''- would have, by normal sound laws in the local Romance languages, developed into -''d''-), suggested an Arabic etymology: '''' (, '''' ) – meaning \"killer\" – could have been applied by Muslims to groups of raiders and bandits on the southern border of the Marca Hispanica.", "The name, originally derogatory, could have been reappropriated by Christians as an autonym.", "This is comparable to attested development of the term Almogavar in nearby areas.", "In this model, the name ''Catalunya'' derives from the plural ''qattālūn'' while the adjective and language name ''català'' derives from the singular ''qattāl'', both with the addition of common Romance suffixes.In English, ''Catalonia'' is pronounced .", "The native name, ''Catalunya'', is pronounced in Central Catalan, the most widely spoken variety, and in North-Western Catalan.", "The Spanish name is ''Cataluña'' (), and the Aranese name is ''Catalonha'' ()." ], [ "History", "=== Prehistory ===The Roca dels Moros contain paintings protected as part of the Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin, a World Heritage SiteThe first known human settlements in what is now Catalonia were at the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic.", "The oldest known trace of human occupation is a mandible found in Banyoles, described by some sources as pre-Neanderthal, that is, some 200,000 years old; other sources suggest it to be only about one third that old.", "From the next prehistoric era, the Epipalaeolithic or Mesolithic, important remains survive, the greater part dated between 8000 and 5000 BC, such as those of Sant Gregori (Falset) and el Filador (Margalef de Montsant).", "The most important sites from these eras, all excavated in the region of Moianès, are the Balma del Gai (Epipaleolithic) and the Balma de l'Espluga (late Epipaleolithic and Early Neolithic).The Neolithic era began in Catalonia around 5000BC, although the population was slower to develop fixed settlements than in other places, thanks to the abundance of woods, which allowed the continuation of a fundamentally hunter-gatherer culture.", "An example of such settlements would be La Draga at Banyoles, an \"early Neolithic village which dates from the end of the 6th millenniumBC.", "\"The Chalcolithic period developed in Catalonia between 2500 and 1800BC, with the beginning of the construction of copper objects.", "The Bronze Age occurred between 1800 and 700BC.", "There are few remnants of this era, but there were some known settlements in the low Segre zone.", "The Bronze Age coincided with the arrival of the Indo-Europeans through the Urnfield Culture, whose successive waves of migration began around 1200BC, and they were responsible for the creation of the first proto-urban settlements.", "Around the middle of the 7th centuryBC, the Iron Age arrived in Catalonia.=== Pre-Roman and Roman period ===Iberian fortress Els Vilars in ArbecaA Roman aqueduct in Tarragona In pre-Roman times, the area that is now called Catalonia in the north-east of Iberian Peninsula – like the rest of the Mediterranean side of the peninsula – was populated by the Iberians.", "The Iberians of this area – the Ilergetes, Indigetes and Lacetani (Cerretains) – also maintained relations with the peoples of the Mediterranean.", "Some urban agglomerations became relevant, including Ilerda (Lleida) inland, Hibera (perhaps Amposta or Tortosa) or Indika (Ullastret).", "Coastal trading colonies were established by the ancient Greeks, who settled around the Gulf of Roses, in Emporion (Empúries) and Roses in the 8th century BC.", "The Carthaginians briefly ruled the territory in the course of the Second Punic War and traded with the surrounding Iberian population.After the Carthaginian defeat by the Roman Republic, the north-east of Iberia became the first to come under Roman rule and became part of Hispania, the westernmost part of the Roman Empire.", "Tarraco (modern Tarragona) was one of the most important Roman cities in Hispania and the capital of the province of Tarraconensis.", "Other important cities of the Roman period are Ilerda (Lleida), Dertosa (Tortosa), Gerunda (Girona) as well as the ports of Empuriæ (former Emporion) and Barcino (Barcelona).", "As for the rest of Hispania, Latin law was granted to all cities under the reign of Vespasian (69–79AD), while Roman citizenship was granted to all free men of the empire by the Edict of Caracalla in 212AD (Tarraco, the capital, was already a colony of Roman law since 45BC).", "It was a rich agricultural province (olive oil, wine, wheat), and the first centuries of the Empire saw the construction of roads (the most important being the Via Augusta, parallel to Mediterranean coastline) and infrastructure like aqueducts.Conversion to Christianity, attested in the 3rdcentury, was completed in urban areas in the 4thcentury.", "Although Hispania remained under Roman rule and did not fall under the rule of Vandals, Suebi and Alans in the 5thcentury, the main cities suffered frequent sacking and some deurbanization.=== Middle Ages ===''Origins of the blason of the County of Barcelona'', by Claudi Lorenzale After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area was conquered by the Visigoths and was ruled as part of the Visigothic Kingdom for almost two and a half centuries.", "In 718, it came under Muslim control and became part of Al-Andalus, a province of the Umayyad Caliphate.", "From the conquest of Roussillon in 760, to the conquest of Barcelona in 801, the Frankish empire took control of the area between Septimania and the Llobregat river from the Muslims and created heavily militarised, self-governing counties.", "These counties formed part of the historiographically known as the Gothic and Hispanic Marches, a buffer zone in the south of the Frankish Empire in the former province of Septimania and in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, to act as a defensive barrier for the Frankish Empire against further Muslim invasions from Al-Andalus.Petronilla of Aragon and Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona, dynastic union of the Crown of AragonThese counties came under the rule of the counts of Barcelona, who were Frankish vassals nominated by the emperor of the Franks, to whom they were feudatories (801–988).", "The earliest known use of the name \"Catalonia\" for these counties dates to 1117.At the end of the 9thcentury, the Count of Barcelona Wilfred the Hairy (878–897) made his titles hereditaries and thus founded the dynasty of the House of Barcelona, which reigned in Catalonia until 1410.Hug IV, count of Empúries, and Pero Maça during the conquest of Mallorca (1229)A 15th-century miniature of the Catalan CourtsIn 988 Borrell II, Count of Barcelona, did not recognise the new French king Hugh Capet as his king, evidencing the loss of dependency from Frankish rule and confirming his successors (from Ramon Borrell I onwards) as independent of the Capetian crown whom they regarded as usurpers of the Carolingian Frankish realm.", "At the beginning of eleventh century the Catalan counties experienced an important process of feudalisation, however, the efforts of church's sponsored Peace and Truce Assemblies and the intervention of Ramon Berenguer I, count of Barcelona (1035–1076) in the negotiations with the rebel nobility resulted in the partial restoration of the comital authority under the new feudal order.", "To fulfill that purpose, Ramon Berenguer began the modification of the legislation in the written Usages of Barcelona, being one of the first European compilations of feudal law .In 1137, Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona decided to accept King Ramiro II of Aragon's proposal to recieve the Kingdom of Aragon and to marry his daughter Petronila, establishing the dynastic union of the County of Barcelona with Aragon, creating a composite monarchy later known as the Crown of Aragon and making the Catalan counties that were vassalized or merged with the County of Barcelona into a principality of the Aragonese Crown.", "During the reign of his son Alphons, in 1173, Catalonia was regarded as a legal entity for the first time, while the Usages of Barcelona were compiled in the process to turn them into the law and custom of Catalonia (''Consuetudinem Cathalonie''), being considered one of the \"milestones of Catalan political identity\".In 1258, by means of the Treaty of Corbeil, James I of Aragon King of Aragon and Count of Barcelona, king of Mallorca and of Valencia, renounced his family rights and dominions in Occitania, while the king of France, Louis IX, formally relinquished to any historical claim of feudal lordship he might have over the Catalan counties, except the County of Foix, despite the opposition of king James.", "This treaty confirmed, from French point of view, the independence of the Catalan counties established and exercised during the previous three centuries, but also meant the irremediable separation between the geographical areas of Catalonia and Languedoc.As a coastal territory, Catalonia became the base of the Aragonese Crown's maritime forces, which spread the power of the Crown in the Mediterranean, turning Barcelona into a powerful and wealthy city.", "In the period of 1164–1410, new territories, the Kingdom of Valencia, the Kingdom of Majorca, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of Sicily, and, briefly, the Duchies of Athens and Neopatras, were incorporated into the dynastic domains of the House of Aragon.", "The expansion was accompanied by a great development of the Catalan trade, creating an extensive trade network across the Mediterranean which competed with those of the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice.At the same time, the Principality of Catalonia developed a complex institutional and political system based in the concept of a pact between the estates of the realm and the king.", "The legislation of Catalonia had to be passed the Catalan Courts (''Corts Catalanes''), one of the first parliamentary bodies of Europe that, since 1283, obtained the power to legislate with the monarch.", "The Courts were composed of the three Estates organized into \"arms\" (''braços''), were presided over by the monarch, and approved the Catalan constitutions, which established a compilation of rights for the inhabitants of the Principality.", "In order to collect general taxes, the Catalan Courts of 1359 established a permanent representative body, known as the \"Deputation of the General\" or Generalitat), which gained considerable political power over the next centuries.The domains of the Aragonese Crown were severely affected by the Black Death pandemic and by later outbreaks of the plague.", "Between 1347 and 1497 Catalonia lost 37percent of its population.", "In 1410, the last reigning monarch of the House of Barcelona, King Martin I died without surviving descendants.", "Under the Compromise of Caspe (1412), the representatives of the kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia and the Principality of Catalonia appointed Ferdinand from the Castilian House of Trastámara as King of the Crown of Aragon.", "During the reign of his son, John II, the persistent economic crisis and social and political tensions in the Principality led to the Catalan Civil War (1462–1472) and the War of the Remences (1462-1486) that left Catalonia exhausted.", "The Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe (1486) liberated the remença peasants from the feudal evil customs.In the later Middle Ages, Catalan literature flourished in Catalonia proper and in the kingdoms of Majorca and Valencia, with such remarkable authors as the philosopher Ramon Llull, the Valencian poet Ausiàs March, and Joanot Martorell, author of the novel ''Tirant lo Blanch'', published in 1490.=== Modern era ===The Principality of Catalonia (1608)Ferdinand II of Aragon, the grandson of Ferdinand I, and Queen Isabella I of Castile were married in 1469, later taking the title the Catholic Monarchs; subsequently, this event was seen by historiographers as the dawn of a unified Spain.", "At this time, though united by marriage, the Crowns of Castile and Aragon maintained distinct territories, each keeping its own traditional institutions, parliaments, laws and currency.", "Castile commissioned expeditions to the Americas and benefited from the riches acquired in the Spanish colonisation of the Americas, but, in time, also carried the main burden of military expenses of the united Spanish kingdoms.", "After Isabella's death, Ferdinand II personally ruled both crowns.By virtue of descent from his maternal grandparents, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, in 1516 Charles I of Spain became the first king to rule the Crowns of Castile and Aragon simultaneously by his own right.", "Following the death of his paternal (House of Habsburg) grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, he was also elected Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1519.", "''Corpus de Sang'' (7 June 1640), one of the main events of the Reaper's War.", "Painted in 1910Over the next few centuries, the Principality of Catalonia was generally on the losing side of a series of wars that led steadily to an increased centralization of power in Spain.", "Despite this fact, between the 16th and 18th centuries, the participation of the political community in the local and the general Catalan government grew (thus consolidating its constitutional system), while the kings remained absent, represented by a viceroy.", "Tensions between Catalan institutions and the monarchy began to arise.", "The large and burdensome presence of the Spanish royal army in the Principality due to the Franco-Spanish War led to an uprising of peasants, provoking the Reapers' War (1640–1652), which saw Catalonia rebel (briefly as a republic led by the chairman of the Generalitat, Pau Claris) with French help against the Spanish Crown for overstepping Catalonia's rights during the Thirty Years' War.", "Within a brief period France took full control of Catalonia.", "Most of Catalonia was reconquered by the Spanish monarchy but Catalan rights were recognised.", "Roussillon and half of Cerdanya was lost to France by the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659).The most significant conflict concerning the governing monarchy was the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1715), which began when the childless Charles II of Spain, the last Spanish Habsburg, died without an heir in 1700.Charles II had chosen Philip V of Spain from the French House of Bourbon.", "Catalonia, like other territories that formed the Crown of Aragon, rose up in support of the Austrian Habsburg pretender Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, in his claim for the Spanish throne as Charles III of Spain.", "The fight between the houses of Bourbon and Habsburg for the Spanish Crown split Spain and Europe.The fall of Barcelona on 11 September 1714 to the Bourbon king Philip V militarily ended the Habsburg claim to the Spanish Crown, which became legal fact in the Treaty of Utrecht.", "Philip felt that he had been betrayed by the Catalan Courts, as it had initially sworn its loyalty to him when he had presided over it in 1701.In retaliation for the betrayal, and inspired by the French model, the first Bourbon king enacted the Nueva Planta decrees of 1707, 1715 and 1716, incorporating the realms of the Crown of Aragon, including the Principality of Catalonia, as provinces of the Crown of Castile in 1716, terminating their status as separate states along with their parliaments, institutions and public and administrative laws, as well as their politics, within a French-style centralized and absolutist kingdom of Spain.", "In the second half of the 17th century and the 18th century (excluding the parentesis of the Succession War and the post-war inestability) Catalonia carried out a successful process of economic growth and proto-industrialization, reinforced in the late quarter of the century when Castile's trade monopoly with American colonies ended.==== The beginning of the Spanish nation state ====After the War of the Spanish Succession, the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon by the Castilian Crown through the Nueva Planta Decrees, was the first step in the creation of the Spanish nation state.", "And like other European nation-states in formation, it was not on a uniform ethnic basis, but by imposing the political and cultural characteristics of the capital, in this case Madrid and Central Spain, on those of the other areas, whose inhabitants would become national minorities to be assimilated through nationalist policies.", "These nationalist policies, sometimes very aggressive, and still in force, have been and are the seed of repeated territorial conflicts within the state.=== Late modern history ===Third siege of Girona (1809), Peninsular War against NapoleonAt the beginning of the nineteenth century, Catalonia was severely affected by the Napoleonic Wars.", "In 1808, it was occupied by French troops; the resistance against the occupation eventually developed into the Peninsular War.", "The rejection of French dominion was institutionalized with the creation of \"juntas\" (councils) who, remaining loyal to the Bourbons, exercised the sovereignty and representation of the territory due to the disappearance of the old institutions.", "Napoleon took direct control of Catalonia to reestablish order, creating the Government of Catalonia under the rule of Marshall Augereau, and making Catalan briefly an official language again.", "Between 1812 and 1814, Catalonia was annexed to France and organized as four departments.", "The French troops evacuated Catalan territory at the end of 1814.After the Bourbon restoration in Spain and the death of the absolutist king Ferdinand VII (1833), Carlist Wars erupted against the newly established liberal state of Isabella II.", "Catalonia was divided, with the coastal and most industrialized areas supporting liberalism, while most of the countryside were in the hands of the Carlist faction; the latter proposed to reestablish the institutional systems suppressed by the Nueva Planta decrees in the ancient realms of the Crown of Aragon.", "The consolidation of the liberal state saw a new provincial division of Spain, including Catalonia, which was divided into four provinces (Barcelona, Girona, Lleida and Tarragona).Tragic Week, 1909In the second third of the 19thcentury, Catalonia became an important industrial center, particularly focused on textiles.", "This process was a consequence of the conditions of proto-industrialisation of textile production in the prior two centuries, growing capital from wine and brandy export,and was later boosted by the government support for domestic manufacturing.", "In 1832, the Bonaplata Factory in Barcelona became the first factory in the country to make use of the steam engine.The first railway on the Iberian Peninsula was built between Barcelona and Mataró in 1848.A policy to encourage company towns also saw the textile industry flourish in the countryside in the 1860s and 1870s.", "Although the policy of Spanish governments oscillated between free trade and protectionism, become more common.", "To this day Catalonia remains one of the most industrialised areas of Spain.In the same period, Barcelona was the focus of industrial conflict and revolutionary uprisings known as \"bullangues\".", "In Catalonia, a republican current began to develop among the progressives, attrackting many Catalans who favored the federalisation of Spain.", "Meanwhile, the Catalan language saw a Romantic cultural renaissance from the second third of the century onwards, the ''Renaixença'', among both the working class and the bourgeoisie.", "Right after the fall of the First Spanish Republic (1873–1874) and the subsequent restoration of the Bourbon dynasty (1874), Catalan nationalism began to be organized politically under the leadership of the republican federalist Valentí Almirall.Proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic on 14April1931 in BarcelonaThe anarchist movement had been active throughout the last quarter of the 19th century and the early 20th century, founding the CNT trade union in 1910 and achieving one of the first eight-hour workdays in Europe in 1919.Growing resentment of conscription and of the military culminated in the Tragic Week in Barcelona in 1909.Under the hegemony of the Regionalist League, Catalonia gained a degree of administrative unity for the first time in the Modern era.", "In 1914, the four Catalan provinces were authorized to create a commonwealth (Catalan: ''Mancomunitat de Catalunya''), lacking any legislative power or specific political autonomy, which carried out an ambitious program of modernization, but it was disbanded in 1925 by the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923–1930).", "During the final stage of the Dictatorship, with Spain beginning to suffer an economic crisis, Barcelona hosted the 1929 International Exposition.After the fall of the dictatorship and a brief proclamation of the Catalan Republic, during the events of the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic (14–17April1931), Catalonia received in 1932, its first Statute of Autonomy from the Spanish Republic's Parliament, granting it a considerable degree of self-government, establishing an autonomous body, the Generalitat of Catalonia, which included a parliament, an executive and a court of cassation.", "The left-wing pro-independece leader Francesc Macià was appointed its first president.", "Under the Statute, Catalan became an official language.", "The governments of the Republican Generalitat, led by the Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) leaders Francesc Macià (1931–1933) and Lluís Companys (1933–1940), sought to implement a modernizing and progressive social agenda, despite the internal difficulties.", "This period was marked by political unrest, the effects of the economic crisis and their social repercussions.", "The Statute of Autonomy was suspended in 1934, due to the Events of 6 October in Barcelona, as a response to the accession of right-wing Spanish nationalist party CEDA to the government of the Republic, considered close to fascism.", "After the electoral victory of the left wing Popular Front in February 1936, the Government of Catalonia was pardoned and the self-government was restored.5 pesetas note made by the Generalitat de Catalunya during the Spanish Civil War, 1936, Republican currency=== Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and Franco's rule (1939–1975) ===The defeat of the military rebellion against the Republican government in Barcelona placed Catalonia firmly in the Republican side of the Spanish Civil War.", "During the war, there were two rival powers in Catalonia: the de jure power of the Generalitat and the de facto power of the armed popular militias.", "Violent confrontations between the workers' parties (CNT-FAI and POUM against the PSUC) culminated in the defeat of the first ones in 1937.The situation resolved itself progressively in favor of the Generalitat, but at the same time the Generalitat lost most of its autonomous powers within Republican Spain.", "In 1938 Franco's troops broke the Republican territory in two, isolating Catalonia from the rest of the Republican territory.", "The defeat of the Republican army in the Battle of the Ebro led in 1938 and 1939 to the occupation of Catalonia by Franco's forces.The defeat of the Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War brought to power the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, whose first ten-year rule was particularly violent, autocratic, and repressive both in a political, cultural, social, and economical sense.", "In Catalonia, any kind of public activities associated with Catalan nationalism, republicanism, anarchism, socialism, liberalism, democracy or communism, including the publication of books on those subjects or simply discussion of them in open meetings, was banned.", "Francisco Franco in Reus, 1940 Franco's regime banned the use of Catalan in government-run institutions and during public events, and the Catalan institutions of self-government were abolished.", "The pro-Republic of Spain president of Catalonia, Lluís Companys, was taken to Spain from his exile in the German-occupied France and was tortured and executed in the Montjuïc Castle of Barcelona for the crime of 'military rebellion'.During later stages of Francoist Spain, certain folkloric and religious celebrations in Catalan resumed and were tolerated.", "Use of Catalan in the mass media had been forbidden but was permitted from the early 1950s in the theatre.", "Despite the ban during the first years and the difficulties of the next period, publishing in Catalan continued throughout his rule.The years after the war were extremely hard.", "Catalonia, like many other parts of Spain, had been devastated by the war.", "Recovery from the war damage was slow and made more difficult by the international trade embargo and the autarkic politics of Franco's regime.", "By the late 1950s, the region had recovered its pre-war economic levels and in the 1960s was the second-fastest growing economy in the world in what became known as the Spanish miracle.", "During this period there was a spectacular growth of industry and tourism in Catalonia that drew large numbers of workers to the region from across Spain and made the area around Barcelona one of Europe's largest industrial metropolitan areas.=== Transition and democratic period (1975–''present'') ===Olympic Stadium Lluís Companys of Barcelona during the 1992 Summer OlympicsAfter Franco's death in 1975, Catalonia voted for the adoption of a democratic Spanish Constitution in 1978, in which Catalonia recovered political and cultural autonomy, restoring the Generalitat (exiled since the end of the Civil War in 1939) in 1977 and adopting a new Statute of Autonomy in 1979, which defined Catalonia as a \"nationality\".", "The first elections to the Parliament of Catalonia under this Statute gave the Catalan presidency to Jordi Pujol, leader of Convergència i Unió (CiU), a center-right Catalan nationalist electoral coalition, with Pujol re-elected until 2003.Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the institutions of Catalan autonomy were deployed, among them an autonomous police force, the Mossos d'Esquadra, in 1983, and the broadcasting network Televisió de Catalunya and its first channel TV3, created in 1983.An extensive program of normalization of Catalan language was carried out.", "Today, Catalonia remains one of the most economically dynamic communities of Spain.", "The Catalan capital and largest city, Barcelona, is a major international cultural centre and a major tourist destination.", "In 1992, Barcelona hosted the Summer Olympic Games.In November 2003, elections to the Parliament of Catalonia gave the government to a left-wing Catalanist coalition formed by the Socialists' Party of Catalonia (PSC-PSOE), Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) and Initiative for Catalonia Greens (ICV), and the socialist Pasqual Maragall was appointed president.", "The new government redacted a new version of the Statute of Autonomy, with the aim of consolidate and expand certain aspects of self-government.The new Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, approved after a referendum in 2006, was contested by important sectors of the Spanish society, especially by the conservative People's Party, which sent the law to the Constitutional Court of Spain.", "In 2010, the Court declared non-valid some of the articles that established an autonomous Catalan system of Justice, improved aspects of the financing, a new territorial division, the status of Catalan language or the symbolical declaration of Catalonia as a nation.", "This decision was severely contested by large sectors of Catalan society, which increased the demands of independence.==== Independence movement ====Catalan president, Carles Puigdemont, addresses the crowd following the unilateral declaration of independence on 27 OctoberA controversial independence referendum was held in Catalonia on 1 October 2017, using a disputed voting process.", "It was declared illegal and suspended by the Constitutional Court of Spain, because it breached the 1978 Constitution.", "Subsequent developments saw, on 27 October 2017, a symbolic declaration of independence by the Parliament of Catalonia, the enforcement of direct rule by the Spanish government through the use of Article 155 of the Constitution, the dismissal of the Executive Council and the dissolution of the Parliament, with a snap regional election called for 21 December 2017, which ended with a victory of pro-independence parties.", "Former President Carles Puigdemont and five former cabinet ministers fled Spain and took refuge in other European countries (such as Belgium, in Puigdemont's case), whereas nine other cabinet members, including vice-president Oriol Junqueras, were sentenced to prison under various charges of rebellion, sedition, and misuse of public funds.", "Quim Torra became the 131st President of the Government of Catalonia on 17 May 2018, after the Spanish courts blocked three other candidates.In 2018, the Assemblea Nacional Catalana joined the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) on behalf of Catalonia.On 14 October 2019, the Spanish Supreme court sentenced several Catalan political leaders, involved in organizing a referendum on Catalonia's independence from Spain, and convicted them on charges ranging from sedition to misuse of public funds, with sentences ranging from 9 to 13 years in prison.", "This decision sparked demonstrations around Catalonia.", "They were later pardoned by the Spanish government and left prison in June 2021." ], [ "Geography", "=== Climate ===Climates of Catalonia:The climate of Catalonia is diverse.", "The populated areas lying by the coast in Tarragona, Barcelona and Girona provinces feature a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen ''Csa'').", "The inland part (including the Lleida province and the inner part of Barcelona province) show a mostly Mediterranean climate (Köppen ''Csa'').", "The Pyrenean peaks have a continental (Köppen ''D'') or even Alpine climate (Köppen ''ET'') at the highest summits, while the valleys have a maritime or oceanic climate sub-type (Köppen ''Cfb'').In the Mediterranean area, summers are dry and hot with sea breezes, and the maximum temperature is around .", "Winter is cool or slightly cold depending on the location.", "It snows frequently in the Pyrenees, and it occasionally snows at lower altitudes, even by the coastline.", "Spring and autumn are typically the rainiest seasons, except for the Pyrenean valleys, where summer is typically stormy.The inland part of Catalonia is hotter and drier in summer.", "Temperature may reach , some days even .", "Nights are cooler there than at the coast, with the temperature of around .", "Fog is not uncommon in valleys and plains; it can be especially persistent, with freezing drizzle episodes and subzero temperatures during winter, mainly along the Ebro and Segre valleys and in Plain of Vic.=== Topography ===Geomorphologic map of Catalonia:Besiberri in Catalan Pyrenees Catalonia has a marked geographical diversity, considering the relatively small size of its territory.", "The geography is conditioned by the Mediterranean coast, with of coastline, and the towering Pyrenees along the long northern border.", "Catalonia is divided into three main geomorphological units:*The Pyrenees: mountainous formation that connects the Iberian Peninsula with the European continental territory (see passage above);*The Catalan Coastal mountain ranges or the Catalan Mediterranean System: an alternating delevacions and planes parallel to the Mediterranean coast;*The Catalan Central Depression: structural unit which forms the eastern sector of the Valley of the Ebro.Montserrat and the monasteryThe Catalan Pyrenees represent almost half in length of the Pyrenees, as it extends more than .", "Traditionally differentiated the Axial Pyrenees (the main part) and the Pre-Pyrenees (southern from the Axial) which are mountainous formations parallel to the main mountain ranges but with lower altitudes, less steep and a different geological formation.", "The highest mountain of Catalonia, located north of the comarca of Pallars Sobirà is the Pica d'Estats (3,143 m), followed by the Puigpedrós (2,914 m).", "The Serra del Cadí comprises the highest peaks in the Pre-Pyrenees and forms the southern boundary of the Cerdanya valley.The Central Catalan Depression is a plain located between the Pyrenees and Pre-Coastal Mountains.", "Elevation ranges from .", "The plains and the water that descend from the Pyrenees have made it fertile territory for agriculture and numerous irrigation canals have been built.", "Another major plain is the Empordà, located in the northeast.The Catalan Mediterranean system is based on two ranges running roughly parallel to the coast (southwest–northeast), called the Coastal and the Pre-Coastal Ranges.", "The Coastal Range is both the shorter and the lower of the two, while the Pre-Coastal is greater in both length and elevation.", "Areas within the Pre-Coastal Range include Montserrat, Montseny and the Ports de Tortosa-Beseit.", "Lowlands alternate with the Coastal and Pre-Coastal Ranges.", "The Coastal Lowland is located to the East of the Coastal Range between it and the coast, while the Pre-Coastal Lowlands are located inland, between the Coastal and Pre-Coastal Ranges, and includes the Vallès and Penedès plains.=== Flora and fauna ===Montseny brook newt (''Calotriton arnoldi''), endemic to the Montseny MassifCatalonia is a showcase of European landscapes on a small scale.", "Just over hosting a variety of substrates, soils, climates, directions, altitudes and distances to the sea.", "The area is of great ecological diversity and a remarkable wealth of landscapes, habitats and species.The fauna of Catalonia comprises a minority of animals endemic to the region and a majority of non-endemic animals.", "Much of Catalonia enjoys a Mediterranean climate (except mountain areas), which makes many of the animals that live there adapted to Mediterranean ecosystems.", "Of mammals, there are plentiful wild boar, red foxes, as well as roe deer and in the Pyrenees, the Pyrenean chamois.", "Other large species such as the bear have been recently reintroduced.The waters of the Balearic Sea are rich in biodiversity, and even the megafaunas of the oceans; various types of whales (such as fin, sperm, and pilot) and dolphins can be found in the area.=== Hydrography ===Lake of Banyoles Tossa de Mar, Costa BravaMost of Catalonia belongs to the Mediterranean Basin.", "The Catalan hydrographic network consists of two important basins, the one of the Ebro and the one that comprises the internal basins of Catalonia (respectively covering 46.84% and 51.43% of the territory), all of them flow to the Mediterranean.", "Furthermore, there is the Garona river basin that flows to the Atlantic Ocean, but it only covers 1.73% of the Catalan territory.The hydrographic network can be divided in two sectors, an occidental slope or Ebro river slope and one oriental slope constituted by minor rivers that flow to the Mediterranean along the Catalan coast.", "The first slope provides an average of per year, while the second only provides an average of /year.", "The difference is due to the big contribution of the Ebro river, from which the Segre is an important tributary.", "Moreover, in Catalonia there is a relative wealth of groundwaters, although there is inequality between ''comarques'', given the complex geological structure of the territory.", "In the Pyrenees there are many small lakes, remnants of the ice age.", "The biggest are the lake of Banyoles and the recently recovered lake of Ivars.The Catalan coast is almost rectilinear, with a length of and few landforms—the most relevant are the Cap de Creus and the Gulf of Roses to the north and the Ebro Delta to the south.", "The Catalan Coastal Range hugs the coastline, and it is split into two segments, one between L'Estartit and the town of Blanes (the Costa Brava), and the other at the south, at the Costes del Garraf.The principal rivers in Catalonia are the Ter, Llobregat, and the Ebro (Catalan: ), all of which run into the Mediterranean.===Anthropic pressure and protection of nature===The majority of Catalan population is concentrated in 30% of the territory, mainly in the coastal plains.", "Intensive agriculture, livestock farming and industrial activities have been accompanied by a massive tourist influx (more than 20 million annual visitors), a rate of urbanization and even of major metropolisation which has led to a strong urban sprawl: two thirds of Catalans live in the urban area of Barcelona, while the proportion of urban land increased from 4.2% in 1993 to 6.2% in 2009, a growth of 48.6% in sixteen years, complemented with a dense network of transport infrastructure.", "This is accompanied by a certain agricultural abandonment (decrease of 15% of all areas cultivated in Catalonia between 1993 and 2009) and a global threat to natural environment.", "Human activities have also put some animal species at risk, or even led to their disappearance from the territory, like the gray wolf and probably the brown bear of the Pyrenees.", "The pressure created by this model of life means that the country's ecological footprint exceeds its administrative area.Faced with these problems, Catalan authorities initiated several measures whose purpose is to protect natural ecosystems.", "Thus, in 1990, the Catalan government created the Nature Conservation Council (Catalan: ), an advisory body with the aim to study, protect and manage the natural environments and landscapes of Catalonia.", "In addition, the Generalitat has carried out the Plan of Spaces of Natural Interest ( or PEIN) in 1992 while eighteen Natural Spaces of Special Protection ( or ENPE) have been instituted.There's a National Park, Aigüestortes i Estany de Sant Maurici; fourteen Natural Parks, Alt Pirineu, Aiguamolls de l'Empordà, Cadí-Moixeró, Cap de Creus, Sources of Ter and Freser, Collserola, Ebro Delta, Ports, Montgrí, Medes Islands and Baix Ter, Montseny, Montserrat, Sant Llorenç del Munt and l'Obac, Serra de Montsant, and the Garrotxa Volcanic Zone; as well as three Natural Places of National Interest ( or PNIN), the Pedraforca, the Poblet Forest and the Albères." ], [ "Politics", "Lluís Companys, second president of the Generalitat of Catalonia between 1933 and 1940, executed by Franco's regimeAfter Franco's death in 1975 and the adoption of a democratic constitution in Spain in 1978, Catalonia recovered and extended the powers that it had gained in the Statute of Autonomy of 1932 but lost with the fall of the Second Spanish Republic at the end of the Spanish Civil War in 1939.This autonomous community has gradually achieved more autonomy since the approval of the Spanish Constitution of 1978.The Generalitat holds exclusive jurisdiction in education, health, culture, environment, communications, transportation, commerce, public safety and local government, and only shares jurisdiction with the Spanish government in justice.", "In all, some analysts argue that formally the current system grants Catalonia with \"more self-government than almost any other corner in Europe\".The support for Catalan nationalism ranges from a demand for further autonomy and the federalisation of Spain to the desire for independence from the rest of Spain, expressed by Catalan independentists.", "The first survey following the Constitutional Court ruling that cut back elements of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy, published by ''La Vanguardia'' on 18July2010, found that 46% of the voters would support independence in a referendum.", "In February of the same year, a poll by the Open University of Catalonia gave more or less the same results.", "Other polls have shown lower support for independence, ranging from 40 to 49%.", "Although it is established in the whole of the territory, support for independence is significantly higher in the hinterland and the northeast, away from the more populated coastal areas such as Barcelona.Since 2011 when the question started to be regularly surveyed by the governmental Center for Public Opinion Studies (CEO), support for Catalan independence has been on the rise.", "According to the CEO opinion poll from July2016, 47.7% of Catalans would vote for independence and 42.4% against it while, about the question of preferences, according to the CEO opinion poll from March 2016, a 57.2 claim to be \"absolutely\" or \"fairly\" in favour of independence.", "Other polls have shown lower support for independence, ranging from 40 to 49%.", "Other polls show more variable results, according with the Spanish CIS, as of December2016, 47% of Catalans rejected independence and 45% supported it.In hundreds of non-binding local referendums on independence, organised across Catalonia from 13September2009, a large majority voted for independence, although critics argued that the polls were mostly held in pro-independence areas.", "In December2009, 94% of those voting backed independence from Spain, on a turn-out of 25%.", "The final local referendum was held in Barcelona, in April2011.On 11September2012, a pro-independence march pulled in a crowd of between 600,000 (according to the Spanish Government), 1.5 million (according to the Guàrdia Urbana de Barcelona), and 2 million (according to its promoters); whereas poll results revealed that half the population of Catalonia supported secession from Spain.Two major factors were Spain's Constitutional Court's 2010 decision to declare part of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia unconstitutional, as well as the fact that Catalonia contributes 19.49% of the central government's tax revenue, but only receives 14.03% of central government's spending.Parties that consider themselves either Catalan nationalist or independentist have been present in all Catalan governments since 1980.The largest Catalan nationalist party, Convergence and Union, ruled Catalonia from 1980 to 2003, and returned to power in the 2010 election.", "Between 2003 and 2010, a leftist coalition, composed by the Catalan Socialists' Party, the pro-independence Republican Left of Catalonia and the leftist-environmentalist Initiative for Catalonia-Greens, implemented policies that widened Catalan autonomy.In the 25 November 2012 Catalan parliamentary election, sovereigntist parties supporting a secession referendum gathered 59.01% of the votes and held 87 of the 135seats in the Catalan Parliament.", "Parties supporting independence from the rest of Spain obtained 49.12% of the votes and a majority of 74seats.Artur Mas, then the president of Catalonia, organised early elections that took place on 27September2015.In these elections, Convergència and Esquerra Republicana decided to join, and they presented themselves under the coalition named Junts pel Sí (in Catalan, Together for Yes).", "Junts pel Sí won 62seats and was the most voted party, and CUP (Candidatura d'Unitat Popular, a far-left and independentist party) won another 10, so the sum of all the independentist forces/parties was 72seats, reaching an absolute majority, but not in number of individual votes, comprising 47,74% of the total.=== Statute of Autonomy ===The first Statute of Catalonia, 1932The Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia is the fundamental organic law, second only to the Spanish Constitution from which the Statute originates.In the Spanish Constitution of 1978 Catalonia, along with the Basque Country and Galicia, was defined as a \"nationality\".", "The same constitution gave Catalonia the automatic right to autonomy, which resulted in the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 1979.Both the 1979 Statute of Autonomy and the current one, approved in 2006, state that \"Catalonia, as a nationality, exercises its self-government constituted as an Autonomous Community in accordance with the Constitution and with the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, which is its basic institutional law, always under the law in Spain\".The Preamble of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia states that the Parliament of Catalonia has defined Catalonia as a nation, but that \"the Spanish Constitution recognizes Catalonia's national reality as a nationality\".", "While the Statute was approved by and sanctioned by both the Catalan and Spanish parliaments, and later by referendum in Catalonia, it has been subject to a legal challenge by the surrounding autonomous communities of Aragon, Balearic Islands and Valencia, as well as by the conservative People's Party.", "The objections are based on various issues such as disputed cultural heritage but, especially, on the Statute's alleged breaches of the principle of \"solidarity between regions\" in fiscal and educational matters enshrined by the Constitution.Spain's Constitutional Court assessed the disputed articles and on 28 June 2010, issued its judgment on the principal allegation of unconstitutionality presented by the People's Party in 2006.The judgment granted clear passage to 182 articles of the 223 that make up the fundamental text.", "The court approved 73 of the 114 articles that the People's Party had contested, while declaring 14 articles unconstitutional in whole or in part and imposing a restrictive interpretation on 27 others.", "The court accepted the specific provision that described Catalonia as a \"nation\", however ruled that it was a historical and cultural term with no legal weight, and that Spain remained the only nation recognised by the constitution.=== Government and law ===The Catalan Statute of Autonomy establishes that Catalonia, as an autonomous community, is organised politically through the Generalitat of Catalonia (Catalan: ), confirmed by the Parliament, the Presidency of the Generalitat, the Government or Executive Council and the other institutions established by the Parliament, among them the Ombudsman (), the Office of Auditors () the Council for Statutory Guarantees () or the Audiovisual Council of Catalonia ().Pere Aragonès, President of the Generalitat of CataloniaThe Parliament of Catalonia (Catalan: ) is the unicameral legislative body of the Generalitat and represents the people of Catalonia.", "Its 135members (''diputats'') are elected by universal suffrage to serve for a four-year period.", "According to the Statute of Autonomy, it has powers to legislate over devolved matters such as education, health, culture, internal institutional and territorial organization, nomination of the President of the Generalitat and control the Government, budget and other affairs.", "The last Catalan election was held on 14 February 2021, and its current speaker (president) is Laura Borràs, incumbent since 12March2018.The President of the Generalitat of Catalonia (Catalan: ) is the highest representative of Catalonia, and is also responsible of leading the government's action, presiding the Executive Council.", "Since the restoration of the Generalitat on the return of democracy in Spain, the Presidents of Catalonia have been Josep Tarradellas (1977–1980, president in exile since 1954), Jordi Pujol (1980–2003), Pasqual Maragall (2003–2006), José Montilla (2006–2010), Artur Mas (2010–2016), Carles Puigdemont (2016–2017) and, after the imposition of direct rule from Madrid, Quim Torra (2018–2020) and Pere Aragonès (2021–).The Executive Council (Catalan: ) or Government (), is the body responsible of the government of the Generalitat, it holds executive and regulatory power, being accountable to the Catalan Parliament.", "It comprises the President of the Generalitat, the First Minister () or the Vice President, and the ministers () appointed by the president.", "Its seat is the Palau de la Generalitat, Barcelona.", "In 2021 the government was a coalition of two parties, the Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) and Together for Catalonia (Junts) and is made up of 14 ministers, including the vice President, alongside to the president and a secretary of government, but in October2022 Together for Catalonia (Junts) left the coalition and the government.=== Security forces and Justice ===Catalonia has its own police force, the (officially called ), whose origins date back to the 18thcentury.", "Since 1980 they have been under the command of the Generalitat, and since 1994 they have expanded in number in order to replace the national Civil Guard and National Police Corps, which report directly to the Homeland Department of Spain.", "The national bodies retain personnel within Catalonia to exercise functions of national scope such as overseeing ports, airports, coasts, international borders, custom offices, the identification of documents and arms control, immigration control, terrorism prevention, arms trafficking prevention, amongst others.Most of the justice system is administered by national judicial institutions, the highest body and last judicial instance in the Catalan jurisdiction, integrating the Spanish judiciary, is the High Court of Justice of Catalonia.", "The criminal justice system is uniform throughout Spain, while civil law is administered separately within Catalonia.", "The civil laws that are subject to autonomous legislation have been codified in the Civil Code of Catalonia () since 2002.Catalonia, together with Navarre and the Basque Country, are the Spanish communities with the highest degree of autonomy in terms of law enforcement.=== Administrative divisions ===Provinces, regions and counties of Catalonia (until 2015)Catalonia is organised territorially into provinces or regions, further subdivided into comarques and municipalities.", "The 2006Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia establishes the administrative organisation of the later three.==== Provinces ====Much like the rest of Spain, Catalonia is divided administratively into four provinces, the governing body of which is the Provincial Deputation (, , ).", "As of 2010, the four provinces and their populations were:*Province of Barcelona: 5,701,708 population*Province of Girona: 777,258 population*Province of Lleida: 437,939 population*Province of Tarragona: 830,804 populationUnlike vegueries, provinces do not follow the limitations of the subdivisional counties, notably Baixa Cerdanya, which is split in half between the demarcations of Lleida and Girona.", "This situation has led some isolated municipalities to request province changes from the Spanish government.==== Vegueries ====Besides provinces, Catalonia is internally divided into eight regions or vegueries, based on the feudal administrative territorial jurisdiction of the Principality of Catalonia.", "Established in 2006, vegueries are used by the Generalitat de Catalunya with the aim to more effectively divide Catalonia administratively.", "In addition, vegueries are intended to become Catalonia's first-level administrative division and a full replacement for the four deputations of the Catalan provinces, creating a council for each vegueria, but this has not been realised as changes to the statewide provinces system are unconstitutional.The territorial plan of Catalonia () provided six general functional areas, but was amended by Law24/2001, of 31December, recognizing ''Alt Pirineu and Aran'' as a new functional area differentiated of Ponent.", "After some opposition from some territories, it was made possible for the Aran Valley to retain its government (the vegueria is renamed to ''Alt Pirineu'', although the name ''Alt Pirineu and Aran'' is still used by the regional plan) and in 2016, the Catalan Parliament approved the eighth vegueria, Penedès, split from the Barcelona region.As of 2022, the eight regions and their populations were:* Alt Pirineu (capital La Seu d'Urgell): 63,892 population* Barcelona (capital Barcelona): 4,916,847 population* Camp de Tarragona (capital Tarragona): 536,453 population* Central Catalonia (capital Manresa): 413,349 population* Girona (capital Girona): 761,690 population* Ponent (capital Lleida): 365,289 population* Penedès (capital Vilanova i la Geltrú): 497,764 population* Terres de l'Ebre (capital Tortosa): 182,231 population* Aran Valley (capital Vielha e Mijaran): 10,194 population==== Comarques ====Comarques (often known as ''counties'' in English, but different from the historical Catalan counties) are entities composed of municipalities to internally manage their responsibilities and services.", "The current regional division has its roots in a decree of the Generalitat de Catalunya of 1936, in effect until 1939, when it was suppressed by Franco.", "In 1987 the Catalan Government reestablished the comarcal division and in 1988 three new comarques were added (Alta Ribagorça, Pla d'Urgell and Pla de l'Estany).", "Some further revisions have been realised since then, such as the additions of Moianès and Lluçanès counties, in 2015 and 2023 respectively.", "Except for Barcelonès, every comarca is administered by a comarcal council ().As of 2024, Catalonia is divided in 42 counties plus the Aran Valley.", "The latter, although previously (and still informally) considered a comarca, obtained in 1990 a particular status within Catalonia due to its differences in culture and language, being administered by a body known as the (General Council of Aran), and in 2015 it was defined as a \"unique territorial entity\" instead of a county.==== Municipalities ====There are at present 947municipalities () in Catalonia.", "Each municipality is run by a council () elected every four years by the residents in local elections.", "The council consists of a number of members () depending on population, who elect the mayor ( or ).", "Its seat is the town hall (, or ).Eixample aire cropped.jpg|An aerial view of BarcelonaLa Seu d'Urgell (Torre Solsona).JPG|La Seu d'Urgell from the Solsona towerE5320-Vista-de-Tarragona.jpg|The city of TarragonaManresa des del mirador de la Balconada.jpg|The city of Manresa from the Balconada viewpointGirona des de l aire.jpg|The city of GironaLleida (40262867523).jpg|The city of Lleida by the Segre riverVilanova i la Geltru.jpg|Vilanova i la Geltrú from the city's portTortosa - La Suda.jpg|The city of TortosaVIELHA - VAL D'ARAN - IB-399.JPG|Vielha e Mijaran from the Vielha viewpoint*" ], [ "Economy", "Aerial view of Barcelona, SpainPeach fields in AitonaCosta Brava beach.", "Tourism plays an important role in the Catalan economy.A highly industrialized region, the nominal GDP of Catalonia in 2018 was €228 billion (second after the community of Madrid, €230 billion) and the per capitaGDP was €30,426 ($32,888), behind Madrid (€35,041), the Basque Country (€33,223), and Navarre (€31,389).", "That year, the GDP growth was 2.3%.Catalonia's long-term credit rating is BB(Non-Investment Grade) according to Standard & Poor's, Ba2(Non-Investment Grade) according to Moody's, and BBB-(Low Investment Grade) according to Fitch Ratings.", "Catalonia's rating is tied for worst with between 1 and 5 other autonomous communities of Spain, depending on the rating agency.The city of Barcelona occupies the eighth position as one of the world's best cities to live, work, research and visit in 2021, according to the report \"The World's Best Cities 2021\", prepared by Resonance Consultancy.The Catalan capital, despite the current moment of crisis, is also one of the European bases of \"reference for start-ups\" and the fifth city in the world to establish one of these companies, behind London, Berlin, Paris and Amsterdam, according to the Eu-Starts-Up 2020 study.", "Barcelona is behind London, New York, Paris, Moscow, Tokyo, Dubai and Singapore and ahead of Los Angeles and Madrid.In the context of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, Catalonia was expected to suffer a recession amounting to almost a 2% contraction of its regional GDP in 2009.Catalonia's debt in 2012 was the highest of all Spain's autonomous communities, reaching €13,476 million, i.e.", "38% of the total debt of the 17autonomous communities, but in recent years its economy recovered a positive evolution and the GDP grew a 3.3% in 2015.Industrial park in CastellbisbalFactories, La Pobla de Mafumet, TarragonaCatalonia is amongst the List of country subdivisions by GDP over 100 billion US dollars and is a member of the Four Motors for Europe organisation.The distribution of sectors is as follows:*Primary sector: 3%.", "The amount of land devoted to agricultural use is 33%.", "*Secondary sector: 37% (compared to Spain's 29%)*Tertiary sector: 60% (compared to Spain's 67%)The main tourist destinations in Catalonia are the city of Barcelona, the beaches of the Costa Brava in Girona, the beaches of the Costa del Maresme and Costa del Garraf from Malgrat de Mar to Vilanova i la Geltrú and the Costa Daurada in Tarragona.", "In the High Pyrenees there are several ski resorts, near Lleida.", "On 1November2012, Catalonia started charging a tourist tax.", "The revenue is used to promote tourism, and to maintain and upgrade tourism-related infrastructure.Eix Macià, SabadellMany of Spain's leading savings banks were based in Catalonia before the independence referendum of 2017.However, in the aftermath of the referendum, many of them moved their registered office to other parts of Spain.", "That includes the two biggest Catalan banks at that moment, La Caixa, which moved its office to Palma de Mallorca, and Banc Sabadell, ranked fourth among all Spanish private banks and which moved its office to Alicante.", "That happened after the Spanish government passed a law allowing companies to move their registered office without requiring the approval of the company's general meeting of shareholders.", "Overall, there was a negative net relocation rate of companies based in Catalonia moving to other autonomous communities of Spain.", "From the 2017 independence referendum until the end of 2018, for example, Catalonia lost 5454companies to other parts of Spain (mainly Madrid), 2359 only in 2018, gaining 467 new ones from the rest of the country during 2018.It has been reported that the Spanish government and the Spanish King Felipe VI pressured some of the big Catalan companies to move their headquarters outside of the region.The stock market of Barcelona, which in 2016 had a volume of around €152 billion, is the second largest of Spain after Madrid, and Fira de Barcelona organizes international exhibitions and congresses to do with different sectors of the economy.The main economic cost for Catalan families is the purchase of a home.", "According to data from the Society of Appraisal on 31December2005 Catalonia is, after Madrid, the second most expensive region in Spain for housing: 3,397 €/m2 on average (see Spanish property bubble).=== Unemployment ===The unemployment rate stood at 10.5% in 2019 and was lower than the national average.+Unemployment rate (December data) (%)200620072008200920102011201220132014201520162017201820196.6%6.5%11.8%16.9%17.9%20.4%23.8%21.9%19.9%17.7%14.9%12.6%11.8%10.5%=== Transport ======= Airports ====Barcelona Airport towerAirports in Catalonia are owned and operated by Aena (a Spanish Government entity) except two airports in Lleida which are operated by Aeroports de Catalunya (an entity belonging to the Government of Catalonia).", "*Barcelona El Prat Airport (Aena)*Girona-Costa Brava Airport (Aena)*Reus Airport (Aena)*Lleida-Alguaire Airport (Aeroports de Catalunya)*Sabadell Airport (Aena)*La Seu d'Urgell Airport (Aeroports de Catalunya)==== Ports ====Aerial view of Zona Franca and the Port of Barcelona, SpainSince the Middle Ages, Catalonia has been well integrated into international maritime networks.", "The port of Barcelona (owned and operated by , a Spanish Government entity) is an industrial, commercial and tourist port of worldwide importance.", "With 1,950,000TEUs in 2015, it is the first container port in Catalonia, the third in Spain after Valencia and Algeciras in Andalusia, the 9thin the Mediterranean Sea, the 14thin Europe and the 68thin the world.", "It is sixth largest cruise port in the world, the first in Europe and the Mediterranean with 2,364,292passengers in 2014.The ports of Tarragona (owned and operated by Puertos del Estado) in the southwest and Palamós near Girona at northeast are much more modest.", "The port of Palamós and the other ports in Catalonia(26) are operated and administered by , a Catalan Government entity.The development of these infrastructures, resulting from the topography and history of the Catalan territory, responds strongly to the administrative and political organization of this autonomous community.==== Roads ====Autovia C-16 ()There are of roads throughout Catalonia.The principal highways are ''' AP-7 ''' () and ''' A-7 ''' ().", "They follow the coast from the French border to Valencia, Murcia and Andalusia.", "The main roads generally radiate from Barcelona.", "The ''' AP-2 ''' 16px () and ''' A-2 ''' () connect inland and onward to Madrid.Other major roads are: ID Itinerary Lleida-La Jonquera Amposta-Àger Barcelona-Puigcerdà 16px Barcelona-Ripoll Cervera-Girona Llançà-Olot 16px El Vendrell-Tordera 16px Argentona-La Roca del VallèsPublic-own roads in Catalonia are either managed by the autonomous government of Catalonia (e.g., ''' C- ''' roads) or the Spanish government (e.g., ''' AP- ''', ''' A- ''', ''' N- ''' roads).==== Railways ====High-speed train (AVE) at Camp de Tarragona Catalonia saw the first railway construction in the Iberian Peninsula in 1848, linking Barcelona with Mataró.", "Given the topography, most lines radiate from Barcelona.", "The city has both suburban and inter-city services.", "The main east coast line runs through the province connecting with the SNCF (French Railways) at Portbou on the coast.There are two publicly owned railway companies operating in Catalonia: the Catalan FGC that operates commuter and regional services, and the Spanish national Renfe that operates long-distance and high-speed rail services (AVE and Avant) and the main commuter and regional service , administered by the Catalan government since 2010.High-speed rail (AVE) services from Madrid currently reach Barcelona, via Lleida and Tarragona.", "The official opening between Barcelona and Madrid took place 20February2008.The journey between Barcelona and Madrid now takes about two-and-a-half hours.", "A connection to the French high-speed TGV network has been completed (called the Perpignan–Barcelona high-speed rail line) and the Spanish AVE service began commercial services on the line 9January2013, later offering services to Marseille on their high speed network.", "This was shortly followed by the commencement of commercial service by the French TGV on 17January2013, leading to an average travel time on the Paris-Barcelona TGV route of 7h42m.", "This new line passes through Girona and Figueres with a tunnel through the Pyrenees." ], [ "Demographics", "As of 2017, the official population of Catalonia was 7,522,596.1,194,947residents did not have Spanish citizenship, accounting for about 16% of the population.The Urban Region of Barcelona includes 5,217,864people and covers an area of .", "The metropolitan area of the Urban Region includes cities such as L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Sabadell, Terrassa, Badalona, Santa Coloma de Gramenet and Cornellà de Llobregat.In 1900, the population of Catalonia was 1,966,382people and in 1970 it was 5,122,567.The sizeable increase of the population was due to the demographic boom in Spain during the 1960s and early 1970s as well as in consequence of large-scale internal migration from the rural economically weak regions to its more prospering industrial cities.", "In Catalonia, that wave of internal migration arrived from several regions of Spain, especially from Andalusia, Murcia and Extremadura.", "As of 1999, it was estimated that over 60% of Catalans descended from 20thcentury migrations from other parts of Spain.Immigrants from other countries settled in Catalonia since the 1990s; a large percentage comes from Africa, Latin America and Eastern Europe, and smaller numbers from Asia and Southern Europe, often settling in urban centers such as Barcelona and industrial areas.", "In 2017, Catalonia had 940,497foreign residents (11.9%of the total population) with non-Spanish ID cards, without including those who acquired Spanish citizenship.+'''Foreign population by country of citizenship''' (2018) Nationality Population 119,177 111,192 59,380 55,823 45,125 33,728 33,184 30,095 29,853 25,749 24,224 23,103 22,305 20,828 20,127 19,445 19,192 18,917 18,620 18,002 16,933 14,209 13,847 12,491 11,288 11,273 11,061'''Foreign Population by Nationality'''Number%2022'''TOTAL FOREIGNERS''''''1,271,810'''EUROPE401,605EUROPEAN UNION295,896OTHER EUROPE105,709AFRICA324,260SOUTH AMERICA247,821CENTRAL AMERICA368,461NORTH AMERICA18,332ASIA184,846OCEANIA1,015Instituto Nacional de Estadística=== Religion ===Historically, all the Catalan population was Christian, specifically Catholic, but since the 1980s there has been a trend of decline of Christianity.", "Nevertheless, according to the most recent study sponsored by the Government of Catalonia, as of 2020, 62.3% of the Catalans identify as Christians (up from 61.9% in 2016 and 56.5% in 2014) of whom 53.0%Catholics, 7.0%Protestants and Evangelicals, 1.3%Orthodox Christians and 1.0%Jehovah's Witnesses.", "At the same time, 18.6% of the population identify as atheists, 8.8%as agnostics, 4.3%as Muslims, and a further 3.4% as being of other religions.=== Languages ==='''First language used, 2007 Demographic Survey'''Spanish3.542.200 (50.2%)Catalan2 266 700 (32.2%)Both languages519 700 (7.4%)Other languages71 300 (1.2%)Arabic119 400 (1.7%)Romanian102 400 (1.5%)Berber87 500 (1.2%)French46 700 (0.7%)Portuguese44 700 (0.6%)Galician36 600 (0.5%)English33 800 (0.5%)Russian29 200 (0.4%)German27 400 (0.4%)Chinese16 700 (0.2%)Italian13 400 (0.2%)Others159 500 (2.3%)Total population aged two and over7 049 900 (100.0%)Catalan-speaking regions of EuropeAccording to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013, Spanish is the most spoken language in Catalonia (46.53%claim Spanish as \"their own language\"), followed by Catalan (37.26%claim Catalan as \"their own language\").", "In everyday use, 11.95%of the population claim to use both languages equally, whereas 45.92%mainly use Spanish and 35.54%mainly use Catalan.", "There is a significant difference between the Barcelona metropolitan area (and, to a lesser extent, the Tarragona area), where Spanish is more spoken than Catalan, and the more rural and small town areas, where Catalan clearly prevails over Spanish.Originating in the historic territory of Catalonia, Catalan has enjoyed special status since the approval of the Statute of Autonomy of 1979 which declares it to be \"Catalonia's own language\", a term which signifies a language given special legal status within a Spanish territory, or which is historically spoken within a given region.", "The other languages with official status in Catalonia are Spanish, which has official status throughout Spain, and Aranese Occitan, which is spoken in Val d'Aran.Since the Statute of Autonomy of 1979, Aranese (a Gascon dialect of Occitan) has also been official and subject to special protection in Val d'Aran.", "This small area of 7,000inhabitants was the only place where a dialect of Occitan had received full official status.", "Then, on 9August2006, when the new Statute came into force, Occitan became official throughout Catalonia.", "Occitan is the mother tongue of 22.4% of the population of Val d'Aran, which has attracted heavy immigration from other Spanish regions to work in the service industry.", "Catalan Sign Language is also officially recognised.Although not considered an \"official language\" in the same way as Catalan, Spanish, and Occitan, the Catalan Sign Language, with about 18,000 users in Catalonia, is granted official recognition and support: \"The public authorities shall guarantee the use of Catalan sign language and conditions of equality for deaf people who choose to use this language, which shall be the subject of education, protection and respect.", "\"As was the case since the ascent of the Bourbon dynasty to the throne of Spain after the War of the Spanish Succession, and with the exception of the short period of the Second Spanish Republic, under Francoist Spain Catalan was banned from schools and all other official use, so that for example families were not allowed to officially register children with Catalan names.", "Although never completely banned, Catalan language publishing was severely restricted during the early 1940s, with only religious texts and small-run self-published texts being released.", "Some books were published clandestinely or circumvented the restrictions by showing publishing dates prior to 1936.This policy was changed in 1946, when restricted publishing in Catalan resumed.Rural–urban migration originating in other parts of Spain also reduced the social use of Catalan in urban areas and increased the use of Spanish.", "Lately, a similar sociolinguistic phenomenon has occurred with foreign immigration.", "Catalan cultural activity increased in the 1960s and the teaching of Catalan began thanks to the initiative of associations such as Òmnium Cultural.After the end of Francoist Spain, the newly established self-governing democratic institutions in Catalonia embarked on a long-term language policy to recover the use of Catalan and has, since 1983, enforced laws which attempt to protect and extend the use of Catalan.", "This policy, known as the \"linguistic normalisation\" ( in Catalan, in Spanish) has been supported by the vast majority of Catalan political parties through the last thirty years.", "Some groups consider these efforts a way to discourage the use of Spanish, whereas some others, including the Catalan government and the European Union consider the policies respectful, or even as an example which \"should be disseminated throughout the Union\".Fragment of the (–1095), one of the earliest texts written almost completely in Catalan, predating the famous by a centuryToday, Catalan is the main language of the Catalan autonomous government and the other public institutions that fall under its jurisdiction.", "Basic public education is given mainly in Catalan, but also there are some hours per week of Spanish medium instruction.", "Although businesses are required by law to display all information (e.g.", "menus, posters) at least in Catalan, this not systematically enforced.", "There is no obligation to display this information in either Occitan or Spanish, although there is no restriction on doing so in these or other languages.", "The use of fines was introduced in a 1997 linguistic law that aims to increase the public use of Catalan and defend the rights of Catalan speakers.", "On the other hand, the Spanish Constitution does not recognize equal language rights for national minorities since it enshrined Spanish as the only official language of the state, the knowledge of which being compulsory.", "Numerous laws regarding for instance the labelling of pharmaceutical products, make in effect Spanish the only language of compulsory use.The law ensures that both Catalan and Spanish – being official languages – can be used by the citizens without prejudice in all public and private activities.", "The Generalitat uses Catalan in its communications and notifications addressed to the general population, but citizens can also receive information from the Generalitat in Spanish if they so wish.", "Debates in the Catalan Parliament take place almost exclusively in Catalan and the Catalan public television broadcasts programs mainly in Catalan.Due to the intense immigration which Spain in general and Catalonia in particular experienced in the first decade of the 21st century, many foreign languages are spoken in various cultural communities in Catalonia, of which Rif-Berber, Moroccan Arabic, Romanian and Urdu are the most common ones.In Catalonia, there is a high social and political consensus on the language policies favoring Catalan, also among Spanish speakers and speakers of other languages.", "However, some of these policies have been criticised for trying to promote Catalan by imposing fines on businesses.", "For example, following the passage of the law on Catalan cinema in March 2010, which established that half of the movies shown in Catalan cinemas had to be in Catalan, a general strike of 75% of the cinemas took place.", "The Catalan government gave in and dropped the clause that forced 50% of the movies to be dubbed or subtitled in Catalan before the law came to effect.", "On the other hand, organisations such as Plataforma per la Llengua reported different violations of the linguistic rights of the Catalan speakers in Catalonia and the other Catalan-speaking territories in Spain, most of them caused by the institutions of the Spanish government in these territories.The Catalan language policy has been challenged by some political parties in the Catalan Parliament.", "Citizens, currently the main opposition party, has been one of the most consistent critics of the Catalan language policy within Catalonia.", "The Catalan branch of the People's Party has a more ambiguous position on the issue: on one hand, it demands a bilingual Catalan–Spanish education and a more balanced language policy that would defend Catalan without favoring it over Spanish, whereas on the other hand, a few local PP politicians have supported in their municipalities measures privileging Catalan over Spanish and it has defended some aspects of the official language policies, sometimes against the positions of its colleagues from other parts of Spain." ], [ "Culture", "=== Art and architecture ===Catalonia has given to the world many important figures in the area of the art.", "Catalan painters internationally known are, among others, Salvador Dalí, Joan Miró and Antoni Tàpies.", "Closely linked with the Catalan pictorial atmosphere, Pablo Picasso lived in Barcelona during his youth, training them as an artist and creating the movement of cubism.", "Other important artists are Claudi Lorenzale for the medieval Romanticism that marked the artistic Renaixença, Marià Fortuny for the Romanticism and Catalan Orientalism of the nineteenth century, Ramon Casas or Santiago Rusiñol, main representatives of the pictorial current of Catalan modernism from the end of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century, Josep Maria Sert for early 20th-century Noucentisme, or Josep Maria Subirachs for expressionist or abstract sculpture and painting of the late twentieth century.The most important painting museums of Catalonia are the Teatre-Museu Dalí in Figueres, the National Art Museum of Catalonia (MNAC), Picasso Museum, Fundació Antoni Tàpies, Joan Miró Foundation, the Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art (MACBA), the Centre of Contemporary Culture of Barcelona (CCCB) and the CaixaForum.Rose window (Solsona Cathedral)In the field of architecture were developed and adapted to Catalonia different artistic styles prevalent in Europe, leaving footprints in many churches, monasteries and cathedrals, of Romanesque (the best examples of which are located in the northern half of the territory) and Gothic styles.", "The Gothic developed in Barcelona and its area of influence is known as Catalan Gothic, with some particular characteristics.", "The church of Santa Maria del Mar is an example of this kind of style.", "During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers.There are some examples of Renaissance (such as the Palau de la Generalitat), Baroque and Neoclassical architectures.", "In the late nineteenth century Modernism (Art Nouveau) appeared as the national art.", "The world-renowned Catalan architects of this style are Antoni Gaudí, Lluís Domènech i Montaner and Josep Puig i Cadafalch.", "Thanks to the urban expansion of Barcelona during the last decades of the century and the first ones of the next, many buildings of the Eixample are modernists.", "In the field of architectural rationalism, which turned especially relevant in Catalonia during the Republican era (1931–1939) highlighting Josep Lluís Sert and Josep Torres i Clavé, members of the GATCPAC and, in contemporany architecture, Ricardo Bofill and Enric Miralles.==== Monuments and World Heritage Sites ====The Medieval church of Sant Climent de Taüll, located at the foothills of the Pyrenees, in the province of LleidaSagrada Família, BarcelonaThere are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Catalonia:*Archaeological Ensemble of Tarraco, Tarragona*Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí, Lleida province*Poblet Monastery, Poblet, Tarragona province*Works of Lluís Domènech i Montaner:**Palau de la Música Catalana, Barcelona**Hospital de Sant Pau, Barcelona*Works of Antoni Gaudí:**Sagrada Família, Barcelona**Parc Güell, Barcelona**Palau Güell, Barcelona**Casa Milà (La Pedrera), Barcelona**Casa Vicens, Barcelona**Casa Batlló, Barcelona**The Church of Colònia Güell, Santa Coloma de Cervelló, Barcelona province=== Literature ===The oldest surviving literary use of the Catalan language is considered to be the religious text known as Homilies d'Organyà, written either in late 11th or early 12thcentury.There are two historical moments of splendor of Catalan literature.", "The first begins with the historiographic chronicles of the 13thcentury (chronicles written between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries narrating the deeds of the monarchs and leading figures of the Crown of Aragon) and the subsequent Golden Age of the 14th and 15thcenturies.", "After that period, between the 16th and 19thcenturies the Romantic historiography defined this era as the , considered as the \"decadent\" period in Catalan literature because of a general falling into disuse of the vernacular language in cultural contexts and lack of patronage among the nobility.Mercè Rodoreda The second moment of splendor began in the 19thcentury with the cultural and political (Renaissance) represented by writers and poets such as Jacint Verdaguer, Víctor Català (pseudonym of Caterina Albert i Paradís), Narcís Oller, Joan Maragall and Àngel Guimerà.", "During the 20thcentury, avant-garde movements developed, initiated by the Generation of '14 (called Noucentisme in Catalonia), represented by Eugenio d'Ors, Joan Salvat-Papasseit, Josep Carner, Carles Riba, J.V.", "Foix and others.", "During the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, the Civil War (Generation of '36) and the Francoist period, Catalan literature was maintained despite the repression against the Catalan language, being often produced in exile.Ana María Matute The most outstanding authors of this period are Salvador Espriu, Josep Pla, Josep Maria de Sagarra (who are considered mainly responsible for the renewal of Catalan prose), Mercè Rodoreda, Joan Oliver Sallarès or \"Pere Quart\", Pere Calders, Gabriel Ferrater, Manuel de Pedrolo, Agustí Bartra or Miquel Martí i Pol.", "In addition, several foreign writers who fought in the International Brigades, or other military units, have since recounted their experiences of fighting in their works, historical or fictional, with for example, George Orwell, in ''Homage to Catalonia'' (1938) or Claude Simon's ''Le Palace'' (1962) and ''Les Géorgiques'' (1981).After the transition to democracy (1975–1978) and the restoration of the Generalitat (1977), literary life and the editorial market have returned to normality and literary production in Catalan is being bolstered with a number of language policies intended to protect Catalan culture.", "Besides the aforementioned authors, other relevant 20th-century writers of the Francoist and democracy periods include Joan Brossa, Agustí Bartra, Manuel de Pedrolo, Pere Calders or Quim Monzó.Ana María Matute, Jaime Gil de Biedma, Manuel Vázquez Montalbán and Juan Goytisolo are among the most prominent Catalan writers in the Spanish language since the democratic restoration in Spain.=== Festivals and public holidays ===Castell 4 de 9 amb folre i pilar by Colla Vella de Valls''Monument als castellers'' (Tarragona)Castells are one of the main manifestations of Catalan popular culture.", "The activity consists in constructing human towers by competing (teams).", "This practice originated in Valls, on the region of the Camp de Tarragona, during the 18th century, and later it was extended to the rest of the territory, especially in the late 20th century.", "The tradition of els Castells i els Castellers was declared Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2010.In main celebrations, other elements of the Catalan popular culture are also usually present: parades with (giants), bigheads, stick-dancers and musicians, and the , where devils and monsters dance and spray showers of sparks using firecrackers.", "Another traditional celebration in Catalonia is , declared a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by the UNESCO on 25 November 2005.during the festa major of La Seu d'Urgell Christmas in Catalonia lasts two days, plus Christmas Eve.", "On the 25th, Christmas is celebrated, followed by a similar feast on the 26, called Sant Esteve (Saint Steve's Day).", "This allows families to visit and dine with different sectors of the extended family or get together with friends on the second day.One of the most deeply rooted and curious Christmas traditions is the popular figure of the , consisting of an (often hollow) log with a face painted on it and often two little front legs appended, usually wearing a Catalan hat and scarf.", "The word has nothing to do with the Spanish word ''tío'', meaning uncle.", "''Tió'' means log in Catalan.", "The log is sometimes \"found in the woods\" (in an event staged for children) and then adopted and taken home, where it is fed and cared for during a month or so.", "On Christmas Day or on Christmas Eve, a game is played where children march around the house singing a song requesting the log to poop, then they hit the log with a stick, to make it poop, and lo and behold, as if through magic, it poops candy, and sometimes other small gifts.", "Usually, the larger or main gifts are brought by the Three Kings on 6 January, and the tió only brings small things.A tió exhibited at Plaça Sant Jaume in Barcelona in the 2010–2011 Christmas season.Another custom is to make a (nativity scene) in the home or in shop windows, the latter sometimes competing in originality or sheer size and detail.", "Churches often host exhibits of numerous dioramas by nativity scene makers, or a single nativity scene they put out, and town halls generally put out a nativity scene in the central square.", "In Barcelona, every year, the main nativity scene is designed by different artists, and often ends up being an interesting, post-modern or conceptual and strange creation.", "In the home, the nativity scene often consists of strips of cork bark to represent cliffs or mountains in the background, moss as grass in the foreground, some wood chips or other as dirt, and aluminum foil for rivers and lakes.", "The traditional figurines often included are the three wise men on camels or horses, which are moved every day or so to go closer to the manger, a star with a long tail in the background to lead people to the spot, the annunciation with shepherds having a meal and an angel appearing (hanging from something), a washer lady washing clothes in the pond, sheep, ducks, people carrying packages on their backs, a donkey driver with a load of twigs, and atrezzo such as a starry sky, miniature towns placed in the distance, either Oriental-styled or local-looking, a bridge over the river, trees, etc.One of the most astonishing and sui-generis figurines traditionally placed in the nativity scene, to the great glee of children, is the , a person depicted in the act of defecating.", "This figurine is hidden in some corner of the nativity scene and the game is to detect it.", "Of course, churches forgo this figurine, and the main nativity scene of Barcelona, for instance, likewise does not feature it.", "The caganer is so popular it has, together with the tió, long been a major part of the Christmas markets, where they come in the guise of your favorite politicians or other famous people, as well as the traditional figures of a Catalan farmer.", "People often buy a figurine of a caganer in the guise of a famous person they are actually fond of, contrary to what one would imagine, though sometimes people buy a caganer in the guise of someone they dislike, although this means they have to look at them in the home.Another (extended) Christmas tradition is the celebration of the Epiphany on 6 January, which is called ''Reis'', meaning Three Kings Day.", "This is every important in Catalonia and the Catalan-speaking areas, and families go to watch major parades on the eve of the Epiphany, where they can greet the kings and watch them pass by in pomp and circumstance, on floats and preceded and followed by pages, musicians, dancers, etc.", "They often give the kings letters with their gift requests, which are collected by the pages.", "On the next day, the children find the gifts the three kings brought for them.In addition to traditional local Catalan culture, traditions from other parts of Spain can be found as a result of migration from other regions, for instance the celebration of the Andalusian in Catalonia.On 28 July 2010, second only after the Canary Islands, Catalonia became another Spanish territory to forbid bullfighting.", "The ban, which went into effect on 1 January 2012, had originated in a popular petition supported by over 180,000 signatures.=== Music and dance ===SardanaThe sardana is considered to be the most characteristic Catalan folk dance, interpreted to the rhythm of tamborí, tible and tenora (from the oboe family), trumpet, trombó (trombone), fiscorn (family of bugles) and contrabaix with three strings played by a cobla, and are danced in a circle dance.", "Other tunes and dances of the traditional music are the contrapàs (obsolete today), ball de bastons (the \"dance of sticks\"), the moixiganga, the goigs (popular songs), the galops or the jota in the southern part.", "The are characteristic in some marine localities of the Costa Brava, especially during the summer months when these songs are sung outdoors accompanied by a of burned rum.Art music was first developed, up to the nineteenth century and, as in much of Europe, in a liturgical setting, particularly marked by the Escolania de Montserrat.", "The main Western musical trends have marked these productions, medieval monodies or polyphonies, with the work of Abbot Oliba in the eleventh century or the compilation Llibre Vermell de Montserrat (\"Red Book of Montserrat\") from the fourteenth century.", "Through the Renaissance there were authors such as Pere Albert Vila, Joan Brudieu or the two Mateu Fletxa (\"The Old\" and \"The Young\").", "Baroque had composers like Joan Cererols.", "The Romantic music was represented by composers such as Fernando Sor, Josep Anselm Clavé (father of choir movement in Catalonia and responsible of the music folk reviving) or Felip Pedrell.Modernisme also expressed in musical terms from the end of the 19th century onwards, mixing folkloric and post-romantic influences, through the works of Isaac Albéniz and Enric Granados.", "The avant-garde spirit initiated by the modernists is prolonged throughout the twentieth century, thanks to the activities of the Orfeó Català, a choral society founded in 1891, with its monumental concert hall, the Palau de la Música Catalana in Catalan, built by Lluís Domènech i Montaner from 1905 to 1908, the Barcelona Symphony Orchestra created in 1944 and composers, conductors and musicians engaged against the Francoism like Robert Gerhard, Eduard Toldrà and Pau Casals.Performances of opera, mostly imported from Italy, began in the 18th century, but some native operas were written as well, including the ones by Domènec Terradellas, Carles Baguer, Ramon Carles, Isaac Albéniz and Enric Granados.", "The Barcelona main opera house, Gran Teatre del Liceu (opened in 1847), remains one of the most important in Spain, hosting one of the most prestigious music schools in Barcelona, the Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu.", "Several lyrical artists trained by this institution gained international renown during the 20th century, such as Victoria de los Ángeles, Montserrat Caballé, Giacomo Aragall and Josep Carreras.Cellist Pau Casals is admired as an outstanding player.", "Other popular musical styles were born in the second half of the 20th century such as Nova Cançó from the 1960s with Lluís Llach and the group Els Setze Jutges, the Catalan rumba in the 1960s with Peret, Catalan Rock from the late 1970s with La Banda Trapera del Río and Decibelios for Punk Rock, Sau, Els Pets, Sopa de Cabra or Lax'n'Busto for pop rock or Sangtraït for hard rock, electropop since the 1990s with OBK and indie pop from the 1990s.=== Media and cinema ===Logo of Televisió de CatalunyaCatalonia is the autonomous community, along with Madrid, that has the most media (TV, magazines, newspapers etc.).", "In Catalonia there is a wide variety of local and comarcal media.", "With the restoration of democracy, many newspapers and magazines, until then in the hands of the Franco government, were recovered in order to convert them into free and democratic media, while local radios and televisions were implemented.Televisió de Catalunya, which broadcasts entirely in the Catalan language, is the main Catalan public TV.", "It has five channels: TV3, El 33, Super3, 3/24, Esport3 and TV3CAT.", "In 2018, TV3 became the first television channel to be the most viewed one for nine consecutive years in Catalonia.", "State televisions that broadcast in Catalonia in Spanish language include (with few emissions in Catalan), Antena 3, Cuatro, Telecinco, and La Sexta.", "Other smaller Catalan television channels include 8TV (owned by Grup Godó), Barça TV and the local televisions, the greatest exponent of which is betevé, the TV channel of Barcelona, which also broadcasts in Catalan.The two main Catalan newspapers of general information are ''El Periódico de Catalunya'' and ''La Vanguardia'', both with editions in Catalan and Spanish.", "Catalan only published newspapers include ''Ara'' and ''El Punt Avui'' (from the fusion of ''El Punt'' and ''Avui'' in 2011), as well as most part of the local press.", "The Spanish newspapers, such as ''El País'', ''El Mundo'' or ''La Razón'', can be also acquired.Catalonia has a long tradition of use of radio, the first regular radio broadcast in the country was from Ràdio Barcelona in 1924.Today, the public Catalunya Ràdio (owned by Catalan Media Corporation) and the private RAC 1 (belonging to Grup Godó) are the two main radios of Catalonia, both in Catalan.Sitges Film Festival of 2009Regarding the cinema, after the democratic transition, three styles have dominated since then.", "First, auteur cinema, in the continuity of the Barcelona School, emphasizes experimentation and form, while focusing on developing social and political themes.", "Worn first by Josep Maria Forn or Bigas Luna, then by Marc Recha, Jaime Rosales and Albert Serra, this genre has achieved some international recognition.", "Then, the documentary became another genre particularly representative of contemporary Catalan cinema, boosted by Joaquim Jordà i Català and José Luis Guerín.", "Later, horror films and thrillers have also emerged as a specialty of the Catalan film industry, thanks in particular to the vitality of the Sitges Film Festival, created in 1968.Several directors have gained worldwide renown thanks to this genre, starting with Jaume Balagueró and his series ''REC'' (co-directed with Valencian Paco Plaza), Juan Antonio Bayona and ''El Orfanato'' or Jaume Collet-Serra with ''Orphan'', ''Unknown'' and ''Non-Stop''.Catalan actors have shot for Spanish and international productions, such as Sergi López.The Museum of Cinema - Tomàs Mallol Collection (Museu del Cinema – Col.lecció Tomàs Mallol in Catalan) of Girona is home of important permanent exhibitions of cinema and pre-cinema objects.", "Other important institutions for the promotion of cinema are the Gaudí Awards (Premis Gaudí in Catalan, which replaced from 2009 Barcelona Film Awards themselves created in 2002), serving as equivalent for Catalonia to the Spanish Goya or French César.=== Philosophy === is a form of ancestral Catalan wisdom or sensibleness.", "It involves well-pondered perception of situations, level-headedness, awareness, integrity, and right action.", "Many Catalans consider seny something unique to their culture, is based on a set of ancestral local customs stemming from the scale of values and social norms of their society.=== Sport ===Sport has had a distinct importance in Catalan life and culture since the beginning of the 20th century; consequently, the region has a well-developed sports infrastructure.", "The main sports are football, basketball, handball, rink hockey, tennis and motorsport.Despite the fact that the most popular sports are represented outside by the Spanish national teams, Catalonia can officially play as itself in some others, like korfball, futsal or rugby league.", "Most of Catalan Sports Federations have a long tradition and some of them participated in the foundation of international sports federations, as the Catalan Federation of Rugby, that was one of the founder members of the Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur (FIRA) in 1934.The majority of Catalan sport federations are part of the Sports Federation Union of Catalonia (Catalan: ), founded in 1933.The Catalan Football Federation also periodically fields a national team against international opposition, organizing friendly matches.", "In the recent years they have played with Bulgaria, Argentina, Brazil, Basque Country, Colombia, Nigeria, Cape Verde and Tunisia.", "The biggest football clubs are Barcelona (also known as Barça), who have won five European Cups (UEFA Champions League), and Espanyol, who have twice been runner-up of the UEFA Cup (now UEFA Europa League).", "Barcelona currently play in La Liga while Espanyol currently play in the Segunda División.The Catalan waterpolo is one of the main powers of the Iberian Peninsula.", "The Catalans won triumphs in waterpolo competitions at European and world level by club (the Barcelona was champion of Europe in 1981/82 and the Catalonia in 1994/95) and national team (one gold and one silver in Olympic Games and World Championships).", "It also has many international synchronized swimming champions.Motorsport has a long tradition in Catalonia, which involving many people, with some world champions and several competitions organized since the beginning of the 20th century.", "The Circuit de Catalunya, built in 1991, is one of the main motorsport venues, holding the Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix, the Spanish F1 Grand Prix, a DTM race, and several other races.Catalonia hosted many relevant international sport events, such as the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, and also the 1955 Mediterranean Games, the 2013 World Aquatics Championships or the 2018 Mediterranean Games.", "It held annually the fourth-oldest still-existing cycling stage race in the world, the Volta a Catalunya (Tour of Catalonia).BCN-EstadiOlimpic-4860.jpg|Olympic Park of Montjuïc, Barcelona.", "At the centre, the Olympic Stadium Lluís CompanysCamp Nou - Interior (2005).jpg|Camp Nou, home of FC BarcelonaF1 Circuit de Catalunya - Tribuna.jpg|Circuit de Barcelona-CatalunyaPep Guardiola 2.1.jpg|Pep Guardiola, one of the most successful football managers of all time, pictured while managing Barcelona=== Symbols ===Flag of CataloniaCatalonia has its own representative and distinctive national symbols such as:*The flag of Catalonia, called the , is a vexillological symbol based on the heraldic emblem of Counts of Barcelona and the coat of arms of the Crown of Aragon, which consists of four red stripes on a golden background.", "It has been an official symbol since the Statute of Catalonia of 1932.", "*The National Day of Catalonia is on 11 September, and it is commonly called .", "It commemorates the 1714 siege of Barcelona defeat during the War of the Spanish Succession.", "*The national anthem of Catalonia is and was written in its present form by Emili Guanyavents in 1899.The song is official by law from 25 February 1993.It is based on the events of 1639 and 1640 during the Catalan Revolt.", "*St George's Day () is widely celebrated in all the towns of Catalonia on 23 April, and includes an exchange of books and roses between couples or family members.=== Cuisine === (bread with tomato)Catalan gastronomy has a long culinary tradition.", "Various local food recipes have been described in documents dating from the fifteenth century.", "As with all the cuisines of the Mediterranean, Catatonian dishes make abundant use of fish, seafood, olive oil, bread and vegetables.", "Regional specialties include the (bread with tomato), which consists of bread (sometimes toasted), and tomato seasoned with olive oil and salt.", "Often the dish is accompanied with any number of sausages (cured botifarres, fuet, iberic ham, etc.", "), ham or cheeses.", "Others dishes include the , , (fish stew), and a dessert, Catalan cream.Catalan vineyards also have several wines, such as: Priorat, Montsant, Penedès and Empordà.", "There is also a sparkling wine, the cava.Catalonia is internationally recognized for its fine dining.", "Three of the World's 50 Best Restaurants are in Catalonia, and four restaurants have three Michelin stars, including restaurants like El Bulli or El Celler de Can Roca, both of which regularly dominate international rankings of restaurants.", "The region has been awarded the European Region of Gastronomy title for the year 2016." ], [ "Twinning and covenants", "*link=Nuevo León Nuevo León* California* Quebec" ], [ "See also", "*Catalan Company*Catalan Countries*Date and time notation in Catalonia*List of European regions by GDP*List of people from Catalonia*Northern Catalonia*Outline of Catalonia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Generalitat de Catalunya (Government of Catalonia)* Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia" ] ]
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[ [ "Konstantinos Kanaris" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Konstantinos Kanaris''' (, ; c. 17902 September 1877), also anglicised as '''Constantine Kanaris''' or '''Canaris''', was a Greek admiral, Prime Minister, and a hero of the Greek War of Independence." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Konstantinos Kanaris was born and grew up on the island of Psara, close to the island of Chios, in the Aegean.", "The exact year of his birth is unknown.", "Official records of the Hellenic Navy indicate 1795, however, modern Greek historians consider 1790 or 1793 to be more probable.He was left an orphan at a young age.", "Having to support himself, he chose to become a seaman like most members of his family since the beginning of the 18th century.", "He was subsequently hired as a boy on the brig of his uncle Dimitris Bourekas.===Military career===Konstantinos Kanaris during the Greek War of Independence.", "Lithography by Karl Krazeisen, 1831.Kanaris gained his fame during the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829).", "Unlike most other prominent figures of the War, he had never been initiated into the ''Filiki Eteria'' (Society of Friends), which played a significant role in the uprising against the Ottoman Empire, primarily by secret recruitment of supporters against the Turkish rule.By early 1821, the movement had gained enough support to launch a revolution.", "This seems to have inspired Kanaris, who was in Odessa at the time.", "He returned to the island of Psara in haste and was present when it joined the uprising on 10 April 1821.The island formed its own fleet and the famed seamen of Psara, already known for their well-equipped ships and successful battles against sea pirates, proved to be highly effective in naval warfare.", "Kanaris soon distinguished himself as a fire ship captain.", "''The burning of the Turkish flagship by Kanaris''.", "Painting by Nikiforos Lytras, 1873.At Chios, on the moonless night of 6–7 June 1822, forces under his command destroyed the flagship of Nasuhzade Ali Pasha, Kapudan Pasha (Grand Admiral) of the Ottoman fleet, in revenge for the Chios massacre.", "The admiral was holding a ''Bayram'' celebration, allowing Kanaris and his men to position their fire ship without being noticed.", "When the flagship's powder store caught fire, all men aboard were instantly killed.", "The Turkish casualties comprised men, both naval officers and common sailors, as well as Nasuhzade Ali Pasha himself.Kanaris led another successful attack against the Ottoman fleet at Tenedos in November 1822.He was famously said to have encouraged himself by murmuring ''\"Konstantí, you are going to die\"'' every time he was approaching a Turkish warship on the fire boat he was about to detonate.", "''After the destruction of Psara''.", "Painting by Nikolaos Gyzis, 1898.The Ottoman fleet captured Psara on 21 June 1824.A part of the population, including Kanaris, managed to flee the island, but those who didn't were either sold into slavery or slaughtered.", "After the destruction of his home island, he continued to lead attacks against Turkish forces.", "In August 1824, he engaged in naval combats in the Dodecanese.The following year, Kanaris led the Greek raid on Alexandria, a daring attempt to destroy the Egyptian fleet with fire ships that might have been successful if the wind had not failed just after the Greek ships entered Alexandria harbour.After the end of the War and the independence of Greece, Kanaris became an officer of the new Hellenic Navy, reaching the rank of admiral, and a prominent politician.===Political career===Konstantinos Kanaris was one of the few with the personal confidence of Ioannis Kapodistrias, the first Head of State of independent Greece.", "After the assassination of Kapodistrias on 9 October 1831, he retired to the island of Syros.During the reign of King Otto I, Kanaris served as Minister in various governments and then as Prime Minister in the provisional government (16 February30 March 1844).", "He served a second term (15 October 184812 December 1849), and as Navy Minister in the 1854 cabinet of Alexandros Mavrokordatos.Monument to Konstantinos Kanaris in Kypseli, Athens.", "Sculpture by Lazaros Fytalis.In 1862, he was among the rare War of Independence veterans who took part in the bloodless insurrection that deposed the increasingly unpopular King Otto I and led to the election of Prince William of Denmark as King George I of Greece.", "During his reign, Kanaris served as a Prime Minister for a third term (6 March16 April 1864), fourth term (26 July 186426 February 1865) and fifth and last term (7 June2 September 1877).Grave of Konstantinos and Despoina Kanaris in the First Cemetery of Athens.Kanaris died on 2 September 1877 whilst still serving in office as Prime Minister.", "Following his death his government remained in power until 14 September 1877 without agreeing on a replacement at its head.", "He was buried in the First Cemetery of Athens and his heart was placed in a silver urn.National Historical Museum, Athens." ], [ "Legacy", "Konstantinos Kanaris is considered a national hero in Greece and ranks amongst the most notable participants of the War of Independence.", "Many statues and busts have been erected in his honour, such as ''Kanaris a Scio'' in Palermo, Italy.", "He was also featured on a Greek ₯1 coin and a ₯100 banknote issued by the Bank of Greece.₯1 coin featuring the portrait of Konstantinos Kanaris.To honour Kanaris, the following ships of the Hellenic Navy have been named after him:* ''Kanaris'', a gunboat commissioned in 1835* ''Kanaris'', a torpedo boat tender commissioned in 1880* , a ''Hunt''-class destroyer commissioned in 1942* , a commissioned in 1972* , an commissioned in 2002''Kanaris'' (F464) of the Hellenic Navy.", "''Te Korowhakaunu / Kanáris Sound'', a section of Taiari / Chalky Inlet in New Zealand's Fiordland National Park, was named after Konstantinos Kanaris by French navigator and explorer Jules de Blosseville (1802–1833)." ], [ "Family", "In 1817, Konstantinos Kanaris married Despoina Maniatis, from a historical family of Psara.They had seven children:* Nikolaos Kanaris (1818–1848), killed during a military expedition in Beirut* Themistoklis Kanaris (1819–1851), killed during a military expedition in Egypt* Thrasyvoulos Kanaris (1820–1898), admiral* Miltiadis Kanaris (1822–1901), admiral, member of the Greek Parliament for many years, Naval Minister three times in 1864, 1871, and 1878* Lykourgos Kanaris (1826–1865), naval officer and lawyer* Maria Kanaris (1828–1847), married A. Balabano* Aristeidis Kanaris (1831–1863), officer killed in the uprising of 1863Wilhelm Canaris, a German Admiral, speculated that he might be a descendant of Konstantinos Kanaris.", "An official genealogical family history that was researched in 1938 showed however, that he was of Italian descent and not related to the Kanaris family from Greece." ], [ "Honours", "===Greek honours===* 55px Order of the Redeemer (Kingdom of Greece): Grand Cross, 1864===Foreign honours===* 55px Royal Guelphic Order (Kingdom of Hanover): Grand Cross* 55px Order of the Dannebrog (Kingdom of Denmark): Grand Cross" ], [ "See also", "* List of prime ministers of Greece* Greek War of Independence* Kanaris family* Hellenic Navy* History of Greece* Greek ship ''Kanaris''* First Cemetery of Athens" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* A concise history of the Grand Lodge of Greece and the origins of the Philiki Etairia* Biography of Konstantinos Kanaris on Rulers.org* Statue of Konstantinos Kanaris on Chios island, Greece* Major figures of the Greek War of Independence* Modern Egypt under Mohammad Ali, Viceroy of Egypt" ] ]
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[ [ "Carl Sagan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Carl Edward Sagan''' (; ; November 9, 1934December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer and science communicator.", "His best known scientific contribution is his research on the possibility of extraterrestrial life, including experimental demonstration of the production of amino acids from basic chemicals by exposure to light.", "He assembled the first physical messages sent into space, the Pioneer plaque and the Voyager Golden Record, which were universal messages that could potentially be understood by any extraterrestrial intelligence that might find them.", "He argued in favor of the hypothesis, which has since been accepted, that the high surface temperatures of Venus are the result of the greenhouse effect.Initially an assistant professor at Harvard, Sagan later moved to Cornell, where he spent most of his career.", "He published more than 600 scientific papers and articles and was author, co-author or editor of more than 20 books.", "He wrote many popular science books, such as ''The Dragons of Eden'', ''Broca's Brain'', ''Pale Blue Dot'' and ''The Demon-Haunted World''.", "He also co-wrote and narrated the award-winning 1980 television series ''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage'', which became the most widely watched series in the history of American public television: ''Cosmos'' has been seen by at least 500 million people in 60 countries.", "A book, also called ''Cosmos'', was published to accompany the series.", "Sagan also wrote a science-fiction novel, published in 1985, called ''Contact'', which became the basis for a 1997 film of the same name.", "His papers, comprising 595,000 items, are archived in the Library of Congress.Sagan was a popular public advocate of skeptical scientific inquiry and the scientific method; he pioneered the field of exobiology and promoted the search for extra-terrestrial intelligent life (SETI).", "He spent most of his career as a professor of astronomy at Cornell University, where he directed the Laboratory for Planetary Studies.", "Sagan and his works received numerous awards and honors, including the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal, the National Academy of Sciences Public Welfare Medal, the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction (for his book ''The Dragons of Eden''), and (for ''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage''), two Emmy Awards, the Peabody Award, and the Hugo Award.", "He married three times and had five children.", "After developing myelodysplasia, Sagan died of pneumonia at the age of 62 on December 20, 1996." ], [ "Early life", "===Childhood===Sagan in Rahway High School's 1951 yearbookCarl Edward Sagan was born in the Bensonhurst neighborhood of New York City's Brooklyn borough on November 9, 1934.His mother, Rachel Molly Gruber, was a housewife from New York City; his father, Samuel Sagan, was a Ukrainian garment worker who emigrated from Kamianets-Podilskyi (which was then in the Russian Empire).", "Sagan was named in honor of his maternal grandmother, Chaiya Clara, who had died while giving birth to her second child; she was, in Sagan's words, \"the mother she Rachel never knew.\"", "Sagan's maternal grandfather later married a woman named Rose, who Sagan's sister Carol would later say was \"never accepted\" as Rachel's mother because Rachel \"knew she Rose wasn't her birth mother.\"", "Sagan's family lived in a modest apartment in Bensonhurst.", "He later discussed his family being Reform Jews, the most liberal of Judaism's four main branches.", "He and his sister agreed that their father was not especially religious, but that their mother \"definitely believed in God, and was active in the temple ... and served only kosher meat.\"", "During the worst years of the Depression, his father worked as a movie theater usher.According to biographer Keay Davidson, Sagan experienced a kind of \"inner war\" as a result of his close relationship with both of his parents, who were in many ways \"opposites.\"", "He traced his later analytical urges to his mother, a woman who had been extremely poor as a child in New York City during World War I and the 1920s.", "As a young woman, she had had intellectual ambitions, but they were sabotaged by her poverty, her status as a woman and a wife, and her Jewish ethnicity.", "Davidson suggested that this is why she \"worshipped her only son, Carl\" because \"he would fulfill her unfulfilled dreams.\"", "Sagan believed that he got his sense of wonder from his father, who spent his free time giving apples to the poor or helping soothing tensions between employees and management within New York City's garment industry.", "Although awed by his son's intellectual abilities, Sagan's father took his inquisitiveness in stride and saw it as part of growing up.", "Later, during his career, Sagan would draw on his childhood memories to illustrate scientific points as he did in his book ''Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors''.Describing his parents' influence on his later thinking, Sagan said: \"My parents were not scientists.", "They knew almost nothing about science.", "But in introducing me simultaneously to skepticism and to wonder, they taught me the two uneasily cohabiting modes of thought that are central to the scientific method.\"", "He recalled that a defining moment in his development was at age four, when his parents took him to see the exhibits at the 1939 New York World's Fair.", "He later described his memories of several exhibits there.", "One was a moving map in the ''America of Tomorrow'' exhibit, which he said \"showed beautiful highways and cloverleaves and little General Motors cars all carrying people to skyscrapers, buildings with lovely spires, flying buttresses—and it looked great!\"", "Another was a flashlight shining on a photoelectric cell, which created a crackling sound, and another showed how the sound from a tuning fork became a wave on an oscilloscope.", "He also saw an exhibit of the then-nascent medium known as television.", "Referring to that exhibit, he later wrote: \"Plainly, the world held wonders of a kind I had never guessed.", "How could a tone become a picture and light become a noise?", "\"Sagan also saw one of the Fair's most publicized events: the burial of a time capsule at Flushing Meadows, which contained mementos of the 1930s to be recovered by Earth's descendants in a future millennium.", "Davidson wrote that this \"thrilled Carl.\"", "As an adult, inspired by his memories of the World's Fair, Sagan and his colleagues would create similar time capsules to be sent out into the galaxy: the Pioneer plaque and the ''Voyager Golden Record'' précis.", "During World War II, Sagan's family worried about the fate of their European relatives.", "Sagan, however, was generally unaware of the details of the ongoing war.", "He wrote, \"Sure, we had relatives who were caught up in the Holocaust.", "Hitler was not a popular fellow in our household... but on the other hand, I was fairly insulated from the horrors of the war.\"", "His sister, Carol, said that their mother \"above all wanted to protect Carl... she had an extraordinarily difficult time dealing with World War II and the Holocaust.\"", "Sagan's book ''The Demon-Haunted World'' (1996) included his memories of this conflicted period, when his family dealt with the realities of the war in Europe but tried to prevent it from undermining his optimistic spirit.Soon after entering elementary school, Sagan began to express a strong inquisitiveness about nature.", "He recalled taking his first trips to the public library alone, at the age of five, when his mother got him a library card.", "He wanted to learn what stars were, since none of his friends or their parents could give him a clear answer: \"I went to the librarian and asked for a book about stars ... and the answer was stunning.", "It was that the Sun was a star but really close.", "The stars were suns, but so far away they were just little points of light.", "The scale of the universe suddenly opened up to me.", "It was a kind of religious experience.", "There was a magnificence to it, a grandeur, a scale which has never left me.", "Never ever left me.\"", "At about age six or seven, he and a close friend took trips to the American Museum of Natural History in Manhattan.", "While there, they went to the Hayden Planetarium and walked around the museum's exhibits of space objects, such as meteorites, and displays of dinosaurs and animals in natural settings.", "He wrote, \"I was transfixed by the dioramas—lifelike representations of animals and their habitats all over the world.", "Penguins on the dimly lit Antarctic ice ... a family of gorillas, the male beating his chest ... an American grizzly bear standing on his hind legs, ten or twelve feet tall, and staring me right in the eye.", "\"Sagan's parents helped nurture his growing interest in science by buying him chemistry sets and reading materials.", "However, his interest in space was his primary focus, especially after reading sci-fi stories by writers such as H. G. Wells and Edgar Rice Burroughs, which stirred his imagination about the possibility of life on other planets such as Mars.", "According to biographer Ray Spangenburg, Sagan's early years of trying to understand the mysteries of the planets became a \"driving force in his life, a continual spark to his intellect, and a quest that would never be forgotten.\"", "In 1947, Sagan discovered the magazine ''Astounding Science Fiction'', which introduced him to more hard science fiction speculations than those in Burroughs' novels.", "That same year, a mass hysteria developed about the possibility that extraterrestrial visitors had arrived in flying saucers, and the young Sagan joined in the speculation that the flying \"discs\" people reported seeing in the sky might be alien spaceships.===Education===Sagan in the University of Chicago's 1954 yearbookSagan attended David A. Boody Junior High School in his native Bensonhurst and had his bar mitzvah when he turned 13.In 1948, when he was 14, his father's work took the family to the older semi-industrial town of Rahway, New Jersey, where he attended Rahway High School.", "He was a straight-A student but was bored because his classes did not challenge him and his teachers did not inspire him.", "His teachers realized this and tried to convince his parents to send him to a private school, with an administrator telling them, \"This kid ought to go to a school for gifted children, he has something really remarkable.\"", "However, his parents could not afford to do so.", "Sagan became president of the school's chemistry club, and set up his own laboratory at home.", "He taught himself about molecules by making cardboard cutouts to help him visualize how they were formed: \"I found that about as interesting as doing chemical experiments.\"", "He was mostly interested in astronomy, learning about it in his spare time.", "In his junior year of high school, he discovered that professional astronomers were paid for doing something he always enjoyed, and decided on astronomy as a career goal: \"That was a splendid day—when I began to suspect that if I tried hard I could do astronomy full-time, not just part-time.\"", "Sagan graduated from Rahway High School in 1951.Before the end of high school, Sagan entered an essay writing contest in which he explored the idea that human contact with advanced life forms from another planet might be as disastrous for people on Earth as Native Americans' first contact with Europeans had been for Native Americans.", "The subject was considered controversial, but his rhetorical skill won over the judges and they awarded him first prize.", "When he was about to graduate from high school, his classmates voted him \"most likely to succeed\" and put him in line to be valedictorian.", "He attended the University of Chicago because, despite his excellent high school grades, it was one of the very few colleges he had applied to that would consider accepting a 16-year-old.", "Its chancellor, Robert Maynard Hutchins, had recently retooled the undergraduate College of the University of Chicago into an \"ideal meritocracy\" built on Great Books, Socratic dialogue, comprehensive examinations, and early entrance to college with no age requirement.As an honors-program undergraduate, Sagan worked in the laboratory of geneticist H. J. Muller and wrote a thesis on the origins of life with physical chemist Harold Urey.", "He also joined the Ryerson Astronomical Society.", "In 1954, he was awarded a Bachelor of Arts with general and special honors in what he quipped was \"nothing.\"", "In 1955, he earned a Bachelor of Science in physics.", "He went on to do graduate work at the University of Chicago, earning a Master of Science in physics in 1956 and a Doctor of Philosophy in astronomy and astrophysics in 1960.His doctoral thesis, submitted to the Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, was entitled ''Physical Studies of the Planets''.", "During his graduate studies, he used the summer months to work with planetary scientist Gerard Kuiper, who was his dissertation director, as well as physicist George Gamow and chemist Melvin Calvin.", "The title of Sagan's dissertation reflected interests he had in common with Kuiper, who had been president of the International Astronomical Union's commission on \"Physical Studies of Planets and Satellites\" throughout the 1950s.In 1958, Sagan and Kuiper worked on the classified military Project A119, a secret U.S. Air Force plan to detonate a nuclear warhead on the Moon and document its effects.", "Sagan had a Top Secret clearance at the Air Force and a Secret clearance with NASA.", "In 1999, an article published in the journal ''Nature'' revealed that Sagan had included the classified titles of two Project A119 papers in his 1959 application for a scholarship to University of California, Berkeley.", "A follow-up letter to the journal by project leader Leonard Reiffel confirmed Sagan's security leak." ], [ "Career and research", "life on other planets in ''Who's Out There?''", "(1973), an award-winning NASA documentary film by Robert Drew.From 1960 to 1962 Sagan was a Miller Fellow at the University of California, Berkeley.", "Meanwhile, he published an article in 1961 in the journal ''Science'' on the atmosphere of Venus, while also working with NASA's Mariner 2 team, and served as a \"Planetary Sciences Consultant\" to the RAND Corporation.After the publication of Sagan's ''Science'' article, in 1961 Harvard University astronomers Fred Whipple and Donald Menzel offered Sagan the opportunity to give a colloquium at Harvard and subsequently offered him a lecturer position at the institution.", "Sagan instead asked to be made an assistant professor, and eventually Whipple and Menzel were able to convince Harvard to offer Sagan the assistant professor position he requested.", "Sagan lectured, performed research, and advised graduate students at the institution from 1963 until 1968, as well as working at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, also located in Cambridge, Massachusetts.In 1968, Sagan was denied academic tenure at Harvard.", "He later indicated that the decision was very unexpected.", "The denial has been blamed on several factors, including that he focused his interests too broadly across a number of areas (while the norm in academia is to become a renowned expert in a narrow specialty), and perhaps because of his well-publicized scientific advocacy, which some scientists perceived as borrowing the ideas of others for little more than self-promotion.", "An advisor from his years as an undergraduate student, Harold Urey, wrote a letter to the tenure committee recommending strongly against tenure for Sagan.Long before the ill-fated tenure process, Cornell University astronomer Thomas Gold had courted Sagan to move to Ithaca, New York, and join the recently-hired astronomer Frank Drake amongst the faculty at Cornell.", "Following the denial of tenure from Harvard, Sagan accepted Gold's offer and remained a faculty member at Cornell for nearly 30 years until his death in 1996.Unlike Harvard, the smaller and more laid-back astronomy department at Cornell welcomed Sagan's growing celebrity status.", "Following two years as an associate professor, Sagan became a full professor at Cornell in 1970 and directed the Laboratory for Planetary Studies there.", "From 1972 to 1981, he was associate director of the Center for Radiophysics and Space Research (CRSR) at Cornell.", "In 1976, he became the David Duncan Professor of Astronomy and Space Sciences, a position he held for the remainder of his life.Sagan was associated with the U.S. space program from its inception.", "From the 1950s onward, he worked as an advisor to NASA, where one of his duties included briefing the Apollo astronauts before their flights to the Moon.", "Sagan contributed to many of the robotic spacecraft missions that explored the Solar System, arranging experiments on many of the expeditions.", "Sagan assembled the first physical message that was sent into space: a gold-plated plaque, attached to the space probe ''Pioneer 10'', launched in 1972.", "''Pioneer 11'', also carrying another copy of the plaque, was launched the following year.", "He continued to refine his designs; the most elaborate message he helped to develop and assemble was the Voyager Golden Record, which was sent out with the Voyager space probes in 1977.Sagan often challenged the decisions to fund the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station at the expense of further robotic missions.=== Scientific achievements ===Sagan and the Viking spacecraftFormer student David Morrison described Sagan as \"an 'idea person' and a master of intuitive physical arguments and 'back of the envelope' calculations\", and Gerard Kuiper said that \"Some persons work best in specializing on a major program in the laboratory; others are best in liaison between sciences.", "Dr. Sagan belongs in the latter group.", "\"Sagan's contributions were central to the discovery of the high surface temperatures of the planet Venus.", "In the early 1960s no one knew for certain the basic conditions of Venus' surface, and Sagan listed the possibilities in a report later depicted for popularization in a Time Life book ''Planets''.", "His own view was that Venus was dry and very hot as opposed to the balmy paradise others had imagined.", "He had investigated radio waves from Venus and concluded that there was a surface temperature of .", "As a visiting scientist to NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, he contributed to the first Mariner missions to Venus, working on the design and management of the project.", "Mariner 2 confirmed his conclusions on the surface conditions of Venus in 1962.Sagan was among the first to hypothesize that Saturn's moon Titan might possess oceans of liquid compounds on its surface and that Jupiter's moon Europa might possess subsurface oceans of water.", "This would make Europa potentially habitable.", "Europa's subsurface ocean of water was later indirectly confirmed by the spacecraft ''Galileo''.", "The mystery of Titan's reddish haze was also solved with Sagan's help.", "The reddish haze was revealed to be due to complex organic molecules constantly raining down onto Titan's surface.Sagan further contributed insights regarding the atmospheres of Venus and Jupiter, as well as seasonal changes on Mars.", "He also perceived global warming as a growing, man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of Venus into a hot, life-hostile planet through a kind of runaway greenhouse effect.", "He testified to the US Congress in 1985 that the greenhouse effect would change the Earth's climate system.", "Sagan and his Cornell colleague Edwin Ernest Salpeter speculated about life in Jupiter's clouds, given the planet's dense atmospheric composition rich in organic molecules.", "He studied the observed color variations on Mars' surface and concluded that they were not seasonal or vegetational changes as most believed, but shifts in surface dust caused by windstorms.Sagan is also known for his research on the possibilities of extraterrestrial life, including experimental demonstration of the production of amino acids from basic chemicals by radiation.He is also the 1994 recipient of the Public Welfare Medal, the highest award of the National Academy of Sciences for \"distinguished contributions in the application of science to the public welfare.\"", "He was denied membership in the academy, reportedly because his media activities made him unpopular with many other scientists., Sagan is the most cited SETI scientist and one of the most cited planetary scientists.===''Cosmos'': popularizing science on TV===Cosmos'' (1980)In 1980 Sagan co-wrote and narrated the award-winning 13-part PBS television series ''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage'', which became the most widely watched series in the history of American public television until 1990.The show has been seen by at least 500 million people across 60 countries.", "The book, ''Cosmos'', written by Sagan, was published to accompany the series.Because of his earlier popularity as a science writer from his best-selling books, including ''The Dragons of Eden'', which won him a Pulitzer Prize in 1977, he was asked to write and narrate the show.", "It was targeted to a general audience of viewers, whom Sagan felt had lost interest in science, partly due to a stifled educational system.Each of the 13 episodes was created to focus on a particular subject or person, thereby demonstrating the synergy of the universe.", "They covered a wide range of scientific subjects including the origin of life and a perspective of humans' place on Earth.The show won an Emmy, along with a Peabody Award, and transformed Sagan from an obscure astronomer into a pop-culture icon.", "''Time'' magazine ran a cover story about Sagan soon after the show broadcast, referring to him as \"creator, chief writer and host-narrator of the show.\"", "In 2000, \"Cosmos\" was released on a remastered set of DVDs.=== \"Billions and billions\" ===After ''Cosmos'' aired, Sagan became associated with the catchphrase \"billions and billions\", although he never actually used the phrase in the ''Cosmos'' series.", "He rather used the term \"billions ''upon'' billions.", "\"Richard Feynman, a precursor to Sagan, used the phrase \"billions and billions\" many times in his \"red books.\"", "However, Sagan's frequent use of the word ''billions'' and distinctive delivery emphasizing the \"b\" (which he did intentionally, in place of more cumbersome alternatives such as \"billions with a 'b, in order to distinguish the word from \"millions\") made him a favorite target of comic performers, including Johnny Carson, Gary Kroeger, Mike Myers, Bronson Pinchot, Penn Jillette, Harry Shearer, and others.", "Frank Zappa satirized the line in the song \"Be in My Video\", noting as well \"atomic light.\"", "Sagan took this all in good humor, and his final book was entitled ''Billions and Billions'', which opened with a tongue-in-cheek discussion of this catchphrase, observing that Carson was an amateur astronomer and that Carson's comic caricature often included real science.As a humorous tribute to Sagan and his association with the catchphrase \"billions and billions\", a ''sagan'' has been defined as a unit of measurement equivalent to a very large number of anything.===Sagan's number===Sagan's number is the number of stars in the observable universe.", "This number is reasonably well defined, because it is known what stars are and what the observable universe is, but its value is highly uncertain.", "* In 1980, Sagan estimated it to be 10 sextillion in short scale (1022).", "* In 2003, it was estimated to be 70 sextillion (7 × 1022).", "* In 2010, it was estimated to be 300 sextillion (3 × 1023).=== Scientific and critical thinking advocacy ===Carl Sagan popularized the Cosmic Calendar as a method to visualize the chronology of the universe, scaling its current age of 13.8 billion years to a single year to help intuit it for pedagogical purposes.Sagan's ability to convey his ideas allowed many people to understand the cosmos better—simultaneously emphasizing the value and worthiness of the human race, and the relative insignificance of the Earth in comparison to the Universe.", "He delivered the 1977 series of Royal Institution Christmas Lectures in London.Sagan was a proponent of the search for extraterrestrial life.", "He urged the scientific community to listen with radio telescopes for signals from potential intelligent extraterrestrial life-forms.", "Sagan was so persuasive that by 1982 he was able to get a petition advocating SETI published in the journal ''Science'', signed by 70 scientists, including seven Nobel Prize winners.", "This signaled a tremendous increase in the respectability of a then-controversial field.", "Sagan also helped Frank Drake write the Arecibo message, a radio message beamed into space from the Arecibo radio telescope on November 16, 1974, aimed at informing potential extraterrestrials about Earth.Sagan was chief technology officer of the professional planetary research journal ''Icarus'' for 12 years.", "He co-founded The Planetary Society and was a member of the SETI Institute Board of Trustees.", "Sagan served as Chairman of the Division for Planetary Science of the American Astronomical Society, as President of the Planetology Section of the American Geophysical Union, and as Chairman of the Astronomy Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).The Planetary Society members at the organization's founding.", "Sagan is seated on the right.At the height of the Cold War, Sagan became involved in nuclear disarmament efforts by promoting hypotheses on the effects of nuclear war, when Paul Crutzen's \"Twilight at Noon\" concept suggested that a substantial nuclear exchange could trigger a nuclear twilight and upset the delicate balance of life on Earth by cooling the surface.", "In 1983 he was one of five authors—the \"S\"—in the follow-up \"TTAPS\" model (as the research article came to be known), which contained the first use of the term \"nuclear winter\", which his colleague Richard P. Turco had coined.", "In 1984 he co-authored the book ''The Cold and the Dark: The World after Nuclear War'' and in 1990 the book ''A Path Where No Man Thought: Nuclear Winter and the End of the Arms Race'', which explains the nuclear-winter hypothesis and advocates nuclear disarmament.", "Sagan received a great deal of skepticism and disdain for the use of media to disseminate a very uncertain hypothesis.", "A personal correspondence with nuclear physicist Edward Teller around 1983 began amicably, with Teller expressing support for continued research to ascertain the credibility of the winter hypothesis.", "However, Sagan and Teller's correspondence would ultimately result in Teller writing: \"A propagandist is one who uses incomplete information to produce maximum persuasion.", "I can compliment you on being, indeed, an excellent propagandist, remembering that a propagandist is the better the less he appears to be one.\"", "Biographers of Sagan would also comment that from a scientific viewpoint, nuclear winter was a low point for Sagan, although, politically speaking, it popularized his image amongst the public.The adult Sagan remained a fan of science fiction, although disliking stories that were not realistic (such as ignoring the inverse-square law) or, he said, did not include \"thoughtful pursuit of alternative futures.\"", "He wrote books to popularize science, such as ''Cosmos'', which reflected and expanded upon some of the themes of ''A Personal Voyage'' and became the best-selling science book ever published in English; ''The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence'', which won a Pulitzer Prize; and ''Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science''.", "Sagan also wrote the best-selling science fiction novel ''Contact'' in 1985, based on a film treatment he wrote with his wife, Ann Druyan, in 1979, but he did not live to see the book's 1997 motion-picture adaptation, which starred Jodie Foster and won the 1998 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation.", "''Pale Blue Dot'': Earth is a bright pixel when photographed from ''Voyager 1'', away.", "Sagan encouraged NASA to generate this image.Sagan wrote a sequel to ''Cosmos'', ''Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space'', which was selected as a notable book of 1995 by ''The New York Times''.", "He appeared on PBS's ''Charlie Rose'' program in January 1995.Sagan also wrote the introduction for Stephen Hawking's bestseller ''A Brief History of Time''.", "Sagan was also known for his popularization of science, his efforts to increase scientific understanding among the general public, and his positions in favor of scientific skepticism and against pseudoscience, such as his debunking of the Betty and Barney Hill abduction.", "To mark the tenth anniversary of Sagan's death, David Morrison, a former student of Sagan, recalled \"Sagan's immense contributions to planetary research, the public understanding of science, and the skeptical movement\" in ''Skeptical Inquirer''.Following Saddam Hussein's threats to light Kuwait's oil wells on fire in response to any physical challenge to Iraqi control of the oil assets, Sagan together with his \"TTAPS\" colleagues and Paul Crutzen, warned in January 1991 in ''The Baltimore Sun'' and ''Wilmington Morning Star'' newspapers that if the fires were left to burn over a period of several months, enough smoke from the 600 or so 1991 Kuwaiti oil fires \"might get so high as to disrupt agriculture in much of South Asia ...\" and that this possibility should \"affect the war plans\"; these claims were also the subject of a televised debate between Sagan and physicist Fred Singer on January 22, aired on the ABC News program ''Nightline''.Sagan admitted that he had overestimated the danger posed by the 1991 Kuwaiti oil fires.", "In the televised debate, Sagan argued that the effects of the smoke would be similar to the effects of a nuclear winter, with Singer arguing to the contrary.", "After the debate, the fires burnt for many months before extinguishing efforts were complete.", "The results of the smoke did not produce continental-sized cooling.", "Sagan later conceded in ''The Demon-Haunted World'' that the prediction did not turn out to be correct: \"it ''was'' pitch black at noon and temperatures dropped 4–6 °C over the Persian Gulf, but not much smoke reached stratospheric altitudes and Asia was spared.", "\"In his later years Sagan advocated the creation of an organized search for asteroids/near-Earth objects (NEOs) that might impact the Earth but to forestall or postpone developing the technological methods that would be needed to defend against them.", "He argued that all of the numerous methods proposed to alter the orbit of an asteroid, including the employment of nuclear detonations, created a deflection dilemma: if the ability to deflect an asteroid away from the Earth exists, then one would also have the ability to divert a non-threatening object towards Earth, creating an immensely destructive weapon.", "In a 1994 paper he co-authored, he ridiculed a 3-day long \"Near-Earth Object Interception Workshop\" held by Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in 1993 that did not, \"even in passing\" state that such interception and deflection technologies could have these \"ancillary dangers.", "\"Sagan remained hopeful that the natural NEO impact threat and the intrinsically double-edged essence of the methods to prevent these threats would serve as a \"new and potent motivation to maturing international relations.\"", "Later acknowledging that, with sufficient international oversight, in the future a \"work our way up\" approach to implementing nuclear explosive deflection methods could be fielded, and when sufficient knowledge was gained, to use them to aid in mining asteroids.", "His interest in the use of nuclear detonations in space grew out of his work in 1958 for the Armour Research Foundation's Project A119, concerning the possibility of detonating a nuclear device on the lunar surface.Sagan was a critic of Plato, having said of the ancient Greek philosopher: \"Science and mathematics were to be removed from the hands of the merchants and the artisans.", "This tendency found its most effective advocate in a follower of Pythagoras named Plato\" andIn 1995 (as part of his book ''The Demon-Haunted World'') Sagan popularized a set of tools for skeptical thinking called the \"baloney detection kit\", a phrase first coined by Arthur Felberbaum, a friend of his wife Ann Druyan.=== Popularizing science ===Speaking about his activities in popularizing science, Sagan said that there were at least two reasons for scientists to share the purposes of science and its contemporary state.", "Simple self-interest was one: much of the funding for science came from the public, and the public therefore had the right to know how the money was being spent.", "If scientists increased public admiration for science, there was a good chance of having more public supporters.", "The other reason was the excitement of communicating one's own excitement about science to others.Following the success of ''Cosmos'', Sagan set up his own publishing firm, Cosmos Store, to publish science books for the general public.", "It was not successful.===Criticisms===While Sagan was widely adored by the general public, his reputation in the scientific community was more polarized.", "Critics sometimes characterized his work as fanciful, non-rigorous, and self-aggrandizing, and others complained in his later years that he neglected his role as a faculty member to foster his celebrity status.One of Sagan's harshest critics, Harold Urey, felt that Sagan was getting too much publicity for a scientist and was treating some scientific theories too casually.", "Urey and Sagan were said to have different philosophies of science, according to Davidson.", "While Urey was an \"old-time empiricist\" who avoided theorizing about the unknown, Sagan was by contrast willing to speculate openly about such matters.", "Fred Whipple wanted Harvard to keep Sagan there, but learned that because Urey was a Nobel laureate, his opinion was an important factor in Harvard denying Sagan tenure.Sagan's Harvard friend Lester Grinspoon also stated: \"I know Harvard well enough to know there are people there who certainly do not like people who are outspoken.\"", "Grinspoon added:Some, like Urey, later came to realize that Sagan's popular brand of scientific advocacy was beneficial to the science as a whole.", "Urey especially liked Sagan's 1977 book ''The Dragons of Eden'' and wrote Sagan with his opinion: \"I like it very much and am amazed that someone like you has such an intimate knowledge of the various features of the problem...", "I congratulate you... You are a man of many talents.", "\"Sagan was accused of borrowing some ideas of others for his own benefit and countered these claims by explaining that the misappropriation was an unfortunate side effect of his role as a science communicator and explainer, and that he attempted to give proper credit whenever possible.=== Social concerns ===Sagan believed that the Drake equation, on substitution of reasonable estimates, suggested that a large number of extraterrestrial civilizations would form, but that the lack of evidence of such civilizations highlighted by the Fermi paradox suggests technological civilizations tend to self-destruct.", "This stimulated his interest in identifying and publicizing ways that humanity could destroy itself, with the hope of avoiding such a cataclysm and eventually becoming a spacefaring species.", "Sagan's deep concern regarding the potential destruction of human civilization in a nuclear holocaust was conveyed in a memorable cinematic sequence in the final episode of ''Cosmos'', called \"Who Speaks for Earth?\"", "Sagan had already resigned from the Air Force Scientific Advisory Board's UFO-investigating Condon Committee and voluntarily surrendered his top-secret clearance in protest over the Vietnam War.", "Following his marriage to his third wife (novelist Ann Druyan) in June 1981, Sagan became more politically active—particularly in opposing escalation of the nuclear arms race under President Ronald Reagan.The United States and Soviet Union/Russia nuclear stockpiles, in total number of nuclear bombs/warheads in existence throughout the Cold War and post-Cold War eraIn March 1983, Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative—a multibillion-dollar project to develop a comprehensive defense against attack by nuclear missiles, which was quickly dubbed the \"Star Wars\" program.", "Sagan spoke out against the project, arguing that it was technically impossible to develop a system with the level of perfection required, and far more expensive to build such a system than it would be for an enemy to defeat it through decoys and other means—and that its construction would seriously destabilize the \"nuclear balance\" between the United States and the Soviet Union, making further progress toward nuclear disarmament impossible.When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev declared a unilateral moratorium on the testing of nuclear weapons, which would begin on August 6, 1985—the 40th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima—the Reagan administration dismissed the dramatic move as nothing more than propaganda and refused to follow suit.", "In response, US anti-nuclear and peace activists staged a series of protest actions at the Nevada Test Site, beginning on Easter Sunday in 1986 and continuing through 1987.Hundreds of people in the \"Nevada Desert Experience\" group were arrested, including Sagan, who was arrested on two separate occasions as he climbed over a chain-link fence at the test site during the underground Operation Charioteer and United States's Musketeer nuclear test series of detonations.Sagan was also a vocal advocate of the controversial notion of testosterone poisoning, arguing in 1992 that human males could become gripped by an \"unusually severe case of testosterone poisoning\" and this could compel them to become genocidal.", "In his review of Moondance magazine writer Daniela Gioseffi's 1990 book ''Women on War'', he argues that females are the only half of humanity \"untainted by testosterone poisoning.\"", "One chapter of his 1993 book ''Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors'' is dedicated to testosterone and its alleged poisonous effects.In 1989, Carl Sagan was interviewed by Ted Turner whether he believed in socialism and responded that: \"I'm not sure what a socialist is.", "But I believe the government has a responsibility to care for the people...", "I'm talking about making the people self-reliant.\"" ], [ "Personal life and beliefs", "Sagan was married three times.", "In 1957, he married biologist Lynn Margulis.", "The couple had two children, Jeremy and Dorion Sagan; their marriage ended in 1964.Sagan married artist Linda Salzman in 1968 and they had a child together, Nick Sagan, and divorced in 1981.During these marriages, Carl Sagan focused heavily on his career, a factor which may have contributed to Sagan's first divorce.", "In 1981, Sagan married author Ann Druyan and they later had two children, Alexandra (known as Sasha) and Samuel Sagan.", "Carl Sagan and Druyan remained married until his death in 1996.While teaching at Cornell, he lived in an Egyptian revival house in Ithaca perched on the edge of a cliff that had formerly been the headquarters of a Cornell secret society.", "While there he drove a red Porsche 911 Targa and an orange 1970 Porsche 914 with the license plate PHOBOS.In 1994, engineers at Apple Computer code-named the Power Macintosh 7100 \"Carl Sagan\" in the hope that Apple would make \"billions and billions\" with the sale of the PowerMac 7100.The name was only used internally, but Sagan was concerned that it would become a product endorsement and sent Apple a cease-and-desist letter.", "Apple complied, but engineers retaliated by changing the internal codename to \"BHA\" for \"Butt-Head Astronomer.\"", "In November 1995, after further legal battle, an out-of-court settlement was reached and Apple's office of trademarks and patents released a conciliatory statement that \"Apple has always had great respect for Dr. Sagan.", "It was never Apple's intention to cause Dr. Sagan or his family any embarrassment or concern.", "\"In 2019, Carl Sagan's daughter Sasha Sagan released ''For Small Creatures Such as We: Rituals for Finding Meaning in our Unlikely World'', which depicts life with her parents and her father's death when she was fourteen.", "Building on a theme in her father's work, Sasha Sagan argues in ''For Small Creatures Such as We'' that skepticism does not imply pessimism.Sagan was acquainted with science fiction fandom through his friendship with Isaac Asimov, and he spoke at the Nebula Awards ceremony in 1969.Asimov described Sagan as one of only two people he ever met whose intellect surpassed his own, the other being computer scientist and artificial intelligence expert Marvin Minsky.===Naturalism===Sagan wrote frequently about religion and the relationship between religion and science, expressing his skepticism about the conventional conceptualization of God as a sapient being.", "For example: In another description of his view on the concept of God, Sagan wrote: On atheism, Sagan commented in 1981: Sagan in 1987Sagan also commented on Christianity and the Jefferson Bible, stating \"My long-time view about Christianity is that it represents an amalgam of two seemingly immiscible parts, the religion of Jesus and the religion of Paul.", "Thomas Jefferson attempted to excise the Pauline parts of the New Testament.", "There wasn't much left when he was done, but it was an inspiring document.", "\"Sagan thought that spirituality should be scientifically informed and that traditional religions should be abandoned and replaced with belief systems that revolve around the scientific method, but also the mystery and incompleteness of scientific fields.", "Regarding spirituality and its relationship with science, Sagan stated: An environmental appeal, \"Preserving and Cherishing the Earth\", primarily written by Sagan and signed by him and other noted scientists as well as religious leaders, and published in January 1990, stated that \"The historical record makes clear that religious teaching, example, and leadership are powerfully able to influence personal conduct and commitment...", "Thus, there is a vital role for religion and science.", "\"In reply to a question in 1996 about his religious beliefs, Sagan answered, \"I'm agnostic.\"", "Sagan maintained that the idea of a creator God of the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could challenge it would be an infinitely old universe.", "His son, Dorion Sagan said, \"My father believed in the God of Spinoza and Einstein, God not behind nature but as nature, equivalent to it.\"", "His last wife, Ann Druyan, stated: In 2006, Ann Druyan edited Sagan's 1985 Glasgow ''Gifford Lectures in Natural Theology'' into a book, ''The Varieties of Scientific Experience: A Personal View of the Search for God'', in which he elaborates on his views of divinity in the natural world.CDC employees in 1988.Sagan is also widely regarded as a freethinker or skeptic; one of his most famous quotations, in ''Cosmos'', was, \"Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence\" (called the \"Sagan standard\" by some).", "This was based on a nearly identical statement by fellow founder of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, Marcello Truzzi, \"An extraordinary claim requires extraordinary proof.\"", "This idea had been earlier aphorized in Théodore Flournoy's work ''From India to the Planet Mars'' (1899) from a longer quote by Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827), a French mathematician and astronomer, as the Principle of Laplace: \"The weight of the evidence should be proportioned to the strangeness of the facts.", "\"Late in his life, Sagan's books elaborated on his naturalistic view of the world.", "In ''The Demon-Haunted World'', he presented tools for testing arguments and detecting fallacious or fraudulent ones, essentially advocating the wide use of critical thinking and of the scientific method.", "The compilation ''Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium'', published in 1997 after Sagan's death, contains essays written by him, on topics such as his views on abortion, and also an essay by his widow, Ann Druyan, about the relationship between his agnostic and freethinking beliefs and his death.Sagan warned against humans' tendency towards anthropocentrism.", "He was the faculty adviser for the Cornell Students for the Ethical Treatment of Animals.", "In the ''Cosmos'' chapter \"Blues For a Red Planet\", Sagan wrote, \"If there is life on Mars, I believe we should do nothing with Mars.", "Mars then belongs to the Martians, even if the Martians are only microbes.", "\"===Marijuana advocacy===Sagan was a user and advocate of marijuana.", "Under the pseudonym \"Mr. X\", he contributed an essay about smoking cannabis to the 1971 book ''Marihuana Reconsidered''.", "The essay explained that marijuana use had helped to inspire some of Sagan's works and enhance sensual and intellectual experiences.", "After Sagan's death, his friend Lester Grinspoon disclosed this information to Sagan's biographer, Keay Davidson.", "The publishing of the biography, ''Carl Sagan: A Life'', in 1999 brought media attention to this aspect of Sagan's life.", "Not long after his death, his widow Ann Druyan went on to preside over the board of directors of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML), a non-profit organization dedicated to reforming cannabis laws.=== UFOs ===In 1947, the year that inaugurated the \"flying saucer\" craze, the young Sagan suspected the \"discs\" might be alien spaceships.Sagan's interest in UFO reports prompted him on August 3, 1952, to write a letter to U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson to ask how the United States would respond if flying saucers turned out to be extraterrestrial.", "He later had several conversations on the subject in 1964 with Jacques Vallée.", "Though quite skeptical of any extraordinary answer to the UFO question, Sagan thought scientists should study the phenomenon, at least because there was widespread public interest in UFO reports.Stuart Appelle notes that Sagan \"wrote frequently on what he perceived as the logical and empirical fallacies regarding UFOs and the abduction experience.", "Sagan rejected an extraterrestrial explanation for the phenomenon but felt there were both empirical and pedagogical benefits for examining UFO reports and that the subject was, therefore, a legitimate topic of study.", "\"In 1966, Sagan was a member of the Ad Hoc Committee to Review Project Blue Book, the U.S. Air Force's UFO investigation project.", "The committee concluded Blue Book had been lacking as a scientific study, and recommended a university-based project to give the UFO phenomenon closer scientific scrutiny.", "The result was the Condon Committee (1966–68), led by physicist Edward Condon, and in their final report they formally concluded that UFOs, regardless of what any of them actually were, did not behave in a manner consistent with a threat to national security.Sociologist Ron Westrum writes that \"The high point of Sagan's treatment of the UFO question was the AAAS' symposium in 1969.A wide range of educated opinions on the subject were offered by participants, including not only proponents such as James McDonald and J. Allen Hynek but also skeptics like astronomers William Hartmann and Donald Menzel.", "The roster of speakers was balanced, and it is to Sagan's credit that this event was presented in spite of pressure from Edward Condon.\"", "With physicist Thornton Page, Sagan edited the lectures and discussions given at the symposium; these were published in 1972 as ''UFO's: A Scientific Debate''.", "Some of Sagan's many books examine UFOs (as did one episode of ''Cosmos'') and he claimed a religious undercurrent to the phenomenon.Sagan again revealed his views on interstellar travel in his 1980 ''Cosmos'' series.", "In one of his last written works, Sagan argued that the chances of extraterrestrial spacecraft visiting Earth are vanishingly small.", "However, Sagan did think it plausible that Cold War concerns contributed to governments misleading their citizens about UFOs, and wrote that \"some UFO reports and analyses, and perhaps voluminous files, have been made inaccessible to the public which pays the bills ...", "It's time for the files to be declassified and made generally available.\"", "He cautioned against jumping to conclusions about suppressed UFO data and stressed that there was no strong evidence that aliens were visiting the Earth either in the past or present.Sagan briefly served as an adviser on Stanley Kubrick's film ''2001: A Space Odyssey''.", "Sagan proposed that the film suggest, rather than depict, extraterrestrial superintelligence.====Sagan's paradox====Sagan's contribution to the 1969 AAAS symposium was an attack on the belief that UFOs are piloted by extraterrestrial beings.", "Using the Drake equation and applying several logical assumptions, Sagan calculated the possible number of advanced civilizations capable of interstellar travel to be about one million.", "He projected that any civilization wishing to check on all the others on a regular basis of, say, once a year would have to launch 10,000 spacecraft annually.", "Not only does that seem like an unreasonable number of launchings, but it would take all the material in one percent of the universe's stars to produce all the spaceships needed for all the civilizations to seek each other out.To argue that the Earth was being chosen for regular visitations, Sagan said, one would have to assume that the planet is somehow unique, and that assumption \"goes exactly against the idea that there are lots of civilizations around.", "Because if there are then our sort of civilization must be pretty common.", "And if we're not pretty common then there aren't going to be many civilizations advanced enough to send visitors.", "\"This argument, which some called Sagan's paradox, helped to establish a new school of thought, namely the belief that extraterrestrial life exists, but it has nothing to do with UFOs.", "The new belief had a salutary effect on UFO studies.", "It gave scientists opportunities to search the universe for intelligent life unencumbered by the stigma associated with UFOs." ], [ "Death", "Stone dedicated to Sagan in the Celebrity Path of the Brooklyn Botanic GardenAfter suffering from myelodysplasia for two years and receiving three bone marrow transplants from his sister, Sagan died from pneumonia at the age of 62 at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle on December 20, 1996.He was buried at Lake View Cemetery in Ithaca, New York." ], [ "Awards and honors", "NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal* Annual Award for Television Excellence—1981—Ohio State University—PBS series ''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage''* Apollo Achievement Award—National Aeronautics and Space Administration* NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal—National Aeronautics and Space Administration (1977)* Emmy—Outstanding Individual Achievement—1981—PBS series ''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage''* Emmy—Outstanding Informational Series—1981—PBS series ''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage''* Fellow of the American Physical Society–1989* Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal—National Aeronautics and Space Administration* Helen Caldicott Leadership Award – Awarded by Women's Action for Nuclear Disarmament* Hugo Award—1981—Best Dramatic Presentation—''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage''* Hugo Award—1981—Best Related Non-Fiction Book—''Cosmos''* Hugo Award—1998—Best Dramatic Presentation—''Contact''* Humanist of the Year—1981—Awarded by the American Humanist Association* American Philosophical Society—1995—Elected to membership.", "* In Praise of Reason Award—1987—Committee for Skeptical Inquiry* Isaac Asimov Award—1994—Committee for Skeptical Inquiry* John F. Kennedy Astronautics Award—1982—American Astronautical Society* Special non-fiction Campbell Memorial Award—1974—''The Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective''* Joseph Priestley Award—\"For distinguished contributions to the welfare of mankind\"* Klumpke-Roberts Award of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific—1974* Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement—1975* Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Medal—Awarded by the Soviet Cosmonauts Federation* Locus Award 1986—''Contact''* Lowell Thomas Award—The Explorers Club—75th Anniversary* Masursky Award—American Astronomical Society* Miller Research Fellowship—Miller Institute (1960–1962)* Oersted Medal—1990—American Association of Physics Teachers* Peabody Award—1980—PBS series ''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage''* Le Prix Galabert d'astronautique—International Astronautical Federation (IAF)* Public Welfare Medal—1994—National Academy of Sciences* Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction—1978—''The Dragons of Eden''* Science Fiction Chronicle Award—1998—Dramatic Presentation—''Contact''* UCLA Medal–1991* Inductee to International Space Hall of Fame in 2004* Named the \"99th Greatest American\" on June 5, 2005, ''Greatest American'' television series on the Discovery Channel* Named an honorary member of the Demosthenian Literary Society on November 10, 2011* New Jersey Hall of Fame—2009—Inductee.", "*Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) Pantheon of Skeptics—April 2011—Inductee* Grand-Cross of the Order of Saint James of the Sword, Portugal (November 23, 1998)*Honorary Doctor of Science (Sc.D.)", "degree from Whittier College in 1978.=== Posthumous recognition ===The 1997 film ''Contact'' was based on the only novel Sagan wrote and finished after his death.", "It ends with the dedication \"For Carl.\"", "His photo can also be seen in the film.In 1997, the Sagan Planet Walk was opened in Ithaca, New York.", "It is a walking-scale model of the Solar System, extending 1.2 km from the center of The Commons in downtown Ithaca to the Sciencenter, a hands-on museum.", "The exhibition was created in memory of Carl Sagan, who was an Ithaca resident and Cornell Professor.", "Professor Sagan had been a founding member of the museum's advisory board.The landing site of the uncrewed ''Mars Pathfinder'' spacecraft was renamed the Carl Sagan Memorial Station on July 5, 1997.Asteroid 2709 Sagan is named in his honor, as is the Carl Sagan Institute for the search of habitable planets.Sagan's son, Nick Sagan, wrote several episodes in the ''Star Trek'' franchise.", "In an episode of ''Star Trek: Enterprise'' entitled \"Terra Prime\", a quick shot is shown of the relic rover ''Sojourner'', part of the ''Mars Pathfinder'' mission, placed by a historical marker at Carl Sagan Memorial Station on the Martian surface.", "The marker displays a quote from Sagan: \"Whatever the reason you're on Mars, I'm glad you're there, and I wish I was with you.\"", "Sagan's student Steve Squyres led the team that landed the rovers ''Spirit'' and ''Opportunity'' successfully on Mars in 2004.On November 9, 2001, on what would have been Sagan's 67th birthday, the Ames Research Center dedicated the site for the Carl Sagan Center for the Study of Life in the Cosmos.", "\"Carl was an incredible visionary, and now his legacy can be preserved and advanced by a 21st century research and education laboratory committed to enhancing our understanding of life in the universe and furthering the cause of space exploration for all time\", said NASA Administrator Daniel Goldin.", "Ann Druyan was at the center as it opened its doors on October 22, 2006.Sagan has at least three awards named in his honor:* The Carl Sagan Memorial Award presented jointly since 1997 by the American Astronomical Society and The Planetary Society,* The Carl Sagan Medal for Excellence in Public Communication in Planetary Science presented since 1998 by the American Astronomical Society's Division for Planetary Sciences (AAS/DPS) for outstanding communication by an active planetary scientist to the general public—Carl Sagan was one of the original organizing committee members of the DPS, and* The Carl Sagan Award for Public Understanding of Science presented by the Council of Scientific Society presidents (CSSP)—Sagan was the first recipient of the CSSP award in 1993.August 2007 the Independent Investigations Group (IIG) awarded Sagan posthumously a Lifetime Achievement Award.", "This honor has also been awarded to Harry Houdini and James Randi.In September 2008, a musical compositor Benn Jordan released his album ''Pale Blue Dot'' as a tribute to Carl Sagan's life.Beginning in 2009, a musical project known as Symphony of Science sampled several excerpts of Sagan from his series ''Cosmos'' and remixed them to electronic music.", "To date, the videos have received over 21 million views worldwide on YouTube.The 2014 Swedish science fiction short film ''Wanderers'' uses excerpts of Sagan's narration in 1994 of his book ''Pale Blue Dot'', played over digitally-created visuals of humanity's possible future expansion into outer space.In February 2015, the Finnish-based symphonic metal band Nightwish released the song \"Sagan\" as a non-album bonus track for their single \"Élan.\"", "The song, written by the band's songwriter/composer/keyboardist Tuomas Holopainen, is an homage to the life and work of the late Carl Sagan.In August 2015, it was announced that a biopic of Sagan's life was being planned by Warner Bros.On October 21, 2019, the Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan Theater was opened at the Center for Inquiry West in Los Angeles.In 2022, Sagan was posthumously awarded the Future of Life Award \"for reducing the risk of nuclear war by developing and popularizing the science of nuclear winter.\"", "The honor, shared by seven other recipients involved in nuclear winter research, was accepted by his widow, Ann Druyan.In 2022, the audiobook recording of Sagan's 1994 book ''Pale Blue Dot'' was selected by the U.S. Library of Congress for inclusion in the National Recording Registry for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.", "\"In 2023, a movie ''Voyagers'' by Sebastián Lelio was announced with Sagan played by Andrew Garfield and with Daisy Edgar-Jones playing Sagan's 3rd wife, Ann Druyan." ], [ "Bibliography", "********************* (Note: errata slip inserted.", ")**" ], [ "See also", "* List of peace activists* Neil deGrasse Tyson* Sagan effect" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *******" ], [ "External links", "* * David Morrison, \"Carl Sagan\", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (2014)* Sagan interviewed by Ted Turner, ''CNN'', 1989, video: 44 minutes.", "* BBC Radio program \"Great Lives\" on Carl Sagan's life* \"A man whose time has come\"—Interview with Carl Sagan by Ian Ridpath, ''New Scientist'', July 4, 1974* * \"Carl Sagan's Life and Legacy as Scientist, Teacher, and Skeptic\", by David Morrison, Committee for Skeptical Inquiry* FBI Records: The Vault – Carl Sagan at fbi.gov* \"NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS) 19630011050: Direct Contact Among Galactic Civilizations by Relativistic Interstellar Spaceflight\", Carl Sagan, when he was at Stanford University, in 1962, produced a controversial paper funded by a NASA research grant that concludes ancient alien intervention may have sparked human civilization.", "* Scientist of the Day-Carl Sagan at Linda Hall Library* Carl Sagan demonstrates how Eratosthenes determined that the Earth was round and the approximate circumference of the earth*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cuban Missile Crisis" ], [ "Introduction", "Universal Newsreel about the Cuban Missile CrisisThe '''Cuban Missile Crisis''', also known as the '''October Crisis''' () in Cuba, or the '''Caribbean Crisis''' (), was a 13-day confrontation between the governments of the United States and the Soviet Union, when American deployments of nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey were matched by Soviet deployments of nuclear missiles in Cuba.", "The crisis lasted from 16to28 October 1962.The confrontation is widely considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into full-scale nuclear war.In 1961, the US government put Jupiter nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey.", "It had also trained a paramilitary force of Cuban exiles, which the CIA led in an attempt to invade Cuba and overthrow its government.", "Starting in November of that year, the US government engaged in a violent campaign of terrorism and sabotage in Cuba, referred to as the Cuban Project, which continued throughout the first half of the 1960s.", "The Soviet administration was concerned about a Cuban drift towards China, with which the Soviets had an increasingly fractious relationship.", "In response to these factors, Soviet First Secretary, Nikita Khrushchev, agreed with the Cuban Prime Minister, Fidel Castro, to place nuclear missiles on the island of Cuba to deter a future invasion.", "An agreement was reached during a secret meeting between Khrushchev and Castro in July 1962, and construction of a number of missile launch facilities started later that summer.During the campaigning for the 1962 United States elections, the White House denied the charges for months and ignored the presence of Soviet missiles positioned approximately away from Florida.", "Later, the missile preparations were confirmed when a US Air Force U-2 spy plane produced clear photographic evidence of medium-range R-12 (NATO code name SS-4) and intermediate-range R-14 (NATO code name SS-5) ballistic missile facilities.When this was reported to President John F. Kennedy, he convened a meeting of the nine members of the National Security Council and five other key advisers, in a group that became known as the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EXCOMM).", "During this meeting, Kennedy was advised to carry out an air strike on Cuban soil in order to compromise Soviet missile supplies, followed by an invasion of the Cuban mainland.", "After careful consideration, he chose a less aggressive course of action, in order to avoid a declaration of war.", "After consultation with EXCOMM, Kennedy ordered a naval \"quarantine\" on 22 October to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba.", "By using the term \"quarantine\", rather than \"blockade\" (an act of war by legal definition), the United States was able to avoid the implications of a state of war.", "The US announced it would not permit \"offensive\" weapons to be delivered to Cuba and demanded that the weapons already in Cuba be dismantled and returned to the Soviet Union.After several days of tense negotiations, an agreement was reached between Kennedy and Khrushchev.", "Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a US public declaration and agreement to not invade Cuba again.", "Secretly, the United States agreed with the Soviets that it would dismantle all of the Jupiter MRBMs which had been deployed to Turkey.", "There has been debate on whether Italy was also included in the agreement.", "While the Soviets dismantled their missiles, some Soviet bombers remained in Cuba, and the United States kept the naval quarantine in place until 20 November 1962.When all offensive missiles and the Ilyushin Il-28 light bombers had been withdrawn from Cuba, the blockade was formally ended on 20 November.", "The negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union pointed out the necessity of a quick, clear, and direct communication line between the two superpowers.", "As a result, the Moscow–Washington hotline was established.", "A series of agreements later reduced US–Soviet tensions for several years, until both parties eventually resumed expanding their nuclear arsenals.The compromise embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey was a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev, and the Soviets were seen as retreating from a situation that they had started.", "Khrushchev's fall from power two years later was in part because of the Soviet Politburo's embarrassment at both Khrushchev's eventual concessions to the US and his ineptitude in precipitating the crisis in the first place.", "According to Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as \"a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation\"." ], [ "Background", "===Cuba–Soviet relations===In late 1961, Fidel Castro asked for more SA-2 anti-aircraft missiles from the Soviet Union.", "The request was not acted upon by the Soviet leadership.", "In the interval, Castro began criticizing the Soviets for lack of \"revolutionary boldness\", and began talking to China about agreements for economic assistance.", "In March 1962, Castro ordered the ousting of Anibal Escalante and his pro-Moscow comrades from Cuba's Integrated Revolutionary Organizations.", "This affair alarmed the Soviet leadership as well as raised fears of a possible US invasion.", "As a result, the Soviet Union sent more SA-2 anti-aircraft missiles in April as well as a regiment of regular Soviet troops.Historian Timothy Naftali has contended that Escalante's dismissal was a motivating factor behind the Soviet decision to place nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1962.According to Naftali, Soviet foreign policy planners were concerned Castro's break with Escalante foreshadowed a Cuban drift toward China and sought to solidify the Soviet-Cuban relationship through the missile basing program.===Cuba–US relations===Image of plans for the Bay of Pigs InvasionThe Cuban government regarded US imperialism as the primary explanation for the island's structural weaknesses.", "The US government had provided arms, money and its authority to the Batista dictatorship.", "The majority of the Cuban population had tired of the severe socioeconomic problems associated with the US domination of the country.", "The Cuban government was aware of the necessity of ending the turmoil and incongruities of US-dominated prerevolution Cuban society.", "It determined that the US government's demands, made as part of the hostile US reaction to Cuban government policy, were unacceptable.With the end of World War II and the start of the Cold War, the United States government sought to promote private enterprise as an instrument for advancing US strategic interests in the developing world.", "It had grown concerned about the expansion of communism.In December 1959, under the Eisenhower administration and less than twelve months after the Cuban Revolution, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) developed a plan for paramilitary action against Cuba.", "The CIA recruited operatives on the island to carry out terrorism and sabotage, kill civilians, and cause economic damage.", "At the initiative of the CIA Deputy Director for Plans, Richard Bissell, and approved by the new President John F. Kennedy, the US launched the attempted Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961.It used CIA-trained forces of Cuban expatriates.", "The complete failure of the invasion, and the exposure of the US government role before the operation began, was a source of diplomatic embarrassment for the Kennedy administration.", "Afterward, former President Eisenhower told Kennedy that \"the failure of the Bay of Pigs will embolden the Soviets to do something that they would otherwise not do.", "\"Following the failed invasion, the US massively escalated its sponsorship of terrorism against Cuba.", "Starting in late 1961, using the military and the CIA, the US government engaged in an extensive campaign of state-sponsored terrorism against civilian and military targets on the island.", "The terrorist attacks killed significant numbers of civilians.", "The US armed, trained, funded and directed the terrorists, most of whom were Cuban expatriates.", "Terrorist attacks were planned at the direction and with the participation of US government employees and launched from US territory.", "In January 1962, US Air Force General Edward Lansdale described the plans to overthrow the Cuban government in a top-secret report, addressed to Kennedy and officials involved with Operation Mongoose.", "CIA agents or \"pathfinders\" from the Special Activities Division were to be infiltrated into Cuba to carry out sabotage and organization, including radio broadcasts.", "In February 1962, the US launched an embargo against Cuba, and Lansdale presented a 26-page, top-secret timetable for implementation of the overthrow of the Cuban government, mandating guerrilla operations to begin in August and September.", "\"Open revolt and overthrow of the Communist regime\" was hoped by the planners to occur in the first two weeks of October.The terrorism campaign and the threat of invasion were crucial factors in the Soviet decision to position the missiles on Cuba, and in the Cuban government's decision to accept.", "The US government was aware at the time, as reported to the president in a National Intelligence Estimate, that the invasion threat was a key reason for Cuban acceptance of the missiles.===U.S.", "Soviet relations===John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) and Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) in Vienna, Austria.", "May 1961When Kennedy ran for president in 1960, one of his key election issues was an alleged \"missile gap\" with the Soviets.", "In fact, the US at that time ''led'' the Soviets by a wide margin, which would only increase over time.", "In 1961, the Soviets had only four R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs).", "By October 1962, some intelligence estimates indicated a figure of 75.The US, on the other hand, had 170 ICBMs and was quickly building more.", "It also had eight - and ballistic missile submarines, with the capability to launch 16 Polaris missiles, each with a range of .", "The Soviet First Secretary, Nikita Khrushchev, increased the perception of a missile gap when he loudly boasted to the world that the Soviets were building missiles \"like sausages\" but Soviet missiles' numbers and capabilities were nowhere close to his assertions.", "The Soviet Union had medium-range ballistic missiles in quantity, about 700 of them, but they were unreliable and inaccurate.", "The US had a considerable advantage in its total number of nuclear warheads (27,000 against 3,600) and in the technology required for their accurate delivery.", "The US also led in missile defensive capabilities, naval and air power; however, the Soviets held a two-to-one advantage in conventional ground forces, more pronounced in field guns and tanks, particularly in the European theatre.Khrushchev also had an impression of Kennedy as weak, which to him was confirmed by the President's response during the Berlin Crisis of 1961, particularly to the building of the Berlin Wall by East Germany to prevent its citizens from emigrating to the West.", "The half-hearted nature of the Bay of Pigs invasion reinforced Khrushchev and his advisers impression that Kennedy was indecisive and, as one Soviet aide wrote, \"too young, intellectual, not prepared well for decision making in crisis situations... too intelligent and too weak\".", "Speaking to Soviet officials in the aftermath of the crisis, Khrushchev asserted, \"I know for certain that Kennedy doesn't have a strong background, nor, generally speaking, does he have the courage to stand up to a serious challenge.\"", "He also told his son Sergei that on Cuba, Kennedy \"would make a fuss, make more of a fuss, and then agree\"." ], [ "Prelude", "=== Conception ===In May 1962, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev was persuaded by the idea of countering the US's growing lead in developing and deploying strategic missiles by placing Soviet intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Cuba, despite the misgivings of the Soviet Ambassador in Havana, Alexandr Ivanovich Alexeyev, who argued that Castro would not accept the deployment of the missiles.", "Khrushchev faced a strategic situation in which the US was perceived to have a \"splendid first strike\" capability that put the Soviet Union at a huge disadvantage.", "In 1962, the Soviets had only 20 ICBMs capable of delivering nuclear warheads to the US from inside the Soviet Union.", "The poor accuracy and reliability of the missiles raised serious doubts about their effectiveness.", "A newer, more reliable generation of ICBMs would become operational only after 1965.Therefore, Soviet nuclear capability in 1962 placed less emphasis on ICBMs than on medium and intermediate-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs and IRBMs).", "The missiles could hit American allies and most of Alaska from Soviet territory but not the contiguous United States.", "Graham Allison, the director of Harvard University's Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, points out, \"The Soviet Union could not right the nuclear imbalance by deploying new ICBMs on its own soil.", "In order to meet the threat it faced in 1962, 1963, and 1964, it had very few options.", "Moving existing nuclear weapons to locations from which they could reach American targets was one.", "\"A second reason that Soviet missiles were deployed to Cuba was that Khrushchev wanted to bring West Berlin, controlled by the American, British and French within Communist East Germany, into the Soviet orbit.", "The East Germans and Soviets considered western control over a portion of Berlin a grave threat to East Germany.", "Khrushchev made West Berlin the central battlefield of the Cold War.", "Khrushchev believed that if the US did nothing over the missile deployments in Cuba, he could muscle the West out of Berlin using said missiles as a deterrent to western countermeasures in Berlin.", "If the US tried to bargain with the Soviets after it became aware of the missiles, Khrushchev could demand trading the missiles for West Berlin.", "Since Berlin was strategically more important than Cuba, the trade would be a win for Khrushchev, as Kennedy recognized: \"The advantage is, from Khrushchev's point of view, he takes a great chance but there are quite some rewards to it.", "\"Thirdly, from the perspective of the Soviet Union and of Cuba, it seemed that the United States wanted to increase its presence in Cuba.", "In view of actions including the attempt to expel Cuba from the Organization of American States, placing economic sanctions on the nation, directly invading it, and the ongoing campaign of terrorism and sabotage the CIA was carrying out against the island, Cuban officials understood that America was trying to overrun Cuba.", "As a result, to try to prevent this, the USSR would place missiles in Cuba and neutralise the threat.", "This would ultimately serve to secure Cuba against attack and keep the country in the Socialist Bloc.Fifteen US-built PGM-19 Jupiter missiles, with the capability to strike Moscow with nuclear warheads, were deployed in Turkey in 1961.Another major reason why Khrushchev planned to place missiles on Cuba undetected was to \"level the playing field\" with the evident American nuclear threat.", "America had the upper hand as they could launch from Turkey and destroy the USSR before they would have a chance to react.", "After the emplacement of nuclear missiles in Cuba, Khrushchev had finally established mutual assured destruction, meaning that if the United States decided to launch a nuclear strike against the Soviet Union, the latter would react by launching a retaliatory nuclear strike against the US.Finally, placing nuclear missiles on Cuba was a way for the USSR to show their support for Cuba and support the Cuban people who viewed the United States as a threatening force, as the latter had become their ally after the Cuban Revolution of 1959.According to Khrushchev, the Soviet Union's motives were \"aimed at allowing Cuba to live peacefully and develop as its people desire\".Schlesinger, a historian and adviser to Kennedy, told National Public Radio in an interview on 16 October 2002, that Castro did not want the missiles, but Khrushchev pressured Castro to accept them.", "Castro was not completely happy with the idea, but the Cuban National Directorate of the Revolution accepted them, both to protect Cuba against US attack and to aid the Soviet Union.=== Soviet military deployments ===Il-28, SS-4, and SS-5 based on Cuba in nautical miles (NM)In early 1962, a group of Soviet military and missile construction specialists accompanied an agricultural delegation to Havana.", "They obtained a meeting with Cuban prime minister Fidel Castro.", "The Cuban leadership had a strong expectation that the US would invade Cuba again and enthusiastically approved the idea of installing nuclear missiles in Cuba.", "According to another source, Castro objected to the missiles' deployment as making him look like a Soviet puppet, but he was persuaded that missiles in Cuba would be an irritant to the US and help the interests of the entire socialist camp.", "The deployment would include short-range tactical weapons (with a range of 40 km, usable only against naval vessels) that would provide a \"nuclear umbrella\" for attacks upon the island.By May, Khrushchev and Castro agreed to place strategic nuclear missiles secretly in Cuba.", "Like Castro, Khrushchev felt that a US invasion of Cuba was imminent and that to lose Cuba would do great harm to the communists, especially in Latin America.", "He said he wanted to confront the Americans \"with more than words.... the logical answer was missiles\".", "The Soviets maintained their tight secrecy, writing their plans longhand, which were approved by Marshal of the Soviet Union Rodion Malinovsky on 4 July and Khrushchev on 7 July.From the very beginning, the Soviets' operation entailed elaborate denial and deception, known as \"maskirovka\".", "All the planning and preparation for transporting and deploying the missiles were carried out in the utmost secrecy, with only a very few told the exact nature of the mission.", "Even the troops detailed for the mission were given misdirection by being told that they were headed for a cold region and being outfitted with ski boots, fleece-lined parkas, and other winter equipment.", "The Soviet code-name was Operation Anadyr.", "The Anadyr River flows into the Bering Sea, and Anadyr is also the capital of Chukotsky District and a bomber base in the far eastern region.", "All the measures were meant to conceal the program from both internal and external audiences.Specialists in missile construction, under the guise of machine operators and agricultural specialists, arrived in July.", "A total of 43,000 foreign troops would ultimately be brought in.", "Chief Marshal of Artillery Sergei Biryuzov, Head of the Soviet Rocket Forces, led a survey team that visited Cuba.", "He told Khrushchev that the missiles would be concealed and camouflaged by palm trees.As early as August 1962, the US suspected the Soviets of building missile facilities in Cuba.", "During that month, its intelligence services gathered information about sightings by ground observers of Soviet-built MiG-21 fighters and Il-28 light bombers.", "U-2 spy planes found S-75 Dvina (NATO designation ''SA-2'') surface-to-air missile sites at eight different locations.", "CIA director John A. McCone was suspicious.", "Sending antiaircraft missiles into Cuba, he reasoned, \"made sense only if Moscow intended to use them to shield a base for ballistic missiles aimed at the United States\".", "On 10 August, he wrote a memo to Kennedy in which he guessed that the Soviets were preparing to introduce ballistic missiles into Cuba.", "Che Guevara himself traveled to the Soviet Union on 30 August 1962, to sign off on the final agreement regarding the deployment of missiles in Cuba.", "The visit was heavily monitored by the CIA as Guevara had gained more scrutiny by American intelligence.", "While in the Soviet Union Guevara argued with Khrushchev that the missile deal should be made public but Khrushchev insisted on total secrecy, and swore the Soviet Union's support if the Americans discovered the missiles.", "By the time Guevara arrived in Cuba the United States had already discovered the Soviet troops in Cuba via U-2 spy planes.With important Congressional elections scheduled for November, the crisis became enmeshed in American politics.", "On 31 August, Senator Kenneth Keating (R-New York) warned on the Senate floor that the Soviet Union was \"in all probability\" constructing a missile base in Cuba.", "He charged the Kennedy administration with covering up a major threat to the US, thereby starting the crisis.", "He may have received this initial \"remarkably accurate\" information from his friend, former congresswoman and ambassador Clare Boothe Luce, who in turn received it from Cuban exiles.", "A later confirming source for Keating's information possibly was the West German ambassador to Cuba, who had received information from dissidents inside Cuba that Soviet troops had arrived in Cuba in early August and were seen working \"in all probability on or near a missile base\" and who passed this information to Keating on a trip to Washington in early October.", "Air Force General Curtis LeMay presented a pre-invasion bombing plan to Kennedy in September, and spy flights and minor military harassment from US forces at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base were the subject of continual Cuban diplomatic complaints to the US government.Map created by American intelligence showing all known Surface-to-Air Missile activity in Cuba, 5 September 1962The first consignment of Soviet R-12 missiles arrived on the night of 8 September, followed by a second on 16 September.", "The R-12 was a medium-range ballistic missile, capable of carrying a thermonuclear warhead.", "It was a single-stage, road-transportable, surface-launched, storable liquid propellant fuelled missile that could deliver a megaton-class nuclear weapon.", "The Soviets were building nine sites—six for R-12 medium-range missiles (NATO designation ''SS-4 Sandal'') with an effective range of and three for R-14 intermediate-range ballistic missiles (NATO designation ''SS-5 Skean'') with a maximum range of .On 7 October, Cuban President Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado spoke at the UN General Assembly: \"If... we are attacked, we will defend ourselves.", "I repeat, we have sufficient means with which to defend ourselves; we have indeed our inevitable weapons, the weapons, which we would have preferred not to acquire, and which we do not wish to employ.\"", "On 11 October in another Senate speech, Sen Keating reaffirmed his earlier warning of 31 August and stated that, \"Construction has begun on at least a half dozen launching sites for intermediate range tactical missiles.", "\"The Cuban leadership was further upset when on 20 September, the US Senate approved Joint Resolution 230, which expressed the US was determined \"to prevent in Cuba the creation or use of an externally-supported military capability endangering the security of the United States\".", "On the same day, the US announced a major military exercise in the Caribbean, PHIBRIGLEX-62, which Cuba denounced as a deliberate provocation and proof that the US planned to invade Cuba.The Soviet leadership believed, based on its perception of Kennedy's lack of confidence during the Bay of Pigs Invasion, that he would avoid confrontation and accept the missiles as a .", "On 11 September, the Soviet Union publicly warned that a US attack on Cuba or on Soviet ships that were carrying supplies to the island would mean war.", "The Soviets continued the ''Maskirovka'' program to conceal their actions in Cuba.", "They repeatedly denied that the weapons being brought into Cuba were offensive in nature.", "On 7 September, Soviet Ambassador to the United States Anatoly Dobrynin assured United States Ambassador to the United Nations Adlai Stevenson that the Soviet Union was supplying only defensive weapons to Cuba.", "On 11 September, the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS: ''Telegrafnoe Agentstvo Sovetskogo Soyuza'') announced that the Soviet Union had no need or intention to introduce offensive nuclear missiles into Cuba.", "On 13 October, Dobrynin was questioned by former Undersecretary of State Chester Bowles about whether the Soviets planned to put offensive weapons in Cuba.", "He denied any such plans.", "On 17 October, Soviet embassy official Georgy Bolshakov brought President Kennedy a personal message from Khrushchev reassuring him that \"under no circumstances would surface-to-surface missiles be sent to Cuba.\"" ], [ "Missiles reported", "The missiles in Cuba allowed the Soviets to effectively target most of the Continental US.", "The planned arsenal was forty launchers.", "The Cuban populace readily noticed the arrival and deployment of the missiles and hundreds of reports reached Miami.", "US intelligence received countless reports, many of dubious quality or even laughable, most of which could be dismissed as describing defensive missiles.Only five reports bothered the analysts.", "They described large trucks passing through towns at night that were carrying very long canvas-covered cylindrical objects that could not make turns through towns without backing up and maneuvering.", "Defensive missile transporters, it was believed, could make such turns without undue difficulty.", "The reports could not be satisfactorily dismissed.A U-2 reconnaissance photograph of Cuba, showing Soviet nuclear missiles, their transports and tents for fueling and maintenance===Aerial confirmation===The United States had been sending U-2 surveillance over Cuba since the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion.", "The first issue that led to a pause in reconnaissance flights took place on 30 August, when a U-2 operated by the US Air Force's Strategic Air Command flew over Sakhalin Island in the Soviet Far East by mistake.", "The Soviets lodged a protest and the US apologized.", "Nine days later, a Taiwanese-operated U-2 was lost over western China to an SA-2 surface-to-air missile (SAM).", "US officials were worried that one of the Cuban or Soviet SAMs in Cuba might shoot down a CIA U-2, initiating another international incident.", "In a meeting with members of the Committee on Overhead Reconnaissance (COMOR) on 10 September, Secretary of State Dean Rusk and National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy heavily restricted further U-2 flights over Cuban airspace.", "The resulting lack of coverage over the island for the next five weeks became known to historians as the \"Photo Gap\".", "No significant U-2 coverage was achieved over the interior of the island.", "US officials attempted to use a Corona photo-reconnaissance satellite to obtain coverage over reported Soviet military deployments, but imagery acquired over western Cuba by a Corona KH-4 mission on October 1 was heavily covered by clouds and haze and failed to provide any usable intelligence.", "At the end of September, Navy reconnaissance aircraft photographed the Soviet ship ''Kasimov'', with large crates on its deck the size and shape of Il-28 jet bomber fuselages.In September 1962, analysts from the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) noticed that Cuban surface-to-air missile sites were arranged in a pattern similar to those used by the Soviet Union to protect its ICBM bases, leading DIA to lobby for the resumption of U-2 flights over the island.", "Although in the past the flights had been conducted by the CIA, pressure from the Defense Department led to that authority being transferred to the Air Force.", "Following the loss of a CIA U-2 over the Soviet Union in May 1960, it was thought that if another U-2 were shot down, an Air Force aircraft arguably being used for a legitimate military purpose would be easier to explain than a CIA flight.When the reconnaissance missions were reauthorized on 9 October, poor weather kept the planes from flying.", "The US first obtained U-2 photographic evidence of the missiles on 14 October, when a U-2 flight piloted by Major Richard Heyser took 928 pictures on a path selected by DIA analysts, capturing images of what turned out to be an SS-4 construction site at San Cristóbal, Pinar del Río Province (now in Artemisa Province), in western Cuba.One of the first U-2 reconnaissance images of missile bases under construction shown to President Kennedy on the morning of 16 October 1962===President notified===On 15 October, the CIA's National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC) reviewed the U-2 photographs and identified objects that they interpreted as medium range ballistic missiles.", "This identification was made, in part, on the strength of reporting provided by Oleg Penkovsky, a double agent in the GRU working for the CIA and MI6.Although he provided no direct reports of the Soviet missile deployments to Cuba, technical and doctrinal details of Soviet missile regiments that had been provided by Penkovsky in the months and years prior to the Crisis helped NPIC analysts correctly identify the missiles on U-2 imagery.That evening, the CIA notified the Department of State and at 8:30 pm EDT, Bundy chose to wait until the next morning to tell the President.", "McNamara was briefed at midnight.", "The next morning, Bundy met with Kennedy and showed him the U-2 photographs and briefed him on the CIA's analysis of the images.", "At 6:30 pm EDT, Kennedy convened a meeting of the nine members of the National Security Council and five other key advisers, in a group he formally named the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EXCOMM) after the fact on 22 October by National Security Action Memorandum 196.Without informing the members of EXCOMM, President Kennedy tape-recorded all of their proceedings, and Sheldon M. Stern, head of the Kennedy library transcribed some of them.On 16 October, President Kennedy notified Attorney General Robert Kennedy that he was convinced the Soviets were placing missiles in Cuba and it was a legitimate threat.", "This made the threat of nuclear destruction by two world superpowers a reality.", "Robert Kennedy responded by contacting the Soviet Ambassador, Anatoly Dobrynin.", "Robert Kennedy expressed his \"concern about what was happening\" and Dobrynin \"was instructed by Soviet Chairman Nikita S. Khrushchev to assure President Kennedy that there would be no ground-to-ground missiles or offensive weapons placed in Cuba\".", "Khrushchev further assured Kennedy that the Soviet Union had no intention of \"disrupting the relationship of our two countries\" despite the photo evidence presented before President Kennedy.===Responses considered===President Kennedy meets in the Oval Office with General Curtis LeMay and the reconnaissance pilots who found the missile sites in Cuba.The US had no plan in place because until recently its intelligence had been convinced that the Soviets would never install nuclear missiles in Cuba.", "EXCOMM discussed several possible courses of action:# Do nothing: American vulnerability to Soviet missiles was not new.# Diplomacy: Use diplomatic pressure to get the Soviet Union to remove the missiles.# Secret approach: Offer Castro the choice of splitting with the Soviets or being invaded.# Invasion: Full-force invasion of Cuba and overthrow of Castro.# Air strike: Use the US Air Force to attack all known missile sites.# Blockade: Use the US Navy to block any missiles from arriving in Cuba.As the article describes, both the US and the Soviet Union considered many possible outcomes of their actions and threats during the crisis (Allison, Graham T.; Zelikow, Philip D.).", "This game tree models how both actors would have considered their decisions.", "It is broken down into a simple form for basic understanding.The Joint Chiefs of Staff unanimously agreed that a full-scale attack and invasion was the only solution.", "They believed that the Soviets would not attempt to stop the US from conquering Cuba.", "Kennedy was skeptical:Kennedy concluded that attacking Cuba by air would signal the Soviets to presume \"a clear line\" to conquer Berlin.", "Kennedy also believed that US allies would think of the country as \"trigger-happy cowboys\" who lost Berlin because they could not peacefully resolve the Cuban situation.President Kennedy and Secretary of Defense McNamara in an EXCOMM meeting, 29 October 1962The EXCOMM then discussed the effect on the strategic balance of power, both political and military.", "The Joint Chiefs of Staff believed that the missiles would seriously alter the military balance, but McNamara disagreed.", "An extra 40, he reasoned, would make little difference to the overall strategic balance.", "The US already had approximately 5,000 strategic warheads, but the Soviet Union had only 300.McNamara concluded that the Soviets having 340 would not therefore substantially alter the strategic balance.", "In 1990, he reiterated that \"it made ''no'' difference....", "The military balance wasn't changed.", "I didn't believe it then, and I don't believe it now.", "\"The EXCOMM agreed that the missiles would affect the ''political'' balance.", "Kennedy had explicitly promised the American people less than a month before the crisis that \"if Cuba should possess a capacity to carry out offensive actions against the United States... the United States would act.\"", "Further, US credibility among its allies and people would be damaged if the Soviet Union appeared to redress the strategic imbalance by placing missiles in Cuba.", "Kennedy explained after the crisis that \"it would have politically changed the balance of power.", "It would have appeared to, and appearances contribute to reality.", "\"President Kennedy meets in the Oval Office with Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko, 18 October 1962.On 18 October, Kennedy met with Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Andrei Gromyko, who claimed the weapons were for defensive purposes only.", "Not wanting to expose what he already knew and to avoid panicking the American public, Kennedy did not reveal that he was already aware of the missile buildup." ], [ "Operational plans", "Two Operational Plans (OPLAN) were considered.", "OPLAN 316 envisioned a full invasion of Cuba by Army and Marine units, supported by the Navy, following Air Force and naval airstrikes.", "Army units in the US would have had trouble fielding mechanised and logistical assets, and the US Navy could not supply enough amphibious shipping to transport even a modest armoured contingent from the Army.OPLAN 312, primarily an Air Force and Navy carrier operation, was designed with enough flexibility to do anything from engaging individual missile sites to providing air support for OPLAN 316's ground forces." ], [ "Blockade", "P-2H Neptune of VP-18 flying over a Soviet cargo ship with crated Il-28s on deck during the Cuban CrisisKennedy met with members of EXCOMM and other top advisers throughout 21 October, considering two remaining options: an air strike primarily against the Cuban missile bases or a naval blockade of Cuba.", "A full-scale invasion was not the administration's first option.", "McNamara supported the naval blockade as a strong but limited military action that left the US in control.", "The term \"blockade\" was problematic – according to international law, a blockade is an act of war, but the Kennedy administration did not think that the Soviets would be provoked to attack by a mere blockade.", "Additionally, legal experts at the State Department and Justice Department concluded that a declaration of war could be avoided if another legal justification, based on the Rio Treaty for defence of the Western Hemisphere, was obtained from a resolution by a two-thirds vote from the members of the Organization of American States (OAS).Admiral George Anderson, Chief of Naval Operations wrote a position paper that helped Kennedy to differentiate between what they termed a \"quarantine\" of offensive weapons and a blockade of all materials, claiming that a classic blockade was not the original intention.", "Since it would take place in international waters, Kennedy obtained the approval of the OAS for military action under the hemispheric defence provisions of the Rio Treaty:On 19 October, the EXCOMM formed separate working groups to examine the air strike and blockade options, and by the afternoon most support in the EXCOMM had shifted to a blockade.", "Reservations about the plan continued to be voiced as late as 21 October, the paramount concern being that once the blockade was put into effect, the Soviets would rush to complete some of the missiles.", "Consequently, the US could find itself bombing operational missiles if the blockade did not force Khrushchev to remove the missiles already on the island.===Speech to the nation===President Kennedy signing the Proclamation for Interdiction of the Delivery of Offensive Weapons to Cuba at the Oval Office on 23 October 1962.At 3:00 pm EDT on 22 October, President Kennedy formally established the executive committee (EXCOMM) with National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) 196.At 5:00 pm, he met with Congressional leaders, who contentiously opposed a blockade and demanded a stronger response.", "In Moscow, US Ambassador Foy D. Kohler briefed Khrushchev on the pending blockade and Kennedy's speech to the nation.", "Ambassadors around the world gave notice to non-Eastern Bloc leaders.", "Before the speech, US delegations met with Canadian Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, French President Charles de Gaulle and Secretary-General of the Organization of American States, José Antonio Mora to brief them on this intelligence and the US's proposed response.", "All were supportive of the US position.", "Over the course of the crisis, Kennedy had daily telephone conversations with Macmillan, who was publicly supportive of US actions.Shortly before his speech, Kennedy telephoned former President Dwight Eisenhower.", "Kennedy's conversation with the former president also revealed that the two had been consulting during the Cuban Missile Crisis.", "The two also anticipated that Khrushchev would respond to the Western world in a manner similar to his response during the Suez Crisis, and would possibly wind up trading off Berlin.At 7:00 pm EDT on 22 October, Kennedy delivered a nationwide televised address on all of the major networks announcing the discovery of the missiles.", "He noted:Kennedy described the administration's plan:During the speech, a directive went out to all US forces worldwide, placing them on DEFCON 3.The heavy cruiser was the designated flagship for the blockade, with as ''Newport News''s destroyer escort.", "Kennedy's speech writer Ted Sorensen stated in 2007 that the address to the nation was \"Kennedy's most important speech historically, in terms of its impact on our planet.", "\"===Crisis deepens===Soviet First Secretary Khrushchev's letter to Kennedy (dated 24 October 1962) stating that the blockade of Cuba \"constitutes an act of aggression\"On 24 October, at 11:24 am EDT, a cable, drafted by United States Under Secretary of State George Ball to the US Ambassador in Turkey and NATO, notified them that they were considering making an offer to withdraw the missiles from Italy and Turkey, in exchange for the Soviet withdrawal from Cuba.", "Turkish officials replied that they would \"deeply resent\" any trade involving the US missile presence in their country.", "One day later, on the morning of 25 October, American journalist Walter Lippmann proposed the same thing in his syndicated column.", "Castro reaffirmed Cuba's right to self-defense and said that all of its weapons were defensive and Cuba would not allow an inspection.===International response===Three days after Kennedy's speech, the Chinese ''People's Daily'' announced that \"650,000,000 Chinese men and women were standing by the Cuban people.\"", "In West Germany, newspapers supported the US response by contrasting it with the weak American actions in the region during the preceding months.", "They also expressed some fear that the Soviets might retaliate in Berlin.", "In France on 23 October, the crisis made the front page of all the daily newspapers.", "The next day, an editorial in ''Le Monde'' expressed doubt about the authenticity of the CIA's photographic evidence.", "Two days later, after a visit by a high-ranking CIA agent, the newspaper accepted the validity of the photographs.", "In the 29 October issue of ''Le Figaro'', Raymond Aron wrote in support of the American response.", "On 24 October, Pope John XXIII sent a message to the Soviet embassy in Rome, to be transmitted to the Kremlin, in which he voiced his concern for peace.", "In this message he stated, \"We beg all governments not to remain deaf to this cry of humanity.", "That they do all that is in their power to save peace.", "\"===Soviet broadcast and communications===The crisis continued unabated, and on the evening of 24 October, the Soviet TASS news agency broadcast a telegram from Khrushchev to Kennedy, in which Khrushchev warned that the United States' \"outright piracy\" would lead to war.", "Khrushchev then sent at 9:24 pm a telegram to Kennedy, which was received at 10:52 pm EDT.", "Khrushchev stated, \"if you weigh the present situation with a cool head without giving way to passion, you will understand that the Soviet Union cannot afford not to decline the despotic demands of the USA\" and that the Soviet Union viewed the blockade as \"an act of aggression\", and their ships would be instructed to ignore it.", "After 23 October, Soviet communications with the USA increasingly showed indications of having been rushed.", "Undoubtedly a product of pressure, it was not uncommon for Khrushchev to repeat himself and to send messages lacking basic editing.", "With President Kennedy making his aggressive intentions of a possible airstrike followed by an invasion on Cuba known, Khrushchev rapidly sought a diplomatic compromise.", "Communications between the two superpowers had entered into a unique and revolutionary period; with the newly developed threat of mutual destruction through the deployment of nuclear weapons, diplomacy now demonstrated how power and coercion could dominate negotiations.===US alert level raised===Adlai Stevenson shows aerial photos of Cuban missiles to the United Nations, 25 October 1962.The US requested an emergency meeting of the United Nations Security Council on 25 October.", "US Ambassador to the United Nations Adlai Stevenson confronted Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin in an emergency meeting of the Security Council, challenging him to admit the existence of the missiles.", "Ambassador Zorin refused to answer.", "At 10:00 pm EDT the next day, the US raised the readiness level of Strategic Air Command (SAC) forces to DEFCON 2.For the only confirmed time in US history, B-52 bombers went on continuous airborne alert, and B-47 medium bombers were dispersed to various military and civilian airfields and made ready to take off, fully equipped, on 15 minutes' notice.", "One-eighth of SAC's 1,436 bombers were on airborne alert, and some 145 intercontinental ballistic missiles stood on ready alert, some of which targeted Cuba.", "Air Defense Command (ADC) redeployed 161 nuclear-armed interceptors to 16 dispersal fields within nine hours, with one third maintaining 15-minute alert status.", "Twenty-three nuclear-armed B-52s were sent to orbit points within striking distance of the Soviet Union so it would believe that the US was serious.", "Jack J. Catton later estimated that about 80 per cent of SAC's planes were ready for launch during the crisis; David A. Burchinal recalled that, by contrast:By 22 October, Tactical Air Command (TAC) had 511 fighters, plus supporting tankers and reconnaissance aircraft, deployed to face Cuba on one-hour alert status.", "TAC and the Military Air Transport Service had problems.", "The concentration of aircraft in Florida strained command and support echelons, which faced critical undermanning in security, armaments, and communications; the absence of initial authorization for war-reserve stocks of conventional munitions forced TAC to scrounge; and the lack of airlift assets to support a major airborne drop necessitated the call-up of 24 reserve squadrons.On 25 October at 1:45 am EDT, Kennedy responded to Khrushchev's telegram by stating that the US was forced into action after receiving repeated assurances that no offensive missiles were being placed in Cuba, and when the assurances proved to be false, the deployment \"required the responses I have announced....", "I hope that your government will take necessary action to permit a restoration of the earlier situation.", "\"Atlantic Fleet showing the position of American and Soviet ships at the height of the crisis===Blockade challenged===At 7:15 am EDT on 25 October, and attempted to intercept ''Bucharest'' but failed to do so.", "Fairly certain that the tanker did not contain any military material, the US allowed it through the blockade.", "Later that day, at 5:43 pm, the commander of the blockade effort ordered the destroyer to intercept and board the Lebanese freighter ''Marucla''.", "That took place the next day, and ''Marucla'' was cleared through the blockade after its cargo was checked.At 5:00 pm EDT on 25 October, William Clements announced that the missiles in Cuba were still actively being worked on.", "That report was later verified by a CIA report that suggested there had been no slowdown at all.", "In response, Kennedy issued Security Action Memorandum 199, authorizing the loading of nuclear weapons onto aircraft under the command of SACEUR, which had the duty of carrying out first air strikes on the Soviet Union.", "Kennedy claimed that the blockade had succeeded when the USSR turned back fourteen ships presumably carrying offensive weapons.", "The first indication of this came from a report from the British GCHQ sent to the White House Situation Room containing intercepted communications from Soviet ships reporting their positions.", "On 24 October, ''Kislovodsk,'' a Soviet cargo ship, reported a position north-east of where it had been 24 hours earlier indicating it had \"discontinued\" its voyage and turned back towards the Baltic.", "The next day, reports showed more ships originally bound for Cuba had altered their course.===Raising the stakes===The next morning, 26 October, Kennedy informed the EXCOMM that he believed only an invasion would remove the missiles from Cuba.", "He was persuaded to give the matter time and continue with both military and diplomatic pressure.", "He agreed and ordered the low-level flights over the island to be increased from two per day to once every two hours.", "He also ordered a crash program to institute a new civil government in Cuba if an invasion went ahead.At this point, the crisis was ostensibly at a stalemate.", "The Soviets had shown no indication that they would back down and had made public media and private inter-governmental statements to that effect.", "The US had no reason to believe otherwise and was in the early stages of preparing for an invasion, along with a nuclear strike on the Soviet Union if it responded militarily, which the US assumed it would.", "Kennedy had no intention of keeping these plans a secret; with an array of Cuban and Soviet spies forever present, Khrushchev was quickly made aware of this looming danger.The implicit threat of air strikes on Cuba followed by invasion allowed the United States to exert pressure in future talks.", "It was the possibility of military action that played an influential role in accelerating Khrushchev's proposal for a compromise.", "Throughout the closing stages of October, Soviet communications to the United States indicated increasing defensiveness.", "Khrushchev's increasing tendency to use poorly phrased and ambiguous communications throughout the compromise negotiations conversely increased United States confidence and clarity in messaging.", "Leading Soviet figures consistently failed to mention that only the Cuban government could agree to inspections of the territory and continually made arrangements relating to Cuba without the knowledge of Fidel Castro himself.", "According to Dean Rusk, Khrushchev \"blinked\"; he began to panic from the consequences of his own plan, and this was reflected in the tone of Soviet messages.", "This allowed the US to largely dominate negotiations in late October." ], [ "Secret negotiations", "At 1:00 pm EDT on 26 October, John A. Scali of ABC News had lunch with Aleksandr Fomin, the cover name of Alexander Feklisov, the KGB station chief in Washington, at Fomin's request.", "Following the instructions of the Politburo of the CPSU, Fomin noted, \"War seems about to break out.\"", "He asked Scali to use his contacts to talk to his \"high-level friends\" at the State Department to see if the US would be interested in a diplomatic solution.", "He suggested that the language of the deal would contain an assurance from the Soviet Union to remove the weapons under UN supervision and that Castro would publicly announce that he would not accept such weapons again in exchange for a public statement by the US that it would not invade Cuba.", "The US responded by asking the Brazilian government to pass a message to Castro that the US would be \"unlikely to invade\" if the missiles were removed.At 6:00 pm EDT on 26 October, the State Department started receiving a message that appeared to be written personally by Khrushchev.", "It was Saturday 2:00 am in Moscow.", "The long letter took several minutes to arrive, and it took translators additional time to translate and transcribe it.Robert F. Kennedy described the letter as \"very long and emotional\".", "Khrushchev reiterated the basic outline that had been stated to Scali earlier in the day: \"I propose: we, for our part, will declare that our ships bound for Cuba are not carrying any armaments.", "You will declare that the United States will not invade Cuba with its troops and will not support any other forces which might intend to invade Cuba.", "Then the necessity of the presence of our military specialists in Cuba will disappear.\"", "At 6:45 pm EDT, news of Fomin's offer to Scali was finally heard and was interpreted as a \"set up\" for the arrival of Khrushchev's letter.", "The letter was then considered official and accurate, although it was later learned that Fomin was almost certainly operating of his own accord without official backing.", "Additional study of the letter was ordered and continued into the night.===Crisis continues===S-75 Dvina with V-750V 1D missile (NATO designation SA-2 Guideline) on a launcher.", "A similar installation shot down Major Anderson's U-2 over Cuba.Castro, on the other hand, was convinced that an invasion of Cuba was soon at hand, and on 26 October, he sent a telegram to Khrushchev that appeared to call for a pre-emptive nuclear strike on the US in case of attack.", "In a 2010 interview, Castro expressed regret about his 1962 stance on first use: \"After I've seen what I've seen, and knowing what I know now, it wasn't worth it at all.\"", "Castro also ordered all anti-aircraft weapons in Cuba to fire on any US aircraft; previous orders had been to fire only on groups of two or more.", "At 6:00 am EDT on 27 October, the CIA delivered a memo reporting that three of the four missile sites at San Cristobal and both sites at Sagua la Grande appeared to be fully operational.", "It also noted that the Cuban military continued to organise for action but was under order not to initiate action unless attacked.At 9:00 am EDT on 27 October, Radio Moscow began broadcasting a message from Khrushchev.", "Contrary to the letter of the night before, the message offered a new trade: the missiles on Cuba would be removed in exchange for the removal of the Jupiter missiles from Italy and Turkey.", "At 10:00 am EDT, the executive committee met again to discuss the situation and came to the conclusion that the change in the message was because of internal debate between Khrushchev and other party officials in the Kremlin.", "Kennedy realised that he would be in an \"insupportable position if this becomes Khrushchev's proposal\" because the missiles in Turkey were not militarily useful and were being removed anyway and \"It's gonna – to any man at the United Nations or any other rational man, it will look like a very fair trade.\"", "Bundy explained why Khrushchev's public acquiescence could not be considered: \"The current threat to peace is not in Turkey, it is in Cuba.", "\"McNamara noted that another tanker, the ''Grozny'', was about out and should be intercepted.", "He also noted that they had not made the Soviets aware of the blockade line and suggested relaying that information to them via U Thant at the United Nations.Lockheed U-2F, the high altitude reconnaissance type shot down over Cuba, being refueled by a Boeing KC-135Q.", "The aircraft in 1962 was painted overall gray and carried USAF military markings and national insignia.While the meeting progressed, at 11:03 am EDT a new message began to arrive from Khrushchev.", "The message stated, in part:\"You are disturbed over Cuba.", "You say that this disturbs you because it is ninety-nine miles by sea from the coast of the United States of America.", "But... you have placed destructive missile weapons, which you call offensive, in Italy and Turkey, literally next to us....", "I therefore make this proposal: We are willing to remove from Cuba the means which you regard as offensive....", "Your representatives will make a declaration to the effect that the United States... will remove its analogous means from Turkey... and after that, persons entrusted by the United Nations Security Council could inspect on the spot the fulfillment of the pledges made.", "\"The executive committee continued to meet through the day.Throughout the crisis, Turkey had repeatedly stated that it would be upset if the Jupiter missiles were removed.", "Italy's Prime Minister Amintore Fanfani, who was also Foreign Minister ''ad interim'', offered to allow withdrawal of the missiles deployed in Apulia as a bargaining chip.", "He gave the message to one of his most trusted friends, Ettore Bernabei, general manager of RAI-TV, to convey to Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Bernabei was in New York to attend an international conference on satellite TV broadcasting.The engine of the Lockheed U-2 shot down over Cuba on display at Museum of the Revolution in HavanaOn the morning of 27 October, a U-2F (the third CIA U-2A, modified for air-to-air refuelling) piloted by USAF Major Rudolf Anderson, departed its forward operating location at McCoy AFB, Florida.", "At approximately 12:00 pm EDT, the aircraft was struck by an SA-2 surface-to-air missile launched from Cuba.", "The aircraft crashed, and Anderson was killed.", "Stress in negotiations between the Soviets and the US intensified; only later was it assumed that the decision to fire the missile was made locally by an undetermined Soviet commander, acting on his own authority.", "Later that day, at about 3:41 pm EDT, several US Navy RF-8A Crusader aircraft, on low-level photo-reconnaissance missions, were fired upon.On 28 October 1962, Khrushchev told his son Sergei that the shooting down of Anderson's U-2 was by the \"Cuban military at the direction of Raul Castro\".At 4:00 pm EDT, Kennedy recalled members of EXCOMM to the White House and ordered that a message should immediately be sent to U Thant asking the Soviets to suspend work on the missiles while negotiations were carried out.", "During the meeting, General Maxwell Taylor delivered the news that the U-2 had been shot down.", "Kennedy had earlier claimed he would order an attack on such sites if fired upon, but he decided to not act unless another attack was made.", "Forty years later, McNamara said:Daniel Ellsberg said that Robert Kennedy (RFK) told him in 1964 that after the U-2 was shot down and the pilot killed, he (RFK) told Soviet ambassador Dobrynin, \"You have drawn first blood ... .", "The president had decided against advice ... not to respond militarily to that attack, but he Dobrynin should know that if another plane was shot at, ... we would take out all the SAMs and antiaircraft ... .", "And that would almost surely be followed by an invasion.", "\"===Drafting response===Emissaries sent by both Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to meet at the Yenching Palace Chinese restaurant in the Cleveland Park neighbourhood of Washington, DC, on Saturday evening, 27 October.", "Kennedy suggested to take Khrushchev's offer to trade away the missiles.", "Unknown to most members of the EXCOMM, but with the support of his brother the president, Robert Kennedy had been meeting with the Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin in Washington to discover whether the intentions were genuine.", "The EXCOMM was generally against the proposal because it would undermine NATO's authority, and the Turkish government had repeatedly stated it was against any such trade.As the meeting progressed, a new plan emerged, and Kennedy was slowly persuaded.", "The new plan called for him to ignore the latest message and instead to return to Khrushchev's earlier one.", "Kennedy was initially hesitant, feeling that Khrushchev would no longer accept the deal because a new one had been offered, but Llewellyn Thompson argued that it was still possible.", "White House Special Counsel and Adviser Ted Sorensen and Robert Kennedy left the meeting and returned 45 minutes later, with a draft letter to that effect.", "The President made several changes, had it typed, and sent it.After the EXCOMM meeting, a smaller meeting continued in the Oval Office.", "The group argued that the letter should be underscored with an oral message to Dobrynin that stated that if the missiles were not withdrawn, military action would be used to remove them.", "Rusk added one proviso that no part of the language of the deal would mention Turkey, but there would be an understanding that the missiles would be removed \"voluntarily\" in the immediate aftermath.", "The president agreed, and the message was sent.EXCOMM meeting in the White House Cabinet Room, with President Kennedy, Robert McNamara and Dean Rusk in attendance, 29 October 1962At Rusk's request, Fomin and Scali met again.", "Scali asked why the two letters from Khrushchev were so different, and Fomin claimed it was because of \"poor communications\".", "Scali replied that the claim was not credible and shouted that he thought it was a \"stinking double cross\".", "He went on to claim that an invasion was only hours away, and Fomin stated that a response to the US message was expected from Khrushchev shortly and urged Scali to tell the State Department that no treachery was intended.", "Scali said that he did not think anyone would believe him, but he agreed to deliver the message.", "The two went their separate ways, and Scali immediately typed out a memo for the EXCOMM.Within the US establishment, it was well understood that ignoring the second offer and returning to the first put Khrushchev in a terrible position.", "Military preparations continued, and all active duty Air Force personnel were recalled to their bases for possible action.", "Robert Kennedy later recalled the mood: \"We had not abandoned all hope, but what hope there was now rested with Khrushchev's revising his course within the next few hours.", "It was a hope, not an expectation.", "The expectation was military confrontation by Tuesday 30 October, and possibly tomorrow 29 October ....\"At 8:05 pm EDT, the letter drafted earlier in the day was delivered.", "The message read, \"As I read your letter, the key elements of your proposals—which seem generally acceptable as I understand them—are as follows: 1) You would agree to remove these weapons systems from Cuba under appropriate United Nations observation and supervision; and undertake, with suitable safe-guards, to halt the further introduction of such weapon systems into Cuba.", "2) We, on our part, would agree—upon the establishment of adequate arrangements through the United Nations, to ensure the carrying out and continuation of these commitments (a) to remove promptly the quarantine measures now in effect and (b) to give assurances against the invasion of Cuba.\"", "The letter was also released directly to the press to ensure it could not be \"delayed\".", "With the letter delivered, a deal was on the table.", "As Robert Kennedy noted, there was little expectation it would be accepted.", "At 9:00 pm EDT, the EXCOMM met again to review the actions for the following day.", "Plans were drawn up for air strikes on the missile sites as well as other economic targets, notably petroleum storage.", "McNamara stated that they had to \"have two things ready: a government for Cuba, because we're going to need one; and secondly, plans for how to respond to the Soviet Union in Europe, because sure as hell they're going to do something there\".At 12:12 am EDT, on 27 October, the US informed its NATO allies that \"the situation is growing shorter.... the United States may find it necessary within a very short time in its interest and that of its fellow nations in the Western Hemisphere to take whatever military action may be necessary.\"", "To add to the concern, at 6:00 am, the CIA reported that all missiles in Cuba were ready for action.A US Navy HSS-1 Seabat helicopter hovers over Soviet submarine ''B-59'', driven to the surface by US Naval forces in the Caribbean near Cuba (28 or 29 October 1962).On 27 October, Khrushchev also received a letter from Castro, what is now known as the Armageddon Letter (dated the day before), which was interpreted as urging the use of nuclear force in the event of an attack on Cuba: \"I believe the imperialists' aggressiveness is extremely dangerous and if they actually carry out the brutal act of invading Cuba in violation of international law and morality, that would be the moment to eliminate such danger forever through an act of clear legitimate defense, however harsh and terrible the solution would be,\" Castro wrote.===Averted nuclear launch===Later that same day, what the White House later called \"Black Saturday\", the US Navy dropped a series of \"signalling\" depth charges (practice depth charges the size of hand grenades) on a Soviet submarine () at the blockade line, unaware that it was armed with a nuclear-tipped torpedo with orders that allowed it to be used if the submarine was damaged by depth charges or surface fire.", "As the submarine was too deep to monitor any radio traffic, the captain of the ''B-59'', Valentin Grigoryevich Savitsky, decided that a war might already have started and wanted to launch a nuclear torpedo.", "The decision to launch these normally only required agreement from the two commanding officers on board, the Captain and the Political Officer.", "However, the commander of the submarine Flotilla, Vasily Arkhipov, was aboard ''B-59'' and so he also had to agree.", "Arkhipov objected and so the nuclear launch was narrowly averted.On the same day a U-2 spy plane made an accidental, unauthorised ninety-minute overflight of the Soviet Union's far eastern coast.", "The Soviets responded by scrambling MiG fighters from Wrangel Island; in turn, the Americans launched F-102 fighters armed with nuclear air-to-air missiles over the Bering Sea." ], [ "Resolution", "On Saturday, 27 October, after much deliberation between the Soviet Union and Kennedy's cabinet, Kennedy secretly agreed to remove all missiles set in Turkey and possibly southern Italy, the former on the border of the Soviet Union, in exchange for Khrushchev removing all missiles in Cuba.", "There is some dispute as to whether removing the missiles from Italy was part of the secret agreement.", "Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that it was, and when the crisis had ended McNamara gave the order to dismantle the missiles in both Italy and Turkey.At this point, Khrushchev knew things the US did not.", "First, that the shooting down of the U-2 by a Soviet missile violated direct orders from Moscow, and Cuban anti-aircraft fire against other US reconnaissance aircraft also violated direct orders from Khrushchev to Castro.", "Second, the Soviets already had 162 nuclear warheads on Cuba that the US did not then believe were there.", "Third, the Soviets and Cubans on the island would almost certainly have responded to an invasion by using those nuclear weapons, even though Castro believed that every human in Cuba would likely die as a result.", "Khrushchev also knew but may not have considered the fact that he had submarines armed with nuclear weapons that the US Navy may not have known about.Khrushchev knew he was losing control.", "President Kennedy had been told in early 1961 that a nuclear war would likely kill a third of humanity, with most or all of those deaths concentrated in the US, the USSR, Europe and China; Khrushchev may well have received similar reports from his military.With this background, when Khrushchev heard Kennedy's threats relayed by Robert Kennedy to Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin, he immediately drafted his acceptance of Kennedy's latest terms from his dacha without involving the Politburo, as he had previously, and had them immediately broadcast over Radio Moscow, which he believed the US would hear.", "In that broadcast at 9:00 am EST, on 28 October, Khrushchev stated that \"the Soviet government, in addition to previously issued instructions on the cessation of further work at the building sites for the weapons, has issued a new order on the dismantling of the weapons which you describe as 'offensive' and their crating and return to the Soviet Union.\"", "At 10:00 am on 28 October, Kennedy first learned of Khrushchev's solution to the crisis with the US removing the 15 Jupiters in Turkey and the Soviets would remove the rockets from Cuba.", "Khrushchev had made the offer in a public statement for the world to hear.", "Despite almost solid opposition from his senior advisers, Kennedy quickly embraced the Soviet offer.", "\"This is a pretty good play of his,\" Kennedy said, according to a tape recording that he made secretly of the Cabinet Room meeting.", "Kennedy had deployed the Jupiters in March 1962, causing a stream of angry outbursts from Khrushchev.", "\"Most people will think this is a rather even trade and we ought to take advantage of it,\" Kennedy said.", "Vice President Lyndon Johnson was the first to endorse the missile swap but others continued to oppose the offer.", "Finally, Kennedy ended the debate.", "\"We can't very well invade Cuba with all its toil and blood,\" Kennedy said, \"when we could have gotten them out by making a deal on the same missiles on Turkey.", "If that's part of the record, then you don't have a very good war.", "\"Kennedy immediately responded to Khrushchev's letter, issuing a statement calling it \"an important and constructive contribution to peace\".", "He continued this with a formal letter:Kennedy's planned statement would also contain suggestions he had received from his adviser Schlesinger Jr. in a \"Memorandum for the President\" describing the \"Post Mortem on Cuba\".On 28 October, Kennedy participated in telephone conversations with Eisenhower and fellow former US President Harry Truman.", "In these calls, Kennedy revealed that he thought the crisis would result in the two superpowers being \"toe to toe\" in Berlin by the end of the following month and expressed concern that the Soviet setback in Cuba would \"make things tougher\" there.", "He also informed his predecessors that he had rejected the public Soviet offer to withdraw from Cuba in exchange for the withdrawal of US missiles from Turkey.Removal of Missiles in Cuba 11 November 1962 – NARA – 193868The US continued the blockade; in the following days, aerial reconnaissance proved that the Soviets were making progress in removing the missile systems.", "The 42 missiles and their support equipment were loaded onto eight Soviet ships.", "On 2 November 1962, Kennedy addressed the US via radio and television broadcasts regarding the dismantlement process of the Soviet R-12 missile bases located in the Caribbean region.", "The ships left Cuba on November 5 to 9.The US made a final visual check as each of the ships passed the blockade line.", "Further diplomatic efforts were required to remove the Soviet Il-28 bombers, and they were loaded on three Soviet ships on 5 and 6 December.", "Concurrent with the Soviet commitment on the Il-28s, the US government announced the end of the blockade from 6:45 pm EST on 20 November 1962.At the time when the Kennedy administration thought that the Cuban Missile Crisis was resolved, nuclear tactical rockets stayed in Cuba since they were not part of the Kennedy-Khrushchev understandings and the Americans did not know about them.", "The Soviets changed their minds, fearing possible future Cuban militant steps, and on 22 November 1962, Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union Anastas Mikoyan told Castro that the rockets with the nuclear warheads were being removed as well.The Cuban Missile Crises was solved in part by a secret agreement by John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev.", "The Kennedy-Khrushchev Pact was known only by 9 U.S. officials at the time of its creation in October 1963 and was the first time officially acknowledged at a conference in Moscow in January 1989 by Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin and Kennedy's speechwriter Theodore Sorensen.", "In his negotiations with the Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin, Robert Kennedy informally proposed that the Jupiter missiles in Turkey would be removed \"within a short time after this crisis was over\".", "Under an operation code-named ''Operation Pot Pie,'' the removal of the Jupiters from Italy and Turkey began on 1 April, and was completed by 24 April 1963.The initial plans were to recycle the missiles for use in other programs, but NASA and the USAF were not interested in retaining the missile hardware.", "The missile bodies were destroyed on site, warheads, guidance packages, and launching equipment worth $14 million were returned to the United States.", "The dismantling operations were named Pot Pie I for Italy and Pot Pie II for Turkey by the United States Air Forces.The practical effect of the Kennedy-Khrushchev Pact was that the US would remove their rockets from Italy and Turkey and that the Soviets had no intention of resorting to nuclear war if they were out-gunned by the US.", "Because the withdrawal of the Jupiter missiles from NATO bases in Italy and Turkey was not made public at the time, Khrushchev appeared to have lost the conflict and become weakened.", "The perception was that Kennedy had won the contest between the superpowers and that Khrushchev had been humiliated.", "Both Kennedy and Khrushchev took every step to avoid full conflict despite pressures from their respective governments.", "Khrushchev held power for another two years.", "As a direct result to the crisis, the United States and the Soviet Union set up a direct line of communication.", "The hot line between the Soviet Union and the United States was a way for the President and Premier to have negotiations should a crisis like this ever happen again." ], [ "Nuclear forces", "By the time of the crisis in October 1962, the total number of nuclear weapons in the stockpiles of each country numbered approximately 26,400 for the United States and 3,300 for the Soviet Union.", "For the US, around 3,500 (with a combined yield of approximately 6,300 megatons) would have been used in attacking the Soviet Union.", "The Soviets had considerably less strategic firepower at their disposal: some 300–320 bombs and warheads, without submarine-based weapons in a position to threaten the US mainland and most of their intercontinental delivery systems based on bombers that would have difficulty penetrating North American air defence systems.", "However, they had already moved 158 warheads to Cuba; between 95 and 100 would have been ready for use if the US had invaded Cuba, most of which were short-ranged.", "The US had approximately 4,375 nuclear weapons deployed in Europe, most of which were tactical weapons such as nuclear artillery, with around 450 of them for ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, and aircraft; the Soviets had more than 550 similar weapons in Europe.===United States===* SAC** ICBM: 182 (at peak alert); 121 Atlas D/E/F, 53 Titan 1, 8 Minuteman 1A** Bombers: 1,595; 880 B-47, 639 B-52, 76 B-58 (1,479 bombers and 1,003 refuelling tankers available at peak alert)* Atlantic Command** 112 UGM-27 Polaris in seven SSBNs (16 each); five submarines with Polaris A1 and two with A2* Pacific Command** 4–8 Regulus cruise missiles** 16 Mace cruise missiles** Three aircraft carriers with some 40 bombs each** Land-based aircraft with some 50 bombs* European Command** IRBM: 45 Jupiter (30 Italy, 15 Turkey)** 48–90 Mace cruise missiles** Two US Sixth Fleet aircraft carriers with some 40 bombs each** Land-based aircraft with some 50 bombs===Soviet Union===* Strategic (for use against North America):** ICBM: 42; four SS-6/R-7A at Plesetsk with two in reserve at Baikonur, 36 SS-7/R-16 with 26 in silos and ten on open launch pads** Bombers: 160 (readiness unknown); 100 Tu-95 Bear, 60 3M Bison B* Regional (mostly targeting Europe, and others targeting US bases in east Asia):** MRBM: 528 SS-4/R-12, 492 at soft launch sites and 36 at hard launch sites (approximately six to eight R-12s were operational in Cuba, capable of striking the US mainland at any moment until the crisis was resolved)** IRBM: 28 SS-5/R-14** Unknown number of Tu-16 Badger, Tu-22 Blinder, and MiG-21 aircraft tasked with nuclear strike missions" ], [ "Aftermath", "Jupiter intermediate-range ballistic missile.", "The US secretly agreed to withdraw the missiles from Italy and Turkey.===Cuban leadership===Cuba perceived the outcome as a betrayal by the Soviets, as decisions on how to resolve the crisis had been made exclusively by Kennedy and Khrushchev.", "Castro was especially upset that certain issues of interest to Cuba, such as the status of the US Naval Base in Guantánamo, were not addressed.", "That caused Cuban–Soviet relations to deteriorate for years to come.Historian Arthur Schlesinger believed that when the missiles were withdrawn, Castro was more angry with Khrushchev than with Kennedy because Khrushchev had not consulted Castro before deciding to remove them.", "Although Castro was infuriated by Khrushchev, he planned on striking the US with the remaining missiles if an invasion of the island occurred.A few weeks after the crisis, during an interview with the British communist newspaper the ''Daily Worker'', Guevara was still fuming over the perceived Soviet betrayal and told correspondent Sam Russell that, if the missiles had been under Cuban control, they would have fired them off.", "While expounding on the incident later, Guevara reiterated that the cause of socialist liberation against global \"imperialist aggression\" would ultimately have been worth the possibility of \"millions of atomic war victims\".", "The missile crisis further convinced Guevara that the world's two superpowers (the United States and the Soviet Union) used Cuba as a pawn in their own global strategies.", "Afterward, he denounced the Soviets almost as frequently as he denounced the Americans.===Romanian leadership===During the crisis, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, general secretary of Romania's communist party, sent a letter to President Kennedy dissociating Romania from Soviet actions.", "This convinced the American administration of Bucharest's intentions of detaching itself from Moscow.===Soviet leadership===The significance of how close the world came to thermonuclear war impelled Khrushchev to propose a far-reaching easing of tensions with the US.", "In a letter to President Kennedy dated 30 October 1962, Khrushchev outlined a range of bold initiatives to forestall the possibility of a further nuclear crisis, including proposing a non-aggression treaty between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact or even disbanding these military blocs, a treaty to cease all nuclear weapons testing and even the elimination of all nuclear weapons, resolution of the hot-button issue of Germany by both East and West formally accepting the existence of West Germany and East Germany, and US recognition of the government of mainland China.", "The letter invited counter-proposals and further exploration of these and other issues through peaceful negotiations.", "Khrushchev invited Norman Cousins, the editor of a major US periodical and an anti-nuclear weapons activist, to serve as liaison with President Kennedy, and Cousins met with Khrushchev for four hours in December 1962.Kennedy's response to Khrushchev's proposals was lukewarm but Kennedy expressed to Cousins that he felt constrained in exploring these issues due to pressure from hardliners in the US national security apparatus.", "The United States and the Soviet Union did shortly thereafter agree on a treaty banning atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, known as the \"Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty\".Further after the crisis, the US and the USSR created the Moscow–Washington hotline, a direct communications link between Moscow and Washington.", "The purpose was to have a way that the leaders of the two Cold War countries could communicate directly to solve such a crisis.The compromise embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey was a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev.", "Khrushchev went to Kennedy as he thought that the crisis was getting out of hand, but the Soviets were seen as retreating from circumstances that they had started.Khrushchev's fall from power two years later was in part because of the Soviet Politburo's embarrassment at both Khrushchev's eventual concessions to the US and this ineptitude in precipitating the crisis in the first place.", "According to Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as \"a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation\".===US leadership===The worldwide US Forces DEFCON 3 status was returned to DEFCON 4 on 20 November 1962.General Curtis LeMay told the President that the resolution of the crisis was the \"greatest defeat in our history\"; his was a minority position.", "He had pressed for an immediate invasion of Cuba as soon as the crisis began and still favored invading Cuba even after the Soviets had withdrawn their missiles.", "Twenty-five years later, LeMay still believed that \"We could have gotten not only the missiles out of Cuba, we could have gotten the Communists out of Cuba at that time.", "\"By 1962, President Kennedy had faced four crisis situations: the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, settlement negotiations between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement (\"Kennedy sidestepped Laos, whose rugged terrain was no battleground for American soldiers.", "\"), the construction of the Berlin Wall, and the Cuban Missile Crisis.", "Kennedy believed that yet another failure to gain control and stop communist expansion would irreparably damage US credibility.", "He was determined to \"draw a line in the sand\" and prevent a communist victory in Vietnam.", "He told James Reston of ''The New York Times'' immediately after his Vienna summit meeting with Khrushchev, \"Now we have a problem making our power credible and Vietnam looks like the place.", "\"At least four contingency strikes were armed and launched from Florida against Cuban airfields and suspected missile sites in 1963 and 1964, although all were diverted to the Pinecastle Range Complex after the planes passed Andros island.", "Critics, including Seymour Melman and Seymour Hersh, suggested that the Cuban Missile Crisis encouraged the United States' use of military means, such as the case in the later Vietnam War.", "Similarly, Lorraine Bayard de Volo has suggested that the masculine brinksmanship of the Cuban Missile Crisis has become a 'touchstone of toughness by which presidents are measured'.", "Actions in 1962 would go on to have a significant influence on the future policy decisions of those who occupied the White House, leading to foreign policy decisions such as President Lyndon B. Johnson's escalation of the war in Vietnam three years following the crisis.===Human casualties===U-2 pilot Anderson's body was returned to the US and was buried with full military honours in South Carolina.", "He was the first recipient of the newly created Air Force Cross, which was awarded posthumously.", "Although Anderson was the only combatant fatality during the crisis, 11 crew members of three reconnaissance Boeing RB-47 Stratojets of the 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing were also killed in crashes during the period between 27 September and 11 November 1962.Seven crew died when a Military Air Transport Service Boeing C-135B Stratolifter delivering ammunition to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base stalled and crashed on approach on 23 October." ], [ "Later revelations", "===Submarine close call===Arguably, the most dangerous moment in the crisis was not recognized until the Cuban Missile Crisis Havana conference, in October 2002.Attended by many of the veterans of the crisis, they all learned that on 27 October 1962, had tracked and dropped signalling depth charges (the size of hand grenades) on , a Soviet Project 641 (NATO designation ) submarine.", "Unknown to the US, it was armed with a 15-kiloton nuclear torpedo.", "Running out of air, the Soviet submarine was surrounded by American warships and desperately needed to surface.", "An argument broke out among three officers aboard ''B-59'', including submarine captain Valentin Savitsky, political officer Ivan Semyonovich Maslennikov, and Deputy brigade commander Captain 2nd rank (US Navy Commander rank equivalent) Vasily Arkhipov.", "An exhausted Savitsky became furious and ordered that the nuclear torpedo on board be made combat ready.", "Accounts differ about whether Arkhipov convinced Savitsky not to make the attack or whether Savitsky himself finally concluded that the only reasonable choice left open to him was to come to the surface.", "During the conference, McNamara stated that nuclear war had come much closer than people had thought.", "Thomas Blanton, director of the National Security Archive, said, \"A guy called Vasily Arkhipov saved the world.", "\"===Possibility of nuclear launch===In early 1992, it was confirmed that Soviet forces in Cuba had already received tactical nuclear warheads for their artillery rockets and Il-28 bombers when the crisis broke.", "Castro stated that he would have recommended their use if the US invaded despite Cuba being destroyed.Fifty years after the crisis, Graham Allison wrote:BBC journalist Joe Matthews published the story, on 13 October 2012, behind the 100 tactical nuclear warheads mentioned by Graham Allison in the excerpt above.", "Khrushchev feared that Castro's hurt pride and widespread Cuban indignation over the concessions he had made to Kennedy might lead to a breakdown of the agreement between the Soviet Union and the United States.", "To prevent that, Khrushchev decided to offer to give Cuba more than 100 tactical nuclear weapons that had been shipped to Cuba along with the long-range missiles but, crucially, had escaped the notice of US intelligence.", "Khrushchev determined that because the Americans had not listed the missiles on their list of demands, keeping them in Cuba would be in the Soviet Union's interests.Anastas Mikoyan was tasked with the negotiations with Castro over the missile transfer deal that was designed to prevent a breakdown in the relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union.", "While in Havana, Mikoyan witnessed the mood swings and paranoia of Castro, who was convinced that Moscow had made the agreement with the US at the expense of Cuba's defence.", "Mikoyan, on his own initiative, decided that Castro and his military should not be given control of weapons with an explosive force equal to 100 Hiroshima-sized bombs under any circumstances.", "He defused the seemingly intractable situation, which risked re-escalating the crisis, on 22 November 1962.During a tense, four-hour meeting, Mikoyan convinced Castro that despite Moscow's desire to help, it would be in breach of an unpublished Soviet law, which did not actually exist, to transfer the missiles permanently into Cuban hands and provide them with an independent nuclear deterrent.", "Castro was forced to give way and, much to the relief of Khrushchev and the rest of the Soviet government, the tactical nuclear weapons were crated and returned by sea to the Soviet Union during December 1962." ], [ "In popular culture", "Topaz''The American popular media, especially television, made frequent use of the events of the missile crisis in both fictional and documentary forms.", "Jim Willis includes the Crisis as one of the 100 \"media moments that changed America\".", "Sheldon Stern finds that a half century later there are still many \"misconceptions, half-truths, and outright lies\" that have shaped media versions of what happened in the White House during those harrowing two weeks.Historian William Cohn argued in a 1976 article that television programs are typically the main source used by the American public to know about and interpret the past.", "According to Cold War historian Andrei Kozovoi, the Soviet media proved somewhat disorganized as it was unable to generate a coherent popular history.", "Khrushchev lost power and was airbrushed out of the story.", "Cuba was no longer portrayed as a heroic David against the American Goliath.", "One contradiction that pervaded the Soviet media campaign was between the pacifistic rhetoric of the peace movement that emphasizes the horrors of nuclear war and the militancy of the need to prepare Soviets for war against American aggression." ], [ "Media representations", "=== Non fiction ===* ''Thirteen Days'', Robert F. Kennedy's memoir of the crisis, posthumously released in 1969; It became the basis for numerous films and documentaries.", "* ''The Missiles of October'', 1974 TV docudrama about the crisis.", "* ''The Fog of War'', 2003 American documentary film about the life and times of former US Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara directed by Errol Morris, which won that year's Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.", "\"=== Fiction ===* ''Topaz'', 1969 film by Alfred Hitchcock based on the 1967 novel by Leon Uris, set during the run-up to the crisis.", "* ''Matinee'', 1993 film starring John Goodman set during the Cuban Missile Crisis in which an independent-filmmaker decides to seize the opportunity to debut an atomic themed film.", "* ''Thirteen Days'', 2000 film based on ''The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House During the Cuban Missile Crisis'', a docudrama directed by Roger Donaldson about the crisis.", "* ''Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3,'' a 2008 video game, set in an alternate timeline where Einstein did not exist.", "During the Allied Nations campaign, an alternate version of the Cuban Missile Crisis occurs, dubbed in game as the mission ''\"The Great Bear Trap\"'', where the Soviet Union had secretly planned and constructed an invasion force in Havana, capped by specially designed Kirov Airships that were yielding 50 megaton bombs and intended to fly towards Allied controlled cities.", "* ''Mad Men'', the 2008 episode \"Meditations in an Emergency\" is set in the midst of the Cuban Missile Crisis.", "* ''Ur'', a 2009 short novel by Stephen King, is about three men who discover through a magic Kindle that in a parallel universe, the Cuban Missile Crisis escalated into a nuclear war and ended that universe.", "* ''Call of Duty: Black Ops'', 2010 video game, set during and after the Cuban Missile Crisis.", "* ''The Kennedys'', 2011 production chronicling the lives of the Kennedy family, including a dramatisation of the crisis.", "* ''X-Men: First Class'', 2011 superhero film set during the Cuban Missile Crisis, which depicts the crisis as being escalated by a group of mutants with the goal of establishing a mutant ruling class after the subsequent war.", "* ''The Courier'', a 2020 film that tells the \"true story of the British businessman Greville Wynne (played by Benedict Cumberbatch) who helped MI6 penetrate the Soviet nuclear programme during the Cold War.", "Wynne and his Russian source, Oleg Penkovsky (codenamed Ironbark), provided crucial intelligence that ended the Cuban Missile Crisis.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Bomber gap* Cuban thaw* Leninsky Komsomol class cargo ships* List of nuclear close calls* Norwegian rocket incident* Nuclear disarmament* Nuclear threats during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine* Peaceful coexistence* Soviet Navy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Barrett, David M. and Max Holland (2012).", "''Blind Over Cuba: The Photo Gap and the Missile Crisis.''", "College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2012.", "* Campus, Leonardo (2014).", "''I sei giorni che sconvolsero il mondo.", "La crisi dei missili di Cuba e le sue percezioni internazionali =Six Days that Shook the World.", "The Cuban Missile Crisis and Its International Perceptions''.", "Florence: Le Monnier.", "* * Cockburn, Andrew, \"Defensive, Not Aggressive\" (review of Theodore Voorhees, ''The Silent Guns of Two Octobers: Kennedy and Khrushchev Play the Double Game'', Michigan, September 2021, , 384 pp.", "; and Serhii Plokhy, ''Nuclear Folly: A New History of the Cuban Missile Crisis'', Allen Lane, April 2021, , 464 pp.", "), ''London Review of Books'', vol.", "43, no.", "17 (9 September 2021), pp.", "9–10.", "\"For Kennedy, the Cuban Missile crisis was entirely about internal US politics.\"", "... Voorhees argues convincingly that there was never any real danger of war, since Kennedy and Khrushchev were equally determined to avoid one...\" (p.", "10.", ")* * * * * * * * * * * * Kolbert, Elizabeth, \"This Close: The day the Cuban missile crisis almost went nuclear\" (a review of Martin J. Sherwin's ''Gambling with Armageddon: Nuclear Roulette from Hiroshima to the Cuban Missile Crisis'', New York, Knopf, 2020), ''The New Yorker'', 12 October 2020, pp.", "70–73.Article includes information from recently declassified sources.", "* Plokhy, Serhii.", "''Nuclear Folly: A History of the Cuban Missile Crisis'' (W. W. Norton & Company, 2021).", "* * * Powers, Thomas, \"The Nuclear Worrier\" (review of Daniel Ellsberg, ''The Doomsday Machine: Confessions of a Nuclear War Planner'', New York, Bloomsbury, 2017, , 420 pp.", "), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXV, no.", "1 (January 18, 2018), pp. 13–15.", "* * * * Seydi, SÜleyman.", "\"Turkish—American Relations and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1957-63.\"", "''Middle Eastern Studies'' 46#3 (2010), pp.", "433–455.online* * * * * * Weaver, Michael E. The Relationship between Diplomacy and Military Force: An Example from the Cuban Missile Crisis, Diplomatic History, January 2014, Volume 38, Number 1, pp.", "137–81.The Relationship between Diplomacy and Military Force: An Example from the Cuban Missile Crisis* White, Mark.", "\"The Other Missiles of October: Eisenhower, Kennedy, and the Jupiters, 1957–1963.\"", "''Diplomatic History'' (2002) 26#1 pp 147–153.===Historiography===* * * * * * * * Bayard de Volo, Lorraine (July 2022) \"Masculinity and the Cuban Missile Crisis: gender as pre-emptive deterrent\", ''International Affairs'', '''98''' (4): 1211–1229.doi:10.1093/ia/iiac121.===Primary sources===* Getchell, Michelle.", "''Cuban Missile Crisis and the Cold War: A Short History with Documents''(Hackett Publishing, 2018) 200 pp.", "online review* * * * * * * * * * * * * Dallek, Robert.", "\"If We Listen to Them, None of Us Will Be Alive.\"", "In ''Camelot's Court'', 279–334.New York: HarperCollins, 2013.===Lesson plans===* *" ], [ "External links", "* * Cuban Missile Crisis and the Fallout from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives* * * * Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962* October 1962: DEFCON 4, DEFCON 3* Spartacus Educational(UK): ''Cuban Missile Crisis''* Document – ''Britain's Cuban Missile Crisis''* No Time to Talk: The Cuban Missile Crisis* Patrick J. Kiger (7 June 2019): '' Key Moments in the Cuban Missile Crisis''.", "A Timeline of the Cuban Missile Crisis with the links to the correspondence between John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev during the crisis.", "In: History.com.", "* The 32nd Guards Air Fighter Regiment in Cuba (1962–1963) S.Isaev.", "* * The Woodrow Wilson Center's Digital Archive has a collection of primary source archival documents on the Cuban Missile Crisis.", "* EDSITEment lesson plan Cuban Missile Crisis* EDSITEment Cuban Missile Crisis Interactive* ''Cuban Missile Crisis: Three Men Go To War'' Documentary produced by PBS* '' The Armageddon Letters'', a transmedia storytelling of the crisis with animated short films and other digital content* ''The Man Who Saved the World'' Documentary produced by PBS series ''Secrets of the Dead''*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Aquilegia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Aquilegia''''' (common names: '''granny's bonnet''', '''columbine''') is a genus of about 60–70 species of perennial plants that are found in meadows, woodlands, and at higher altitudes throughout the Northern Hemisphere, known for the spurred petals of their flowers." ], [ "Etymology", "The genus name ''Aquilegia'' comes from the Latin “Aquila”, or “eagle”; this is in obvious reference to the spurred, “hook” shapes within the blooms, that many gardeners say resemble an eagle's talons." ], [ "Description", "Perennial herbs, with woody, erect stock, roots forming thick rhizomes.", "The basal leaves are compound, 1–3 ternate, blades 3-lobed -partite, and lobes lobulate and obtuse.", "The cauline leaves are similar to the basal ones, while the upper ones are bract like.The hermaphrodite (bisexual) flowers are terminal to stem and branches.", "They are usually pentamerous (with five spreading perianth petaloid sepal segments).", "Five tubular honey-leaves are semi erect with a flat limb and spurred or saccate at the base.", "The spur is directed backwards and secretes nectar.", "Stamens are numerous (often more than 50) in whorls of 5, the innermost being scarious staminodes.", "There are ten membranaceous intrastaminal scales.", "There are five pistils and the Carpels are free.The fruit has several (five to 15) follicles which are semi erect and slightly connate downwards.", "These hold many seeds and are formed at the end of the pistils.", "The nectar is mainly consumed by long-beaked birds such as hummingbirds.", "Almost all ''Aquilegia'' species have a ring of staminodia around the base of the stigma, which may help protect against insects.", "Chromosome number is x=7." ], [ "Relatives", "Columbines are closely related to plants in the genera ''Actaea'' (baneberries) and ''Aconitum'' (wolfsbanes/monkshoods), which like ''Aquilegia'' produce cardiogenic toxins." ], [ "Insects", "They are used as food plants by some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) caterpillars.", "These are mainly of noctuid moths – noted for feeding on many poisonous plants without harm – such as cabbage moth (''Mamestra brassicae''), dot moth (''Melanchra persicariae'') and mouse moth (''Amphipyra tragopoginis'').", "The engrailed (''Ectropis crepuscularia''), a geometer moth, also uses columbine as a larval food plant.", "The larvae of the ''Papaipema leucostigma'' also feed on columbine.Plants in the genus ''Aquilegia'' are a major food source for ''Bombus hortorum'', a species of bumblebee.", "Specifically, they have been found to forage on species of ''Aquilegia vulgaris'' in Belgium and ''Aquilegia chrysantha'' in North America and Belgium.", "The bees do not show any preference in color of the flowers." ], [ "Cultivation", "Columbine cultivar 'Magpie'Columbine is a hardy perennial, which propagates by seed.", "It will grow to a height of .", "It will grow in full sun; however, it prefers growing in partial shade and well drained soil, and is able to tolerate average soils and dry soil conditions.", "Columbine is rated at hardiness zone 3 in the United States so does not require mulching or protection in the winter.Large numbers of hybrids are available for the garden, since the European ''A.", "vulgaris'' was hybridized with other European and North American varieties.", "''Aquilegia'' species are very interfertile, and will self-sow.", "Some varieties are short-lived so are better treated as biennials.", "The British National Collection of ''Aquilegia''s was held by Mrs Carrie Thomas at Killay near Swansea.", "Some time during or before 2014 the collection started to succumb to Aquilegia Downy Mildew ''Peronospora aquilegiicola'' which was at the time an emerging disease to which the plants had no resistance.", "By 2018 the entire collection had been lost.", "Aquilegia can be grown from seeds or rhizomes." ], [ "Uses", "Double-flowered ''Aquilegia'' × ''hybrida''The flowers of various species of columbine were consumed in moderation by Native Americans as a condiment with other fresh greens, and are reported to be very sweet, and safe if consumed in small quantities.", "The plant's seeds and roots, however, are highly poisonous and contain cardiogenic toxins which cause both severe gastroenteritis and heart palpitations if consumed as food.", "Native Americans used very small amounts of ''Aquilegia'' root as a treatment for ulcers.", "However, the medical use of this plant is better avoided due to its high toxicity; columbine poisonings may be fatal.An acute toxicity test in mice has demonstrated that ethanol extract mixed with isocytisoside, the main flavonoid compound from the leaves and stems of ''Aquilegia vulgaris'', can be classified as non-toxic, since a dose of 3000 mg/kg did not cause mortality." ], [ "Culture", "The Colorado blue columbine (''A.", "coerulea'') is the official state flower of Colorado (see also Columbine, Colorado).", "It is also used as a symbol of the former city of Scarborough in the Canadian province of Ontario.Wild columbine (''Aquilegia canadensis'') growing in Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore near Glen Arbor, Michigan" ], [ "Evolution", "Columbines have been important in the study of evolution.", "It was found that the Sierra columbine (''A.", "pubescens'') and crimson columbine (''A.", "formosa'') each has adapted specifically to a pollinator.", "Bees and hummingbirds are the visitors to ''A.", "formosa'', while hawkmoths would only visit ''A.", "pubescens'' when given a choice.", "Such a \"pollination syndrome\", being due to flower color and orientation controlled by their genetics, ensures reproductive isolation and can be a cause of speciation.", "''Aquilegia'' petals show an enormous range of petal spur length diversity ranging from a centimeter to the 15 cm spurs of ''Aquilegia longissima''.", "Selection from pollinator shifts is suggested to have driven these changes in nectar spur length.", "It was shown that this spur length diversity is achieved solely through changing cell shape, not cell number or cell size.", "This suggests that a simple microscopic change can result in a dramatic evolutionarily relevant morphological change." ], [ "Species", "Dark columbine (''Aquilegia atrata'')''Aquilegia alpina''Fan columbine (''Aquilegia flabellata'')Fragrant columbine (''Aquilegia fragrans'')''Aquilegia'' × ''maruyamana''Pyrenean columbine (''Aquilegia pyrenaica'')Columbine species include:* ''Aquilegia alpina'' L. – alpine columbine* ''Aquilegia atrata'' W.D.J.Koch – dark columbine* ''Aquilegia atrovinosa''* ''Aquilegia aurea'' Janka* ''Aquilegia barbaricina'' – Barbaricina columbine (doubtfully valid)* ''Aquilegia barnebyi'' – oil shale columbine* ''Aquilegia bernardii'' Gren.", "& Godr.", "* ''Aquilegia bertolonii'' Schott – Bertoloni columbine* ''Aquilegia blecicii'' Podobnik (doubtfully valid)* ''Aquilegia brevistyla'' – smallflower columbine* ''Aquilegia buergeriana''* ''Aquilegia canadensis'' – Canadian columbine, wild columbine* ''Aquilegia champagnatii'' Moraldo, E.Nardi & la Valva (doubtfully valid)* ''Aquilegia chrysantha'' – golden columbine* ''Aquilegia coerulea'' – Colorado blue columbine* ''Aquilegia desertorum'' – desert columbine* ''Aquilegia desolatica'' – desolation columbine* ''Aquilegia dinarica'' Beck* ''Aquilegia ecalcarata''* ''Aquilegia einseleana'' F.W.Schultz* ''Aquilegia elegantula'' – western red columbine* ''Aquilegia eximia'' – Van Houtte's columbine* ''Aquilegia flabellata'' – fan columbine, Japanese ''wodamakinari'' (including ''A.", "akitensis'')* ''Aquilegia flavescens'' – yellow columbine* ''Aquilegia fragrans'' Benth.", "– fragrant columbine* ''Aquilegia formosa'' – crimson columbine, western columbine* ''Aquilegia glandulosa''* ''Aquilegia grahamii'' – Graham's columbine* ''Aquilegia grata''* ''Aquilegia × hybrida''* ''Aquilegia incurvata''* ''Aquilegia japonica''* ''Aquilegia jonesii'' – Jones' columbine* ''Aquilegia karatavica''* ''Aquilegia karelini''* ''Aquilegia kitaibelii'' Schott* ''Aquilegia lactiflora''* ''Aquilegia laramiensis'' – Laramie columbine* ''Aquilegia litardierei'' Briq.", "* ''Aquilegia longissima'' – Gray.", "– longspur columbine* ''Aquilegia loriae'' – Lori's columbine* ''Aquilegia magellensis'' F.Conti & Soldano – Magella columbine* ''Aquilegia × maruyamana''* ''Aquilegia micrantha'' – Mancos columbine* ''Aquilegia moorcroftiana''* ''Aquilegia nigricans'' Baumg.", "– Bulgarian columbine* ''Aquilegia nugorensis'' Arrigoni & E.Nardi (doubtfully valid)* ''Aquilegia nuragica'' – Nuragica columbine* ''Aquilegia olympica'' Boiss.", "* ''Aquilegia origami''* ''Aquilegia ottonis'' Orph.", "ex Boiss.", "* ''Aquilegia oxysepala''* ''Aquilegia pancicii'' Degen* ''Aquilegia parviflora''* ''Aquilegia pubescens'' – Sierra columbine, Coville's columbine* ''Aquilegia pubiflora''* ''Aquilegia pyrenaica'' DC.", "– Pyrenean columbine* ''Aquilegia rockii''* ''Aquilegia saximontana'' – Rocky Mountain columbine* ''Aquilegia scopulorum'' – blue columbine, Utah columbine* ''Aquilegia shockleyi'' – desert columbine* ''Aquilegia sibirica'' – Siberian columbine* ''Aquilegia thalictrifolia'' Schott & Kotschy* ''Aquilegia transsilvanica'' Schur* ''Aquilegia triternata'' – Chiricahua Mountain columbine* ''Aquilegia truncata'' – red columbine* ''Aquilegia turczaninovii''* ''Aquilegia viridiflora'' Pall.", "– green columbine, green-flowered columbine * ''Aquilegia viscosa'' Gouan* ''Aquilegia vitalii''* ''Aquilegia vulgaris'' – common columbine, European columbine, granny's nightcap* ''Aquilegia yabeana''" ], [ "See also", "* Columbine cup* Nora Barlow" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''see also'' Flora Europaea * * * ** , in * Allan M. Armitage: Armitage's Native Plants for North American Gardens.Timber Press, 2006 * Dezhi, Fu; Robinson, Orbélia R. (2001): 19.''Aquilegia.", "In:'' Wu, Z. Y.; Raven, Peter Hamilton & Hong, D. Y.", "(eds.", "): ''Flora of China'' (Vol.", "6: Caryophyllaceae through Lardizabalaceae): 278.Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis.", "HTML fulltext* * * Nold, Robert (2003): Columbines: ''Aquilegia'', ''Paraquilegia'', and ''Semiaquilegia''.", "Timber Press.", "Preview at Google Books* Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE) 2008: Digital Flora Europaea: ''Aquilegia'' species list.", "Retrieved 2008-NOV-25.", "* Tilford, Gregory L. (1997): ''Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West''.", "Mountain Press Pub., Missoula, Montana.", "* United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 2008: USDA Plants Profile: ''Aquilegia''.", "Retrieved 2008-NOV-25.", "* * Kramer, E. M. (2009).", "Aquilegia: A New Model for Plant Development, Ecology, and Evolution ''Annual Review of Plant Biology,'' Vol.", "60.", "*" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cache (computing)" ], [ "Introduction", "Diagram of a CPU memory cache operationIn computing, a '''cache''' ( ) is a hardware or software component that stores data so that future requests for that data can be served faster; the data stored in a cache might be the result of an earlier computation or a copy of data stored elsewhere.", "A '''cache hit''' occurs when the requested data can be found in a cache, while a '''cache miss''' occurs when it cannot.", "Cache hits are served by reading data from the cache, which is faster than recomputing a result or reading from a slower data store; thus, the more requests that can be served from the cache, the faster the system performs.To be cost-effective, caches must be relatively small.", "Nevertheless, caches are effective in many areas of computing because typical computer applications access data with a high degree of locality of reference.", "Such access patterns exhibit temporal locality, where data is requested that has been recently requested, and spatial locality, where data is requested that is stored near data that has already been requested." ], [ "Motivation", "In memory design, there is an inherent trade-off between capacity and speed because larger capacity implies larger size and thus greater physical distances for signals to travel causing propagation delays.", "There is also a tradeoff between high-performance technologies such as SRAM and cheaper, easily mass-produced commodities such as DRAM, flash, or hard disks.The buffering provided by a cache benefits one or both of latency and throughput (bandwidth).A larger resource incurs a significant latency for access – e.g.", "it can take hundreds of clock cycles for a modern 4 GHz processor to reach DRAM.", "This is mitigated by reading large chunks into the cache, in the hope that subsequent reads will be from nearby locations and can be read from the cache.", "Prediction or explicit prefetching can be used to guess where future reads will come from and make requests ahead of time; if done optimally, the latency is bypassed altogether.The use of a cache also allows for higher throughput from the underlying resource, by assembling multiple fine-grain transfers into larger, more efficient requests.", "In the case of DRAM circuits, the additional throughput may be gained by using a wider data bus." ], [ "{{Anchor|CACHE-HIT|CACHE-MISS}}Operation", "Hardware implements cache as a block of memory for temporary storage of data likely to be used again.", "Central processing units (CPUs), solid-state drives (SSDs) and hard disk drives (HDDs) frequently include hardware-based cache, while web browsers and web servers commonly rely on software caching.A cache is made up of a pool of entries.", "Each entry has associated ''data'', which is a copy of the same data in some ''backing store''.", "Each entry also has a ''tag'', which specifies the identity of the data in the backing store of which the entry is a copy.", "When the cache client (a CPU, web browser, operating system) needs to access data presumed to exist in the backing store, it first checks the cache.", "If an entry can be found with a tag matching that of the desired data, the data in the entry is used instead.", "This situation is known as a '''cache hit'''.", "For example, a web browser program might check its local cache on disk to see if it has a local copy of the contents of a web page at a particular URL.", "In this example, the URL is the tag, and the content of the web page is the data.", "The percentage of accesses that result in cache hits is known as the '''hit rate''' or '''hit ratio''' of the cache.The alternative situation, when the cache is checked and found not to contain any entry with the desired tag, is known as a '''cache miss'''.", "This requires a more expensive access of data from the backing store.", "Once the requested data is retrieved, it is typically copied into the cache, ready for the next access.During a cache miss, some other previously existing cache entry is typically removed in order to make room for the newly retrieved data.", "The heuristic used to select the entry to replace is known as the replacement policy.", "One popular replacement policy, least recently used (LRU), replaces the oldest entry, the entry that was accessed less recently than any other entry.", "More sophisticated caching algorithms also take into account the frequency of use of entries.===Writing policies===A write-through cache with no-write allocationA write-back cache with write allocationWhen a system writes data to cache, it must at some point write that data to the backing store as well.", "The timing of this write is controlled by what is known as the ''write policy''.", "There are two basic writing approaches:* ''Write-through'': write is done synchronously both to the cache and to the backing store.", "* ''Write-back'': initially, writing is done only to the cache.", "The write to the backing store is postponed until the modified content is about to be replaced by another cache block.A write-back cache is more complex to implement, since it needs to track which of its locations have been written over, and mark them as ''dirty'' for later writing to the backing store.", "The data in these locations are written back to the backing store only when they are evicted from the cache, an effect referred to as a ''lazy write''.", "For this reason, a read miss in a write-back cache (which requires a block to be replaced by another) will often require two memory accesses to service: one to write the replaced data from the cache back to the store, and then one to retrieve the needed data.Other policies may also trigger data write-back.", "The client may make many changes to data in the cache, and then explicitly notify the cache to write back the data.Since no data is returned to the requester on write operations, a decision needs to be made on write misses, whether or not data would be loaded into the cache.", "This is defined by these two approaches:* ''Write allocate'' (also called ''fetch on write''): data at the missed-write location is loaded to cache, followed by a write-hit operation.", "In this approach, write misses are similar to read misses.", "* ''No-write allocate'' (also called ''write-no-allocate'' or ''write around''): data at the missed-write location is not loaded to cache, and is written directly to the backing store.", "In this approach, data is loaded into the cache on read misses only.Both write-through and write-back policies can use either of these write-miss policies, but usually they are paired in this way:* A write-back cache uses write allocate, hoping for subsequent writes (or even reads) to the same location, which is now cached.", "* A write-through cache uses no-write allocate.", "Here, subsequent writes have no advantage, since they still need to be written directly to the backing store.Entities other than the cache may change the data in the backing store, in which case the copy in the cache may become out-of-date or ''stale''.", "Alternatively, when the client updates the data in the cache, copies of those data in other caches will become stale.", "Communication protocols between the cache managers which keep the data consistent are known as coherency protocols.===Prefetch===On a cache read miss, caches with a ''demand paging policy'' read the minimum amount from the backing store.", "For example, demand-paging virtual memory reads one page of virtual memory (often 4 kBytes) from disk into the disk cache in RAM.", "For example, a typical CPU reads a single L2 cache line of 128 bytes from DRAM into the L2 cache, and a single L1 cache line of 64 bytes from the L2 cache into the L1 cache.Caches with a prefetch input queue or more general ''anticipatory paging policy'' go further—they not only read the data requested, but guess that the next chunk or two of data will soon be required, and so prefetch that data into the cache ahead of time.", "Anticipatory paging is especially helpful when the backing store has a long latency to read the first chunk and much shorter times to sequentially read the next few chunks, such as disk storage and DRAM.A few operating systems go further with a loader that always pre-loads the entire executable into RAM.A few caches go even further, not only pre-loading an entire file, but also starting to load other related files that may soon be requested, such as the page cache associated with a prefetcher or the web cache associated with link prefetching." ], [ "{{anchor|HARDWARE}}Examples of hardware caches", "===CPU cache===Small memories on or close to the CPU can operate faster than the much larger main memory.", "Most CPUs since the 1980s have used one or more caches, sometimes in cascaded levels; modern high-end embedded, desktop and server microprocessors may have as many as six types of cache (between levels and functions).", "Some examples of caches with a specific function are the D-cache, I-cache and the translation lookaside buffer for the memory management unit (MMU).===GPU cache===Earlier graphics processing units (GPUs) often had limited read-only texture caches, and introduced Morton order swizzled textures to improve 2D cache coherency.", "Cache misses would drastically affect performance, e.g.", "if mipmapping was not used.", "Caching was important to leverage 32-bit (and wider) transfers for texture data that was often as little as 4 bits per pixel, indexed in complex patterns by arbitrary UV coordinates and perspective transformations in inverse texture mapping.As GPUs advanced (especially with General Purpose GPU compute shaders) they have developed progressively larger and increasingly general caches, including instruction caches for shaders, exhibiting increasingly common functionality with CPU caches.", "For example, GT200 architecture GPUs did not feature an L2 cache, while the GTX 490 GPU has 768 KB of last-level cache, the GTX TITAN GPU has 1536 KB of last-level cache, and the GTX 980 GPU has 2048 KB of last-level cache.", "These caches have grown to handle synchronisation primitives between threads and atomic operations, and interface with a CPU-style MMU.===DSPs===Digital signal processors have similarly generalised over the years.", "Earlier designs used scratchpad memory fed by direct memory access, but modern DSPs such as Qualcomm Hexagon often include a very similar set of caches to a CPU (e.g.", "Modified Harvard architecture with shared L2, split L1 I-cache and D-cache).===Translation lookaside buffer===A memory management unit (MMU) that fetches page table entries from main memory has a specialized cache, used for recording the results of virtual address to physical address translations.", "This specialized cache is called a translation lookaside buffer (TLB)." ], [ "In-network cache", "===Information-centric networking===Information-centric networking (ICN) is an approach to evolve the Internet infrastructure away from a host-centric paradigm, based on perpetual connectivity and the end-to-end principle, to a network architecture in which the focal point is identified information (or content or data).", "Due to the inherent caching capability of the nodes in an ICN, it can be viewed as a loosely connected network of caches, which has unique requirements of caching policies.", "However, ubiquitous content caching introduces the challenge to content protection against unauthorized access, which requires extra care and solutions.Unlike proxy servers, in ICN the cache is a network-level solution.", "Therefore, it has rapidly changing cache states and higher request arrival rates; moreover, smaller cache sizes further impose a different kind of requirements on the content eviction policies.", "In particular, eviction policies for ICN should be fast and lightweight.", "Various cache replication and eviction schemes for different ICN architectures and applications have been proposed.====Policies=========Time aware least recently used (TLRU)=====The Time aware Least Recently Used (TLRU) is a variant of LRU designed for the situation where the stored contents in cache have a valid life time.", "The algorithm is suitable in network cache applications, such as ICN, content delivery networks (CDNs) and distributed networks in general.", "TLRU introduces a new term: TTU (Time to Use).", "TTU is a time stamp of a content/page which stipulates the usability time for the content based on the locality of the content and the content publisher announcement.", "Owing to this locality based time stamp, TTU provides more control to the local administrator to regulate in network storage.In the TLRU algorithm, when a piece of content arrives, a cache node calculates the local TTU value based on the TTU value assigned by the content publisher.", "The local TTU value is calculated by using a locally defined function.", "Once the local TTU value is calculated the replacement of content is performed on a subset of the total content stored in cache node.", "The TLRU ensures that less popular and small life content should be replaced with the incoming content.=====Least frequent recently used (LFRU)=====The Least Frequent Recently Used (LFRU) cache replacement scheme combines the benefits of LFU and LRU schemes.", "LFRU is suitable for 'in network' cache applications, such as ICN, CDNs and distributed networks in general.", "In LFRU, the cache is divided into two partitions called privileged and unprivileged partitions.", "The privileged partition can be defined as a protected partition.", "If content is highly popular, it is pushed into the privileged partition.", "Replacement of the privileged partition is done as follows: LFRU evicts content from the unprivileged partition, pushes content from privileged partition to unprivileged partition, and finally inserts new content into the privileged partition.", "In the above procedure the LRU is used for the privileged partition and an approximated LFU (ALFU) scheme is used for the unprivileged partition, hence the abbreviation LFRU.", "The basic idea is to filter out the locally popular contents with ALFU scheme and push the popular contents to one of the privileged partition.====Weather forecast====In 2011, the use of smartphones with weather forecasting options was overly taxing AccuWeather servers; two requests within the same park would generate separate requests.", "An optimization by edge-servers to truncate the GPS coordinates to fewer decimal places meant that the cached results from the earlier query would be used.", "The number of to-the-server lookups per day dropped by half." ], [ "Software caches", "===Disk cache===While CPU caches are generally managed entirely by hardware, a variety of software manages other caches.", "The page cache in main memory, which is an example of disk cache, is managed by the operating system kernel.While the disk buffer, which is an integrated part of the hard disk drive or solid state drive, is sometimes misleadingly referred to as \"disk cache\", its main functions are write sequencing and read prefetching.", "Repeated cache hits are relatively rare, due to the small size of the buffer in comparison to the drive's capacity.", "However, high-end disk controllers often have their own on-board cache of the hard disk drive's data blocks.Finally, a fast local hard disk drive can also cache information held on even slower data storage devices, such as remote servers (web cache) or local tape drives or optical jukeboxes; such a scheme is the main concept of hierarchical storage management.", "Also, fast flash-based solid-state drives (SSDs) can be used as caches for slower rotational-media hard disk drives, working together as hybrid drives or solid-state hybrid drives (SSHDs).===Web cache===Web browsers and web proxy servers employ web caches to store previous responses from web servers, such as web pages and images.", "Web caches reduce the amount of information that needs to be transmitted across the network, as information previously stored in the cache can often be re-used.", "This reduces bandwidth and processing requirements of the web server, and helps to improve responsiveness for users of the web.Web browsers employ a built-in web cache, but some Internet service providers (ISPs) or organizations also use a caching proxy server, which is a web cache that is shared among all users of that network.Another form of cache is P2P caching, where the files most sought for by peer-to-peer applications are stored in an ISP cache to accelerate P2P transfers.", "Similarly, decentralised equivalents exist, which allow communities to perform the same task for P2P traffic, for example, Corelli.===Memoization===A cache can store data that is computed on demand rather than retrieved from a backing store.", "Memoization is an optimization technique that stores the results of resource-consuming function calls within a lookup table, allowing subsequent calls to reuse the stored results and avoid repeated computation.", "It is related to the dynamic programming algorithm design methodology, which can also be thought of as a means of caching.===Content delivery network===A content delivery network (CDN) is a network of distributed servers that deliver pages and other Web content to a user, based on the geographic locations of the user, the origin of the web page and the content delivery server.", "CDNs began in the late 1990s as a way to speed up the delivery of static content, such as HTML pages, images and videos.", "By replicating content on multiple servers around the world and delivering it to users based on their location, CDNs can significantly improve the speed and availability of a website or application.", "When a user requests a piece of content, the CDN will check to see if it has a copy of the content in its cache.", "If it does, the CDN will deliver the content to the user from the cache.===Cloud storage gateway===A cloud storage gateway, also known as an edge filer, is a hybrid cloud storage device that connects a local network to one or more cloud storage services, typically object storage services such as Amazon S3.It provides a cache for frequently accessed data, providing high speed local access to frequently accessed data in the cloud storage service.", "Cloud storage gateways also provide additional benefits such as accessing cloud object storage through traditional file serving protocols as well as continued access to cached data during connectivity outages.===Other caches===The BIND DNS daemon caches a mapping of domain names to IP addresses, as does a resolver library.Write-through operation is common when operating over unreliable networks (like an Ethernet LAN), because of the enormous complexity of the coherency protocol required between multiple write-back caches when communication is unreliable.", "For instance, web page caches and client-side network file system caches (like those in NFS or SMB) are typically read-only or write-through specifically to keep the network protocol simple and reliable.Search engines also frequently make web pages they have indexed available from their cache.", "For example, Google provides a \"Cached\" link next to each search result.", "This can prove useful when web pages from a web server are temporarily or permanently inaccessible.Database caching can substantially improve the throughput of database applications, for example in the processing of indexes, data dictionaries, and frequently used subsets of data.A distributed cache uses networked hosts to provide scalability, reliability and performance to the application.", "The hosts can be co-located or spread over different geographical regions." ], [ "{{anchor|The difference between buffer and cache}}<!--Former section name used in external links-->Buffer vs. cache", "The semantics of a \"buffer\" and a \"cache\" are not totally different; even so, there are fundamental differences in intent between the process of caching and the process of buffering.Fundamentally, caching realizes a performance increase for transfers of data that is being repeatedly transferred.", "While a caching system may realize a performance increase upon the initial (typically write) transfer of a data item, this performance increase is due to buffering occurring within the caching system.With read caches, a data item must have been fetched from its residing location at least once in order for subsequent reads of the data item to realize a performance increase by virtue of being able to be fetched from the cache's (faster) intermediate storage rather than the data's residing location.", "With write caches, a performance increase of writing a data item may be realized upon the first write of the data item by virtue of the data item immediately being stored in the cache's intermediate storage, deferring the transfer of the data item to its residing storage at a later stage or else occurring as a background process.", "Contrary to strict buffering, a caching process must adhere to a (potentially distributed) cache coherency protocol in order to maintain consistency between the cache's intermediate storage and the location where the data resides.", "Buffering, on the other hand,* reduces the number of transfers for otherwise novel data amongst communicating processes, which amortizes overhead involved for several small transfers over fewer, larger transfers,* provides an intermediary for communicating processes which are incapable of direct transfers amongst each other, or* ensures a minimum data size or representation required by at least one of the communicating processes involved in a transfer.With typical caching implementations, a data item that is read or written for the first time is effectively being buffered; and in the case of a write, mostly realizing a performance increase for the application from where the write originated.", "Additionally, the portion of a caching protocol where individual writes are deferred to a batch of writes is a form of buffering.", "The portion of a caching protocol where individual reads are deferred to a batch of reads is also a form of buffering, although this form may negatively impact the performance of at least the initial reads (even though it may positively impact the performance of the sum of the individual reads).", "In practice, caching almost always involves some form of buffering, while strict buffering does not involve caching.A buffer is a temporary memory location that is traditionally used because CPU instructions cannot directly address data stored in peripheral devices.", "Thus, addressable memory is used as an intermediate stage.", "Additionally, such a buffer may be feasible when a large block of data is assembled or disassembled (as required by a storage device), or when data may be delivered in a different order than that in which it is produced.", "Also, a whole buffer of data is usually transferred sequentially (for example to hard disk), so buffering itself sometimes increases transfer performance or reduces the variation or jitter of the transfer's latency as opposed to caching where the intent is to reduce the latency.", "These benefits are present even if the buffered data are written to the buffer once and read from the buffer once.A cache also increases transfer performance.", "A part of the increase similarly comes from the possibility that multiple small transfers will combine into one large block.", "But the main performance-gain occurs because there is a good chance that the same data will be read from cache multiple times, or that written data will soon be read.", "A cache's sole purpose is to reduce accesses to the underlying slower storage.", "Cache is also usually an abstraction layer that is designed to be invisible from the perspective of neighboring layers." ], [ "See also", "* Cache coloring* Cache hierarchy* Cache-oblivious algorithm* Cache stampede* Cache language model* Cache manifest in HTML5* Dirty bit* Five-minute rule* Materialized view* Memory hierarchy* Pipeline burst cache* Temporary file" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* \"What Every Programmer Should Know About Memory\"* \"Caching in the Distributed Environment\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Columbus, Indiana" ], [ "Introduction", "Columbus City Hall'''Columbus''' () is a city in, and the county seat of, Bartholomew County, Indiana, United States.", "The population was 50,474 at the 2020 Census.", "The city is known for its architectural significance, having commissioned numerous noted works of modern architecture and public art since the mid-20th century; the annual program Exhibit Columbus celebrates this legacy.", "Located about south of Indianapolis, on the east fork of the White River, it is the state's 20th-largest city.", "It is the principal city of the Columbus, Indiana metropolitan statistical area, which encompasses all of Bartholomew County.", "Columbus is the birthplace of former Indiana Governor and former Vice President of the United States, Mike Pence.Columbus is the headquarters of the engine company Cummins, Inc.", "In 2004 the city was named as one of \"The Ten Most Playful Towns\" by ''Nick Jr. Family Magazine''.", "In the July 2005 edition of ''GQ'' magazine, Columbus was named as one of the \"62 Reasons to Love Your Country\".", "Columbus won the national contest \"America in Bloom\" in 2006, and in late 2008, ''National Geographic Traveler'' ranked Columbus 11th on its historic destinations list, describing the city as \"authentic, unique, and unspoiled.\"" ], [ "History", "The land developed as Columbus was bought by General John Tipton and Luke Bonesteel in 1820.Tipton built a log cabin on Mount Tipton, a small hill overlooking White River and the surrounding flat, heavily forested and swampy valley.", "It held wetlands of the river.", "The town was first known as Tiptona, named in honor of Tipton.", "The town's name was changed to Columbus on March 20, 1821.Many people believe Tipton was upset by the name change, but no evidence exists to prove this.", "Nonetheless, he decided to leave the newly founded town and did not return.Tipton was later appointed as the highway commissioner for the State of Indiana and was assigned to building a highway from Indianapolis, Indiana to Louisville, Kentucky.", "When the road approached Columbus, Tipton constructed the first bypass road ever built; it detoured south around the west side of Columbus en route to Seymour.Joseph McKinney was the first to plot the town of Columbus, but no date was recorded.", "Local history books for years said that the land on which Columbus sits was donated by Tipton.", "But in 2003, Historic Columbus Indiana acquired a deed showing that Tipton had sold the land.A ferry was established below the confluence of the Flatrock and Driftwood rivers, which form the White River.", "A village of three or four log cabins developed around the ferry landing, and a store was added in 1821.Later that year, Bartholomew County was organized by an act of the State Legislature and named to honor the famous Hoosier militiaman, General Joseph Bartholomew.", "Columbus was incorporated on June 28, 1864.The first railroad in Indiana was constructed to Columbus from Madison, Indiana in 1844.This eventually became the Madison branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad.", "The railroad fostered the growth of the community into one of the largest in Indiana, and three more railroads reached the city by 1850.The Crump Theatre in Columbus, built in 1889 by John Crump, is the oldest theater in Indiana Today the building is included within the Columbus Historic District.", "Before it closed permanently in 2010, it was an all-ages venue with occasional musical performances.The Cummins Bookstore began operations in the city in 1892.Until late 2007, when it closed, it was the oldest continually operated bookstore in Indiana.The Irwin Union Bank building was built in 1954.It was designated as a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service in 2001 in recognition of its unique architecture.", "The building consists of a one-story bank structure adjacent to a three-story office annex.", "A portion of the office annex was built along with the banking hall in 1954.The remaining larger portion, designed by Kevin Roche John Dinkeloo and Associates, was built in 1973.Eero Saarinen designed the bank building with its glazed hall to be set off against the blank background of its three-story brick annex.", "Two steel and glass vestibule connectors lead from the north side of this structure to the annex.", "The building was designed to distance the Irwin Union Bank from traditional banking architecture, which mostly echoed imposing, neoclassical style buildings of brick or stone.", "Tellers were behind iron bars and removed from their customers.", "Saarinen worked to develop a building that would welcome customers rather than intimidate them." ], [ "Economy", "Columbus has been home to many manufacturing companies, including Noblitt-Sparks Industries, which built radios under the Arvin brand in the 1930s, and Arvin Industries, now Meritor, Inc. After merging with Meritor Automotive on July 10, 2000, the headquarters of the newly created ArvinMeritor Industries was established in Troy, Michigan, the home of parent company, Rockwell International.", "It was announced in February 2011 that the company name would revert to Meritor, Inc.Cummins, Inc. is by far the region's largest employer, and the Infotech Park in Columbus accounts for a sizable number of research jobs in the city itself.", "Just south of Columbus are the North American headquarters of Toyota Material Handling, U.S.A., Inc., the world's largest material handling (forklift) manufacturer.Other notable industries include architecture, a discipline for which Columbus is famous worldwide.", "The late J. Irwin Miller (then president and chairman of Cummins Engine Company) launched the Cummins Foundation, a charitable program that helps subsidize a large number of architectural projects throughout the city by up-and-coming engineers and architects.Early in the 20th century, Columbus also was home to a number of pioneering car manufacturers, including Reeves, which produced the unusual four-axle Octoauto and the twin rear-axle Sextoauto, both around 1911." ], [ "Geography", "The Driftwood and Flatrock Rivers converge at Columbus to form the East Fork of the White River.According to the 2010 census, Columbus has a total area of , of which (or 98.62%) is land and (or 1.38%) is water." ], [ "Demographics", "===2010 census===As of the census of 2010, there were 44,061 people, 17,787 households, and 11,506 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 19,700 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 86.9% White, 2.7% African American, 0.2% Native American, 5.6% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.5% from other races, and 2.0% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.8% of the population.There were 17,787 households, of which 33.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.5% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.3% were non-families.", "29.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.00.The median age in the city was 37.1 years.", "25.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.3% were from 25 to 44; 24.9% were from 45 to 64; and 14.4% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the city was 48.4% male and 51.6% female.===2000 census===As of the census of 2000, there were 39,059 people, 15,985 households, and 10,566 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 17,162 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 91.32% White, 2.71% Black or African American, 0.13% Native American, 3.23% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.39% from other races, and 1.19% from two or more races.", "2.81% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.There were 15,985 households, out of which 31.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.9% were married couples living together, 11.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.9% were non-families.", "29.1% of all households were composed of individuals, and 10.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.39, and the average family size was 2.94.In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.7% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24 years, 29.5% from 25 to 44 years, 23.0% from 45 to 64 years, and 13.7% over the age of 65.The median age was 36 years.", "There were 92.8 males for every 100 females and 89.6 males for every 100 females over age 18.The median income for a household in the city was $41,723, and the median income for a family was $52,296.Males had a median income of $40,367 versus $24,446 for females, and the per capita income was $22,055.About 6.5% of families and 8.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.7% of those under age 18 and 8.8% of those age 65 or over." ], [ "Arts and culture", "Henry Moore's ''Large Arch''.Columbus is a city known for its modern architecture and public art.", "J. Irwin Miller, 2nd CEO and a nephew of a co-founder of Cummins Inc., the Columbus-headquartered diesel engine manufacturer, instituted a program in which the Cummins Foundation paid the architects' fees, provided the client selected a firm from a list compiled by the foundation.", "The plan was initiated with public schools and was so successful that the foundation decided to offer such design support to other non-profit and civic organizations.", "The high number of notable public buildings and public art in the Columbus area, designed by such individuals as Eero Saarinen, I.M.", "Pei, Robert Venturi, Cesar Pelli, and Richard Meier, led to Columbus earning the nickname \"Athens on the Prairie.", "\"Seven buildings, constructed between 1942 and 1965, are National Historic Landmarks, and approximately 60 other buildings sustain the Bartholomew County seat's reputation as a showcase of modern architecture.", "National Public Radio once devoted an article to the town's architecture.In 2015, Landmark Columbus was created as a program of Heritage Fund - The Community Foundation of Bartholomew county.In addition to the Columbus Historic District and Irwin Union Bank, the city has numerous buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including seven National Historic Landmarks of modernist architecture: Bartholomew County Courthouse, Columbus City Hall, First Baptist Church, First Christian Church, Haw Creek Leather Company, Mabel McDowell Elementary School, McEwen-Samuels-Marr House, McKinley School, Miller House, North Christian Church, and The Republic Newspaper Office.The city is the basis for the 2017 film ''Columbus'' by independent filmmaker Kogonada.", "The film was shot on location in Columbus over 18 days in the summer of 2016.===National Historic Landmarks===* First Baptist Church was designed by Harry Weese without windows and was dedicated in 1965.Its architectural features include a high-pitched roof and skylight.", "* First Christian Church was designed by Eliel Saarinen with a 160-ft (49m) tower and was dedicated in 1942.Among the first Modern religious buildings in America, it includes a sunken terrace and a 900-person sanctuary.", "* Irwin Union Bank was designed by Eero Saarinen and includes an addition by Kevin Roche.", "The building was dedicated in 1954 and is possibly the first financial institution in America to use glass walls and an open floor plan.", "* The Mabel McDowell School opened in 1960 and was designed by John Carl Warnecke early in his career, using his \"early comprehensive diverse approach.\"", "The architect fee was the second to be funded by the Cummins Engine Foundation.", "* The Miller House and Garden was constructed in 1957 and was designed by Eero Saarinen and landscaped by Dan Kiley.", "One of the few residential designs by Saarinen, the home is an expression of International Style and was built for J. Irwin Miller of the Cummins Engine corporation and foundation.", "* North Christian Church was designed by Eero Saarinen and held its first worship in 1964.The hexagonal-shaped building includes a 192-ft (59m) spire and houses a Holtkamp organ.", "* The Republic Newspaper Office was designed by Myron Goldsmith of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill.====Other notable Modern buildings====* St. Bartholomew Catholic Church, by William Browne Jr. and Steven Risting* Cleo Rogers Memorial Library, by I. M. Pei* Columbus East High School, by Romaldo Giurgola* Commons Centre and Mall, by César Pelli* St. Peter's Lutheran Church, by Gunnar Birkerts* Lincoln Elementary School, by Gunnar Birkerts* Otter Creek Golf Course, by Harry Weese* Fire Station Number 4, by Robert Venturi*Columbus Regional Hospital, by Robert A.M. Stern====Notable historic buildings====* Bartholomew County Courthouse by Isaac Hodgson* Columbus Power House by Harrison Albright* The Crump Theatre by Charles Franklin Sparrell===Public art===* ''Chaos I'' by Jean Tinguely* ''Friendship Way'' by William A. Johnson, containing an untitled neon sculpture by Cork Marcheschi* Irwin Gardens at the Inn at Irwin Gardens* ''Large Arch'' by Henry Moore* ''2 Arcs de 212.5˚'' by Bernar Venet* ''Horses'' by Costantino Nivola* ''The Family'' by Harris Barron* ''Yellow Neon Chandelier and Persians'' by Dale Chihuly* ''C'' by Robert Indiana* ''Sermon on the Mount'' by Loja Saarinen and Eliel Saarinen* ''History and Mystery'' by William T. Wiley* ''Exploded Engine'' by Rudolph de Harak* ''Eos'' by Dessa Kirk===Exhibit Columbus===In May 2016, Landmark Columbus launched Exhibit Columbus as a way to continue the ambitious traditions of the past into the future.", "Exhibit Columbus features annual programming that alternates between symposium and exhibition years." ], [ "Sports", "Columbus High School was home to footwear pioneer Chuck Taylor, who played basketball in Columbus before setting out to promote his now famous shoes and the sport of basketball before being inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.Two local high schools compete within the state in various sports.", "Columbus North and Columbus East both have competitive athletics and have many notable athletes that go on to compete in college and beyond.", "Columbus North High School houses one of the largest high school gyms in the United States.", "CNHS vs CEHSIndiana Diesels of the Premier Basketball League play their home games at the gymnasium at Ceraland Park, with plans to move to a proposed downtown sports complex in the near future." ], [ "Parks and recreation", "Columbus boasts over of parks and green space and over 20 miles of People Trails.", "These amenities, in addition to several athletic and community facilities, including Donner Aquatic Center, Lincoln Park Softball Complex, Hamilton Center Ice Arena, Clifty Park, Foundation for Youth/Columbus Gymnastics Center and The Commons, are managed and maintained by the Columbus Parks and Recreation Department." ], [ "Transportation", "===Transit===ColumBUS provides bus service in the city with five routes operating Monday through Saturday.===Roads and highways===The north–south US Route 31 has been diverted to the northeastern part of the city.", "Interstate 65 bypasses Columbus to the west.", "Indiana Route 46 runs-east-west through the southern section of the city.===Railroads===Freight rail service is provided by the Louisville and Indiana Railroad (LIRC).", "The LIRC line runs in a north–south orientation along the western edge of Columbus.The Pennsylvania Railroad's ''Kentuckyian'' (Chicago-Louisville) made stops in the city until 1968.The PRR and its successor, the Penn Central, ran the Florida-bound ''South Wind'' up to 1971.The city has been earmarked as a location for a new Amtrak station along the Chicago-Indianapolis-Louisville rail corridor.===Airport===Columbus is served by the Columbus Municipal Airport (KBAK).", "It is located approximately north of Columbus.", "The airport handles approximately 40,500 operations per year, with roughly 87% general aviation, 4% air taxi, 8% military and less than 1% commercial service.", "The airport has two concrete runways; a 6,401-foot runway with approved ILS and GPS approaches (Runway 5-23) and a 5,001 foot crosswind runway, also with GPS approaches, (Runway 14-32).The nearest commercial airport which currently has scheduled airline service is Indianapolis International Airport (IND), located approximately northwest of Columbus.", "Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport and Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport are to the south and to the southeast, respectively." ], [ "Notable people", "This is a list of notable people who were born in, or who currently live, or have lived in Columbus.", "* Ross Barbour and Don Barbour, singers, The Four Freshmen*Michael Evans Behling, actor* Kate Bruce, silent-film actress* Clessie Cummins, inventor, mechanic, salesman, and founder of engine manufacturer Cummins, Inc.* William H. Donner, businessman, industrialist and philanthropist* Tyler Duncan, golfer* Dutch Fehring, Major League Baseball player and Purdue coach* Arthur W Graham III, creator of first fully automatic electronic race timing & scoring system, long-time Indy 500 executive race official* Lee H. Hamilton, member of U.S. Congress and co-chair of the 9/11 Commission* Jordan Bryce Hutson, gospel musician* Jamie Hyneman, former host of ''MythBusters''* Blair Kiel, Notre Dame and pro football quarterback* Debbi Lawrence, race walker* Scott McNealy, chairman and co-founder of Sun Microsystems* J. Irwin Miller, industrialist* Mike Moore, Minor League Baseball president* Jeff Osterhage, television and film actor* Bob Paris, best-selling author, award-winning public speaker and social change agent, former Mr. Universe* Greg Pence, U.S. representative since 2019, older brother of Mike Pence* Mike Pence, 50th Governor of Indiana (2013–2017), 48th Vice President of the United States (2017–2021), 2024 presidential candidate* Mike Phipps, Purdue All-American and #3 draft pick, NFL quarterback (Browns and Bears)* Frank Richman, Justice of the Indiana Supreme Court, judge at the Nuremberg trials* Terry Schmidt, NFL cornerback* Stephen Sprouse, fashion designer* Tony Stewart, auto racing champion driver and owner, USAC, 3-time NASCAR Cup Series Champion, owner of NASCAR Team; Stewart Haas Racing – SHR* Jill Tasker, television and voice actor* Chuck Taylor, shoe designer* Bruce Tinsley, creator of Mallard Fillmore* Herbert Wright, producer" ], [ "Education", "The Bartholomew Consolidated School Corporation (BCSC) is the local school district.", "High schools include:* Columbus East High School* Columbus North High SchoolColumbus has a public library, a branch of the Bartholomew County Public Library.Secondary education includes Indiana University–Purdue University Columbus (IUPUC), an Ivy Tech campus, a Purdue Polytechnic campus, and an Indiana Wesleyan University education center." ], [ "See also", "* ''The Republic'', daily newspaper based in Columbus* List of public art in Columbus, Indiana* ''Columbus'', a 2017 American film set in Columbus, Indiana" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Illustrated Historical Atlas of Bartholomew County, Indiana, 1879 (reprinted by the Bartholomew County Historical Society, 1978)* 2003 History of Bartholomew County, Indiana, Volume II, copyright 2003, by the Bartholomew County Historical Society" ], [ "Further reading", "* Columbus Indiana in Vintage Postcards, by Tamara Stone Iorio, copyright 2005 by Tamara Stone Iorio, published by Arcadia Publishing, * \"Have you Seen my Town?\"", "by Pamela Dinsmore* \"Images of America: Columbus\" by Patricia Mote* \"I Discover Columbus\" by William Marsh* \"The Diesel Odyssey of Clessie Cummins\" by Lyle Cummins* \"The Engine that Could\" by Jeffrey L. Cruikshank and David B. Sicilia* \"Columbus Indiana\" by Balthazar Korab* \"A Look at Architecture: Columbus Indiana\" by the Visitor's Center* \"People and Places in my Town, Columbus Indiana\" by Sylvia Worton* \"Folk Heroes, Heroines, and Hometown Heritage – From Columbus, Indiana's City Hall Murals and Beyond\" is about Columbus' outstanding personality beyond its architecture.", ", by Rose Pelone Sisson" ], [ "External links", "* City of Columbus website* Columbus Area Visitors Center* A History of Columbus Indiana*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of computer scientists" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a '''list of computer scientists''', people who do work in computer science, in particular researchers and authors.Some persons notable as programmers are included here because they work in research as well as program.", "A few of these people pre-date the invention of the digital computer; they are now regarded as computer scientists because their work can be seen as leading to the invention of the computer.", "Others are mathematicians whose work falls within what would now be called theoretical computer science, such as complexity theory and algorithmic information theory.==A==* Atta ur Rehman Khan – Mobile Cloud Computing, Cybersecurity, IoT* Wil van der Aalst – business process management, process mining, Petri nets* Scott Aaronson – quantum computing and complexity theory* Rediet Abebe – algorithms, artificial intelligence* Hal Abelson – intersection of computing and teaching* Serge Abiteboul – database theory* Samson Abramsky – game semantics* Leonard Adleman – RSA, DNA computing* Manindra Agrawal – polynomial-time primality testing* Luis von Ahn – human-based computation* Alfred Aho – compilers book, the 'a' in AWK* Frances E. Allen – compiler optimization* Gene Amdahl – supercomputer developer, Amdahl Corporation founder* David P. Anderson – volunteer computing* Lisa Anthony – natural user interfaces* Andrew Appel – compiler of text books* Cecilia R. Aragon – invented treap, human-centered data science* Bruce Arden – programming language compilers (GAT, Michigan Algorithm Decoder (MAD)), virtual memory architecture, Michigan Terminal System (MTS)* Angie Jones – software engineer and automation architect.", "Holds 26 patented inventions in the United States of America and Japan* Sanjeev Arora – PCP theorem* Winifred \"Tim\" Alice Asprey – established the computer science curriculum at Vassar College* John Vincent Atanasoff – computer pioneer, creator of Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC)* Shakuntala Atre – database theory==B==* Charles Babbage (1791–1871) – invented first mechanical computer called the supreme mathematician* Charles Bachman – American computer scientist, known for Integrated Data Store* Roland Carl Backhouse – mathematics of computer program construction, algorithmic problem solving, ALGOL* John Backus – FORTRAN, Backus–Naur form, first complete compiler* David F. Bacon – programming languages, garbage collection* David Bader* Victor Bahl* Anthony James Barr – SAS System* Jean Bartik (1924–2011) – one of the first computer programmers, on ENIAC (1946), one of the first Vacuum tube computers, back when \"programming\" involved using cables, dials, and switches to physically rewire the machine; worked with John Mauchly toward BINAC (1949), EDVAC (1949), UNIVAC (1951) to develop early \"stored program\" computers* Andrew Barto* Friedrich L. Bauer – Stack (data structure), ''Sequential Formula Translation'', ALGOL, software engineering, Bauer–Fike theorem* Rudolf Bayer – B-tree* Gordon Bell (born 1934) – computer designer DEC VAX, author: ''Computer Structures''* Steven M. Bellovin – network security* Cecilia Berdichevsky (1925–2010) – pioneering Argentinian computer scientist* Tim Berners-Lee – World Wide Web* Daniel J. Bernstein – qmail, software as protected speech* Peter Bernus* Jeff Bezos – founder of Amazon* Abhay Bhushan* Dines Bjørner – Vienna Development Method (VDM), RAISE* Gerrit Blaauw – one of the principal designers of the IBM System 360 line of computers* Sue Black* David Blei* Dorothy Blum – National Security Agency* Lenore Blum – complexity* Manuel Blum – cryptography* Barry Boehm – software engineering economics, spiral development* Corrado Böhm – author of the structured program theorem* Kurt Bollacker* Jeff Bonwick – invented slab allocation and ZFS* Grady Booch – Unified Modeling Language, Object Management Group* George Boole – Boolean logic* Andrew Booth – developed the first rotating drum storage device* Kathleen Booth – developed the first assembly language* Anita Borg (1949–2003) – American computer scientist, founder of Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology* Bert Bos – Cascading Style Sheets* Mikhail Botvinnik – World Chess Champion, computer scientist and electrical engineer, pioneered early expert system AI and computer chess* Jonathan Bowen – Z notation, formal methods* Stephen R. Bourne – Bourne shell, portable ALGOL 68C compiler* Harry Bouwman (born 1953) – Dutch Information systems researcher, and Professor at the Åbo Akademi University* Robert S. Boyer – string searching, ACL2 theorem prover* Karlheinz Brandenburg – Main mp3 contributor* Gilles Brassard – BB84 protocol and quantum cryptography pioneer* Lawrence M. Breed – implementation of Iverson Notation (APL), co-developed APL\\360, Scientific Time Sharing Corporation cofounder* Jack E. Bresenham – early computer-graphics contributions, including Bresenham's algorithm* Sergey Brin – co-founder of Google* David J.", "Brown – unified memory architecture, binary compatibility* Per Brinch Hansen (surname \"Brinch Hansen\") – RC 4000 multiprogramming system, operating system kernels, microkernels, monitors, concurrent programming, Concurrent Pascal, distributed computing & processes, parallel computing* Sjaak Brinkkemper – methodology of product software development* Fred Brooks – System 360, OS/360, ''The Mythical Man-Month'', ''No Silver Bullet''* Rod Brooks* Margaret Burnett – visual programming languages, end-user software engineering, and gender-inclusive software* Michael Butler – Event-B==C==* Pino Caballero Gil – cryptography* Tracy Camp – wireless computing* Martin Campbell-Kelly – history of computing* Rosemary Candlin* Rod Canion – cofounder of Compaq Computer Corporation* Bryan Cantrill – invented DTrace* Luca Cardelli* John Carmack – codeveloped Doom* Michael Caspersen - programming methodology, education in OO programming, leadership in developing informatics education* Edwin Catmull – computer graphics* Vint Cerf – Internet, TCP/IP* Gregory Chaitin* Robert Cailliau – Belgian computer scientist* Zhou Chaochen – duration calculus* Peter Chen – entity-relationship model, data modeling, conceptual model* Leonardo Chiariglione – founder of MPEG* Tracy Chou – computer scientist and activist* Alonzo Church – mathematics of combinators, lambda calculus* Alberto Ciaramella – speech recognition, patent informatics* Edmund M. Clarke – model checking* John Cocke – RISC* Edgar F. Codd (1923–2003) – formulated the database relational model* Jacques Cohen – computer science professor* Ian Coldwater – computer security* Simon Colton – computational creativity* Alain Colmerauer – Prolog* Douglas Comer – Xinu* Paul Justin Compton – Ripple Down Rules* Richard W. Conway – CORC, CUPL, and PL/C languages and dialects; programming textbooks* Gordon Cormack – co-invented dynamic Markov compression* Stephen Cook – NP-completeness* James Cooley – Fast Fourier transform (FFT)* Danese Cooper – open-source software* Fernando J. Corbató – Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS), Multics* Kit Cosper – open-source software* Patrick Cousot – abstract interpretation* Ingemar Cox – digital watermarking* Seymour Cray – Cray Research, supercomputer* Nello Cristianini – machine learning, pattern analysis, artificial intelligence* Jon Crowcroft – networking* W. Bruce Croft* Glen Culler – interactive computing, computer graphics, high performance computing* Haskell Curry==D==* Luigi Dadda – designer of the Dadda multiplier* Ole-Johan Dahl – Simula, object-oriented programming* Ryan Dahl – founder of node.js project* Andries van Dam – computer graphics, hypertext* Samir Das – Wireless Networks, Mobile Computing, Vehicular ad hoc network, Sensor Networks, Mesh networking, Wireless ad hoc network* Neil Daswani – computer security, co-founder and co-director of Stanford Advanced Computer Security Program, co-founder of Dasient (acquired by Twitter), former chief information security of LifeLock and Symantec's Consumer Business Unit* Christopher J.", "Date – proponent of database relational model* Terry A. Davis – creator of TempleOS* Jeff Dean – Bigtable, MapReduce, Spanner of Google* Erik Demaine – computational origami* Tom DeMarco* Richard DeMillo – computer security, software engineering, educational technology* Dorothy E. Denning – computer security* Peter J. Denning – identified the use of an operating system's working set and balance set, President of ACM* Michael Dertouzos – Director of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS) from 1974 to 2001* Alexander Dewdney* Robert Dewar – IFIP WG 2.1 member, ALGOL 68, chairperson; AdaCore cofounder, president, CEO* Vinod Dham – P5 Pentium processor* Jan Dietz (born 1945) (decay constant) – information systems theory and ''Design & Engineering Methodology for Organizations''* Whitfield Diffie (born 1944) (linear response function) – public key cryptography, Diffie–Hellman key exchange* Edsger W. Dijkstra – algorithms, Dijkstra's algorithm, Go To Statement Considered Harmful, semaphore (programming), IFIP WG 2.1 member* Matthew Dillon – DragonFly BSD with LWKT, vkernel OS-level virtualisation, file systems: HAMMER1, HAMMER2* Alan Dix – wrote important university level textbook on human–computer interaction* Jack Dongarra – linear algebra high performance computing (HCI)* Marco Dorigo – ant colony optimization* Paul Dourish – human computer interaction* Charles Stark Draper (1901–1987) – designer of Apollo Guidance Computer, \"father of inertial navigation\", MIT professor* Susan Dumais – information retrieval* Adam Dunkels – Contiki, lwIP, uIP, protothreads* Jon Michael Dunn – founding dean of Indiana University School of Informatics, information based logics especially relevance logic* Schahram Dustdar – Distributed Systems, TU Wien, Austria==E==* Peter Eades – graph drawing* Annie Easley* Wim Ebbinkhuijsen – COBOL* John Presper Eckert – ENIAC* Alan Edelman – Edelman's Law, stochastic operator, Interactive Supercomputing, Julia (programming language) cocreator, high performance computing, numerical computing* Brendan Eich – JavaScript, Mozilla* Philip Emeagwali – supercomputing* E. Allen Emerson – model checking* Douglas Engelbart – tiled windows, hypertext, computer mouse* Barbara Engelhardt – latent variable models, genomics, quantitative trait locus (QTL)* David Eppstein * Andrey Ershov – languages ''ALPHA'', ''Rapira''; first Soviet time-sharing system ''AIST-0'', electronic publishing system ''RUBIN'', multiprocessing workstation ''MRAMOR'', IFIP WG 2.1 member, ''Aesthetics and the Human Factor in Programming''* Don Estridge (1937–1985) – led development of original IBM Personal Computer (PC); known as \"father of the IBM PC\"* Oren Etzioni – MetaCrawler, Netbot* Christopher Riche Evans* David C. Evans – computer graphics* Shimon Even==F==* Scott Fahlman* Edward Feigenbaum – intelligence* Edward Felten – computer security* Tim Finin* Raphael Finkel* Donald Firesmith* Gary William Flake* Tommy Flowers – Colossus computer* Robert Floyd – NP-completeness* Sally Floyd – Internet congestion control* Lawrence J. Fogel – evolutionary programming* James D. Foley* Ken Forbus* L. R. Ford, Jr.* Lance Fortnow* Mahmoud Samir Fayed – PWCT, Ring* Martin Fowler* Robert France* Herbert W. Franke* Edward Fredkin* Yoav Freund* Daniel P. Friedman* Charlotte Froese Fischer – computational theoretical physics* Ping Fu* Xiaoming Fu* Kunihiko Fukushima – neocognitron, artificial neural networks, convolutional neural network architecture, unsupervised learning, deep learning* D. R. Fulkerson==G==* Richard P. Gabriel – Maclisp, Common Lisp, Worse is Better, League for Programming Freedom, Lucid Inc., XEmacs* Zvi Galil* Bernard Galler – MAD (programming language)* Hector Garcia-Molina* Michael Garey – NP-completeness* Hugo de Garis* Bill Gates – cofounder of Microsoft* David Gelernter* Lisa Gelobter – was the Chief Digital Service Officer for the U.S. Department of Education, founder of teQuitable* Charles Geschke* Zoubin Ghahramani* Sanjay Ghemawat* Jeremy Gibbons – generic programming, functional programming, formal methods, computational biology, bioinformatics* Juan E. Gilbert – human-centered computing* Lee Giles – CiteSeer* Seymour Ginsburg – formal languages, automata theory, AFL theory, database theory* Robert L. Glass* Kurt Gödel – computability; not a computer scientist per se, but his work was invaluable in the field* Ashok Goel* Joseph Goguen* E. Mark Gold – ''Language identification in the limit''* Adele Goldberg – Smalltalk* Andrew V. Goldberg – algorithms, algorithm engineering* Ian Goldberg – cryptographer, off-the-record messaging* Judy Goldsmith – computational complexity theory, decision theory, and computer ethics* Oded Goldreich – cryptography, computational complexity theory* Shafi Goldwasser – cryptography, computational complexity theory* Gene Golub – Matrix computation* Martin Charles Golumbic – algorithmic graph theory* Gastón Gonnet – cofounder of Waterloo Maple Inc.* Ian Goodfellow – machine learning* James Gosling – Network extensible Window System (NeWS), Java* Paul Graham – Viaweb, On Lisp, Arc* Robert M. Graham – programming language compilers (GAT, Michigan Algorithm Decoder (MAD)), virtual memory architecture, Multics* Susan L. Graham – compilers, programming environments* Jim Gray – database* Sheila Greibach – Greibach normal form, Abstract family of languages (AFL) theory* David Gries – ''The Science of Programming'', Interference freedom, Member Emeritus, IFIP WG 2.3 on Programming Methodology* Robert Griesemer – Go language* Ralph Griswold – SNOBOL* Bill Gropp – Message Passing Interface, Portable, Extensible Toolkit for Scientific Computation (PETSc)* Tom Gruber – ontology engineering* Shelia Guberman – handwriting recognition* Ramanathan V. Guha – Resource Description Framework (RDF), Netscape, RSS, Epinions* Neil J. Gunther – computer performance analysis, capacity planning* Jürg Gutknecht – with Niklaus Wirth: Lilith computer; Modula-2, Oberon, Zonnon programming languages; Oberon operating system* Michael Guy – Phoenix, work on number theory, computer algebra, higher dimension polyhedra theory; with John Horton Conway==H==* Nico Habermann – operating systems, software engineering, inter-process communication, process synchronization, deadlock avoidance, software verification, programming languages: ALGOL 60, BLISS, Pascal, Ada* Philipp Matthäus Hahn – mechanical calculator* Eldon C. Hall – Apollo Guidance Computer* Wendy Hall* Joseph Halpern* Margaret Hamilton – ultra-reliable software design, Apollo program space missions* Richard Hamming – Hamming code, founder of the Association for Computing Machinery* Jiawei Han – data mining* Frank Harary – graph theory* Brian Harris – machine translation research, Canada's first computer-assisted translation course, natural translation theory, community interpreting (Critical Link)* Juris Hartmanis – computational complexity theory* Johan Håstad – computational complexity theory* Les Hatton – software failure and vulnerabilities* Igor Hawryszkiewycz (born 1948) – American computer scientist and organizational theorist* He Jifeng – provably correct systems* Eric Hehner – predicative programming, formal methods, quote notation, ALGOL* Martin Hellman – encryption* Gernot Heiser – operating system teaching, research, commercialising, Open Kernel Labs, OKL4, Wombat* James Hendler – Semantic Web* John L. Hennessy – computer architecture* Andrew Herbert* Carl Hewitt* Kelsey Hightower – open source, cloud computing* Danny Hillis – Connection Machine* Geoffrey Hinton* Julia Hirschberg* Tin Kam Ho – artificial intelligence, machine learning* C. A. R. Hoare – logic, rigor, communicating sequential processes (CSP)* Louis Hodes (1934–2008) – Lisp, pattern recognition, logic programming, cancer research* Betty Holberton – ENIAC programmer, developed the first Sort Merge Generator* John Henry Holland – genetic algorithms* Herman Hollerith (1860–1929) – invented recording of data on a machine readable medium, using punched cards* Gerard Holzmann – software verification, logic model checking (SPIN)* John Hopcroft – compilers* Admiral Grace Hopper (1906–1992) – developed early compilers: FLOW-Matic, COBOL; worked on UNIVAC; gave speeches on computer history, where she gave out nano-seconds* Eric Horvitz – artificial intelligence* Alston Householder* Paul Hudak (1952–2015) – Haskell language design, textbooks on it and computer music* David A. Huffman (1925–1999) – Huffman coding, used in data compression* John Hughes – structuring computations with arrows; QuickCheck randomized program testing framework; Haskell language design* Roger Hui – co-created J language* Watts Humphrey (1927–2010) – Personal Software Process (PSP), Software quality, Team Software Process (TSP)* Sandra Hutchins (born 1946) - speech recognition* Steve Hoberman – data modeler==I==* Jean Ichbiah – Ada* Roberto Ierusalimschy – Lua (programming language)* Dan Ingalls – Smalltalk, BitBlt, Lively Kernel* Mary Jane Irwin* Kenneth E. Iverson – APL, J==J==* Ivar Jacobson – Unified Modeling Language, Object Management Group* Anil K. Jain (born 1948)* Ramesh Jain* Jonathan James* David S. Johnson* Stephen C. Johnson* Cliff Jones – Vienna Development Method (VDM)* Michael I. Jordan* Mathai Joseph* Aravind K. Joshi* Bill Joy (born 1954) – Sun Microsystems, BSD UNIX, vi, csh* Dan Jurafsky – natural language processing==K==* William Kahan – numerical analysis* Robert E. Kahn – TCP/IP* Avinash Kak – digital image processing* Poul-Henning Kamp – invented GBDE, FreeBSD Jails, Varnish cache* David Karger* Richard Karp – NP-completeness* Narendra Karmarkar – Karmarkar's algorithm* Marek Karpinski – NP optimization problems* Ted Kaehler – Smalltalk, Squeak, HyperCard* Alan Kay – Dynabook, Smalltalk, overlapping windows* Neeraj Kayal – AKS primality test* Manolis Kellis – computational biology* John George Kemeny – the language BASIC* Ken Kennedy – compiling for parallel and vector machines* Brian Kernighan (born 1942) – Unix, the 'k' in AWK* Carl Kesselman – grid computing* Gregor Kiczales – CLOS, reflection, aspect-oriented programming* Peter T. Kirstein – Internet* Stephen Cole Kleene – Kleene closure, recursion theory* Dan Klein – Natural language processing, Machine translation* Leonard Kleinrock – ARPANET, queueing theory, packet switching, hierarchical routing* Donald Knuth – ''The Art of Computer Programming'', MIX/MMIX, TeX, literate programming* Andrew Koenig – C++* Daphne Koller – Artificial intelligence, bayesian network* Michael Kölling – BlueJ* Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov – algorithmic complexity theory* Janet L. Kolodner – case-based reasoning* David Korn – KornShell* Kees Koster – ALGOL 68* Robert Kowalski – logic programming* John Koza – genetic programming* John Krogstie – SEQUAL framework* Joseph Kruskal – Kruskal's algorithm* Maarja Kruusmaa – underwater roboticist* Thomas E. Kurtz (born 1928) – BASIC programming language; Dartmouth College computer professor==L==* Richard E. Ladner* Monica S. Lam* Leslie Lamport – algorithms for distributed computing, LaTeX* Butler Lampson – SDS 940, founding member Xerox PARC, Xerox Alto, Turing Award* Peter Landin – ISWIM, J operator, SECD machine, off-side rule, syntactic sugar, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member, advanced lambda calculus to model programming languages (aided functional programming), denotational semantics* Tom Lane – Independent JPEG Group, PostgreSQL, Portable Network Graphics (PNG)* Börje Langefors* Chris Lattner – creator of Swift (programming language) and LLVM compiler infrastructure* Steve Lawrence* Edward D. Lazowska* Joshua Lederberg* Manny M Lehman* Charles E. Leiserson – cache-oblivious algorithms, provably good work-stealing, coauthor of Introduction to Algorithms* Douglas Lenat – artificial intelligence, Cyc* Yann LeCun* Rasmus Lerdorf – PHP* Max Levchin – Gausebeck–Levchin test and PayPal* Leonid Levin – computational complexity theory* Kevin Leyton-Brown – artificial intelligence* J.C.R.", "Licklider* David Liddle* Jochen Liedtke – microkernel operating systems Eumel, L3, L4* John Lions – Lions' Commentary on UNIX 6th Edition, with Source Code (Lions Book)* Charles H. Lindsey – IFIP WG 2.1 member, ''Revised Report on ALGOL 68''* Richard J. Lipton – computational complexity theory* Barbara Liskov – programming languages* Yanhong Annie Liu – programming languages, algorithms, program design, program optimization, software systems, optimizing, analysis, and transformations, intelligent systems, distributed computing, computer security, IFIP WG 2.1 member* Darrell Long – computer data storage, computer security* Patricia D. Lopez – broadening participation in computing* Gillian Lovegrove* Ada Lovelace – first programmer* David Luckham – Lisp, Automated theorem proving, Stanford Pascal Verifier, Complex event processing, Rational Software cofounder (Ada compiler)* Eugene Luks* Nancy Lynch==M==* Nadia Magnenat Thalmann – computer graphics, virtual actor* Tom Maibaum* Simon Marlow – Haskell developer, book author; co-developer: Glasgow Haskell Compiler, Haxl remote data access library* Zohar Manna – fuzzy logic* James Martin – information engineering* Robert C. Martin (Uncle Bob) – software craftsmanship* John Mashey* Yuri Matiyasevich – solving Hilbert's tenth problem* Yukihiro Matsumoto – Ruby (programming language)* John Mauchly (1907–1980) – designed ENIAC, first general-purpose electronic digital computer, and EDVAC, BINAC and UNIVAC I, the first commercial computer; worked with Jean Bartik on ENIAC and Grace Murray Hopper on UNIVAC* Ujjwal Maulik (born 1965) multi-objective clustering and Bioinformatics* Derek McAuley – ubiquitous computing, computer architecture, networking* Conor McBride – researches type theory, functional programming; cocreated Epigram (programming language) with James McKinna; member IFIP Working Group 2.1 on Algorithmic Languages and Calculi* John McCarthy – Lisp (programming language), ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member, artificial intelligence* Andrew McCallum* Douglas McIlroy – macros, pipes, Unix philosophy* Chris McKinstry – artificial intelligence, Mindpixel* Marshall Kirk McKusick – BSD, Berkeley Fast File System* Lambert Meertens – ALGOL 68, IFIP WG 2.1 member, ABC (programming language)* Kurt Mehlhorn – algorithms, data structures, LEDA* Dora Metcalf – entrepreneur, engineer and mathematician* Bertrand Meyer – Eiffel (programming language)* Silvio Micali – cryptography* Robin Milner – ML (programming language)* Jack Minker – database logic* Marvin Minsky – artificial intelligence, perceptrons, Society of Mind* James G. Mitchell – WATFOR compiler, Mesa (programming language), Spring (operating system), ARM architecture* Tom M. Mitchell* Arvind Mithal – formal verification of large digital systems, developing dynamic dataflow architectures, parallel computing programming languages (Id, pH), compiling on parallel machines* Paul Mockapetris – Domain Name System (DNS)* Cleve Moler – numerical analysis, MATLAB* Faron Moller – concurrency theory* John P. Moon – inventor, Apple Inc.* Charles H. Moore – Forth language* Edward F. Moore – Moore machine* Gordon Moore – Moore's law* J Strother Moore – string searching, ACL2 theorem prover* Roger Moore – co-developed APL\\360, created IPSANET, co-founded I. P. Sharp Associates* Hans Moravec – robotics* Carroll Morgan – formal methods* Robert Tappan Morris – Morris worm* Joel Moses – Macsyma* Rajeev Motwani – randomized algorithm* Oleg A. Mukhanov – quantum computing developer, co-founder and CTO of SeeQC* Stephen Muggleton – Inductive Logic Programming* Klaus-Robert Müller – machine learning, artificial intelligence* Alan Mycroft – programming languages* Brad A. Myers – human-computer interaction==N==* Mihai Nadin – anticipation research* Makoto Nagao – machine translation, natural language processing, digital library* Frieder Nake – pioneered computer arts* Bonnie Nardi – human–computer interaction* Peter Naur (1928–2016) – Backus–Naur form (BNF), ALGOL 60, IFIP WG 2.1 member* Roger Needham – computer security* James G. Nell – Generalised Enterprise Reference Architecture and Methodology (GERAM)* Greg Nelson (1953–2015) – satisfiability modulo theories, extended static checking, program verification, Modula-3 committee, ''Simplify'' theorem prover in ESC/Java* Bernard de Neumann – massively parallel autonomous cellular processor, software engineering research* Klara Dan von Neumann (1911–1963) – early computers, ENIAC programmer and control designer* John von Neumann (1903–1957) – early computers, von Neumann machine, set theory, functional analysis, mathematics pioneer, linear programming, quantum mechanics* Allen Newell – artificial intelligence, ''Computer Structures''* Max Newman – Colossus computer, MADM* Andrew Ng – artificial intelligence, machine learning, robotics* Nils John Nilsson (1933–2019) – artificial intelligence* G.M.", "Nijssen – Nijssen's Information Analysis Methodology (NIAM) object–role modeling* Tobias Nipkow – proof assistance* Maurice Nivat – theoretical computer science, ''Theoretical Computer Science'' journal, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member* Phiwa Nkambule – Fintech, artificial intelligence, machine learning, robotics* Jerre Noe – computerized banking* Peter Nordin – artificial intelligence, genetic programming, evolutionary robotics* Donald Norman – user interfaces, usability* Peter Norvig – artificial intelligence, Director of Research at Google* George Novacky – University of Pittsburgh: assistant department chair, senior lecturer in computer science, assistant dean of CAS for undergraduate studies* Kristen Nygaard – Simula, object-oriented programming==O==* Martin Odersky – Scala programming language* Peter O'Hearn – separation logic, bunched logic, Infer Static Analyzer* T. William Olle – Ferranti Mercury* Steve Omohundro* Severo Ornstein* John O'Sullivan – Wi-Fi* John Ousterhout – Tcl programming language* Mark Overmars – video game programming* Susan Owicki – interference freedom==P==* Larry Page – co-founder of Google* Sankar Pal* Paritosh Pandya* Christos Papadimitriou* David Park (1935–1990) – first Lisp implementation, expert in fairness, program schemas, bisimulation in concurrent computing* David Parnas – information hiding, modular programming* DJ Patil – former Chief Data Scientist of United States* Yale Patt – Instruction-level parallelism, speculative architectures* David Patterson – reduced instruction set computer (RISC), RISC-V, redundant arrays of inexpensive disks (RAID), Berkeley Network of Workstations (NOW)* Mike Paterson – algorithms, analysis of algorithms (complexity)* Mihai Pătraşcu – data structures* Lawrence Paulson – ML* Randy Pausch (1960–2008) – human–computer interaction, Carnegie professor, \"Last Lecture\"* Juan Pavón – software agents* Judea Pearl – artificial intelligence, search algorithms* Alan Perlis – ''Programming Pearls''* Radia Perlman – spanning tree protocol* Pier Giorgio Perotto – computer designer at Olivetti, designer of the Programma 101 programmable calculator* Rózsa Péter – recursive function theory* Simon Peyton Jones – functional programming, Glasgow Haskell Compiler, C--* Kathy Pham – data, artificial intelligence, civic technology, healthcare, ethics* Roberto Pieraccini – speech technologist, engineering director at Google* Keshav Pingali – IEEE Computer Society Charles Babbage Award, ACM Fellow (2012)* Gordon Plotkin* Amir Pnueli – temporal logic* Willem van der Poel – computer graphics, robotics, geographic information systems, imaging, multimedia, virtual environments, games* Cicely Popplewell (1920–1995) – British software engineer in 1960s* Emil Post – mathematics* Jon Postel – Internet* Franco Preparata – computer engineering, computational geometry, parallel algorithms, computational biology* William H. Press – numerical algorithms==R==* Rapelang Rabana* Grzegorz Rozenberg – natural computing, automata theory, graph transformations and concurrent systems* Michael O. Rabin – nondeterministic machine* Dragomir R. Radev – natural language processing, information retrieval* T. V. Raman – accessibility, Emacspeak* Brian Randell – ALGOL 60, software fault tolerance, dependability, pre-1950 history of computing hardware* Anders P. Ravn – Duration Calculus* Raj Reddy – artificial intelligence* David P. Reed* Trygve Reenskaug – model–view–controller (MVC) software architecture pattern* John C. Reynolds – continuations, definitional interpreters, defunctionalization, Forsythe, Gedanken language, intersection types, polymorphic lambda calculus, relational parametricity, separation logic, ALGOL* Joyce K. Reynolds – Internet* Reinder van de Riet – Editor: ''Europe of Data and Knowledge Engineering'', COLOR-X event modeling language* Bernard Richards – medical informatics* Martin Richards – BCPL* Adam Riese* C. J. van Rijsbergen* Dennis Ritchie – C (programming language), Unix* Ron Rivest – RSA, MD5, RC4* Ken Robinson – formal methods* Colette Rolland – REMORA methodology, meta modelling* John Romero – codeveloped Doom* Azriel Rosenfeld* Douglas T. Ross – Automatically Programmed Tools (APT), Computer-aided design, structured analysis and design technique, ALGOL X* Guido van Rossum – Python (programming language)* M. A. Rothman – UEFI* Winston W. Royce – waterfall model* Rudy Rucker – mathematician, writer, educator* Steven Rudich – complexity theory, cryptography* Jeff Rulifson* James Rumbaugh – Unified Modeling Language, Object Management Group* Peter Ružička – Slovak computer scientist and mathematician==S==* George Sadowsky* Mehrnoosh Sadrzadeh – compositional models of meaning, machine learning* Umar Saif* Gerard Salton – information retrieval* Jean E. Sammet – programming languages* Claude Sammut – artificial intelligence researcher* Carl Sassenrath – operating systems, programming languages, Amiga, REBOL* Mahadev Satyanarayanan – file systems, distributed systems, mobile computing, pervasive computing* Walter Savitch – discovery of complexity class NL, Savitch's theorem, natural language processing, mathematical linguistics* Jonathan Schaeffer* Wilhelm Schickard – one of the first calculating machines* Jürgen Schmidhuber – artificial intelligence, deep learning, artificial neural networks, recurrent neural networks, Gödel machine, artificial curiosity, meta-learning* Steve Schneider – formal methods, security* Bruce Schneier – cryptography, security* Fred B. Schneider – concurrent and distributed computing* Sarita Schoenebeck — human–computer interaction* Glenda Schroeder – command-line shell, e-mail* Bernhard Schölkopf – machine learning, artificial intelligence* Dana Scott – domain theory* Michael L. Scott – programming languages, algorithms, distributed computing* Robert Sedgewick – algorithms, data structures* Ravi Sethi – compilers, 2nd Dragon Book* Nigel Shadbolt* Adi Shamir – RSA, cryptanalysis* Claude Shannon – information theory* David E. Shaw – computational finance, computational biochemistry, parallel architectures* Cliff Shaw – systems programmer, artificial intelligence* Scott Shenker – networking* Shashi Shekhar – spatial computing* Ben Shneiderman – human–computer interaction, information visualization* Edward H. Shortliffe – MYCIN (medical diagnostic expert system)* Daniel Siewiorek – electronic design automation, reliability computing, context aware mobile computing, wearable computing, computer-aided design, rapid prototyping, fault tolerance* Joseph Sifakis – model checking* Herbert A. Simon – artificial intelligence* Munindar P. Singh – multiagent systems, software engineering, artificial intelligence, social networks* Ramesh Sitaraman – helped build Akamai's high performance network* Daniel Sleator – splay tree, amortized analysis* Aaron Sloman – artificial intelligence and cognitive science* Arne Sølvberg – information modelling* Brian Cantwell Smith – reflection (computer science), 3lisp* David Canfield Smith – invented interface icons, programming by demonstration, developed graphical user interface, Xerox Star; Xerox PARC researcher, cofounded Dest Systems, Cognition* Steven Spewak – enterprise architecture planning* Carol Spradling* Robert Sproull* Rohini Kesavan Srihari – information retrieval, text analytics, multilingual text mining* Sargur Srihari – pattern recognition, machine learning, computational criminology, CEDAR-FOX* Maciej Stachowiak – GNOME, Safari, WebKit* Richard Stallman (born 1953) – GNU Project* Ronald Stamper* Thad Starner* Richard E. Stearns – computational complexity theory* Guy L. Steele, Jr. – Scheme, Common Lisp* Thomas Sterling – creator of Beowulf clusters* Alexander Stepanov – generic programming* W. Richard Stevens (1951–1999) – author of books, including ''TCP/IP Illustrated'' and ''Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment''* Larry Stockmeyer – computational complexity, distributed computing* Salvatore Stolfo – computer security, machine learning* Michael Stonebraker – relational database practice and theory* Olaf Storaasli – finite element machine, linear algebra, high performance computing* Christopher Strachey – denotational semantics* Volker Strassen – matrix multiplication, integer multiplication, Solovay–Strassen primality test* Bjarne Stroustrup – C++* Madhu Sudan – computational complexity theory, coding theory* Gerald Jay Sussman – Scheme* Bert Sutherland – graphics, Internet* Ivan Sutherland – graphics* Latanya Sweeney – data privacy and algorithmic fairness* Mario Szegedy – complexity theory, quantum computing==T==* Parisa Tabriz – Google Director of Engineering, also known as the Security Princess* Roberto Tamassia – computational geometry, computer security* Andrew S. Tanenbaum – operating systems, MINIX* Austin Tate – Artificial Intelligence Applications, AI Planning, Virtual Worlds* Bernhard Thalheim – conceptual modelling foundation* Éva Tardos* Gábor Tardos* Robert Tarjan – splay tree* Valerie Taylor* Mario Tchou – Italian engineer, of Chinese descent, leader of Olivetti Elea project* Jaime Teevan* Shang-Hua Teng – analysis of algorithms* Larry Tesler – human–computer interaction, graphical user interface, Apple Macintosh* Avie Tevanian – Mach kernel team, NeXT, Mac OS X* Charles P. Thacker – Xerox Alto, Microsoft Research* Daniel Thalmann – computer graphics, virtual actor* Ken Thompson – mainly designed and authored Unix, Plan 9 and Inferno operating systems, B and Bon languages (precursors of C), created UTF-8 character encoding, introduced regular expressions in QED, co-authored Go language* Simon Thompson – functional programming research, textbooks; Cardano domain-specific languages: Marlowe* Sebastian Thrun – AI researcher, pioneered autonomous driving* Walter F. Tichy – RCS* Seinosuke Toda – computation complexity, recipient of 1998 Gödel Prize* Chai Keong Toh – mobile ad hoc networks pioneer* Linus Torvalds – Linux kernel, Git* Leonardo Torres Quevedo (1852–1936) – invented El Ajedrecista (''the chess player'') in 1912, a true automaton built to play chess without human guidance.", "In his work ''Essays on Automatics'' (1913), introduced the idea of floating-point arithmetic.", "In 1920, built an early electromechanical device of the Analytical Engine.", "* Godfried Toussaint – computational geometry, computational music theory* Gloria Townsend* Edwin E. Tozer – business information systems* Joseph F Traub – computational complexity of scientific problems* John V. Tucker – computability theory* John Tukey – founder of FFT algorithm, box plot, exploratory data analysis and Coining the term 'bit'* Alan Turing (1912–1954) – British computing pioneer, Turing machine, algorithms, cryptology, computer architecture* David Turner – SASL, Kent Recursive Calculator, Miranda, IFIP WG 2.1 member* Murray Turoff – computer-mediated communication==U==* Jeffrey D. Ullman – compilers, databases, complexity theory==V==* Leslie Valiant – computational complexity theory, computational learning theory* Vladimir Vapnik – pattern recognition, computational learning theory* Moshe Vardi – professor of computer science at Rice University* Dorothy Vaughan* Bernard Vauquois – pioneered computer science in France, machine translation (MT) theory and practice including ''Vauquois triangle'', ALGOL 60* Umesh Vazirani* Manuela M. Veloso* François Vernadat – enterprise modeling* Richard Veryard – enterprise modeling* Sergiy Vilkomir – software testing, RC/DC* Paul Vitanyi – Kolmogorov complexity, Information distance, Normalized compression distance, Normalized Google distance* Andrew Viterbi – Viterbi algorithm* Jeffrey Scott Vitter – external memory algorithms, compressed data structures, data compression, databases* Paul Vixie – DNS, BIND, PAIX, Internet Software Consortium, MAPS, DNSBL==W==* Eiiti Wada – ALGOL N, IFIP WG 2.1 member, Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) X 0208, 0212, Happy Hacking Keyboard* David Wagner – security, cryptography* David Waltz* James Z. Wang* Steve Ward* Manfred K. Warmuth – computational learning theory* David H. D. Warren – AI, logic programming, Prolog, Warren Abstract Machine (WAM)* Kevin Warwick – artificial intelligence* Jan Weglarz* Philip Wadler – functional programming, Haskell, Monad, Java, logic* Peter Wegner – object-oriented programming, interaction (computer science)* Joseph Henry Wegstein – ALGOL 58, ALGOL 60, IFIP WG 2.1 member, data processing technical standards, fingerprint analysis* Peter J. Weinberger – programming language design, the 'w' in AWK* Mark Weiser – ubiquitous computing* Joseph Weizenbaum – artificial intelligence, ELIZA* David Wheeler – EDSAC, subroutines* Franklin H. Westervelt – use of computers in engineering education, conversational use of computers, Michigan Terminal System (MTS), ARPANET, distance learning* Steve Whittaker – human computer interaction, computer support for cooperative work, social media* Jennifer Widom – nontraditional data management* Gio Wiederhold – database management systems* Norbert Wiener – Cybernetics* Adriaan van Wijngaarden – Dutch pioneer; ARRA, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member* Mary Allen Wilkes – LINC developer, assembler-linker designer* Maurice Vincent Wilkes – microprogramming, EDSAC* Yorick Wilks – computational linguistics, artificial intelligence* James H. Wilkinson – numerical analysis* Sophie Wilson – ARM architecture* Shmuel Winograd – Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm* Terry Winograd – artificial intelligence, SHRDLU* Patrick Winston – artificial intelligence* Niklaus Wirth – ALGOL W, IFIP WG 2.1 member, Pascal, Modula, Oberon* Neil Wiseman – computer graphics* Dennis E. Wisnosky – Integrated Computer-Aided Manufacturing (ICAM), IDEF* Stephen Wolfram – Mathematica* Mike Woodger – Pilot ACE, ALGOL 60, Ada (programming language)* Philip Woodward – ambiguity function, sinc function, comb operator, rep operator, ALGOL 68-R* Beatrice Helen Worsley – wrote the first PhD dissertation involving modern computers; was one of the people who wrote Transcode* Steve Wozniak – engineered first generation personal computers at Apple Computer* Jie Wu – computer networks* William Wulf – BLISS system programming language + optimizing compiler, Hydra operating system, Tartan Laboratories==Y==* Mihalis Yannakakis * Andrew Chi-Chih Yao* John Yen* Nobuo Yoneda – Yoneda lemma, Yoneda product, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member* Edward Yourdon – Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method* Moti Yung==Z==* Lotfi Zadeh – fuzzy logic* Hans Zantema – termination analysis* Arif Zaman – pseudo-random number generator* Stanley Zdonik — database management systems* Hussein Zedan – formal methods and real-time systems* Shlomo Zilberstein – artificial intelligence, anytime algorithms, automated planning, and decentralized POMDPs* Jill Zimmerman – James M. Beall Professor of Mathematics and Computer Science at Goucher College* Mark Zuckerberg – cofounder of Facebook and Meta Platforms* Konrad Zuse – German pioneer of hardware and software" ], [ "See also", "* List of computing people* List of important publications in computer science* List of Jewish American computer scientists* List of members of the National Academy of Sciences (computer and information sciences)* List of pioneers in computer science* List of programmers* List of programming language researchers* List of Russian IT developers* List of Slovenian computer scientists* List of Indian computer scientists" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* CiteSeer list of the most cited authors in computer science* Computer scientists with h-index >= 40" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Reaction kinetics in uniform supersonic flow" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Reaction kinetics in uniform supersonic flow''' (, '''CRESU''') is an experiment investigating chemical reactions taking place at very low temperatures.The technique involves the expansion of a gas or mixture of gases through a de Laval nozzle from a high-pressure reservoir into a vacuum chamber.", "As it expands, the nozzle collimates the gas into a uniform supersonic beam, which is essentially collision-free and has a temperature that, in the centre-of-mass frame, can be significantly below that of the reservoir gas.", "Each nozzle produces a characteristic temperature.", "This way, any temperature between room temperature and about 10 K can be achieved." ], [ "Apparatus", "There are relatively few CRESU apparatuses in existence for the simple reason that the gas throughput and pumping requirements are huge, which makes them expensive to run.", "Two of the leading centres have been the University of Rennes (France) and the University of Birmingham (UK).", "A more recent development has been a pulsed version of the CRESU, which requires far less gas and therefore smaller pumps." ], [ "Kinetics", "Most species have a negligible vapour pressure at such low temperatures, and this means that they quickly condense on the sides of the apparatus.", "Essentially, the CRESU technique provides a \"wall-less flow tube\", which allows the kinetics of gas-phase reactions to be investigated at much lower temperatures than otherwise possible.Chemical kinetics experiments can then be carried out in a pump–probe fashion, using a laser to initiate the reaction (for example, by preparing one of the reagents by photolysis of a precursor), followed by observation of that same species (for example, by laser-induced fluorescence) after a known time delay.", "The fluorescence signal is captured by a photomultiplier a known distance downstream of the de Laval nozzle.", "The time delay can be varied up to the maximum corresponding to the flow time over that known distance.", "By studying how quickly the reagent species disappears in the presence of differing concentrations of a (usually stable) co-reagent species, the reaction rate constant at the low temperature of the CRESU flow can be determined.Reactions studied by the CRESU technique typically have no significant activation energy barrier.", "In the case of neutral–neutral reactions (i.e., not involving any charged species, ions), these type of barrier-free reactions usually involve free radical species, such as molecular oxygen (O2), the cyanide radical (CN) or the hydroxyl radical (OH).", "The energetic driving force for these reactions is typically an attractive long-range intermolecular potential.CRESU experiments have been used to show deviations from Arrhenius kinetics at low temperatures: as the temperature is reduced, the rate constant actually increases.", "They can explain why chemistry is so prevalent in the interstellar medium, where many different polyatomic species have been detected (by radio astronomy)." ], [ "See also", "* Cryochemistry" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cygwin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cygwin''' ( ) is a Unix-like environment and command-line interface for Microsoft Windows.", "The terminal emulator Mintty is the default command-line interface provided to interact with the environment.", "The Cygwin installation's directory layout mimics the root file system of Unix-like systems, with directories such as /bin, /home, /etc, /usr, and /var.", "In addition to providing many Unix utilities and a Unix look and feel, Cygwin allows source code designed for Unix-like operating systems to be compiled and run on Windows with minimal modification.", "Cygwin provides native integration of Windows-based applications.", "Thus it is possible to launch Windows applications from the Cygwin environment, as well as to use Cygwin tools and applications within the Windows operating context.Cygwin consists of two parts:# a dynamic-link library (DLL) in the form of a C standard library that acts as a compatibility layer for the POSIX API.# an extensive collection of software tools and applications that provide a Unix-like look and feel.Cygwin is free and open-source software, released under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3.It was originally developed by Cygnus Solutions, which was later acquired by Red Hat (now part of IBM), to port the Linux toolchain to Win32, including the GNU Compiler Suite.", "Rather than rewrite the tools to use the Win32 runtime environment, Cygwin implemented a POSIX-compatible environment in the form of a dynamic-link library (DLL).The brand motto is \"Get that Linux feeling – on Windows\"." ], [ "History", "Cygwin began in 1995 as a project of Steve Chamberlain, a Cygnus engineer who observed that Windows NT and 95 used COFF as their object file format, and that GNU already included support for x86 and COFF, and the C library newlib.", "He thought it would be possible to retarget GCC and produce a cross compiler generating executables that could run on Windows.", "This proved practical and a prototype was developed.Next Chamberlain bootstrapped the compiler on a Windows system, sufficiently emulating Unix to let the GNU configure shell script run.", "A Bourne shell-compatible command interpreter, such as bash, was needed and in turn a fork system call emulation and standard input/output.", "Windows includes similar functionality, so the Cygwin library just needed to provide a POSIX-compatible application programming interface (API) and properly translate calls and manage private versions of data, such as file descriptors.Initially, Cygwin was called gnuwin32 (not to be confused with the current GnuWin32 project).", "The name was changed to Cygwin32 to emphasize Cygnus' role in creating it.", "When Microsoft registered the trademark Win32, the 32 was dropped to simply become Cygwin.By 1996, other engineers had joined in, focusing on making Cygwin useful at hosting Cygnus' embedded tools on Windows systems (the previous strategy had been to use DJGPP).", "It was especially attractive because it was possible to do a three-way cross-compile, for instance to use a hefty Sun Microsystems workstation to build, say, a Windows-x-MIPS cross-compiler, which was faster than using the PC at the time.", "In 1999, Cygnus offered Cygwin 1.0 as a commercial product.", "Subsequent versions have not been released, instead relying on continued open source releases.Geoffrey Noer was the project lead from 1996 to 1999.Christopher Faylor was lead from 1999 to 2004 when he left Red Hat and became co-lead with Corinna Vinschen until Faylor withdrew from active participation in the project mid-2014.Corinna Vinschen has been the project lead from mid-2014 to date (as of March 30, 2023).From June 23, 2016 the Cygwin library version 2.5.2 was licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) version 3." ], [ "Description", "The Cygwin environment is provided in two versions; the full 64-bit version and a stripped down 32-bit version whose final version was released in 2022.Cygwin consists of a library that implements the POSIX system call API in terms of Windows system calls to enable running of a large number of application programs equivalent to those on Unix systems, and a GNU development toolchain (including GCC and GDB) to allow software development.", "Programmers have ported many Unix, GNU, BSD and Linux programs and packages to Cygwin, including the X Window System, K Desktop Environment 3, GNOME, Apache, and TeX.", "Cygwin permits installing inetd, syslogd, sshd, Apache, and other daemons as standard Windows services, allowing Microsoft Windows systems to emulate Unix and Linux servers.Cygwin programs are installed by running Cygwin's \"setup\" program, which downloads the necessary program and feature package files from repositories on the Internet.", "Setup can install, update, and remove programs and their source code packages.", "A complete installation will take in excess of 90 GB of hard disk space, but usable configurations may require as little as 1 or 2 GB.Efforts to reconcile concepts that differ between Unix and Windows systems include:* A Cygwin-specific version of the Unix mount command allows mounting Windows paths as \"filesystems\" in the Unix file space.", "Initial mount-points can be configured in /etc/fstab, which has a format very similar to Unix systems, except that Windows paths appear in place of devices.", "Filesystems can be mounted in binary mode (by default), or in text mode, which enables automatic conversion between LF and CRLF endings (which only affects programs that open files without explicitly specifying text or binary mode).", "* Cygwin 1.7 introduced comprehensive support for POSIX locales and many character encodings, whereby the UTF-8 Unicode encoding became the default.", "Windows file-names and other identifiers, which are encoded as UTF-16, are automatically converted to and from the selected character-encoding.", "* Windows drive letters map to a special directory, so for example C: appears as /cygdrive/c.", "The /cygdrive prefix can be changed.", "Windows network paths of the form \\\\HOST\\SHARE\\FILE are mapped to //HOST/SHARE/FILE.", "Windows paths can also be used directly from Cygwin programs, but many programs do not support them correctly, hence this is discouraged.", "* Full-featured /dev and /proc file-systems are provided.", "/proc/registry provides direct filesystem access to the registry.", "* Cygwin supports POSIX symbolic links, representing them as plain-text files with the system attribute set.", "Cygwin 1.5 represented them as Windows Explorer shortcuts, but this was changed for reasons of performance and POSIX correctness.", "Cygwin also recognises NTFS junction points and symbolic links and treats them as POSIX symbolic links, but it does not create them as their semantics are not fully POSIX-compliant.", "* The POSIX API for handling access control lists (ACLs) is supported and maps to the Windows NT ACL system.", "* Special formats of /etc/passwd and /etc/group are provided that include pointers to the Windows equivalent SIDs (in the Gecos field), allowing for mapping between Unix and Windows users and groups.", "* The fork system call for duplicating a process is fully implemented, but it does not map well to the Windows API.", "For example, the copy-on-write optimization strategy could not be used.", "As a result, Cygwin's fork is rather slow compared with Linux and others.", "(That overhead can often be avoided by replacing uses of the fork/exec technique with calls to the spawn functions declared in the Windows-specific process.h header).", "* The Cygwin DLL contains a console driver that emulates a Unix-style terminal within the Windows console.", "Cygwin's default user interface is the bash shell running in the Cygwin console.", "* The DLL also implements pseudo terminal (pty) devices.", "Cygwin ships with a number of terminal emulators that are based on them, including mintty, rxvt/urxvt, and xterm.", "These are more compliant with Unix terminal standards and user interface conventions than the Cygwin console, but are less suited for running Windows console programs.", "* Various utilities are provided for converting between Windows and Unix paths and file formats, for handling line ending (CRLF/LF) issues, for displaying the DLLs that an executable is linked with, etc.", "* Apart from always being linked against the Cygwin DLL, Cygwin executables are normal Windows executables.", "This means that Cygwin programs have full access to the Windows API and other Windows libraries, which allows gradual porting of programs from one platform to the other.", "However, programmers need to be careful about mixing conflicting POSIX and Windows functions.The version of gcc that comes with Cygwin has various extensions for creating Windows DLLs, specifying whether a program is a windowing or console-mode program, adding resources, etc.", "Support for compiling programs that do not require the POSIX compatibility layer provided by the Cygwin DLL used to be included in the default gcc, but is provided by cross-compilers contributed by the MinGW-w64 project.Cygwin is used for porting many popular pieces of software to the Windows platform.", "It is used to compile Sun Java, LibreOffice, Apache OpenOffice and web server software like Lighttpd and Hiawatha.The Cygwin API library is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3 (or later) with an exception to allow linking to any free and open-source software whose license conforms to the Open Source Definition (less strict than the Free Software Definition)." ], [ "Software features", "Cygwin's base package selection is fairly small (about 100 MB), containing little more than the bash (interactive user) and dash (installation) shells and the core file and text manipulation utilities expected of a Unix command line.", "Additional packages are available as optional installs from within the Cygwin Setup program and package manager (\"setup-x86_64.exe\" – 64bit).", "These include (from over 12000 others):* Shells (i.e.", "command line interpreters): bash, dash, fish, pdksh, tcsh, zsh, mksh* File and system utilities: coreutils, findutils, util-linux* Text utilities: grep, sed, diff, patch, awk* Terminals: mintty, rxvt, screen* Editors: ed, emacs, joe, mined, nano, vim* Remote login: ssh, rsh, telnet* Remote file transfer/synchronization: ftp, scp, rsync, unison, rtorrent* Compression/archiving: tar, gzip, bzip2, lzma, zip* Text processing: TeX, groff, Ghostscript* Programming languages: C, C++, Objective-C, Fortran, Gambas, Perl, Python, Ruby, Tcl, Ada, CLISP, Scheme, OCaml, Prolog* Development tools: make, autotools, flex, bison, doxygen* Version control systems: cvs, subversion, git, mercurial* Servers: Apache, BIND, PostgreSQL, Pure-FTPd, OpenSSH, telnetd, exim, UW IMAP* Clients: Mutt (email), Lynx (web), Irssi (IRC), tin (newsgroups)The Cygwin/X project contributes an implementation of the X Window System that allows graphical Unix programs to display their user interfaces on the Windows desktop.", "This can be used with both local and remote programs.", "Cygwin/X supports over 500 packages including major X window managers, desktop environments, and applications, for example:* Terminals: rxvt-unicode, xterm* Editors: emacs-X11, gvim* Text processors/viewers: LyX, xpdf, xdvi* Web browsers: epiphany, konqueror, links, lynx, midori, qupzilla, w3mIn addition to the low-level Xlib/XCB libraries for developing X applications, Cygwin ships with various higher-level and cross-platform GUI frameworks, including GTK+ and Qt.The Cygwin Ports project provided many additional packages that were not available in the Cygwin distribution itself.", "Examples included GNOME and K Desktop Environment 3 as well as the MySQL database and the PHP scripting language.", "Most ports have been adopted by volunteer maintainers as Cygwin packages, and Cygwin Ports are no longer maintained." ], [ "See also", "*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Corinth" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Corinth''' ( ; , ) is the successor to an ancient city, and is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece.", "Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part of the municipality of Corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit.", "It is the capital of Corinthia.It was founded as '''Nea Korinthos''' (), or '''New Corinth''', in 1858 after an earthquake destroyed the existing settlement of Corinth, which had developed in and around the site of ancient Corinth." ], [ "History", "Corinth derives its name from Ancient Corinth, a city-state of antiquity.", "The site was occupied from before 3000 BC.=== Ancient Greece ===Historical references begin with the early 8th century BC, when Corinth began to develop as a commercial center.", "Between the 8th and 7th centuries, the Bacchiad family ruled Corinth.", "Cypselus overthrew the Bacchiad family, and between 657 and 550 BC, he and his son Periander ruled Corinth as the Tyrants.In about 550 BC, an oligarchical government seized power.", "This government allied with Sparta within the Peloponnesian League, and Corinth participated in the Persian Wars and Peloponnesian War as an ally of Sparta.", "After Sparta's victory in the Peloponnesian war, the two allies fell out with one another, and Corinth pursued an independent policy in the various wars of the early 4th century BC.", "After the Macedonian unification of Greece, the Acrocorinth was the seat of a Macedonian garrison until 243 BC, when the city joined the Achaean League.=== Ancient Rome ===Nearly a century later, in 146 BC, Corinth was captured and was completely destroyed by the Roman army.The Roman sack of Corinth in 146 BC (Thomas Allom, 1870)As a newly rebuilt Roman colony in 44 BC, Corinth flourished and became the administrative capital of the Roman province of Achaea.=== Medieval times ===An important earthquake touched Corinth and its region in 856, causing around 45000 deaths.=== Modern era ===In 1858, the old city, now known as Ancient Corinth (Αρχαία Κόρινθος, ''Archaia Korinthos''), located southwest of the modern city, was totally destroyed by a magnitude 6.5 earthquake.", "New Corinth (''Nea Korinthos'') was then built to the north-east of it, on the coast of the Gulf of Corinth.", "In 1928, a magnitude 6.3 earthquake devastated the new city, which was then rebuilt on the same site.", "In 1933, there was a great fire, and the new city was rebuilt again.During the German occupation in World War II, the Germans operated a Dulag transit camp for British, Australian, New Zealander and Serbian prisoners of war and a forced labour camp in the town." ], [ "Geography", "Located about west of Athens, Corinth is surrounded by the coastal townlets of (clockwise) Lechaio, Isthmia, Kechries, and the inland townlets of Examilia and the archaeological site and village of ancient Corinth.", "Natural features around the city include the narrow coastal plain of Vocha, the Corinthian Gulf, the Isthmus of Corinth cut by its canal, the Saronic Gulf, the Oneia Mountains, and the monolithic rock of Acrocorinth, where the medieval acropolis was built.===Climate===According to the nearby weather station of Velo, operated by the Hellenic National Meteorological Service, Corinth has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: ''Csa''), with hot, dry summers and cool, rainy winters.", "The hottest month is July with an average temperature of while the coldest month is January with an average temperature of .", "Corinth receives about 463 mm of rainfall per year and has an average annual temperature of ." ], [ "Demographics", "The Municipality of Corinth (Δήμος Κορινθίων) had a population of 58,192 according to the 2011 census, the second most populous municipality in the Peloponnese Region after Kalamata.", "The municipal unit of Corinth had 38,132 inhabitants, of which Corinth itself had 30,176 inhabitants, placing it in third place behind Kalamata and Tripoli among the cities of the Peloponnese Region.Corinth in 1882The municipal unit of Corinth (Δημοτική ενότητα Κορινθίων) includes apart from Corinth proper the town of Archaia Korinthos (2,198 inhabitants in 2011), the town of Examilia (2,905 inhabitants), and the smaller settlements of Xylokeriza (1,316 inhabitants) and Solomos (817 inhabitants).", "The municipal unit has an area of 102.187 km2." ], [ "Economy", "=== Industry ===Corinth is a major industrial hub at a national level.", "The Corinth Refinery is one of the largest oil refining industrial complexes in Europe.", "Ceramic tiles, copper cables, gums, gypsum, leather, marble, meat products, medical equipment, mineral water and beverages, petroleum products, and salt are produced nearby.", ", a period of Economic changes commenced as a large pipework complex, a textile factory and a meat packing facility diminished their operations.View of the Gulf of Corinth and modern Corinth from the Castle of Acrocorinth" ], [ "Transport", "The rail road bridge over the Isthmus of Corinth=== Roads ===Corinth is a major road hub.", "The A7 toll motorway for Tripoli and Kalamata, (and Sparta via A71 toll), branches off the A8/European route E94 toll motorway from Athens at Corinth.", "Corinth is the main entry point to the Peloponnesian peninsula, the southernmost area of continental Greece.=== Bus ===KTEL Korinthias provides intercity bus service in the peninsula and to Athens via the Isthmos station southeast of the city center.", "Local bus service is also available.=== Railways ===The metre gauge railway from Athens and Pireaeus reached Corinth in 1884.This station closed to regular public transport in 2007.In 2005, two years prior, the city was connected to the Athens Suburban Railway, following the completion of the new Corinth railway station.", "The journey time from Athens to Corinth is about 55 minutes.", "The train station is 5 minutes by car from the city centre and parking is available for free.=== Port ===The port of Corinth, located north of the city centre and close to the northwest entrance of the Corinth Canal, at 37 56.0’ N / 22 56.0’ E, serves the local needs of industry and agriculture.", "It is mainly a cargo exporting facility.It is an artificial harbour (depth approximately , protected by a concrete mole (length approximately 930 metres, width 100 metres, mole surface 93,000 m2).", "A new pier finished in the late 1980s doubled the capacity of the port.", "The reinforced mole protects anchored vessels from strong northern winds.Within the port operates a customs office facility and a Hellenic Coast Guard post.", "Sea traffic is limited to trade in the export of local produce, mainly citrus fruits, grapes, marble, aggregates and some domestic imports.", "The port operates as a contingency facility for general cargo ships, bulk carriers and ROROs, in case of strikes at Piraeus port.==== Ferries ====There was formerly a ferry link to Catania, Sicily and Genoa in Italy.=== Canal ===View of the Corinth CanalThe Corinth Canal, carrying ship traffic between the western Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea, is about east of the city, cutting through the Isthmus of Corinth that connects the Peloponnesian peninsula to the Greek mainland, thus effectively making the former an island.", "The builders dug the canal through the Isthmus at sea level; no locks are employed.", "It is in length and only wide at its base, making it impassable for most modern ships.", "It now has little economic importance.The canal was mooted in classical times and an abortive effort was made to build it in the 1st century AD.", "Julius Caesar and Caligula both considered digging the canal but died before starting the construction.", "The emperor Nero was the first to attempt to construct the canal.", "The Roman workforce responsible for the initial digging consisted of 6,000 Jewish prisoners of war.", "Modern construction started in 1882, after Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, but was hampered by geological and financial problems that bankrupted the original builders.", "It was completed in 1893, but due to the canal's narrowness, navigational problems and periodic closures to repair landslips from its steep walls, it failed to attract the level of traffic anticipated by its operators.", "It is now used mainly for tourist traffic." ], [ "Sport", "The city's association football team is Korinthos F.C.", "(''Π.Α.E.", "Κόρινθος''), established in 1999 after the merger of Pankorinthian Football Club (''Παγκορινθιακός'') and Corinth Football Club (''Κόρινθος'').", "During the 2006–2007 season, the team played in the Greek Fourth Division's Regional Group 7.The team went undefeated that season and it earned the top spot.", "This granted the team a promotion to the Gamma Ethnikí (Third Division) for the 2007–2008 season.", "For the 2008–2009 season, Korinthos F.C.", "competed in the Gamma Ethniki (Third Division) southern grouping." ], [ "Twin towns/sister cities", "Corinth is twinned with:* Syracuse, Sicily* Jagodina, Serbia== Notable people ==* Anastasios Bakasetas (1993–), Greek footballer* Evangelos Ikonomou (1987–), Greek footballer* George Kollias (1977–), drummer for US technical death metal band Nile.", "* Georgios Leonardopoulos, army officer* Macarius (1731–1805), Metropolitan bishop of Corinth* Ioannis Papadiamantopoulos (1766–1826), revolutionary leader during the Greek War of Independence.", "* Irene Papas (1929–2022), Greek actress* Costas Soukoulis (1951–), Professor of Physics at Iowa State University* Konstantinos Triantafyllopoulos (1993–) Greek footballer* Panagis Tsaldaris (1868–1936), Greek politician and prime minister of Greece* Panagiotis Tzanavaras (1964–), Greek footballer and football manager* Nikolaos Zafeiriou (1871–1947), Greek artillery officer" ], [ "Other locations named after Corinth", "Due to its ancient history and the presence of St. Paul the Apostle in Corinth some locations all over the world have been named Corinth." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Pegasus Square in New Corinth.jpg|Pegasus Square in New CorinthFile:Squarecorinth.jpg|View of the Central Square of the cityFile:Istmo de Corinto ESC large ISS011 ISS011-E-13188.JPG|Aerial photograph of the Isthmus of Corinth" ], [ "See also", "* Corinth Canal* Corinth Excavations* Zante currant* List of traditional Greek place names" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * City of Corinth official website * Kórinthos FC official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Colossae" ], [ "Introduction", "Ruins of ColossaeColossae's acropolis'''Colossae''' (; ) was an ancient city of Phrygia in Asia Minor, and one of the most celebrated cities of southern Anatolia (modern Turkey).", "The Epistle to the Colossians, an early Christian text which identifies its author as Paul the Apostle, is addressed to the church in Colossae.", "A significant city from the 5th century BC onwards, it had dwindled in importance by the time of Paul, but was notable for the existence of its local angel cult.", "It was part of the Roman and Byzantine province of Phrygia Pacatiana, before being destroyed in 1192/3 and its population relocating to nearby '''Chonae''' (Chonai, modern-day Honaz)." ], [ "Location and geography", "Colossae was located in Phrygia, in Asia Minor.", "It was located southeast of Laodicea on the road through the Lycus Valley near the Lycus River at the foot of Mt.", "Cadmus, the highest mountain in Turkey's western Aegean Region, and between the cities Sardeis and Celaenae, and southeast of the ancient city of Hierapolis.", "At Colossae, Herodotus describes how, \"the river Lycos falls into an opening of the earth and disappears from view, and then after an interval of about five furlongs it comes up to view again, and this river also flows into the Maiander.\"", "Despite a treacherously ambiguous cartography and history, Colossae has been clearly distinguished in modern research from nearby ''Chonai'' (), now called Honaz, with what remains of the buried ruins of Colossae (\"the mound\") lying to the north of Honaz." ], [ "Origin and etymology of place name", "The medieval poet Manuel Philes, incorrectly, imagined that the name \"Colossae\" was connected to the Colossus of Rhodes.", "More recently, in an interpretation which ties Colossae to an Indo-European root that happens to be shared with the word ''kolossos'', Jean-Pierre Vernant has connected the name to the idea of setting up a sacred space or shrine.", "Another proposal relates the name to the Greek ''kolazo'', \"to punish\".", "Others believe the name derives from the manufacture of its famous dyed wool, or ''colossinus''." ], [ "History", "===Before the Pauline period===The first mention of the city may be in a 17th-century BC Hittite inscription, which speaks of a city called Huwalušija, which some archeologists believe is a reference to early Colossae.", "The 5th-century geographer Herodotus first mentions Colossae by name and as a \"great city in Phrygia\", which accommodates the Persian king Xerxes I while en route to wage war against the Greeks in the Greco-Persian Wars– showing the city had already reached a certain level of wealth and size by this time.", "Writing in the 5th century BC, Xenophon refers to Colossae as \"a populous city, wealthy and of considerable magnitude\".", "It was famous for its wool trade.", "Strabo notes that the city drew great revenue from the flocks, and that the wool of Colossae gave its name to colour ''colossinus''.In 396 BC, Colossae was the site of the execution of the rebellious Persian satrap Tissaphernes, who was lured there and slain by an agent of the party of Cyrus the Younger.===Pauline period===Although during the Hellenistic period, the town was of some mercantile importance, by the 1st century it had dwindled greatly in size and significance.", "Paul's letter to the Colossians points to the existence of an early Christian community.", "The town was known for its fusion of religious influences (syncretism), which included Jewish, Gnostic, and pagan influences that, in the first century AD, were described as an angel-cult.", "This unorthodox cult venerated the archangel Michael, who is said to have caused a curative spring to gush from a fissure in the earth.The worship of angels showed analogies with the cult of pre-Christian pagan deities like Zeus.", "Saint Theodoret of Cyrrhus told about their surviving in Phrygia during the fourth century.Michael in the Springs of Colossae, depicted in the 11th century Menologion of Basil II.The canonical biblical text Epistle to the Colossians is addressed to the Christian community in Colossae.", "The epistle has traditionally been attributed to Paul the Apostle due to its autobiographical salutation and style, but some modern critical scholars now believe it to be written by another author some time after Paul's death.", "It is believed that one aim of the letter was to address the challenges that the Colossian community faced in its context of the syncretistic Gnostic religions that were developing in Asia Minor.According to the Epistle to the Colossians, Epaphras seems to have been a person of some importance in the Christian community in Colossae, and tradition presents him as its first bishop.", "The epistle also seems to imply that Paul had never visited the city, because it only speaks of him having \"heard\" of the Colossians' faith, and in the Epistle to Philemon Paul tells Philemon of his hope to visit Colossae upon being freed from prison.", "Tradition also gives Philemon as the second bishop of the see.The city was decimated by an earthquake in the 60s AD, and was rebuilt independent of the support of Rome.The Apostolic Constitutions list Philemon as a bishop of Colossae.", "On the other hand, the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' considers Philemon doubtful.The first historically documented bishop is Epiphanius, who was not personally at the Council of Chalcedon, but whose metropolitan bishop Nunechius of Laodicea, the capital of the Roman province of Phrygia Pacatiana, signed the acts on his behalf.===Byzantine period and decline===The city's fame and renowned status continued into the Byzantine period, and in 858, it was distinguished as a Metropolitan See.", "The Byzantines also built the church of St. Michael in the vicinity of Colossae, one of the largest church buildings in the Middle East.", "Nevertheless, sources suggest that the town may have decreased in size or may even been completely abandoned due to Arab invasions in the seventh and eighth centuries, forcing the population to flee to resettle in the nearby city of Chonai (modern day Honaz).Colossae's famous church was destroyed in 1192/3 during the Byzantine civil wars.", "It was a suffragan diocese of Laodicea in Phyrigia Pacatiana but was replaced in the Byzantine period by the Chonae settlement on higher ground===Modern study and archeology===As of 2019, Colossae has never been excavated, as most archeological attention has been focused on nearby Laodicea and Hierapolis, though plans are reported for an Australian-led expedition to the site.", "The present site exhibits a biconical acropolis almost high, and encompasses an area of almost .", "On the eastern slope there sits a theater which probably seated around 5,000 people, suggesting a total population of 25,000–30,000 people.", "The theater was probably built during the Roman period, and may be near an agora that abuts the ''cardo maximus'', or the city's main north-south road.", "Ceramic finds around the theater confirm the city's early occupation in the third and second millennia BC.", "Northeast of the tell, and most likely outside the city walls, a necropolis displays Hellenistic tombs with two main styles of burial: one with an antecedent room connected to an inner chamber, and tumuli, or underground chambers accessed by stairs leading to the entrance.", "Outside the tell, there are also remains of sections of columns that may have marked a processional way, or the ''cardo''.", "Today, the remains of one column marks the location where locals believe a church once stood, possibly that of St. Michael.", "Near the Lycus River, there is evidence that water channels had been cut out of the rock with a complex of pipes and sluice gates to divert water for bathing and for agricultural and industrial purposes.===Modern legacy===The holiness and healing properties associated with the waters of Colossae during the Byzantine era continue to this day, particularly at a pool fed by the Lycus River at the Göz picnic grounds west of Colossae at the foot of Mt.", "Cadmus.", "Locals consider the water to be therapeutic." ], [ "See also", "* List of ancient Greek cities" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Bennett, Andrew Lloyd.", "\"Archaeology From Art: Investigating Colossae and the Miracle of the Archangel Michael at Kona.\"", "''Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin'' 50 (2005):15–26." ], [ "External links", "* Map and pictures of ruins*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Charge of the Goddess" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Charge of the Goddess''' (or '''Charge of the Star Goddess''') is an inspirational text often used in the neopagan religion of Wicca.", "The Charge of the Goddess is recited during most rituals in which the Wiccan priest/priestess is expected to represent, and/or embody, the Goddess within the sacred circle, and is often spoken by the High Priest/Priestess after the ritual of Drawing Down the Moon.The Charge is the promise of the Goddess (who is embodied by the high priestess) to all witches that she will teach and guide them.", "It has been called \"perhaps the most important single theological document in the neo-Pagan movement\".", "It is used not only in Wicca, but as part of the foundational documents of the Reclaiming tradition of witchcraft co-founded by Starhawk.Several versions of the Charge exist, though they all have the same basic premise, that of a set of instructions given by the Great Goddess to her worshippers.", "The earliest version is that compiled by Gerald Gardner.", "This version, titled \"Leviter Veslis\" or \"Lift Up the Veil\", includes material paraphrased from works by Aleister Crowley, primarily from Liber AL (The Book of the Law, particularly from Ch 1, spoken by Nuit, the Star Goddess), and from Liber LXV (The Book of the Heart Girt with a Serpent) and from Crowley's essay \"The Law of Liberty\", thus linking modern Wicca to the cosmology and revelations of Thelema.", "It has been shown that Gerald Gardner's book collection included a copy of Crowley's ''The Blue Equinox'' (1919) which includes all of the Crowley quotations transferred by Gardner to the Charge of the Goddess.There are also two versions written by Doreen Valiente in the mid-1950s, after her 1953 Wiccan initiation.", "The first was a poetic paraphrase which eliminated almost all the material derived from Leland and Crowley.", "The second was a prose version which is contained within the traditional Gardnerian Book of Shadows and more closely resembles Gardner's \"Leviter Veslis\" version of 1949.Several different versions of a Wiccan Charge of the God have since been created to mirror and accompany the Charge of the Goddess." ], [ "Themes", "The goddess Isis, holding a sistrum and oinochoe.The opening paragraph names a collection of goddesses, some derived from Greek or Roman mythology, others from Celtic or Arthurian legends, affirming a belief that these various figures represent a single Great Mother:This theme echoes the ancient Roman belief that the Goddess Isis was known by ten thousand names and also that the Goddess still worshipped today by Wiccans and other neopagans is known under many guises but is in fact one universal divinity.The second paragraph is largely derived and paraphrased from the words that Aradia, the messianic daughter of Diana, speaks to her followers in Charles Godfrey Leland's 1899 book ''Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches'' (London: David Nutt; various reprints).", "The third paragraph is largely written by Doreen Valiente, with a significant content of phrases loosely from ''The Book of the Law'' and ''The Book of the Heart Girt with the Serpent'' by Aleister Crowley.The charge affirms that ''all'' acts of love and pleasure are sacred to the Goddess, e.g.", ":" ], [ "History", "=== Ancient precedents ===In book eleven, chapter 47 of Apuleius's ''The Golden Ass'', Isis delivers what Ceisiwr Serith calls \"essentially a charge of a goddess\".", "This is rather different from the modern version known in Wicca, though they have the same premise, that of the rules given by a great Mother Goddess to her faithful.The Charge of the Goddess is also known under the title ''Leviter Veslis''.", "This has been identified by the historian Ronald Hutton, cited in an article by Roger Dearnsley \"The Influence of Aleister Crowley on ''Ye Bok of Ye Art Magical'', as a piece of medieval ecclesiastical Latin used to mean \"lifting the veil.\"", "However, Hutton's interpretation does not reflect the Latin grammar as it currently stands.", "It may represent Gardner's attempt to write ''Levetur Velis'', which has the literal meaning of \"Let the veil be lifted.\"", "This expression would, by coincidence or design, grammatically echo the famous ''fiat lux'' (''Gen.", "1:3'') of the Latin Vulgate.===Origins===The earliest known Wiccan version is found in a document dating from the late 1940s, Gerald Gardner's ritual notebook titled ''Ye Bok of Ye Art Magical''.", "The oldest identifiable source contained in this version is the final line, which is traceable to the 17th-century ''Centrum Naturae Concentratum'' of Alipili (or Ali Puli).", "This version also draws extensively from Charles Godfrey Leland's ''Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches'' (1899) and other modern sources, particularly from the works of Aleister Crowley.It is believed to have been compiled by Gerald Gardner or possibly another member of the New Forest coven.", "Gardner intended his version to be a theological statement justifying the Gardnerian sequence of initiations.", "Like the Charge found in Freemasonry, where the charge is a set of instructions read to a candidate standing in a temple, the Charge of the Goddess was intended to be read immediately before an initiation.Valiente felt that the influence of Crowley on the Charge was too obvious, and she did not want \"the Craft\" (a common term for Wicca) associated with Crowley.", "Gardner invited her to rewrite the Charge.", "She proceeded to do so, her first version being into verse.The initial verse version by Doreen Valiente consisted of eight verses, the second of which was:Valiente was unhappy with this version, saying that \"people seemed to have some difficulty with this, because of the various goddess-names which they found hard to pronounce\", and so she rewrote it as a prose version, much of which differs from her initial version, and is more akin to Gardner's version.", "This prose version has since been modified and reproduced widely by other authors." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aidan Kelly.", "''Crafting the Art of Magic, Book 1''.", "St Paul, Minnesota: Lllewellyn, 1991.revised edition as ''Inventing Witchcraft''.", "Thoth Publications, Loughborough, 2007.", "* Sorita d’Este and David Rankine.", "''Wicca: Magical Beginnings''.", "Avalonia, London, 2008.." ], [ "External links", "** Charge of the Star Goddess—Starhawk* Frater T.S.", "\"Levity's Vestments: A Study in Creative Plagiarism\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cy Young" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Denton True''' \"'''Cy'''\" '''Young''' (March 29, 1867 – November 4, 1955) was an American Major League Baseball (MLB) pitcher.", "Born in Gilmore, Ohio, he worked on his family's farm as a youth before starting his professional baseball career.", "Young entered the major leagues in 1890 with the National League's Cleveland Spiders and pitched for them until 1898.He was then transferred to the St. Louis Cardinals franchise.", "In 1901, Young jumped to the American League and played for the Boston Red Sox franchise until 1908, helping them win the 1903 World Series.", "He finished his career with the Cleveland Naps and Boston Rustlers, retiring in 1911.Young was one of the hardest-throwing pitchers in the game early in his career.", "After his speed diminished, he relied more on his control and remained effective into his forties.", "By the time Young retired, he had established numerous pitching records, some of which have stood for over a century.", "He holds MLB records for the most career wins, with 511, along with most career losses, innings pitched, games started, and complete games.", "He led his league in wins during five seasons and pitched three no-hitters, including a perfect game in 1904.Young was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937.He is often regarded as one of the greatest pitchers of all time, as well as a pioneer of modern pitching.", "In 1956, one year after his death, the Cy Young Award was created to annually honor the best pitcher in the Major Leagues (later each League) of the previous season, cementing his name as synonymous with excellence in pitching." ], [ "Early life", "Cy Young was the oldest child born to Nancy (Mottmiller) and McKinzie Young, Jr., and was christened Denton True Young.", "He was of part German descent.", "The couple had four more children: Jesse Carlton, Alonzo, Ella, and Anthony.", "When the couple married, McKinzie's father gave him the of farm land he owned.", "Young was born in Gilmore, a tiny farming community located in Washington Township, Tuscarawas County, Ohio.", "He was raised on one of the local farms and went by the name Dent Young in his early years.", "Young was also known as \"Farmer Young\" and \"Farmboy Young\".", "Young stopped his formal education after he completed the sixth grade so he could help out on the family's farm.", "In 1885, Young moved with his father to Nebraska, and in the summer of 1887, they returned to Gilmore.Young played for many amateur baseball leagues during his youth, including a semi-professional Carrollton team in 1888.Young pitched and played second base.", "The first box score known containing the name Young came from that season.", "In that game, Young played first base and had three hits in three at-bats.", "After the season, Young received an offer to play for the minor league Canton team, which started Young's professional career." ], [ "Professional career", "===Minor leagues===Young began his professional career in 1890 with the Canton, Ohio based Canton Nadjys, team of the Tri-State League, a professional minor league.", "During his tryout, Young impressed the scouts, recalling years later, \"I almost tore the boards off the grandstand with my fast ball.\"", "Cy Young's nickname came from the fences that he had destroyed using his fastball.", "The fences looked like a cyclone had hit them.", "Reporters later shortened the name to \"Cy\", which became the nickname Young used for the rest of his life.", "During his one year with Canton, he was 15-15.Franchises in the National League, the major professional baseball league at the time, wanted the best players available to them.", "Therefore, in 1890, Young signed with the Cleveland Spiders, a team that had moved from the American Association to the National League the previous year.===Cleveland Spiders (1890–1898)===On August 6, 1890, Young's major league debut, he pitched a three-hit 8–1 victory over the Chicago Colts.", "While Young was with the Spiders, Chief Zimmer was his catcher more often than any other player.", "Bill James, a baseball statistician, estimated that Zimmer caught Young in more games than any other battery in baseball history.", "Early on, Young established himself as one of the harder-throwing pitchers in the game.", "Bill James wrote that Zimmer often put a piece of beefsteak inside his baseball glove to protect his catching hand from Young's fastball.", "In the absence of radar guns, however, it is impossible to say just how hard Young actually threw.", "Young continued to perform at a high level during the 1890 season.", "On the last day of the season, Young won both games of a doubleheader.", "In the first weeks of Young's career, Cap Anson, the player-manager of the Chicago Colts spotted Young's ability.", "Anson told Spiders manager Gus Schmelz, \"He's too green to do your club much good, but I believe if I taught him what I know, I might make a pitcher out of him in a couple of years.", "He's not worth it now, but I'm willing to give you $1,000 ($ today) for him.\"", "Schmelz replied, \"Cap, you can keep your thousand and we'll keep the rube.", "\"Young in 1891Two years after Young's debut, the National League moved the pitcher's position back by .", "Since 1881, pitchers had pitched within a \"box\" whose front line was from home base, and since 1887 they had been compelled to toe the back line of the box when delivering the ball.", "The back line was away from home.", "In 1893, was added to the back line, yielding the modern pitching distance of .", "In the book ''The Neyer/James Guide to Pitchers'', sports journalist Rob Neyer wrote that the speed with which pitchers like Cy Young, Amos Rusie, and Jouett Meekin threw was the impetus that caused the move.The 1892 regular season was a success for Young, who led the National League in wins (36), ERA (1.93), and shutouts (9).", "Just as many contemporary Minor League Baseball leagues operate today, the National League was using a split season format during the 1892 season.", "The Boston Beaneaters won the first-half and the Spiders won the second-half, with a best-of-nine series determining the league champion.", "Despite the Spiders' second-half run, the Beaneaters swept the series, five games to none.", "Young pitched three complete games: he lost two and one ended in a scoreless tie.The Spiders faced the Baltimore Orioles in the Temple Cup, a precursor to the World Series, in 1895.Young won three games in the series and Cleveland won the Cup, four games to one.", "It was around this time that Young added what he called a \"slow ball\" to his pitching repertoire to reduce stress on his arm.", "The pitch today is called a changeup.", "In 1896, Young lost a no-hitter with two outs in the ninth inning when Ed Delahanty of the Philadelphia Phillies hit a single.", "On September 18, 1897, Young pitched the first no-hitter of his career in a game against the Cincinnati Reds.", "Although Young did not walk a batter, the Spiders committed four errors while on defense.", "One of the errors had originally been ruled a hit, but the Cleveland third baseman sent a note to the press box after the eighth inning, saying he had made an error, and the ruling was changed.", "Young later said that, despite his teammate's gesture, he considered the game to be a one-hitter.===St.", "Louis Perfectos / Cardinals (1899–1900)===Prior to the 1899 season, Frank Robison, the Spiders owner, bought the St. Louis Browns, thus owning two clubs simultaneously.", "The Browns were renamed the \"Perfectos\", and restocked with Cleveland talent.", "Just weeks before the season opener, most of the better Spiders players were transferred to St. Louis, including three future Hall of Famers: Young, Jesse Burkett, and Bobby Wallace.", "The roster maneuvers failed to create a powerhouse Perfectos team, as St. Louis finished fifth in both 1899 and 1900.Meanwhile, the depleted Spiders lost 134 games, the most in MLB history, before folding.", "Young spent two years with St. Louis, which is where he found his favorite catcher, Lou Criger.", "The two men were teammates for a decade.===Boston Americans / Red Sox (1901–1908)===Young in 1902In 1901, the rival American League declared major league status and set about raiding National League rosters.", "Young left St. Louis and joined the American League's Boston Americans for a $3,500 contract ($ today).", "Young would remain with the Boston team until 1909.In his first year in the American League, Young was dominant.", "Pitching to Criger, who had also jumped to Boston, Young led the league in wins, strikeouts, and ERA, thus earning the colloquial AL Triple Crown for pitchers.", "Young won almost 42% of his team's games in 1901, accounting for 33 of his team's 79 wins.", "In February 1902, before the start of the baseball season, Young served as a pitching coach at Harvard University.", "The sixth-grade graduate instructing Harvard students delighted Boston newspapers.", "The following year, Young coached at Mercer University during the spring.", "The team went on to win the Georgia state championship in 1903, 1904, and 1905.The Boston Americans played the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first modern World Series in 1903.Young, who started Game One against the visiting Pirates, thus threw the first pitch in modern World Series history.", "The Pirates scored four runs in that first inning, and Young lost the game.", "Young performed better in subsequent games, winning his next two starts.", "He also drove in three runs in Game Five.", "Young finished the series with a 2–1 record and a 1.85 ERA in four appearances, and Boston defeated Pittsburgh, five games to three.After one-hitting Boston on May 2, 1904, Philadelphia Athletics pitcher Rube Waddell taunted Young to face him so that he could repeat his performance against Boston's ace.", "Three days later, Young pitched a perfect game against Waddell and the Athletics.", "It was the first perfect game in American League history.", "Waddell was the 27th and last batter, and when he flied out, Young shouted, \"How do you like that, you hayseed?", "\"Waddell had picked an inauspicious time to issue his challenge.", "Young's perfect game was the centerpiece of a pitching streak.", "Young set major league records for the most consecutive scoreless innings pitched and the most consecutive innings without allowing a hit; the latter record still stands at innings, or 76 hitless batters.", "Even after he allowed a hit, Young's scoreless streak reached a then-record 45 shutout innings.", "Before Young, only two pitchers had thrown perfect games.", "This occurred in 1880, when Lee Richmond and John Montgomery Ward pitched perfect games within five days of each other, although under somewhat different rules: the front edge of the pitcher's box was only from home base (the modern release point is about farther away); walks required eight balls; and pitchers were obliged to throw side-armed.", "Young's perfect game was the first under the modern rules established in 1893.One year later, on July 4, 1905, Rube Waddell beat Young and the Americans, 4–2, in a 20-inning matchup.", "Young pitched 13 consecutive scoreless innings before he gave up a pair of unearned runs in the final inning.", "Young did not walk a batter and was later quoted: \"For my part, I think it was the greatest game of ball I ever took part in.\"", "In 1907, Young and Waddell faced off in a scoreless 13-inning tie.In 1908, Young pitched the third no-hitter of his career.", "Three months past his 41st birthday, he was the oldest pitcher to record a no-hitter, a record which would stand 82 years until 43-year-old Nolan Ryan broke it.", "Only a walk kept Young from his second perfect game.", "After that runner was caught stealing, no other batter reached base.", "At the time, Young was the second-oldest player in either league.", "In another game one month before his no-hitter, he allowed just one single while facing 28 batters.", "On August 13, 1908, the league celebrated \"Cy Young Day\".", "No American League games were played on that day, and a group of All-Stars from the league's other teams gathered in Boston to play against Young and the Red Sox.", "When the season ended, he posted a 1.26 ERA, which gave him not only the lowest in his career, but also a major league record of being the oldest pitcher with 150+ innings and an ERA under 1.50.===Cleveland Naps (1909–1911)===Young was traded back to Cleveland, the place where he played over half his career, before the 1909 season, to the Cleveland Naps of the American League.", "The following season, 1910, he won his 500th career game on July 19 against Washington.===Boston Rustlers (1911) and retirement===He split 1911, his final year, between the Naps and the Boston Rustlers.", "On September 22, 1911, Young shut out the Pittsburgh Pirates, 1–0, for his last career victory.", "In his final start two weeks later, the last eight batters of Young's career combined to hit a triple, four singles, and three doubles.", "By the time of his retirement, Young's control had faltered.", "He had also gained weight.", "In two of his last three years, he was the oldest player in the league.===Career accomplishments===Young established numerous pitching records, some of which have stood for over a century.", "Young compiled 511 wins, which is the most in major league history and 94 ahead of Walter Johnson, second on the list.", "At the time of Young's retirement, Pud Galvin had the second most career wins with 364.In addition to wins, Young still holds the major league records for most career innings pitched (7,356), most career games started (815), and most complete games (749).", "He also retired with 316 losses, the most in MLB history.", "Young's career record for strikeouts was broken by Johnson in 1921.Young's 76 career shutouts are fourth all-time.Young led his league in wins five times (1892, 1895, and 1901–1903), finishing second twice.", "His career high was 36 in 1892.He won at least 30 games in a season five times.", "He had 15 seasons with 20 or more wins, two more than Christy Mathewson and Warren Spahn.", "Young won two ERA titles during his career, in 1892 (1.93) and in 1901 (1.62), and was three times the runner-up.", "Young's earned run average was below 2.00 six times, but it was not uncommon during the dead-ball era.", "Although Young threw over 400 innings in each of his first four full seasons, he did not lead his league until 1902.He had 40 or more complete games nine times.", "Young also led his league in strikeouts twice (140 in 1896 and 158 in 1901), and in shutouts seven times.", "Young led his league in fewest walks per nine innings fourteen times and finished second once.", "Only twice in his 22-year career did he finish lower than 5th in the category.", "Although the WHIP ratio was not calculated until well after Young's death, he was retroactively league leader seven times and was second or third another seven times.Young is tied with Roger Clemens for the most career wins by a Boston Red Sox pitcher: they each won 192 games while with the franchise.", "In addition, Young pitched three no-hitters, including the third perfect game in baseball history, first in baseball's \"modern era\".", "Young also was an above average hitting pitcher.", "He posted a .210 batting average (623-for-2960) with 325 runs, 290 RBIs, 18 home runs, and 81 walks.", "From 1891 through 1905, he drove in 10 or more runs for 15 straight seasons, with a high of 28 in 1896." ], [ "Pitching style", "Particularly after his fastball slowed, Young relied upon his control.", "He was once quoted as saying, \"Some may have thought it was essential to know how to curve a ball before anything else.", "Experience, to my mind, teaches to the contrary.", "Any young player who has good control will become a successful curve pitcher long before the pitcher who is endeavoring to master both curves and control at the same time.", "The curve is merely an accessory to control.\"", "In addition to his exceptional control, Young was also a workhorse who avoided injury, owing partly to his ability to pitch in different arm positions (overhand, three-quarters, sidearm and even submarine).", "For 19 consecutive years, from 1891 through 1909, Young was in his league's top 10 for innings pitched; in 14 of the seasons, he was in the top five.", "Not until 1900, a decade into his career, did Young pitch two consecutive incomplete games.", "By habit, Young restricted his practice throws in spring training.", "\"I figured the old arm had just so many throws in it,\" said Young, \"and there wasn't any use wasting them.\"", "He once described his approach before a game:I never warmed up ten, fifteen minutes before a game like most pitchers do.", "I'd loosen up, three, four minutes.", "Five at the outside.", "And I never went to the bullpen.", "Oh, I'd relieve all right, plenty of times, but I went right from the bench to the box, and I'd take a few warm-up pitches and be ready.", "Then I had good control.", "I aimed to make the batter hit the ball, and I threw as few pitches as possible.", "That's why I was able to work every other day." ], [ "Managerial record", "Team Year Regular season PostseasonGamesWonLostWin %Finish Won Lost Win % ResultBOA 63 resigned* – – – –Total 6 3 3 0 0 – Stepped down to a player only role." ], [ "Later life", "In 1910, it was reported that Young became a vegetarian, after baseball and working on his farm.", "In 1913, he served as manager of the Cleveland Green Sox of the Federal League, which was at the time an outlaw league.", "However, he never worked in baseball after that.Young was a Freemason.In 1916, he ran for county treasurer in Tuscarawas County, Ohio.Young's wife, Roba, whom he had known since childhood, died in 1933.After she died, Young tried several jobs, and eventually moved in with friends John and Ruth Benedum and did odd jobs for them.", "Young took part in many baseball events after his retirement.", "In 1937, 26 years after he retired from baseball, Young was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame.", "He was among the first to donate mementos to the Hall.By 1940, Young's only source of income was stock dividends of $300 per year ($ today).", "On November 4, 1955, Young died on the Benedums' farm at the age of 88.He was buried in Peoli, Ohio." ], [ "Legacy", "Young's plaque at the National Baseball Hall of Fame and MuseumYoung's career is seen as a bridge from baseball's earliest days to its modern era; he pitched against stars such as Cap Anson, already an established player when the National League was first formed in 1876, as well as against Eddie Collins, who played until 1930.When Young's career began, pitchers delivered the baseball underhand and fouls were not counted as strikes.", "The pitcher's mound was not moved back to its present position of until Young's fourth season; he did not wear a glove until his sixth season.Young was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937.In 1956, about one year after Young's death, the Cy Young Award was created to honor the best pitcher in Major League Baseball for each season.", "The first award was given to Brooklyn's Don Newcombe.", "Originally, it was a single award covering all of baseball.", "The honor was divided into two Cy Young Awards in 1967, one for each league.On September 23, 1993, a statue dedicated to him was unveiled by Northeastern University on the site of the Red Sox's original stadium, the Huntington Avenue Grounds.", "It was there that Young had pitched the first game of the 1903 World Series, as well as the first perfect game in the modern era of baseball.", "A home plate-shaped plaque next to the statue reads:On October 1, 1903 the first modern World Series between the American League champion Boston Pilgrims (later known as the Red Sox) and the National League champion Pittsburgh Pirates was played on this site.", "General admission tickets were fifty cents.", "The Pilgrims, led by twenty-eight game winner Cy Young, trailed the series three games to one but then swept four consecutive victories to win the championship five games to three.In 1999, 88 years after his final major league appearance and 44 years after his death, editors at ''The Sporting News'' ranked Young 14th on their list of \"Baseball's 100 Greatest Players\".", "That same year, baseball fans named him to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team." ], [ "See also", "* 300-win club* List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders* List of Major League Baseball career ERA leaders* List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders* List of Major League Baseball career shutout leaders* List of Major League Baseball career hit batsmen leaders* Triple Crown (baseball)* List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders* List of Major League Baseball annual ERA leaders* List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders* List of Major League Baseball annual shutout leaders* List of Major League Baseball annual saves leaders* Major League Baseball titles leaders* List of Major League Baseball no-hitters* List of Major League Baseball individual streaks* List of Major League Baseball player-managers* List of Major League Baseball all-time leaders in home runs by pitchers* Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame" ], [ "Notes", "* '''a.'''", "Although the phrase \"perfect game\" appeared in record books as early as 1922, and was a common expression years before that, Major League Baseball did not formalize the definition of a \"perfect game\" until 1991, long after Young's death.", "Nonetheless, Young's 1955 obituary also used the phrase.", "::''\"An official perfect game occurs when a pitcher (or pitchers) retires each batter on the opposing team during the entire course of a game, which consists of at least nine innings.", "In a perfect game, no batter reaches any base during the course of the game.", "\"''* '''b.", "'''Although it is not an actual award, many baseball fans and experts call a pitcher who leads his league in wins, strikeouts, and ERA the Triple Crown winner in pitching." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Jane Benedum Oral History Interview on Cy Young (1 of 2) - National Baseball Hall of Fame Digital Collection * Jane Benedum Oral History Interview on Cy Young (2 of 2) - National Baseball Hall of Fame Digital Collection" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Coronation Street" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Coronation Street''''' (colloquially referred to as '''''Corrie''''') is a British television soap opera created by Granada Television and shown on ITV since 9 December 1960.The programme centres on a cobbled, terraced street in the fictional Weatherfield, a town based on inner-city Salford, England.Originally broadcast twice weekly, the series began airing six times a week in 2017.The programme was conceived by scriptwriter Tony Warren.", "Warren's initial proposal was rejected by the station's founder Sidney Bernstein, but he was persuaded by producer Harry Elton to produce the programme for 13 pilot episodes.", "The show has since become a significant part of British culture.", "''Coronation Street'' is currently produced by Granada's successor, ITV Studios, at MediaCityUK and shown in all ITV regions, as well as internationally.", "In 2010, upon its 50th anniversary, the series was recognised by ''Guinness World Records'' as the world's longest-running television soap opera.", "Initially influenced by the conventions of kitchen-sink realism, ''Coronation Street'' is noted for its depiction of a down-to-earth, working-class community, combined with light-hearted humour and strong characters.", "The show currently averages around five million viewers per episode.", "The show premiered its 10,000th episode on 7 February 2020, and celebrated its 60th anniversary later that year." ], [ "History", "===1960s===The first episode was aired on 9 December 1960 at 7 pm, and was not initially a critical success; ''Daily Mirror'' columnist Ken Irwin predicted the series would only last three weeks.", "Granada Television had commissioned only 13 episodes, and some inside the company doubted the show would last beyond its planned production run.", "Despite the criticism, viewers were immediately drawn into the serial, won over by ''Coronation Street''s ordinary characters.", "The programme also made use of Northern English language and dialect; affectionate local terms like \"eh, chuck?", "\", \"nowt\" (, from ''nought'', meaning ''nothing''), and \"by 'eck!\"", "became widely heard on British television for the first time.Early episodes told the story of student Ken Barlow (William Roache), who had won a place at university, so found his working-class background — as well as his younger brother David (Alan Rothwell) and his parents, Frank (Frank Pemberton) and Ida (Noel Dyson) — something of an embarrassment.", "The character was one of the few to have experienced much of life outside of Coronation Street.", "In some ways, this predicts the growth of globalisation.", "In an episode from 1961, Barlow declares: \"You can't go on just thinking about your own street these days.", "We're living with people on the other side of the world.", "There's more to worry about than Elsie Tanner (Pat Phoenix) and her boyfriends.\"", "Roache is the only remaining member of the original cast, which makes him the longest-serving actor in ''Coronation Street'', and in British and global soap history.In March 1961, ''Coronation Street'' reached number one in the television ratings and remained there for the rest of the year.", "Earlier in 1961, a television audience measurement (TAM) showed that 75% of available viewers (15 million) tuned into ''Corrie'', and by 1964, the programme had over 20 million regular viewers, with ratings peaking on 2 December 1964, at 21.36 million viewers.", "In spite of rising popularity with viewers, ''Coronation Street'' was criticised by some for its outdated portrayal of the urban working class, and its representation of a community that was a nostalgic fantasy.", "After the first episode in 1960, the ''Daily Mirror'' printed: \"The programme is doomed from the outset ... For there is little reality in this new serial, which apparently, we have to suffer twice a week.", "\"In 1964, ''Coronation Street'' appointed a new producer, Tim Aspinall.", "Aspinall decided on a new broom policy and the \"Bloody Purge\" of 1964 began, with nine actors being sacked in total.", "The first cast member to be written out was Lynne Carol, who had played Martha Longhurst since episode two and the preview of the programme.", "Her sacking was so controversial that fellow actress Violet Carson (Ena Sharples) threatened to quit, but she was eventually persuaded not to.", "The media reported extensively on the storyline, and when Lynne Carol took a private trip to the ''Daily Mail'' Ideal Home Exhibition in London, she was mobbed by fans and asked to leave on the grounds of public safety.", "Many, including ''Coronation Street'' writer H.V.", "Kershaw, saw the killing of Martha as a desperate move to boost viewer ratings.By 1968, critics were suggesting that the programme no longer reflected life in 1960s Britain, a decade that had seen significant economic and social change in the nation.", "Granada hurried to update the programme, with the hope of introducing more issue-driven stories, including Lucille Hewitt (Jennifer Moss) becoming addicted to drugs, Jerry Booth (Graham Haberfield) being in a storyline about homosexuality, Emily Nugent (Eileen Derbyshire) having an out-of-wedlock child, and introducing a black family, but all of these ideas were dropped for fear of upsetting viewers.===1970s===The show's production team was tested when many core cast members left the programme in the early 1970s.", "When Arthur Leslie died suddenly in 1970, his character, Rovers landlord Jack Walker, died off screen shortly afterwards.", "Anne Reid quit as Valerie Barlow; her character was killed off in 1971, electrocuting herself with a faulty hairdryer.", "Ratings reached a low of eight million in February 1973, when Pat Phoenix quit as Elsie Tanner and Doris Speed (Annie Walker) took two months' leave due to bereavement.", "The audience of ITV's other flagship soap opera ''Crossroads'' increased markedly at this time, as its established cast, such as Meg Richardson (Noele Gordon), grew in popularity.", "These sudden departures forced the writing team to quickly develop characters who had previously stood in the background.", "The roles of mostly younger characters including Bet Lynch (Julie Goodyear), Deirdre Hunt (Anne Kirkbride), Rita Littlewood (Barbara Knox), Mavis Riley (Thelma Barlow) and Ivy Tyldesley (Lynne Perrie) were built up between 1972 and 1973 (with Perrie's character being renamed to the better-known \"Tilsley\"), and characters such as Gail Potter (Helen Worth), Blanche Hunt (Patricia Cutts/Maggie Jones), and Vera Duckworth (Liz Dawn) first appearing in 1974.These characters would remain at the centre of the programme for many years, with Gail still being in the show nearly half a century after her first appearance.", "Comic storylines had been popular in the series in the 1960s but had become sparse during the early 1970s.", "These were re-introduced by new producer Bill Podmore who joined the series in 1976.He had worked on Granada comedy productions prior to his appointment.In September 1977, the ''News of the World'' quoted actor Stephen Hancock (Ernest Bishop) as saying \"The Street kills an actor.", "I'm just doing a job, not acting.", "The scriptwriters have turned me into Ernie Bishop.", "I've tried to resist it but it is very hard not to play the part all the time, even at home.\"", "This was the first sight the public had of a bitter argument between Hancock and Granada Television.", "Hancock objected to the cast payment system and threatened to quit the show to safeguard his principles.", "The main dispute was between Hancock and Podmore, with Podmore being nicknamed 'The Godfather' by the British media.", "The basis of Hancock's argument was that different actors were guaranteed different numbers of episode appearances per year, thus some were paid more than others.", "Actors from the earliest days of the programme, including Pat Phoenix, Doris Speed and Peter Adamson, were guaranteed payment for every one of the year's episodes, regardless of whether or not they actually appeared.Podmore was not willing to change what he called a 'complex and well-established system', leading Hancock to stand by his principles and resign.", "The problem now shifted, and writers had to write Ernie out but save his wife Emily (Eileen Derbyshire).", "The decision was made for Ernest to be killed off in a bungled robbery at Mike Baldwin's (Johnny Briggs) factory, where he worked in payroll.", "Ernest was killed by a single gunshot to the stomach on 11 January 1978.It was the first time that violence on such a scale had been shown on ''Coronation Street'' and after the episode was aired, Granada's switchboard was jammed by angry viewers.", "Letters of complaint arrived in their hundreds, and the Lobby Against TV Violence fiercely objected Granada's decision to broadcast the episode.", "Granada stated that the storyline was not about violence, but that it aimed to show the desolation and loss felt by Ernest's widow, Emily.", "''Coronation Street'' had little competition within its prime-time slot, and some critics suggested that the programme had grown complacent, moving away from socially viable storylines, and again presenting a dated view of working-class life.===1980s===Peter Adamson, who had played Len Fairclough since 1961, was sacked in 1983 for breach of contract.", "He had been warned by Granada Television for writing unauthorised newspaper articles criticising the show and cast.", "''Coronation Street'' producer Podmore sacked Adamson when it was revealed he had sold his memoirs after the previous warning.", "The sacking coincided with allegations of Adamson having indecently assaulted two young girls.", "In April 1983, a newspaper reported that Adamson had been arrested for indecently assaulting two eight-year-old girls at a swimming pool.", "The police complaint was that Adamson's hands had strayed while giving the girls swimming lessons.", "Granada Television gave Adamson financial support through his legal problems, with a Crown Court jury finding him not guilty in July 1983.Adamson's dispute over his memoirs and newspaper articles was not known to the public and the media reported that Adamson had been dismissed because of the shame indecent assault allegations had brought onto Granada and the ''Coronation Street'' brand.", "Len Fairclough was killed off-screen in a motorway crash on 7 December 1983.To demonise the character, it was revealed that he had been returning home from an affair, cheating on his wife Rita (Barbara Knox).", "Adamson celebrated the character's death by delivering an obituary on TV-am dressed as an undertaker.During 1988, actor Christopher Quinten, who had played Brian Tilsley since 27 December 1978, told bosses at Granada that he was going to move to the United States to marry his then-fiancée, American talk show host Leeza Gibbons and to build an acting career in Los Angeles.", "In announcing his resignation, Quinten tried to ensure that his role would be left open for him to return in the event that his stint in America failed.", "At the time, his character was married to Gail and the story conference called to write Brian out struggled to find a justifiable way to write him out while still leaving enough scope for a possible return.", "The decision was made that Brian should die.", "Quinten was in Los Angeles when the storyline was decided, and upon his return to the United Kingdom, he was shocked at Brian's fate and threatened to fly back to America so that scenes could not be filmed.", "He was talked round by co-star Helen Worth, who pointed out that he might be blacklisted by Equity if he quit the programme abruptly.", "Brian Tilsley's death was broadcast on 15 February 1989.After the breakdown of his marriage to Gail, Brian started spending his evenings going to discos and meeting up with various women.", "He tried to protect a young lady from a group of thugs outside a nightclub, but was stabbed in the stomach.", "He died as a result of his injuries.", "The stabbing brought massive complaints from viewers and Mary Whitehouse delivered an angry sermon about television violence.Between 1980 and 1989, ''Coronation Street'' underwent some of the most radical changes since its launch.", "By May 1984, William Roache stood as the only original cast member, after the departures of Violet Carson (Ena Sharples) in 1980, Doris Speed (Annie Walker) in 1983, and both Pat Phoenix (Elsie Tanner) and Jack Howarth (Albert Tatlock) in 1984.Albert Tatlock's departure came when his character's off screen death was announced several months after the death of actor Jack Howarth at the age of 88.While the press predicted the end of ''Corrie'', H. V. Kershaw declared that \"There are no stars in ''Coronation Street''.", "The show had also gained a new rival on Channel 4 with the launch of ''Brookside'', and BBC was preparing to launch ''EastEnders'', which would first air in February 1985.Writers drew on the show's many archetypes, with established characters stepping into the roles left by the original cast.", "Phyllis Pearce (Jill Summers) was hailed as the new Ena Sharples in 1982, the Duckworths moved into No.9 in 1983 and slipped into the role once held by the Ogdens, while Percy Sugden (Bill Waddington) appeared in 1983 and took over the grumpy war veteran role from Albert Tatlock.", "The question of who would take over the Rovers Return after Annie Walker's 1983 exit was answered in 1985 when Bet Lynch (who also mirrored the vulnerability and strength of Elsie Tanner) was installed as landlady.", "In 1983, Shirley Armitage (Lisa Lewis) became the first major black character in her role as machinist at Baldwin's Casuals.Ken Barlow married Deirdre Langton (Anne Kirkbride) on 27 July 1981.The episode was watched by over 15 million viewers – more ITV viewers than the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana two days later.", "In the 1980s relationships were cemented between established characters: Alf Roberts (Bryan Mosley) married Audrey Potter (Sue Nicholls) in 1985; Kevin Webster (Michael Le Vell) married Sally Seddon (Sally Whittaker) in 1986; Bet Lynch married Alec Gilroy (Roy Barraclough) in 1987; and 1988 saw the marriages of widowed Ivy Tilsley to Don Brennan (Geoffrey Hinsliff), and the long-awaited union of Mavis Riley and Derek Wilton (Peter Baldwin), after over a decade of on-off romances and a failed marriage attempt in 1984.In 1982, the arrival of Channel 4, and its edgy new soap opera ''Brookside'', sparked one of the biggest changes for ''Coronation Street''.", "Unlike ''Coronation Street'', which had a very nostalgic view of working-class life, ''Brookside'' brought together working and middle-class families in a more contemporary environment.", "The dialogue often included expletives and the stories were more hard-hitting, and of the current Zeitgeist.", "Whereas stories at this time in ''Coronation Street'' were largely about family affairs, ''Brookside'' concentrated on social affairs such as industrial action, unemployment, drugs, rape, and the black market.", "The BBC also introduced a new prime time soap opera, ''EastEnders'' in 1985.While ratings for ''Coronation Street'' remained consistent throughout the decade, ''EastEnders'' regularly obtained higher viewing figures due to its omnibus episodes shown at weekends.The ''Coronation Street'' episode broadcast on 2 January 1985 attracted 21.40 million viewers, making it the most-watched episode in the show's history based on a single showing.", "Subsequent episodes would achieve higher figures when the original broadcast and omnibus edition figures were combined.", "With prime time competition, ''Corrie'' was again seen as being old fashioned, with the introduction of the 'normal' Clayton family in 1985 being a failure with viewers, being written out the following year.", "Between 1988 and 1989, many aspects of the show were modernised by new producer David Liddiment.", "A new exterior set had been built in 1982, and in 1989 it was redeveloped to include new houses and shops.", "Production techniques were also changed with a new studio being built, and the inclusion of more location filming, which had moved exterior scenes from being shot on film to videotape in 1988.Due to new pressures, an introduction of the third weekly episode aired on 20 October 1989, to broadcast each Friday at 7:30 pm.The 1980s featured some of the most prominent storylines in the programme's history, such as Deirdre Barlow's affair with Mike Baldwin (Johnny Briggs) in 1983, the first soap storyline to receive widespread media attention.", "The feud between Ken Barlow and Mike Baldwin would continue for many years, with Mike even marrying Ken's daughter, Susan (Wendy Jane Walker).", "In 1986, there was a fire at the Rovers Return.", "The episode that aired on Christmas Day 1987, attracted a combined audience (original and omnibus) of 26.65 million – a figure helped by the fact that this episode heralded the departure of immensely-popular character Hilda Ogden (Jean Alexander).", "Between 1986 and 1989, the story of Rita Fairclough's (Barbara Knox) psychological abuse at the hands of Alan Bradley (Mark Eden), and then his subsequent death under the wheels of a Blackpool tram in December 1989, was played out.", "This storyline gave the show its highest combined viewing figure in its history with 26.93 million for the episode that aired on 15 (and 19) March 1989, where Alan is hiding from the police after trying to kill Rita in the previous episode.", "This rating is sometimes incorrectly credited to the 8 December 1989 tram death episode.===1990s===In spite of updated sets and production changes, ''Coronation Street'' still received criticism.", "In 1992, chairman of the Broadcasting Standards Council, Lord Rees-Mogg, criticised the low representation of ethnic minorities, and the programme's portrayal of the cosy familiarity of a bygone era, particularly as many comparable neighbours in the real life Greater Manchester area had a significant percentage of black and Asian residents.", "Some newspapers ran headlines such as \"''Coronation Street'' shuts out blacks\" (''The Times''), and \"'Put colour in t'Street\" (''Daily Mirror'').", "Patrick Stoddart of ''The Times'' wrote: \"The millions who watch ''Coronation Street'' – and who will continue to do so despite Lord Rees-Mogg – know real life when they see it ... in the most confident and accomplished soap opera television has ever seen\".", "Black and Asian characters had appeared from time to time over the years, but it was not until 1999 that the show featured its first regular non-white family, the Desai family.New characters Des (Philip Middlemiss) and Steph Barnes (Amelia Bullmore) moved into one of the new houses in 1990, being dubbed by the media as Yuppies.", "Raquel Wolstenhulme (Sarah Lancashire) first appeared at the beginning of 1991 and went on to become one of the most popular characters of the era until her departure in 1996, followed by a brief comeback four years later.", "The McDonald family were developed and the fiery relationships between Liz (Beverly Callard), Jim (Charles Lawson), Steve (Simon Gregson) and Andy (Nicholas Cochrane) interested viewers.", "Other newcomers were wheelchair user and pensioner Maud Grimes (Elizabeth Bradley), middle-aged cafe owner Roy Cropper (David Neilson), young married couple Gary and Judy Mallett (Ian Mercer and Gaynor Faye), as well as middle-aged butcher Fred Elliott (John Savident) and his son Ashley Peacock (Steven Arnold).", "The amount of slapstick and physical humour in storylines increased during the 1990s, with comical characters such as supermarket manager Reg Holdsworth (Ken Morley) and his water bed.In 1997, Brian Park took over as producer, with the idea of promoting young characters as opposed to the older cast.", "On his first day, he cut the characters of Derek Wilton (Peter Baldwin), Don Brennan (Geoffrey Hinsliff), Percy Sugden (Bill Waddington), Bill Webster (Peter Armitage), Billy Williams (Frank Mills) and Maureen Holdsworth (Sherrie Hewson).", "Thelma Barlow, who played Derek's wife Mavis, was angered by the firing of her co-star and resigned.", "The production team lost some of its key writers when Barry Hill, Adele Rose and Julian Roach all resigned as well.In line with Park's suggestion, younger characters were introduced during 1997 and 1998.A teenage Nick Tilsley was recast, played by Adam Rickitt following the departure of original actor Warren Jackson, single mother Zoe Tattersall (Joanne Froggatt) first appeared, and the problem Battersby family moved into No.5.Storylines focussed on tackling 'issues', such as drug dealers, eco-warriors, religious cults, and a transsexual woman.", "Park quit in 1998, after deciding that he had done what he intended to do; he maintained that his biggest achievement was the introduction of Hayley Patterson (Julie Hesmondhalgh), the first transgender character in a British soap.", "The character married Roy Cropper soon after her arrival.Some viewers were alienated by the new ''Coronation Street'', and sections of the media voiced their disapproval.", "Having received criticism of being too out of touch, ''Corrie'' now struggled to emulate the more modern ''Brookside'' and ''EastEnders''.", "In the ''Daily Mirror'', Victor Lewis-Smith wrote: \"Apparently it doesn't matter that this is a first-class soap opera, superbly scripted and flawlessly performed by a seasoned repertory company.\"", "One of ''Coronation Street''s best known storylines took place in March/April 1998, with Deirdre Rachid (Anne Kirkbride) being wrongfully imprisoned after a relationship with con-man Jon Lindsay (Owen Aaronovitch).", "The episode in which Deirdre was sent to prison had an audience of 19 million viewers, and 'Free the Weatherfield One' campaigns sprung up in a media frenzy.", "Then Prime Minister Tony Blair even passed comment on Deirdre's sentencing in Parliament.", "Deirdre was freed after three weeks, with Granada stating that they had always intended for her to be released, in spite of the media interest.===2000s===On 8 December 2000, the show celebrated its 40th anniversary by broadcasting a live, hour-long episode.", "King Charles III (then Prince of Wales) appeared as himself in an ITV News bulletin report.", "Earlier in the year, 13-year-old Sarah-Louise Platt (Tina O'Brien) had become pregnant and given birth to a baby girl, Bethany, on 4 June.", "The February episode where Gail was told of her daughter's pregnancy was watched by 15 million viewers.", "From 1999 to 2001, issue-led storylines were introduced such as Toyah Battersby's (Georgia Taylor) rape, Roy and Hayley Cropper (David Neilson and Julie Hesmondhalgh) abducting their foster child, Sarah Platt's Internet chat room abduction and Alma Halliwell's (Amanda Barrie) death from cervical cancer.", "Such storylines were unpopular with viewers and ratings dropped and in October 2001, Macnaught was abruptly moved to another Granada department and Carolyn Reynolds took over.", "In 2002, Kieran Roberts was appointed as producer and aimed to re-introduce \"gentle storylines and humour\", after deciding that ''the Street'' should not try to compete with other soaps.In July 2002, Gail married Richard Hillman (Brian Capron), a recently introduced financial advisor who had already left Duggie Ferguson (John Bowe) to die after he fell down a set of ladders during an argument, and murdered his ex-wife Patricia (Annabelle Apsion), before going on to kill neighbour Maxine Peacock (Tracy Shaw); and attempt to kill both his mother-in-law Audrey Roberts (Sue Nicholls) and her longtime friend, Emily Bishop (Eileen Derbyshire), for financial gain due to his mounting debts.", "After confessing his crimes to Gail in a double episode two-hander in February 2003, Hillman left the street for two weeks before returning with the intent of killing himself as well as Gail, her children Sarah and David (Jack P. Shepherd), and granddaughter Bethany, before driving them into a canal – though the Platt family survived whilst Richard drowned.", "This came just months after Sarah had survived serious injuries after being passenger in a stolen car which crashed.", "The storyline received wide press attention, and viewing figures peaked at 19.4 million, with Hillman dubbed a \"serial killer\" by the media.Todd Grimshaw (Bruno Langley) became ''Corrie's'' first regular homosexual character.", "In 2003, another gay male character was introduced, Sean Tully (Antony Cotton).", "The bigamy of Peter Barlow (Chris Gascoyne) and his addiction to alcohol, later in the decade, Maya Sharma's (Sasha Behar) revenge on former lover Dev Alahan (Jimmi Harkishin), Charlie Stubbs's (Bill Ward) psychological abuse of Shelley Unwin (Sally Lindsay), and the deaths of Mike Baldwin (Johnny Briggs), Vera Duckworth (Liz Dawn) and Fred Elliott (John Savident).", "In 2007, Tracy Barlow (Kate Ford) murdered Charlie Stubbs and claiming it was self-defence; the audience during this storyline peaked at 13.3 million.", "At the 2007 British Soap Awards, it won Best Storyline, and Ford was voted Best Actress for her portrayal.In July 2007, after 34 years in the role of Vera Duckworth, Liz Dawn left the show due to ill health.", "After conversation between Dawn and producers Kieran Roberts and Steve Frost, the decision was made to kill Vera off.Tina O'Brien revealed in the British press on 4 April 2007 that she would be leaving ''Coronation Street'' later in the year.", "Sarah-Louise, who was involved in some of the decade's most controversial stories, left in December 2007 with her daughter, Bethany.", "In 2008, Michelle learning that Ryan (Ben Thompson) was not her biological son, having been accidentally swapped at birth with Alex Neeson (Dario Coates).", "Carla Connor (Alison King) turned to Liam for comfort and developed feelings for him.", "In spite of knowing about her feelings, Liam married Maria Sutherland (Samia Longchambon).", "Maria and Liam's baby son was stillborn in April, and during an estrangement from Maria upon the death of their baby, Liam had a one-night stand with Carla, a story which helped pave the way for his departure.In August 2008, Jed Stone (Kenneth Cope) returned after 42 years.", "Liam Connor and his ex-sister-in-law Carla gave into their feelings for each other and began an affair.", "Carla's fiancée Tony Gordon (Gray O'Brien) discovered the affair and had Liam killed in a hit-and-run in October.", "Carla struggled to come to terms with Liam's death, but decided she still loved Tony and married him on 3 December, in an episode attracting 10.3 million viewers.", "In April 2009 it was revealed that Eileen Grimshaw's (Sue Cleaver) father, Colin (Edward de Souza) – the son of Elsie Tanner's (Pat Phoenix) cousin Arnley – had slept with Eileen's old classmate, Paula Carp (Sharon Duce) while she was still at school, and that Paula's daughter Julie (Katy Cavanagh) was in fact also Colin's daughter.", "Other stories in 2009 included Maria giving birth to Liam's son and her subsequent relationship with Liam's killer Tony, Steve McDonald's (Simon Gregson) marriage to Becky Granger (Katherine Kelly) and Kevin Webster's (Michael Le Vell) affair with Molly Dobbs (Vicky Binns).", "On Christmas Day 2009, Sally Webster (Sally Dynevor) told husband Kevin that she had breast cancer, just as he was about to leave her for lover Molly.===2010s===The show began broadcasting in high-definition in May 2010, and on 17 September that year, ''Coronation Street'' entered ''Guinness World Records'' as the world's longest-running television soap opera after the American soap opera ''As the World Turns'' concluded.", "William Roache was listed as the world's longest-running soap actor.", "''Coronation Street'' 50th anniversary week was celebrated with seven episodes, plus a special one-hour live episode, broadcast from 6–10 December.", "The episodes averaged 14 million viewers, a 52.1% share of the audience.", "The anniversary was also publicised with ITV specials and news broadcasts.", "In the storyline, Nick Tilsley and Leanne Battersby's bar — The Joinery — exploded during Peter Barlow's stag party.", "As a result, the viaduct was destroyed, sending a Metrolink tram careering onto the street, destroying D&S Alahan's Corner Shop and The Kabin.", "Two characters, Ashley Peacock (Steven Arnold) and Molly Dobbs (Vicky Binns), along with an unknown taxi driver, were killed as a result of the disaster.", "Rita Sullivan (Barbara Knox) survived, despite being trapped under the rubble of her destroyed shop.", "Fiz Stape (Jennie McAlpine) prematurely gave birth to a baby girl, Hope.", "The episode of ''EastEnders'' broadcast on the same day as ''Coronation Street'' 50th anniversary episode included a tribute, with the character Dot Branning (June Brown, who briefly appeared in the show during the 1970s) saying that she never misses an episode of ''Coronation Street''.===2020s===On 7 February 2020, with its 60th anniversary ten months away, ''Coronation Street'' aired its landmark 10,000th episode, the runtime of which was extended to 60 minutes.", "Producers stated that the episode would contain \"a nostalgic trip down memory lane\" and \"a nod to its own past\".", "A month later, ITV announced that production on the soap would have to be suspended, as the United Kingdom was put into a national lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic (see impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television).After an 11-week intermission for all cast and crew members, filming resumed in June 2020.The episodes would feature social distancing to adhere to the guidelines set by the British government, and it was confirmed that all actors over 70, as well as those with underlying health conditions, would not be allowed to be on set until it was safe to do so.", "This included ''Coronation Street'' veterans William Roache (Ken Barlow) at 88, Barbara Knox (Rita Tanner) at 87, Malcolm Hebden (Norris Cole) at 80 and Sue Nicholls (Audrey Roberts) at 76.It was deemed safe for Maureen Lipman (Evelyn Plummer) and David Neilson (Roy Cropper) to continue.", "By December all cast members had returned to set and on Wednesday 9 December 2020, the soap celebrated its 60th anniversary, with original plans for the episode forced to change due to COVID-19 guidelines.", "The anniversary week saw the conclusion of a long-running coercive control storyline that began in May 2019, with Geoff Metcalfe (Ian Bartholomew) abusing Yasmeen Nazir (Shelley King).", "The showdown, which resulted in the death of Geoff allowed social distancing rules to be relaxed on the condition that the crew members involved formed a social bubble prior to the filming.", "In late 2021 series producer Iain MacLeod announced that the original plans for the 60th Anniversary would now take place in a special week of episodes in October 2021.On 12 October 2021, it was announced that ''Coronation Street'' would partake in a special crossover event involving 7 British soaps to promote the topic of climate change ahead of the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference.", "During the week, beginning from 1 November, social media clips featuring Liam Cavanagh (Jonny McPherson) and Amelia Spencer (Daisy Campbell) from ''Emmerdale'', as well as Daniel Granger (Matthew Chambers) from ''Doctors'' were featured on the programme, while events from ''Holby City'' were also referenced.", "A similar clip featuring Maria Connor (Samia Longchambon) was also featured on ''EastEnders''.", "On 24 January 2022, ITV announced that as part of an overhaul of their evening programming, ''Coronation Street'' will permanently air as three 60-minute episodes per week from March 2022 onwards.2023 saw more hard-hitting storylines such as: Daisy Midgeley's stalker which culminated into an acid attack, Amy Barlow's rape at the hands of Aaron Sandford and Paul Foreman's diagnosis with Motor Neurone Disease.", "New cast members introduced into the soap included Cait Fitton and Claire Sweeney." ], [ "Characters", "Since 1960, ''Coronation Street'' has featured many characters whose popularity with viewers and critics has differed greatly.", "The original cast was created by Tony Warren, with the characters of Ena Sharples (Violet Carson), Elsie Tanner (Pat Phoenix) and Annie Walker (Doris Speed) as central figures.", "These three women remained with the show for at least 20 years, and became archetypes of British soap opera, often being emulated by other serials.", "Ena was the street's busybody, battle-axe and self-proclaimed moral voice.", "Elsie was the tart with a heart, who was constantly hurt by men in the search for true love.", "Annie Walker, landlady of the Rovers Return Inn, had delusions of grandeur and saw herself as better than the other residents.", "''Coronation Street'' became known for the portrayal of strong female characters, including original cast characters like Ena, Annie and Elsie, and later Hilda Ogden (Jean Alexander), who first appeared in 1964; all four became household names during the 1960s.", "Warren's programme was largely matriarchal, which some commentators put down to the female-dominant environment in which he grew up.", "Consequently, the show has a long tradition of psychologically abused husbands, most famously Stan Ogden (Bernard Youens) and Jack Duckworth (Bill Tarmey), husbands of Hilda and Vera Duckworth (Liz Dawn), respectively.Coronation Street's longest-serving character, Ken Barlow (William Roache) entered the storyline as a young radical, reflecting the youth of 1960s Britain, where figures like the Beatles, the Rolling Stones and the model Twiggy were to reshape the concept of youthful rebellion.", "Though the rest of the original Barlow family were killed off before the end of the 1970s, Ken, who for 27 years was the only character from the first episode remaining, has remained the constant link throughout the entire series.", "In 2011, Dennis Tanner (Philip Lowrie), another character from the first episode, returned to ''Coronation Street'' after a 43-year absence.", "Since 1984, Ken Barlow has been the show's only remaining original character.", "Emily Bishop (Eileen Derbyshire) had appeared in the series since January 1961, when the show was just weeks old, and was the show's longest-serving female character before she departed in January 2016 after 55 years.", "Rita Tanner (Barbara Knox) appeared on the show for one episode in December 1964, before returning as a full-time cast member in January 1972.She is currently the second longest-serving original cast member on the show.", "Roache and Knox are also the two oldest-working cast members on the soap at 91 and 90 years-old respectively.Stan and Hilda Ogden were introduced in 1964, with Hilda becoming one of the most famous British soap opera characters of all time.", "In a 1982 poll, she was voted fourth-most recognisable woman in Britain, after Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, Queen Elizabeth II and Diana, Princess of Wales.", "Hilda's best-known attributes were her pinny, hair curlers, and the \"muriel\" in her living room with three \"flying\" duck ornaments.", "Hilda Ogden's departure on Christmas Day 1987, remains the highest-rated episode of ''Coronation Street'' ever, with nearly 27,000,000 viewers.", "Stan Ogden had been killed off in 1984 following the death of actor Bernard Youens after a long illness which had restricted his appearances towards the end.Bet Lynch (Julie Goodyear) first appeared in 1966, before becoming a regular in 1970, and went on to become one of the most famous ''Corrie'' characters.", "Bet stood as the central character of the show from 1985 until departing in 1995, often being dubbed as \"Queen of the Street\" by the media, and indeed herself.", "The character briefly returned in June 2002 and November 2003.", "''Coronation Street'' and its characters often rely heavily on archetypes, with the characterisation of some of its current and recent cast based loosely on former characters.", "Phyllis Pearce (Jill Summers), Blanche Hunt (Maggie Jones) and Sylvia Goodwin (Stephanie Cole) embodied the role of the acid-tongued busybody originally held by Ena, Sally Webster (Sally Dynevor) has grown snobbish, like Annie, and a number of the programme's female characters, such as Carla Connor (Alison King), mirror the vulnerability of Elsie and Bet.", "Other recurring archetypes include the war veteran such as Albert Tatlock (Jack Howarth), Percy Sugden (Bill Waddington) and Gary Windass (Mikey North), the bumbling retail manager like Leonard Swindley (Arthur Lowe), Reg Holdsworth (Ken Morley), Norris Cole (Malcolm Hebden), quick-tempered, tough tradesmen like Len Fairclough (Peter Adamson), Jim McDonald (Charles Lawson), Tommy Harris (Thomas Craig) and Owen Armstrong (Ian Puleston-Davies), and the perennial losers such as Stan and Hilda, Jack and Vera, Les Battersby (Bruce Jones), Beth Tinker (Lisa George) and Kirk Sutherland (Andrew Whyment).Villains are also common character types, such as Tracy Barlow (Kate Ford), Alan Bradley (Mark Eden), Jenny Bradley (Sally Ann Matthews), Rob Donovan (Marc Baylis), Frank Foster (Andrew Lancel), Tony Gordon (Gray O'Brien), Caz Hammond (Rhea Bailey), Richard Hillman (Brian Capron), Greg Kelly (Stephen Billington), Will Chatterton (Leon Ockenden), Nathan Curtis (Christopher Harper), Callum Logan (Sean Ward), Karl Munro (John Michie), Pat Phelan (Connor McIntyre), David Platt (Jack P. Shepherd), Maya Sharma (Sasha Behar), Kirsty Soames (Natalie Gumede), John Stape (Graeme Hawley), Geoff Metcalfe (Ian Bartholomew) and Gary Windass (Mikey North).", "The show's former archivist and scriptwriter Daran Little disagreed with the characterisation of the show as a collection of stereotypes.", "\"Rather, remember that Elsie, Ena and others were the first of their kind ever seen on British television.", "If later characters are stereotypes, it's because they are from the same original mould.", "It is the hundreds of programmes that have followed which have copied ''Coronation Street''.\"" ], [ "Storylines", "Many topical issues have been tackled on Coronation Street, such as rape, including male and marital, historic sexual abuse, underage pregnancy, transgender issues, the right to die, racism, coercive control, cancer, homosexuality, domestic abuse, child grooming, and suicide, among others.Key storylines include: Mike and Deirdre's affair (1983), the death of Brian Tilsley (1989), Alan Bradley's abuse of Rita (1989), Kevin and Natalie's affair (1997), Deirdre is wrongfully jailed for fraud (1998), Sarah Platt's underage pregnancy (2000), Toyah's rape (2001), Alma's cancer (2001), Richard Hillman's serial killer storyline (2002–2003), Peter Barlow's bigamy (2003), Kevin and Molly's affair (2009), Kirsty's abuse of Tyrone (2012), Hayley's cancer (2013), Faye's underage pregnancy (2015), Bethany's grooming (2017), David's rape (2018), Aidan's suicide (2018), Sinead is diagnosed with cervical cancer (2019), Yasmeen's abuse (2020), Daisy's stalking hell (2023) and Paul's MND (2023)." ], [ "Production", "===Broadcast format===A photo of the original Coronation Street set and production base at Granada Studios Studio 2 in 1960.Between 9 December 1960 and 3 March 1961, ''Coronation Street'' was broadcast twice weekly, on Wednesday and Friday.", "During this period, the Friday episode was broadcast live, with the Wednesday episode being pre-recorded 15 minutes later.", "When the programme went fully networked on 6 March 1961, broadcast days changed to Monday and Wednesday.", "The last regular episode to be shown live was broadcast on 3 February 1961.The series was transmitted in black and white for the majority of the 1960s.", "Preparations were made to film episode 923, to be transmitted Wednesday 29 October 1969, in colour.", "This installment featured the street's residents on a coach trip to the Lake District.", "In the end, suitable colour film stock for the cameras could not be found and the footage was shot in black and white.", "The following episode, transmitted Monday 3 November, was videotaped in colour but featured black and white film inserts and title sequence.", "Like BBC1, the ITV network was officially broadcast in black and white at this point (though programmes were actually broadcast in colour as early as July that year for colour transmission testing and adjustment) so the episode was seen by most in black and white.The ITV network, like BBC1, began full colour transmissions on 15 November 1969.Daran Little, for many years the official programme archivist, claims that the first episode to be transmitted in colour was episode 930 shown on 24 November 1969.In October 1970, a technicians' dispute turned into the Colour Strike when sound staff were denied a pay rise given to camera staff the year before for working with colour recording equipment.", "The terms of the work-to-rule were that staff refused to work with the new equipment (though the old black and white equipment had been disposed of by then) and therefore programmes were recorded and transmitted in black and white, including ''Coronation Street''.", "The dispute was resolved in early 1971 and the last black and white episode was broadcast on 10 February 1971, although the episodes transmitted on 22 and 24 February 1971 had contained black and white location inserts.From 22 March 2010, ''Coronation Street'' was produced in 1080/50i for transmission on HDTV platforms on ITV HD.", "The first transmission in this format was episode 7351 on 31 May 2010 with a new set of titles and re-recorded theme tune.", "On 26 May 2010 ITV previewed the new HD titles on the ''Coronation Street'' website.", "Due to copyright reasons only viewers residing in the UK could see them on the ITV site.===Production staff===''Coronation Street's'' creator, Tony Warren, wrote the first 13 episodes of the programme in 1960, and continued to write for the programme intermittently until 1976.He later became a novelist, but retained links with ''Coronation Street.''", "Warren died in 2016.Harry Kershaw was the script editor for ''Coronation Street'' when the programme began in 1960, working alongside Tony Warren.", "Kershaw was also a script writer for the programme and the show's producer between 1962 and 1971.He remains the only person, along with John Finch, to have held the three posts of script editor, writer and producer.", "Adele Rose was ''Coronation Street'''s first female writer and the show's longest-serving writer, completing 455 scripts between 1961 and 1998.She also created ''Byker Grove''.", "Rose also won a BAFTA award in 1993 for her work on the show.Bill Podmore was the show's longest serving producer.", "By the time he stepped down in 1988 he had completed 13 years at the production helm.", "Nicknamed the \"godfather\" by the tabloid press, he was renowned for his tough, uncompromising style and was feared by both crew and cast alike.", "He is known for sacking Peter Adamson, the show's Len Fairclough, in 1983.Iain MacLeod is the current series producer.Michael Apted, known for the ''Up!''", "series of documentaries, was a director on the programme in the early 1960s.", "This period of his career marked the first of his many collaborations with writer Jack Rosenthal.", "Rosenthal, noted for such television plays as ''Bar Mitzvah Boy'', began his career on the show, writing over 150 episodes between 1961 and 1969.Paul Abbott was a story editor on the programme in the 1980s and began writing episodes in 1989, but left in 1993 to produce ''Cracker'', for which he later wrote, before creating his own dramas such as ''Touching Evil'' and ''Shameless''.", "Russell T Davies was briefly a storyliner on the programme in the mid-1990s, also writing the script for the direct-to-video special \"Viva Las Vegas!\"", "He, too, has become a noted writer of his own high-profile television drama programmes, including ''Queer as Folk'' and the 2005 revival of ''Doctor Who''.", "Jimmy McGovern also wrote some episodes.===Theme music===The show's theme music, a cornet piece, accompanied by a brass band plus clarinet and double bass, reminiscent of northern band music, was written by Eric Spear.", "The original theme tune was called \"Lancashire Blues\" and Spear was paid a £6 commission in 1960 to write it.The identity of the trumpeter was not public knowledge until 1994, when jazz musician and journalist Ron Simmonds revealed that it was the Surrey musician Ronnie Hunt.", "He added, \"an attempt was made in later years to re-record that solo, using Stan Roderick, but it sounded too good, and they reverted to the old one.\"", "In 2004, the ''Manchester Evening News'' published a contradictory story that a young musician from Wilmslow called David Browning had played the original version.", "However, after investigating further, his story was found to be false, Browning not knowing that the original trumpet player Ronnie Hunt was still alive, proving that he was the true and rightful player that performed the solo.", "With his union pay stubs and contract, Browning was proven false.A new, completely re-recorded version of the theme tune replaced the original when the series started broadcasting in HD on 31 May 2010.It accompanied a new montage-style credits sequence featuring images of Manchester and Weatherfield.", "A reggae version of the theme tune was recorded by The I-Royals and released by Media Marvels and WEA in 1983.===Viewing figures===Episodes in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, regularly attracted figures of between 18 and 21 million viewers, and during the 1990s and early 2000s, 14 to 16 million per episode would be typical.", "Like most terrestrial television in the UK, a decline in viewership has taken place and the show posts an average audience of just under 9 million per episode , remaining one of the highest rated programmes in the UK.", "''EastEnders'' and ''Coronation Street'' have often competed for the highest rated show.The episode that aired on 2 January 1985, in which Bet Lynch (Julie Goodyear) finds out she has got the job as manager of the Rovers Return, is the highest-rated single episode in the show's history, attracting 21.40 million viewers.", "The 25 December 1987 episode, where Hilda Ogden (Jean Alexander) leaves the street to start a new life as a housekeeper for long-term employer Dr Lowther, attracted a combined audience of 26.65 million for its original airing and omnibus repeat on 27 December 1987.This is the second-highest combined rating in the show's history.", "The show attracted its highest-ever combined rating of 26.93 million for the episode that aired on 15 (and 19) March 1989, where Rita Fairclough (Barbara Knox) is in hospital and Alan Bradley (Mark Eden) is hiding from the police after trying to kill Rita in the previous episode.===Sets===Shot of the former ''Coronation Street'' exterior set at Granada Studios.", "The set is close to Manchester city centre, hence the high rise buildings, which are not part of the programme.A photo of the ''Coronation Street'' set and production base used since 2013 at MediaCityUK centre in 2020.A view down Coronation Street at the MediaCityUK set, with the Rovers Return pub in the foregroundThe regular exterior buildings shown in Coronation Street include a row of terrace houses, several townhouses, and communal areas including a newsagents (The Kabin), a café (Roy's Rolls), a general grocery shop (D&S Alahan's), a factory (Underworld) and Rovers Return Inn public house.", "The Rovers Return Inn is the main meeting place for the show's characters.Between 1960 and 1968, street scenes were transmitted/taped before a set constructed in a studio, with the house fronts reduced in scale to 3/4 and constructed from wood.", "In 1968 Granada built an outside set not all that different from the interior version previously used, with the wooden façades from the studio simply being erected on the new site.", "When the show began broadcasting in colour, these were replaced with brick façades, and back yards were added in the 1970s.In 1982, a permanent full-street set was built in the Granada backlot, an area between Quay Street and Liverpool Road in Manchester.", "The set was constructed from reclaimed Salford brick.", "The set was updated in 1989 with the construction of a new factory, two shop units and three modern town houses on the south side of the street.Between 1989 and 1999, the Granada Studios Tour allowed members of the public to visit the set.", "The exterior set was extended and updated in 1999.This update added to the Rosamund Street and Victoria Street façades, and added a viaduct on Rosamund Street.", "Most interior scenes are shot in the adjoining purpose-built studio.In 2008, Victoria Court, an apartment building full of luxury flats, was started on Victoria Street.In 2014, production moved to a new site at Trafford Wharf, a former dock area about two miles to the east, part of the MediaCityUK complex.", "The Trafford Wharf backlot is built upon a former truck stop site next to the Imperial War Museum North.", "It took two years from start to finish to recreate the iconic Street.", "The houses were built to almost full scale after previously being three-quarter size.", "On 5 April 2014, the staff began to allow booked public visits to the old Quay Street set.", "An advert, with a voiceover from Victoria Wood, appeared on TV to advertise the tour.", "The tour was discontinued in December 2015.On 12 March 2018, the extension of the Victoria Street set was officially unveiled.", "The new set featured a garden, featuring a memorial bench paying tribute to the 22 victims of the Manchester Arena bombing, including ''Coronation Street'' \"super fan\" Martyn Hett.", "The precinct includes a Greater Manchester Police station called Weatherfield Police station.", "As part of a product placement deal between three companies and ITV Studios, new additions include a tram stop station which is named Weatherfield North with Transport for Greater Manchester Metrolink branding, while shop front facades of Costa Coffee and the Weatherfield branded Co-op Food store interior scenes have been screened.", "Exterior scenes at the new set first aired on 20 April 2018.On 20 April 2018, ITV announced that they had been granted official approval of planning permission to allow booked public visits to the MediaCityUK Trafford Wharf set.", "Tours commenced on weekends from 26 May 2018 onwards.", "The set was further expanded in March 2022, with the addition of the Weatherfield Precinct, which took six months to build, and was inspired by Salford.", "The new section of the set included a two-storey construction featuring maisonettes, a staircase and balcony leading to the properties, a piazza and an array of shops and units." ], [ "Broadcast", "===United Kingdom===For 60 years, ''Coronation Street'' has remained at the centre of ITV's prime time schedule.", "The programme is currently shown in the UK in three hour-long episodes, over three evenings a week on ITV in the 8 pm time slot - Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays.", "Additional episodes have been broadcast at other times, such as between 22 and 26 November 2004, when eight episodes were shown.", "Occasional late night episodes of ''Coronation Street'' begin at 10 pm, due to the watershed.From Friday 9 December 1960 until Friday 3 March 1961, the programme was shown in two episodes broadcast on Wednesday and Friday at 7 pm.", "Schedules were changed, and from Monday 6 March 1961 until Wednesday 11 October 1989, the programme was shown in two episodes broadcast Monday and Wednesday at 7:30 pm.", "A third weekly episode was introduced on Friday 20 October 1989, broadcast at 7:30 pm.", "From 1996, an extra episode was broadcast at 7:30 pm on Sunday nights.Aside from Granada, the programme originally appeared on the following stations of the ITV network: Anglia Television, Associated-Rediffusion, Television Wales and the West, Scottish Television, Southern Television and Ulster Television.", "From episode 14 on Wednesday 25 January 1961, Tyne Tees Television broadcast the programme.", "That left ATV in the Midlands as the only ITV station not carrying the show.", "When they decided to broadcast the programme, national transmission was changed from Wednesday and Friday at 7 pm to Monday and Wednesday at 7:30 pm and the programme became fully networked under this new arrangement from episode 25 on Monday 6 March 1961.As the ITV network grew over the next few years, the programme was transmitted by these new stations on these dates onward: Westward Television from episode 40 on 1 May 1961, Border Television from episode 76 on 4 September 1961, Grampian Television from episode 84 on 2 October 1961, Channel Television from episode 180 on 3 September 1962 and Teledu Cymru (north and west Wales) from episode 184 on 17 September 1962.At this point, the ITV network became complete and the programme was broadcast almost continuously across the country at 7:30 pm on Monday and Wednesday for the next twenty-eight years.From episode 2981 on Friday 20 October 1989 at 7:30 pm, a third weekly episode was introduced and this increased to four episodes a week from episode 4096 on Sunday 24 November 1996, again at 7:30 pm.", "A second Monday episode was introduced in 2002 and was broadcast at 8:30 pm to usher in the return of Bet Lynch.", "The Monday 8:30 pm episode was used intermittently during the popular Richard Hillman storyline and became a regular feature from episode 5568 on Monday 25 August 2003.In January 2008, ITV axed the Sunday episode, and instead aired a second episode on Fridays, at 8:30 pm, with the final Sunday episode airing on 6 January 2008.From 23 July 2009 to September 2012 the Wednesday show was replaced with an episode at 8:30 pm on Thursdays.", "A sixth weekly episode was added on Wednesdays at 8:30 pm from 20 September 2017.In March 2020, it was revealed that episodes that were currently filming for future broadcast (as episodes are filmed a few weeks in advance) during the COVID-19 pandemic would be shown differently.", "Instead of six episodes a week, only three episodes would be broadcast, airing as normal on a Monday, Wednesday and Friday at the normal timeslot of 7:30 pm.", "The actions provided would be made effective starting from 30 March.", "Simultaneously, the announcement also mentioned that the elderly cast of the show would be \"written off\" due to health advice issued by Public Health England and the NHS.", "On 22 March, ITV released a statement confirming that filming of both ''Coronation Street'' and ''Emmerdale'' was suspended.In June 2020, ITV announced that filming would resume on 9 June.", "However, due to the new health and safety measures, cast members over the age of 70 or with underlying health conditions did not come back on set, until the production could determine it is safe for them to return.In July 2020, ITV announced that ''Coronation Street'' would return to the normal output of six episodes a week in September that year.In October 2020, Maureen Lipman and David Neilson made their first appearances since July that year, as all cast members over the age of 70 had temporarily left the series earlier in the year.", "William Roache, Barbara Knox and Sue Nicholls returned in December.On 22 January 2021, ITV announced that filming would be suspended from 25 January in order to rewrite \"stories and scripts as a consequence of the coronavirus pandemic\" and to \"review all health and safety requirements\".", "ITV also confirmed that this decision would not affect their ability to deliver six episodes a week.In January 2022, it was announced that after 60 years in the 7.30 pm slot, ''Coronation Street''s transmission time would move to 8pm due to the ''ITV Evening News'' having a longer duration, pushing ''Emmerdale'' into the 7.30 pm slot on weeknights.", "The double-bill episodes on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays have merged into hour-long slots on these days.", "The new scheduling went live on Monday 7 March 2022.====Repeats and classic episodes====Repeat episodes, omnibus broadcasts and specials have been shown on various ITV channels.", "After several years on ITV2, in January 2008 the omnibus returned to the main ITV channel, where it was aired on Saturday mornings or afternoons, depending on the schedule and times.In May 2008, it moved to Sunday mornings, until August 2008, when it returned to Saturdays.", "In January 2009, it moved back to Sunday mornings, usually broadcasting at around 9.25am until December 2010.In January 2011, the omnibus moved to Saturday mornings on ITV at 9.25am.", "During the Rugby World Cup, which took place in New Zealand, matches had to be broadcast on a Saturday morning, so the omnibus moved to Saturday lunchtimes/afternoons during September and October 2011.On 22 October 2011, the omnibus moved back to Saturday mornings at 9.25am on ITV.", "In January 2012, the omnibus moved to ITV2, and then moved to ITV3 in January 2020.In January 2022, the omnibus moved back to ITV2.Older episodes were broadcast by satellite and cable channel Granada Plus from its launch in 1996.The first episodes shown were from episode 1588 (originally transmitted on Monday 5 April 1976) onwards.", "Originally listed and promoted as ''Classic Coronation Street'', the \"classic\" was dropped in early 2002, at which stage the episodes were from late 1989.By the time of the channel's closure in 2004, the repeats had reached February 1994.In addition to this, \"specials\" were broadcast on Saturday afternoons in the early years of the channel, with several episodes based on a particular theme or character(s) shown.", "The last episode shown in these specials was from 1991.In addition, on 27 and 28 December 2003, several Christmas Day editions of the show were broadcast.ITV3 began airing afternoon timeslot sequential reruns of ''Classic Coronation Street'' from 2 October 2017.Two classic episodes were retransmitted from Mondays to Fridays at 2:40 pm until 3:45 pm, starting from episode 2587 (originally transmitted on Wednesday 15 January 1986) onwards.To mark the 60th anniversary of ''Coronation Street'', between 7 and 11 December 2020 at 10:00 pm–11:05 pm, ITV3 aired special episodes of the soap including ''Episode 1'', the tenth anniversary episode from December 1970, two episodes from the twentieth anniversary in December 1980, two episodes from the thirtieth anniversary in December 1990, the ''2000 live episode'' from the fortieth anniversary in December 2000, and the ''fiftieth anniversary episode'' which aired after a repeat of ''The Road to Coronation Street''.On Easter Monday 2022, to commemorate the upcoming 90th birthday of William Roache, eight special ''Coronation Street'' Ken Barlow episodes were aired on 18 April 2022, at 10:25 am–2:35 pm.", "The episodes shown were ''Episode 1'' from December 1960, ''Ken and Deirdre Tie the Knot'' from July 1981, ''Ken's Affair'' from December 1989, ''Deirdre's Fling'' from January 2003, ''Steve and Karen's Wedding Shocker'' from February 2004, ''Ken and Deirdre's Second Wedding'' from April 2005, ''Ken and Deirdre's Holiday'' from August 2014, and'' Deirdre's Death'' from July 2015.===International===''Coronation Street'' is shown in various countries worldwide.", "YouTube has the first episode and many others available as reruns.The programme was first aired in Australia in 1963 on TCN-9 Sydney, GTV-9 Melbourne and NWS-9 Adelaide, and by 1966 ''Coronation Street'' was more popular in Australia than in the UK.", "The show eventually left free-to-air television in Australia.", "It briefly returned to the Nine Network in a daytime slot during 1994–1995.In 2005, STW-9 Perth began to show episodes before the 6 pm news to improve the lead in to Nine News Perth, but this did not work and the show was cancelled a few months later.", "In 1996, pay-TV began and Arena began screening the series in one-hour instalments on Saturdays and Sundays at 6:30 pm EST.", "The series was later moved to pay-TV channel UKTV (now BBC UKTV), where it is still shown.", "''Coronation Street'' is shown Mon-Thu at 7:20 pm EST and a double episode on Fridays, with episodes on the channel being one week behind UK broadcast.In Canada, ''Coronation Street'' is broadcast on CBC Television.", "Until 2011, episodes were shown in Canada approximately 10 months after they aired in Britain; however, beginning in the fall of 2011, the CBC began showing two episodes every weekday, in order to catch up with the ITV showings, at 6:30 pm and 7 pm local time Monday-Friday, with an omnibus on Sundays at 7.30am.", "By May 2014, the CBC was only two weeks behind Britain, so the show was reduced to a single showing weeknights at 6:30 pm local time.", "The show debuted on Toronto's CBLT in July 1966.The 2002 edition of the ''Guinness Book of Records'' recognises the 1,144 episodes sold to the now-defunct CBC-owned Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, TV station CBKST by Granada TV on 31 May 1971 to be the largest number of TV shows ever purchased in one transaction.", "The show traditionally aired on weekday afternoons in Canada, with a Sunday morning omnibus.", "In 2004, CBC moved the weekday airings from their daytime slot to prime time.", "In light of austerity measures imposed on the CBC in 2012, which includes further cutbacks on non-Canadian programming, one of the foreign shows to remain on the CBC schedule is ''Coronation Street'', according to the CBC's director of content planning Christine Wilson, who commented: \"Unofficially I can tell you ''Coronation Street'' is coming back.", "If it didn't come back, something would happen on Parliament Hill.\"", "Kirstine Stewart, the head of the CBC's English-language division, once remarked: \"''Coronation Street'' fans are the most loyal, except maybe for curling viewers, of all CBC viewers.\"", "As of mid 2022, Canada is about three weeks behind the UK and airs six episodes per week.In the Republic of Ireland, ''Coronation Street'' is currently shown on Virgin Media One.", "The show was first aired in 1978, when RTÉ2 began showing episodes from 1976, although Ireland caught up with the current UK episodes in 1983.In 1992 it moved to RTÉ One, but in 2001 Granada TV bought 45 percent of TV3, and so TV3 broadcast the series from 2001 to 2014.In 2006, ITV sold its share of the channel but TV3 continued to buy the soap until the end of 2014 when it moved to UTV Ireland.", "Coronation Street has broadcast on each of the main Irish networks, except for the Irish language network TG4.In December 2016, ''Coronation Street'' returned to TV3 (now Virgin Media One).", "The show is consistently the channel's most viewed programme every week.Two Dutch stations have broadcast ''Coronation Street'': VARA showed 428 episodes between 1967 and 1975, and SBS6 ran the show for a period starting in 2010.From 2006 the series was also broadcast by Vitaya, a small Flemish Belgian channel.In New Zealand, ''Coronation Street'' has been shown locally since 1964, first on NZBC television until 1975, and then on TV One, which broadcasts it in a 4-episode/2-hour block on Fridays from 7:30 pm.", "In September 2014, TV One added a 2-episode/1-hour block on Saturday from 8:30 pm.", "Because TV One did not upgrade to showing the equivalent of five or six episodes per week, New Zealand continued to fall further and further behind with episodes, and was 23 months behind Britain as of March 2014.During the weekday nights of the week ending 11 April 2014 and previous weeks, Coronation Street was the least watched programme on TV One in the 7:30 pm slot by a considerable margin in comparison to other weeknights, The serial aired on Tuesdays and Thursdays at 7:30 pm until October 2011, when the show moved to a 5:30 pm half-hour slot every weekday.", "The move proved unpopular with fans, and the series was quickly moved into its present prime-time slot within weeks.", "Episodes 7883, 7884, 7885 and 7886 were screened on 16 May 2014.These were originally aired in the UK between 4 and 11 June 2012.On 10 May 2018 it was announced that the current 2016 episodes would be moved to 1 p.m. Monday-Friday titled 'Catch-up Episodes' and for primetime Wednesday-Friday express episodes would be airing in New Zealand a week behind the United Kingdom titled '2018 Episodes' these changes would be taking place from 11 June 2018.In South Africa, ''Coronation Street'' episodes were broadcast three days after the UK air date on ITV Choice until the channel ceased broadcasting in June 2020, episodes temporarily went off the air until they moved to M-Net City, starting in October 2020.In the United States, ''Coronation Street'' is available by broadcast or cable only in northern markets where CBC coverage from Canada overlaps the border or is available on local cable systems.", "It was broadcast on CBC's US cable channel, Trio until the CBC sold its stake in the channel to Universal, before it was shut down in 2006.Beginning in 2009, episodes were available in the United States through Amazon.com's on-demand service, a month behind their original UK airdates.", "The final series of shows available from Amazon appears to be from November 2012, as no new episodes have been uploaded.", "On 15 January 2013, online distributor Hulu began airing episodes of the show, posting a new episode daily, two weeks after their original airdates.", "For a time, Hulu's website stated: \"New episodes of ''Coronation Street'' will be unavailable as of April 7th, 2016\", with the same being said for British soap ''Hollyoaks'', but Hulu is once again showing new episodes of ''Coronation Street'' as of April 2017, two weeks behind the UK airdate.", "The BBC/ITV service Britbox shows new episodes on the same day as the UK airing.", "''Coronation Street'' was also shown on USA Network for an unknown period starting in 1982.HM Forces and their families stationed overseas can watch ''Coronation Street'' on ITV, carried by the British Forces Broadcasting Service, which is also available to civilians in the Falkland Islands.", "It used to be shown on BFBS1.Satellite channel ITV Choice showed the programme in Asia, Middle East, Cyprus, and Malta, before the channel ceased broadcasting in 2019." ], [ "Merchandise", "''The Street'', a magazine dedicated to the show, was launched in 1989.Edited by Bill Hill, the magazine contained a summary of recent storylines, interviews, articles about classic episodes, and stories that occurred from before 1960.The format was initially A5 size, expanding to A4 from the seventh issue.", "The magazine folded after issue 23 in 1993 when the publisher's contract with Granada Studios Tour expired and Granada wanted to produce their own magazine.On 25 June 2010, a video game of the show was released on Nintendo DS.", "The game was developed by Mindscape, and allowed players to complete tasks in the fictitious town of Weatherfield.===Discography===In 1995, to commemorate the programme's 35th anniversary, a CD titled ''The Coronation Street Album'' was released, featuring cover versions of modern songs and standards by contemporary cast members.The album charted a Top 40 hit when \"The Coronation Street Single\" (a double a-side featuring a cover of Monty Python's \"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\" by Bill Waddington – with various cast members on backing vocals – on one side and \"Something Stupid\" by Johnny Briggs & Amanda Barrie on the other) reached number 35 in the Official UK charts.In 2010, an album featuring songs sung by cast members was released to celebrate 50 years of ''Coronation Street''.", "The album is titled ''Rogues, Angels, Heroes & Fools'', and was later developed into a musical." ], [ "Spin-offs", "===Television===Granada launched one spin-off in 1965, ''Pardon the Expression'', following the story of clothing store manager Leonard Swindley (Arthur Lowe) after he left Weatherfield.", "Swindley's management experience was tested when he was appointed assistant manager at a fictional department store, Dobson and Hawks.", "Granada produced two series of the spin-off, which ended in 1966.In 1967, Arthur Lowe returned as Leonard Swindley in ''Turn Out the Lights'', a short-lived sequel to ''Pardon the Expression''.", "It ran for just one series of six episodes before it was cancelled.From 1985 to 1988 Granada TV produced a sitcom called ''The Brothers McGregor'' featuring a pair of half-brothers (one black, one white) who had appeared in a single episode of ''Coronation Street'' as old friends of Eddie Yeats and guests at his wedding.", "The original actors were unavailable so the characters were recast with Paul Barber and Philip Whitchurch.", "The show ran for 26 episodes over four series.In 1985, a sister series, ''Albion Market'' was launched.", "It ran for one year, with 100 episodes produced.====Crossovers====In 2010, several actors from the show appeared on ''The Jeremy Kyle Show'' as their soap characters: David Platt (Jack P. Shepherd), Nick Tilsley (Ben Price), Tina McIntyre (Michelle Keegan) and Graeme Proctor (Craig Gazey).", "In the fictional, semi-improvised scenario, David accused Nick (his brother) and Tina (his ex-girlfriend) of sleeping together.", "''Coronation Street'' and rival soap opera ''EastEnders'' had a crossover for ''Children in Need'' in November 2010 called \"East Street\".", "''EastEnders'' stars that visited Weatherfield include Laurie Brett as Jane Beale, Charlie G. Hawkins as Darren Miller, Kylie Babbington as Jodie Gold, Nina Wadia as Zainab Masood and John Partridge as Christian Clarke.On 21 December 2012, ''Coronation Street'' produced a Text Santa special entitled ''A Christmas Corrie'' which featured Norris Cole in the style of Scrooge, being visited by the ghosts of dead characters.", "The ghosts were Mike Baldwin, Maxine Peacock, Derek Wilton and Vera Duckworth.", "Other special guests include Torvill and Dean, Lorraine Kelly and Sheila Reid.", "The episode concluded with Norris learning the error of his ways and dancing on the cobbles.", "The original plan for this feature was to have included Jack Duckworth, along with Vera, but actor Bill Tarmey died before filming commenced.", "In the end a recording of his voice was played.====Documentaries====''Coronation Street: Family Album'' was several documentaries about various families living on the street.\"Farewell ...\"", "was several documentaries featuring the best moments of a single character who had recently left the series—most notably, Farewell Mike (Baldwin), Farewell Vera (Duckworth), Farewell Blanche (Hunt), Farewell Jack (Duckworth), Farewell Janice (Battersby), Farewell Liz (McDonald), Farewell Becky (McDonald), and Farewell Tina (McIntyre).", "Most of these were broadcast on the same day as the character's final scenes in the series.", "''Stars on the Street'' was aired around Christmas 2009.It featured actors from the soap talking about the famous guest stars who had appeared in the series including people who were in it before they were famous.In December 2010, ITV made a few special programmes to mark the 50th anniversary.", "''Coronation Street Uncovered: Live'', hosted by Stephen Mulhern was shown after the episode with the tram crash was aired on ITV2.On 7 and 9 December a countdown on the greatest Corrie moments, ''Coronation Street: 50 Years, 50 Moments'', the viewers voted \"The Barlows at Alcoholics Anonymous\" as the greatest moment.", "On 10 December Paul O'Grady hosted a quiz show, ''Coronation Street: The Big 50'' with three teams from the soap and a celebrity team answering questions about Coronation Street and other soaps.", "Also, ''Come Dine with Me'' and ''Celebrity Juice'' aired Coronation Street specials in the anniversary week.====International adaptation====The German TV series ''Lindenstraße'' took ''Coronation Street'' as the model.", "''Lindenstraße'' started in 1985 and broadcast its final episode on 29 March 2020, after airing for nearly 35 years.===Films===Over the years, ''Coronation Street'' has released several straight-to-video films.", "Unlike other soaps, which often used straight-to-video films to cover more contentious plot lines that may not be allowed by the broadcaster, ''Coronation Street'' has largely used these films to reset their characters in other locations.In 1995, ''Coronation Street: The Cruise'' also known as ''Coronation Street: The Feature Length Special'' was released on VHS to celebrate the 35th anniversary of the show, featuring Rita Sullivan, Mavis Wilton, Alec Gilroy, Curly Watts and Raquel Watts.", "ITV heavily promoted the programme as a direct-to-video exclusive, but broadcast a brief version of it on 24 March 1996.The Independent Television Commission investigated the broadcast, as viewers complained that ITV misled them.In 1997, following the controversial cruise spin-off, ''Coronation Street: Viva Las Vegas!''", "was released on VHS, featuring Vera Duckworth, Jack Duckworth, Fiona Middleton and Maxine Peacock on a trip to Las Vegas, which included the temporary return of Ray Langton.In 1999, six special episodes of ''Coronation Street'' were produced, following the story of Steve McDonald and Vikram Desai in Brighton, which included the temporary returns of Bet Gilroy, Reg Holdsworth and Vicky McDonald.", "This video was titled ''Coronation Street: Open All Hours'' and released on VHS.In 2008, ITV announced filming was to get underway for a new special DVD episode, ''Coronation Street: Out of Africa'', featuring Kirk Sutherland, Fiz Brown, Chesney Brown, which included the temporary return of Cilla Battersby-Brown.", "Sophie Webster, Becky Granger and Tina McIntyre also make brief appearances.In 2009, another DVD special, ''Coronation Street: Romanian Holiday'', was released.", "The feature-length comedy drama followed Roy, Hayley and Becky as they travelled to Romania for the wedding of a face from their past.", "Eddie Windass also briefly appears.The BBC commissioned a one-off drama called ''The Road to Coronation Street'', about how the series first came into being.", "Jessie Wallace plays Pat Phoenix (Elsie Tanner) with Lynda Baron as Violet Carson (Ena Sharples), Celia Imrie as Doris Speed (Annie Walker) and James Roache as his own father William Roache (Ken Barlow).", "It was broadcast on 16 September 2010 on BBC Four.On 1 November 2010, ''Coronation Street: A Knight's Tale'' was released.", "Reg Holdsworth and Curly Watts returned in the film.", "Mary tries to take Norris to an apparently haunted castle where she hoped to seduce him.", "Rosie gets a job there and she takes Jason with her.", "Brian Capron also guest starred as an assumed relative of Richard Hillman.", "He rises out of a lake with a comedic \"wink to the audience\" after Hillman drowned in 2003.Rita Sullivan also briefly appears.===Online===On 21 December 2008, a web-based miniseries ran on ITV.com; called ''Corrie Confidential''; the first episode featured the characters Rosie and Sophie Webster in ''Underworld''.ITV.com launched a small spin-off drama series called 'Gary's Army Diaries' which revolves around Gary Windass's experiences in Afghanistan and the loss of his best friend, Quinny.", "Due to their popularity, the three five-minute episodes were recut into a single 30-minute episode, which was broadcast on ITV2.William Roache and Anne Kirkbride starred as Ken and Deirdre in a series of ten three-minute internet 'webisodes'.", "The first episode of the series titled, ''Ken and Deirdre's Bedtime Stories'' was activated on Valentine's Day 2011.In 2011, an internet based spin-off starring Helen Flanagan as Rosie Webster followed her on her quest to be a supermodel called ''Just Rosie''.On 3 February 2014, another web-based miniseries ran on ITV.com; called ''Streetcar Stories''.", "It showed what Steve and Lloyd get up to during the late nights in their Streetcar cab office.", "The first episode shows Steve and Lloyd making a cup of tea with \"The Stripper\" playing in the background, referencing Morecambe and Wise's Breakfast Sketch.", "The second episode involves the pair having a biscuit dunking competition.During the 'Who Attacked Ken' storyline, a mini series of police files was run on the official Coronation Street YouTube channel.", "They outlined the suspects' details and possible motives.===Stage===In August 2010, many ''Coronation Street'' characters were brought to the stage in Jonathan Harvey's comedy play ''Corrie!''.", "The play was commissioned to celebrate the 50th Anniversary of the TV series and was presented at The Lowry in Salford, England by ITV Studios and Phil McIntyre Entertainments.", "Featuring a cast of six actors who alternate roles of favourite characters including Ena Sharples, Hilda Ogden, Hayley and Roy, Richard Hillman, Jack and Vera, Bet Lynch, Steve, Karen and Becky, the play weaves together some of the most memorable moments from the TV show.", "It toured UK theatres between February 2011 and July 2011 with guest star narrators including Roy Barraclough, Ken Morley and Gaynor Faye." ], [ "In popular culture", "The British rock band Queen produced a single \"I Want to Break Free\" in 1984 that reached number 3 in the UK Singles Chart.", "The song is memorable for its music video in which the band members dressed in women's clothing, which parodied characters in Coronation Street and is considered an homage to the show.", "The video depicts Freddie Mercury as a housewife, loosely based on Bet Lynch, who wants to \"break free\" from his life.", "Although Lynch was a blonde in the soap opera, Mercury thought he would look too silly as a blonde and chose a dark wig.", "Guitarist Brian May plays another, more relaxed housewife based on Hilda Ogden.In December 2022, the American singer Bob Dylan was offered a cameo on Coronation Street after revealing to ''The Wall Street Journal'' that he is a fan of the ITV soap." ], [ "Sponsorship", "Cadbury was the first sponsor of ''Coronation Street'', beginning in July 1996.In the summer of 2006, Cadbury Trebor Bassetts had to recall over one million chocolate bars, due to suspected salmonella contamination, and ''Coronation Street'' stopped the sponsorship for several months.", "In 2006, Cadbury did not renew their contract, but agreed to sponsor the show until ''Coronation Street'' found a new sponsor.Harveys then sponsored ''Coronation Street'' from 30 September 2007 until December 2012.In the ''Coronation Street: Romanian Holiday'' film, Roy and Hayley Cropper are filmed in front of a Harveys store, and in ''Coronation Street: A Knights Tale'', a Harveys truck can be seen driving past Mary Taylor's motorhome.", "Compare The Market took over as sponsor from 26 November 2012 until 30 November 2020.On 10 December 2020, it was announced that Argos would be the new sponsor of ''Coronation Street'', starting on 1 January 2021.In November 2011, a Nationwide Building Society ATM in Dev Alahan's corner shop became the first use of paid-for product placement in a UK primetime show.", "In 2018, the shop fronts of Co-Op and Costa Coffee were added to the sets, along with characters using shopping bags with the respective logos on as props.Hyundai have been the sponsor since January 2015 in the Republic of Ireland, aired on Virgin Media One.", "Year Title Country 1996–2007 Cadbury'sUK 2007–2012 Harvey's 2012–2020 Compare the Market 2015–present Hyundai Republic of Ireland 2021–present Argos UK" ], [ "Awards and nominations" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Print references", "* * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Video and DVD references", "* ''This Is Coronation Street'', Dir: John Black (DVD) Acorn Media Publishing, 2003* ''Coronation Street: Secrets'', Dir: John Black (DVD) Morningstar Entertainment, 2004* ''Coronation Street: Early Days'', (Video) Granada Media Group, 2001* ''Coronation Street: The Jubilee Years'', (Video) Granada Media Group, 1985* ''Coronation Street: The Magic of'', (Video) Granada Media Group, 1985" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Caligula" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus''' (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), better known by his nickname '''Caligula''' (), was Roman emperor from AD 37 until his assassination in AD 41.He was the son of the Roman general Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, Augustus' granddaughter, members of the first ruling family of the Roman Empire.", "He was born two years before Tiberius was made emperor.", "Gaius accompanied his father, mother and siblings on campaign in Germania, at little more than four or five years old.", "He had been named after Gaius Julius Caesar, but his father's soldiers affectionately nicknamed him \"Caligula\" ('little boot') Germanicus died at Antioch in 19, and Agrippina returned with her six children to Rome, where she became entangled in a bitter feud with emperor Tiberius, who was Germanicus' biological uncle and adoptive father.", "The conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with Caligula as the sole male survivor.", "In 26, Tiberius withdrew from public life to the island of Capri, and in 31, Caligula joined him there.", "Tiberius died in 37 and Caligula succeeded him as emperor, at the age of 24.Of the few surviving sources about Caligula and his four-year reign, most were written by members of the nobility and senate, long after the events they purport to describe.", "They portray Caligula as a noble and moderate emperor during the first six months of his rule, but increasingly self-indulgent, cruel, sadistic, extravagant and sexually perverted thereafter, an insane tyrant who demanded and received worship as a living god, and planned to make his horse a consul.", "Most modern commentaries seek to explain Caligula's position, personality and historical context.", "Many of the allegations against him are dismissed as misunderstandings, exaggeration, mockery or malicious fantasy.During his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the unconstrained personal power of the emperor, as opposed to countervailing powers within the principate.", "He directed much of his attention to ambitious construction projects and luxurious dwellings for himself.", "He began the construction of two aqueducts in Rome: the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus.", "During his reign, the empire annexed the client kingdom of Mauretania as a province.", "He had to abandon an attempted invasion of Britain, and the installation of his statue in the Temple of Jerusalem.", "In early 41, Caligula was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy by officers of the Praetorian Guard, senators, and courtiers.", "At least some of the conspirators might have planned this as an opportunity to restore the Roman Republic and aristocratic privileges; but if so, their plan was thwarted by the Praetorians, who seem to have spontaneously chosen Caligula's uncle Claudius as the next emperor.", "Caligula's death marked the official end of the Julii Caesares in the male line, though the Julio-Claudian dynasty continued to rule until the demise of Caligula's nephew, the emperor Nero." ], [ "Early life", "Caligula was born in Antium on 31 August AD 12, the third of six surviving children of Germanicus and his wife and second cousin, Agrippina the Elder.", "Germanicus was a grandson of Mark Antony, and Agrippina was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder, making her the granddaughter of Augustus.", "The future emperor Claudius was Caligula's paternal uncle.", "Caligula had two older brothers, Nero and Drusus, and three younger sisters, Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla.", "At the age of two or three, he accompanied his father, Germanicus, on campaigns in the north of Germania.", "He wore a miniature soldier's outfit devised by his mother to please the troops, including army boots (''caligae'') and armour.", "The soldiers nicknamed him ''Caligula'' (\"little boot\").", "Winterling believes he would have enjoyed the attention of the soldiers, to whom he was something of a mascot, though he later grew to dislike the nickname.Germanicus was a respected, immensely popular figure among his troops and Roman civilians of every class.", "He died after a lingering illness at Antioch, Syria, in AD 19, aged only 33, convinced that he had been poisoned by an enemy..", "Many believed that he had been killed at the behest of his uncle, the reigning emperor Tiberius, who saw him as a potential rival.", "After the death of his father, Caligula lived with his mother, Agrippina.", "She made no secret of her imperial ambitions for herself and her sons, and in consequence, her relations with Tiberius rapidly deteriorated.", "Tiberius believed himself under constant threat from treason, conspiracy and political rivalry.", "He forbade Agrippina to remarry, for fear that a remarriage would serve her personal ambition, and introduce yet another threat to himself.", "Agrippina and Caligula's brother, Nero, were banished in the year 29 on charges of treason.", "The adolescent Caligula was sent to live with his great-grandmother (Tiberius' mother), Livia.", "After her death, he was sent to live with his grandmother Antonia Minor.", "In the year 30, Tiberius had Caligula's brothers, Drusus and Nero, declared public enemies by the Senate.", "Drusus was imprisoned and Nero was exiled.", "Caligula and his three sisters remained in Italy as hostages of Tiberius, kept under close watch.In the 31, at the age of 19, Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius at Villa Jovis on Capri.", "He lived there for six years.", "Roman historians describe Caligula at this time as a first-rate orator, well-informed, cultured and intelligent, an excellent natural actor who recognized the danger he was in, and hid his resentment of Tiberius' maltreatment of himself and his family behind such an obsequious manner that it was said of him that there had never been \"a better slave or a worse master.", "\"A Roman ''caliga'', after which the name Caligula derived.", "This piece was excavated near Xanten, where Caligula was stationed with his parents during military campaigns in GermaniaReconstruction drawing of the Villa Jovis on Capri, where Caligula grew up at the court of TiberiusCaligula was befriended by Tiberius' Praetorian prefect, Naevius Sutorius Macro.", "Macro had been active in the downfall of Sejanus, his ambitious and manipulative predecessor in office, and was a trusted communicant between the emperor, and his senate in Rome.", "Macro spoke well of Caligula to Tiberius, attempting to quell any ill will or suspicion the Emperor held towards the youth; Macro also saved Caligula's life on several occasions.", "In 33, Tiberius gave the 20 year old Caligula an honorary quaestorship, the lowest ranking office in the '''' (course of offices); Caligula held this very junior post as a member of the Senate until his rise to emperor.", "Meanwhile, both Caligula's mother and his brother Drusus died in prison; Nero died in exile.", "In the same year, Tiberius arranged Caligula's marriage to Junia Claudilla, daughter of one of Tiberius' most influential allies in the Senate, Marcus Junius Silanus.", "Claudilla died in childbirth the following year, along with her baby.", "In the year 35, Caligula was named joint heir to Tiberius' estate along with Tiberius Gemellus, Tiberius' grandson.", "Gemellus was Caligula's junior by seven years, not yet an adult, but was otherwise a viable candidate for the throne; Tiberius seemed in good health, and likely to survive to Gemellus' majority.In Philo's account, Tiberius was genuinely fond of Gemellus, and feared for his safety should Caligula come to power.", "He also doubted Gemellus' personal capacity to rule.", "Suetonius claims that Tiberius, ever mistrustful but still shrewd in his mid 70's, saw through Caligula's apparent self-possession to an underlying \"erratic and unreliable\" temperament, not one to be trusted in government.", "Suetonius claims that Caligula was by this time already cruel and vicious, and that Tiberius deliberately indulged the young man's taste for theatre, dance and singing, in the hope that this would help soften his otherwise savage nature; \"he used to say now and then that to allow Gaius to live would prove the ruin of himself and of all men, and that he was rearing a viper for the Roman people and a Phaethon for the world.\"", "Winterling points out that this judgment draws on later, not particularly accurate accounts of Caligula's rule, and credits Tiberius with a knowledge of human nature which in reality was not only foreign to him, but famously unsound.", "At Capri, Caligula learned to dissimulate.", "He probably owed his life to that and, as all the ancient sources agree, to Macro.", "Many believed that given a little more time, Tiberius would have eliminated Caligula as a possible successor but died before this could be done.", "Caligula, who was virtually unknown to most, inexperienced in government and the day-to-day exercise of political power, was made emperor." ], [ "Emperor", "=== Early reign ===''Caligula Depositing the Ashes of his Mother and Brother in the Tomb of his Ancestors'', by Eustache Le Sueur, 1647.Tiberius died on 16 March AD 37, a day before the Liberalia festival.", "Suetonius and Tacitus repeat rumours that Caligula, possibly assisted by Macro, smothered Tiberius with a pillow.", "Philo, who wrote during Tiberius' reign, and Josephus, who served Nero a generation later, describe Tiberius' death as natural.", "On the same day, Caligula was hailed by members of the Praetorian guard at Misenum.", "His leadership of the ''domus Caesaris'' (\"Caesar's household\") as its sole heir and pater familias was ratified by the senate, who acclaimed him ''imperator'' two days later.", "When he arrived in Rome, on 28 March, the Senate conferred on him the \"right and power to decide on all affairs\".", "Tiberius' will, naming two heirs, was annulled with the standard justification that he had been insane, incapable of good judgment.", "Caligula continued to benefit from Macro's advice and ''savoir faire'' concerning the behaviour and manners appropriate to a ''princeps'' at banquets, games, law courts, debates and receptions of foreign dignitaries.", "Caligula took up a first consulship some months after succession.", "He refused the title ''pater patriae'' (\"father of the fatherland\") on the grounds of his youth, until the year 37.To legalise Caligula's succession, the Senate was compelled to constitutionally describe and define his role, but the rites and sacrifices to the living genius of the emperor already acknowledged his constitutionally unlimited powers over his \"friends\" and opponents alike.", "Each princeps was, in reality, a monarch who played the challenging role of ''primus inter pares'' (\"first among equals\") not through the exercise of policy but through self-restraint, decorum, persuasion and above all, tact; personal qualities in increasingly short supply to Caligula during his brief reign, Caligula's father, Germanicus, had been a superb diplomat, and a skilled orator.", "Caligula showed the beginnings of a considerable talent for oratory and diplomacy but once he became emperor, he tended to speak his mind, something Barrett describes as being of little value in politicsPhilo describes Caligula as the first emperor admired by \"all the world, from the rising to the setting sun.\"", "Suetonius writes that Caligula was loved by many, for being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus and for not being Tiberius.", "Three months of public rejoicing ushered in the new reign.", "Philo describes the first seven months of Caligula's reign as a \"Golden Age\" of happiness and prosperity.Although Tiberius' will had been set aside, Caligula honoured many of its terms.", "Tiberius had provided each praetorian guardsman with a generous gratitude payment of 500 sesterces.", "Caligula doubled this, and took credit for its payment as an act of personal generosity; he also paid bonuses to the city troops and the army outside Italy.", "Every citizen in Rome was given 150 sesterces, and heads of households twice that amount.", "Building projects on the Palatine hill and elsewhere were also announced, which would have been the largest of these expenditures.Caligula made a public show of burning Tiberius' secret papers, which outlined many of the senate's various acts of villainy, betrayal and treason against itself and the previous emperor.", "Caligula claimed - falsely, as it later turned out - that he had read none of these documents before burning them.", "He used coinage issues to advertise his restoration of the rule of law and reduced a backlog of court cases in Rome by adding more jurors and suspending the requirement that sentences be confirmed by imperial office.", "Stressing his descent from Augustus, he went in person to retrieve the remains of his mother and brothers for interment in the Mausoleum of Augustus.", "He granted his sisters and other family members, including Claudius – who had not been recognised as a member of the imperial household during Tiberius' reign – political and priestly honours.", "He began work on a temple to Livia, widow of Augustus; she held the honorific title of Augusta while still living, and was eventually made a ''diva'' (goddess) of the Roman state under Claudius.", "The temple had been vowed in her lifetime, but not constructed.", "Claudius was made Caligula's consular colleague in the new emperor's first consulship.Those whom Tiberius alone had supported lost out; most were purged, though not immediately.", "Philo reports that in late 37, Caligula suffered a serious illness, and hovered between life and death for some time.", "He was still a very popular emperor, and Rome's public places were filled by citizens who implored the gods for his recovery, some even offering themselves and their lives in return.", "When Caligula's health seemed restored, he embarked on what seems to have been a purge of suspected opponents.", "Gemellus, having been happily adopted into the Imperial dynasty as Caligula's son, and given the adult ''toga virilis'', was charged with having taken an antidote, \"implicitly accusing Caligula of wanting to poison him\"; he was forced to kill himself.", "Tiberius' political associate Silanus, senior senator, ex-consul, once Caligula's father-in-law, criticised by the historian Tacitus for his servile attitude, was executed as a supporter of Gemellus; in early 38, Caligula forced suicide on his Praetorian Prefect, Macro, without whose help and protection he would not have survived, let alone gained the throne as sole ruler.", "These purges suggest to Weidemann that \"the new emperor had learnt a great deal from Tiberius\" and \"that attempts to divide his reign into a 'good' beginning followed by unremitting atrocities... are misplaced\".", "This division into good and bad phases has variously been attributed to the death of Antonia in summer 37, Caligula's illness in autumn that year, or the death of Caligula's beloved sister Drusilla on 10 June AD 38.During his illness in AD 37, after Gemellus' death, Caligula named his brother-in-law, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as heir, marrying him to his sister Drusilla.", "Ancient sources allege that he and Lepidus were homosexual lovers.", "After Drusilla's death in June AD 38, she was deified in September the same year.===Public profile===Caligula shared many of the popular passions and enthusiasms of the lower classes and young aristocrats: public spectacles, particularly gladiator contests, chariot and horse racing, the theatre and gambling.", "He trained with professional gladiators and staged exceptionally lavish gladiator games, being granted exemption by the senate from the sumptuary laws that limited the number of gladiators to be kept in Rome.", "He largely ignored Macro's advice concerning imperial etiquette.", "Unlike his imperial predecessors, he was openly and vocally partisan in his uninhibited support or disapproval of particular charioteers, racing teams, gladiators and actors, shouting encouragement or scorn, sometimes singing along with paid performers or declaiming the actors' lines, and generally behaving as \"one of the crowd\".", "In chariot races, he supported the Greens, and raced as a member of the Green faction.", "Most of Rome's upper class would have thought this an unacceptable indignity for any of the elite, let alone their emperor.", "In these public appearances, Caligula seems to have shown little respect for distinctions of rank, status or privilege, least of all to the senate, whose members Tiberius had once described as \"men ready to be slaves\".", "Among those Caligula recalled from exile were actors and other public performers who had somehow caused Tiberius offence.", "On the whole, Caligula seems to have been most comfortable in the undemanding company of ''infames'', disreputable public performers, and the lower nobility (equestrians) rather than with the senators and nobles, whom he clearly and openly despised and humiliated for their insincere simulations of loyalty.Roman sources claim that Caligula forced equestrians and senators to fight in the arena as gladiators; Condemnation to the gladiator arena as a combatant was a standard punishment, doubling as public entertainment, for non-citizens found guilty of certain offences; Laws of AD 19 by Augustus and Tiberius banned voluntary elite participation in any public spectacles.", "The ban, which was never particularly effective, was broadly ignored in Caligula's reign.", "To reverse declining membership of the equestrian order, Caligula recruited new, wealthy members empire-wide, and scrupulously vetted the order's membership lists for signs of dishonesty or scandal.", "He seems to have ignored trivial misdemeanours, and would have anticipated the creation of \"new men\" (''novi homines'') in the senate house, who owed him a debt of gratitude for their advancement.", "During Caligula's illness two citizens, one of whom was an equestrian, offered to fight as gladiators if only the gods would spare the emperor's life.", "When Caligula recovered, he seems to have called in the debt, in what Winterling (2011) describes as insincere offers taken at face value: \"cynical, but not without wit of a kind\".=== Public reform and finance ===Quadrans celebrating the abolition of a tax in AD 38 by Caligula.", "The obverse of the coin contains a picture of a Pileus which symbolizes the liberation of the people from the tax burden.", "Caption: .The ''adlocutio cohortium'' of Caligula on a coin, giving a speech to the armyCaligula was quite capable of recognising decisions as flawed, including his own, or reversing them when faced with implacable opposition.", "He restored the right of the popular assembly (comitia) to elect magistrates on behalf of the common citizenry, a right that had been taken over by the Senate under Tiberius and Augustus.", "The aediles who managed public games and festivals, and maintained the fabric of roads and shrines would now have incentive to spend their own money on lavish spectacles, to win the popular vote.", "When the Senate outright refused to accept this, Caligula restored control of elections to them.", "Dio writes that restoring control of elections to common citizens \"though delighting the rabble, grieved the sensible, who stopped to reflect, that if the offices should fall once more into the hands of the many... many disasters would result\".", "In 38, Caligula lifted censorship, and published accounts of public funds and expenditure.", "Suetonius congratulated this as the first such act by any emperor.", "Caligula abandoned his plan to convert the Temple of Jerusalem to a temple of the Imperial cult, with a statue of himself as Zeus, when told that the plan would arouse extreme protests, and injure the local economy.", "He helped those who lost property in fires, abolished certain taxes, lavished gifts of money on his favourites, especially charioteers; and gave out prizes to the public at gymnastic events.", "Personal generosity and magnanimity, coupled with discretion and responsibility, were expected of the ruling elite, and the emperor in particular.Dio remarks the beginnings of a financial crisis in 39, and connects it to the cost of Caligula's bridge-building project at Baiae.", "Suetonius has presumably the same financial crisis starting in 38; he does not mention the bridge but lists a broad range of Caligula's extravagances, said to have exhausted the state treasury.", "Suetonius claims that Caligula squandered 2.7 billion sesterces in his first year.", "and addressed the consequent treasury deficit by confiscating the estates of wealthy individuals, after false accusations, fines or outright seizure, even the death penalty.", "The particular circumstances of each case are not known, and the victims are unnamed.", "Suetonius ignores or overlooks Caligula's inheritance of various debts and liabilities from the somewhat miserly Tiberius.", "They included the deceased empress Livia's bequest, which was vast, and was dispersed among public, private and religious beneficiaries.", "Barrett (2015) asserts that this \"massive cash injection would have given the Roman economy a tremendous boost\".To Wilkinson, Caligula's uninterrupted use of precious metals in coin issues does not suggest a bankrupt treasury, though there must have been a blurring of boundaries between Caligula's personal wealth, and his income as head of state.", "Caligula's immediate successor, Claudius, abolished taxes, embarked on various costly building projects and donated 15,000 sesterces to each Praetorian Guard in 41 as his own reign began, which suggests that Caligula had left him a solvent treasury.In the long term, the occasional windfall aside, Caligula's spending exceeded his income.", "Fund-raising through taxation became a major preoccupation.", "Caligula introduced an unprecedented range of taxes, and made their collection a duty of the notoriously forceful Praetorian Guard.", "Dio and Suetonius describe these taxes as \"shameful\": some were remarkably petty, and proved deeply unpopular.", "Caligula taxed \"taverns, artisans, slaves and the hiring of slaves\", edibles sold in the city, litigation anywhere in the Empire, weddings or marriages, the wages of porters \"or perhaps couriers\", and most infamously, a tax on prostitutes (active, retired or married) or their pimps, liable for \"a sum equivalent to a single transaction\".", "Individual liabilities for all these were fairly small, but Josephus claims that towards the end of Caligula's reign, taxes were doubled, and even then, the revenue was nowhere near enough.", "Much larger sums were yielded through wills or in conflicts.", "Property or money left to Tiberius but not collected on his death would have passed to Caligula, as the emperor's heir.", "Roman inheritance law recognised a legator's obligation to provide for his family; Caligula seems to have considered his fatherly duties to the state entitled him to a share of every will from pious subjects.", "The army was not exempt; centurions who left nothing or too little to the emperor could be judged guilty of ingratitude, and have their wills set aside.", "Centurions who had acquired property by plunder were forced to turn over their spoils to the state.=== Coinage ===Caligula did not change the structure of the monetary system established by Augustus and continued by Tiberius, but the contents of his coinage differed from theirs.", "The location of the imperial mint for the coins of precious metals (gold and silver) is a matter of debate among ancient numismatists.", "It seems that Caligula initially produced his precious coins from Lugdunum (now Lyon, France), like his predecessors, then moved the mint to Rome in 37–38, although it is possible that this move occurred later, under Nero.", "His base metal coinage was struck in Rome.Unlike Tiberius, whose coins remained almost unchanged throughout his reign, Caligula used a variety of types, mostly featuring Divus Augustus, as well as his parents Germanicus and Agrippina, his dead brothers Nero and Drusus, and his three sisters Agrippina, Drusilla, and Livilla.", "The reason for the extensive emphasis on his relatives was to highlight Caligula's double claim to the Principate, from both the Julian and Claudian sides of the dynasty, and to call for the unity of the family.", "The sestertius with his three sisters was discontinued after 39, due to Caligula's suspicion regarding their loyalty.", "He also made a sestertius celebrating the Praetorian cohorts as a mean to give them the bequest of Tiberius at the beginning of his reign.", "Caligula minted a quadrans, a small bronze coin, to mark the abolition of the ''ducentesima'', a 0.5% tax on sales.", "The output of the precious metal mints was small, and the sestertius were mostly made in limited quantities, which make their coins now very rare.", "This rarity cannot be attributed to Caligula's ''damnatio memoriae'' reported by Dio, as removing his coins from circulation would have been impossible; besides, Mark Antony's coins continued to circulate for two centuries after his death.", "Caligula's common coins are base metal types with Vesta, Germanicus, and Agrippina the Elder, and the most common is an as with his grandfather Agrippa.", "Finally, Caligula kept open the mint at Caesarea in Cappadocia, which had been created by Tiberius, in order to pay military expenses in the province with silver drachmae.Numismatists Harold Mattingly and Edward Sydenham consider that the artistic style of Caligula's coins is below those of Tiberius and Claudius; they especially criticize the portraits, which are too hard and lack details.=== Construction ===In the city of Rome, Caligula completed the temple of Augustus and the theatre of Pompey, began an amphitheatre beside the Saepta and enlarged the imperial palace.", "Later, he began the construction of aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, which Pliny the Elder considered to be engineering marvels.", "Caligula then built a large racetrack known as the ''circus of Gaius and Nero'' and had an Egyptian obelisk (now known as the \"Vatican Obelisk\") transported by sea and erected in the middle of Rome.", "Construction of the aqueduct Porta Maggiore started under his rule.At Syracuse, he repaired the city walls and temples.", "He had new roads built and pushed to keep roads in good condition throughout the empire: to this end, Caligula investigated the financial affairs of current and past highway commissioners.", "Those guilty of negligence, embezzlement or misuse of funds were forced to repay what they had dishonestly used, or fulfil their commissions at their own expense.", "Caligula had planned to rebuild the palace of Polycrates at Samos, to finish the temple of Didymaean Apollo at Ephesus and to found a city high up in the Alps.", "He also intended to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece and sent a chief centurion to survey the work.Among Caligula's various public works, Josephus mentions only the large-scale harbour extension at Rhegium and Sicily as being of benefit.", "It was probably intended to manage increased grain imports from Egypt.", "It was too far south to supply the city of Rome, so it might have been meant to supply Southern Italy.", "It was not finished.", "==== Ships at Nemi ====Reconstruction drawing of a palatial Nemi Ship of Caligula, by CM Knight-Smith (c. 1906)Caligula had two very large ships constructed at Lake Nemi.", "One was a floating palace, with plumbing and marble floors, and the other, slightly smaller, was a floating temple to Diana." ], [ "Conflict with the Senate", "In the course of 39, Caligula's increasingly tense relationship with his Senate deteriorated into outright hostility and confrontation.", "Dio notes, with approval, that Caligula allowed some equestrians senatorial honours, anticipating their later promotion to senator based on their personal merits; he goes on to write of denunciations and trials for treason, following Caligula's launch of invective at the entire senate, reviewing their current and past behaviour.", "He accused them of servility, treachery and hypocrisy in voting honours to Tiberius and Sejanus while they lived, and rescinding those honours once they were safely dead.", "Caligula's diatribes exposed the idealised ''princeps'' or First Senator as illusion and imposture.", "When the senate returned next day, they voted a thanksgiving to Caligula, as to a monarch, expressing gratitude for allowing them to live when others had died.", "Winterling suggests that Caligula's three subsequent consulships, sworn at the Rostra, were vain attempts to make amends, public statements of respect for the senators as his equals.", "Barrett perceives these later consulships as symbolic of Caligula's continued intention to dominate the senate and the state.", "He describes the change in Caligula's rule as a gradual unravelling, a \"descent into serious mismanagement and impenetrable mistrust\" - and latterly, into \"arbitrary terror\".Caligula had not, after all, destroyed Tiberius' records of treason trials.", "He reviewed them and decided that numerous senators discharged from Tiberius' court hearings seemed to have been guilty of conspiracy all along, against emperor and State - the worst form of ''maiestas'' (treason).", "Tiberius' treason trials had encouraged professional ''delatores'' (informers), who were loathed by the populace.", "Many of the accused had testified against each other, and against Caligula's own family.", "If they had acted against Caligula's family, then why not against Caligula himself?", "New investigations were launched; five senators, including the ruling consul, were found guilty and executed.", "Others were publicly shamed and degraded.", "In early September, Caligula dismissed the two suffect consuls, citing their inadequate, low key celebration of his birthday (August 31) and excessive attention to the anniversary of Actium (September 2), the last battle in a damaging civil war, which he found no cause for celebration.", "In response to the dismissal, one of the discharged consuls killed himself: Caligula may have suspected him of conspiracy.", "=== Incitatus ===Dio's account of Caligula's favourite racehorse, Incitatus (\"Swift\") includes Caligula's infamous proposal to make him a consul, and later, a priest of his own cult.", "This has become \"a byword for the promotion of incompetents\".", "Barrett describes it as one of Caligula's many oblique, malicious or darkly humorous insults, mostly directed at the senatorial class, but also against himself and his family; in this case, according to Winterling, he insults the consulars themselves; not only is their position in the emperor's gift but the ability of most consular candidates is equal to that of a horse.", "Woods believes it unlikely that Caligula meant to insult the post of consul, as he held this several times.", "Suetonius, probably failing to get the joke, repeats it as proof of Caligula's insanity, adding circumstantial details of extreme wealth and indulgence more usually expected of the senatorial class, including palaces, servants and golden goblets, and invitations to banquets.", "=== Bridge at Baiae ===In 39 or 40, according to Suetonius, Caligula ordered a temporary floating bridge to be built using a double line of ships as pontoons, earth-surfaced and stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae, near Naples, to the neighbouring port of Puteoli, with resting places between.", "Some ships were built on site but grain ships were requisitioned, brought to site, secured and temporarily resurfaced.", "Any practical purpose for the bridge is unclear; Winterling believes that it might have been intended as a ceremonial replacement for triumphal ceremony to mark Caligula's attempted invasion of Britain.", "A two-day ceremony was performed, with offerings to the sea-god Neptune and Invidia (Envy), and a satisfactory result, in that the sea remained completely calm.", "The bridge was said to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge across the Hellespont.", "On the first day, Caligula donned the supposed breastplate of Alexander the Great, and rode his favourite horse, Incitatus, across the bridge, perhaps defying a prediction, attributed by Suetonius to Tiberius' soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes, that Caligula had \"no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae\".", "On the second day, he rode the bridge from end to end several times at full tilt, accompanied by the soldiery, famous nobles and hostages.", "Seneca and Dio believed that grain imports were dangerously depleted by Caligula's re-purposing of Rome's grain ships as pontoons; for how long is unknown.", "Barrett finds these accusations absurd; if the bridge was finished in 39, that was far too early to have had any effect on the annual grain supply, and \"a genuine grain crisis was simply blamed on the most outlandish episode at hand.\"", "Dio places this episode soon after Caligula's furious denunciation of the Senate; Barrett speculates that Caligula may have intended the whole event as an object lesson on how completely he was in charge.=== Germany and the Rhine frontier ===In late 39 or early 40, Caligula ordered the concentration of military forces and supplies in upper Germany, and made his way there with a baggage train that supposedly included actors, gladiators, women, and a detachment of Praetorians.", "He might have meant to follow the paths of his father and grandfather, and attack the Germanic tribes along the upper Rhine; but he was ill-prepared, and retreated in a panic.", "According to Dio his achievement was negligible.", "Caligula used the opportunity to seize the wealth of rich allies whom he conveniently suspected of treason, \"putting some to death on the grounds that they were 'plotting' or 'rebelling'\".", "Caligula accused the Imperial legate, Gaetulicus, of \"nefarious plots\" (conspiracy), and had him executed - according to Dio, he was killed for being popular with his troops.", "Lepidus, along with Caligula's two sisters, Agrippina and Livilla, was accused of being part of this conspiracy; he too was executed and Caligula's two sisters were exiled after being condemned ''pro forma'' of adultery.", "A senatorial embassy was sent from Rome, headed by Caligula's uncle Claudius, congratulating the emperor for escaping this latest conspiracy.", "It met with a hostile reception, in which Claudius was ducked in the Rhine.", "Very late in his reign, possibly in its last few days, Caligula sent a communique in preparation for his imminent ovation in Rome, following his military activities in the North and his suppression of Lepidus.", "He announced that he would only be returning \"to those who wanted him back\"; to the \"Equestrians and the People\"; he did not mention the Senate or senators, of whom he had grown increasingly mistrustful.===Caligula's auctions===In late 39, Caligula wintered at Lugdunum (modern Lyon) in Gaul, where he auctioned off his sisters' portable property, including their jewellery, slaves and freedmen.", "Lugdunum was a wealthy provincial capital, and elite bidders were seemingly prepared to pay far more than items were worth, to show their loyalty.", "Caligula is said to have auctioned off gladiators to wealthy spectators after matches, using intimidation and various auctioneer's tricks and tactics to boost prices.", "Caligula's auctions of his surviving gladiators after arena matches are said to have been extremely profitable, but the context and locations are confused.", "In an event that Suetonius describes as \"well lnown\", a Praetorian gentleman, nodding off after a match, woke to find that he had bought 13 gladiators for the vastly over-inflated sum of 9 million ''sesterces''.", "Caligula's first Lugdunum auction proved such a successful fundraiser that he had many of the furnishings of his palace in Rome carted to Lugdunum and auctioned off; they included many precious family heirlooms.", "Caligula recited their provenance during the auction, in an attempt to help ensure a fair return on objects intrinsically valuable, and seemingly much sought after by the wealthy for their Imperial associations.Income from this second auction was relatively lower.", "Kleijwegt (1996) describes Caligula's performance as vendor and auctioneer at this second auction as \"completely out of character with the image of a tyrant\".", "Auctions of Imperial property were acceptable ways to \"balance the books\", practiced by Augustus and later, by Trajan; they were expected to benefit the bidders as well as the vendor; Roman auctioneers were held in very low esteem, but Kleijwegt claims that Caligula seems to have behaved more like a benevolent ''princeps'' in this second auction, without malice, greed or intimidation.=== Western expansion ===Map of the Roman Empire and neighboring states during the reign of Gaius Caligula (AD 37–41) In 40, Caligula expanded the Roman Empire into Mauretania, a client kingdom of Rome ruled by Ptolemy of Mauretania.", "Caligula invited Ptolemy to Rome and then suddenly had him executed.", "Mauretania was annexed by Caligula and subsequently divided into two provinces, Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis, separated by the river Malua.", "Pliny claims that division was the work of Caligula, but Dio states that in 42 an uprising took place, which was subdued by Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, and the division only took place after this.", "This confusion might mean that Caligula decided to divide the province, but the division was postponed because of the rebellion.", "The first known equestrian governor of the two provinces was Marcus Fadius Celer Flavianus, in office in 44.Details on the Mauretanian events of 39–44 are unclear.", "Cassius Dio wrote an entire chapter on the annexation of Mauretania by Caligula, but it is now lost.", "Caligula's move seemingly had a strictly personal political motive – fear and jealousy of his cousin Ptolemy – and thus the expansion may not have been prompted by pressing military or economic needs.", "The rebellion of Tacfarinas had shown how exposed Africa Proconsularis was to its west and how the Mauretanian client kings were unable to provide protection to the province, and it is thus possible that Caligula's expansion was a prudent response to potential future threats.=== Britannia and the North ===Caligula tried to extend Roman rule into Britannia.", "Two legions had been raised for this purpose, both likely named ''Primigeniae'' in honour of Caligula's newborn daughter.", "Ancient sources depict Caligula as being too cowardly to have attacked or as mad, but stories of his threatening a decimation of his troops indicate mutinies.", "Broadly, \"it is impossible to judge why the army never embarked\" on the invasion.", "Beyond mutinies, it may have simply been that British chieftains acceded to Rome's demands, removing any justification for war.", "Alternatively, it could have been merely a training and scouting mission or a short expedition to accept the surrender of the British chieftain Adminius.", "Suetonius reports that Caligula ordered his men to collect seashells as \"spoils of the sea\"; this may also be a mistranslation to , meaning siege engines.", "The conquest of Britannia was later achieved during the reign of his successor, Claudius.=== Judaea and Egypt ===Caligula's reign saw an increase of tensions between Jews native to their homeland of Judea, Jews of the diaspora, and ethnic Greeks.", "Greeks and Jews had settled throughout the Roman Empire and Judaea was ruled as a Roman client kingdom.", "Jews and Greeks had settled in Egypt following its conquest by Macedonian Greeks, and remained there after its conquest by Rome.", "The causes of tensions between these communities were complex, involving the spread of Greek culture, Roman law the rights of Jews in the empire; most evident of all were their differences in religious practices and prohibitions.", "While the Alexandrian Greeks held citizen status, Alexandrian Jews were classified as mere settlers, with no citizen rights.", "The Greeks feared that official recognition of Jews as citizens would undermine their own status and privilege.When Caligula became emperor, he appointed his good friend Herod Agrippa as governor of Batanaea and Trachonitis.", "Caligula did not trust the prefect of Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus.", "Flaccus had been loyal to Tiberius, had conspired against Caligula's mother and had connections with Egyptian separatists.", "In 38, Caligula sent Agrippa to Alexandria unannounced to check on Flaccus.", "According to Philo, the visit was met with jeers from the Greek population who saw Agrippa as the king of the Jews.", "In Philo's account, a mob of Greeks broke into synagogues to erect statues of Caligula, against Jewish religious law.", "Flaccus responded by declaring the Jews \"foreigners and aliens\", and expelled them from all but one of Alexandria's five districts, where they lived under dreadful conditions.", "Philo gives an account of various atrocities inflicted on Alexandria's Jews within and around this ghetto by the city's Greek population.", "Caligula held Flaccus responsible for the disturbances, exiled him, and eventually executed him.", "In 39, Agrippa accused his uncle Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia.", "Herod Antipas confessed and Caligula exiled him.", "Agrippa was rewarded with his territories.", "Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 between Jews and Greeks, when Jews who refused to worship the emperor as a god were accused of not honouring him.", "In the Judaean city of Jamnia, resident Greeks built an insultingly shoddy altar to the Imperial cult, using the cheapest possible materials.", "Jews immediately tore it down.", "In response, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem, a political, rather than a religious act for Rome, but deeply irreligious for the Jews, and in conflict with Jewish monotheism.", "In this context, Philo wrote that Caligula \"regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his\".The Governor of Syria, Publius Petronius, fearing civil war if the order were carried out, delayed implementing it for nearly a year.", "Agrippa eventually helped persuade Caligula to cancel the order.", "Then Caligula changed his mind again, issued a second order to have his statue erected in the Temple of Jerusalem and threatened Petronius with forced suicide if he failed.", "In Rome, another collosal statue of himself was made of gilt brass, and despatched.", "According to Josephus, the ship carrying the statue was still underway when news of Caligula's death reached Petronius, so the statue was never installed.In the year 40, Caligula announced to the Senate that he planned to leave Rome permanently, move to Alexandria, and rule from there as a divine monarch, a Roman pharaoh: wherever the emperor went was the seat of Rome's power.", "Augustus had made Egypt a so-called \"Imperial province\", under his direct control, rather than that of the Senate.", "It was the main source of Italy's grain supply, and was administered by members of the equestrian order who were directly responsible to the ruling emperor.", "Senators had very little control of its affairs, despite their higher status; Egypt was, more or less, Caligula's property, to dispose of as he wished.=== Divinity ===Roma, a personification of RomeWhen Tiberius died, hated by his subjects, Caligula dutifully asked the Senate to approve his deification but was turned down, in line with senatorial and popular opinion.", "Caligula did not push the issue.", "He gave Tiberius a magnificent, long drawn out funeral at public expense, and a tearful eulogy.", "In the first six months of his reign, he made a good impression, refusing costly honours such as statuary of himself, and apparently promising to share power with his senate, as ''primus inter pares'' (\"first among equals\"); but at some time early in his short reign, possibly following a near-mortal illness of late 37 AD, this changed.Philo, Caligula's contemporary, claims that Caligula costumed himself as various heroes and deities, starting with demigods such as Dionysos, Herakles and the Dioscuri, and working up to major deities such as Mercury, Venus and Apollo.", "Philo describes these impersonations in a context of private pantomime or theatrical performances, as evidence that Caligula wanted to be a god himself, and be venerated as such while living.", "To Philo, as a Jew and a monotheist, this was proof of the emperor's insanity; Early in his imperial career, Augustus had thrown a party in which he and his guests dressed up as the Olympian gods; Augustus was made up and dressed as Apollo.", "No-one was thought insane in consequence, and none claimed to be the god they impersonated; but the event proved \"a public relations nightmare\", not irreligious but as an example of scandalously bad taste.", "Augustus did not repeat it.", "Dio claims that Caligula impersonated Jupiter to seduce various women; that he sometimes referred to himself as a divinity in public meetings; and that he was sometimes referred to as \"Jupiter\" in public documents.", "Caligula's special interest in Jupiter as Rome's chief deity is confirmed by all surviving sources.", "Simpson believes that Caligula may have considered Jupiter an equal, perhaps a rival.", "To Gradel, Caligula's performances as various deities prove no more than a penchant for theatrical fancy-dress and a mischievous desire to shock; as emperor, Caligula was also ''pontifex maximus'', one of Rome's most powerful and influential state priests.", "The promotion of mortals to godlike status, based on their superior standing and perceived merits, was also a well established feature of Roman culture; a client could flatter their living patron as \"Jupiter on earth\", without reprimand.", "Cicero could protest at the implications of Caesar's divine honours but address Publius Lentulus as ''parens ac deus'' (parent and god) to thank him for his help, as aedile, against the conspirator Cataline.", "Daily reverence was offered as a matter of course to patrons, heads of household and the powerful by their clients, families and social inferiors.", "In 30 BC, libation-offerings to the ''genius'' of Octavian (later Augustus) became a duty at public and private banquets, and from 12 BC, state oaths were sworn by the ''genius'' of Augustus as the living emperor.", "There is abundant evidence of municipal cult to Augustus in Italy and elsewhere, localy organised and financed.", "As Gradel observes, no Roman was ever prosecuted for sacrificing to his emperor.Caligula seems to have taken his own religious duties very seriously.", "He found a replacement for the aged priest of Diana at Lake Nemi, reorganised the Salii (priests of Mars), and pedantically insisted that as it was ''nefas'' (religiously improper) for Jupiter's leading priest, the Flamen Dialis, to swear any oath, he could not swearthe imperial oath of loyalty.", "Caligula wished to take over or share the half-finished but splendid Temple of Apollo (Didyma) for his own cult.", "Seemingly, his statue was prepared, but when Pausanias visited the still-unfinished temple, its cult statue was of Apollo.Contemporary statue portraying Caligula in his capacity as ''pontifex maximus''A temple to Caligula in the city of Rome is mentioned by Suetonius, Dio and no others.", "Most modern scholarship agrees that if such a temple existed, it was probably on the Palatine.", "Augustus had already linked the Temple of Castor and Pollux directly to his imperial residence on the Palatine, and established an official priesthood of lesser magistrates to serve its cults, the ''seviri Augustales'', usually promoted from his own freedmen to serve the ''genius Augusti'' (his \"family spirit\") and Lares (the twin ancestral spirits of his household).", "Dio claims that Caligula stationed himself to receive veneration, dressed as Jupiter Latiaris, between the images of Castor and Pollux, the twin Dioscuri, to whom he humorously referred as his doorkeepers.", "Dio claims that two temples were built for Caligula in Rome: but no confirmation has been found for this.", "Simpson believes it likely that Caligula, voted a temple on the Palatine by the Senate, funded it himself.", "An embassy from Greek states to Rome greeted Caligula as the \"new god Augustus\".", "In the Greek city of Cyzicus, a public inscription from the beginning of Caligula's reign gives thanks to him as a \"New Sun-god\".", "Egyptian provincial coinage and some state ''dupondii'' show Caligula enthroned; the first reigning Roman ''princeps'' to be described as the \"New Sun\", () with the radiate crown of the Sun-god, or of Caligula's divine antecedent, the Augustus.", "Caligula's image on other state coinage carries no such \"trappings of divinity\".", "Compared to the full-blown cults to major deities of state, ''genius'' cults were quite modest in scope.", "Augustus, once deceased, was officially worshipped as a - immortal, but somewhat less than a full-blown deity; Tiberius, his successor, forbade his own personal cult outright in Rome itself, probably in consideration of Julius Caesar's assassination following his hubristic promotion as a living divinity.Caligula sold priesthoods for his unofficial ''genius'' cult to the wealthiest nobles, for a ''per capita'' fee of 10 million ''sesterces''.", "His priests supposedly included his wife, Caesonia, and his uncle Claudius, who was bankrupted by the cost.", "The circumstances mark this out as private cult and personal humiliation, contained among the wealthy elite, and not subsidised by the Roman state.", "Throughout his reign, Caligula seems to have remained popular with the masses, in Rome and the empire.", "There is no sound evidence that he caused the removal, replacement or imposition of Roman or other deities, or even that he threatened to do so, outside the hostile anecdotes of his biographers.", "Barrett (2015) asserts that the \"emphatic and unequivocal message of the material evidence is that Caligula had no desire for the world to identify him as a god, even if, like most people, he enjoyed being treated like one.\"", "He seems to have taken his own ''genius'' cult very seriously.", "Caligula's fatal offense was to willfully \"insult or offend everyone who mattered\", including the military officers who assassinated him.=== Assassination and aftermath ===''The Assassination of the Emperor Caligula'', by Lazzaro Baldi, between 1624 and 1703Caligula was assassinated on 24 January 41, the day before his due departure for Alexandria, by the Praetorian tribunes Cassius Chaerea and Cornelius Sabinus, helped by a number of centurions.", "The main, near contemporary source for the assassination is Josephus, who names many close to Caligula as conspirators.", "Dio seems to have had access to a senatorial version which purported to name many others.", "More likely, the conspiracy involved very few, and not all need have been directly in touch with each other.", "The fewer who knew, the greater the chance of success.", "Previous attempts had foundered or faded out when faced with the rewards and risks of betrayal by colleagues, whether through torture, fear of torture or promised reward.", "The Senate was a disunited body of self interested, wealthy and mistrustful aristocrats, unwilling to risk their own prospects, and determined to present a virtuous, selfless front.", "In Josephus' account of Caligula's assassination, Chaerea was a \"noble idealist\", deeply committed to \"Republican liberties\"; he was also motivated by resentment of Caligula's routine personal insults and mockery.", "Suetonius and all other sources confirm that Caligula had insulted Chaerea, giving him watchwords like the ribald \"Priapus\"; or \"Venus\" the latter said to refer to Chaerea's weak, high voice, and either his soft-hearted attitude when collecting taxes, or his collection of the tax on prostitutes.", "He was also known to do Caligula's \"dirty work\" for him, including torture.", "Chaerea, Sabinus and others accosted Caligula as he addressed an acting troupe of young men beneath the palace during a series of games and dramatics being held for the ''Divus'' Augustus.", "The source details vary, but all agree that Chaerea was first to stab Caligula.", "The narrow space available offered little room for escape or rescue, and by the time Caligula's loyal Germanic guard could come to his defence, their Emperor was already dead.", "They killed several of Caligula's party, including some innocent senators and bystanders, and only stopped when the Praetorians took control.", "Josephus reports that the Senate tried to use Caligula's death as an opportunity to restore the Republic.", "This would have meant the abolition of the office of emperor, the end of dynastic rule, and restoration of the former social stature and privilege of nobles and senators.", "At least one senator, Lucius Annius Vinicianus, seems to have thought it an opportunity for a takeover.", "Some modern scholars believe he was the conspiracy's main instigator.", "Most ordinary citizens were taken aback by Caligula's murder, and found no cause to celebrate in losing the benefits of his rule.", "Almost all the named conspirators were from the elite.", "When Caligula's death was confirmed, the nobles and senators who had prospered through hypocrisy and sycophancy during his reign dared to claim prior knowledge of the plot, and therefore shared the credit for its success with their peers.", "Others sought to distance themselves from anything to do with the assassination.", "The assassins, fearing continued support for Caligula's family and allies, sought out and murdered Caligula's wife, Caesonia, and their young daughter Julia Drusilla.", "but were unable to reach Caligula's uncle, Claudius.", "In the traditional account, a soldier, Gratus, found Claudius hiding behind a palace curtain.", "A sympathetic faction of the Praetorian Guard smuggled him out to their nearby camp, and nominated him as emperor.", "The Senate, faced with what now seemed inevitable, made Claudius emperor.", "Caligula's \"most powerful and universally feared adviser\", the freedman Callistus, may have engineered this succession, having discretely shifted his loyalty from Caligula to Claudius while Caligula lived.", "The killing of Caligula had been extralegal, without due process of law, and those who carried it out had broken their oaths of loyalty.", "It was tantamount to regicide.", "Claudius, as a prospective replacement for Caligula, could acknowledge his predecessor's failings but could not be seen to condone his murder, or find fault with the principate as an institution.", "Caligula had been popular with a clear majority of Rome's lesser citizenry, and the Senate could not afford to ignore the fact.", "Claudius appointed a new Praetorian prefect, and executed Chaerea, a tribune named Lupus, and the centurions involved.", "He allowed Sabinus to commit suicide.", "Claudius refused the Senate's requests to formally declare Caligula ''hostis'' (a public enemy), or condemn his memory (see Damnatio memoriae).", "He also turned down a proposal to officially condemn all the Caesars and destroy their temples.", "Caligula's name was removed from the official lists of oaths and dedications; but Certain of Caligula's statues and inscriptions were discretely removed but most of his statues had the heads recut, to resemble Augustus, or Claudius, or in one case, Nero, who would suffer a similar fate.According to Suetonius, Caligula's body was placed under turf until it was burned and entombed by his sisters.=== Private life ===Caligula's first wife was Junia Claudia, daughter of ex-consul Marcus Junius Silanus.", "Like most marriages in Rome's upper echelons, this was a political alliance.", "Junia died in childbirth, along with her baby, less than a year later.", "Soon after, Macro seems to have persuaded his wife, Ennia Thrasylla to take up a sexual affair with Caligula, perhaps to help him through the loss.", "The sources are somewhat contradictory on the matter of Caligula's sex life.", "He is said to have had \"enormous\" appetites, several mistresses and male lovers, but in relation to the alleged \"perversions\" practised at Corfu by Tiberius and, in some sources, by himself, he appears remarkably prudish in expelling the ''spintriae'' from the island on his accession.", "He was briefly married to Livia Orestilla.", "His marriage to the \"Beautiful... very wealthy\" and extravagant Lollia Paulina was quickly followed by divorce.", "His fourth and last marriage, to Caesonia, seems to have been a love-match, in which he was both \"uxorious and monogamous\", and fathered a daughter.", "Caligula named her Julia Drusilla, in commemoration of his late sister.", "Caligula's contemporaries could not understand her appeal to Caligula.", "Some believed that she must have given him a love potion, which turned his mind and brought on his \"madness\".Allegations of incest between Caligula and his sisters, or just his favourite, Drusilla, go back no further than Suetonius, who admits that in his own time, they were hearsay.", "Seneca and Philo, moralistic contemporaries of Caligula, do not mention these stories even when, after Caligula's death, it would have been safe to do so.", "Then and now, allegations of incest fit the amoral, \"mad Emperor\" stereotype, promiscuous with money, sex and the lives of his subjects.", "Dio repeats, as fact, the allegation that Caligula had \"improper relations\" with his two older sisters, Agrippina and Livilla.Marble bust of Caligula with traces of original paint beside a plaster replica trying to recreate the polychrome traditions of ancient sculptureSo-called \"little bust\" of Caligula, found in the River Tiber in Rome=== Source opinions ===Roman sestertius depicting Caligula, AD 38.The reverse shows Caligula's three sisters, Agrippina, Drusilla and Livilla, with whom Caligula was rumoured to have carried on incestuous relationships.", "Caption: C. CAESAR AVG.", "GERMANICVS PON.", "M. TR.", "POT.", "/ AGRIPPINA DRVSILLA IVLIA S. C.There is no real or reliable evidence of Caligula's mental state at any time in his life.", "In the course of their narratives, all the primary and contemporary sources give reasons to discredit and ultimately condemn him, for offences against proprieties of class or religion or both.", "They are unreliable guides to Caligula himself, or his motives.", "\"Thus, his acts should be seen from other angles, and the search for 'mad Caligula' abandoned\"Philo and Seneca the Younger, contemporaries of Caligula, describe him as insane, self-absorbed and short-tempered, murderous, profligate and sexually voracious.", "He is accused of sleeping with other men's wives and bragging about it and killing for mere amusement.", "Once, at some games at which he was presiding, he was said to have ordered his guards to throw an entire section of the audience into the arena during the intermission to be eaten by the wild beasts because there were no prisoners to be used and he was bored.", "Barrett considered Dio’s report to be a garbled version of Suetonius’ account that Caligula resorted to feeding criminals to wild beasts when the cost of using cattle became too excessive.While repeating these earlier stories, the later sources of Suetonius and Cassius Dio accuse Caligula of incest with his sisters, Agrippina the Younger, Drusilla, and Livilla, and say that he prostituted them to other men.", "They also mention sexual affairs with various men including his brother-in-law Marcus Lepidus.", "They say he sent troops on illogical military exercises and turned the palace into a brothel.Philo, Josephus and Seneca see Caligula's apparent \"insanity\" as a personality trait accentuated through self-indulgence and the unlimited exercise of power.", "Seneca states that Caligula became arrogant, angry and insulting once he became emperor.", "Philo claims that Caligula became more ruthless after nearly dying of an illness in the eighth month of his reign (in 37).", "Several modern sources offer medical diagnoses including encephalitis, epilepsy and meningitis.", "Suetonius claims that Caligula had \"falling sickness\" (epilepsy in his youth; Benediktson refines this to a diagnosis of Interictal Temporal Lobe Epilepsy, and a consequent fear of seizures that prevented his learning to swim.", "In Romano-Greek medical theory, severe epilepsy attacks were associated with the full moon and the moon goddess Selene, with whom Caligula was claimed to converse and enjoy sexual congress.Suetonius' descriptions of Caligula's appearance as repulsive are unreliable and unlikely, considering his ecstatic and enthusiastic reception by the populace.=== Contemporary historiography ===Fanciful Renaissance depiction of CaligulaThe facts and circumstances of Caligula's reign are mostly lost to history.", "Two major literary sources contemporary with Caligula have survived – the works of Philo and Seneca the Younger.", "Philo's works, ''On the Embassy to Gaius'' and ''Flaccus'', give some details on Caligula's early reign, but mostly focus on events surrounding the Jewish population in Judea and Egypt with whom he sympathizes.", "Seneca's various works give mostly scattered anecdotes on Caligula's personality.", "Seneca was almost put to death by Caligula in AD 39, probably due to his associations with conspirators.", "At one time, there were detailed contemporaneous histories on Caligula, but they are now lost.", "Tacitus describes them as biased, either overly critical or praising Caligula.", "Nonetheless, these lost primary sources, along with the works of Seneca and Philo, were the basis of subsequent histories.", "Fabius Rusticus and Cluvius Rufus both wrote histories condemning Caligula.", "They are now lost, but Tacitus describes Fabius Rusticus as a friend of Seneca, and prone to embellishments and misrepresentations.", "Cluvius Rufus was a senator involved in Caligula's assassination.Caligula's sister, Agrippina the Younger, wrote an autobiography that included a detailed account of Caligula's reign, but it too is lost.", "Agrippina was banished by Caligula for her connection to Marcus Lepidus, who conspired against him.", "The inheritance of Nero, Agrippina's son and the future emperor, was seized by Caligula.", "Gaetulicus, a poet, produced a number of flattering writings about Caligula, but they are lost.", "Suetonius wrote his biography of Caligula 80 years after his assassination, and Cassius Dio over 180 years after.", "Dio's work offers a loose chronology.", "Josephus gives a detailed description of Caligula's assassination.", "Tacitus provides some information on Caligula's life under Tiberius.", "In a now lost portion of his ''Annals'', Tacitus gave a detailed history of Caligula.", "Pliny the Elder's ''Natural History'' has a few brief references to Caligula.", "None of the few surviving sources paints Caligula in a favourable light.", "The paucity of sources has resulted in significant gaps in modern knowledge of the reign of Caligula.", "Little is written on the first two years of Caligula's reign, and there are only limited details on later significant events, such as the annexation of Mauretania, Caligula's military actions in Britannia, and his feud with the Roman Senate, whose class provides, almost without exception, the most blatantly hostile accounts of Caligula the man, his reign and his various infamies." ], [ "Modern depictions", "=== In film and series ===* Welsh actor Emlyn Williams was cast as Caligula in the never-completed 1937 film ''I, Claudius''.", "* He was played by Ralph Bates in the 1968 ITV historical drama series, ''The Caesars''.", "* American actor Jay Robinson famously portrayed a sinister and scene-stealing Caligula in two epic films of the 1950s, ''The Robe'' (1953) and its sequel ''Demetrius and the Gladiators'' (1954).", "* He was played by John Hurt in the 1976 BBC mini-series ''I, Claudius''.", "* A feature-length historical film ''Caligula'' was completed in 1979 with Malcolm McDowell in the lead role.", "* He was portrayed by David Brandon in the 1982 historical exploitation film ''Caligula...", "The Untold Story''.", "* He was played by Alexis Arquette in two episodes of Xena: Warrior Princess, \"The God You Know\" (aired on January 29, 2001) and \"You Are There\" (aired February 5, 2001).", "* Caligula is a character in the 2015 NBC series ''A.D.", "The Bible Continues'' and is played by British actor Andrew Gower.", "His portrayal emphasises Caligula's \"debauched and dangerous\" persona as well as his sexual appetite, quick temper, and violent nature.", "* The third season of the ''Roman Empire'' series (released on Netflix in 2019) is named ''Caligula: The Mad Emperor'' with South African actor Ido Drent in the leading role.", "* In the award-winning BBC show ''Horrible Histories'' he is portrayed by Simon Farnaby.=== In literature and theatre ===* ''Kajus Cezar Caligula'', by Polish author Karol Hubert Rostworowski, is a play premiered in Juliusz Słowacki City Theater, Cracow, 31 March 1917.The title character is presented as a weak and unhappy man who became a victim of circumstances that brought him to power that surpassed him.", "* ''Caligula'', by French author Albert Camus, is a play in which Caligula returns after deserting the palace for three days and three nights following the death of his beloved sister, Drusilla.", "The young emperor then uses his unfettered power to \"bring the impossible into the realm of the likely\".", "* In the 1934 novel ''I, Claudius'' by English writer Robert Graves, Caligula is presented as a murderous sociopath who became clinically insane early in his reign.", "In the novel, at the age of only ten, Caligula drove his father Germanicus to a state of despair and death by secretly terrorizing him.", "Graves' Caligula commits incest with all three of his sisters and is implied to have murdered Drusilla.", "The novel was adapted for television in the 1976 BBC mini-series of the same name.", "* The life of Incitatus, Caesar's favorite horse, is the subject of Polish poet Zbigniew Herbert's poem ''Kaligula'' (in ''Pan Cogito'', 1974), and his political career.", "* A deified Caligula is the antagonist of the 2018 The Trials of Apollo novel ''The Burning Maze'' by Rick Riordan.", "He is presented as an insane tyrant who has returned from the dead - along with Commodus and Emperor Nero - to try to take over the modern world.", "His horse, Incitatus, also appears.=== In opera ===*A young Caligula appears as one of the characters in Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber's opera ''Arminio''.", "*Caligula is the main character in Detlev Glanert's opera ''Caligula'', based on the Albert Camus play.", "*Different composers from the Baroque era appear to have composed operatic works about Caligula, but most of these have been lost." ], [ "See also", "* List of Roman emperors" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Modern sources===* * * * * * * * ===Ancient sources===***'' On the Embassy to Gaius''**'' Flaccus''**'' On Firmness''**'' On Anger''**'' On Tranquility of Mind''**'' On the Shortness of Life''******" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* The portrait of Caligula in the Digital Sculpture Project* Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis* Franz Lidz, \"Caligula's Garden of Delights, Unearthed and Restored\", New York Times, Jan. 12, 2021" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Church–Turing thesis" ], [ "Introduction", "In computability theory, the '''Church–Turing thesis''' (also known as '''computability thesis''', the '''Turing–Church thesis''', the '''Church–Turing conjecture''', '''Church's thesis''', '''Church's conjecture''', and '''Turing's thesis''') is a thesis about the nature of computable functions.", "It states that a function on the natural numbers can be calculated by an effective method if and only if it is computable by a Turing machine.", "The thesis is named after American mathematician Alonzo Church and the British mathematician Alan Turing.", "Before the precise definition of computable function, mathematicians often used the informal term effectively calculable to describe functions that are computable by paper-and-pencil methods.", "In the 1930s, several independent attempts were made to formalize the notion of computability:* In 1933, Kurt Gödel, with Jacques Herbrand, formalized the definition of the class of general recursive functions: the smallest class of functions (with arbitrarily many arguments) that is closed under composition, recursion, and minimization, and includes zero, successor, and all projections.", "* In 1936, Alonzo Church created a method for defining functions called the λ-calculus.", "Within λ-calculus, he defined an encoding of the natural numbers called the Church numerals.", "A function on the natural numbers is called λ-computable if the corresponding function on the Church numerals can be represented by a term of the λ-calculus.", "* Also in 1936, before learning of Church's work, Alan Turing created a theoretical model for machines, now called Turing machines, that could carry out calculations from inputs by manipulating symbols on a tape.", "Given a suitable encoding of the natural numbers as sequences of symbols, a function on the natural numbers is called Turing computable if some Turing machine computes the corresponding function on encoded natural numbers.Church, Kleene, and Turing proved that these three formally defined classes of computable functions coincide: a function is λ-computable if and only if it is Turing computable, and if and only if it is ''general recursive''.", "This has led mathematicians and computer scientists to believe that the concept of computability is accurately characterized by these three equivalent processes.", "Other formal attempts to characterize computability have subsequently strengthened this belief (see below).On the other hand, the Church–Turing thesis states that the above three formally-defined classes of computable functions coincide with the ''informal'' notion of an effectively calculable function.", "Although the thesis has near-universal acceptance, it cannot be formally proven, as the concept of effective calculability is only informally defined.Since its inception, variations on the original thesis have arisen, including statements about what can physically be realized by a computer in our universe (physical Church-Turing thesis) and what can be efficiently computed (Church–Turing thesis (complexity theory)).", "These variations are not due to Church or Turing, but arise from later work in complexity theory and digital physics.", "The thesis also has implications for the philosophy of mind (see below)." ], [ "Statement in Church's and Turing's words", " addresses the notion of \"effective computability\" as follows: \"Clearly the existence of CC and RC (Church's and Rosser's proofs) presupposes a precise definition of 'effective'.", "'Effective method' is here used in the rather special sense of a method each step of which is precisely predetermined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps\".", "Thus the adverb-adjective \"effective\" is used in a sense of \"1a: producing a decided, decisive, or desired effect\", and \"capable of producing a result\".In the following, the words \"effectively calculable\" will mean \"produced by any intuitively 'effective' means whatsoever\" and \"effectively computable\" will mean \"produced by a Turing-machine or equivalent mechanical device\".", "Turing's \"definitions\" given in a footnote in his 1938 Ph.D. thesis ''Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals'', supervised by Church, are virtually the same: We shall use the expression \"computable function\" to mean a function calculable by a machine, and let \"effectively calculable\" refer to the intuitive idea without particular identification with any one of these definitions.The thesis can be stated as: ''Every effectively calculable function is a computable function''.Church also stated that \"No computational procedure will be considered as an algorithm unless it can be represented as a Turing Machine\".Turing stated it this way:It was stated ... that \"a function is effectively calculable if its values can be found by some purely mechanical process\".", "We may take this literally, understanding that by a purely mechanical process one which could be carried out by a machine.", "The development ... leads to ... an identification of computability with effective calculability.", "is the footnote quoted above." ], [ "History", "One of the important problems for logicians in the 1930s was the Entscheidungsproblem of David Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann, which asked whether there was a mechanical procedure for separating mathematical truths from mathematical falsehoods.", "This quest required that the notion of \"algorithm\" or \"effective calculability\" be pinned down, at least well enough for the quest to begin.", "But from the very outset Alonzo Church's attempts began with a debate that continues to this day.", "the notion of \"effective calculability\" to be (i) an \"axiom or axioms\" in an axiomatic system, (ii) merely a ''definition'' that \"identified\" two or more propositions, (iii) an ''empirical hypothesis'' to be verified by observation of natural events, or (iv) just ''a proposal'' for the sake of argument (i.e.", "a \"thesis\").=== Circa 1930–1952 ===In the course of studying the problem, Church and his student Stephen Kleene introduced the notion of λ-definable functions, and they were able to prove that several large classes of functions frequently encountered in number theory were λ-definable.", "The debate began when Church proposed to Gödel that one should define the \"effectively computable\" functions as the λ-definable functions.", "Gödel, however, was not convinced and called the proposal \"thoroughly unsatisfactory\".", "Rather, in correspondence with Church (c. 1934–1935), Gödel proposed ''axiomatizing'' the notion of \"effective calculability\"; indeed, in a 1935 letter to Kleene, Church reported that:But Gödel offered no further guidance.", "Eventually, he would suggest his recursion, modified by Herbrand's suggestion, that Gödel had detailed in his 1934 lectures in Princeton NJ (Kleene and Rosser transcribed the notes).", "But he did not think that the two ideas could be satisfactorily identified \"except heuristically\".Next, it was necessary to identify and prove the equivalence of two notions of effective calculability.", "Equipped with the λ-calculus and \"general\" recursion, Kleene with help of Church and J. Barkley Rosser produced proofs (1933, 1935) to show that the two calculi are equivalent.", "Church subsequently modified his methods to include use of Herbrand–Gödel recursion and then proved (1936) that the Entscheidungsproblem is unsolvable: there is no algorithm that can determine whether a well formed formula has a beta normal form.Many years later in a letter to Davis (c. 1965), Gödel said that \"he was, at the time of these 1934 lectures, not at all convinced that his concept of recursion comprised all possible recursions\".", "By 1963–1964 Gödel would disavow Herbrand–Gödel recursion and the λ-calculus in favor of the Turing machine as the definition of \"algorithm\" or \"mechanical procedure\" or \"formal system\".", "'''A hypothesis leading to a natural law?", "''': In late 1936 Alan Turing's paper (also proving that the Entscheidungsproblem is unsolvable) was delivered orally, but had not yet appeared in print.", "On the other hand, Emil Post's 1936 paper had appeared and was certified independent of Turing's work.", "Post strongly disagreed with Church's \"identification\" of effective computability with the λ-calculus and recursion, stating:Rather, he regarded the notion of \"effective calculability\" as merely a \"working hypothesis\" that might lead by inductive reasoning to a \"natural law\" rather than by \"a definition or an axiom\".", "This idea was \"sharply\" criticized by Church.Thus Post in his 1936 paper was also discounting Kurt Gödel's suggestion to Church in 1934–1935 that the thesis might be expressed as an axiom or set of axioms.", "'''Turing adds another definition, Rosser equates all three''': Within just a short time, Turing's 1936–1937 paper \"On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem\" appeared.", "In it he stated another notion of \"effective computability\" with the introduction of his a-machines (now known as the Turing machine abstract computational model).", "And in a proof-sketch added as an \"Appendix\" to his 1936–1937 paper, Turing showed that the classes of functions defined by λ-calculus and Turing machines coincided.", "Church was quick to recognise how compelling Turing's analysis was.", "In his review of Turing's paper he made clear that Turing's notion made \"the identification with effectiveness in the ordinary (not explicitly defined) sense evident immediately\".In a few years (1939) Turing would propose, like Church and Kleene before him, that ''his'' formal definition of mechanical computing agent was the correct one.", "Thus, by 1939, both Church (1934) and Turing (1939) had individually proposed that their \"formal systems\" should be ''definitions'' of \"effective calculability\"; neither framed their statements as ''theses''.Rosser (1939) formally identified the three notions-as-definitions:'''Kleene proposes ''Thesis I''''': This left the overt expression of a \"thesis\" to Kleene.", "In 1943 Kleene proposed his \"Thesis I\":'''The Church–Turing Thesis''': Stephen Kleene, in ''Introduction To Metamathematics'', finally goes on to formally name \"Church's Thesis\" and \"Turing's Thesis\", using his theory of recursive realizability.", "Kleene having switched from presenting his work in the terminology of Church-Kleene lambda definability, to that of Gödel-Kleene recursiveness (partial recursive functions).", "In this transition, Kleene modified Gödel's general recursive functions to allow for proofs of the unsolvability of problems in the Intuitionism of E. J. Brouwer.", "In his graduate textbook on logic, \"Church's thesis\" is introduced and basic mathematical results are demonstrated to be unrealizable.", "Next, Kleene proceeds to present \"Turing's thesis\", where results are shown to be uncomputable, using his simplified derivation of a Turing machine based on the work of Emil Post.", "Both theses are proven equivalent by use of \"Theorem XXX\".Kleene, finally, uses for the first time the term the \"Church-Turing thesis\" in a section in which he helps to give clarifications to concepts in Alan Turing's paper \"The Word Problem in Semi-Groups with Cancellation\", as demanded in a critique from William Boone.=== Later developments ===An attempt to understand the notion of \"effective computability\" better led Robin Gandy (Turing's student and friend) in 1980 to analyze ''machine'' computation (as opposed to human-computation acted out by a Turing machine).", "Gandy's curiosity about, and analysis of, cellular automata (including Conway's game of life), parallelism, and crystalline automata, led him to propose four \"principles (or constraints) ... which it is argued, any machine must satisfy\".", "His most-important fourth, \"the principle of causality\" is based on the \"finite velocity of propagation of effects and signals; contemporary physics rejects the possibility of instantaneous action at a distance\".", "From these principles and some additional constraints—(1a) a lower bound on the linear dimensions of any of the parts, (1b) an upper bound on speed of propagation (the velocity of light), (2) discrete progress of the machine, and (3) deterministic behavior—he produces a theorem that \"What can be calculated by a device satisfying principles I–IV is computable.", "\"In the late 1990s Wilfried Sieg analyzed Turing's and Gandy's notions of \"effective calculability\" with the intent of \"sharpening the informal notion, formulating its general features axiomatically, and investigating the axiomatic framework\".", "In his 1997 and 2002 work Sieg presents a series of constraints on the behavior of a ''computor''—\"a human computing agent who proceeds mechanically\".", "These constraints reduce to:*\"(B.1) (Boundedness) There is a fixed bound on the number of symbolic configurations a computor can immediately recognize.", "*\"(B.2) (Boundedness) There is a fixed bound on the number of internal states a computor can be in.", "*\"(L.1) (Locality) A computor can change only elements of an observed symbolic configuration.", "*\"(L.2) (Locality) A computor can shift attention from one symbolic configuration to another one, but the new observed configurations must be within a bounded distance of the immediately previously observed configuration.", "*\"(D) (Determinacy) The immediately recognizable (sub-)configuration determines uniquely the next computation step (and id instantaneous description)\"; stated another way: \"A computor's internal state together with the observed configuration fixes uniquely the next computation step and the next internal state.", "\"The matter remains in active discussion within the academic community.=== The thesis as a definition ===The thesis can be viewed as nothing but an ordinary mathematical definition.", "Comments by Gödel on the subject suggest this view, e.g.", "\"the correct definition of mechanical computability was established beyond any doubt by Turing\".", "The case for viewing the thesis as nothing more than a definition is made explicitly by Robert I. Soare, where it is also argued that Turing's definition of computability is no less likely to be correct than the epsilon-delta definition of a continuous function." ], [ "Success of the thesis", "Other formalisms (besides recursion, the λ-calculus, and the Turing machine) have been proposed for describing effective calculability/computability.", "Kleene (1952) adds to the list the functions \"''reckonable'' in the system S1\" of Kurt Gödel 1936, and Emil Post's (1943, 1946) \"''canonical'' also called ''normal'' ''systems''\".", "In the 1950s Hao Wang and Martin Davis greatly simplified the one-tape Turing-machine model (see Post–Turing machine).", "Marvin Minsky expanded the model to two or more tapes and greatly simplified the tapes into \"up-down counters\", which Melzak and Lambek further evolved into what is now known as the counter machine model.", "In the late 1960s and early 1970s researchers expanded the counter machine model into the register machine, a close cousin to the modern notion of the computer.", "Other models include combinatory logic and Markov algorithms.", "Gurevich adds the pointer machine model of Kolmogorov and Uspensky (1953, 1958): \"... they just wanted to ... convince themselves that there is no way to extend the notion of computable function.", "\"All these contributions involve proofs that the models are computationally equivalent to the Turing machine; such models are said to be Turing complete.", "Because all these different attempts at formalizing the concept of \"effective calculability/computability\" have yielded equivalent results, it is now generally assumed that the Church–Turing thesis is correct.", "In fact, Gödel (1936) proposed something stronger than this; he observed that there was something \"absolute\" about the concept of \"reckonable in S1\":" ], [ "Informal usage in proofs", "Proofs in computability theory often invoke the Church–Turing thesis in an informal way to establish the computability of functions while avoiding the (often very long) details which would be involved in a rigorous, formal proof.", "To establish that a function is computable by Turing machine, it is usually considered sufficient to give an informal English description of how the function can be effectively computed, and then conclude \"by the Church–Turing thesis\" that the function is Turing computable (equivalently, partial recursive).Dirk van Dalen gives the following example for the sake of illustrating this informal use of the Church–Turing thesis:In order to make the above example completely rigorous, one would have to carefully construct a Turing machine, or λ-function, or carefully invoke recursion axioms, or at best, cleverly invoke various theorems of computability theory.", "But because the computability theorist believes that Turing computability correctly captures what can be computed effectively, and because an effective procedure is spelled out in English for deciding the set B, the computability theorist accepts this as proof that the set is indeed recursive." ], [ "Variations", "The success of the Church–Turing thesis prompted variations of the thesis to be proposed.", "For example, the '''physical Church–Turing thesis''' states: \"All physically computable functions are Turing-computable.", "\"The Church–Turing thesis says nothing about the efficiency with which one model of computation can simulate another.", "It has been proved for instance that a (multi-tape) universal Turing machine only suffers a logarithmic slowdown factor in simulating any Turing machine.A variation of the Church–Turing thesis addresses whether an arbitrary but \"reasonable\" model of computation can be efficiently simulated.", "This is called the '''feasibility thesis''', also known as the ('''classical''') '''complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis''' or the '''extended Church–Turing thesis''', which is not due to Church or Turing, but rather was realized gradually in the development of complexity theory.", "It states: \"A probabilistic Turing machine can efficiently simulate any realistic model of computation.\"", "The word 'efficiently' here means up to polynomial-time reductions.", "This thesis was originally called '''computational complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis''' by Ethan Bernstein and Umesh Vazirani (1997).", "The complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis, then, posits that all 'reasonable' models of computation yield the same class of problems that can be computed in polynomial time.", "Assuming the conjecture that probabilistic polynomial time (BPP) equals deterministic polynomial time (P), the word 'probabilistic' is optional in the complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis.", "A similar thesis, called the '''invariance thesis''', was introduced by Cees F. Slot and Peter van Emde Boas.", "It states: Reasonable' machines can simulate each other within a polynomially bounded overhead in time and a constant-factor overhead in space.\"", "The thesis originally appeared in a paper at STOC'84, which was the first paper to show that polynomial-time overhead and constant-space overhead could be ''simultaneously'' achieved for a simulation of a Random Access Machine on a Turing machine.If BQP is shown to be a strict superset of BPP, it would invalidate the complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis.", "In other words, there would be efficient quantum algorithms that perform tasks that do not have efficient probabilistic algorithms.", "This would not however invalidate the original Church–Turing thesis, since a quantum computer can always be simulated by a Turing machine, but it would invalidate the classical complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis for efficiency reasons.", "Consequently, the '''quantum complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis''' states: \"A quantum Turing machine can efficiently simulate any realistic model of computation.", "\"Eugene Eberbach and Peter Wegner claim that the Church–Turing thesis is sometimes interpreted too broadly,stating \"Though ... Turing machines express the behavior of algorithms, the broader assertion that algorithms precisely capture what can be computed is invalid\".", "They claim that forms of computation not captured by the thesis are relevant today,terms which they call super-Turing computation." ], [ "Philosophical implications", "Philosophers have interpreted the Church–Turing thesis as having implications for the philosophy of mind.", "B. Jack Copeland states that it is an open empirical question whether there are actual deterministic physical processes that, in the long run, elude simulation by a Turing machine; furthermore, he states that it is an open empirical question whether any such processes are involved in the working of the human brain.", "There are also some important open questions which cover the relationship between the Church–Turing thesis and physics, and the possibility of hypercomputation.", "When applied to physics, the thesis has several possible meanings:#The universe is equivalent to a Turing machine; thus, computing non-recursive functions is physically impossible.", "This has been termed the strong Church–Turing thesis, or Church–Turing–Deutsch principle, and is a foundation of digital physics.#The universe is not equivalent to a Turing machine (i.e., the laws of physics are not Turing-computable), but incomputable physical events are not \"harnessable\" for the construction of a hypercomputer.", "For example, a universe in which physics involves random real numbers, as opposed to computable reals, would fall into this category.#The universe is a hypercomputer, and it is possible to build physical devices to harness this property and calculate non-recursive functions.", "For example, it is an open question whether all quantum mechanical events are Turing-computable, although it is known that rigorous models such as quantum Turing machines are equivalent to deterministic Turing machines.", "(They are not necessarily efficiently equivalent; see above.)", "John Lucas and Roger Penrose have suggested that the human mind might be the result of some kind of quantum-mechanically enhanced, \"non-algorithmic\" computation.There are many other technical possibilities which fall outside or between these three categories, but these serve to illustrate the range of the concept.Philosophical aspects of the thesis, regarding both physical and biological computers, are also discussed in Odifreddi's 1989 textbook on recursion theory." ], [ "Non-computable functions", "One can formally define functions that are not computable.", "A well-known example of such a function is the Busy Beaver function.", "This function takes an input ''n'' and returns the largest number of symbols that a Turing machine with ''n'' states can print before halting, when run with no input.", "Finding an upper bound on the busy beaver function is equivalent to solving the halting problem, a problem known to be unsolvable by Turing machines.", "Since the busy beaver function cannot be computed by Turing machines, the Church–Turing thesis states that this function cannot be effectively computed by any method.Several computational models allow for the computation of (Church-Turing) non-computable functions.", "These are known ashypercomputers.Mark Burgin argues that super-recursive algorithms such as inductive Turing machines disprove the Church–Turing thesis.", "His argument relies on a definition of algorithm broader than the ordinary one, so that non-computable functions obtained from some inductive Turing machines are called computable.", "This interpretation of the Church–Turing thesis differs from the interpretation commonly accepted in computability theory, discussed above.", "The argument that super-recursive algorithms are indeed algorithms in the sense of the Church–Turing thesis has not found broad acceptance within the computability research community." ], [ "See also", "* Abstract machine* Church's thesis in constructive mathematics* Church–Turing–Deutsch principle, which states that every physical process can be simulated by a universal computing device* Computability logic* Computability theory* Decidability* Hypercomputation* Model of computation* Oracle (computer science)* Super-recursive algorithm* Turing completeness" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * ** * Includes original papers by Gödel, Church, Turing, Rosser, Kleene, and Post mentioned in this section.", "* * * * * * * Cited by .", "* * * * * * * Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p. 255ff.", "Kleene refined his definition of \"general recursion\" and proceeded in his chapter \"12.Algorithmic theories\" to posit \"Thesis I\" (p. 274); he would later repeat this thesis (in ) and name it \"Church's Thesis\" (i.e., the Church thesis).", "* * * * *** * * * * * and (See also: )*" ], [ "External links", "* .", "* —a comprehensive philosophical treatment of relevant issues.", "* * A special issue (Vol.", "28, No.", "4, 1987) of the ''Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic'' was devoted to the Church–Turing thesis." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chomsky (surname)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chomsky''' (, , , , , \"from (Vyoska) / (nearby Brest, now Belarus)\") is a surname of Slavic origin.", "Notable people with the surname include:* Alejandro Chomski (born 1968), Argentine film director and screenwriter* Aviva Chomsky (born 1957), American historian* Carol (Schatz) Chomsky (1930–2008), American linguist and wife of Noam Chomsky* Judith Chomsky (born 1942), American human rights lawyer and co-founder of the Juvenile Law Center* Marvin J. Chomsky (1929–2022), American television and film director* Noam Chomsky (born 1928), American linguist and political activist, professor emeritus at MIT* (born 1957), Polish speedway rider and coach* William Chomsky (1896–1977), American scholar of Hebrew* (1925–2016), Soviet and Russian theater director" ], [ "See also", "* Gryf coat of arms* Odrowąż coat of arms" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Computer multitasking" ], [ "Introduction", "Modern desktop operating systems are capable of handling large numbers of different processes at the same time.", "This screenshot shows Linux Mint running simultaneously Xfce desktop environment, Firefox, a calculator program, the built-in calendar, Vim, GIMP, and VLC media player.Microsoft Windows 1.01 released in 1985, here shown running the MS-DOS Executive and Calculator programsIn computing, '''multitasking''' is the concurrent execution of multiple tasks (also known as processes) over a certain period of time.", "New tasks can interrupt already started ones before they finish, instead of waiting for them to end.", "As a result, a computer executes segments of multiple tasks in an interleaved manner, while the tasks share common processing resources such as central processing units (CPUs) and main memory.", "Multitasking automatically interrupts the running program, saving its state (partial results, memory contents and computer register contents) and loading the saved state of another program and transferring control to it.", "This \"context switch\" may be initiated at fixed time intervals (pre-emptive multitasking), or the running program may be coded to signal to the supervisory software when it can be interrupted (cooperative multitasking).Multitasking does not require parallel execution of multiple tasks at exactly the same time; instead, it allows more than one task to advance over a given period of time.", "Even on multiprocessor computers, multitasking allows many more tasks to be run than there are CPUs.Multitasking is a common feature of computer operating systems since at least the 1960s.", "It allows more efficient use of the computer hardware; when a program is waiting for some external event such as a user input or an input/output transfer with a peripheral to complete, the central processor can still be used with another program.", "In a time-sharing system, multiple human operators use the same processor as if it was dedicated to their use, while behind the scenes the computer is serving many users by multitasking their individual programs.", "In multiprogramming systems, a task runs until it must wait for an external event or until the operating system's scheduler forcibly swaps the running task out of the CPU.", "Real-time systems such as those designed to control industrial robots, require timely processing; a single processor might be shared between calculations of machine movement, communications, and user interface.Often multitasking operating systems include measures to change the priority of individual tasks, so that important jobs receive more processor time than those considered less significant.", "Depending on the operating system, a task might be as large as an entire application program, or might be made up of smaller threads that carry out portions of the overall program.A processor intended for use with multitasking operating systems may include special hardware to securely support multiple tasks, such as memory protection, and protection rings that ensure the supervisory software cannot be damaged or subverted by user-mode program errors.The term \"multitasking\" has become an international term, as the same word is used in many other languages such as German, Italian, Dutch, Romanian, Czech, Danish and Norwegian." ], [ "Multiprogramming", "In the early days of computing, CPU time was expensive, and peripherals were very slow.", "When the computer ran a program that needed access to a peripheral, the central processing unit (CPU) would have to stop executing program instructions while the peripheral processed the data.", "This was usually very inefficient.", "Multiprogramming is a computing technique that enables multiple programs to be concurrently loaded and executed into a computer's memory, allowing the CPU to switch between them swiftly.", "This optimizes CPU utilization by keeping it engaged with the execution of tasks, particularly useful when one program is waiting for I/O operations to complete.The Bull Gamma 60, initially designed in 1957 and first released in 1960, was the first computer designed with multiprogramming in mind.", "Its architecture featured a central memory and a Program Distributor feeding up to twenty-five autonomous processing units with code and data, and allowing concurrent operation of multiple clusters.Another such computer was the LEO III, first released in 1961.During batch processing, several different programs were loaded in the computer memory, and the first one began to run.", "When the first program reached an instruction waiting for a peripheral, the context of this program was stored away, and the second program in memory was given a chance to run.", "The process continued until all programs finished running.The use of multiprogramming was enhanced by the arrival of virtual memory and virtual machine technology, which enabled individual programs to make use of memory and operating system resources as if other concurrently running programs were, for all practical purposes, nonexistent.Multiprogramming gives no guarantee that a program will run in a timely manner.", "Indeed, the first program may very well run for hours without needing access to a peripheral.", "As there were no users waiting at an interactive terminal, this was no problem: users handed in a deck of punched cards to an operator, and came back a few hours later for printed results.", "Multiprogramming greatly reduced wait times when multiple batches were being processed." ], [ "{{Anchor|COOP|Cooperative multitasking/time-sharing}}Cooperative multitasking", "Early multitasking systems used applications that voluntarily ceded time to one another.", "This approach, which was eventually supported by many computer operating systems, is known today as cooperative multitasking.", "Although it is now rarely used in larger systems except for specific applications such as CICS or the JES2 subsystem, cooperative multitasking was once the only scheduling scheme employed by Microsoft Windows and classic Mac OS to enable multiple applications to run simultaneously.", "Cooperative multitasking is still used today on RISC OS systems.As a cooperatively multitasked system relies on each process regularly giving up time to other processes on the system, one poorly designed program can consume all of the CPU time for itself, either by performing extensive calculations or by busy waiting; both would cause the whole system to hang.", "In a server environment, this is a hazard that makes the entire environment unacceptably fragile." ], [ "Preemptive multitasking", "Kubuntu (KDE Plasma 5) four Virtual desktops running multiple programs at the same timePreemptive multitasking allows the computer system to more reliably guarantee to each process a regular \"slice\" of operating time.", "It also allows the system to deal rapidly with important external events like incoming data, which might require the immediate attention of one or another process.", "Operating systems were developed to take advantage of these hardware capabilities and run multiple processes preemptively.", "Preemptive multitasking was implemented in the PDP-6 Monitor and Multics in 1964, in OS/360 MFT in 1967, and in Unix in 1969, and was available in some operating systems for computers as small as DEC's PDP-8; it is a core feature of all Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux, Solaris and BSD with its derivatives, as well as modern versions of Windows.At any specific time, processes can be grouped into two categories: those that are waiting for input or output (called \"I/O bound\"), and those that are fully utilizing the CPU (\"CPU bound\").", "In primitive systems, the software would often \"poll\", or \"busywait\" while waiting for requested input (such as disk, keyboard or network input).", "During this time, the system was not performing useful work.", "With the advent of interrupts and preemptive multitasking, I/O bound processes could be \"blocked\", or put on hold, pending the arrival of the necessary data, allowing other processes to utilize the CPU.", "As the arrival of the requested data would generate an interrupt, blocked processes could be guaranteed a timely return to execution.The earliest preemptive multitasking OS available to home users was Sinclair QDOS on the Sinclair QL, released in 1984, but it was not a big success.", "Commodore's Amiga, released the following year, was the first commercially successful home computer to use the technology, and its multimedia abilities make it a clear ancestor of contemporary multitasking personal computers.", "Microsoft made preemptive multitasking a core feature of their flagship operating system in the early 1990s when developing Windows NT 3.1 and then Windows 95.In 1988 Apple offered A/UX as a UNIX System V-based alternative to the Classic Mac OS.", "In 2001 Apple switched to the NeXTSTEP-influenced Mac OS X.A similar model is used in Windows 9x and the Windows NT family, where native 32-bit applications are multitasked preemptively.", "64-bit editions of Windows, both for the x86-64 and Itanium architectures, no longer support legacy 16-bit applications, and thus provide preemptive multitasking for all supported applications." ], [ "Real time", "Another reason for multitasking was in the design of real-time computing systems, where there are a number of possibly unrelated external activities needed to be controlled by a single processor system.", "In such systems a hierarchical interrupt system is coupled with process prioritization to ensure that key activities were given a greater share of available process time." ], [ "Multithreading", "As multitasking greatly improved the throughput of computers, programmers started to implement applications as sets of cooperating processes (e. g., one process gathering input data, one process processing input data, one process writing out results on disk).", "This, however, required some tools to allow processes to efficiently exchange data.Threads were born from the idea that the most efficient way for cooperating processes to exchange data would be to share their entire memory space.", "Thus, threads are effectively processes that run in the same memory context and share other resources with their parent processes, such as open files.", "Threads are described as ''lightweight processes'' because switching between threads does not involve changing the memory context.While threads are scheduled preemptively, some operating systems provide a variant to threads, named ''fibers'', that are scheduled cooperatively.", "On operating systems that do not provide fibers, an application may implement its own fibers using repeated calls to worker functions.", "Fibers are even more lightweight than threads, and somewhat easier to program with, although they tend to lose some or all of the benefits of threads on machines with multiple processors.Some systems directly support multithreading in hardware." ], [ "Memory protection", "Essential to any multitasking system is to safely and effectively share access to system resources.", "Access to memory must be strictly managed to ensure that no process can inadvertently or deliberately read or write to memory locations outside the process's address space.", "This is done for the purpose of general system stability and data integrity, as well as data security.In general, memory access management is a responsibility of the operating system kernel, in combination with hardware mechanisms that provide supporting functionalities, such as a memory management unit (MMU).", "If a process attempts to access a memory location outside its memory space, the MMU denies the request and signals the kernel to take appropriate actions; this usually results in forcibly terminating the offending process.", "Depending on the software and kernel design and the specific error in question, the user may receive an access violation error message such as \"segmentation fault\".In a well designed and correctly implemented multitasking system, a given process can never directly access memory that belongs to another process.", "An exception to this rule is in the case of shared memory; for example, in the System V inter-process communication mechanism the kernel allocates memory to be mutually shared by multiple processes.", "Such features are often used by database management software such as PostgreSQL.Inadequate memory protection mechanisms, either due to flaws in their design or poor implementations, allow for security vulnerabilities that may be potentially exploited by malicious software." ], [ "Memory swapping", "Use of a swap file or swap partition is a way for the operating system to provide more memory than is physically available by keeping portions of the primary memory in secondary storage.", "While multitasking and memory swapping are two completely unrelated techniques, they are very often used together, as swapping memory allows more tasks to be loaded at the same time.", "Typically, a multitasking system allows another process to run when the running process hits a point where it has to wait for some portion of memory to be reloaded from secondary storage." ], [ "Programming", "Processes that are entirely independent are not much trouble to program in a multitasking environment.", "Most of the complexity in multitasking systems comes from the need to share computer resources between tasks and to synchronize the operation of co-operating tasks.Various concurrent computing techniques are used to avoid potential problems caused by multiple tasks attempting to access the same resource.Bigger systems were sometimes built with a central processor(s) and some number of I/O processors, a kind of asymmetric multiprocessing.Over the years, multitasking systems have been refined.", "Modern operating systems generally include detailed mechanisms for prioritizing processes, while symmetric multiprocessing has introduced new complexities and capabilities." ], [ "See also", "* Process state* Task switching" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chiang Kai-shek" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chiang Kai-shek''' (31 October 1887 – 5 April 1975) was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Generalissimo of the National Revolutionary Army.", "He held these positions in mainland China from 1928 until 1949, when his nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) party was defeated in the Chinese Civil War by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)—thereafter, he led the remnant of the ROC government on the island of Taiwan until his death in 1975.Born in Zhejiang, Chiang was a member of the Kuomintang, and a lieutenant of Sun Yat-sen in the revolution to overthrow the Beiyang government and reunify China.", "With help from the Soviets and the Chinese Communist Party, Chiang organized the military for Sun's Canton Nationalist Government and headed the Whampoa Military Academy.", "As commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army, he led the Northern Expedition from 1926 to 1928, before defeating a coalition of warlords and nominally reunifying China under a new nationalist government.", "Midway through the Northern Expedition, the KMT–CCP alliance broke down and Chiang massacred communists and KMT leftists inside the party, triggering a civil war with the CCP, which he eventually lost in 1949.As the leader of the Republic of China during the Nanjing decade, Chiang sought to strike a difficult balance between modernizing China, while also devoting resources to defending the nation against the CCP, warlords, and the impending Japanese threat.", "Trying to avoid a war with Japan while hostilities with the CCP continued, he was kidnapped in the Xi'an Incident, and obliged to form an Anti-Japanese United Front with the CCP.", "Following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937, he mobilized China for the Second Sino-Japanese War.", "For eight years, he led the war of resistance against a vastly superior enemy, mostly from the wartime capital Chongqing.", "As the leader of a major Allied power, Chiang met with British prime minister Winston Churchill and American president Franklin D. Roosevelt in the Cairo Conference to discuss terms for the Japanese surrender.", "When the Second World War ended, the civil war with the communists (by then led by Mao Zedong) resumed.", "Chiang's nationalists were mostly defeated in a few decisive battles in 1948.In 1949, Chiang's government and army retreated to the island of Taiwan, where Chiang imposed martial law and persecuted critics during the White Terror.", "Presiding over a period of social reforms and economic prosperity, Chiang won five elections to six-year terms as President of the Republic of China in which he faced minimal opposition or was elected unopposed.", "Three years into his fifth term as president, and one year before the death of Mao, he died in 1975.He also held the position of director-general within the Kuomintang until his death.", "Chiang was one of the longest-serving non-royal heads of state in the 20th century and the longest-serving non-royal ruler of China, having held the post for 46 years.Like Mao, Chiang is regarded as a controversial figure.", "Supporters credit him with playing a major part in unifying the nation, leading the Chinese resistance against Japan, and countering CCP influence and economic development in both mainland China and Taiwan.", "Detractors and critics denounce him as a brutal dictator at the front of a corrupt authoritarian regime that massacred civilians and suppressed political dissents, and often accuse him of being a fascist.", "He is also criticized for flooding the Yellow River, a move that subsequently caused the Henan Famine during the Second Sino-Japanese War.", "Other historians argued that despite his many faults, Chiang's ideology notably differs from other right-wing dictators of the 20th century, and he did not genuinely espouse the ideology of fascism.", "They argue that Chiang made genuine efforts to improve mainland China and Taiwan's economic and social conditions, such as improving women's rights and land reform.", "Chiang was also credited with transforming China from a semi-colony of various imperialist powers to an independent country by amending the unequal treaties signed by previous governments, as well as moving various Chinese national treasures and traditional Chinese artworks to the National Palace Museum in Taipei during the 1949 retreat." ], [ "Names", "Like many other Chinese historical figures, Chiang used several names throughout his life.", "The name inscribed in the genealogical records of his family is Chiang Chou-t‘ai ().", "This so-called \"register name\" () is the one by which his extended relatives knew him, and the one he used in formal occasions, such as when he was married.", "In deference to tradition, family members did not use the register name in conversation with people outside of the family.", "The concept of a \"real\" or original name is/was not as clear-cut in China as it is in the Western world.", "In honor of tradition, Chinese families waited a number of years before officially naming their children.", "In the meantime, they used a \"milk name\" (), given to the infant shortly after his birth and known only to the close family.", "So the name that Chiang received at birth was Chiang Jui-yüan ().In 1903, the 16-year-old Chiang went to Ningbo as a student, and chose a \"school name\" ().", "This was the formal name of a person, used by older people to address him, and the one he would use the most in the first decades of his life (as a person grew older, younger generations would use one of the courtesy names instead).", "Colloquially, the school name is called \"big name\" (), whereas the \"milk name\" is known as the \"small name\" ().", "The school name that Chiang chose for himself was Zhiqing (, which means \"purity of aspirations\").", "For the next fifteen years or so, Chiang was known as Jiang Zhiqing (Wade–Giles: Chiang Chi-ch‘ing).", "This is the name by which Sun Yat-sen knew him when Chiang joined the republicans in Guangdong in the 1910s.In 1912, when Chiang was in Japan, he started to use the name Chiang Kai-shek () as a pen name for the articles that he published in a Chinese magazine he founded: ''Voice of the Army'' ().", "''Jieshi'' is the pinyin romanization of this name, based on Standard Chinese, but the most recognized romanized rendering is ''Kai-shek'' which is in Cantonese romanization.", "Because the Republic of China was based in Canton (a Cantonese-speaking area, now known as Guangdong), Chiang (who never spoke Cantonese but was a native Wu speaker) became known by Westerners under the Cantonese romanization of his courtesy name, while the family name as known in English seems to be the Mandarin pronunciation of his Chinese family name, transliterated in Wade–Giles.", "\"Kai-shek\"/\"Jieshi\" soon became Chiang's courtesy name ().", "Some think the name was chosen from the classic Chinese book the ''I Ching''; , is the beginning of line 2 of Hexagram 16, \"\".", "Others note that the first character of his courtesy name is also the first character of the courtesy name of his brother and other male relatives on the same generational line, while the second character of his courtesy name ''shi'' (—meaning \"stone\") suggests the second character of his \"register name\" ''tai'' (—the famous Mount Tai).", "Courtesy names in China often bore a connection with the personal name of the person.", "As the courtesy name is the name used by people of the same generation to address the person, Chiang soon became known under this new name.Sometime in 1917 or 1918, as Chiang became close to Sun Yat-sen, he changed his name from Jiang Zhiqing to Jiang Zhongzheng ().", "By adopting the name Chung-cheng, he was choosing a name very similar to the name of Sun Yat-sen, who is known among Chinese as Zhongshan (—meaning \"central mountain\"), thus establishing a link between the two.", "The meaning of uprightness, rectitude, or orthodoxy, implied by his name, also positioned him as the legitimate heir of Sun Yat-sen and his ideas.", "It was readily accepted by members of the Kuomintang, and is the name under which Chiang is still commonly known in Taiwan.", "Often the name is shortened to \"Chung-cheng\" only.", "Many public places in Taiwan are named Chungcheng after Chiang.", "For many years passengers arriving at the Chiang Kai-shek International Airport were greeted by signs in Chinese welcoming them to the \"Chung Cheng International Airport\".", "Similarly, the monument erected to Chiang's memory in Taipei, known in English as Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall, was named \"Chung Cheng Memorial Hall\" in Chinese.", "In Singapore, Chung Cheng High School was named after him.His name is also written in Taiwan as \"The Late President Honorable Chiang\" (), where the one-character-wide space in front of his name known as Nuo tai shows respect.", "He is often called ''Honorable Chiang''.In this context, his surname \"Chiang\" in this article is spelled using the Wade–Giles system of transliteration for Standard Chinese as opposed to Hanyu Pinyin though the latter was adopted by the Republic of China government in 2009 as its official romanization." ], [ "Early life", "Chiang was born on 31 October 1887, in Xikou, a town in Fenghua, Zhejiang, China, about west of central Ningbo.", "He was born into a family of Wu Chinese-speaking people with their ancestral home—a concept important in Chinese society—in , a town in Yixing, Jiangsu, about southwest of central Wuxi and from the shores of Lake Tai.", "He was the third child and second son of his father (also Chiang Su-an; 1842–1895; ) and the first child of his father's third wife (1863–1921; ) who were members of a prosperous family of salt merchants.", "Chiang's father died when he was eight, and he wrote of his mother as the \"embodiment of Confucian virtues\".", "The young Chiang was inspired throughout his youth by the realization that the reputation of an honored family rested upon his shoulders.", "He was a naughty child.", "At a young age he was interested in the military.", "As he grew older, Chiang became more aware of the issues that surrounded him and in his speech to the Kuomintang in 1945 said:In early 1906, Chiang cut off his queue, the required hairstyle of men during the Qing dynasty, and had it sent home from school, shocking the people in his hometown." ], [ "Education in Japan", "Chiang in 1907Chiang grew up at a time in which military defeats, natural disasters, famines, revolts, unequal treaties and civil wars had left the Manchu-dominated Qing dynasty destabilized and in debt.", "Successive demands of the Western powers and Japan since the Opium War had left China owing millions of taels of silver.", "During his first visit to Japan to pursue a military career from April 1906 to later that year, he describes himself as having strong nationalistic feelings with a desire, among other things, to 'expel the Manchu Qing and to restore China'.", "In a 1969 speech, Chiang related a story about his boat trip to Japan at nineteen years old.", "Another passenger on the ship, a Chinese fellow student who was in the habit of spitting on the floor, was chided by a Chinese sailor who said that Japanese people did not spit on the floor, but instead would spit into a handkerchief.", "Chiang used the story as an example of how the common man in 1969 Taiwan had not developed the spirit of public sanitation that Japan had.", "Chiang decided to pursue a military career.", "He began his military training at the Baoding Military Academy in 1906, the same year Japan left its bimetallic currency standard, devaluing the Japanese yen.", "He left for Tokyo Shinbu Gakko, a preparatory school for the Imperial Japanese Army Academy intended for Chinese students, in 1907.There, he came under the influence of compatriots to support the revolutionary movement to overthrow the Manchu-dominated Qing dynasty and to set up a Han-dominated Chinese republic.", "He befriended Chen Qimei, and in 1908 Chen brought Chiang into the Tongmenghui, an important revolutionary brotherhood of the era.", "Finishing his military schooling at Tokyo Shinbu Gakko, Chiang served in the Imperial Japanese Army from 1909 to 1911." ], [ "Returning to China", "After learning of the Wuchang uprising, Chiang returned to China in 1911, intending to fight as an artillery officer.", "He served in the revolutionary forces, leading a regiment in Shanghai under his friend and mentor Chen Qimei, as one of Chen's chief lieutenants.", "In early 1912 a dispute arose between Chen and Tao Chengzhang, an influential member of the Revolutionary Alliance who opposed both Sun Yat-sen and Chen.", "Tao sought to avoid escalating the quarrel by hiding in a hospital, but Chiang discovered him there.", "Chen dispatched assassins.", "Chiang may not have taken part in the assassination, but would later assume responsibility to help Chen avoid trouble.", "Chen valued Chiang despite Chiang's already legendary temper, regarding such bellicosity as useful in a military leader.Chiang's friendship with Chen Qimei signaled an association with Shanghai's criminal syndicate (the Green Gang headed by Du Yuesheng and Huang Jinrong).", "During Chiang's time in Shanghai, the Shanghai International Settlement police observed him and eventually charged him with various felonies.", "These charges never resulted in a trial, and Chiang was never jailed.Chiang became a founding member of the Nationalist Party (a forerunner of the KMT) after the success (February 1912) of the 1911 Revolution.", "After the takeover of the Republican government by Yuan Shikai and the failed Second Revolution in 1913, Chiang, like his KMT comrades, divided his time between exile in Japan and the havens of the Shanghai International Settlement.", "In Shanghai, Chiang cultivated ties with the city's underworld gangs, which were dominated by the notorious Green Gang and its leader Du Yuesheng.", "On 18 May 1916 agents of Yuan Shikai assassinated Chen Qimei.", "Chiang then succeeded Chen as leader of the Chinese Revolutionary Party in Shanghai.", "Sun Yat-sen's political career reached its lowest point during this time—most of his old Revolutionary Alliance comrades refused to join him in the exiled Chinese Revolutionary Party." ], [ "Establishing the Kuomintang's position", "In 1917, Sun Yat-sen moved his base of operations to Canton (now known as Guangzhou) and Chiang joined him in 1918.At this time Sun remained largely sidelined; without arms or money, he was soon expelled from Guangdong (Canton province) and exiled again to Shanghai.", "He was restored to Guangdong with mercenary help in 1920.After his return to Guangdong, a rift developed between Sun, who sought to militarily unify China under the KMT, and Guangdong Governor Chen Jiongming, who wanted to implement a federalist system with Guangdong as a model province.", "On 16 June 1922 Ye Ju, a general of Chen's whom Sun had attempted to exile, led an assault on Guangdong's Presidential Palace.", "Sun had already fled to the naval yard and boarded the SS ''Haiqi'', but his wife narrowly evaded shelling and rifle-fire as she fled.", "They met on the SS ''Yongfeng'', where Chiang joined them as swiftly as he could return from Shanghai, where he was ritually mourning his mother's death.", "For about 50 days, Chiang stayed with Sun, protecting and caring for him and earning his lasting trust.", "They abandoned their attacks on Chen on 9 August, taking a British ship to Hong Kong and traveling to Shanghai by steamer.", "Sun Yat-sen and Chiang at the 1924 opening ceremonies for the Soviet-funded Whampoa Military Academy Chiang in the early 1920sSun regained control of Guangdong in early 1923, again with the help of mercenaries from Yunnan and of the Comintern.", "Undertaking a reform of the KMT, he established a revolutionary government aimed at unifying China under the KMT.", "That same year Sun sent Chiang to spend three months in Moscow studying the Soviet political and military system.", "During his trip to Russia, Chiang met Leon Trotsky and other Soviet leaders, but quickly came to the conclusion that the Russian model of government was not suitable for China.", "Chiang later sent his eldest son, Ching-Kuo, to study in Russia.", "After his father's split from the First United Front in 1927, Ching-Kuo was forced to stay there, as a hostage, until 1937.Chiang wrote in his diary, \"It is not worth it to sacrifice the interest of the country for the sake of my son.\"", "Chiang even refused to negotiate a prisoner swap for his son in exchange for the Chinese Communist Party leader.", "His attitude remained consistent, and he continued to maintain, by 1937, that \"I would rather have no offspring than sacrifice our nation's interests.\"", "Chiang had absolutely no intention of ceasing the war against the Communists.Chiang Kai-shek returned to Guangdong and in 1924 Sun appointed him Commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy.", "Chiang resigned from the office after one month in disagreement with Sun's extremely close cooperation with the Comintern, but returned at Sun's demand.", "The early years at Whampoa allowed Chiang to cultivate a cadre of young officers loyal to both the KMT and himself.Throughout his rise to power, Chiang also benefited from membership within the nationalist Tiandihui fraternity, to which Sun Yat-sen also belonged, and which remained a source of support during his leadership of the Kuomintang." ], [ "Rising power", "Chiang (right) together with Wang Jingwei (left), 1926Sun Yat-sen died on 12 March 1925, creating a power vacuum in the Kuomintang.", "A contest ensued among Wang Jingwei, Liao Zhongkai, and Hu Hanmin.", "In August, Liao was assassinated and Hu was arrested for his connections to the murderers.", "Wang Jingwei, who had succeeded Sun as chairman of the Guangdong regime, seemed ascendant but was forced into exile by Chiang following the Canton Coup.", "The , renamed the ''Zhongshan'' in Sun's honour, had appeared off Changzhou, the location of the Whampoa Academy, on apparently-falsified orders and amid a series of unusual phone calls trying to ascertain Chiang's location.", "He initially considered fleeing Guangdong and even booked passage on a Japanese steamer but then decided to use his military connections to declare martial law on 20 March 1926 and to crack down on Communist and Soviet influence over the National Revolutionary Army, the military academy, and the party.", "The right wing of the party supported him, and Joseph Stalin, anxious to maintain Soviet influence in the area, had his lieutenants agree to Chiang's demands on a reduced Communist presence in the KMT leadership in exchange for certain other concessions.", "The rapid replacement of leadership enabled Chiang to effectively end civilian oversight of the military after 15 May, though his authority was somewhat limited by the army's own regional composition and divided loyalties.On 5 June 1926, he was named commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army NRA and, on 27 July, he finally launched Sun's long-delayed Northern Expedition, aimed at conquering the northern warlords and bringing China together under the KMT.The NRA branched into three divisions: to the west was the returned Wang Jingwei, who led a column to take Wuhan; Bai Chongxi's column went east to take Shanghai; Chiang himself led in the middle route, planning to take Nanjing before pressing ahead to capture Beijing.", "However, in January 1927, Wang Jingwei and his KMT leftist allies took the city of Wuhan amid much popular mobilization and fanfare.", "Allied with a number of Chinese Communists and advised by Soviet agent Mikhail Borodin, Wang declared the national government as having moved to Wuhan.In 1927, when he was setting up the Nationalist government in Nanjing, he was preoccupied with \"the elevation of our leader Dr. Sun Yat-sen to the rank of 'Father of our Chinese Republic'.", "Dr. Sun worked for 40 years to lead our people in the Nationalist cause, and we cannot allow any other personality to usurp this honored position\".", "He asked Chen Guofu to purchase a photograph that had been taken in Japan or 1898.It showed members of the Revive China Society with Yeung Ku-wan as president, in the place of honor, and Sun, as secretary, on the back row, along with members of the Japanese Chapter of the Revive China Society.", "When told that it was not for sale, Chiang offered a million dollars to recover the photo and its negative, \"The party must have this picture and the negative at any price.", "They must be destroyed as soon as possible.", "It would be embarrassing to have our Father of the Chinese Republic shown in a subordinate position\".On 12 April 1927, Chiang carried out a purge of thousands of suspected Communists and dissidents in Shanghai, and began large-scale massacres across the country collectively known as the \"White Terror\".", "During April, more than people were killed in Shanghai.", "The killings drove most Communists from urban cities and into the rural countryside, where the KMT was less powerful.", "In the year after April 1927, over 300,000 people died across China in the anti-communist suppression campaigns, executed by the KMT.", "One of the most famous quotes from Chiang (during that time) was, that he would rather mistakenly kill 1,000 innocent people, than allow one Communist to escape.", "Some estimates claim the White Terror in China took millions of lives, most of them in rural areas.", "No concrete number can be verified.", "Chiang allowed Soviet agent and advisor Mikhail Borodin and Soviet general Vasily Blücher (Galens) to \"escape\" to safety after the purge.The NRA formed by the KMT swept through southern and central China until it was checked in Shandong, where confrontations with the Japanese garrison escalated into armed conflict.", "The conflicts were collectively known as the Jinan incident of 1928.Now with an established national government in Nanjing, and supported by conservative allies including Hu Hanmin, Chiang's expulsion of the Communists and their Soviet advisers led to the beginning of the Chinese Civil War.", "Wang Jingwei's National Government was weak militarily, and was soon ended by Chiang with the support of a local warlord (Li Zongren of Guangxi).", "Eventually, Wang and his leftist party surrendered to Chiang and joined him in Nanjing.", "However, the cracks between Chiang and Hu's traditionally Right-Wing KMT faction, the Western Hills Group, began to show soon after the cleansing against the communists, and Chiang later imprisoned Hu.Though Chiang had consolidated the power of the KMT in Nanjing, it was still necessary to capture Beijing to claim the legitimacy needed for international recognition.", "Beijing was taken in June 1928, from an alliance of the warlords Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan.", "Yan Xishan moved in and captured Beiping on behalf of his new allegiance after the death of Zhang Zuolin in 1928.His successor, Zhang Xueliang, accepted the authority of the KMT leadership, and the Northern Expedition officially concluded, completing Chiang's nominal unification of China and ending the Warlord Era.After the Northern Expedition ended in 1928, Yan, Feng, Li Zongren and Zhang Fakui broke off relations with Chiang shortly after a demilitarization conference in 1929, and together they formed an anti-Chiang coalition to openly challenge the legitimacy of the Nanjing government.", "In the Central Plains War, they were defeated.Chiang made great efforts to gain recognition as the official successor of Sun Yat-sen.", "In a pairing of great political significance, Chiang was Sun's brother-in-law.", "He had married Soong Mei-ling, the younger sister of Soong Ching-ling, Sun's widow, on 1 December 1927.Originally rebuffed in the early 1920s, Chiang managed to ingratiate himself to some degree with Soong Mei-ling's mother by first divorcing his wife and concubines and promising to sincerely study the precepts of Christianity.", "He read the copy of the Bible that May-ling had given him twice before making up his mind to become a Christian, and three years after his marriage he was baptized in the Soong's Methodist church.", "Although some observers felt that he adopted Christianity as a political move, studies of his recently opened diaries suggest that his faith was strong and sincere and that he felt that Christianity reinforced Confucian moral teachings.Upon reaching Beijing, Chiang paid homage to Sun Yat-sen and had his body moved to the new capital of Nanjing to be enshrined in a mausoleum, the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum.Chiang and Feng Yuxiang in 1928In the West and in the Soviet Union, Chiang Kai-shek was known as the \"Red General\".", "Movie theaters in the Soviet Union showed newsreels and clips of Chiang.", "At Moscow, Sun Yat-sen University portraits of Chiang were hung on the walls; and, in the Soviet May Day parades that year, Chiang's portrait was to be carried along with the portraits of Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, and other Communist leaders.", "The United States consulate and other Westerners in Shanghai were concerned about the approach of \"Red General\" Chiang as his army was seizing control of large areas of the country in the Northern Expedition." ], [ "Rule", " Chiang during a visit to an air force base in 1945Having gained control of China, Chiang's party remained surrounded by defeated warlords who remained relatively autonomous within their own regions.", "On 10 October 1928, Chiang was named director of the State Council, the equivalent to President of the country, in addition to his other titles.", "As with his predecessor Sun Yat-sen, the Western media dubbed him \"generalissimo\".According to Sun Yat-sen's plans, the KMT was to rebuild China in three steps: military rule, political tutelage, and constitutional rule.", "The ultimate goal of the KMT revolution was democracy, which was not considered to be feasible in China's fragmented state.", "Since the KMT had completed the first step of revolution through seizure of power in 1928, Chiang's rule thus began a period of what his party considered to be \"political tutelage\" in Sun Yat-sen's name.", "During this so-called Republican Era, many features of a modern, functional Chinese state emerged and developed.From 1928 to 1937, known as the Nanjing decade, various aspects of foreign imperialism, concessions and privileges in China were moderated by diplomacy.", "The government acted to modernize the legal and penal systems and attempted to stabilize prices, amortize debts, reform the banking and currency systems, build railroads and highways, improve public health facilities, legislate against traffic in narcotics, and augment industrial and agricultural production.", "Efforts were made to improve education standards, and the national academy of sciences, Academia Sinica, was founded.", "In an effort to unify Chinese society, the New Life Movement was launched to encourage Confucian moral values and personal discipline.", "''Guoyu'' (\"national language\") was promoted as the official language, and the establishment of communications facilities (including radio) was used to encourage a sense of Chinese nationalism in a way that had not been possible when the nation lacked an effective central government.", "Under that context, the Chinese Rural Reconstruction Movement was implemented by some social activists who graduated as professors of the United States with tangible but limited progress in modernizing the tax, infrastructural, economic, cultural, and educational equipment and the mechanisms of rural regions.", "The social activists actively co-ordinated with the local governments in the towns and villages since the early 1930s.", "However, the policy was subsequently neglected and canceled by Chiang's government because of rampant wars and the lack of resources after the Japanese War and the civil war.Despite being a conservative, Chiang supported modernization policies such as scientific advancement, universal education, and women's rights.", "The Kuomintang supported women's suffrage and education and the abolition of polygamy and foot binding.", "Under Chiang's leadership, the Republic of China government also enacted a women's quota in the parliament, with reserved seats for women.", "During the Nanjing Decade, average Chinese citizens received education that they had been denied by the dynasties.", "That increased the literacy rate across China and also promoted the ideals of Tridemism of democracy, republicanism, science, constitutionalism, and Chinese nationalism based on the Dang Guo of the KMT.Any successes that the Nationalists achieved, however, were met with constant political and military upheavals.", "Many of the urban areas were now under the control of the KMT, but much of the countryside remained under the influence of weakened-but-undefeated warlords, landlords, and Communists.", "Chiang often resolved issues of warlord obstinacy through military action, but such action was costly in terms of men and material.", "The Central Plains War alone nearly bankrupted the Nationalist government and caused almost casualties on both sides.", "In 1931, Hu Hanmin, an old supporter of Chiang, publicly voiced a popular concern that Chiang's position as both premier and president flew in the face of the democratic ideals of the Nationalist government.", "Chiang had Hu put under house arrest, but Hu was released after national condemnation.", "Hu then left Nanjing and supported a rival government in Canton.", "The split resulted in a military conflict between Hu's Guangdong government and Chiang's Nationalist government.Time'' magazine, 26 October 1931Throughout his rule, complete eradication of the Communists remained Chiang's dream.", "After he had assembled his forces in Jiangxi, Chiang led his armies against the newly established Chinese Soviet Republic.", "With help from foreign military advisers such as Max Bauer and Alexander von Falkenhausen, Chiang's Fifth Campaign finally surrounded the Chinese Red Army in 1934.The Communists, tipped off that a Nationalist offensive was imminent, retreated in the Long March during which Mao rose from a mere military official to the most influential leader of the Chinese Communist Party.Some academics and historians have classified Chiang's rule as fascist.", "The New Life Movement, initiated by Chiang, was based upon Confucianism mixed with Christianity, nationalism, and authoritarianism that have some similarities to fascism.", "Frederic Wakeman argued that the New Life Movement was \"Confucian fascism.\"", "Chiang also sponsored the creation of the Blue Shirts Society, in conscious imitation of the Blackshirts in the Italian Fascist Party and the ''Sturmabteilung'' of the Nazi Party.", "Its ideology was to expel foreign (Japanese and Western) imperialists from China and to crush communism.", "Close ties with Nazi Germany also gave the Nationalist government access to German military and economic assistance during the mid-1930s.", "Mao once derogatorily compared Chiang to Adolf Hitler, referring to him as the \"Führer of China.\"", "However, Chiang repeatedly attacked his enemies such as the Empire of Japan as fascistic and ultra-militaristic.", "Sino-German relations rapidly deteriorated as Germany grew closer to Japan and almost completely broke down when Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China in 1937, which Germany failed to mediate.", "However, China did not declare war on Germany, Italy, or even Japan until after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941.Chinese Communists and many conservative anti-communist writers have argued that Chiang was pro-capitalist based on the alliance thesis (the alliance between Chiang and the capitalists to purge the communist and the leftist elements in Shanghai, as well as in the resulting civil war).", "However, Chiang also antagonized the capitalists of Shanghai by often attacking them and confiscating their capital and assets for government use even while he denounced and fought against communists.", "Critics have called that \"bureaucratic capitalism.\"", "Historian Parks M. Coble argues that the phrase \"bureaucratic capitalism\" is too simplistic to adequately characterize this phenomenon.", "Instead, he says, the regime weakened all social forces so that the government could pursue policies without being responsible nor responsive to any outside political groups.", "By defeating any potential challenge to its power, government officials could amass sizable fortunes.", "With that motive, Chiang cracked down pro-communist worker and peasant organizations, as well as rich Shanghai capitalists.", "Chiang also continued the anti-capitalist rhetoric of Sun Yat-sen and directed the Kuomintang media to attack the capitalists and capitalism openly.", "He supported government-controlled industries instead.", "Coble says that the rhetoric had no impact on governmental policy and that its use was to prevent the capitalists from claiming legitimacy within the party or society and to control them and their wealth.Authority within the Nationalist government ultimately lay with Chiang.", "All major policy changes on military, diplomatic, or economic issues required his approval.", "According to historian Odd Arne Westad, \"no other leader within the KMT had the authority to force through even the simplest decisions.", "The practical power of high-ranking officials like ministers or the head of the Executive Yuan was more closely tied to their relationship with Chiang than with the formal authority of their position.", "Chiang created multiple layers of power in his administration which he sometimes played off against each other to prevent individuals or cliques from gathering power that could oppose his authority.Contrary to the critique that Chiang was highly corrupt, he was not involved in corruption himself.", "However his wife, Soong Mei-ling ignored her family's involvement in corruption.", "The Soong family embezzled $20 million of the course of the 1930s and the 1940s when the Nationalist government's revenues were less than $30 million per year.", "The Soong family's eldest son, T.V.", "Soong, was the Chinese premier finance minister, and the eldest daughter, Soong Ai-ling, was the wife of Kung Hsiang-hsi, the wealthiest man in China.", "The second daughter, Soong Ching-ling, was the wife of Sun Yat-sen, China's founding father.", "The youngest daughter, Soong Mei-ling, married Chiang in 1927, and following the marriage, both families became intimately connected, which created the \"Soong dynasty\" and the \"Four Families.\"", "However, Soong was also credited for her campaign for women's rights in China, including her attempts to improve the education, culture, and social benefits of Chinese women.", "Critics have said that the \"Four Families\" monopolized the regime and looted it.", "The US sent considerable aid to the Nationalist government but soon realized the widespread corruption.", "Military supplies that were sent appeared on the black market.", "Significant sums of money that had been transmitted through T. V. Soong, China's finance minister, soon disappeared.", "President Truman famously referred to the Nationalist leaders, \"They're thieves, every damn one of them.\"", "He also said, \"They stole $750 million out of the billions that we sent to Chiang.", "They stole it, and it's invested in real estate down in São Paolo and some right here in New York.\"", "Soong Mei-ling and Soong Ai-ling lived luxurious lifestyles and held millions in property, clothes, art, and jewelry.", "Soong Ai-ling and Soong Mei-ling were also the two richest women in China.", "Despite living a luxurious life for almost her entire life, Soong Mei-ling left only a $120,000 inheritance, and the reason is that according to her niece, that she donated most of her wealth when she was still alive.", "Chiang, requiring support, tolerated corruption with people in his inner circles, as well as high-ranking nationalist officials, but not of lower-ranking officers.", "In 1934, he ordered seven military officers who embezzled state property to be shot.", "In another case, several division commanders pleaded with Chiang to pardon a criminal officer, but as soon as the division commanders had left, Chiang ordered him shot.", "The deputy editor and chief reporter at the Central Daily News, Lu Keng, made headline international news by exposing the corruption of two senior officials, Kong Xiangxi (H. H. Kung) and T.V.", "Soong.", "Chiang then ordered a thorough investigation of the Central Daily News to find the source.", "However, Lu, risked execution by refusing to comply and protecting his journalists.", "Chiang wanting to avoid an international response and so jailed Lu instead.", "Chiang realized the widespread problems that corruption was creating and so he undertook several anti-corruption campaigns before and after World War II with varying success.", "Before the war, both campaigns, the Nanjing Decade Cleanup of 1927–1930 and the Wartime Reform Movement of 1944–1947, failed.", "After the World War II and the Civil War, both campaigns, the Kuomintang Reconstruction of 1950–1952 and the Governmental Rejuvenation of 1969–1973, succeeded.Chiang, who viewed all of the foreign great powers with suspicion, wrote in a letter that they \"all have it in their minds to promote the interests of their own respective countries at the cost of other nations\" and saw it as hypocritical for any of them to condemn one another's foreign policy.", "He used diplomatic persuasion on the United States, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union to regain lost Chinese territories, as he viewed all foreign powers as imperialists that were attempting to exploit China.===First phase of Chinese Civil War===Nationalist government of Nanjing, which nominally ruled over all of China in 1930sDuring April 1931, Chiang Kai-shek attended a national leadership conference in Nanjing with Zhang Xueliang and General Ma Fuxiang during which Chiang and Zhang dauntlessly upheld that Manchuria was part of China in the face of the Japanese invasion.", "After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Chiang resigned as Chairman of the National Government.", "He returned shortly afterward and adopted the slogan \"first internal pacification, then external resistance.\"", "However, his policy of avoiding a frontal war against Japan and prioritizing anti-communist suppression was widely unpopular and provoked nationwide protests.", "In 1932, while Chiang was seeking first to defeat the Communists, Japan launched an advance on Shanghai and bombarded Nanjing.", "That disrupted Chiang's offensives against the Communists for a time, but it was the northern factions of Hu Hanmin's Guangdong government (notably the 19th Route Army) that primarily led the offensive against the Japanese during the skirmish.", "Brought into the NRA immediately after the battle, the 19th Route Army's career under Chiang would be cut short by being disbanded for demonstrating socialist tendencies.", "In December 1936, Chiang flew to Xi'an to co-ordinate a major assault on the Red Army and the CPC, which had retreated into Yan'an.", "However, Chiang's allied commander Zhang Xueliang, whose forces were used in his attack and whose homeland of Manchuria had been recently invaded by the Japanese, did not support the attack on the Communists.", "On 12 December, Zhang and several other Nationalist generals, headed by Yang Hucheng of Shaanxi kidnapped Chiang for two weeks in what is known as the Xi'an Incident.", "They forced Chiang into making a \"Second United Front\" with the Communists against Japan.", "After releasing Chiang and returning to Nanjing with him, Zhang was placed under house arrest, and the generals who had assisted him were executed.", "The Second United Front had a commitment by Chiang that was nominal at best and was all but dissolved in 1941.===Second Sino-Japanese War===After the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, ''The Young Companion'' featured Chiang on its cover.The Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in July 1937, and in August, Chiang sent of his best-trained and equipped soldiers to defend Shanghai.", "With over 200,000 Chinese casualties, Chiang lost the political cream of his Whampoa-trained officers.", "Although Chiang lost militarily, the battle dispelled Japan's claims that it could conquer China in three months and also demonstrated to the Western powers that the Chinese would continue the fight.", "By December, the capital city of Nanjing had fallen to the Japanese resulting in the Nanjing Massacre.", "Chiang moved the government inland first to Wuhan and later to Chongqing.Having lost most of China's economic and industrial centers, Chiang withdrew into the hinterlands, stretched the Japanese supply lines, and bogged down Japanese soldiers in the vast Chinese interior.", "As part of a policy of protracted resistance, Chiang authorized the use of scorched-earth tactics, which resulted in many civilian deaths.", "During the Nationalists' retreat from Zhengzhou, the dams around the city were deliberately destroyed by the National Revolutionary Army to delay the Japanese advance, and the subsequent 1938 Yellow River flood killed 800,000 to one million people.", "Four million Chinese were left homeless.", "Chiang and the KMT were slow to provide disaster relief.After heavy fighting, the Japanese occupied Wuhan in the fall of 1938, and the Nationalists retreated farther inland to Chongqing.", "En route to Chongqing, the Nationalist Army intentionally started the Changsha Fire as a part of its scorched-earth policy.", "The fire destroyed much of the city, killed 20,000 civilians, and left hundreds of thousands of people homeless.", "An organizational error (it was claimed) caused the fire to be started without any warning to the residents of the city.", "The Nationalists eventually blamed three local commanders for the fire and executed them.", "Newspapers across China blamed the fire on (non-KMT) arsonists, but the blaze contributed to a nationwide loss of support for the KMT.In 1939, the Muslim leaders Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Ma Fuliang were sent by Chiang to several Middle Eastern countries, including Egypt, Turkey, and Syria, to gain support for the war against Japan and to express his support for Muslims.The Japanese, controlling the puppet state of Manchukuo and much of China's eastern seaboard, appointed Wang Jingwei as a puppet ruler of the occupied Chinese territories around Nanjing.", "Wang named himself President of the Executive Yuan and chairman, and he led a surprisingly large minority of anti-Chiang and anti-Communist Chinese against his old comrades.", "He died in 1944, a year before the end of World War II.The Hui Xidaotang sect pledged allegiance to the Kuomintang after the party's rise to power, and Hui general Bai Chongxi acquainted Chiang with the Xidaotang Juaozhu Ma Mingren in 1941 in Chongqing.In 1942 Chiang went on tour in northwestern China in Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, and Qinghai, where he met the Muslim Generals Ma Buqing and Ma Bufang.", "He also met the Muslim Generals Ma Hongbin and Ma Hongkui separately.Chiang with Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill in Cairo, Egypt, in November 1943A border crisis erupted with Tibet in 1942.Under orders from Chiang, Ma Bufang repaired Yushu Airport to prevent Tibetan separatists from seeking independence.", "Chiang also ordered Ma Bufang to put his Muslim soldiers on alert for an invasion of Tibet in 1942.Ma Bufang complied and moved several thousand troops to the Tibetan border.", "Chiang also threatened the Tibetans with aerial bombardment if they worked with the Japanese.", "Ma Bufang attacked the Tibetan Buddhist Tsang monastery in 1941.He also constantly attacked the Labrang Monastery.After the attack on Pearl Harbor and the opening of the Pacific War, China became one of the Allies.", "During and after World War II, Chiang and his American-educated wife, Soong Mei-ling, known in the United States as \"Madame Chiang\", held the support of the American \"China Lobby\", which saw in them the hope of a Christian and democratic China.", "Chiang was even named the Supreme Commander of Allied forces in the China war zone.", "He was appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1942.General Joseph Stilwell, an American military advisor to Chiang during World War II, strongly criticized Chiang and his generals for what Stilwell saw as their incompetence and corruption.", "In 1944, the United States Army Air Corps commenced Operation Matterhorn to bomb Japan's steel industry from bases to be constructed in mainland China.", "That was meant to fulfill US President Franklin D. Roosevelt's promise to Chiang to begin bombing operations against Japan by November 1944.However, Chiang's subordinates refused to take air base construction seriously until enough capital had been delivered to permit embezzlement on a massive scale.", "Stilwell estimated that at least half of the $100 million spent on construction of air bases was embezzled by Nationalist party officials.The poor performance of Nationalist forces during the Japanese Ichigo campaign contributed to the view that Chiang was incompetent.", "Chiang argued that the United States, and Stillwell in particular, were at fault for the failure because they had moved too many Chinese troops into the Burma campaign.After the Japanese surrender, Chiang had to rely on the assistance of the United States in order to transport his troops to regain control of occupied areas.", "Non-Chinese found the behavior of these troops and accompanying officials as undercutting Nationalist legitimacy, as Nationalist forces engaged in a \"botched liberation\" characterized by corruption, looting, and inefficiency.Chiang tried to balance the influence of the Soviets and the Americans in China during the war.", "He first told the Americans that they would be welcome in talks between the Soviet Union and China and then secretly told the Soviets that the Americans were unimportant and that their opinions would not be considered.", "Chiang also used American support and military power in China against Soviet ambitions to dominate the talks.", "That stopped the Soviets from taking full advantage of the situation in China by the threat of American military action against them.Chiang's Nationalist government made laws on abortion in China more restrictive during the Second Sino-Japanese War.", "In 1945, Chiang adopted a eugenic population policy that was intended to promote hybrid vigor by encouraging intermarriage between whites and Chinese to combine European fair skin with superior Chinese intelligence.", "Although adopted, the policy was never successfully implemented.=== French Indochina ===President Roosevelt, through General Stilwell, privately made it clear that he preferred for the French not to reacquire French Indochina (now Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos) after the war was over.", "Roosevelt offered Chiang control of all of Indochina.", "It was said that Chiang replied in English, \"Under no circumstances!", "\"After the war, 200,000 Chinese troops under General Lu Han were sent by Chiang to northern Indochina (north of the 16th parallel) to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces there, and the Chinese forces remained in Indochina until 1946, when the French returned.", "The Chinese used the VNQDD, the Vietnamese branch of the Kuomintang, to increase their influence in Indochina and to put pressure on their opponents.", "Chiang threatened the French with war in response to maneuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh's forces against each other and forced them to come to a peace agreement.", "In February 1946, he also forced the French to surrender all of their concessions in China and to renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for the Chinese withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region.", "After France's agreement to those demands, 20,000 French soldiers landed in Haiphong, North Vietnam, on March 6, 1946, under the leadership of general Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, followed by the withdrawal of Chinese troops which began in March 1946.===Ryukyus===According to Republic of China's notes of a dinner meeting during the Cairo Conference in 1943, Roosevelt asked Chiang whether China desired the Ryukyu Islands as territories restored from Japan.", "Chiang said he would be agreeable to joint occupation and administration by China and the United States.===Second phase of Chinese Civil War=======Treatment and use of Japanese soldiers====Chiang, Soong Mei-ling, and US Lieutenant General Joseph W. Stilwell in Burma, April 1942Because of Chiang's focus on his communist opponents, he allowed some Japanese forces and forces from the Japanese puppet regimes to remain on duty in occupied areas in an effort to prevent the communists from accepting their surrender.American troops and weapons soon bolstered the Nationalist forces, which allowed them to reclaim the cities.", "The countryside, however, remained largely under Communist control.", "Chiang implemented his war-time phrase \"repay evil with good\" and made a huge effort to protect elements of the Japanese invading army.", "In 1949, a Nationalist court acquitted General Okamura Yasuji, the chief commander of Japanese forces in China, of alleged war crimes, retaining him as an advisor.", "Nationalist China repeatedly intervened to protect Okamura from repeated American requests to testify at the Tokyo war crimes trial.Many top Nationalist generals, including Chiang, had studied and trained in Japan before the Nationalists had returned to the mainland in the 1920s and maintained close personal friendships with top Japanese officers.", "The Japanese general in charge of all forces in China, General Okamura had personally trained officers who later became generals in Chiang's staff.", "Reportedly, Chiang seriously considered accepting this offer but declined only because he knew that the United States would certainly be outraged by the gesture.", "Even so, armed Japanese troops remained in China well into 1947, with some non-commissioned officers finding their way into the Nationalist officer corps.", "The Japanese in China came to regard Chiang as a magnanimous figure to whom many of them owed their lives and livelihoods; that fact was attested by both Nationalist and Communist sources.==== Conditions during Chinese Civil War ====Chiang and Mao in 1945Chiang did not de-mobilize his troops after the defeat of the Japanese, instead remaining on a war footing to prepare for the resumption of civil war against the Communists.", "This further strained the economy of Nationalist era China, worsening deficits.", "A significant body of evidence suggests that much of the Nationalist military budget in this period was wasted.", "One factor in military budget waste included that troop counts were inflated above actual head counts and that officers embezzled the salaries of the non-existent soldiers.", "Another was the power of military commanders over local branches of the Bank of China, which they could require to provide currency outside of the normal budget process.Although Chiang had achieved status abroad as a world leader, his government deteriorated as the result of corruption and hyperinflation.", "In his diary in June 1948, Chiang wrote that the KMT had failed not because of external enemies but because of rot from within.", "The war had severely weakened the Nationalists, and the Communists were strengthened by their popular land reform policies and by a rural population that supported and trusted them.", "The Nationalists initially had superiority in arms and men, but their lack of popularity, infiltration by Communist agents, low morale, and disorganization soon allowed the Communists to gain the upper hand in the civil war.After World War II, the United States encouraged peace talks between Chiang and the Communist leader, Mao Zedong, in Chongqing.", "Concerns about widespread and well-documented corruption in Chiang's government throughout his rule made the US government limit aid to Chiang for much of the period of 1946 to 1948 despite the fighting against Mao's Red Army.", "Alleged infiltration of the US government by CCP agents may have also played a role in the suspension of American aid.Chiang's right-hand man, the secret police chief Dai Li, was anti-American and anti-Communist and a self-declared fascist.", "Dai ordered Kuomintang agents to spy on American officers.", "Earlier, Dai had been involved with the Blue Shirts Society, a fascist-inspired paramilitary group within the Kuomintang that wanted to expel Western and Japanese imperialists, crush the Communists, and eliminate feudalism.", "Dai Li died in a plane crash, which some suspect to be an assassination orchestrated by Chiang; however, the assassination was also rumoured to have been arranged by the American Office of Strategic Services because of Dai's anti-Americanism and since it happened on an American plane.==== Conflict with Li Zongren ====A new constitution was promulgated in 1947, and Chiang was elected by the National Assembly as the first President of the Republic of China on 20 May 1948.That marked the beginning of what was termed the \"democratic constitutional government\" period by the KMT political orthodoxy, but the Communists refused to recognize the new Constitution, and its government as legitimate.", "Chiang resigned as president on 21 January 1949, as Nationalist forces suffered terrible losses and defections to the Communists.", "After Chiang's resignation, vice-president Li Zongren became China's acting president.Shortly after Chiang's resignation, the Communists halted their advances and attempted to negotiate the Nationalists' virtual surrender.", "Li tried to negotiate milder terms to end the civil war but had no success.", "When it became clear that Li was unlikely to accept Mao's terms, the Communists issued an ultimatum in April 1949 that warned that they would resume their attacks if Li did not agree within five days.", "Li refused.Li's attempts to carry out his policies faced varying degrees of opposition from Chiang's supporters and were generally unsuccessful.", "Taylor has noted that Chiang had a superstitious belief in holding Manchuria.", "After the Nationalist military defeat in the province, Chiang lost faith in winning the war and started to prepare for the retreat to Taiwan.", "Chiang especially antagonized Li by taking possession of and moving to Taiwan US$200 million of gold and US dollars that belonged to the central government.", "Li desperately needed them to cover the government's soaring expenses.", "When the Communists captured the Nationalist capital of Nanjing in April 1949, Li refused to accompany the central government as it fled to Guangdong and instead expressed his dissatisfaction with Chiang by retiring to Guangxi.Chiang with South Korean President Syngman Rhee in 1949The former warlord Yan Xishan, who had fled to Nanjing only one month earlier, quickly insinuated himself within the Li-Chiang rivalry and attempted to have Li and Chiang reconcile their differences in the effort to resist the Communists.", "At Chiang's request, Yan visited Li to convince Li not to withdraw from public life.", "Yan broke down in tears while he talked of the loss of his home province of Shanxi to the Communists, and he warned Li that the Nationalist cause was doomed unless Li went to Guangdong.", "Li agreed to return if Chiang surrendered most of the gold and US dollars in his possession that belonged to the central government, and Chiang stopped overriding Li's authority.", "After Yan communicated those demands and Chiang agreed to comply with them, Li departed for Guangdong.In Guangdong, Li attempted to create a new government composed of both supporters and opponents of Chiang.", "Li's first choice of premier was Chu Cheng, a veteran member of the Kuomintang who had been virtually driven into exile for his strong opposition to Chiang.", "After the Legislative Yuan jas rejected Chu, Li was obliged to choose Yan Xishan instead.", "By then, Yan was well known for his adaptability, and Chiang welcomed his appointment.The conflict between Chiang and Li persisted.", "Although he had agreed to do so as a prerequisite of Li's return, Chiang refused to surrender more than a fraction of the wealth that he had sent to Taiwan.", "Without being backed by gold or foreign currency, the money that was issued by Li and Yan quickly declined in value until it became virtually worthless.", "Although he did not hold a formal executive position in the government, Chiang continued to issue orders to the army, and many officers continued to obey Chiang, rather than Li.", "The inability of Li to co-ordinate KMT military forces led him to put into effect a plan of defense that he had contemplated in 1948.Instead of attempting to defend all of southern China, Li ordered what remained of the Nationalist armies to withdraw to Guangxi and Guangdong.", "He hoped that he could concentrate all available defenses on the smaller area, which would be more easily defensible.", "The object of Li's strategy was to maintain a foothold on the Chinese mainland in the hope that the United States would eventually be compelled to enter the war in China on the Nationalist side.==== Final Communist advance ====Map of the Chinese Civil War (1946–1950)Chiang opposed Li's plan of defense because it would have placed most of the troops who were still loyal to Chiang under the control of Li and Chiang's other opponents in the central government.", "To overcome Chiang's intransigence Li began ousting Chiang's supporters within the central government.", "Yan Xishan continued in his attempts to work with both sides, which created the impression among Li's supporters that he was a stooge of Chiang, and those who supported Chiang began to bitterly resent Yan for his willingness to work with Li.", "Because of the rivalry between Chiang and Li, Chiang refused to allow Nationalist troops loyal to him to aid in the defense of Guangxi and Canton.", "That let Communist forces occupy Canton in October 1949.After Canton fell to the Communists, Chiang relocated the government to Chongqing, and Li effectively surrendered his powers and flew to New York for treatment of his chronic duodenum illness at the Hospital of Columbia University.", "Li visited President Truman, and denounced Chiang as a dictator and an usurper.", "Li vowed that he would \"return to crush\" Chiang once he returned to China.", "Li remained in exile and did not return to Taiwan.In the early morning of 10 December 1949, Communist troops laid siege to Chengdu, the last KMT-controlled city in mainland China, where Chiang Kai-shek and his son Chiang Ching-kuo directed the defense at the Chengtu Central Military Academy.", "Flying out of Chengdu Fenghuangshan Airport, father and son were evacuated to Taiwan via Guangdong on the aircraft ''May-ling'' and arrived the same day.", "Chiang Kai-shek would never return to the mainland.Historian Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang had.", "Also, his search for a powerful centralized government made Chiang antagonize too many interest groups in China.", "Furthermore, his party was weakened by the war against Japan.", "Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese nationalism.Chiang did not reassume the presidency until 1 March 1950.In January 1952, Chiang commanded the Control Yuan, now in Taiwan, to impeach Li in the \"Case of Li Zongren's Failure to carry out Duties due to Illegal Conduct\" (李宗仁違法失職案).", "Chiang relieved Li of the position as vice-president of the National Assembly in March 1954.===In Taiwan======= Preparations to retake the mainland ====Chiang moved the government to Taipei, Taiwan, where he resumed his duties as president on 1 March 1950.Chiang was re-elected by the National Assembly to be the President of the Republic of China on 20 May 1954, and again in 1960, 1966, and 1972.He continued to claim sovereignty over all of China, including the territories held by his government and the People's Republic, as well as territory the latter ceded to foreign governments, such as Tuva and Outer Mongolia.", "In the context of the Cold War, most of the Western world recognized that position, and the ROC represented China in the United Nations and other international organizations until the 1970s.Chiang with Japanese politician Nobusuke Kishi, in 1957During his presidency on Taiwan, Chiang continued making preparations to take back mainland China.", "He developed the JROTC army to prepare for an invasion of the mainland and to defend Taiwan in case of an attack by the Communist forces.", "He also financed armed groups in mainland China, such as Muslim soldiers of the ROC Army Who had been left in Yunnan under Li Mi and continued to fight.", "It was not until the 1980s that those troops were finally airlifted to Taiwan.", "He promoted the Uyghur Yulbars Khan to governor during the Islamic insurgency on the mainland for resisting the Communists even though the government had already evacuated to Taiwan.", "He planned an invasion of the mainland in 1962.In the 1950s, Chiang's airplanes dropped supplies to Kuomintang Muslim insurgents in Qinghai, in the traditional Tibetan area of Amdo.==== Regime in Taiwan ====Despite an ostensibly democratic constitution, the government under Chiang was a de facto one-party state, consisting almost completely of mainlanders; the \"Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion\" greatly enhanced the executive's powers, and the goal of retaking mainland China allowed the KMT to maintain a monopoly on power and to prohibit real parliamentary opposition.", "The government's official line for the martial law provisions stemmed from the claim that emergency provisions were necessary since the Communists and the Nationalists were still in a state of war.", "Seeking to promote Chinese nationalism, Chiang's government actively ignored and suppressed local cultural expression and even forbade the use of local languages in mass media broadcasts or during class sessions.", "As a result of Taiwan's anti-government uprising in 1947, known as the February 28 incident, the KMT-led political repression resulted in the death or the disappearance of up to 30,000 Taiwanese intellectuals, activists, and people suspected of opposition to the KMT.The first decades after the Nationalists had moved the seat of government to the province of Taiwan are associated with the organized effort to resist Communism, which was known as the \"White Terror\"; about 140,000 Taiwanese were imprisoned for their real or perceived opposition to the Kuomintang.", "Most of those prosecuted were labeled by the Kuomintang as \"bandit spies\" (匪諜), meaning spies for Chinese Communists, and punished as such or \"Taiwanese Separatists\" (台獨分子).Under the pretext that new elections could not be held in Communist-occupied constituencies, the National Assembly, Legislative Yuan, and Control Yuan members held their posts indefinitely.", "The Temporary Provisions also allowed Chiang to remain as president beyond the two-term limit in the Constitution.", "He was re-elected by the National Assembly as president four times: in 1954, 1960, 1966, and 1972.Double Ten celebrationsBelieving that corruption and the lack of morals were key reasons that the KMT had lost mainland China to the Communists, Chiang attempted to purge corruption by dismissing members of the KMT who were accused of graft.", "Some major figures in the previous mainland Chinese government, such as Chiang's brothers-in-law H. H. Kung and T.V.", "Soong, exiled themselves to the United States.", "Although politically authoritarian and, to some extent, dominated by government-owned industries, Chiang's new Taiwanese state also encouraged economic development, especially in the export sector.", "A popular sweeping Land Reform Act, as well as American foreign aid during the 1950s, laid the foundation for Taiwan's economic success to become one of the Four Asian Tigers.", "After retreating to Taiwan, Chiang learned from his mistakes and failures in the mainland and blamed them for failing to pursue Sun Yat-sen's ideals of Tridemism and welfarism.", "Chiang's land reform more than doubled the land ownership of Taiwanese farmers.", "It removed the rent burdens on them, with former landowners using the government compensation to become the new capitalist class.", "He promoted a mixed economy of state and private ownership with economic planning.", "Chiang also promoted a nine-year free education and the importance of science in Taiwanese education and values.", "Those measures generated great success, with consistent and strong growth and the stabilization of inflation.After the government of the Republic of China had moved to Taiwan, Chiang Kai-shek's economic policy turned towards to economic liberalism and used Sho-Chieh Tsiang and other liberal economists to promote economic liberalization reforms in Taiwan.However, Taylor has noted that the developmental model of Chiangism in Taiwan still had elements of socialism, and the Gini index of Taiwan was around 0.28 by the 1970s, which was lower than the relatively-egalitarian West Germany.", "ROC (Taiwan) was one of the most equal countries in the pro-western bloc.", "Those in the lower 40% of income doubled their share to 22% of the total income, with the upper 20% shrinking their share from 61% to 39%, from the time of Japanese rule.", "The Chiangist economic model can be seen as a form of dirigisme, with the state playing a crucial role in directing the market economy.", "Small businesses and state-owned enterprises in Taiwan flourished under the economic model, but the economy did not see the emergence of corporate monopolies, unlike in most other major capitalist countries.After the democratization of Taiwan, it began to slowly drift away from the Chiangist economic policy to embrace a more free market system, as part of the economic globalization process under the context of neoliberalism.Chiang had the personal power to review the rulings of all military tribunals, which during the martial law period tried civilians as well.", "In 1950, Lin Pang-chun and two other men were arrested on charges of financial crimes and sentenced to 3–10 years in prison.", "Chiang reviewed the sentences of all three and ordered them executed instead.", "In 1954, the Changhua monk Kao Chih-te and two others were sentenced to 12 years in prison for providing aid to accused communists.", "Chiang sentenced them to death after he had reviewed the case.", "That control over the decision of military tribunals violated the ROC constitution.After Chiang's death, the next president, his son, Chiang Ching-kuo, and Chiang Ching-kuo's successor, Lee Teng-hui, a native Taiwanese, would in the 1980s and 1990s increase native Taiwanese representation in the government and loosen the many authoritarian controls of the early era of ROC control in Taiwan, paving way for the democratization process.====Relations with Japan====In 1971, the former Australian opposition leader Gough Whitlam became Prime Minister in 1972, and swiftly relocated the Australian mission from Taipei to Beijing, visited Japan.", "After meeting with Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Sato Whitlam observed that the reason that Japan was hesitant to withdraw recognition from the Nationalist government was \"the presence of a treaty between the Japanese government and that of Chiang Kai-shek.\"", "Sato explained that the continued recognition of Japan towards the Nationalist government was largely because of the personal relationship that various members of the Japanese government felt towards Chiang.", "This relationship was rooted largely in the generous and lenient treatment of Japanese prisoners-of-war by the Nationalist government in the years immediately after the Japanese surrender in 1945, and was felt especially strongly as a bond of personal obligation by the most senior members who were in power.Although Japan recognized the People's Republic in 1972, shortly after Kakuei Tanaka had succeeded Sato as Prime Minister of Japan, the memory of the relationship was strong enough to be reported by ''The New York Times'' (15 April 1978) as a significant factor inhibiting trade between Japan and the mainland.", "There is speculation that a clash between Communist forces and a Japanese warship in 1978 was caused by Chinese anger by Japanese Prime Minister Takeo Fukuda attending Chiang's funeral.", "Historically, Japan's attempts to normalize its relationship with the People's Republic were met with accusations of ingratitude in Taiwan.====Relations with United States====Chiang with US President Dwight D. Eisenhower in June 1960Chiang was suspicious that covert operatives of the United States were plotting a coup against him.In 1950, Chiang Ching-kuo became director of the secret police (Bureau of Investigation and Statistics), which he remained until 1965.Chiang Kai-shek was also suspicious of politicians who were overly friendly to the United States and considered them his enemies.", "In 1953, seven days after surviving an assassination attempt, Wu Kuo-chen lost his position as governor of Taiwan Province to Chiang Ching-kuo.", "After fleeing to United States the same year, Wu became a vocal critic of Chiang's family and government.Chiang Ching-kuo, who had been educated in the Soviet Union, initiated Soviet-style military organization in the Republic of China Armed Forces.", "He reorganized and Sovietized the political officer corps and propagated Kuomintang ideology throughout the military.", "Sun Li-jen, who had been educated at the American Virginia Military Institute, opposed those practices.Chiang Ching-kuo orchestrated the controversial court-martial and arrest of General Sun Li-jen in August 1955 for plotting a coup d'état with the CIA against his father, Chiang Kai-shek, and the Kuomintang.", "The CIA allegedly wanted to help Sun take control of Taiwan and declare its independence." ], [ "Death", "The National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall is a famous monument, landmark, and tourist attraction in Taipei, Taiwan.In 1975, 26 years after Chiang had come to Taiwan, he died in Taipei at the age of 87.He had suffered a heart attack and pneumonia in the foregoing months, and died from kidney failure aggravated by advanced heart failure on 5 April.", "Chiang's funeral was held on 16 April.A month of mourning was declared.", "The Chinese music composer Hwang Yau-tai wrote the \"Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song.\"", "In mainland China, however, Chiang's death was met with little apparent mourning, and Communist state-run newspapers gave the brief headline \"Chiang Kai-shek Has Died\".", "Chiang's body was put in a copper coffin and temporarily interred at his favorite residence in Cihu, Daxi, Taoyuan.", "His funeral was attended by dignitaries from many nations, including US Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, South Korean Prime Minister Kim Jong-pil, and two former Japanese prime ministers: Nobusuke Kishi and Eisaku Sato.", "() was established on 5 April.", "The memorial day was disestablished in 2007.The response by Japanese media was swift and shaped by a cult of personality around Chiang Kai-shek.", "Japanese conservatives had long promoted to counter the China policy and the historical narratives of their leftist pro-PRC opponents.", "The nationalist leader of Taiwan had been trained in Japanese military schools and shared a particular fondness for the Japanese Empire.When his son, Chiang Ching-kuo, died in 1988, he was entombed in a separate mausoleum in nearby Touliao.", "The hope was to have both of them buried at their birthplace in Fenghua when that would be possible.", "In 2004, Chiang Fang-liang, the widow of Chiang Ching-kuo, asked for both father and son to be buried at Wuzhi Mountain Military Cemetery in Xizhi, Taipei County (now New Taipei City).", "Chiang's ultimate funeral ceremony became a political battle between the wishes of the state and those of his family.Chiang was succeeded as president by Vice President Yen Chia-kan and as Kuomintang party ruler by his son Chiang Ching-kuo, who retired Chiang Kai-shek's title of Director-General and instead assumed the position of chairman.", "Yen's presidency was interim; Chiang Ching-kuo, who was the Premier, became president after the end of Yen's term three years later." ], [ "Cult of personality", "Chiang's portrait in Tiananmen RostrumChinese propaganda poster proclaiming \"Long Live the President\"Chiang's portrait hung over Tiananmen Square until 1949, when it was replaced with Mao's portrait.", "Portraits of Chiang were common in private homes and in public on the streets.", "After his death, the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song was written in 1988 to commemorate Chiang Kai-shek.", "In Cihu, there are several statues of Chiang Kai-shek.A Chinese stamp with Chiang Kai-shekChiang was popular among many people and dressed in plain, simple clothes, unlike contemporary Chinese warlords who dressed extravagantly.Quotes from the Quran and hadith were used by Muslims in the Kuomintang-controlled Muslim publication, the ''Yuehua'', to justify Chiang Kai-shek's rule over China.", "When the Muslim general and warlord Ma Lin was interviewed, he was described as having \"high admiration for and unwavering loyalty to Chiang Kai-shek\"." ], [ "Philosophy", "Chiang Kai-shek and Winston Churchill heads, with Nationalist China flag and Union JackThe Kuomintang used traditional Chinese religious ceremonies, and promulgated martyrdom.", "Kuomintang ideology subserved and promulgated the view that the souls of Party martyrs who died fighting for the Kuomintang, the revolution, and the party founder Sun Yat-sen were sent to heaven.", "Chiang Kai-shek believed that these martyrs witnessed events on Earth from heaven after their deaths.Unlike Sun's original Tridemist ideology that was heavily influenced by Western enlightenment theorists such as Henry George, Abraham Lincoln, Bertrand Russell, and John Stuart Mill, the traditional Chinese Confucian influence on Chiang's ideology is much stronger.", "Chiang rejected the Western progressive ideologies of individualism, liberalism, and the cultural aspects of Marxism.", "Therefore, Chiang is generally more culturally and socially conservative than Sun Yat-sen. Jay Taylor has described Chiang Kai-shek as a revolutionary nationalist and a \"left-leaning Confucian-Jacobinist\".When the Northern Expedition was complete, Kuomintang Generals led by Chiang Kai-shek paid tribute to Sun's soul in heaven with a sacrificial ceremony at the Xiangshan Temple in Beijing in July 1928.Among the Kuomintang Generals present were the Muslim Generals Bai Chongxi and Ma Fuxiang.Chiang Kai-shek considered both Han Chinese and all ethnic minorities of China, the Five Races Under One Union, as descendants of the Yellow Emperor, the mythical founder of the Chinese nation, and belonging to the Chinese Nation Zhonghua Minzu.", "He introduced this into Kuomintang ideology which was propagated into the educational system of the Republic of China.Chiang, as a Chinese nationalist and a Confucian, was against the iconoclasm of the May Fourth Movement.", "Motivated by his sense of nationalism, he viewed some Western ideas as foreign and believed that the great introduction of Western ideas and literature, which the May Fourth Movement promoted, was not beneficial to China.", "He and Sun criticized the May Fourth intellectuals as corrupting the morals of China's youth.Chiang Kai-shek once said:" ], [ "Contemporary perception", "Statue of Chiang Kai-shek in Yangmingshan National Park, TaiwanChiang's legacy has been subjected to heated debates because of the different views held about him.", "For some, Chiang was a national hero who led the victorious Northern Expedition against the Beiyang warlords in 1927 and helped achieve Chinese unification.", "His initial image as the leader of China against Japan's invasion, both before and after the attack on Pearl Harbor, led him to be featured on the cover of ''Time'' magazine ten times.", "Even though China received little American aid compared to Britain and the Soviet Union, it did not fold, as Chiang called on his countrymen to fight to the \"bitter end\" until their ultimate victory against Japan in 1945.Some also see him as a champion of anti-communism, being a key figure during the formative years of the World Anti-Communist League.", "During the subsequent Cold War, he was seen as the leader who led Free China and the bulwark against a possible communist invasion.", "However, historian Rudolph Rummel documented that the Nationalist government under Chiang led to millions of excess deaths from calamities such as its persecution against actual or perceived communists and its conscription of soldiers, confiscation of food, and flooding of downstream regions of the Yellow River during the Second Sino-Japanese War.", "His government was also accused of being corrupt and allying with known criminals such as Du Yuesheng for political and financial gains, and his critics often accuse him of fascism.", "In Taiwan, he ruled throughout a period of martial law.", "Some opponents charge that Chiang's efforts in developing the island were mostly to turn it into a strong base from which to recover mainland China and that he had little regard for the Taiwanese people.Unlike Chiang's son Chiang Ching-kuo, who is respected across the political spectrum, Chiang Kai-shek's image is perceived rather negatively in Taiwan.", "He was rated the lowest in two opinion polls about the perception of former presidents.", "His popularity in Taiwan is divided along political lines, enjoying better support in the Kuomintang (KMT) while being widely unpopular among Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) voters and those who blame him for the thousands killed during the February 28 Incident and criticise his dictatorial rule.In contrast, his image has partially improved in mainland China.", "He had been portrayed as a villain and a \"bourgeoisie reactionary lackey\" who fought against the \"liberation\" of China by the communists, but since the 2000s, the media and popular culture have depicted him in a less negative manner.", "For example, many praised the 2009 movie sponsored by the Chinese Communist Party, ''The Founding of a Republic'', for moving away from casting Chiang as 'evil' versus Mao and emphasizing instead that the contingencies of war led the communists to victory.", "In the context of the Second Sino-Japanese War, aspects of Chiang's trip to India, or meeting with Roosevelt and Churchill in Cairo can be viewed positively.", "The shift also takes into account Chiang's commitment to a unified China and his stance against Taiwanese separatism.", "Chiang's ancestral home in Fenghua, Zhejiang, has become a museum and tourist attraction.", "Historian Rana Mitter notes that the displays inside were very positive about Chiang's role during the Second Sino-Japanese War.Mitter further observed that, ironically, today's China is closer to Chiang's vision than to Mao's and wrote, \"One can imagine Chiang Kai-shek's ghost wandering round China today nodding in approval, while Mao's ghost follows behind him, moaning at the destruction of his vision\".", "Liang Shuming opined that Chiang Kai-shek's \"greatest contribution was to make the CCP successful.", "If he had been a bit more trustworthy, if his character was somewhat better, the CCP would have been unable to beat him\".", "Some Chinese historians argue that the main determinants for Chiang's defeat were not corruption or the lack of US support, but his decision to start the civil war with 70% of government expenditures in the military, his overestimation of the Nationalist forces equipped with US arms, and the loss of popularity and morales of his soldiers.", "Other historians argue that his failure was largely caused by external factors outside of Chiang's control.", "They include the refusal of the Truman administration to support Chiang by withdrawing aid, the foisting of an arms embargo by George C. Marshall, the failed pursuit of a détente between the nationalists and the communists, the American push for a coalition government with the CCP, and the USSR's consistent aid and support for the CCP during the civil war.In the United States and Europe, Chiang was often perceived negatively as the one who lost China to the communists.", "His persistent demands for United States support and funding also prompted jokes from American officials that Chiang's name was actually General \"Cash-My-Check\".", "He has also been criticized for his poor military skills, such as issuing unrealistic orders and persistently attempting to fight unwinnable battles, leading to the loss of his best troops.", "In recent years, Chiang's image has been somewhat rehabilitated, and he has been increasingly perceived as a man overwhelmed by the events in China, having to fight the communists, Japanese, and provincial warlords simultaneously while trying to reconstruct and unify the country.", "His sincere, albeit often unsuccessful attempts to build a more powerful and modern nation have been noted by scholars such as Jonathan Fenby, Rana Mitter, and biographer Jay Taylor." ], [ "Family", "=== Wives ===File:Mao Fumei.jpg|Mao Fumei (1882–1939), who died in the Second Sino-Japanese War during a bombardment, is the mother of his son and successor Chiang Ching-kuoFile:Yao Zhicheng.jpg|Yao Yecheng (1889–1972), who came to Taiwan and died in TaipeiFile:Chen Jieru.jpg|Chen Jieru (\"Jennie\", 1906–1971), who lived in Shanghai, but moved to Hong Kong later and died thereFile:Soong May-ling wearing China Air Force pin.jpg|Soong Mei-ling (1898–2003), who moved to the United States after Chiang Kai-shek's death, is arguably his most famous wife even though they had no children togetherIn 1901, in an arranged marriage at age 14, Chiang was married to Mao Fumei, an illiterate villager five years his senior.", "While married to Mao, Chiang adopted two concubines (concubinage was still a common practice for well-to-do, non-Christian males in China): he took Yao Yecheng (, 1887–1966) as concubine in late 1912 and married Chen Jieru (1906–1971) in December 1921.While he was still living in Shanghai, Chiang and Yao adopted a son, Wei-kuo Chen adopted a daughter in 1924, named Yaoguang, who later adopted her mother's surname.", "Chen's autobiography refuted the idea that she was a concubine.", "Chen claiming that, by the time she married Chiang, he had already divorced Yao, and that Chen was therefore his wife.", "Chiang and Mao had a son, Ching-kuo.According to the memoirs of Chen Jieru, Chiang's second wife (Chen Jieru) contracted gonorrhea from Chiang soon after their marriage.", "He told her that he acquired this disease after separating from his first wife and living with his concubine Yao Yecheng, as well as with many other women he consorted with.", "His doctor explained to her that Chiang had sex with her before completing his treatment for the disease.", "As a result, both Chiang and Chen Jieru believed that they had become sterile; however, a purported miscarriage by Soong Mei-ling in August 1928 would, if it actually occurred, cast serious doubt on whether this was true.=== Family tree ===Duke of ZhouThe Xikou Chiangs were descended from Chiang Shih-chieh, who during the 1600s moved there from Fenghua district, and whose ancestors in turn came to southeastern China's Zhejiang (Chekiang) province after moving out of Northern China in the 13th century CE.", "The 12th century BCE Duke of Zhou's (Duke of Chou) third son was the ancestors of the Chiangs.His great-grandfather was Chiang Qi-zeng, his grandfather was Chiang Si-qian, his uncle was Chiang Zhao-hai, and his father was Chiang Zhao-cong." ], [ "Religion and relationships with religious communities", "Chiang personally dealt extensively with religions, power figures, and factions in China during his regime.=== Religious views ===Chiang Kai-shek was born and raised as a Buddhist, but became a Methodist upon his marriage to his fourth wife, Soong Mei-ling.", "It was previously believed that this was a political move, but further studies of his personal diaries suggest that his faith was sincere.=== Relationship with Muslims ===Chiang Kai-shek with the Muslim General Ma FushouChiang developed relationships with other generals.", "Chiang became a sworn brother of the Chinese Muslim general Ma Fuxiang and appointed him to high ranking positions.", "Chiang addressed Ma Fuxiang's son Ma Hongkui as Shao Yun Shixiong Ma Fuxiang attended national leadership conferences with Chiang during battles against Japan.", "Ma Hongkui was eventually scapegoated for the failure of the Ningxia Campaign against the Communists, so he moved to the US instead of remaining in Taiwan with Chiang.When Chiang became President of China after the Northern Expedition, he carved out Ningxia and Qinghai out of Gansu province, and appointed Muslim generals as military governors of all three provinces: Ma Hongkui, Ma Hongbin, and Ma Qi.", "The three Muslim governors, known as Xibei San Ma (lit.", "\"the three Mas of the Northwest\"), controlled armies composed entirely of Muslims.", "Chiang called on the three and their subordinates to wage war against the Soviet peoples, Tibetans, Communists, and the Japanese.", "Chiang continued to appoint Muslims as governors of the three provinces, including Ma Lin and Ma Fushou.", "Chiang's appointments, the first time that Muslims had been appointed as governors of Gansu, increased the prestige of Muslim officials in northwestern China.", "The armies raised by this \"Ma Clique\", most notably their Muslim cavalry, were incorporated into the KMT army.", "Chiang appointed Hui general Bai Chongxi as the Minister of National Defence of the Republic of China, which controlled the ROC military.Chiang also supported the Muslim General Ma Zhongying, whom he had trained at Whampoa Military Academy during the Kumul Rebellion, in a jihad against Jin Shuren, Sheng Shicai, and the Soviet Union during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang.", "Chiang designated Ma's Muslim army as the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) and gave his troops KMT flags and uniforms.", "Chiang then supported Muslim General Ma Hushan against Sheng and the Soviet Union in the Xinjiang War (1937).", "All Muslim generals commissioned by Chiang in the National Revolutionary Army swore allegiance to him.", "Several, like Ma Shaowu and Ma Hushan were loyal to Chiang and Kuomintang hardliners.The Ili Rebellion and Pei-ta-shan Incident plagued relations with the Soviet Union during Chiang's rule and caused trouble with the Uyghurs.", "During the Ili Rebellion and Peitashan incident, Chiang deployed Hui troops against Uyghur mobs in Turfan, and against Soviet Russian and Mongols at Peitashan.During Chiang's rule, attacks on foreigners and ethnic minorities by the allied warlords of the Nationalist government such as the Ma Clique flared up in several incidents.", "One of these was the Battle of Kashgar where a Muslim army loyal to the Kuomintang massacred 4,500 Uyghurs, and killed several Britons at the British consulate in Kashgar.Hu Songshan, a Muslim Imam, backed Chiang Kai-shek's regime and gave prayers for his government.", "ROC flags were saluted by Muslims in Ningxia during prayer along with exhortations to nationalism during Chiang's rule.", "Chiang sent Muslim students abroad to study at places like Al-Azhar University and Muslim schools throughout China that taught loyalty to his regime.The Yuehua, a Chinese Muslim publication, quoted the Quran and hadith to justify submitting to Chiang Kai-shek as the leader of China, and as justification for Jihad in the war against Japan.The Yihewani (Ikhwan al Muslimun a.k.a.", "Muslim brotherhood) was the predominant Muslim sect backed by the Chiang government during Chiang's regime.", "Other Muslim sects, like the Xidaotang and Sufi brotherhoods like Jahriyya and Khuffiya were also supported by his regime.", "The Chinese Muslim Association, a pro-Kuomintang and anti-Communist organization, was set up by Muslims working in his regime.", "Salafists attempted to gain a foothold in China during his regime, but the Yihewani and Hanafi Sunni Gedimu denounced the Salafis as radicals, engaged in fights against them, and declared them heretics, forcing the Salafis to form a separate sect.", "Ma Ching-chiang, a Muslim General, served as an advisor to Chiang Kai-shek.", "Ma Buqing was another Muslim General who fled to Taiwan along with Chiang.", "His government donated money to build the Taipei Grand Mosque on Taiwan.=== Relationship with Buddhists and Christians ===Chiang had uneasy relations with the Tibetans.", "He fought against them in the Sino-Tibetan War, and he supported the Muslim General Ma Bufang in his war against Tibetan rebels in Qinghai.", "Chiang ordered Ma Bufang to prepare his Islamic army to invade Tibet several times, to deter Tibetan independence, and threatened the Tibetans with aerial bombardment.", "Ma Bufang attacked the Tibetan Buddhist Tsang monastery in 1941.After the war, Chiang appointed Ma Bufang as ambassador to Saudi Arabia.Chiang incorporated Methodist values into the New Life Movement under the influence of his wife.", "Dancing and Western music were discouraged.", "In one incident, several youths splashed acid on people wearing Western clothing, although Chiang was not directly responsible for these incidents.", "Despite being a Methodist, he made reference to the Buddha in his diary, and encouraged the establishment of a Buddhist political party under Master Taixu.According to Jehovah's Witnesses' magazine ''The Watchtower'', some of their members travelled to Chongqing and spoke to him personally while distributing their literature there during World War II." ], [ "Honours", "Chiang Kai-shek as Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim; Republic of China national honours* Order of National Glory* Order of Blue Sky and White Sun* Order of the Sacred Tripod* Order of Brilliant Jade* Order of Propitious Clouds* Order of the Cloud and Banner* Order of Brilliant Star * Honour Sabre of the Awakened Lion; Foreign honours* Dominican Republic:** Order of Merit of Duarte, Sánchez and Mella (January 1940)** Order of Christopher Columbus (July 1948)** Grand Cross of the Order of Christopher Columbus (October 1971)* Philippines:** Chief Commander of the Philippine Legion of Honor (1949)** Grand Collar of the Ancient Order of Sikatuna (2 May 1960)* United States:** Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit (9 July 1943)** Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army) (March 1946)* South Korea: Order of Merit for National Foundation (27 November 1953)* Thailand: Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (5 June 1963)* Colombia: Order of Boyaca (October 1963)* United Kingdom: Order of the Bath (1941)* Peru: Order of the Sun of Peru (October 1944)* Czechoslovakia: Order of the White Lion (30 May 1945)* France: Legion of Honour (9 January 1945)* Chile: Order of Merit (Chile) (29 January 1944)* Mexico: Order of the Aztec Eagle (April 1945)* Greece: Order of the Redeemer (22 March 1957)* Jordan: Supreme Order of the Renaissance (9 March 1959)* Brazil: Order of the Southern Cross (1944)* Italy: Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (April 1948)* Sweden: Royal Order of the Seraphim (4 June 1948)* Spain: ** Order of Isabella the Catholic (May 1936)** Order of Civil Merit (1965)* Venezuela: Order of the Liberator (July 1954)* Vietnam (Nguyễn dynasty): Kim Khanh Medal (January 1960)* Belgium: Order of Leopold (Belgium) (4 June 1946)* Malawi: Order of the Lion (Malawi) (5 August 1967)* Bolivia: Order of the Condor of the Andes (March 1966)* Gambia: Order of the Republic of The Gambia (November 1972)* Argentina: Order of the Liberator General San Martín (October 1960)* Guatemala: Order of the Quetzal (7 December 1956)* Nicaragua:** National Order of Miguel Larreynaga (November 1974)** Order of Ruben Dario (October 1958)* Panama: Order of Vasco Núñez de Balboa (February 1960)* Paraguay: Collar of Marshal Francisco Solano Lopez Grade of National Order of Merit (May 1962)" ], [ "Selected writings", "* Includes foreword, by J. Leighton Stuart.--What China has faced, by Mme.", "Chiang Kai-shek.--Sian: a coup d'e´tat, by Mme.", "Chiang Kai-shek.--A fortnight in Sian: extracts from a diary, by Chiang Kai-shek.--The Generalissimo's admonition to Chiang Hsueh-liang (''sic'': i.e.", "Zhang Xueliang) and Yang Hu-chen (''sic'': i.e.", "Yang Hucheng) prior to his departure from Sian.--Names of Chinese persons and places mentioned in the story and diary.", "* Authorized translation of 中国之命运 (''Zhongguo zhi mingyun'') (1943).", ".", "Introduction by Lin Yutang.", "* .", "Unauthorized translation of 中国之命运 (''Zhongguo zhi mingyun'') (1943) by Philip Jaffe, with his notes and extensive critical commentary.", "* ''The Collected Wartime Messages Of Generalissimo Chiang Kai Shek'' at Netarchive* * —, Works at Internet Archive HERE" ], [ "See also", "* Chiangism* Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall* Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song* Chiang Kai-shek statues* Chiang Kai-shek International Airport* Cihu Mausoleum* Free area of the Republic of China* Guesthouses of Chiang Kai-shek* History of the Republic of China* History of China–United States relations to 1948* List of kidnappings* Politics of the Republic of China* Republic of China (1912–1949)* Republic of China Armed Forces* Shilin Official Residence* Timeline of Chiang Kai-shek" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography and further reading ===* * Ch'en Chieh-ju.", "1993.", "''Chiang Kai-shek's Secret Past: The Memoirs of His Second Wife''.", "Westview Press.", "Internet Archive online download and streaming HERE.", "* * * Crozier, Brian.", "2009.", "''The Man Who Lost China''.", "* Fairbank, John King, and Denis Twitchett, eds.", "1983.", "''The Cambridge History of China: Volume 12, Republican China, 1912–1949, Part 1''.", "* Alt URL** * Garver, John W. ''China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic'' (2nd ed.", "2018) comprehensive scholarly history.", "excerpt * * * Li, Laura Tyson.", "2006.", "''Madame Chiang Kai-shek: China's Eternal First Lady''.", "Grove Press.", "* * May, Ernest R.", "2002.", "\"1947–48: When Marshall Kept the U.S. out of War in China\".", "''Journal of Military History'' 66(4): 1001–1010.online free * Paine, S. C. M. ''The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949'' (2014)* * * Romanus, Charles F., and Riley Sunderland.", "1959.", "''Time Runs Out in CBI''.", "Official U.S. Army history online edition * Sainsbury, Keith.", "1985.", "''The Turning Point: Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill, and Chiang-Kai-shek, 1943.The Moscow, Cairo, and Teheran Conferences''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Seagrave, Sterling.", "1996.", "''The Soong Dynasty''.", "Corgi Books.", "* Stueck, William.", "1984.", "''The Wedemeyer Mission: American Politics and Foreign Policy during the Cold War''.", "University of Georgia Press.", "* Tang Tsou.", "1963.", "''America's Failure in China, 1941–50''.", "University of California Press.", "* * * Tuchman, Barbara W.", "1971.", "''Stillwell and the American Experience in China, 1911–45''.", "* * van de Ven, Hans, et al.", "eds.", "''Negotiating China's Destiny in World War II'' (Stanford University Press, 2014).", "336 pp.", "online review * Vogel, Ezra F. ''China and Japan: Facing History'' (2019) excerpt" ], [ "External links", "* ROC Government Biography* ''Time'' \"Man and Wife of the Year\", 1937* The National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall Official Site* The Chungcheng Cultural and Educational Foundation* Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek Association Hong Kong* Order of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek supplementing the Act of Surrender – by Japan on 9 September 1945* Family tree of his descendants (in Simplified Chinese)* The Chiang Kai-shek Index at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum* 1966 GIO Biographical video* \"The Memorial Song of Late President Chiang Kai-shek\" (Ministry of National Defence of ROC) * Chiang Kai-shek Biography – From Spartacus Educational* The National Chiang Kai-shek Cultural Center Official Site* Chiang Kai-shek Diaries at the Hoover Institution Archives * 蔣介石的勳章 ORDERS of CHIANG KAI SHEK – SKYFLEET/LUFTFLOTT的部落格/天艦 – udn部落格*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Compression ratio" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Static compression ratio''' is determined using the cylinder volume when the piston is at the top and bottom of its travel.The '''compression ratio''' is the ratio between the volume of the cylinder and combustion chamber in an internal combustion engine at their maximum and minimum values.A fundamental specification for such engines, it is measured two ways: the '''static compression ratio''', calculated based on the relative volumes of the combustion chamber and the cylinder when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, and the volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is at the top of its stroke.", "The '''dynamic compression ratio''' is a more advanced calculation which also takes into account gasses entering and exiting the cylinder during the compression phase." ], [ "Effect and typical ratios", "A high compression ratio is desirable because it allows an engine to extract more mechanical energy from a given mass of air–fuel mixture due to its higher thermal efficiency.", "This occurs because internal combustion engines are heat engines, and higher compression ratios permit the same combustion temperature to be reached with less fuel, while giving a longer expansion cycle, creating more mechanical power output and lowering the exhaust temperature.", "=== Petrol engines===In petrol (gasoline) engines used in passenger cars for the past 20 years, compression ratios have typically been between 8:1 and 12:1.Several production engines have used higher compression ratios, including:* Cars built from 1955–1972 which were designed for high-octane leaded gasoline, which allowed compression ratios up to 13:1.", "* Some Mazda SkyActiv engines released since 2012 have compression ratios up to 16:1.The SkyActiv engine achieves this compression ratio with ordinary unleaded gasoline (95 RON in the United Kingdom) through improved scavenging of exhaust gases (which ensures cylinder temperature is as low as possible before the intake stroke), in addition to direct injection.", "* Toyota Dynamic Force engine has a compression ratio up to 14:1.", "* The 2014 Ferrari 458 Speciale also has a compression ratio of 14:1.When forced induction (e.g.", "a turbocharger or supercharger) is used, the compression ratio is often lower than naturally aspirated engines.", "This is due to the turbocharger/supercharger already having compressed the air before it enters the cylinders.", "Engines using port fuel-injection typically run lower boost pressures and/or compression ratios than direct injected engines because port fuel injection causes the air/fuel mixture to be heated together, leading to detonation.", "Conversely, directly injected engines can run higher boost because heated air will not detonate without a fuel being present.Higher compression ratios can make gasoline (petrol) engines subject to engine knocking (also known as \"detonation\", \"pre-ignition\" or \"pinging\") if lower octane-rated fuel is used.", "This can reduce efficiency or damage the engine if knock sensors are not present to modify the ignition timing.=== Diesel engines ===Diesel engines use higher compression ratios than petrol engines, because the lack of a spark plug means that the compression ratio must increase the temperature of the air in the cylinder sufficiently to ignite the diesel using compression ignition.", "Compression ratios are often between 14:1 and 23:1 for direct injection diesel engines, and between 18:1 and 23:1 for indirect injection diesel engines.At the lower end of 14:1, NOx emissions are reduced at a cost of more difficult cold-start.", "Mazda's Skyactiv-D, the first such commercial engine from 2013, used adaptive fuel injectors among other techniques to ease cold start.=== Other fuels ===The compression ratio may be higher in engines running exclusively on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG or \"propane autogas\") or compressed natural gas, due to the higher octane rating of these fuels.Kerosene engines typically use a compression ratio of 6.5 or lower.", "The petrol-paraffin engine version of the Ferguson TE20 tractor had a compression ratio of 4.5:1 for operation on tractor vaporising oil with an octane rating between 55 and 70.=== Motorsport engines ===Motorsport engines often run on high octane petrol and can therefore use higher compression ratios.", "For example, motorcycle racing engines can use compression ratios as high as 14.7:1, and it is common to find motorcycles with compression ratios above 12.0:1 designed for 95 or higher octane fuel.Ethanol and methanol can take significantly higher compression ratios than gasoline.", "Racing engines burning methanol and ethanol fuel often have a compression ratio of 14:1 to 16:1." ], [ "Mathematical formula", "In a piston engine, the static compression ratio () is the ratio between the volume of the cylinder and combustion chamber when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, and the volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is at the top of its stroke.", "It is therefore calculated by the formula:Where::: = displacement volume.", "This is the volume inside the cylinder displaced by the piston from the beginning of the compression stroke to the end of the stroke.", ": = clearance volume.", "This is the volume of the space in the cylinder left at the end of the compression stroke.", "can be estimated by the cylinder volume formula:Where:: = cylinder bore (diameter): = piston stroke lengthBecause of the complex shape of it is usually measured directly.", "This is often done by filling the cylinder with liquid and then measuring the volume of the used liquid." ], [ "Variable compression ratio engines", "Most engines use a fixed compression ratio, however a variable compression ratio engine is able to adjust the compression ratio while the engine is in operation.", "The first production engine with a variable compression ratio was introduced in 2019.Variable compression ratio is a technology to adjust the compression ratio of an internal combustion engine while the engine is in operation.", "This is done to increase fuel efficiency while under varying loads.", "Variable compression engines allow the volume above the piston at top dead centre to be changed.Higher loads require lower ratios to increase power, while lower loads need higher ratios to increase efficiency, i.e.", "to lower fuel consumption.", "For automotive use this needs to be done as the engine is running in response to the load and driving demands.The 2019 Infiniti QX50 is the first commercially available car that uses a variable compression ratio engine." ], [ "Dynamic compression ratio", "The ''static compression ratio'' discussed above — calculated solely based on the cylinder and combustion chamber volumes — does not take into account any gasses entering or exiting the cylinder during the compression phase.", "In most automotive engines, the intake valve closure (which seals the cylinder) takes place during the compression phase (i.e.", "after bottom dead centre, BDC), which can cause some of the gasses to be pushed back out through the intake valve.", "On the other hand, intake port tuning and scavenging can cause a greater amount of gas to be trapped in the cylinder than the static volume would suggest.", "The ''dynamic compression ratio'' accounts for these factors.The dynamic compression ratio is higher with more conservative intake camshaft timing (i.e.", "soon after BDC), and lower with more radical intake camshaft timing (i.e.", "later after BDC).", "Regardless, the dynamic compression ratio is always lower than the static compression ratio.Absolute cylinder pressure is used to calculate the dynamic compression ratio, using the following formula:: : where is a polytropic value for the ratio of specific heats for the combustion gasses at the temperatures present (this compensates for the temperature rise caused by compression, as well as heat lost to the cylinder)Under ideal (adiabatic) conditions, the ratio of specific heats would be 1.4, but a lower value, generally between 1.2 and 1.3 is used, since the amount of heat lost will vary among engines based on design, size and materials used.", "For example, if the static compression ratio is 10:1, and the dynamic compression ratio is 7.5:1, a useful value for cylinder pressure would be 7.51.3 × atmospheric pressure, or 13.7 bar (relative to atmospheric pressure).The two corrections for dynamic compression ratio affect cylinder pressure in opposite directions, but not in equal strength.", "An engine with high static compression ratio and late intake valve closure will have a dynamic compression ratio similar to an engine with lower compression but earlier intake valve closure." ], [ "See also", "* Mean effective pressure" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Concordat of Worms" ], [ "Introduction", "Papal minuscule on VellumThe '''Concordat of Worms''' was an agreement between the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire which regulated the procedure for the appointment of bishops and abbots in the Empire.", "Signed on 23 September 1122 in the German city of Worms by Pope Callixtus II and Emperor Henry V, the agreement set an end to the Investiture Controversy, a conflict between state and church over the right to appoint religious office holders that had begun in the middle of the 11th century.By signing the concordat, Henry renounced his right to invest bishops and abbots with ring and crosier, and opened ecclesiastical appointments in his realm to canonical elections.", "Callixtus, in turn, agreed to the presence of the emperor or his officials at the elections and granted the emperor the right to intervene in the case of disputed outcomes.", "The emperor was also allowed to perform a separate ceremony in which he would invest bishops and abbots with a sceptre, representing the imperial lands associated with their episcopal see." ], [ "Background", "During the middle of the 11th century, a reformist movement within the Christian Church sought to reassert the rights of the Holy See at the expense of the European monarchs.", "Having been elected in 1073, the reformist Pope Gregory VII proclaimed several edicts aimed at strengthening the authority of the papacy, some of which were formulated in the ''Dictatus papae'' of 1075.Gregory's edicts postulated that secular rulers were answerable to the pope and forbade them to make appointments to clerical offices (a process known as investiture).The pope's doctrines were vehemently rejected by Henry IV, the Holy Roman Emperor, who habitually invested the bishops and abbots of his realm.", "The ensuing conflict between the Empire and the papacy is known as the Investiture Controversy.", "The dispute continued after the death of Gregory VII in 1084 and the abdication of Henry IV in 1105.Even though Henry's son and successor, Henry V, looked towards reconciliation with the reformist movement, no lasting compromise was achieved in the first 16 years of his reign.", "In 1111, Henry V brokered an agreement with Pope Paschal II at Sutri, whereby he would abstain from investing clergy in his realm in exchange for the restoration of church property that had originally belonged to the Empire.", "The Sutri agreement, Henry hoped, would convince Paschal to assent to Henry's official coronation as emperor.The agreement failed to be implemented, leading Henry to imprison the pope.", "After two months of captivity, Paschal vowed to grant the coronation and to accept the emperor's role in investiture ceremonies.", "He also agreed never to excommunicate Henry.", "Given that these concessions had been won by force, ecclesiastical opposition to the Empire continued.", "The following year, Paschal reneged on his promises." ], [ "Mouzon summit", "In January 1118, Pope Paschal died.", "He was succeeded by Gelasius II, who died in January 1119.His successor, the Burgundian Callixtus II, resumed negotiations with the Emperor with the aim of settling the dispute between the church and the Empire.", "In the autumn of 1119, two papal emissaries, William of Champeaux and Pons of Cluny, met Henry at Strasbourg, where the emperor agreed in principle to abandon the secular investiture ceremony that involved giving new bishops and abbots a ring and a crosier.The two parties scheduled a final summit between Henry and Callixtus at Mouzon, but the meeting ended abruptly after the emperor refused to accept a short-notice change in Callixtus's demands.", "The church leaders, who were deliberating their position at a council in Reims, reacted by excommunicating Henry.", "However, they did not endorse the pope's insistence upon the complete abandonment of secular investiture.", "The negotiations ended in failure.Historians disagree as to whether Calixtus actually wanted peace or fundamentally mistrusted Henry.", "Due to his uncompromising position in 1111, Calixtus has been termed an \"ultra\", and his election to the papacy may indicate that the College of Cardinals saw no reason to show weakness to the emperor.", "This optimism about victory was founded on the very visible, and very vocal opposition to Henry from within his own nobility, and the cardinals may have seen the emperor's internal weaknesses as an opportunity for outright victory." ], [ "Further negotiations", "After the failure of the Mouzon negotiations, and the disappearance into the horizon of the chances of Henry's unconditional surrender, the majority of the clergy became willing to compromise in order to settle the dispute.", "The polemic writings and pronouncements that had figured so highly during the Investiture Dispute had died down by this point.", "Historian Gerd Tellenbach argues that, despite appearances, these years were \"no longer marked by an atmosphere of bitter conflict\".This was in part the result of the papacy's realization that it could not win two different disputes on two separate fronts, as it had been trying to do.", "Calixtus had been personally involved in negotiations with the Emperor over the last decade, and his intimate knowledge of the delicate situation made him the perfect candidate for the attempt.", "The difference between 1119 and 1122, argues Stroll, was not Henry, who had been willing to make concessions in 1119, but Calixtus, who had then been intransigent, but who now was intent upon reaching an agreement\".The same sentiment prevailed in much of the German nobility.", "In 1121, pressured by a faction of nobles from the Lower Rhine and Duchy of Saxony under the leadership of the archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, Henry agreed to submit to make peace with the pope.", "In response in February 1122, Calixtus wrote to Frederick in a conciliatory tone via the Bishop of Acqui.", "His letter has been described as \"a carefully crafted overture\".Calixtus drew attention to their blood relationship, suggesting that while their shared ancestry compelled them to love each other as brothers, it was fundamental that the German kings draw their authority from God, but via his servants, not directly.", "However, Calixtus also emphasised for the first time that he blamed not Henry personally for the dispute but his bad advisors who had dictated unsound policy to him.", "In a major shift in policy since the Council of Reims of 1119, the pope stated that the church gifts what it possesses to all its children, without making claims upon them.", "This was intended to reassure Henry that in the event of peace between them, his position and Empire were secure.Shifting from the practical to the spiritual, Calixtus asked Henry to bear in mind that he was a king, but like all men limited on his earthly capability; he had armies, and kings below him, but the church had Christ and the Apostles.", "Continuing his theme, he referred, indirectly, to Henry's excommunication by himself (twice), he begged Henry to allow the conditions for peace to be created, as a result of which the church's, and God's glory would be increased, as concomitantly would the Emperor's.", "Conversely, he made sure to include a threat: if Henry did not change his ways, Calixtus threatened to place \"the protection of the church in the hands of wise men\".Historian Mary Stroll argues that, in taking this approach, Calixtus was taking advantage of the fact that, while he himself \"was hardly in a position to sabre rattle\" due to his military defeat in the south and his difficulty with his own Cardinals, Henry was also under pressure in Germany in both the military and spiritual spheres.The Emperor replied through the Bishop of Speyer and the Abbot of Fulda, who travelled to Rome and collected the pope's emissaries under the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia.", "Speyer was a representative of Henry's political opponents in Germany, whereas Fulda was a negotiator rather than politically partisan.", "Complicating matters was a disputed election to the bishopric of Wurzburg in February 1122 of the kind that was at the heart of the Investiture Dispute.", "Although this almost led to an outbreak of civil war, a truce was arranged in August, allowing the parties to return to the papal negotiations.In the summer of 1122, a synod was convened in Mainz, at which imperial emissaries concluded the terms of their agreement with representatives of the church.", "In a sign that the Pope intended the impending negotiations to be successful, a Lateran council was announced for the following year." ], [ "Worms", "The Emperor received the papal legates in Worms with due ceremony, where he awaited the outcome of the negotiations which appear to have actually taken place in nearby Mainz, which was hostile territory to Henry.", "As such, he had to communicate via messenger to keep up with events.", "Abbot Ekkehard of Aura chronicles that discussions took over a week to conclude.", "On 8 September, he met the papal legates and their final agreements were codified for publication.Although a possible compromise solution had already been received from England, this does not seem to have ever been considered in depth, probably on account of it containing an oath of Homage between Emperor and Pope, which been a historical sticking point in earlier negotiations.", "The papal delegation was led by Cardinal bishop Lamberto Scannabecchi of Ostia, the future Pope Honorius II.Both sides studied previous negotiations between them, including those from 1111, which were considered to have created precedent.", "On 23 September 1122, papal and imperial delegates signed a series of documents outside the walls of Worms.", "There was insufficient room in the city for the number of attendees and watchers.", "Adalbert, Archbishop of Mainz wrote to Calixtus of how complex the negotiations had been, given that, as he said, Henry regarded the powers he was being asked to renounce as being hereditary in the Imperial throne.", "It is probable that what was eventually promulgated was the result of almost every word being carefully considered.", "The main difference between what was to be agreed at Worms and previous negotiations were the concessions from the pope." ], [ "Concordat", "The agreements come to at Worms were in the nature of both concessions and assurances to the other party.", "Henry, on oath before God, the apostles and the church renounced his right to invest bishops and abbots with ring and crosier, and opened ecclesiastical appointments in his realm to canonical elections, ''regno vel imperio''.", "He also recognised the traditional extent and boundaries of the papal patrimony as a legal entity rather than one malleable to the emperor.", "Henry promised to return to the church those lands rightfully belonging to the church seized by himself or his father to the church; furthermore, he would assist the pope in regaining those that were taken by others, and \"he will do the same thing for all other churches and princes, both ecclesiastical and lay\".", "If the pope requested Imperial assistance, he would receive it, and if the church came to the empire for justice, it would be treated fairly.", "He also swore to abstain from \"all investiture by ring and staff\", marking the end of an ancient imperial tradition.Callixtus made similar reciprocal promises regarding the empire in Italy.", "He agreed to the presence of the emperor or his officials at the elections and granted the emperor the right to ajudge in the case of disputed outcomes on episcopal advice—as long as they had been held peacefully and without simony—which had officially been the case ever since precedent had been set by the London Accord of 1107.This right to judge was constrained by an assurance that he would support the majority vote among electors, and further that he would take the advice of his other bishops before doing so.", "The emperor was also allowed to perform a separate ceremony in which he would invest bishops and abbots with their ''regalia'', a sceptre representing the imperial lands associated with their episcopal see.", "This clause also contained a \"cryptic\" condition that once the elect had been so endowed, the new bishop \"should do what he ought to do according to imperial rights\".", "In the German imperial lands this was to take place prior to the bishop-elect's consecration; elsewhere in the empire—Burgundy and Italy, exempting the Papal States—within six months of the ceremony.", "The differentiating between the German portion of the Empire and the rest was of particular importance to Calixtus as the papacy had traditionally felt threatened more from it in the peninsular than the broader Empire.", "Finally, the pope granted \"true peace\" on the emperor and all those who had supported him.", "Calixtus had effectively overturned wholesale the strategy he had pursued during the Mouzon negotiation; episcopal investitures in Germany were to take place with very little substantive change in ceremony, while temporal involvement remained, only replacing investiture with homage, although the word itself—''hominium''—was studiously avoided.", "Adalbert, from whom Calixtus first received news of the final concordat, emphasized that it still had to be approved in Rome; this suggests, argues Stroll, that the Archbishop—and probably the papal legation as a whole—were against making concessions to the emperor, and probably wanted Calixtus to disown the agreement.", "Adalbert believed the agreement would make it easier for the Emperor to legalise intimidation of episcopal electors, writing that \"through the opportunity of the emperor's presence, the Church of God must undergo the same slavery as before, or an even more oppressive one\".However, argues Stroll, the concessions Calixtus made were an \"excellent bargain\" in return for eradicating the danger on the papacy's northern border and therefore allowing him to focus, without threat or distraction, on the Normans to the south.", "It had achieved its peace, argues Norman Cantor, by allowing local national custom and practice to determine future relations between crown and pope; in most cases, he notes, this \"favored the continuance of royal control over the church\".The concordat was published as two distinct charters, each laying out the concessions the one party was making to the other.", "They are known respectively as the Papal (or the ''Calixtinum'') and the Imperial (''Henricianum'') charters.", "Calixtus's is addressed to the emperor—in quite personal terms—while Henry's is made out to God.", "The bishop of Ostia gave the emperor the kiss of peace on behalf of the pope and said Mass.", "By these rites was Henry returned to the church, the negotiators were lauded for succeeding in their delicate mission and the concordat was called \"peace at the will of the pope\".", "Neither charter was signed; both contained probably intentional vagaries and unanswered questions—such as the position of the papacy's churches that lay outside both the patrimony and Germany—which were subsequently addressed on a case-by-case basis.", "Indeed, Robert Benson has suggested that the brevity of the charters was deliberate and that the agreement as a whole is as important for what it omits as for what it includes.", "The term ''regalia'', for example, was not only undefined but literally meant two different things to each party.", "In the ''Henricianum'' it referred to the feudal duty owed to a monarch; in the Calixtinium, it was the episcopal temporalities.", "Broader question, such as the nature of the church and Empire relationship, were also not addressed, although some ambiguity was removed by an 1133 Papal privilege.The Concordat was widely, and deliberately, publicised around Europe.", "Calixtus was not in Rome when the concordat was delivered.", "He had left the city by late August and was not to return until mid- to late October, making a progress to Anagni, taking the bishopric of Anagni and Casamari Abbey under his protection.=== Agreements ===+Agreement of Calixtus IIEdict of Henry VI, Calixtus, bishop, servant of the servants of God, do grant to thee, beloved son, Henry—by the grace of God emperor of the Romans, Augustus—that the elections of bishops and abbots of the German kingdom, who belong to that kingdom, shall take place in thy presence, without simony or any violence; so that if any dispute shall arise between the parties concerned, thou, with the counsel or judgment of the metropolitan and the coprovincial bishops, shalt give consent and aid to the party which has the more right.", "The one elected shall receive the regalia from thee by the scepter and shall perform his lawful duties to thee on that account.", "But he who is consecrated in the other parts of thy empire i.e., Burgundy and Italy shall, within six months, and without any exaction, receive the regalia from thee by the scepter, and shall perform his lawful duties to thee on that account (saving all rights which are known to belong to the Roman Church).", "Concerning matters in which thou shalt make complaint to me, and ask aid—I, according to the duty of my office, will furnish aid to thee.", "I give unto thee true peace, and to all who are or have been of thy party in this conflict.", "In the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity I, Henry, by the grace of God emperor of the Romans, Augustus, for the love of God and of the Holy Roman Church and of our lord Pope Calixtus, and for the salvation of my soul, do surrender to God, and to the holy apostles of God, Peter and Paul, and to the Holy Catholic Church, all investiture through ring and staff; and do grant that in all the churches that are in my kingdom or empire there may be canonical election and free consecration.", "All the possessions and regalia of St. Peter which, from the beginning of this discord unto this day, whether in the time of my father or in mine have been seized, and which I hold, I restore to that same Holy Roman Church.", "And I will faithfully aid in the restoration of those things which I do not hold.", "The possessions also of all other churches and princes, and of all other persons lay and clerical which have been lost in that war: according to the counsel of the princes, or according to justice, I will restore, as far as I hold them; and I will faithfully aid in the restoration of those things which I do not hold.", "And I grant true peace to our lord Pope Calixtus, and to the Holy Roman Church, and to all those who are or have been on its side.", "And in matters where the Holy Roman Church shall ask aid I will grant it; and in matters concerning which it shall make complaint to me I will duly grant to it justice.", "All these things have been done by the consent and counsel of the princes.", "Whose names are here adjoined: Adalbert archbishop of Mainz; F. archbishop of Cologne; H. bishop of Ratisbon; O. bishop of Bamberg; B. bishop of Spires; H. of Augsburg; G. of Utrecht; Ou.", "of Constance; E. abbot of Fulda; Henry, duke; Frederick, duke; S. duke; Pertolf, duke; Margrave Teipold; Margrave Engelbert; Godfrey, count Palatine; Otto, count Palatine; Berengar, count.I, Frederick, archbishop of Cologne and arch-chancellor, have ratified this.Henry V renounced his right to invest bishops and abbots with ring and crosier (''pictured'').=== Preservation ===The concordat was ratified at the First Council of the Lateran and the original ''Henricianum'' charter is preserved at the Vatican Apostolic Archive; the ''Calixtinum'' has not survived except in subsequent copies.", "A copy of the former is also held in the ''Codex Udalrici'', but this is an abridged version for political circulation, as it reduces the number of imperial concessions made.", "Indicating the extent that he saw the agreement as a papal victory, Calixtus had a copy of the ''Henricianum'' painted on a Lateran Palace chamber wall; while nominally portraying the concordat as a victory for the papacy, it also ignored the numerous concessions made to the emperor.", "This was part of what Hartmut Hoffmann has called \"a conspiracy of silence\" regarding papal concessions.", "Indeed, while the Pope is pictured enthroned, and Henry only standing, the suggestion is still that they were jointly wielding their respective authority to come to this agreement.", "An English copy of the ''Calixtinum'' made by William of Malmsbury is reasonably accurate but omits the clause mentioning the use of a sceptre in the granting of the ''regalia''.", "He then, having condemned Henry's \"Teuton fury\", proceeds to praise him, comparing him favourably to Charlemagne for his devotion to God and the peace of Christendom." ], [ "Aftermath", "The first invocation of the concordat was not in the empire, as it turned out, but by Henry I of England the following year.", "Following a long-running dispute between Canterbury–York which ended up in the Papal court, Joseph Huffman argues that it would have been controversial for the Pope \"to justify one set of concessions in Germany and another in England\".", "The concordat ended once and for all the \"Imperial church system of the Ottonians and Salians\".", "The First Lateran Council was convoked to confirm the Concordat of Worms.", "The council was most representative with nearly 300 bishops and 600 abbots from every part of Catholic Europe being present.", "It convened on March 18, 1123.One of its primary concerns was to emphasise the independence of diocesan clergy, and to do so it forbade monks to leave their monasteries to provide pastoral care, which would in future be the sole preserve of the diocese.", "In ratifying the Concordat, the Council confirmed that in future bishops would be elected by their clergy, although, also per the Concordat, the Emperor could refuse the homage of German bishops.Decrees were passed directed against simony, concubinage among the clergy, church robbers, and forgers of Church documents; the council also reaffirmed indulgences for Crusaders.", "These, argues C. Colt Anderson \"established important precedents in canon law restricting the influence of the laity and the monks\".", "While this led to a busy period of reform, it was important for those advocating reform not to allow themselves to be confused with the myriad heretical sects and schismatics who were making similar criticisms.The Concordat was the last major achievement for Emperor Henry, as he died in 1125; an attempted invasion of France came to nothing in 1124 in the face of \"determined opposition\".", "Fuhrmann comments that, as Henry had shown in his life \"even less interest in new currents of thought and feeling than his father\", he probably did not understand the significance of the events he had lived through.", "The peace only lasted until his death; when Imperial Electors met to choose his successor, reformists took the opportunity to attack the imperial gains of Worms on the grounds that they had been granted to him personally rather than Emperors generally.", "However, later emperors, such as Frederick I and Henry VI, continued to wield as much, if intangible, power as their predecessors in episcopal elections, and to a greater degree to that allowed them by Calixtus' charter.", "Successive emperors found the Concordat sufficiently favourable that it remained, almost unaltered until the empire was dissolved by Francis II in 1806 on account of Napoleon.", "Popes, likewise, were able to use the powers codified to them in the Concordatto their advantage in future internal disputes with their Cardinals." ], [ "Reception", "20th-century interpretation of a medieval king investing a bishopThe most detailed contemporary description of the Concordat comes to historians through a brief chronicle known as the 1125 continuation chronicle.", "This pro-papal document lays the blame for the schism squarely upon Henry—by his recognition of Gregory VIII—and the praise for ending it on Calixtus, through his making only temporary compromises.", "I. S. Robinson, writing in The New Cambridge Medieval History, suggests that this was a deliberate ploy to leave further negotiations open with a more politically malleable Emperor in future.", "To others it was not so clear cut; Honorius of Autun, for example, writing later in the century discussed lay investiture as an aspect of papal-Imperial relations and, even a century later the ''Sachsenspiegel'' still stated that Emperors nominated bishops in Germany.", "Robinson suggests that, by the end of the 12th century, \"it was the imperial, rather than the papal version of the Concordat of Worms that was generally accepted by German churchmen\".The contemporary English historian William of Malmesbury praised the Concordat for curtailing what he perceived as the emperor's overreach, or as he put it, \"severing the sprouting necks of Teuton fury with the axe of Apostolic power\".", "However, he regarded the final settlement not as a defeat of the Empire at the hands of the church, but rather as a reconciliatory effort by the two powers.", "Although polemicism had died down in the years preceding the Concordat, it did not finish them completely, and factionalism within the church especially continued.", "Gerhoh of Reichersberg believed that the emperor now had the right to request German bishops pay homage to him, something that would never have been allowed under Paschal, due to the vague clause instructing newly-elects to the things the emperor wished.", "Gerhoh argued that now imperial intervention in episcopal elections had been curtailed, Henry would use this clause to extend his influence in the church by means of homage.", "Gerhoh was torn between viewing the concordat as the end of a long struggle between pope and empire, or whether it marked the beginning of a new one within the church itself.", "Likewise Adelbert of Mainz—who had casually criticised the agreement in his report to Calixtus continued to lobby against it, and continued to bring complaints against Henry, whom, for example, he alleged had illegally removed the Bishop of Strassburg who was suspected of complicity in the death of Duke Berthold of Zaehringen.The reformist party within the church took a similar view, criticising the Concordat for failing to remove all secular influence on the church.", "For this reason, a group of followers of Paschal II unsuccessfully attempted to prevent the agreement's ratification at the Lateran Council, crying ''non placet!''", "when asked to do so: \"it was only when it was pointed out that much had to be accepted for the sake of peace that the atmosphere quietened\".", "Calixtus told them that they had \"not to approve but tolerate\" it.", "At a council in Bamberg in 1122 Henry gathered those nobles who had not attended the Concordat to seek their approval of the agreement, which they did.", "The following month he sent cordial letters to Calixtus agreeing with the pope's position that as brothers in Christ they were bound by God to work together, etc., and that he would soon visit personally to discuss the repatriation of papal land.", "These letters were, in turn, responded to positively by Calixtus, who instructed his delegates to make good the promises they had made at Worms.=== Historiography === Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz called the agreements made at Worms \"the oldest concordat in German history, an international treaty\", while Augustin Fliche argued that the Concordat effectively instituted the statutes of Ivo of Chartres, a prominent reformer in the early years of the Investiture Contest, a view, it has been suggested, that most historians agree with.", "The historian Uta-Renate Blumenthal writes that, despite its shortcomings, the Concordat freed \"the church and the Empire from antiquated concepts with their increasingly anachronistic restrictions\".", "According to the historian William Chester Jordan, the Concordat was \"of enormous significance\" because it demonstrated that the emperor, in spite of his great secular power, did not have any religious authority.", "On the other hand, argues Karl F. Morrison, any victory the papacy felt it had won was pyrrhic, as \"the king was left in possession of the field\".", "The new peace also now allowed the papacy to expand its territories in Italy, such as the Sabina, which were unobtainable while the dispute with Henry was ongoing, while in Germany, a new class of ecclesiastics was created, what Horst Fuhrmann calls the \"ecclesiastical princes of the Empire\".While most historians agree that the Concordat marks a clear close to the fifty-year-old struggle between church and empire, disagreement continues on just how decisive a termination that was.", "Historians are also unclear as to the commitment of the pope to the concordat.", "Stroll, for example, notes that, while Henry's oaths were made to the church corporate, so in perpetuity, while Calixtus's may have been in a personal capacity.", "This, Stroll argues, would mean that it could be argued that while Henry's commitments to the church applied forever, Calixtus's applied only for the duration of Henry's reign, and at least one contemporary, Otto of Freising, wrote later in the century that he believed this to be the church's position.", "Stroll considers it \"implausible\" that Henry and his counsel would ever have entered into such a one-sided agreement.", "Indeed, John O'Malley has argued that the emperor had effectively been granted a veto from Calixtus; while in the strictest interpretation of the Gregorian reformers the only two important things in the making of a bishop were his election and consecration, Calixtus had effectively codified a role—however small—for the emperor in this process.", "Conversely, Benson reckons that while Henry's agreement was with the church in perpetuity, Calixtus'—based on the personal mode of address—was with him personally, and as such not binding on his successors.", "However, this was also an acknowledgement, he suggests, that much of what the pope did not address was already considered customary, and so did not need addressing.There has also been disagreement in why the Investiture contest ended with the Concordat as it did.", "Benson notes that, as a truce, it was primarily intended to stop the fighting rather than to address its original causes.", "It was \"a straightforward, political engagement...a pragmatic agreement\" between two political bodies.", "Indeed, controversy over investiture continued for at least another decade; in that light, suggests Benson, it could be argued that the Concordat did not end the dispute at all.", "There were \"many problems unsolved, and it left much room for the free play of power\".", "Political scientist Bruce Bueno de Mesquita has argued that, in the long term, the Concordat was an essential component to the later—gradual—creation of the European nation state." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Context-free language" ], [ "Introduction", "In formal language theory, a '''context-free language''' ('''CFL''') is a language generated by a context-free grammar (CFG).Context-free languages have many applications in programming languages, in particular, most arithmetic expressions are generated by context-free grammars." ], [ "Background", "===Context-free grammar===Different context-free grammars can generate the same context-free language.", "Intrinsic properties of the language can be distinguished from extrinsic properties of a particular grammar by comparing multiple grammars that describe the language.===Automata===The set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by pushdown automata, which makes these languages amenable to parsing.", "Further, for a given CFG, there is a direct way to produce a pushdown automaton for the grammar (and thereby the corresponding language), though going the other way (producing a grammar given an automaton) is not as direct." ], [ "Examples", "An example context-free language is , the language of all non-empty even-length strings, the entire first halves of which are 's, and the entire second halves of which are 's.", "is generated by the grammar .This language is not regular.It is accepted by the pushdown automaton where is defined as follows::Unambiguous CFLs are a proper subset of all CFLs: there are inherently ambiguous CFLs.", "An example of an inherently ambiguous CFL is the union of with .", "This set is context-free, since the union of two context-free languages is always context-free.", "But there is no way to unambiguously parse strings in the (non-context-free) subset which is the intersection of these two languages.===Dyck language===The language of all properly matched parentheses is generated by the grammar ." ], [ "Properties", "===Context-free parsing===The context-free nature of the language makes it simple to parse with a pushdown automaton.Determining an instance of the membership problem; i.e.", "given a string , determine whether where is the language generated by a given grammar ; is also known as ''recognition''.", "Context-free recognition for Chomsky normal form grammars was shown by Leslie G. Valiant to be reducible to boolean matrix multiplication, thus inheriting its complexity upper bound of ''O''(''n''2.3728596).Conversely, Lillian Lee has shown ''O''(''n''3−ε) boolean matrix multiplication to be reducible to ''O''(''n''3−3ε) CFG parsing, thus establishing some kind of lower bound for the latter.Practical uses of context-free languages require also to produce a derivation tree that exhibits the structure that the grammar associates with the given string.", "The process of producing this tree is called ''parsing''.", "Known parsers have a time complexity that is cubic in the size of the string that is parsed.Formally, the set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by pushdown automata (PDA).", "Parser algorithms for context-free languages include the CYK algorithm and Earley's Algorithm.A special subclass of context-free languages are the deterministic context-free languages which are defined as the set of languages accepted by a deterministic pushdown automaton and can be parsed by a LR(k) parser.See also parsing expression grammar as an alternative approach to grammar and parser.===Closure properties===The class of context-free languages is closed under the following operations.", "That is, if ''L'' and ''P'' are context-free languages, the following languages are context-free as well:*the union of ''L'' and ''P''*the reversal of ''L''*the concatenation of ''L'' and ''P''*the Kleene star of ''L''*the image of ''L'' under a homomorphism *the image of ''L'' under an inverse homomorphism *the circular shift of ''L'' (the language )*the prefix closure of ''L'' (the set of all prefixes of strings from ''L'')*the quotient ''L''/''R'' of ''L'' by a regular language ''R''====Nonclosure under intersection, complement, and difference====The context-free languages are not closed under intersection.", "This can be seen by taking the languages and , which are both context-free.", "Their intersection is , which can be shown to be non-context-free by the pumping lemma for context-free languages.", "As a consequence, context-free languages cannot be closed under complementation, as for any languages ''A'' and ''B'', their intersection can be expressed by union and complement: .", "In particular, context-free language cannot be closed under difference, since complement can be expressed by difference: .However, if ''L'' is a context-free language and ''D'' is a regular language then both their intersection and their difference are context-free languages.===Decidability===In formal language theory, questions about regular languages are usually decidable, but ones about context-free languages are often not.", "It is decidable whether such a language is finite, but not whether it contains every possible string, is regular, is unambiguous, or is equivalent to a language with a different grammar.The following problems are undecidable for arbitrarily given context-free grammars A and B:*Equivalence: is ?", "*Disjointness: is ?", "However, the intersection of a context-free language and a ''regular'' language is context-free, hence the variant of the problem where ''B'' is a regular grammar is decidable (see \"Emptiness\" below).", "*Containment: is ?", "Again, the variant of the problem where ''B'' is a regular grammar is decidable, while that where ''A'' is regular is generally not.", "*Universality: is ?", "*Regularity: is a regular language?", "*Ambiguity: is every grammar for ambiguous?The following problems are ''decidable'' for arbitrary context-free languages:*Emptiness: Given a context-free grammar ''A'', is ?", "*Finiteness: Given a context-free grammar ''A'', is finite?", "*Membership: Given a context-free grammar ''G'', and a word , does ?", "Efficient polynomial-time algorithms for the membership problem are the CYK algorithm and Earley's Algorithm.According to Hopcroft, Motwani, Ullman (2003), many of the fundamental closure and (un)decidability properties of context-free languages were shown in the 1961 paper of Bar-Hillel, Perles, and Shamir===Languages that are not context-free===The set is a context-sensitive language, but there does not exist a context-free grammar generating this language.", "So there exist context-sensitive languages which are not context-free.", "To prove that a given language is not context-free, one may employ the pumping lemma for context-free languages or a number of other methods, such as Ogden's lemma or Parikh's theorem." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===**" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Caffeine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Caffeine''' is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class.", "It is mainly used as a eugeroic (wakefulness promoter) or as a mild cognitive enhancer to increase alertness and attentional performance.", "Caffeine acts by blocking binding of adenosine to the adenosine A1 receptor, which enhances release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.", "Caffeine has a three-dimensional structure similar to that of adenosine, which allows it to bind and block its receptors.", "Caffeine also increases cyclic AMP levels through nonselective inhibition of phosphodiesterase.Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline purine, a methylxanthine alkaloid, and is chemically related to the adenine and guanine bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).", "It is found in the seeds, fruits, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants native to Africa, East Asia and South America, and helps to protect them against herbivores and from competition by preventing the germination of nearby seeds, as well as encouraging consumption by select animals such as honey bees.", "The best-known source of caffeine is the coffee bean, the seed of the ''Coffea'' plant.", "People may drink beverages containing caffeine to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve cognitive performance.", "To make these drinks, caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water, a process called infusion.", "Caffeine-containing drinks, such as coffee, tea, and cola, are consumed globally in high volumes.", "In 2020, almost 10 million tonnes of coffee beans were consumed globally.", "Caffeine is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug.", "Unlike most other psychoactive substances, caffeine remains largely unregulated and legal in nearly all parts of the world.", "Caffeine is also an outlier as its use is seen as socially acceptable in most cultures and even encouraged in others.Caffeine has both positive and negative health effects.", "It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity and apnea of prematurity.", "Caffeine citrate is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines.", "It may confer a modest protective effect against some diseases, including Parkinson's disease.", "Some people experience sleep disruption or anxiety if they consume caffeine, but others show little disturbance.", "Evidence of a risk during pregnancy is equivocal; some authorities recommend that pregnant women limit caffeine to the equivalent of two cups of coffee per day or less.", "Caffeine can produce a mild form of drug dependence – associated with withdrawal symptoms such as sleepiness, headache, and irritability – when an individual stops using caffeine after repeated daily intake.", "Tolerance to the autonomic effects of increased blood pressure and heart rate, and increased urine output, develops with chronic use (i.e., these symptoms become less pronounced or do not occur following consistent use).Caffeine is classified by the US Food and Drug Administration as generally recognized as safe.", "Toxic doses, over 10 grams per day for an adult, are much higher than the typical dose of under 500 milligrams per day.", "The European Food Safety Authority reported that up to 400 mg of caffeine per day (around 5.7 mg/kg of body mass per day) does not raise safety concerns for non-pregnant adults, while intakes up to 200 mg per day for pregnant and lactating women do not raise safety concerns for the fetus or the breast-fed infants.", "A cup of coffee contains 80–175 mg of caffeine, depending on what \"bean\" (seed) is used, how it is roasted, and how it is prepared (e.g., drip, percolation, or espresso).", "Thus it requires roughly 50–100 ordinary cups of coffee to reach the toxic dose.", "However, pure powdered caffeine, which is available as a dietary supplement, can be lethal in tablespoon-sized amounts." ], [ "Uses", "===Medical===Caffeine is used for both prevention and treatment of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature infants.", "It may improve weight gain during therapy and reduce the incidence of cerebral palsy as well as reduce language and cognitive delay.", "On the other hand, subtle long-term side effects are possible.Caffeine is used as a primary treatment for apnea of prematurity, but not prevention.", "It is also used for orthostatic hypotension treatment.Some people use caffeine-containing beverages such as coffee or tea to try to treat their asthma.", "Evidence to support this practice is poor.", "It appears that caffeine in low doses improves airway function in people with asthma, increasing forced expiratory volume (FEV1) by 5% to 18% for up to four hours.", "The addition of caffeine (100–130 mg) to commonly prescribed pain relievers such as paracetamol or ibuprofen modestly improves the proportion of people who achieve pain relief.Consumption of caffeine after abdominal surgery shortens the time to recovery of normal bowel function and shortens length of hospital stay.Caffeine was formerly used as a second-line treatment for ADHD.", "It is considered less effective than methylphenidate or amphetamine but more so than placebo for children with ADHD.", "Children, adolescents, and adults with ADHD are more likely to consume caffeine, perhaps as a form of self-medication.===Enhancing performance=======Cognitive performance====Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant that may reduce fatigue and drowsiness.", "At normal doses, caffeine has variable effects on learning and memory, but it generally improves reaction time, wakefulness, concentration, and motor coordination.", "The amount of caffeine needed to produce these effects varies from person to person, depending on body size and degree of tolerance.", "The desired effects arise approximately one hour after consumption, and the desired effects of a moderate dose usually subside after about three or four hours.Caffeine can delay or prevent sleep and improves task performance during sleep deprivation.", "Shift workers who use caffeine make fewer mistakes that could result from drowsiness.Caffeine in a dose dependent manner increases alertness in both fatigued and normal individuals.A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2014 found that concurrent caffeine and -theanine use has synergistic psychoactive effects that promote alertness, attention, and task switching; these effects are most pronounced during the first hour post-dose.====Physical performance====Caffeine is a proven ergogenic aid in humans.", "Caffeine improves athletic performance in aerobic (especially endurance sports) and anaerobic conditions.", "Moderate doses of caffeine (around 5 mg/kg) can improve sprint performance, cycling and running time trial performance, endurance (i.e., it delays the onset of muscle fatigue and central fatigue), and cycling power output.", "Caffeine increases basal metabolic rate in adults.", "Caffeine ingestion prior to aerobic exercise increases fat oxidation, particularly in persons with low physical fitness.Caffeine improves muscular strength and power, and may enhance muscular endurance.", "Caffeine also enhances performance on anaerobic tests.", "Caffeine consumption before constant load exercise is associated with reduced perceived exertion.", "While this effect is not present during exercise-to-exhaustion exercise, performance is significantly enhanced.", "This is congruent with caffeine reducing perceived exertion, because exercise-to-exhaustion should end at the same point of fatigue.", "Caffeine also improves power output and reduces time to completion in aerobic time trials, an effect positively (but not exclusively) associated with longer duration exercise.===Specific populations=======Adults====For the general population of healthy adults, Health Canada advises a daily intake of no more than 400 mg.", "This limit was found to be safe by a 2017 systematic review on caffeine toxicology.====Children====In healthy children, moderate caffeine intake under 400 mg produces effects that are \"modest and typically innocuous\".", "As early as six months old, infants can metabolize caffeine at the same rate as that of adults.", "Higher doses of caffeine (>400 mg) can cause physiological, psychological and behavioral harm, particularly for children with psychiatric or cardiac conditions.", "There is no evidence that coffee stunts a child's growth.", "The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that caffeine consumption is not appropriate for children and adolescents and should be avoided.", "This recommendation is based on a clinical report released by American Academy of Pediatrics in 2011 with a review of 45 publications from 1994 to 2011 and includes inputs from various stakeholders (Pediatricians, Committee on nutrition, Canadian Pediatric Society, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Food and Drug Administration, Sports Medicine & Fitness committee, National Federations of High School Associations).", "For children age 12 and under, Health Canada recommends a maximum daily caffeine intake of no more than 2.5 milligrams per kilogram of body weight.", "Based on average body weights of children, this translates to the following age-based intake limits: Age range Maximum recommended daily caffeine intake 4–6 45 mg (slightly more than in 355 ml (12 fl.", "oz) of a typical caffeinated soft drink) 7–9 62.5 mg 10–12 85 mg (about  cup of coffee)====Adolescents====Health Canada has not developed advice for adolescents because of insufficient data.", "However, they suggest that daily caffeine intake for this age group be no more than 2.5 mg/kg body weight.", "This is because the maximum adult caffeine dose may not be appropriate for light-weight adolescents or for younger adolescents who are still growing.", "The daily dose of 2.5 mg/kg body weight would not cause adverse health effects in the majority of adolescent caffeine consumers.", "This is a conservative suggestion since older and heavier-weight adolescents may be able to consume adult doses of caffeine without experiencing adverse effects.==== Pregnancy and breastfeeding ====The metabolism of caffeine is reduced in pregnancy, especially in the third trimester, and the half-life of caffeine during pregnancy can be increased up to 15 hours (as compared to 2.5 to 4.5 hours in non-pregnant adults).", "Evidence regarding the effects of caffeine on pregnancy and for breastfeeding are inconclusive.", "There is limited primary and secondary advice for, or against, caffeine use during pregnancy and its effects on the fetus or newborn.The UK Food Standards Agency has recommended that pregnant women should limit their caffeine intake, out of prudence, to less than 200 mg of caffeine a day – the equivalent of two cups of instant coffee, or one and a half to two cups of fresh coffee.", "The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) concluded in 2010 that caffeine consumption is safe up to 200 mg per day in pregnant women.", "For women who breastfeed, are pregnant, or may become pregnant, Health Canada recommends a maximum daily caffeine intake of no more than 300 mg, or a little over two 8 oz (237 mL) cups of coffee.", "A 2017 systematic review on caffeine toxicology found evidence supporting that caffeine consumption up to 300 mg/day for pregnant women is generally not associated with adverse reproductive or developmental effect.There are conflicting reports in the scientific literature about caffeine use during pregnancy.", "A 2011 review found that caffeine during pregnancy does not appear to increase the risk of congenital malformations, miscarriage or growth retardation even when consumed in moderate to high amounts.", "Other reviews, however, concluded that there is some evidence that higher caffeine intake by pregnant women may be associated with a higher risk of giving birth to a low birth weight baby, and may be associated with a higher risk of pregnancy loss.", "A systematic review, analyzing the results of observational studies, suggests that women who consume large amounts of caffeine (greater than 300 mg/day) prior to becoming pregnant may have a higher risk of experiencing pregnancy loss." ], [ "Adverse effects{{anchor|Side_effects}}", "===Physiological===Caffeine in coffee and other caffeinated drinks can affect gastrointestinal motility and gastric acid secretion.", "In postmenopausal women, high caffeine consumption can accelerate bone loss.Acute ingestion of caffeine in large doses (at least 250–300 mg, equivalent to the amount found in 2–3 cups of coffee or 5–8 cups of tea) results in a short-term stimulation of urine output in individuals who have been deprived of caffeine for a period of days or weeks.", "This increase is due to both a diuresis (increase in water excretion) and a natriuresis (increase in saline excretion); it is mediated via proximal tubular adenosine receptor blockade.", "The acute increase in urinary output may increase the risk of dehydration.", "However, chronic users of caffeine develop a tolerance to this effect and experience no increase in urinary output.===Psychological===Minor undesired symptoms from caffeine ingestion not sufficiently severe to warrant a psychiatric diagnosis are common and include mild anxiety, jitteriness, insomnia, increased sleep latency, and reduced coordination.", "Caffeine can have negative effects on anxiety disorders.", "According to a 2011 literature review, caffeine use may induce anxiety and panic disorders in people with Parkinson's disease.", "At high doses, typically greater than 300 mg, caffeine can both cause and worsen anxiety.", "For some people, discontinuing caffeine use can significantly reduce anxiety.", "In moderate doses, caffeine has been associated with reduced symptoms of depression and lower suicide risk.", "Two reviews indicate that increased consumption of coffee and caffeine may reduce the risk of depression.Some textbooks state that caffeine is a mild euphoriant, while others state that it is not a euphoriant.Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder is a subclass of the DSM-5 diagnosis of substance/medication-induced anxiety disorder.===Reinforcement disorders=======Addiction====Whether caffeine can result in an addictive disorder depends on how addiction is defined.", "Compulsive caffeine consumption under any circumstances has not been observed, and caffeine is therefore not generally considered addictive.", "However, some diagnostic models, such as the and ICD-10, include a classification of caffeine addiction under a broader diagnostic model.", "Some state that certain users can become addicted and therefore unable to decrease use even though they know there are negative health effects.Caffeine does not appear to be a reinforcing stimulus, and some degree of aversion may actually occur, with people preferring placebo over caffeine in a study on drug abuse liability published in an NIDA research monograph.", "Some state that research does not provide support for an underlying biochemical mechanism for caffeine addiction.", "Other research states it can affect the reward system.", "\"Caffeine addiction\" was added to the ICDM-9 and ICD-10.However, its addition was contested with claims that this diagnostic model of caffeine addiction is not supported by evidence.", "The American Psychiatric Association's does not include the diagnosis of a ''caffeine addiction'' but proposes criteria for the disorder for more study.====Dependence and withdrawal====Withdrawal can cause mild to clinically significant distress or impairment in daily functioning.", "The frequency at which this occurs is self-reported at 11%, but in lab tests only half of the people who report withdrawal actually experience it, casting doubt on many claims of dependence.", "and most cases of caffeine withdrawal were 13% in the moderate sense.", "moderately physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms may occur upon abstinence, with greater than 100 mg caffeine per day, although these symptoms last no longer than a day.", "Some symptoms associated with psychological dependence may also occur during withdrawal.", "The diagnostic criteria for caffeine withdrawal require a previous prolonged daily use of caffeine.", "Following 24 hours of a marked reduction in consumption, a minimum of 3 of these signs or symptoms is required to meet withdrawal criteria: difficulty concentrating, depressed mood/irritability, flu-like symptoms, headache, and fatigue.", "Additionally, the signs and symptoms must disrupt important areas of functioning and are not associated with effects of another condition.The ICD-11 includes caffeine dependence as a distinct diagnostic category, which closely mirrors the DSM-5's proposed set of criteria for \"caffeine-use disorder\".", "Caffeine use disorder refers to dependence on caffeine characterized by failure to control caffeine consumption despite negative physiological consequences.", "The APA, which published the DSM-5, acknowledged that there was sufficient evidence in order to create a diagnostic model of caffeine dependence for the DSM-5, but they noted that the clinical significance of the disorder is unclear.", "Due to this inconclusive evidence on clinical significance, the DSM-5 classifies caffeine-use disorder as a \"condition for further study\".Tolerance to the effects of caffeine occurs for caffeine-induced elevations in blood pressure and the subjective feelings of nervousness.", "Sensitization, the process whereby effects become more prominent with use, occurs for positive effects such as feelings of alertness and wellbeing.", "Tolerance varies for daily, regular caffeine users and high caffeine users.", "High doses of caffeine (750 to 1200 mg/day spread throughout the day) have been shown to produce complete tolerance to some, but not all of the effects of caffeine.", "Doses as low as 100 mg/day, such as a cup of coffee or two to three servings of caffeinated soft-drink, may continue to cause sleep disruption, among other intolerances.", "Non-regular caffeine users have the least caffeine tolerance for sleep disruption.", "Some coffee drinkers develop tolerance to its undesired sleep-disrupting effects, but others apparently do not.===Risk of other diseases===A neuroprotective effect of caffeine against Alzheimer's disease and dementia is possible but the evidence is inconclusive.", "Regular consumption of caffeine may protect people from liver cirrhosis.", "It was also found to slow the progression of liver disease in people who already have the condition, reduce the risk of liver fibrosis, and offer a protective effect against liver cancer among moderate coffee drinkers.", "A study conducted in 2017 found that the effects of caffeine from coffee consumption on the liver were observed regardless of how the drink was prepared.Caffeine may lessen the severity of acute mountain sickness if taken a few hours prior to attaining a high altitude.", "One meta analysis has found that caffeine consumption is associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes.", "Regular caffeine consumption may reduce the risk of developing Parkinson's disease and may slow the progression of Parkinson's disease.Caffeine increases intraocular pressure in those with glaucoma but does not appear to affect normal individuals.The DSM-5 also includes other caffeine-induced disorders consisting of caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, caffeine-induced sleep disorder and unspecified caffeine-related disorders.", "The first two disorders are classified under \"Anxiety Disorder\" and \"Sleep-Wake Disorder\" because they share similar characteristics.", "Other disorders that present with significant distress and impairment of daily functioning that warrant clinical attention but do not meet the criteria to be diagnosed under any specific disorders are listed under \"Unspecified Caffeine-Related Disorders\"." ], [ "Overdose", "alt=Torso of a young man with overlaid text of main side-effects of caffeine overdose.Consumption of per day is associated with a condition known as ''caffeinism.''", "Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use.Caffeine overdose can result in a state of central nervous system overstimulation known as caffeine intoxication, a clinically significant temporary condition that develops during, or shortly after, the consumption of caffeine.", "This syndrome typically occurs only after ingestion of large amounts of caffeine, well over the amounts found in typical caffeinated beverages and caffeine tablets (e.g., more than 400–500 mg at a time).", "According to the DSM-5, caffeine intoxication may be diagnosed if five (or more) of the following symptoms develop after recent consumption of caffeine: restlessness, nervousness, excitement, insomnia, flushed face, diuresis, gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle twitching, rambling flow of thought and speech, tachycardia or cardiac arrhythmia, periods of inexhaustibility, and psychomotor agitation.According to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), cases of very high caffeine intake (e.g.", "> 5 g) may result in caffeine intoxication with symptoms including mania, depression, lapses in judgment, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, hallucinations or psychosis, and rhabdomyolysis.=== Energy drinks ===High caffeine consumption in energy drinks (at least 1 liter or 320 mg of caffeine) was associated with short-term cardiovascular side effects including hypertension, prolonged QT interval, and heart palpitations.", "These cardiovascular side effects were not seen with smaller amounts of caffeine consumption in energy drinks (less than 200 mg).=== Severe intoxication === there is no known antidote or reversal agent for caffeine intoxication.", "Treatment of mild caffeine intoxication is directed toward symptom relief; severe intoxication may require peritoneal dialysis, hemodialysis, or hemofiltration.", "Intralipid infusion therapy is indicated in cases of imminent risk of cardiac arrest in order to scavenge the free serum caffeine.=== Lethal dose ===Death from caffeine ingestion appears to be rare, and most commonly caused by an intentional overdose of medications.", "In 2016, 3702 caffeine-related exposures were reported to Poison Control Centers in the United States, of which 846 required treatment at a medical facility, and 16 had a major outcome; and several caffeine-related deaths are reported in case studies.", "The LD50 of caffeine in rats is 192 milligrams per kilogram, the fatal dose in humans is estimated to be 150–200 milligrams per kilogram (2.2 lb) of body mass (75–100 cups of coffee for a adult).", "There are cases where doses as low as 57 milligrams per kilogram have been fatal.", "A number of fatalities have been caused by overdoses of readily available powdered caffeine supplements, for which the estimated lethal amount is less than a tablespoon.", "The lethal dose is lower in individuals whose ability to metabolize caffeine is impaired due to genetics or chronic liver disease.", "A death was reported in 2013 of a man with liver cirrhosis who overdosed on caffeinated mints." ], [ "Interactions", "Caffeine is a substrate for CYP1A2, and interacts with many substances through this and other mechanisms.===Alcohol===According to DSST, alcohol causes a decrease in performance on their standardized tests, and caffeine causes a significant improvement.", "When alcohol and caffeine are consumed jointly, the effects of the caffeine are changed, but the alcohol effects remain the same.", "For example, consuming additional caffeine does not reduce the effect of alcohol.", "However, the jitteriness and alertness given by caffeine is decreased when additional alcohol is consumed.", "Alcohol consumption alone reduces both inhibitory and activational aspects of behavioral control.", "Caffeine antagonizes the activational aspect of behavioral control, but has no effect on the inhibitory behavioral control.", "The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend avoidance of concomitant consumption of alcohol and caffeine, as taking them together may lead to increased alcohol consumption, with a higher risk of alcohol-associated injury.===Tobacco===Smoking tobacco increases caffeine clearance by 56%.", "Cigarette smoking induces the cytochrome P450 1A2 enzyme that breaks down caffeine, which may lead to increased caffeine tolerance and coffee consumption for regular smokers.===Birth control===Birth control pills can extend the half-life of caffeine, requiring greater attention to caffeine consumption.===Medications===Caffeine sometimes increases the effectiveness of some medications, such as those for headaches.", "Caffeine was determined to increase the potency of some over-the-counter analgesic medications by 40%.The pharmacological effects of adenosine may be blunted in individuals taking large quantities of methylxanthines like caffeine.", "Some other examples of methylxanthines include the medications theophylline and aminophylline, which are prescribed to relieve symptoms of asthma or COPD." ], [ "Pharmacology", "===Pharmacodynamics===Caffeine's primary mechanism of action is as an alt=Two skeletal formulas: left – caffeine, right – adenosine.In the absence of caffeine and when a person is awake and alert, little adenosine is present in CNS neurons.", "With a continued wakeful state, over time adenosine accumulates in the neuronal synapse, in turn binding to and activating adenosine receptors found on certain CNS neurons; when activated, these receptors produce a cellular response that ultimately increases drowsiness.", "When caffeine is consumed, it antagonizes adenosine receptors; in other words, caffeine prevents adenosine from activating the receptor by blocking the location on the receptor where adenosine binds to it.", "As a result, caffeine temporarily prevents or relieves drowsiness, and thus maintains or restores alertness.====Receptor and ion channel targets====Caffeine is an antagonist of adenosine A2A receptors, and knockout mouse studies have specifically implicated antagonism of the A2A receptor as responsible for the wakefulness-promoting effects of caffeine.", "Antagonism of A2A receptors in the ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO) reduces inhibitory GABA neurotransmission to the tuberomammillary nucleus, a histaminergic projection nucleus that activation-dependently promotes arousal.", "This disinhibition of the tuberomammillary nucleus is the downstream mechanism by which caffeine produces wakefulness-promoting effects.", "Caffeine is an antagonist of all four adenosine receptor subtypes (A1, A2A, A2B, and A3), although with varying potencies.", "The affinity (KD) values of caffeine for the human adenosine receptors are 12 μM at A1, 2.4 μM at A2A, 13 μM at A2B, and 80 μM at A3.Antagonism of adenosine receptors by caffeine also stimulates the medullary vagal, vasomotor, and respiratory centers, which increases respiratory rate, reduces heart rate, and constricts blood vessels.", "Adenosine receptor antagonism also promotes neurotransmitter release (e.g., monoamines and acetylcholine), which endows caffeine with its stimulant effects; adenosine acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter that suppresses activity in the central nervous system.", "Heart palpitations are caused by blockade of the A1 receptor.Because caffeine is both water- and lipid-soluble, it readily crosses the blood–brain barrier that separates the bloodstream from the interior of the brain.", "Once in the brain, the principal mode of action is as a nonselective antagonist of adenosine receptors (in other words, an agent that reduces the effects of adenosine).", "The caffeine molecule is structurally similar to adenosine, and is capable of binding to adenosine receptors on the surface of cells without activating them, thereby acting as a competitive antagonist.In addition to its activity at adenosine receptors, caffeine is an inositol trisphosphate receptor 1 antagonist and a voltage-independent activator of the ryanodine receptors (RYR1, RYR2, and RYR3).", "It is also a competitive antagonist of the ionotropic glycine receptor.====Effects on striatal dopamine====While caffeine does not directly bind to any dopamine receptors, it influences the binding activity of dopamine at its receptors in the striatum by binding to adenosine receptors that have formed GPCR heteromers with dopamine receptors, specifically the A1–D1 receptor heterodimer (this is a receptor complex with 1 adenosine A1 receptor and 1 dopamine D1 receptor) and the A2A–D2 receptor heterotetramer (this is a receptor complex with 2 adenosine A2A receptors and 2 dopamine D2 receptors).", "The A2A–D2 receptor heterotetramer has been identified as a primary pharmacological target of caffeine, primarily because it mediates some of its psychostimulant effects and its pharmacodynamic interactions with dopaminergic psychostimulants.Caffeine also causes the release of dopamine in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens core (a substructure within the ventral striatum), but not the nucleus accumbens shell, by antagonizing A1 receptors in the axon terminal of dopamine neurons and A1–A2A heterodimers (a receptor complex composed of 1 adenosine A1 receptor and 1 adenosine A2A receptor) in the axon terminal of glutamate neurons.", "During chronic caffeine use, caffeine-induced dopamine release within the nucleus accumbens core is markedly reduced due to drug tolerance.====Enzyme targets====Caffeine, like other xanthines, also acts as a phosphodiesterase inhibitor.", "As a competitive nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor, caffeine raises intracellular cyclic AMP, activates protein kinase A, inhibits TNF-alpha and leukotriene synthesis, and reduces inflammation and innate immunity.", "Caffeine also affects the cholinergic system where it is a moderate inhibitor of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase.===Pharmacokinetics===Caffeine is metabolized in the liver via a single demethylation, resulting in three primary metabolites, paraxanthine (84%), theobromine (12%), and theophylline (4%), depending on which methyl group is removed.|alt=A diagram featuring 4 skeletal chemical formulas.", "Top (caffeine) relates to similar compounds paraxanthine, theobromine and theophylline.Urinary metabolites of caffeine in humans at 48 hours post-doseCaffeine from coffee or other beverages is absorbed by the small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion and distributed throughout all bodily tissues.", "Peak blood concentration is reached within 1–2 hours.", "It is eliminated by first-order kinetics.", "Caffeine can also be absorbed rectally, evidenced by suppositories of ergotamine tartrate and caffeine (for the relief of migraine) and of chlorobutanol and caffeine (for the treatment of hyperemesis).", "However, rectal absorption is less efficient than oral: the maximum concentration (Cmax) and total amount absorbed (AUC) are both about 30% (i.e., 1/3.5) of the oral amounts.Caffeine's biological half-life – the time required for the body to eliminate one-half of a dose – varies widely among individuals according to factors such as pregnancy, other drugs, liver enzyme function level (needed for caffeine metabolism) and age.", "In healthy adults, caffeine's half-life is between 3 and 7 hours.", "The half-life is decreased by 30-50% in adult male smokers, approximately doubled in women taking oral contraceptives, and prolonged in the last trimester of pregnancy.", "In newborns the half-life can be 80 hours or more, dropping very rapidly with age, possibly to less than the adult value by age 6 months.", "The antidepressant fluvoxamine (Luvox) reduces the clearance of caffeine by more than 90%, and increases its elimination half-life more than tenfold; from 4.9 hours to 56 hours.Caffeine is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 oxidase enzyme system, in particular, by the CYP1A2 isozyme, into three dimethylxanthines, each of which has its own effects on the body:* Paraxanthine (84%): Increases lipolysis, leading to elevated glycerol and free fatty acid levels in blood plasma.", "* Theobromine (12%): Dilates blood vessels and increases urine volume.", "Theobromine is also the principal alkaloid in the cocoa bean (chocolate).", "* Theophylline (4%): Relaxes smooth muscles of the bronchi, and is used to treat asthma.", "The therapeutic dose of theophylline, however, is many times greater than the levels attained from caffeine metabolism.1,3,7-Trimethyluric acid is a minor caffeine metabolite.", "7-Methylxanthine is also a metabolite of caffeine.", "Each of the above metabolites is further metabolized and then excreted in the urine.", "Caffeine can accumulate in individuals with severe liver disease, increasing its half-life.A 2011 review found that increased caffeine intake was associated with a variation in two genes that increase the rate of caffeine catabolism.", "Subjects who had this mutation on both chromosomes consumed 40 mg more caffeine per day than others.", "This is presumably due to the need for a higher intake to achieve a comparable desired effect, not that the gene led to a disposition for greater incentive of habituation." ], [ "Chemistry", "Pure anhydrous caffeine is a bitter-tasting, white, odorless powder with a melting point of 235–238 °C.", "Caffeine is moderately soluble in water at room temperature (2 g/100 mL), but very soluble in boiling water (66 g/100 mL).", "It is also moderately soluble in ethanol (1.5 g/100 mL).", "It is weakly basic (pKa of conjugate acid = ~0.6) requiring strong acid to protonate it.", "Caffeine does not contain any stereogenic centers and hence is classified as an achiral molecule.The xanthine core of caffeine contains two fused rings, a pyrimidinedione and imidazole.", "The pyrimidinedione in turn contains two amide functional groups that exist predominantly in a zwitterionic resonance the location from which the nitrogen atoms are double bonded to their adjacent amide carbons atoms.", "Hence all six of the atoms within the pyrimidinedione ring system are sp2 hybridized and planar.", "The imidazole ring also has a resonance.", "Therefore, the fused 5,6 ring core of caffeine contains a total of ten pi electrons and hence according to Hückel's rule is aromatic.===Synthesis===biosynthetic route of caffeine, as performed by ''Camellia'' and ''Coffea'' specieslaboratory synthesis of caffeineThe biosynthesis of caffeine is an example of convergent evolution among different species.Caffeine may be synthesized in the lab starting with dimethylurea and malonic acid.Commercial supplies of caffeine are not usually manufactured synthetically because the chemical is readily available as a byproduct of decaffeination.===Decaffeination===Fibrous crystals of purified caffeine.", "Dark-field microscopy image, about 7 mm × 11 mm.Extraction of caffeine from coffee, to produce caffeine and decaffeinated coffee, can be performed using a number of solvents.", "Following are main methods:* '''Water extraction:''' Coffee beans are soaked in water.", "The water, which contains many other compounds in addition to caffeine and contributes to the flavor of coffee, is then passed through activated charcoal, which removes the caffeine.", "The water can then be put back with the beans and evaporated dry, leaving decaffeinated coffee with its original flavor.", "Coffee manufacturers recover the caffeine and resell it for use in soft drinks and over-the-counter caffeine tablets.", "* '''Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction:''' Supercritical carbon dioxide is an excellent nonpolar solvent for caffeine, and is safer than the organic solvents that are otherwise used.", "The extraction process is simple: is forced through the green coffee beans at temperatures above 31.1 °C and pressures above 73 atm.", "Under these conditions, is in a \"supercritical\" state: It has gaslike properties that allow it to penetrate deep into the beans but also liquid-like properties that dissolve 97–99% of the caffeine.", "The caffeine-laden is then sprayed with high-pressure water to remove the caffeine.", "The caffeine can then be isolated by charcoal adsorption (as above) or by distillation, recrystallization, or reverse osmosis.", "* '''Extraction by organic solvents:''' Certain organic solvents such as ethyl acetate present much less health and environmental hazard than chlorinated and aromatic organic solvents used formerly.", "Another method is to use triglyceride oils obtained from spent coffee grounds.", "\"Decaffeinated\" coffees do in fact contain caffeine in many cases – some commercially available decaffeinated coffee products contain considerable levels.", "One study found that decaffeinated coffee contained 10 mg of caffeine per cup, compared to approximately 85 mg of caffeine per cup for regular coffee.===Detection in body fluids===Caffeine can be quantified in blood, plasma, or serum to monitor therapy in neonates, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or facilitate a medicolegal death investigation.", "Plasma caffeine levels are usually in the range of 2–10 mg/L in coffee drinkers, 12–36 mg/L in neonates receiving treatment for apnea, and 40–400 mg/L in victims of acute overdosage.", "Urinary caffeine concentration is frequently measured in competitive sports programs, for which a level in excess of 15 mg/L is usually considered to represent abuse.===Analogs===Some analog substances have been created which mimic caffeine's properties with either function or structure or both.", "Of the latter group are the xanthines DMPX and 8-chlorotheophylline, which is an ingredient in dramamine.", "Members of a class of nitrogen substituted xanthines are often proposed as potential alternatives to caffeine.", "Many other xanthine analogues constituting the adenosine receptor antagonist class have also been elucidated.Some other caffeine analogs:* Dipropylcyclopentylxanthine* 8-Cyclopentyl-1,3-dimethylxanthine* 8-Phenyltheophylline=== Precipitation of tannins ===Caffeine, as do other alkaloids such as cinchonine, quinine or strychnine, precipitates polyphenols and tannins.", "This property can be used in a quantitation method." ], [ "Natural occurrence", "Roasted coffee beansAround thirty plant species are known to contain caffeine.", "Common sources are the \"beans\" (seeds) of the two cultivated coffee plants, ''Coffea arabica'' and ''Coffea canephora'' (the quantity varies, but 1.3% is a typical value); and of the cocoa plant, ''Theobroma cacao''; the leaves of the tea plant; and kola nuts.", "Other sources include the leaves of yaupon holly, South American holly yerba mate, and Amazonian holly guayusa; and seeds from Amazonian maple guarana berries.", "Temperate climates around the world have produced unrelated caffeine-containing plants.Caffeine in plants acts as a natural pesticide: it can paralyze and kill predator insects feeding on the plant.", "High caffeine levels are found in coffee seedlings when they are developing foliage and lack mechanical protection.", "In addition, high caffeine levels are found in the surrounding soil of coffee seedlings, which inhibits seed germination of nearby coffee seedlings, thus giving seedlings with the highest caffeine levels fewer competitors for existing resources for survival.", "Caffeine is stored in tea leaves in two places.", "Firstly, in the cell vacuoles where it is complexed with polyphenols.", "This caffeine probably is released into the mouth parts of insects, to discourage herbivory.", "Secondly, around the vascular bundles, where it probably inhibits pathogenic fungi from entering and colonizing the vascular bundles.", "Caffeine in nectar may improve the reproductive success of the pollen producing plants by enhancing the reward memory of pollinators such as honey bees.The differing perceptions in the effects of ingesting beverages made from various plants containing caffeine could be explained by the fact that these beverages also contain varying mixtures of other methylxanthine alkaloids, including the cardiac stimulants theophylline and theobromine, and polyphenols that can form insoluble complexes with caffeine." ], [ "Products", "+ Caffeine content in select food and drugs Product Serving size Caffeine per serving (mg) Caffeine (mg/L) Caffeine tablet (regular-strength) 1 tablet — Caffeine tablet (extra-strength) 1 tablet — Excedrin tablet 1 tablet — Hershey's Special Dark (45% cacao content) — Hershey's Milk Chocolate (11% cacao content) — Percolated coffee –135 –652 Drip coffee –175 –845 –15 –72 Coffee, espresso –2,254 Tea – black, green, and other types, – steeped for 3 min.", "–74 –418 Guayakí yerba mate (loose leaf) Coca-Cola Mountain Dew Pepsi Zero Sugar Guaraná Antarctica Jolt Cola Red Bull Coffee-flavored milk drink –197 –354Products containing caffeine include coffee, tea, soft drinks (\"colas\"), energy drinks, other beverages, chocolate, caffeine tablets, other oral products, and inhalation products.", "According to a 2020 study in the United States, coffee is the major source of caffeine intake in middle-aged adults, while soft drinks and tea are the major sources in adolescents.", "Energy drinks are more commonly consumed as a source of caffeine in adolescents as compared to adults.===Beverages=======Coffee====The world's primary source of caffeine is the coffee \"bean\" (the seed of the coffee plant), from which coffee is brewed.", "Caffeine content in coffee varies widely depending on the type of coffee bean and the method of preparation used; even beans within a given bush can show variations in concentration.", "In general, one serving of coffee ranges from 80 to 100 milligrams, for a single shot (30 milliliters) of arabica-variety espresso, to approximately 100–125 milligrams for a cup (120 milliliters) of drip coffee.", "''Arabica'' coffee typically contains half the caffeine of the ''robusta'' variety.In general, dark-roast coffee has very slightly less caffeine than lighter roasts because the roasting process reduces caffeine content of the bean by a small amount.====Tea====Tea contains more caffeine than coffee by dry weight.", "A typical serving, however, contains much less, since less of the product is used as compared to an equivalent serving of coffee.", "Also contributing to caffeine content are growing conditions, processing techniques, and other variables.", "Thus, teas contain varying amounts of caffeine.Tea contains small amounts of theobromine and slightly higher levels of theophylline than coffee.", "Preparation and many other factors have a significant impact on tea, and color is a very poor indicator of caffeine content.", "Teas like the pale Japanese green tea, ''gyokuro'', for example, contain far more caffeine than much darker teas like ''lapsang souchong'', which has very little.====Soft drinks and energy drinks====Caffeine is also a common ingredient of soft drinks, such as cola, originally prepared from kola nuts.", "Soft drinks typically contain 0 to 55 milligrams of caffeine per 12 ounce () serving.", "By contrast, energy drinks, such as Red Bull, can start at 80 milligrams of caffeine per serving.", "The caffeine in these drinks either originates from the ingredients used or is an additive derived from the product of decaffeination or from chemical synthesis.", "Guarana, a prime ingredient of energy drinks, contains large amounts of caffeine with small amounts of theobromine and theophylline in a naturally occurring slow-release excipient.====Other beverages====* Mate is a drink popular in many parts of South America.", "Its preparation consists of filling a gourd with the leaves of the South American holly yerba mate, pouring hot but not boiling water over the leaves, and drinking with a straw, the bombilla, which acts as a filter so as to draw only the liquid and not the yerba leaves.", "* Guaraná is a soft drink originating in Brazil made from the seeds of the Guaraná fruit.", "* The leaves of ''Ilex guayusa'', the Ecuadorian holly tree, are placed in boiling water to make a guayusa tea.", "* The leaves of ''Ilex vomitoria'', the yaupon holly tree, are placed in boiling water to make a yaupon tea.", "* Commercially prepared coffee-flavoured milk beverages are popular in Australia.", "Examples include Oak's Ice Coffee and Farmers Union Iced Coffee.", "The amount of caffeine in these beverages can vary widely.", "Caffeine concentrations can differ significantly from the manufacturer's claims.===Chocolate===Chocolate derived from cocoa beans contains a small amount of caffeine.", "The weak stimulant effect of chocolate may be due to a combination of theobromine and theophylline, as well as caffeine.", "A typical 28-gram serving of a milk chocolate bar has about as much caffeine as a cup of decaffeinated coffee.", "By weight, dark chocolate has one to two times the amount of caffeine as coffee: 80–160 mg per 100 g. Higher percentages of cocoa such as 90% amount to 200 mg per 100 g approximately and thus, a 100-gram 85% cocoa chocolate bar contains about 195 mg caffeine.===Tablets===No-Doz 100 mg caffeine tabletsTablets offer several advantages over coffee, tea, and other caffeinated beverages, including convenience, known dosage, and avoidance of concomitant intake of sugar, acids, and fluids.", "A use of caffeine in this form is said to improve mental alertness.", "These tablets are commonly used by students studying for their exams and by people who work or drive for long hours.===Other oral products===One U.S. company is marketing oral dissolvable caffeine strips.", "Another intake route is SpazzStick, a caffeinated lip balm.", "Alert Energy Caffeine Gum was introduced in the United States in 2013, but was voluntarily withdrawn after an announcement of an investigation by the FDA of the health effects of added caffeine in foods.===Inhalants===Similar to an e-cigarette, a caffeine inhaler may be used to deliver caffeine or a stimulant like guarana by vaping.", "In 2012, the FDA sent a warning letter to one of the companies marketing an inhaler, expressing concerns for the lack of safety information available about inhaled caffeine.===Combinations with other drugs===* Some beverages combine alcohol with caffeine to create a caffeinated alcoholic drink.", "The stimulant effects of caffeine may mask the depressant effects of alcohol, potentially reducing the user's awareness of their level of intoxication.", "Such beverages have been the subject of bans due to safety concerns.", "In particular, the United States Food and Drug Administration has classified caffeine added to malt liquor beverages as an \"unsafe food additive\".", "* Ya ba contains a combination of methamphetamine and caffeine.", "* Painkillers such as propyphenazone/paracetamol/caffeine combine caffeine with an analgesic." ], [ "History", "===Discovery and spread of use===Coffeehouse in Palestine, |alt=An old photo of a dozen old and middle-aged men sitting on the ground around a mat.", "A man in front sits next to a mortar and holds a bat, ready for grinding.", "A man opposite to him holds a long spoon.According to Chinese legend, the Chinese emperor Shennong, reputed to have reigned in about 3000 BCE, inadvertently discovered tea when he noted that when certain leaves fell into boiling water, a fragrant and restorative drink resulted.", "Shennong is also mentioned in Lu Yu's ''Cha Jing'', a famous early work on the subject of tea.The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee plant appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia.", "From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey.", "From the Middle East, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas.Kola nut use appears to have ancient origins.", "It is chewed in many West African cultures, in both private and social settings, to restore vitality and ease hunger pangs.The earliest evidence of cocoa bean use comes from residue found in an ancient Mayan pot dated to 600 BCE.", "Also, chocolate was consumed in a bitter and spicy drink called ''xocolatl'', often seasoned with vanilla, chile pepper, and achiote.", "''Xocolatl'' was believed to fight fatigue, a belief probably attributable to the theobromine and caffeine content.", "Chocolate was an important luxury good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cocoa beans were often used as currency.", "''Xocolatl'' was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards, and became a popular beverage by 1700.The Spaniards also introduced the cacao tree into the West Indies and the Philippines.The leaves and stems of the yaupon holly (''Ilex vomitoria'') were used by Native Americans to brew a tea called ''asi'' or the \"black drink\".", "Archaeologists have found evidence of this use far into antiquity, possibly dating to Late Archaic times.===Chemical identification, isolation, and synthesis===Pierre Joseph PelletierIn 1819, the German chemist Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge isolated relatively pure caffeine for the first time; he called it ''\"Kaffebase\"'' (i.e., a base that exists in coffee).", "According to Runge, he did this at the behest of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.", "In 1821, caffeine was isolated both by the French chemist Pierre Jean Robiquet and by another pair of French chemists, Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou, according to Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius in his yearly journal.", "Furthermore, Berzelius stated that the French chemists had made their discoveries independently of any knowledge of Runge's or each other's work.", "However, Berzelius later acknowledged Runge's priority in the extraction of caffeine, stating: \"However, at this point, it should not remain unmentioned that Runge (in his ''Phytochemical Discoveries'', 1820, pages 146–147) specified the same method and described caffeine under the name ''Caffeebase'' a year earlier than Robiquet, to whom the discovery of this substance is usually attributed, having made the first oral announcement about it at a meeting of the Pharmacy Society in Paris.", "\"Pelletier's article on caffeine was the first to use the term in print (in the French form from the French word for coffee: '''').", "It corroborates Berzelius's account:Robiquet was one of the first to isolate and describe the properties of pure caffeine, whereas Pelletier was the first to perform an elemental analysis.In 1827, M. Oudry isolated \"théine\" from tea, but in 1838 it was proved by Mulder and by Carl Jobst that theine was actually the same as caffeine.In 1895, German chemist Hermann Emil Fischer (1852–1919) first synthesized caffeine from its chemical components (i.e.", "a \"total synthesis\"), and two years later, he also derived the structural formula of the compound.", "This was part of the work for which Fischer was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1902.===Historic regulations===Because it was recognized that coffee contained some compound that acted as a stimulant, first coffee and later also caffeine has sometimes been subject to regulation.", "For example, in the 16th century Islamists in Mecca and in the Ottoman Empire made coffee illegal for some classes.", "Charles II of England tried to ban it in 1676, Frederick II of Prussia banned it in 1777, and coffee was banned in Sweden at various times between 1756 and 1823.In 1911, caffeine became the focus of one of the earliest documented health scares, when the US government seized 40 barrels and 20 kegs of Coca-Cola syrup in Chattanooga, Tennessee, alleging the caffeine in its drink was \"injurious to health\".", "Although the Supreme Court later ruled in favor of Coca-Cola in ''United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola'', two bills were introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1912 to amend the Pure Food and Drug Act, adding caffeine to the list of \"habit-forming\" and \"deleterious\" substances, which must be listed on a product's label." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Regulations=======United States====The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers safe beverages containing less than 0.02% caffeine; but caffeine powder, which is sold as a dietary supplement, is unregulated.", "It is a regulatory requirement that the label of most prepackaged foods must declare a list of ingredients, including food additives such as caffeine, in descending order of proportion.", "However, there is no regulatory provision for mandatory quantitative labeling of caffeine, (e.g., milligrams caffeine per stated serving size).", "There are a number of food ingredients that naturally contain caffeine.", "These ingredients must appear in food ingredient lists.", "However, as is the case for \"food additive caffeine\", there is no requirement to identify the quantitative amount of caffeine in composite foods containing ingredients that are natural sources of caffeine.", "While coffee or chocolate are broadly recognized as caffeine sources, some ingredients (e.g., guarana, yerba maté) are likely less recognized as caffeine sources.", "For these natural sources of caffeine, there is no regulatory provision requiring that a food label identify the presence of caffeine nor state the amount of caffeine present in the food.", "The FDA guidance was updated in 2018.===Consumption===Global consumption of caffeine has been estimated at 120,000 tonnes per year, making it the world's most popular psychoactive substance.", "This amounts to an average of one serving of a caffeinated beverage for every person every day.", "The consumption of caffeine has remained stable between 1997 and 2015.Coffee, tea and soft drinks are the most important caffeine sources, with energy drinks contributing little to the total caffeine intake across all age groups.===Religions===The Seventh-day Adventist Church asked for its members to \"abstain from caffeinated drinks\", but has removed this from baptismal vows (while still recommending abstention as policy).", "Some from these religions believe that one is not supposed to consume a non-medical, psychoactive substance, or believe that one is not supposed to consume a substance that is addictive.", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has said the following with regard to caffeinated beverages: \"... the Church revelation spelling out health practices (Doctrine and Covenants 89) does not mention the use of caffeine.", "The Church's health guidelines prohibit alcoholic drinks, smoking or chewing of tobacco, and 'hot drinks' – taught by Church leaders to refer specifically to tea and coffee.", "\"Gaudiya Vaishnavas generally also abstain from caffeine, because they believe it clouds the mind and overstimulates the senses.", "To be initiated under a guru, one must have had no caffeine, alcohol, nicotine or other drugs, for at least a year.Caffeinated beverages are widely consumed by Muslims.", "In the 16th century, some Muslim authorities made unsuccessful attempts to ban them as forbidden \"intoxicating beverages\" under Islamic dietary laws." ], [ "Other organisms", "Caffeine effects on alt=Caffeine effects on spider websThe bacteria ''Pseudomonas putida'' CBB5 can live on pure caffeine and can cleave caffeine into carbon dioxide and ammonia.Caffeine is toxic to birds and to dogs and cats, and has a pronounced adverse effect on mollusks, various insects, and spiders.", "This is at least partly due to a poor ability to metabolize the compound, causing higher levels for a given dose per unit weight.", "Caffeine has also been found to enhance the reward memory of honey bees." ], [ "Research", "Caffeine has been used to double chromosomes in haploid wheat." ], [ "See also", "* Theobromine* Theophylline* Methylliberine* Adderall* Amphetamine* Cocaine* Nootropic* Wakefulness-promoting agent" ], [ "References", ";Notes;Citations" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* GMD MS Spectrum* Caffeine: ChemSub Online* Caffeine at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cyc" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cyc''' (pronounced ) is a long-term artificial intelligence project that aims to assemble a comprehensive ontology and knowledge base that spans the basic concepts and rules about how the world works.", "Hoping to capture common sense knowledge, Cyc focuses on implicit knowledge that other AI platforms may take for granted.", "This is contrasted with facts one might find somewhere on the internet or retrieve via a search engine or Wikipedia.", "Cyc enables semantic reasoners to perform human-like reasoning and be less \"brittle\" when confronted with novel situations.Douglas Lenat began the project in July 1984 at MCC, where he was Principal Scientist 1984–1994, and then, since January 1995, has been under active development by the '''Cycorp''' company, where he was the CEO." ], [ "Overview", "The need for a massive symbolic artificial intelligence project of this kind was born in the early 1980s.", "Early AI researchers had ample experience over the previous 25 years with AI programs that would generate encouraging early results but then fail to \"scale up\"—move beyond the 'training set' to tackle a broader range of cases.", "Douglas Lenat and Alan Kay publicized this need, and they organized a meeting at Stanford in 1983 to address the problem.", "The back-of-the-envelope calculations by Lenat, Kay, and their colleagues (including Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell, Edward Feigenbaum, and John McCarthy) indicated that that effort would require between 1,000 and 3,000 person-years of effort.", "Events within a year of that meeting enabled an effort of that scale to get underway.The project began in July 1984 as the flagship project of the 400-person Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC), a research consortium started by two dozen large United States based corporations \"to counter a then ominous Japanese effort in AI, the so-called \"fifth-generation\" project.\"", "The US Government reacted to the Fifth Generation threat by passing the National Cooperative Research Act of 1984, which for the first time allowed US companies to \"collude\" on long-term high-risk high-payoff research, and MCC and Sematech sprang up to take advantage of that ten-year opportunity.", "MCC's first President and CEO was Bobby Ray Inman, former NSA Director and Central Intelligence Agency deputy director.The objective of the Cyc project was to codify, in machine-usable form, the millions of pieces of knowledge that compose human common sense.", "This entailed, along the way, (1) developing an adequately expressive representation language, CycL, (2) developing an ontology spanning all human concepts down to some appropriate level of detail, (3) developing a knowledge base on that ontological framework, comprising all human knowledge about those concepts down to some appropriate level of detail, and (4) developing an inference engine exponentially faster than those used in then-conventional expert systems, to be able to infer the same types and depth of conclusions that humans are capable of, given their knowledge of the world.In slightly more detail:* The CycL representation language started as an extension of RLL (the so-called Representation Language Language, developed in 1979–1980 by Lenat and his graduate student Russell Greiner while at Stanford University), but within a few years of the launch of the Cyc project it became clear that even representing a typical news story or novel or advertisement would require more than the expressive power of full first-order logic, namely second-order predicate calculus (\"What is the relationship between rain and water?\")", "and then even higher-level orders of logic including modal logic, reflection (enabling the system to reason about its progress so far, on a problem on which it's working), and context logic (enabling the system to reason explicitly about the contexts in which its various premises and conclusions might hold), non-monotonic logic, and circumscription.", "By 1989, CycL had expanded in expressive power to higher-order logic (HOL).", "**Triplestore representations (which are akin to the Frame -and-slot representation languages of the 1970s from which RLL sprang) are widespread today in AI.", "It may be useful to cite a few examples that stress or break that type of representation, typical of the examples that forced the Cyc project to move from a triplestore representation to a much more expressive one during the period 1984–1989: English sentences including negations (\"Fred does not own a dog\"), nested quantifiers (\"Every American has a mother\" means for-all x there-exists y... but \"Every American has a President\" means there-exists y such that for-all x...), nested modals such as \"The United States believes that Germany wants NATO to avoid pursuing...\" and it's even awkward to represent, in a Triplestore, relationships of arity higher than 2, such as \"Los Angeles is between San Diego and San Francisco along US101.", "\"* Cyc's ontology grew to about 100,000 terms during the first decade of the project, to 1994, and as of 2017 contained about 1,500,000 terms.", "This ontology included: ** 416,000 collections (types, sorts, natural kinds, which includes both types of things such as Fish and types of actions such as Fishing)** a little over a million individuals representing *** 42,500 predicates (relations, attributes, fields, properties, functions),*** about a million generally well known entities such as TheUnitedStatesOfAmerica, BarackObama, TheSigningOfTheUSDeclarationOfIndependence, etc.", "*** An arbitrarily large number of additional terms are also ''implicitly'' present in the Cyc ontology, in the sense that there are term-denoting functions such as CalendarYearFn (when given the argument 2016, it denotes the calendar year 2016), GovernmentFn (when given the argument France it denotes the government of France), Meter (when given the argument 2016, it denotes a distance of 2.016 kilometers), and nestings and compositions of such function-denoting terms.", "* The Cyc knowledge base of general common-sense rules and assertions involving those ontological terms was largely created by hand axiom-writing; it grew to about 1 million in 1994, and as of 2017 is about 24.5 million and has taken well over 1,000 person-years of effort to construct.", "** It is important to understand that the Cyc ontological engineers strive to keep those numbers as ''small'' as possible, not inflate them, so long as the ''deductive closure'' of the knowledge base isn't reduced.", "Suppose Cyc is told about one billion individual people, animals, etc.", "Then it could be told 1018 facts of the form \"Mickey Mouse is not the same individual as \".", "But instead of that, one could tell Cyc 10,000 Linnaean taxonomy rules followed by just 108 rules of the form \"No mouse is a moose\".", "And even more compactly, Cyc could instead just be given those 10,000 Linnaean taxonomy rules followed by just one rule of the form \"For any two Linnaean taxons, if neither is explicitly known to be a supertaxon of the other, then they are disjoint\".", "Those 10,001 assertions have the same deductive closure as the earlier-mentioned 1018 facts.", "* The Cyc inference engine design separates the epistemological problem (what content should be in the Cyc KB) from the heuristic problem (how Cyc could efficiently infer arguments hundreds of steps deep, in a sea of tens of millions of axioms).", "To do the former, the CycL language and well-understood logical inference might suffice.", "For the latter, Cyc used a community-of-agents architecture, where specialized reasoning modules, each with its own data structure and algorithm, \"raised their hand\" if they could efficiently make progress on any of the currently open sub-problems.", "By 1994 there were 20 such heuristic level (HL) modules; as of 2017 there are over 1,050 HL modules.", "** Some of these HL modules are very general, such as a module that caches the Kleene Star (transitive closure) of all the commonly-used transitive relations in Cyc's ontology.", "** Some are domain-specific, such as a chemical equation-balancer.", "These can be and often are an \"escape\" to (pointer to) some externally available program or webservice or online database, such as a module to quickly \"compute\" the current population of a city by knowing where/how to look that up.CycL has a publicly released specification and dozens of HL modules were described in Lenat and Guha's textbook, but the actual Cyc inference engine code, and the full list of 1000+ HL modules, is Cycorp-proprietary.The name \"Cyc\" (from \"encyclopedia\", pronounced , like \"''syke''\") is a registered trademark owned by Cycorp.", "Access to Cyc is through paid licenses, but ''bona fide'' AI research groups are given research-only no-cost licenses (cf.", "ResearchCyc); as of 2017, over 600 such groups worldwide have these licenses.Typical pieces of knowledge represented in the Cyc knowledge base are \"Every tree is a plant\" and \"Plants die eventually\".", "When asked whether trees die, the inference engine can draw the obvious conclusion and answer the question correctly.Most of Cyc's knowledge, outside math, is only true by default.", "For example, Cyc knows that ''as a default'' parents love their children, when you're made happy you smile, taking your first step is a big accomplishment, when someone you love has a big accomplishment that makes you happy, and only adults have children.", "When asked whether a picture captioned \"Someone watching his daughter take her first step\" contains a smiling adult person, Cyc can logically infer that the answer is ''Yes'', and \"show its work\" by presenting the step by step logical argument using those five pieces of knowledge from its knowledge base.", "These are formulated in the language CycL, which is based on predicate calculus and has a syntax similar to that of the Lisp programming language.In 2008, Cyc resources were mapped to many Wikipedia articles.", "Cyc is presently connected to Wikidata.", "Future plans may connect Cyc to both DBpedia and Freebase.Much of the current work Cyc continues to be knowledge engineering, representing facts about the world by hand, and implementing efficient inference mechanisms on that knowledge.", "Increasingly, however, work at Cycorp involves giving the Cyc system the ability to communicate with end users in natural language, and to assist with the ongoing knowledge formation process via machine learning and natural-language understanding.", "Another large effort at Cycorp is building a suite of Cyc-powered ontological engineering tools to lower the bar to entry for individuals to contribute to, edit, browse, and query Cyc.Like many companies, Cycorp has ambitions to use Cyc's natural-language processing to parse the entire internet to extract structured data; unlike all others, it is able to call on the Cyc system itself to act as an inductive bias and as an adjudicator of ambiguity, metaphor, and ellipsis.", "There are few, if any, systematic benchmark studies of Cyc's performance." ], [ "Knowledge base", "The concept names in Cyc are CycL ''terms'' or ''constants''.", "Constants start with an optional #$ and are case-sensitive.", "There are constants for:* Individual items known as ''individuals'', such as #$BillClinton or #$France.", "* ''Collections'', such as #$Tree-ThePlant (containing all trees) or #$EquivalenceRelation (containing all equivalence relations).", "A member of a collection is called an ''instance'' of that collection.", "* ''Functions'', which produce new terms from given ones.", "For example, #$FruitFn, when provided with an argument describing a type (or collection) of plants, will return the collection of its fruits.", "By convention, function constants start with an upper-case letter and end with the string Fn.", "* ''Truth functions'', which can apply to one or more other concepts and return either true or false.", "For example, #$siblings is the sibling relationship, true if the two arguments are siblings.", "By convention, truth function constants start with a lower-case letter.", "Truth functions may be broken down into logical connectives (such as #$and, #$or, #$not, #$implies), quantifiers (#$forAll, #$thereExists, etc.)", "and predicates.Two important binary predicates are #$isa and #$genls.", "The first one describes that one item is an instance of some collection, the second one that one collection is a subcollection of another one.", "Facts about concepts are asserted using certain CycL ''sentences''.", "Predicates are written before their arguments, in parentheses: (#$isa #$BillClinton #$UnitedStatesPresident)\"Bill Clinton belongs to the collection of U.S.", "presidents.\"", "(#$genls #$Tree-ThePlant #$Plant)\"All trees are plants.\"", "(#$capitalCity #$France #$Paris)\"Paris is the capital of France.", "\"Sentences can also contain variables, strings starting with ?.", "These sentences are called \"rules\".", "One important rule asserted about the #$isa predicate reads: (#$implies (#$and (#$isa ?OBJ ?SUBSET) (#$genls ?SUBSET ?SUPERSET)) (#$isa ?OBJ ?SUPERSET))\"If OBJ is an instance of the collection SUBSET and SUBSET is a subcollection of SUPERSET, then OBJ is an instance of the collection SUPERSET\".", "Another typical example is (#$relationAllExists #$biologicalMother #$ChordataPhylum #$FemaleAnimal)which means that for every instance of the collection #$ChordataPhylum (i.e.", "for every chordate), there exists a female animal (instance of #$FemaleAnimal), which is its mother (described by the predicate #$biologicalMother).The knowledge base is divided into ''microtheories'' (Mt), collections of concepts and facts typically pertaining to one particular realm of knowledge.", "Unlike the knowledge base as a whole, each microtheory must be free from ''monotonic'' contradictions.", "Each microtheory is a first-class object in the Cyc ontology; it has a name that is a regular constant; microtheory constants contain the string Mt by convention.", "An example is #$MathMt, the microtheory containing mathematical knowledge.", "The microtheories can inherit from each other and are organized in a hierarchy: one specialization of #$MathMt is #$GeometryGMt, the microtheory about geometry." ], [ "Inference engine", "An inference engine is a computer program that tries to derive answers from a knowledge base.The Cyc inference engine performs general logical deduction (including modus ponens, modus tollens, universal quantification and existential quantification).", "It also performs inductive reasoning, statistical machine learning and symbolic machine learning, and abductive reasoning (but of course sparingly and using the existing knowledge base as a filter and guide)." ], [ "Releases", "===OpenCyc===The first version of OpenCyc was released in spring 2002 and contained only 6,000 concepts and 60,000 facts.", "The knowledge base was released under the Apache License.", "Cycorp stated its intention to release OpenCyc under parallel, unrestricted licences to meet the needs of its users.", "The CycL and SubL interpreter (the program that allows users to browse and edit the database as well as to draw inferences) was released free of charge, but only as a binary, without source code.", "It was made available for Linux and Microsoft Windows.", "The open source Texai project released the RDF-compatible content extracted from OpenCyc.", "A version of OpenCyc, 4.0, was released in June 2012.OpenCyc 4.0 included much of the Cyc ontology at that time, containing hundreds of thousands of terms, along with millions of assertions relating the terms to each other; however, these are mainly taxonomic assertions, not the complex rules available in Cyc.", "The OpenCyc 4.0 knowledge base contained 239,000 concepts and 2,093,000 facts.The main point of releasing OpenCyc was to help AI researchers understand what was ''missing'' from what they now call ontologies and knowledge graphs.", "It's useful and important to have properly taxonomized concepts like person, night, sleep, lying down, waking, happy, etc., but what's ''missing'' from the OpenCyc content about those terms, but present in the Cyc KB content, are the various rules of thumb that most of us share about those terms: that (as a default, in the ModernWesternHumanCultureMt) each person sleeps at night, sleeps lying down, can be woken up, is not happy about being woken up, ''and so on.''", "That point does not require continually-updated releases of OpenCyc, so, as of 2017, OpenCyc is no longer available.===ResearchCyc===In July 2006, Cycorp released the executable of ResearchCyc 1.0, a version of Cyc aimed at the research community, at no charge.", "(ResearchCyc was in beta stage of development during all of 2004; a beta version was released in February 2005.)", "In addition to the taxonomic information contained in OpenCyc, ResearchCyc includes significantly more semantic knowledge (i.e., additional facts and rules of thumb) involving the concepts in its knowledge base; it also includes a large lexicon, English parsing and generation tools, and Java-based interfaces for knowledge editing and querying.", "In addition it contains a system for ontology-based data integration.", "As of 2017, regular releases of ResearchCyc continued to appear, with 600 research groups utilizing licenses around the world at no cost for noncommercial research purposes.", "As of December 2019, ResearchCyc is no longer supported.", "Cycorp expects to improve and overhaul tools for external developers over the coming years." ], [ "Applications", "There have been over a hundred successful applications of Cyc; listed here are a few mutually dissimilar instances:===Pharmaceutical Term Thesaurus Manager/Integrator===For over a decade, Glaxo has used Cyc to semi-automatically integrate all the large (hundreds of thousands of terms) thesauri of pharmaceutical-industry terms that reflect differing usage across companies, countries, years, and sub-industries.", "This ontology integration task requires domain knowledge, shallow semantic knowledge, but also arbitrarily deep common sense knowledge and reasoning.", "Pharma vocabulary varies across countries, (sub-) industries, companies, departments, and decades of time.", "E.g., what’s a'' gel pak''?", "What’s the “street name” for ''ranitidine hydrochloride''?", "Each of these ''n ''controlled vocabularies is an ontology with approximately 300k terms.", "Glaxo researchers need to issue a query ''in their current vocabulary'', have it translated into a neutral “true meaning”, and then have that transformed in the opposite direction to find potential matches against documents each of which was written to comply with a particular known vocabulary.", "They had been using a large staff to do that manually.", "Cyc is used as the universal interlingua capable of representing the union of all the terms’ “true meanings”, and capable of representing the 300k transformations between each of those controlled vocabularies and Cyc, thereby converting an ''n²'' problem into a linear one without introducing the usual sort of “telephone game” attenuation of meaning.", "Furthermore, creating each of those 300k mappings for each thesaurus is done in a largely automated fashion, by Cyc.===Terrorism Knowledge Base===The comprehensive Terrorism Knowledge Base was an application of Cyc in development that tried to ultimately contain all relevant knowledge about \"terrorist\" groups, their members, leaders, ideology, founders, sponsors, affiliations, facilities, locations, finances, capabilities, intentions, behaviors, tactics, and full descriptions of specific terrorist events.", "The knowledge is stored as statements in mathematical logic, suitable for computer understanding and reasoning.===Cleveland Clinic Foundation===The Cleveland Clinic has used Cyc to develop a natural-language query interface of biomedical information, spanning decades of information on cardiothoracic surgeries.", "A query is parsed into a set of CycL (higher-order logic) fragments with open variables (e.g., \"this question is talking about a person who developed an endocarditis infection\", \"this question is talking about a subset of Cleveland Clinic patients who underwent surgery there in 2009\", etc.", "); then various constraints are applied (medical domain knowledge, common sense, discourse pragmatics, syntax) to see how those fragments could possibly fit together into one semantically meaningful formal query; significantly, in most cases, there is exactly ''one and only one'' such way of incorporating and integrating those fragments.", "Integrating the fragments involves (i) deciding which open variables in which fragments actually represent the same variable, and (ii) for all the final variables, decide what order and scope of quantification that variable should have, and what type (universal or existential).", "That logical (CycL) query is then converted into a SPARQL query that is passed to the CCF SemanticDB that is its data lake.===MathCraft===One Cyc application aims to help students doing math at a 6th grade level, helping them much more deeply understand that subject matter.", "It is based on the experience that we often have ''thought'' we understood something, but only ''really'' understood it after we had to explain or teach it to someone else.", "Unlike almost all other educational software, where the computer plays the role of the teacher, this application of Cyc, called MathCraft, has Cyc play the role of a fellow student who is always slightly more confused than you, the user, are about the subject.", "The user's role is to observe the Cyc avatar and give it advice, correct its errors, mentor it, get it to see what it's doing wrong, etc.", "As the user gives good advice, Cyc allows the avatar to make fewer mistakes of that type, hence, from the user's point of view, it seems as though the user has just successfully taught it something.", "This is a variation of learning by teaching." ], [ "Criticisms", "The Cyc project has been described as \"one of the most controversial endeavors of the artificial intelligence history\".", "Catherine Havasi, CEO of Luminoso, says that Cyc is the predecessor project to IBM's Watson.", "Machine-learning scientist Pedro Domingos refers to the project as a \"catastrophic failure\" for several reasons, including the unending amount of data required to produce any viable results and the inability for Cyc to evolve on its own.Robin Hanson, a professor of economics at George Mason University, gives a more balanced analysis:A similar sentiment was expressed by Marvin Minsky: \"Unfortunately, the strategies most popular among AI researchers in the 1980s have come to a dead end,\" said Minsky.", "So-called “expert systems,” which emulated human expertise within tightly defined subject areas like law and medicine, could match users’ queries to relevant diagnoses, papers and abstracts, yet they could not learn concepts that most children know by the time they are 3 years old.", "“For each different kind of problem,” said Minsky, “the construction of expert systems had to start all over again, because they didn’t accumulate common-sense knowledge.” Only one researcher has committed himself to the colossal task of building a comprehensive common-sense reasoning system, according to Minsky.", "Douglas Lenat, through his Cyc project, has directed the line-by-line entry of more than 1 million rules into a commonsense knowledge base.Gary Marcus, a professor of psychology and neural science at New York University and the cofounder of an AI company called Geometric Intelligence, says \"it represents an approach that is very different from all the deep-learning stuff that has been in the news.” This is consistent with Doug Lenat's position that \"Sometimes the ''veneer'' of intelligence is not enough\".Stephen Wolfram writes:Marcus writes: Every few years since it began publishing (1993), there is a new Wired Magazine article about Cyc, some positive and some negative (including one issue which contained one of each)." ], [ "Notable employees", "This is a list of some of the notable people who work or have worked on Cyc either while it was a project at MCC (where Cyc was first started) or Cycorp.", "* Douglas Lenat * Michael Witbrock* Pat Hayes* Ramanathan V. Guha* Stuart J. Russell* Srinija Srinivasan* Jared Friedman* John McCarthy* Saty Raghavachary" ], [ "See also", "* BabelNet* Categorical logic* Chinese room* DARPA Agent Markup Language* DBpedia* Fifth generation computer* Freebase* GPT* Large Scale Concept Ontology for Multimedia* List of notable artificial intelligence projects* Mindpixel* Never-Ending Language Learning* Open Mind Common Sense* Semantic Web* Suggested Upper Merged Ontology* SHRDLU* True Knowledge* UMBEL* Wolfram Alpha* YAGO" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Alan Belasco et al.", "(2004).", "\"Representing Knowledge Gaps Effectively\".", "In: D. Karagiannis, U. Reimer (Eds.", "): ''Practical Aspects of Knowledge Management, Proceedings of PAKM 2004, Vienna, Austria, December 2–3, 2004''.", "Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.", "* * John Cabral & others (2005).", "\"Converting Semantic Meta-Knowledge into Inductive Bias\".", "In: ''Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Inductive Logic Programming''.", "Bonn, Germany, August 2005.", "* Jon Curtis et al.", "(2005).", "\"On the Effective Use of Cyc in a Question Answering System\".", "In: ''Papers from the IJCAI Workshop on Knowledge and Reasoning for Answering Questions''.", "Edinburgh, Scotland: 2005.", "* Chris Deaton et al.", "(2005).", "\"The Comprehensive Terrorism Knowledge Base in Cyc\".", "In: Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005.", "* Kenneth Forbus et al.", "(2005) .", "\"Combining analogy, intelligent information retrieval, and knowledge integration for analysis: A preliminary report\".", "In: ''Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis'', McLean, Virginia, May 2005* douglas foxvog (2010), \"Cyc\".", "In: '' Theory and Applications of Ontology: Computer Applications '', Springer.", "* Fritz Lehmann and d. foxvog (1998), \" Putting Flesh on the Bones: Issues that Arise in Creating Anatomical Knowledge Bases with Rich Relational Structures\".", "In: ''Knowledge Sharing across Biological and Medical Knowledge Based Systems'', AAAI.", "* Douglas Lenat and R. V. Guha (1990).", "''Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems: Representation and Inference in the Cyc Project''.", "Addison-Wesley.", ".", "* James Masters (2002).", "\"Structured Knowledge Source Integration and its applications to information fusion\".", "In: ''Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Information Fusion''.", "Annapolis, MD, July 2002.", "* James Masters and Z. Güngördü (2003).", ".", "\"Structured Knowledge Source Integration: A Progress Report\" In: ''Integration of Knowledge Intensive Multiagent Systems''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 2003.", "* Cynthia Matuszek et al.", "(2006).", "\"An Introduction to the Syntax and Content of Cyc.\".", "In: ''Proc.", "of the 2006 AAAI Spring Symposium on Formalizing and Compiling Background Knowledge and Its Applications to Knowledge Representation and Question Answering''.", "Stanford, 2006* Cynthia Matuszek et al.", "(2005) .", "\"Searching for Common Sense: Populating Cyc from the Web\".", "In: ''Proceedings of the Twentieth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence''.", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005.", "* Tom O'Hara et al.", "(2003).", "\"Inducing criteria for mass noun lexical mappings using the Cyc Knowledge Base and its Extension to WordNet\".", "In: ''Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Computational Semantics''.", "Tilburg, 2003.", "* Fabrizio Morbini and Lenhart Schubert (2009).", "\"Evaluation of EPILOG: a Reasoner for Episodic Logic\".", "University of Rochester, Commonsense '09 Conference (describes Cyc's library of ~1600 'Commonsense Tests')* Kathy Panton et al.", "(2002).", "\"Knowledge Formation and Dialogue Using the KRAKEN Toolset\".", "In: ''Eighteenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence''.", "Edmonton, Canada, 2002.", "* Deepak Ramachandran P. Reagan & K. Goolsbey (2005).", "\"First-Orderized ResearchCyc: Expressivity and Efficiency in a Common-Sense Ontology\" .", "In: ''Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Contexts and Ontologies: Theory, Practice and Applications''.", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005.", "* Stephen Reed and D. Lenat (2002).", "\"Mapping Ontologies into Cyc\".", "In: ''AAAI 2002 Conference Workshop on Ontologies For The Semantic Web''.", "Edmonton, Canada, July 2002.", "* Benjamin Rode et al.", "(2005).", "\"Towards a Model of Pattern Recovery in Relational Data\".", "In: ''Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis''.", "McLean, Virginia, May 2005.", "* Dave Schneider et al.", "(2005).", "\"Gathering and Managing Facts for Intelligence Analysis\".", "In: ''Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis''.", "McLean, Virginia, May 2005.", "* Schneider, D., & Witbrock, M. J.", "(2015, May).", "\"Semantic construction grammar: bridging the NL/Logic divide\" In Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on World Wide Web (pp. 673–678).", "* Blake Shepard et al.", "(2005).", "\"A Knowledge-Based Approach to Network Security: Applying Cyc in the Domain of Network Risk Assessment\".", "In: ''Proceedings of the Seventeenth Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence Conference''.", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005.", "* Nick Siegel et al.", "(2004).", "\"Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems\".", "In: ''Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Intelligent Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems''.", "Technical Report WS-04-07, pp.", "74–79.Menlo Park, California: AAAI Press, 2004.", "* Nick Siegel et al.", "(2005).", "Hypothesis Generation and Evidence Assembly for Intelligence Analysis: Cycorp's Nooscape Application\".", "In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005.", "* Michael Witbrock et al.", "(2002).", "\"An Interactive Dialogue System for Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc\".", "In: ''Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence''.", "Acapulco, Mexico, 2003.", "* Michael Witbrock et al.", "(2004).", "\"Automated OWL Annotation Assisted by a Large Knowledge Base\".", "In: ''Workshop Notes of the 2004 Workshop on Knowledge Markup and Semantic Annotation at the 3rd International Semantic Web Conference ISWC2004''.", "Hiroshima, Japan, November 2004, pp. 71–80.", "* Michael Witbrock et al.", "(2005).", "\"Knowledge Begets Knowledge: Steps towards Assisted Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc\".", "In: ''Papers from the 2005 AAAI Spring Symposium on Knowledge Collection from Volunteer Contributors (KCVC)''.", "pp.", "99–105.Stanford, California, March 2005.", "* William Jarrold (2001).", "\"Validation of Intelligence in Large Rule-Based Systems with Common Sense\".", "\"Model-Based Validation of Intelligence: Papers from the 2001 AAAI Symposium\" (AAAI Technical Report SS-01-04).", "* William Jarrold.", "(2003).", "Using an Ontology to Evaluate a Large Rule Based Ontology: Theory and Practice.", "{\\em Performance Metrics for Intelligent Systems PerMIS '03} (NIST Special Publication 1014)." ], [ "External links", "* Cycorp homepage" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "CE" ], [ "Introduction", "'''CE''', '''Ce''', '''ce''', or ''variants'' may refer to:" ], [ "Business", "* CE marking (stylized alt=CЄ), a mandatory administrative marking asserting conformity with relevant standards, applied certain products offered for sale within the European Economic Area; * Customer equity, the total combined customer lifetime values of all of the company's customers* Combustion Engineering, a former American manufacturer of power systems* Nationwide Airlines (South Africa) (IATA airline designator CE)" ], [ "Calendar", "* Common Era (abbreviated CE), an alternative term to ''Anno Domini'' (AD) * \"Christian Era\", also known as Anno Domini" ], [ "Education", "* ''College English'', an official publication of the American National Council of Teachers of English* Common Entrance Examination, tests used by independent schools in the UK* Conductive education, an educational system developed for people with motor disorders* Continuing education, a broad spectrum of post-secondary learning activities and programs* Chartered engineer (UK), a professional engineer licensed by a professional body (modern abbreviation CEng)* Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination, a standardized examination from 1974 to 2011" ], [ "Entertainment", "* ''cê'', a 2006 music album by Caetano Veloso* Chaotic Evil, an alignment in the tabletop game ''Dungeons and Dragons''* Collector's edition, describing some special editions of software, movies, and books* ''Cash Explosion'', Ohio Lottery's scratch off game and weekly game show*''Halo: Combat Evolved'', sometimes abbreviated as ''Halo: CE''" ], [ "Job titles", "* Chief Executive, administrative head of some regions* County executive, the head of the executive branch of county government, common in the U.S.* Construction Electrician (US Navy), a Seabee occupational rating in the U.S. Navy" ], [ "Languages", "* Canadian English* Chechen language (ISO 639-1 language code: ce)" ], [ "Organizations", "* Church of England, the state church of the U.K. and mother church of the Anglican Communion, also referred to as the C of E* Command element (United States Marine Corps), headquarters component of U.S. Marine Corps Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF)* European Community, (, , , , )" ], [ "Places", "* Cé (Pictish territory), an early medieval Pictish territory in modern-day Scotland* Province of Caserta (ISO 3166-2:IT code CE), a province of Italy* County Clare, Ireland (vehicle registration plate code CE)* Ceará (ISO 3166-2:BR code CE), a state in Brazil* Ceper railway station, a railway station in Indonesia (station code)* Lough Key, known in Irish as ''Loch Cé''* Sri Lanka (FIPS Pub 10-4 and obsolete NATO country code CE)" ], [ "Science and technology", "===Computing===* Central European, an alternate name for Windows-1250* Cheat Engine, a system debugger and cheating tool* Clear Entry, a button on a standard electronic calculator that clears the last number entered* c.e., a common abbreviation for Computably enumerable, a property of some sets in computability theory* Congestion Experienced, a protocol element of the Explicit Congestion Notification data networking protocol* Customer edge router, a router at the customer premises that is connected to a Multi-protocol Label Switching network* Windows CE, \"Consumer Edition\", a version of the Windows operating system designed for mobile devices===Other uses in science and technology===* Capillary electrophoresis, a technique used to separate ionic species by their charge and frictional forces* CE phase, the phase between carrier and envelope of an electromagnetic wave* Cerium, symbol Ce, a chemical element* Cholesteryl ester* Civil engineering* Common envelope, gas containing a binary system.", "* Conjugated estrogen* Consumer electronics* Customer engineer" ], [ "Other uses", "* Copy editing, improving the formatting, style, and accuracy of text" ], [ "See also", "* Œ (OE ligature)* ₠ (U-20A0, European Currency Unit) (former)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Carlos Valderrama" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Carlos Alberto Valderrama Palacio''' (Colombian Spanish: ; born 2 September 1961), also known as '''''\"El Pibe\"''''' (\"The Kid\"), is a Colombian former professional footballer and sports commentator for Fútbol de Primera, who played as an attacking midfielder.", "Valderrama is considered by many to be one of the greatest South American players in history and one of the best players of his era.", "In 2004, he was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100 list of the world's greatest living players.A creative playmaker, he is regarded as one of the best Colombian footballers of all time, and by some as Colombia's greatest player ever.", "His distinctive hairstyle, as well as his precise passing and technical skills made him one of South America's most recognisable footballers in the late 1980s and early 1990s.", "He won the South American Footballer of the Year award in 1987 and 1993, He is the fifth highest assister in the history of national teams and the twelfth overall, including clubs, and in 1999, he was also named one of the top 100 players of the 20th century by World Soccer.Valderrama was a member of the Colombia national football team from 1985 until 1998.He represented Colombia in 111 full internationals and scored 11 times, making him the second-most capped player in the country's history, behind only David Ospina.", "He played a major role during the golden era of Colombian football in the 1990s, representing his national side in three FIFA World Cups and five Copa América tournaments.After spending most of his career playing club football in South America and Europe, towards the end of his career Valderrama played in Major League Soccer, joining the league in its first season.", "One of the most recognisable players in the league at the time of its inception, he helped popularise the league during the second half of the 1990s.", "To this day, he is an icon and is considered one of the most decorated players to ever play in MLS; in 2005, he was named to the MLS All-Time Best XI." ], [ "Club career", "===Colombia and Europe===Born in Santa Marta, Colombia, Valderrama began his career at Unión Magdalena of the Colombian First Division in 1981.He also later played for Millonarios in 1984.He joined Deportivo Cali in 1985, where he played most of his Colombian football.", "In 1988, he moved to the French First Division side Montpellier.", "He struggled to adapt to the less technical and the faster, more physical, and tactical brand of football being played in Europe, losing his place in the squad.", "However, his passing ability later saw him become the club's main creative force, and he played a decisive role as his side won the Coupe de France in 1990.In 1991, he remained in Europe and joined Spanish side Real Valladolid for a season.", "He then returned to Colombia in 1992 and went on to play for Independiente Medellín, and subsequently Atlético Junior in 1993, with whom he won the Colombian championship in 1993 and 1995.===MLS career===Valderrama at a Tampa Bay Mutiny fan meet in 1998Valderrama began his Major League Soccer career with the US side Tampa Bay Mutiny in the league's inaugural 1996 season.", "The team won the first ever Supporters' Shield, awarded for having the league's best regular season record, while Valderrama was the league's first Most Valuable Player, finishing the season with 4 goals and 17 assists.", "He remained with the club for the 1997 season, and also spent a spell on loan back at Deportivo Cali in Colombia, before moving to another MLS side, Miami Fusion, in 1998, where he also remained for two seasons.", "He returned to Tampa Bay in 2000, spending two more seasons with the club; while a member of the Mutiny, the team would sell Carlos Valderrama wigs at Tampa Stadium.", "In the 2000 MLS season, Valderrama recorded the only 20+ assist season in MLS history—ending the season with 26 — a single season assist record that remains intact to this day, and which MLS itself suggested was an \"unbreakable\" record in a 2012 article.", "In 2001, Valderrama joined the Colorado Rapids, and remained with the team until 2002, when he retired; his American soccer league career spanned a total of eight years, during which he made 175 appearances.", "In the MLS, Valderrama scored relatively few goals (16) for a midfielder, but is the league's fourth all-time leader in assists (114) after Brad Davis (123), Steve Ralston (135) – a former teammate, and Landon Donovan (145).", "In 2005, he was named to the MLS All-Time Best XI." ], [ "International career", "Valderrama was a member of the Colombia national football team from 1985 until 1998; he made 111 international appearances, scoring 11 goals, making him the most capped outfield player in the country's history.", "He represented and captained his national side in the 1990, 1994, and 1998 FIFA World Cups, and also took part in the 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, and 1995 Copa América tournaments.Valderrama made his international debut on 27 October 1985, in a 3–0 defeat to Paraguay in a 1986 World Cup qualifying match, at the age of 24.In his first major international tournament, he helped Colombia to a third-place finish at the 1987 Copa América in Argentina, as his team's captain, where he was named the tournament's best player; during the tournament he scored the opening goal in Colombia's 2–0 over Bolivia on 1 July, their first match of the group stage.Some of Valderrama's most impressive international performances came during the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy, during which he served as Colombia's captain.", "He helped his team to a 2–0 win against the UAE in Colombia's opening match of the group stage, scoring the second goal of the match with a strike from 20 yards.", "Colombia lost their second match against Yugoslavia, however, needing at least a draw against the eventual champions West Germany in their final group match in order to advance to the next round of the competition.", "In the decisive game, German striker Pierre Littbarski scored what appeared to be the winning goal in the 88th minute of the game; however, within the last minute of injury time, Valderrama beat several opposing players and made a crucial left-footed pass to Freddy Rincón, who subsequently equalised, sealing a place for Colombia in the second round of the tournament with a 1–1 draw.", "Colombia were eliminated in the round of 16, following a 2–1 extra time loss to Cameroon.On 5 September 1993, Valderrama contributed to Colombia's historic 5–0 victory over South American rivals Argentina at the Monumental in Buenos Aires, which allowed them to qualify for the 1994 World Cup.", "Although much was expected of Valderrama at the World Cup, an injury during a pre-tournament warm-up game put his place in the squad in jeopardy; although he was able to regain match fitness in time for the tournament, Colombia disappointed and suffered a first round elimination following defeats to Romania and the hosts USA.", "However, it is widely believed that internal problems and threats by drug cartel groups at the time contributed to the team's underwhelming results in the competition, in particular following the murder of Andrés Escobar after Colombia's 2–1 defeat to the host nation in the second group match; during the match, the Colombian defender had netted an own goal to open the scoring, which ultimately proved to be decisive, despite a 2–0 win over Switzerland in the final first round fixture.Four years later, Valderrama led his nation to qualify for the 1998 World Cup in France, scoring three goals during the qualifying stages.", "His impact in the final tournament at the advancing age of 37, however, was less decisive, and, despite defeating Tunisia, Colombia once again suffered a first round exit, following a 2–0 defeat against England, which was Valderrama's final international appearance." ], [ "Playing style", "Although Valderrama is often defined as a 'classic number 10 playmaker', due to his creativity and offensive contribution, in reality he was not a classic playmaker in the traditional sense.", "Although he often wore the number 10 shirt throughout his career and was deployed as an attacking midfielder at times, he played mostly in deeper positions in the centre of the pitch – often operating in a free role as a deep-lying playmaker, rather than in more advanced midfield positions behind the forwards – in order to have a greater influence on the game.", "A team-player, Valderrama was also known to be an extremely selfless midfielder, who preferred assisting his teammates over going for goal himself; his tactical intelligence, positioning, reading of the game, efficient movement, and versatile range of passing enabled him to find space for himself to distribute and receive the ball, which allowed him both to set the tempo of his team in midfield with short, first time exchanges, or create chances with long lobbed passes or through balls.Valderrama's most instantly recognisable physical features were his big afro-blonde hairstyle, jewelry, and moustache, but he was best known for his grace and elegance on the ball, as well as his agility, and quick feet as a footballer.", "His control, dribbling ability and footwork were similar to those of smaller players, which for a player of Valderrama's size and physical build was fairly uncommon, and he frequently stood out throughout his career for his ability to use his strength, balance, composure, and flamboyant technique to shield the ball from opponents when put under pressure, and retain possession in difficult situations, often with elaborate skills, which made him an extremely popular figure with the fans.", "Valderrama's mix of physical strength, two-footed ability, unpredictability and flair enabled him to produce key and incisive performances against top-tier teams, while his world class vision and exceptional passing and crossing ability with his right foot made him one of the best assist providers of his time; his height, physique and elevation also made him effective in the air, and he was also an accurate free kick taker and striker of the ball, despite not being a particularly prolific goalscorer.Despite his natural talent and ability as a footballer, Valderrama earned a reputation for having a \"languid\" playing style, as well as lacking notable pace, being unfit, and for having a poor defensive work-rate on the pitch, in particular, after succumbing to the physical effects of ageing in his later career in the MLS.", "In his first season in France, he also initially struggled to adapt to the faster-paced, more physical and tactically rigorous European brand of football, which saw him play in an unfamiliar position, and gave him less space and time on the ball to dictate attacking passing moves; he was criticised at times for his lack of match fitness and his low defensive contribution, which initially limited his appearances with the club, although he later successfully became a key creative player in his team's starting line-up due to his discipline, skill, and his precise and efficient passing.", "Despite these claims, earlier in his career, however, Valderrama demonstrated substantial pace, stamina, and defensive competence.Former French defender Laurent Blanc, who played with Valderrama in Montpellier, described him thusly: \"In the fast and furious European game he wasn't always at his ease.", "He was a natural exponent of 'toque', keeping the ball moving.", "But he was so gifted that we could give him the ball when we didn't know what else to do with it knowing he wouldn't lose it... and often he would do things that most of us only dream about.\"" ], [ "Retirement and legacy", "In February 2004, Valderrama ended his 22-year career in a tribute match at the Metropolitan stadium of Barranquilla, with some of the most important football players of South America, such as Diego Maradona, Enzo Francescoli, Iván Zamorano, and José Luis Chilavert.In 2006, a 22-foot bronze statue of Valderrama, created by Colombian artist Amilkar Ariza, was erected outside Estadio Eduardo Santos in Valderrama's birthplace of Santa Marta.Valderrama was the only Colombian to be featured by Pelé in FIFA's 125 Top Living Football Players list in March 2004.===Media===Valderrama appeared on the cover of Konami's ''International Superstar Soccer Pro 98''.", "In the Nintendo 64 version of the game, he is referred to by his nickname, ''El Pibe''.Valderrama has also appeared in EA Sports' FIFA football video game series; he was named one of the Ultimate Team Legend cards in ''FIFA 15''.Besides his link to videogames, Valderrama has been present in sports media through his work with Fútbol de Primera, Andrés Cantor's radio station.", "He works as a color commentator during broadcasts of different matches, mostly participating during the FIFA World Cup, alongside play-by-play commentators like Sammy Sadovnik or Cantor himself." ], [ "Coaching career", "Since retiring from professional football, Valderrama has become assistant manager of Atlético Junior.", "On 1 November 2007, Valderrama accused a referee of corruption by waving cash in the face of Oscar Julian Ruiz when the official awarded a penalty to América de Cali.", "Junior lost the match 4–1, which ended the club's hopes of playoff qualification.", "He later also served as a coach for a football academy called Clearwater Galactics in Clearwater, Florida." ], [ "Personal life", "Valderrama is married and has six children." ], [ "Career statistics", "===Club===+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competitionClubSeasonLeagueCupContinentalOtherTotalDivisionAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsUnión Magdalena1981Categoría Primera A15110––1611982432–––4321983362–––362Total94510––955Millonarios1984Categoría Primera A330–––330Deportivo Cali19854813–––48131986465–60–5251987374–61–435Total13122–121–14323Montpellier1988–89Division 12412010–2711989–9018151––2321990–913522040–412Total7749150–915Real Valladolid1991–92La Liga17140––1Independiente Medellín1992Categoría Primera A101–––101Atlético Junior1993354–––3541994181–0–2511995290–––290Total825–70–895Tampa Bay Mutiny1996MLS23411–40285Deportivo Cali (loan)1996–97Categoría Primera A184–31–215Tampa Bay Mutiny1997MLS20310–20233Total43721–60518Miami Fusion1998MLS18210–20212199941–––41Total22310–20253Tampa Bay Mutiny1999MLS27320–20313200032120–20361200112110––131Total71550–40805Colorado Rapids2001MLS120–––120200227120–51342Total39120–51462Career total6045824227217167263===International===:''Scores and results list Colombia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Valderrama goal.", "''+ List of international goals scored by Carlos ValderramaNo.DateVenueOpponentScoreResultCompetition1 1 July 1987 Estadio Gigante de Arroyito, Rosario, Argentina 1–0 2–0 1987 Copa América2 30 March 1988 Estadio Centenario, Armenia, Colombia 2–0 3–0 Friendly3 24 June 1989 Miami Orange Bowl, Miami, United States 1–0 1–0 Friendly4 27 June 1989 3–0 4–0 Friendly5 9 June 1990 Stadio Renato Dall'Ara, Bologna, Italy 2–0 2–0 1990 FIFA World Cup6 22 July 1995 Estadio Domingo Burgueño, Maldonado, Uruguay 2–0 4–1 1995 Copa América7 7 July 1996 Estadio Metropolitano Roberto Meléndez, Barranquilla, Colombia 2–0 3–1 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification8 20 August 1997 2–0 3–0 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification9 16 November 1997 Estadio Alberto J. Armando, Buenos Aires, Argentina 1–0 1–1 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification10 23 May 1998 Giants Stadium, East Rutherford, United States 1–0 2–2 Friendly11 31 May 1998 Waldstadion, Frankfurt, Germany 1–3 1–3 Friendly" ], [ "Honours", "'''Montpellier'''*Coupe de France: 1990'''Atletico Junior'''* Colombian Championship: 1993, 1995'''Tampa Bay Mutiny'''*MLS Supporters' Shield: 1996'''Individual'''* Copa América MVP: 1987*South American Footballer of the Year: 1987, 1993*South American Team of the Year: 1987, 1993, 1996*MLS Best XI: 1996, 1997, 2000*MLS All-Star: 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000*Major League Soccer MVP: 1996*MLS All-Time Best XI: Midfielder*World Soccer's 100 Greatest Footballers of All Time: 1999*Colombian Player of the Century: 1999*MLS Assist leader: 2000 (26 assists – a single season record)*FIFA 100: 2004* Copa América Historical Dream Team: 2011*Golden Foot: 2013, as football legend" ], [ "See also", "*List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * International statistics at Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation* Profile at Colombia.com * Power 5 Unbreakable Records – Valderrama's 26 assists in 2000 at mlssoccer.com" ] ]
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[ [ "Caesar salad" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''Caesar salad''' (also spelled '''Cesar''', '''César''' and '''Cesare''') is a green salad of romaine lettuce and croutons dressed with lemon juice (or lime juice), olive oil, egg, Worcestershire sauce, anchovies, garlic, Dijon mustard, Parmesan cheese, and black pepper.In its original form, this salad was prepared and served tableside." ], [ "History", "Hotel Caesar's in Avenida Revolución in TijuanaA poster inside Hotel Caesar's saying \"Home of the legendary Caesar's Salad\"The salad's creation is generally attributed to the restaurateur Caesar Cardini, an Italian immigrant who operated restaurants in Mexico and the United States.", "Cardini lived in San Diego but ran one of his restaurants in Tijuana to attract American customers seeking to circumvent the restrictions of Prohibition.", "His daughter, Rosa, recounted that her father invented the salad at the Tijuana restaurant when a Fourth of July rush in 1924 depleted the kitchen's supplies.", "Cardini made do with what he had, adding the dramatic flair of table-side tossing by the chef.", "Some recountings of the history state that Alex Cardini, Caesar Cardini's brother, made the salad, and that the salad was previously named the \"Aviator Salad\" because it was made for aviators who traveled over during Prohibition.", "A number of Cardini's staff have also said that they invented the dish.Julia Child said that she had eaten a Caesar salad at Cardini's restaurant in her youth during the 1920s.", "In 1946, the newspaper columnist Dorothy Kilgallen wrote of a Caesar containing anchovies, differing from Cardini's version:The big food rage in Hollywood—the Caesar salad—will be introduced to New Yorkers by Gilmore's Steak House.", "It's an intricate concoction that takes ages to prepare and contains (zowie!)", "lots of garlic, raw or slightly coddled eggs, croutons, romaine, anchovies, parmeasan cheese, olive oil, vinegar and plenty of black pepper.In a 1952 interview, Cardini said the salad became well known in 1937, when Manny Wolf, story editor and Paramount Pictures writer's department head, provided the recipe to Hollywood restaurants.In the 1970s, Cardini's daughter said that the original recipe included whole lettuce leaves, which were meant to be lifted by the stem and eaten with the fingers; coddled eggs; and garlic infused olive oil.", "The dressing is rarely uniformly made, and anchovy paste is sometimes added with Worcestershire sauce, dry mustard and garlic to enhance the flavor of the olive oil.", "Several sources have testified that the original recipe used only Worcestershire sauce without any anchovies, which Cardini considered too bold in flavor.Although the original recipe does not contain anchovies, modern recipes typically include anchovies as a key ingredient, which frequently is emulsified in bottled versions.", "Bottled Caesar dressings are now produced and marketed by many companies.The trademark brands, \"Cardini's\", \"Caesar Cardini's\" and \"The Original Caesar Dressing\" are all claimed to date to February 1950, although they were only registered decades later, and more than a dozen varieties of bottled ''Cardini's'' dressing are available today, with various ingredients.As the salad moved North to the U.S, a key ingredient changed within the recipe.", "Lemon juice is commonly used, despite the original Caesar salad opting for lime." ], [ "Common ingredients", "A simple Caesar saladCommon ingredients in many recipes::* Romaine or Cos Lettuce:* Olive oil:* Crushed Garlic:* Salt:* Dijon mustard:* Black pepper:* Lemon juice:* Worcestershire sauce:* Anchovies:* Hen eggs (boiled, poached or coddled):* Grated Parmesan cheese:* CroutonsTopped with grilled chickenVariations include varying the leaf, adding meat such as grilled chicken or bacon, or omitting ingredients such as anchovies and eggs.Vegan versions can replace anchovies with capers and the eggs with tahini." ], [ "Health concerns", "There is inherent risk of infection by salmonella bacteria occasionally found in raw egg from cracked or improperly handled eggshells where the protective cuticle is damaged." ], [ "See also", "* List of salads" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* History of salads" ] ]
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[ [ "Cecilia Beaux" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eliza Cecilia Beaux''' (May 1, 1855 – September 17, 1942) was an American artist and the first woman to teach art at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts.", "Known for her elegant and sensitive portraits of friends, relatives, and Gilded Age patrons, Beaux painted many famous subjects including First Lady Edith Roosevelt, Admiral Sir David Beatty and Georges Clemenceau.Beaux was trained in Philadelphia and went on to study in Paris where she was influenced by academic artists Tony Robert-Fleury and William-Adolphe Bouguereau as well as the work of Édouard Manet and Edgar Degas.", "Her style was compared to that of John Singer Sargent; at one exhibition, Bernard Berenson joked that her paintings were the best Sargents in the room.", "Like her instructor William Sartain, she believed there was a connection between physical characteristics and behavioral traits.Beaux was awarded a gold medal for lifetime achievement by the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and honored by Eleanor Roosevelt as \"the American woman who had made the greatest contribution to the culture of the world\"." ], [ "Early life and education", "''Mrs.", "Robert Abbe (Catherine Amory Bennett)'' , 1888–89, now on display at the Brooklyn Museum''New England Woman''.", "Portrait of Mrs. Jedidiah H. Richards (Beaux's cousin Julia Leavitt), 1895, now on display at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in PhiladelphiaBeaux was born on May 1, 1855, in Philadelphia, the younger daughter of French silk manufacturer Jean Adolphe Beaux and teacher Cecilia Kent Leavitt.", "Her mother was the daughter of prominent businessman John Wheeler Leavitt of New York City and his wife, Cecilia Kent of Suffield, Connecticut.", "Cecilia Kent Leavitt died from puerperal fever 12 days after giving birth at age 33.Cecilia and her sister Etta were subsequently raised by their maternal grandmother and aunts, primarily in Philadelphia.", "Her father, unable to bear the grief of his loss, and feeling adrift in a foreign country, returned to his native France for 16 years, with only one visit back to Philadelphia.", "He returned when Cecilia was two, but left four years later after his business failed.", "As she confessed later, \"We didn't love Papa very much, he was so foreign.", "We thought him ''peculiar''.\"", "Her father did have a natural aptitude for drawing and the sisters were charmed by his whimsical sketches of animals.", "Later, Beaux would discover that her French heritage would serve her well during her pilgrimage and training in France.In Philadelphia, Beaux's aunt Emily married mining engineer William Foster Biddle, whom Beaux would later describe as \"after my grandmother, the strongest and most beneficent influence in my life.\"", "For fifty years, he cared for his nieces-in-law with consistent attention and occasional financial support.", "Her grandmother, on the other hand, provided day-to-day supervision and kindly discipline.", "Whether with housework, handiwork, or academics, Grandma Leavitt offered a pragmatic framework, stressing that \"everything undertaken must be completed, conquered.\"", "The Civil War years were particularly challenging, but the extended family survived despite little emotional or financial support from Beaux's father.After the war, Beaux began to spend some time in the household of \"Willie\" and Emily, both proficient musicians.", "Beaux learned to play the piano but preferred singing.", "The musical atmosphere later proved an advantage for her artistic ambitions.", "Beaux recalled, \"They understood perfectly the spirit and necessities of an artist's life.\"", "In her early teens, she had her first major exposure to art during visits with Willie to the nearby Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, one of America's foremost art schools and museums.", "Though fascinated by the narrative elements of some of the pictures, particularly the Biblical themes of the massive paintings of Benjamin West, at this point Beaux had no aspirations of becoming an artist.Her childhood was a sheltered though generally happy one.", "As a teen she already manifested the traits, as she described, of \"both a realist and a perfectionist, pursued by an uncompromising passion for carrying through.\"", "She attended the Misses Lyman School and was just an average student, though she did well in French and Natural History.", "However, she was unable to afford the extra fee for art lessons.At age 16, Beaux began art lessons with a relative, Catherine Ann Drinker, an accomplished artist who had her own studio and a growing clientele.", "Drinker became Beaux's role model, and she continued lessons with Drinker for a year.", "She then studied for two years with the painter Francis Adolf Van der Wielen, who offered lessons in perspective and drawing from casts during the time that the new Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts was under construction.", "Given the bias of the Victorian age, female students were denied direct study in anatomy and could not attend drawing classes with live models (who were often prostitutes) until a decade later.At 18, Beaux was appointed as a drawing teacher at Miss Sanford's School, taking over Drinker's post.", "She also gave private art lessons and produced decorative art and small portraits.", "Her own studies were mostly self-directed.", "Beaux received her first introduction to lithography doing copy work for Philadelphia printer Thomas Sinclair and she published her first work in ''St.", "Nicholas'' magazine in December 1873.Beaux demonstrated accuracy and patience as a scientific illustrator, creating drawings of fossils for Edward Drinker Cope, for a multi-volume report sponsored by the U.S. Geological Survey.", "However, she did not find technical illustration suitable for a career (the extreme exactitude required gave her pains in the \"solar plexus\").", "At this stage, she did not yet consider herself an artist.Beaux began attending the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia in 1876, then under the dynamic influence of Thomas Eakins, whose work ''The Gross Clinic'' had \"horrified Philadelphia Exhibition-goers as a gory spectacle\" at the Centennial Exhibition of 1876.She steered clear of the controversial Eakins, though she much admired his work.", "His progressive teaching philosophy, focused on anatomy and live study and allowed the female students to partake in segregated studios, eventually led to his firing as director of the Academy.", "She did not ally herself with Eakins' ardent student supporters, and later wrote, \"A curious instinct of self-preservation kept me outside the magic circle.\"", "Instead, she attended costume and portrait painting classes for three years taught by the ailing director Christian Schussele.", "Beaux won the Mary Smith Prize at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts exhibitions in 1885, 1887, 1891, and 1892.After leaving the Academy, the 24-year-old Beaux decided to try her hand at porcelain painting and she enrolled in a course at the National Art Training School.", "She was well suited to the precise work but later wrote, \"this was the lowest depth I ever reached in commercial art, and although it was a period when youth and romance were in their first attendance on me, I remember it with gloom and record it with shame.\"", "She studied privately with William Sartain, a friend of Eakins and a New York artist invited to Philadelphia to teach a group of art students, starting in 1881.Though Beaux admired Eakins more and thought his painting skill superior to Sartain's, she preferred the latter's gentle teaching style which promoted no particular aesthetic approach.", "Unlike Eakins, however, Sartain believed in phrenology and Beaux adopted a lifelong belief that physical characteristics correlated with behaviors and traits.Beaux attended Sartain's classes for two years, then rented her own studio and shared it with a group of women artists who hired a live model and continued without an instructor.", "After the group disbanded, Beaux set in earnest to prove her artistic abilities.", "She painted a large canvas in 1884, ''Les Derniers Jours d'Enfance'', a portrait of her sister and nephew whose composition and style revealed a debt to James McNeill Whistler and whose subject matter was akin to Mary Cassatt's mother-and-child paintings.", "It was awarded a prize for the best painting by a female artist at the Academy, and further exhibited in Philadelphia and New York.", "Following that seminal painting, she painted over 50 portraits in the next three years with the zeal of a committed professional artist.", "Her invitation to serve as a juror on the hanging committee of the Academy confirmed her acceptance amongst her peers.", "In the mid-1880s, she was receiving commissions from notable Philadelphians and earning $500 per portrait, comparable to what Eakins commanded.", "When her friend Margaret Bush-Brown insisted that ''Les Derniers'' was good enough to be exhibited at the famed Paris Salon, Beaux relented and sent the painting abroad in the care of her friend, who managed to get the painting into the exhibition.===Paris===''Twilight Confidences, 1888''''Self-portrait'' by Beaux in 1894''Georges Clemenceau'' by Cecilia Beaux (1920)At 32, despite her success in Philadelphia, Beaux decided that she still needed to advance her skills.", "She left for Paris with cousin May Whitlock, forsaking several suitors and overcoming the objections of her family.", "There she trained at the Académie Julian, the largest art school in Paris, and at the Académie Colarossi, receiving weekly critiques from established masters like Tony Robert-Fleury and William-Adolphe Bouguereau.", "She wrote, \"Fleury is much less benign than Bouguereau and don't temper his severities…he hinted of possibilities before me and as he rose said the nicest thing of all, 'we will do all we can to help you'…I want these men…to know me and recognize that I can do something.\"", "Though advised regularly of Beaux's progress abroad and to \"not be worried about any indiscretions of ours\", her Aunt Eliza repeatedly reminded her niece to avoid the temptations of Paris, \"Remember you are first of all a Christian – then a woman and last of all an Artist.", "\"When Beaux arrived in Paris, the Impressionists, a group of artists who had begun their own series of independent exhibitions from the official Salon in 1874, were beginning to lose their solidarity.", "Also known as the \"Independents\" or \"Intransigents\", the group which at times included Degas, Monet, Sisley, Caillebotte, Pissarro, Renoir, and Berthe Morisot, had been receiving the wrath of the critics for several years.", "Their art, though varying in style and technique, was the antithesis of the type of Academic art in which Beaux was trained and of which her teacher William-Adolphe Bouguereau was a leading master.", "In the summer of 1888, with classes in summer recess, Beaux worked in the fishing village of Concarneau with the American painters Alexander Harrison and Charles Lazar.", "She tried applying the plein-air painting techniques used by the Impressionists to her own landscapes and portraiture, with little success.", "Unlike her predecessor Mary Cassatt, who had arrived near the beginning of the Impressionist movement 15 years earlier and who had absorbed it, Beaux's artistic temperament, precise and true to observation, would not align with Impressionism and she remained a realist painter for the rest of her career, even as Cézanne, Matisse, Gauguin, and Picasso were beginning to take art into new directions.", "Beaux mostly admired classic artists like Titian and Rembrandt.", "Her European training did influence her palette, however, and she adopted more white and paler coloration in her oil painting, particularly in depicting female subjects, an approach favored by Sargent as well.===Return to Philadelphia===Dorothea and Francesca in 1898''Sita and Sarita (Jeune Fille au Chat)'', a portrait of Sarah Allibone Leavitt, 1893–1894, now on display at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris''Ernesta'' by Cecilia Beaux 1894Back in the United States in 1889, Beaux proceeded to paint portraits in the grand manner, taking as her subjects members of her sister's family and of Philadelphia's elite.", "In making her decision to devote herself to art, she also thought it was best not to marry, and in choosing male company she selected men who would not threaten to sidetrack her career.", "She resumed life with her family, and they supported her fully, acknowledging her chosen path and demanding of her little in the way of household responsibilities, \"I was never once asked to do an errand in town, some bit of shopping…so well did they understand.\"", "She developed a structured, professional routine, arriving promptly at her studio, and expected the same from her models.The five years that followed were highly productive, resulting in over forty portraits.", "In 1890 she exhibited at the Paris Exposition, obtained in 1893 the gold medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge prize at the New York National Academy of Design.", "She exhibited her work at the Palace of Fine Arts and The Woman's Building at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois.", "Her portrait of ''The Reverend Matthew Blackburne Grier'' was particularly well-received, as was ''Sita and Sarita'', a portrait of her cousin Charles W. Leavitt's wife Sarah (Allibone) Leavitt in white, with a small black cat perched on her shoulder, both gazing out mysteriously.", "The mesmerizing effect prompted one critic to point out \"the witch-like weirdness of the black kitten\" and for many years, the painting solicited questions by the press.", "But the result was not pre-planned, as Beaux's sister later explained, \"Please make no mystery about it—it was only an idea to put the black kitten on her cousin's shoulder.", "Nothing deeper.\"", "Beaux donated ''Sita and Sarita'' to the Musée du Luxembourg, but only after making a copy for herself.", "Another highly regarded portrait from that period is ''New England Woman'' (1895), a nearly all-white oil painting which was purchased by the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts.In 1895, Beaux became the first woman to have a regular teaching position at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, where she instructed in portrait drawing and painting for the next twenty years.", "That rare type of achievement by a woman prompted one local newspaper to state, \"It is a legitimate source of pride to Philadelphia that one of its most cherished institutions has made this innovation.\"", "She was a popular instructor.", "In 1896, Beaux returned to France to see a group of her paintings presented at the Salon.", "Influential French critic M. Henri Rochefort commented, \"I am compelled to admit, not without some chagrin, that not one of our female artists…is strong enough to compete with the lady who has given us this year the portrait of Dr. Grier.", "Composition, flesh, texture, sound drawing—everything is there without affectation, and without seeking for effect.", "\"Cecilia Beaux considered herself a \"New Woman\", a 19th-century woman who explored educational and career opportunities that had generally been denied to women.", "In the late 19th century Charles Dana Gibson depicted the \"New Woman\" in his painting, ''The Reason Dinner was Late'', which is \"a sympathetic portrayal of artistic aspiration on the part of young women\" as she paints a visiting policeman.", "This \"New Woman\" was successful, highly trained, and often did not marry; other such women included Ellen Day Hale, Mary Cassatt, Elizabeth Nourse and Elizabeth Coffin.Beaux was a member of Philadelphia's The Plastic Club.", "Other members included Elenore Abbott, Jessie Willcox Smith, Violet Oakley, Emily Sartain, and Elizabeth Shippen Green.", "Many of the women who founded the organization had been students of Howard Pyle.", "It was founded to provide a means to encourage one another professionally and create opportunities to sell their works of art.===New York City===By 1900 the demand for Beaux's work brought clients from Washington, D.C., to Boston, prompting the artist to move to New York City, where she spent the winters, while summering at Green Alley, the home and studio she had built in Gloucester, Massachusetts.", "Beaux's friendship with Richard Gilder, editor-in-chief of the literary magazine ''The Century'', helped promote her career and he introduced her to the elite of society.", "Among her portraits which followed from that association are those of Georges Clemenceau; First Lady Edith Roosevelt and her daughter; and Admiral Sir David Beatty.", "She also sketched President Teddy Roosevelt during her White House visits in 1902, during which \"He sat for two hours, talking most of the time, reciting Kipling, and reading scraps of Browning.\"", "Beaux also became very close with Gilder's daughter Dorothea, and the two women exchanged affectionate letters for many years.", "Her portraits ''Fanny Travis Cochran'', ''Dorothea and Francesca'', and ''Ernesta and her Little Brother'', are fine examples of her skill in painting children; ''Ernesta with Nurse'', one of a series of essays in luminous white, was a highly original composition, seemingly without precedent.", "She became a member of the National Academy of Design in 1902.and won the Logan Medal of the arts at the Art Institute of Chicago in 1921.===Green Alley===By 1906, Beaux began to live year-round at Green Alley, in a comfortable colony of \"cottages\" belonging to her wealthy friends and neighbors.", "All three aunts had died and she needed an emotional break from Philadelphia and New York City.", "She managed to find new subjects for portraiture, working in the mornings and enjoying a leisurely life the rest of the time.", "She carefully regulated her energy and her activities to maintain a productive output, and considered that a key to her success.", "On why so few women succeeded in art as she did, she stated, \"Strength is the stumbling block.", "They (women) are sometimes unable to stand the hard work of it day in and day out.", "They become tired and cannot reenergize themselves.", "\"While Beaux stuck to her portraits of the elite, American art was advancing into urban and social subject matter, led by artists such as Robert Henri who espoused a totally different aesthetic, \"Work with great speed..Have your energies alert, up and active.", "Do it all in one sitting if you can.", "In one minute if you can.", "There is no use delaying…Stop studying water pitchers and bananas and paint everyday life.\"", "He advised his students, among them Edward Hopper and Rockwell Kent, to live with the common man and paint the common man, in total opposition to Cecilia Beaux's artistic methods and subjects.", "The clash of Henri and William Merritt Chase (representing Beaux and the traditional art establishment) resulted in 1907 in the independent exhibition by the urban realists known as \"The Eight\" or the Ashcan School.", "Beaux and her art friends defended the old order, and many thought (and hoped) the new movement to be a passing fad, but it turned out to be a revolutionary turn in American art.In 1910, her beloved Uncle Willie died.", "Though devastated by the loss, at 55 year old, Beaux remained highly productive.", "In the next five years she painted almost 25 percent of her lifetime output and received a steady stream of honors.", "She had a major exhibition of 35 paintings at the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., in 1912.Despite her continuing production and accolades, however, Beaux was working against the current of tastes and trends in art.", "The famed \"Armory Show\" of 1913 in New York City was a landmark presentation of 1,200 paintings showcasing Modernism.", "Beaux believed that the public, initially of mixed opinion about the \"new\" art, would ultimately reject it and return its favor to the Pre-Impressionists.Beaux was crippled after breaking her hip while walking in Paris in 1924.With her health impaired, her work output dwindled for the remainder of her life.", "That same year Beaux was asked to produce a self-portrait for the Medici collection in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence.", "In 1930 she published an autobiography, ''Background with Figures''.", "Her later life was filled with honors.", "In 1930 she was elected a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters; in 1933 came membership in the American Academy of Arts and Letters, which two years later organized the first major retrospective of her work.", "Also in 1933 Eleanor Roosevelt honored Beaux as \"the American woman who had made the greatest contribution to the culture of the world\".", "In 1942 The National Institute of Arts and Letters awarded her a gold medal for lifetime achievement." ], [ "Death", "Beaux died at the age of 87 on September 17, 1942, in Gloucester, Massachusetts.", "She was buried at West Laurel Hill Cemetery in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania.", "In her will she left a Duncan Phyfe rosewood secretaire made for her father to her cherished nephew Cecil Kent Drinker, a Harvard University physician who she had painted as a young boy." ], [ "Legacy", "Beaux was included in the 2018 exhibit ''Women in Paris 1850-1900'' at the Clark Art Institute.Though Beaux was an individualist, comparisons to Sargent would prove inevitable, and often favorable.", "Her strong technique, her perceptive reading of her subjects, and her ability to flatter without falsifying, were traits similar to his.", "\"The critics are very enthusiastic.", "(Bernard) Berenson, Mrs. Coates tells me, stood in front of the portraits – Miss Beaux's three – and wagged his head.", "'Ah, yes, I see!'", "Some Sargents.", "The ordinary ones are signed John Sargent, the best are signed Cecilia Beaux, which is, of course, nonsense in more ways than one, but it is part of the generous chorus of praise.\"", "Though overshadowed by Mary Cassatt and relatively unknown to museum-goers today, Beaux's craftsmanship and extraordinary output were highly regarded in her time.", "While presenting the Carnegie Institute's Gold Medal to Beaux in 1899, William Merritt Chase stated \"Miss Beaux is not only the greatest living woman painter, but the best that has ever lived.", "Miss Beaux has done away entirely with sex gender in art.", "\"During her long productive life as an artist, she maintained her personal aesthetic and high standards against all distractions and countervailing forces.", "She constantly struggled for perfection.", "\"A perfect technique in anything,\" she stated in an interview, \"means that there has been no break in continuity between the conception and the act of performance.\"", "She summed up her driving work ethic, \"I can say this: When I attempt anything, I have a passionate determination to overcome every obstacle…And I do my own work with a refusal to accept defeat that might almost be called painful.\"" ], [ "Gallery", "Landscape with Farm Building Cecilia Beaux.jpeg|Landscape with Farm Building, 1888Cecilia Beaux - Portrait of Mrs. Albert J. Beveridge (Catherine Eddy, Lady Primrose Portrait) - 1999.44 - Indianapolis Museum of Art.jpg|Portrait of Mrs. Albert J. Beveridge, 1916William Henry Howell (painting, 1911).jpg|Painting of William Henry Howell (1919)Cecilia Beaux painting Cardinal Mercier.jpg|Cecilia Beaux painting of Cardinal Mercier ()Portrait of Cecil Kent Drinker.jpg|Portrait of Cecil Kent Drinker, 1891Lady George Darwin by Cecilia Beaux 1889.jpeg|Lady George Darwin, Beaux's pastel portrait of the former Martha du Puy of Philadelphia, who married Sir George Darwin.", "1889Mother_and_Daughter_Cecilia_Beaux_1898_PAFA.jpg|Mother and Daughter Cecilia Beaux 1898 Mrs. Robert Chapin and Daughter Christina by Cecilia Beaux.jpg|Mrs.", "Robert Chapin and Daughter Christina by Cecilia Beaux, 1902A Little Girl by Cecilia Beaux.png|''A Little Girl'' (1887)" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* Grafly, Dorothy.", "\"Cecilia Beaux\" in Edward T. James, Janet Wilson James, and Paul S. Boyer, eds.", "''Notable American Women, 1607–1950: A Biographical Dictionary'' (1971)* Beaux, Cecilia.", "''Background with Figures: Autobiography of Cecilia Beaux''.", "Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1930.", "* Goodyear, Jr., Frank H., and others., ''Cecilia Beaux: Portrait of an Artist''.", "Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, 1974.Library of Congress Catalog No.", "74-84248* Tappert, Tara Leigh, ''Cecilia Beaux and the Art of Portraiture''.", "Smithsonian Institution, 1995.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Cecilia Beaux from Smithsonian American Art Museum* A finding aid to the Cecilia Beaux Papers, 1863-1968, in the Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution* Portrait of Mrs. John Wheeler Leavitt, 1885, grandmother of Cecilia Beaux, Westmoreland Museum of American Art, Greensburg, Pa., ExplorePAHistory.com* Aimee Ernesta and Eliza Cecilia: Two Sisters, Two Choices, Tara Leigh Tappert, The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, July 2000, pp.", "249–291* Cecilia Beaux's Contemporaries Judged Her to Be the Cat's Meow; History Sees a Bit of a Chameleon, The Washington Post, March 9, 2008, washingtonpost.com* Documenting the Gilded Age: New York City Exhibitions at the Turn of the 20th Century.", "A New York Art Resources Consortium project.", "Woman's Art Club of New York exhibition catalog." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chrysler" ], [ "Introduction", "'''FCA US, LLC''', doing business as '''Stellantis North America''' and known historically as '''Chrysler Corporation ''' ( ), is one of the \"Detroit Three\" automobile manufacturers in the United States, headquartered in Auburn Hills, Michigan.", "It is the American subsidiary of the multinational automotive company Stellantis.", "Stellantis North America sells vehicles worldwide under the Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep, and Ram nameplates.", "It also includes Mopar, its automotive parts and accessories division, and SRT, its performance automobile division.", "The division also distributes Alfa Romeo, Fiat and Maserati vehicles in North America.The original Chrysler Corporation was founded in 1925 by Walter Chrysler from the remains of the Maxwell Motor Company.", "It was acquired by Daimler-Benz, which in 1998 renamed itself DaimlerChrysler.", "After Daimler divested from Chrysler in 2007, the company operated as Chrysler LLC (2007–2009), and Chrysler Group LLC (2009–2014) before being acquired by Fiat S.p.A. and becoming a subsidiary of the newly formed Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (\"FCA\") in 2014.Chrysler in 2021 is a subsidiary of Stellantis, the company formed from the merger between FCA and PSA Group (Peugeot Société Anonyme) in 2021.After founding the company, Walter Chrysler used the General Motors brand diversification and hierarchy strategy that he had become familiar with when he worked in the Buick division at General Motors.", "He then acquired Fargo Trucks and the Dodge Brothers Company, and created the Plymouth and DeSoto brands in 1928.Facing postwar declines in market share, productivity, and profitability, as GM and Ford were growing, Chrysler borrowed $250 million in 1954 from Prudential Insurance to pay for expansion and updated car designs.Chrysler expanded into Europe by taking control of French, British, and Spanish auto companies in the 1960s; Chrysler Europe was sold in 1978 to PSA Peugeot Citroën for $1 billion.", "The company struggled to adapt to changing markets, increased U.S. import competition, and safety and environmental regulation in the 1970s.", "It began an engineering partnership with Mitsubishi Motors, and began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America.", "On the verge of bankruptcy in the late 1970s, it was saved by $1.5 billion in loan guarantees from the U.S. government.", "New CEO Lee Iacocca was credited with returning the company to profitability in the 1980s.", "In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship.", "In 1987, Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation (AMC), which brought the profitable Jeep, as well as the newly formed Eagle, brands under the Chrysler umbrella.", "In 1998, Chrysler merged with German automaker Daimler-Benz to form DaimlerChrysler AG; the merger proved contentious with investors.", "As a result, Chrysler was sold to Cerberus Capital Management and renamed Chrysler LLC in 2007.Like the other Big Three automobile manufacturers, Chrysler was impacted by the automotive industry crisis of 2008–2010.The company remained in business through a combination of negotiations with creditors, filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy reorganization on April 30, 2009, and participating in a bailout from the U.S. government through the Troubled Asset Relief Program.", "On June 10, 2009, Chrysler emerged from the bankruptcy proceedings with the United Auto Workers pension fund, Fiat S.p.A., and the U.S. and Canadian governments as principal owners.", "The bankruptcy resulted in Chrysler defaulting on over $4 billion in debts.", "In May 2011, Chrysler finished repaying its obligations to the U.S. government five years early, although the cost to the American taxpayer was $1.3 billion.Over the next few years, Fiat S.p.A. gradually acquired the other parties' shares.", "In January 2014, Fiat acquired the rest of Chrysler from the United Auto Workers retiree health trust, making Chrysler Group a subsidiary of Fiat S.p.A.", "In May 2014, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles was established by merging Fiat S.p.A. into the company.", "Chrysler Group LLC remained a subsidiary until December 15, 2014, when it was renamed FCA US LLC, to reflect the Fiat-Chrysler merger." ], [ "History", "===1925–1998: Chrysler Corporation===The Chrysler company was founded by Walter Chrysler on June 6, 1925, when the Maxwell Motor Company (est.", "1904) was re-organized into the Chrysler Corporation.", "The company was headquartered in the Detroit enclave of Highland Park, where it remained until completing the move to its present Auburn Hills location in 1996.Chrysler had arrived at the ailing Maxwell-Chalmers company in the early 1920s, hired to overhaul the company's troubled operations (after a similar rescue job at the Willys-Overland car company).", "In late 1923, production of the Chalmers automobile was ended.In January 1924, Walter Chrysler launched the well-received Chrysler automobile.", "The Chrysler Six was designed to provide customers with an advanced, well-engineered car, at an affordable price.", "Elements of this car are traceable to a prototype which had been under development at Willys during Chrysler's tenure The original 1924 Chrysler included a carburetor air filter, high compression engine, full pressure lubrication, and an oil filter, features absent from most autos at the time.", "Among the innovations in its early years were the first practical mass-produced four-wheel hydraulic brakes, a system nearly completely engineered by Chrysler with patents assigned to Lockheed, and rubber engine mounts, called \"Floating Power\" to reduce vibration.", "Chrysler also developed a wheel with a ridged rim, designed to keep a deflated tire from flying off the wheel.", "This wheel was eventually adopted by the auto industry worldwide.The Maxwell brand was dropped after the 1925 model year, with the new, lower-priced four-cylinder Chryslers introduced for the 1926 year being badge-engineered Maxwells.", "The advanced engineering and testing that went into Chrysler Corporation cars helped to push the company to the second-place position in U.S. sales by 1936, which it held until 1949.In 1928, the Chrysler Corporation began dividing its vehicle offerings by price class and function.", "The Plymouth brand was introduced at the low-priced end of the market (created essentially by once again reworking and rebadging the Chrysler Series 50 four-cylinder model).", "At the same time, the DeSoto brand was introduced in the medium-price field.", "Also in 1928, Chrysler bought the Dodge Brothers automobile and truck company and continued the successful Dodge line of automobiles and Fargo range of trucks.", "By the mid-1930s, the DeSoto and Dodge divisions would trade places in the corporate hierarchy.1955 Imperial car model, in its first year as a separate make, apart from Chrysler, shown on display at January 1955 Chicago Auto ShowThe Imperial name had been used since 1926 but was never a separate make, just the top-of-the-line Chrysler.", "However, in 1955, the company decided to offer it as its own make/brand and division to better compete with its rivals, Lincoln and Cadillac.", "This addition changed the company's traditional four-make lineup to five (in order of price from bottom to top): Plymouth, Dodge, DeSoto, Chrysler, and the now-separate Imperial.In 1954, Chrysler was the exclusive provider of its Hemi engine in the Facel Vega, a Paris coachbuilder that offered their own line of hand-built luxury performance cars, with the PowerFlite and TorqueFlite transmissions offered.", "The Facel Vega Excellence was a four-door hardtop with rear-hinged coach doors that listed for US$12,800 ($ in dollars ).1955 Chrysler – Philco all-transistor car radio – \"Breaking News\" radio broadcast announcementOn April 28, 1955, Chrysler and Philco announced the development and production of the World's First All-Transistor car radio.", "The all-transistor car radio, Mopar model 914HR, developed and produced by Chrysler and Philco, was a $150 option on the 1956 Imperial automobile models.", "Philco began manufacturing this radio in the fall of 1955 at its Sandusky Ohio plant.On September 28, 1957, Chrysler announced the first production electronic fuel injection (EFI), as an option on some of its new 1958 car models (Chrysler 300D, Dodge D500, DeSoto Adventurer, Plymouth Fury).", "The first attempt to use this system was by American Motors on the 1957 Rambler Rebel.", "Bendix Corporation's Electrojector used a transistor computer brain modulator box, but teething problems on pre-production cars meant very few cars were made.", "The EFI system in the Rambler ran fine in warm weather, but suffered hard starting in cooler temperatures and AMC decided not to use this EFI system on its 1957 Rambler Rebel production cars that were sold to the public.", "Chrysler also used the Bendix \"Electrojector\" fuel injection system and only around 35 vehicles were built with this option, on its 1958 production-built car models.", "Owners of EFI Chryslers were so dissatisfied that all but one were retrofitted with carburetors (while that one has been completely restored, with original EFI electronic problems resolved).The Valiant was also introduced for the 1960 model year as a distinct brand.", "In the U.S. market, Valiant was made a model in the Plymouth line for 1961 and the DeSoto make was discontinued in 1961.With those exceptions per applicable year and market, Chrysler's range from lowest to highest price from the 1940s through the 1970s was Valiant, Plymouth, Dodge, DeSoto, Chrysler, and Imperial.From 1963 through 1969, Chrysler increased its existing stakes to take full control of the French Simca, British Rootes, and Spanish Barreiros companies, merging them into Chrysler Europe in 1967.In the 1970s, an engineering partnership was established with Mitsubishi Motors, and Chrysler began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America.Chrysler struggled to adapt to the changing environment of the 1970s.", "When consumer tastes shifted to smaller cars in the early 1970s, particularly after the 1973 oil crisis, Chrysler could not meet the demand, although their compact models on the \"A\" body platform, the Dodge Dart and Plymouth Valiant, had proven economy and reliability and sold very well.", "Additional burdens came from increased US import competition, and tougher government regulation of car safety, fuel economy, and emissions.", "As the smallest of the Big 3 US automakers, Chrysler lacked the financial resources to meet all of these challenges.", "In 1976, with the demise of the reliable Dart/Valiant, quality control declined.", "Their replacements, the Dodge Aspen and Plymouth Volare, were comfortable and had good roadability, but owners soon experienced major reliability problems which crept into other models as well.", "Engines failed and/or did not run well, and premature rust plagued bodies.", "In 1978, Lee Iacocca was brought in to turn the company around, and in 1979 Iacocca sought US government help.", "Congress later passed the ''Loan Guarantee Act'' providing $1.5 billion in loan guarantees.", "The ''Loan Guarantee Act'' required that Chrysler also obtain $2 billion in concessions or aid from sources outside the federal government, which included interest rate reductions for $650 million of the savings, asset sales of $300 million, local and state tax concessions of $250 million, and wage reductions of about $590 million along with a $50 million stock offering.", "$180 million was to come from concessions from dealers and suppliers.", "Also in 1978, Iacocca offloaded the ailing European operation to PSA Peugeot Citroën for a nominal $1, taking with it the group's substantial losses and debts which had been dragging the rest of the business down.After a period of plant closures and salary cuts agreed to by both management and the auto unions, the loans were repaid with interest in 1983.In November 1983, the Dodge Caravan/Plymouth Voyager was introduced, establishing the minivan as a major category, and initiating Chrysler's return to stability.In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship.", "In 1987, Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation (AMC), which brought the profitable Jeep brand under the Chrysler umbrella.Aerial view of the Chrysler World Headquarters and Technology Center in Auburn Hills, Michigan, completed in 1996.Photo was taken in 2002.In 1985, Chrysler entered an agreement with AMC to produce Chrysler M platform rear-drive, as well as Dodge Omnis front wheel drive cars, in AMC's Kenosha, Wisconsin, plant.", "In 1987, Chrysler acquired the 47% ownership of AMC that was held by Renault.", "The remaining outstanding shares of AMC were bought on the NYSE by August 5, 1987, making the deal valued somewhere between US$1.7 billion and US$2 billion, depending on how costs were counted.", "Chrysler CEO Lee Iacocca wanted the Jeep brand, particularly the Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ) that was under development, the new world-class manufacturing plant in Bramalea, Ontario, and AMC's engineering and management talent that became critical for Chrysler's future success.", "Chrysler established the Jeep/Eagle division as a \"specialty\" arm to market products distinctly different from the K-car-based products with the Eagle cars targeting import buyers.", "Former AMC dealers sold Jeep vehicles and various new Eagle models, as well as Chrysler products, strengthening the automaker's retail distribution system.Eurostar, a joint venture between Chrysler and Steyr-Daimler-Puch, began producing the Chrysler Voyager in Austria for European markets in 1992.===1998–2007: DaimlerChrysler===In 1998, Chrysler and its subsidiaries entered into a partnership dubbed a \"merger of equals\" with German-based Daimler-Benz AG, creating the combined entity DaimlerChrysler AG.", "To the surprise of many stockholders, Daimler acquired Chrysler in a stock swap before Chrysler CEO Bob Eaton retired.", "Under DaimlerChrysler, the company was named DaimlerChrysler Motors Company LLC, with its U.S. operations generally called \"DCX\".", "The Eagle brand was retired soon after Chrysler's merger with Daimler-Benz in 1998 Jeep became a stand-alone division, and efforts were made to merge the Chrysler and Jeep brands as one sales unit.", "In 2001, the Plymouth brand was also discontinued.Eurostar also built the Chrysler PT Cruiser in 2001 and 2002.The Austrian venture was sold to Magna International in 2002 and became Magna Steyr.", "The Voyager continued in production until 2007, whereas the Chrysler 300C, Jeep Grand Cherokee, and Jeep Commander were also built at the plant from 2005 until 2010.On May 14, 2007, DaimlerChrysler announced the sale of 80.1% of Chrysler Group to American private equity firm Cerberus Capital Management, L.P., thereafter known as Chrysler LLC, although Daimler (renamed as Daimler AG) continued to hold a 19.9% stake.===2007–2014: Effects of Great Recession===The economic collapse during the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 pushed the company to the brink.", "On April 30, 2009, the automaker filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection to be able to operate as a going concern, while renegotiating its debt structure and other obligations, which resulted in the corporation defaulting on over $4 billion in secured debts.", "The U.S. government described the company's action as a \"prepackaged surgical bankruptcy\".On June 10, 2009, substantially all of Chrysler's assets were sold to \"New Chrysler\", organized as Chrysler Group LLC.", "The federal government provided support for the deal with US$8 billion in financing at nearly 21%.", "Under CEO Sergio Marchionne, \"World Class Manufacturing\" or WCM, a system of thorough manufacturing quality, was introduced and several products were re-launched with quality and luxury.", "The Ram, Jeep, Dodge, SRT, and Chrysler divisions were separated to focus on their own identity and brand, and 11 major model refreshes occurred in 21 months.", "The PT Cruiser, Nitro, Liberty and Caliber models (created during DCX) were discontinued.", "On May 24, 2011, Chrysler repaid its $7.6 billion loans to the United States and Canadian governments.", "The US Treasury, through the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), invested $12.5 billion in Chrysler and recovered $11.2 billion when the company shares were sold in May 2011, resulting in a $1.3 billion loss.", "On July 21, 2011, Fiat bought the Chrysler shares held by the US Treasury.", "The purchase made Chrysler foreign-owned again, this time as the luxury division.", "The Chrysler 300 was badged Lancia Thema in some European markets (with additional engine options), giving Lancia a much-needed replacement for its flagship.===2014–2021: Fiat Chrysler Automobiles===On January 21, 2014, Fiat bought the remaining shares of Chrysler owned by the VEBA worth $3.65 billion.", "Several days later, the intended reorganization of Fiat and Chrysler under a new holding company, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, together with a new FCA logo were announced.", "The most challenging launch for this new company came immediately in January 2014 with a completely redesigned Chrysler 200.The vehicle's creation is from the completely integrated company, FCA, executing from a global compact-wide platform.On December 16, 2014, Chrysler Group LLC announced a name change to FCA US LLC.On January 12, 2017, FCA shares traded at the New York Stock Exchange lost value after the EPA accused FCA US of using emissions cheating software to evade diesel-emissions tests, however the company countered the accusations, and the chairman and CEO Sergio Marchionne sternly rejected them.", "The following day, shares rose as investors played down the effect of the accusations.", "Analysts gave estimates of potential fines from several hundred million dollars to $4 billion, although the likelihood of a hefty fine was low.", "Senior United States Senator Bill Nelson urged the FTC to look into possible deceptive marketing of the company's diesel-powered SUVs.", "Shares dropped 2.2% after the announcement.", "FCA US would in 2022, plead guilty to a criminal charge of conspiring to defraud the US, to wire fraud, and to violate the Clean Air Act.On July 21, 2018, Sergio Marchionne stepped down as chairman and CEO for health reasons, and was replaced by John Elkann and Michael Manley, respectively.As a result of ending domestic production of more fuel-efficient passenger automobiles such as the Dodge Dart and Chrysler 200 sedans, FCA US elected to pay $77 million in fines for violating the anti-backsliding provision of fuel economy standards set under the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 for its model year 2016 fleet.", "It was again fined for the 2017 model year for not meeting the minimum domestic passenger car standard.", "FCA described the $79 million civil penalty as \"not expected to have a material impact on its business.", "\"As part of a January 2019 settlement, Fiat Chrysler was to recall and repair approximately 100,000 automobiles equipped with a 3.0-liter V6 EcoDiesel engine having a prohibited defeat device, pay $311 million in total civil penalties to US regulators and CARB, pay $72.5 million for state civil penalties, implement corporate governance reforms, and pay $33.5 million to mitigate excess pollution.", "The company was also to pay affected consumers up to $280 million and offer extended warranties on such vehicles worth $105 million.", "The total value of the settlement was about $800 million, though FCA did not admit liability, and it did not resolve an ongoing criminal investigation.In February 2023, Fiat Chrysler unveiled a concept for its first electric vehicle, the Chrysler Halcyon, a battery-electric sedan.=== Logo evolution ===First chrysler logo 1925.png|1925–1955Chrysler_Corporation_Logo_(1955_-_1962).svg|1955–1962Chrysler_logo_1962.png|1962–1998DaimlerChrysler wordmark.svg|1998–2007Chrysler Group logo.svg|2007–2014 Fiat_Chrysler_Automobiles_logo.svg|2014–2021Stellantis.svg|2021–present;Notes" ], [ "Corporate governance", "Chrysler House landmark executive offices in the Detroit Financial District, management positions of Stellantis North America include:===Board of directors===* Mark Stewart, COO* Richard Palmer, CFO===Management team===* Jeffrey Kommor: head of US sales* Lottie Holland: head of diversity, inclusion, and engagement, FCA - North America* Bruno Cattori: president and CEO, FCA Mexico, S.A. de C.V.* Mark Champine: head of quality, FCA - North America* Mark Chernoby: chief technical compliance officer, Stellantis N.V.* Martin Horneck: head of purchasing and supply chain management, FCA - North America* Mamatha Chamarthi: chief information officer, FCA - North America and Asia Pacific* Marissa Hunter: head of marketing* Philip Langley: head of network development, FCA - North America* Ralph Gilles: head of design* Michael Resha: head of manufacturing, FCA - North America* Roger \"Shane\" Karr: head of external affairs, FCA - North America* Michael J. Keegan: chief audit; sustainability and compliance officer* Timothy Kuniskis: brand chief executive officer, Dodge and, Ram Trucks* Christine Feuell: brand chief executive officer, Chrysler * Jim Morisson: head of Jeep brand, FCA - North America* João Laranjo: chief financial officer, FCA - North America* Michael Bly: head of global propulsion systems, Stellantis N.V.* Jeffrey P. Lux: head of transmission powertrain, FCA - North America* Chris Pardi: general counsel and corporate secretary, FCA - North America* Barbara J. Pilarski: head of business development, FCA - North America* Mark Stewart: chief operating officer* Scott Thiele: head of portfolio planning, FCA - North America; head of global long-range plan coordination* Joseph Veltri: head of investor relations* Rob Wichman: ad interim head of product development, FCA - North America* Larry Dominique: senior vice president, Alfa Romeo - North America* Christopher G. Fields: vice president, U.S. employee relations" ], [ "Sales and marketing", "===United States sales===Chrysler is the smallest of the \"Big Three\" U.S. automakers (Stellantis North America, Ford Motor Company, and General Motors).", "In 2020, FCA US sold just over 1.8 million vehicles.===Global sales===Chrysler was the world's 11th largest vehicle manufacturer as ranked by OICA in 2012.Total Chrysler vehicle production was about 2.37 million that year.", "The company has since become a wholly-owned subsidiary and no longer reports global sales.===Marketing=======Lifetime powertrain warranty====In 2007, Chrysler began to offer vehicle lifetime powertrain warranty for the first registered owner or retail lessee.", "The deal covered owner or lessee in U.S., Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, for 2009 model year vehicles, and 2006, 2007, and 2008 model year vehicles purchased on or after July 26, 2007.Covered vehicles excluded SRT models, Diesel vehicles, Sprinter models, Ram Chassis Cab, Hybrid System components (including transmission), and certain fleet vehicles.", "The warranty is non-transferable.", "After Chrysler's restructuring, the warranty program was replaced by five-year/100,000 mile transferable warranty for 2010 or later vehicles.====\"Let's Refuel America\"====In 2008, as a response to customer feedback citing the prospect of rising gas prices as a top concern, Chrysler launched the \"Let's Refuel America\" incentive campaign, which guaranteed new-car buyers a gasoline price of $2.99 for three years.", "With the U.S. purchase of eligible Chrysler, Jeep, and Dodge vehicles, customers could enroll in the program and receive a gas card that immediately lowers their gas price to $2.99 a gallon, and keeps it there for the three years.====Lancia co-branding====Chrysler plans for Lancia to codevelop products, with some vehicles being shared.", "Olivier Francois, Lancia's CEO, was appointed to the Chrysler division in October 2009.Francois plans to reestablish the Chrysler brand as an upscale brand.====Ram trucks====In October 2009, Dodge's car and truck lines were separated, with the name \"Dodge\" being used for cars, minivans, and crossovers and \"Ram\" for light- and medium-duty trucks and other commercial-use vehicles.", "Calendar year U.S. Chrysler sales %Chg/yr.", "1999 2,638,561 2000 2,522,695 4.4% 2001 2,273,208 9.9% 2002 2,205,446 3% 2003 2,127,451 3.5% 2004 2,206,024 3.7% 2005 2,304,833 4.5% 2006 2,142,505 7% 2007 2,076,650 3.1% 2008 1,453,122 30% 2009 931,402 36% 2010 1,085,211 17% 2011 1,369,114 26% 2012 1,651,787 21% 2013 1,800,368 9% 2014 2,090,639 16% 2015 2,243,907 7%20162,244,315 0.0%20172,059,376 0.8%20182,235,204 8.5%20192,203,663 1.4%20201,820,636 17.4%20211,777,394 2.4%20221,547,076 13.0%20231,527,090 1.3%====\"Imported From Detroit\"====In 2011, Chrysler unveiled their \"Imported From Detroit\" campaign with ads featuring Detroit rapper Eminem, one of which aired during the Super Bowl.", "The campaign highlighted the rejuvenation of the entire product lineup, which included the new, redesigned, and repackaged 2011 model year 200 sedans and 200 convertibles, the Chrysler 300 sedan, and the Chrysler Town & Country minivan.", "As part of the campaign, Chrysler sold a line of clothing items featuring the Monument to Joe Louis, with proceeds being funneled to Detroit-area charities, including the Boys and Girls Clubs of Southeast Michigan, Habitat for Humanity Detroit and the Marshall Mathers Foundation.In March 2011, Chrysler Group LLC filed a lawsuit against Moda Group LLC (owner of Pure Detroit clothing retailer) for copying and selling merchandise with the \"Imported from Detroit\" slogan.", "Chrysler claimed it had notified defendant of its pending trademark application February 14, but the defendant argued Chrysler had not secured a trademark for the \"Imported From Detroit\" phrase.", "On June 18, 2011, U.S. District Judge Arthur Tarnow ruled that Chrysler's request did not show that it would suffer irreparable harm or that it had a strong likelihood of winning its case.", "Therefore, Pure Detroit's owner, Detroit retailer Moda Group LLC, can continue selling its \"Imported from Detroit\" products.", "Tarnow also noted that Chrysler does not have a trademark on \"Imported from Detroit\" and rejected the automaker's argument that trademark law is not applicable to the case.", "In March 2012, Chrysler Group LLC and Pure Detroit agreed to a March 27 mediation to try to settle the lawsuit over the clothing company's use of \"Imported from Detroit\" slogan.", "Pure Detroit stated that Chrysler has made false claims about the origins of three vehicles - Chrysler 200, Chrysler 300 and Chrysler Town & Country - none of which are built in Detroit.", "Pure Detroit also said that Chrysler's Imported From Detroit merchandise is not being made in Detroit.", "In 2012 Chrysler and Pure Detroit came to an undisclosed settlement.Chrysler's Jefferson North Assembly, which makes the Jeep Grand Cherokee and Dodge Durango, is the only car manufacturing plant of any company remaining entirely in Detroit (General Motors operates a plant that is partly in Detroit and partly in Hamtramck).In 2011, Eminem settled a lawsuit against Audi alleging the defendant had ripped off the Chrysler 300 Super Bowl commercial in the Audi A6 Avant ad.====\"Halftime in America\"====Again in 2012, Chrysler advertised during the Super Bowl.", "Its two-minute February 5, 2012 Super Bowl XLVI advertisement was titled \"Halftime in America\".", "The ad drew criticism from several leading U.S. conservatives, who suggested that its messaging implied that President Barack Obama deserved a second term and, as such, was political payback for Obama's support for the federal bailout of the company.", "Asked about the criticism in a ''60 Minutes'' interview with Steve Kroft, Sergio Marchionne responded \"just to rectify the record I paid back the loans at 19.7% Interest.", "I don't think I committed to do to a commercial on top of that\" and characterized the Republican reaction as \"unnecessary and out of place\".====America's Import====In 2014, Chrysler started using a new slogan, \"America's Import\" in ads introducing their all-new 2015 Chrysler 200, targeting foreign automakers from Germany to Japan with such ads (German performance and Japanese quality), and at the ending of selected ads, the advertisement will say, \"We Built This\", indicating being built in America, instead of overseas.====Slogans====* ''Engineered to be Great Cars'' (1998–2001)* ''Drive = Love'' (2002–2004)* ''Inspiration comes standard'' (2004–2007)* ''Engineered Beautifully'' (2007–mid 2010)* ''Imported From Detroit'' (2011–2014)* ''America's Import'' (2014–2016)" ], [ "Product line", "===Chrysler Uconnect===First introduced as MyGig, Chrysler Uconnect is a system that brings interactive ability to the in-car radio and telemetric-like controls to car settings.", "As of mid-2015, it was installed in hundreds of thousands of Fiat Chrysler vehicles.", "It connects to the Internet via the mobile network of AT&T, providing the car with its own IP address.", "Internet connectivity using any Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep or Ram vehicle, via a Wi-Fi \"hot-spot\", is also available via Uconnect Web.", "According to Chrysler LLC, the hotspot range extends approximately from the vehicle in all directions, and combines both Wi-Fi and Sprint's 3G cellular connectivity.", "Uconnect is available on several current and was available on several discontinued Chrysler models including the current Dodge Dart, Chrysler 300, Aspen, Sebring, Town and Country, Dodge Avenger, Caliber, Grand Caravan, Challenger, Charger, Journey, Nitro, and Ram.In July 2015, IT security researchers announced a severe security flaw assumed to affect every Chrysler vehicle with Uconnect produced from late 2013 to early 2015.It allows hackers to gain access to the car over the Internet, and in the case of a Jeep Cherokee was demonstrated to enable an attacker to take control not just of the radio, A/C, and windshield wipers, but also of the car's steering, brakes and transmission.", "Chrysler published a patch that car owners can download and install via a USB stick, or have a car dealer install for them." ], [ "Brands", "Current and former brands of Stellantis North America:=== Current === Origin Brand Estab.", "Added Notes Chrysler 1925 1925 Dodge 1900 1928 Jeep 1943 1987 Mopar 1937 1937 Ram Trucks 2010 2010 Previously Ram Truck Division (of Chrysler).=== Former === Origin Brand Estab.", "Fate American Motors 1954 1987–1988 Defunct, succeeded by the Eagle brand Chrysler Amplex 1932 1932–1988 Sold to ICM Industries Graham Brothers 1916 1928-1929 discontinued and trucks continued under Dodge and Fargo- Passenger car division continued independently as Graham-Paige Chrysler Marine 1927 1927–1980 Discontinued DeSoto 1928 1928–1961 Models consolidated and replaced by Chrysler Newport.", "Eagle 1988 1988–1998 Discontinued Fargo 1913 1913–1972 Discontinued Global Electric Motorcars 1992 1998–2011 Sold to Polaris Industries Imperial 1955 1955–1983 Discontinued Plymouth 1928 1928–2001 Discontinued, all unique/incoming models integrated into Chrysler Line up.", "Valiant 1959 1959–1976 Discontinued Lamborghini 1963 1987–1994 Sold to Mycom / V'Power Corp. Barreiros 1954 1969–1978 Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe Simca 1934 1967–1970 Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe Matra 1964 1970–1979 Joint venture; stake acquired by Peugeot Humber 1887 1967–1976 Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe Commer 1905 1967–1979 Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe Karrier 1908 1967–1979 Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe Hillman 1907 1967–1976 Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe Sunbeam 1905 1967–1976 Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe Singer 1875 1967–1970 Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe;Notes=== Brand predecessors ======= Maxwell-Chalmers ====* Maxwell (1904–1926), US; new models renamed Chrysler and Plymouth* Chalmers (1908–1923) US for luxury cars; merged with Maxwell in 1922====United States Motor Company ====(1908–1913); reorganized and folded into Maxwell* Brush (1907–1913)* Dayton (1905–1913)* Alden-Sampson (1910–1913)* Columbia (1899–1910)* Riker (1897–1907)*Electric Vehicle Company (1899–1907)* Argo* Hackett* Lorraine* Detroit* Thomas (1906–1908)* Sampson (1903-1913)* Stoddard* Courier (1909-1913)* Providence* Gray Marine Motor Company==== Chrysler Corporation ====* Graham Brothers (1916–1929) US; acquired by The Dodge Brothers Company in 1925 with the passenger car division split to form Graham-Paige and folded into Dodge after Chrysler's ownership* Fargo (1913-1935) US, (1920–1972) Canada for trucks and vans; replaced by Plymouth Trucks in the US in 1937 and folded into the Dodge Division after 1972 in Canada====Rootes Group====(1913-1971), UK; minority interest purchased by Chrysler in 1964, progressively taking controlling interest in 1967, renamed Chrysler Europe in 1971* Sunbeam (1901–1976), UK* Humber (1898–1976), UK* Singer (1905–1970), UK* Commer (1905–1979), UK* Hillman (1907–1976), UK* Karrier (1908–1977), UK* Talbot (1903–1958; 1979–1994), UK* Simca (1934–1977), France* Barreiros (1959–1978), Spain====American Motors Corporation====(1954–1988), US; purchased by Chrysler and renamed Jeep-Eagle Division* AMC (Brand), (1967-1987) US; rebranded Eagle* Hudson (1909–1957), US** Aerocar (1905-1908) US; Brand discontinued and Reorganized into Hudson Motors** Essex (1918–1933), US; Folded into the main Hudson line** Terraplane (1932–1938), US* Nash (1917–1957), US** Jeffery (1903-1917), US; line dissolved and renamed Nash in 1915** LaFayette (1919–1940) US; folded into Nash** Ajax (1925–1926), US** Mitchell (1903-1923), US; purchased and renamed Ajax* Rambler (1900–1914 ; 1950–1969), US* Metropolitan (1959–1962), US* AM General US 1970–1983; the former contract division of AMC====Kaiser Motors Corporation====* Kaiser (1946–1955) US for entry level; renamed Willys-Kaiser Motors, then to Kaiser-Jeep Corporation, purchased by AMC in 1970* Frazer (1946–1951) US for entry level luxury; discontinued models incorporated in Kaiser====Graham-Paige====(1927–1947), mid-priced cars; purchased by Henry Kaiser and reorganized into Kaiser-Frazer Motors* Paige-Detroit (1908-1928)** Jewett (1922-1926)====Willys-Overland Motors====(1912-1963) US; acquired by Kaiser Motors, later Kaiser Jeep, then by AMC in 1970* Willys (1908–1955) US; withdrawn from the US market in 1955, used as Jeep Wrangler trim** Overland (1903-1926) US; acquired by Willys Motors in 1912, used as Jeep Wrangler trim** Russell (1904-1916) Canada** Curtiss (1917-1920) US; sold to Clement M. Keys and merged with Wright Aeronautical** Stearns-Knight (1898-1929) US; purchased by Willys in 1925" ], [ "Environmental initiatives", "In 1979, Chrysler, in cooperation with the United States Department of Energy, produced an experimental battery electric vehicle, the Chrysler ETV-1.In 1992, Chrysler developed the Dodge EPIC concept minivan.", "In 1993, Chrysler sold a limited-production electric minivan called the TEVan; only 56 were produced, mostly for electric utilities.", "A second generation, the EPIC (unrelated to the concept), was released in 1997 and discontinued in 1999.Chrysler once owned the Global Electric Motorcars company, building low-speed neighborhood electric vehicles, but sold GEM to Polaris Industries in 2011.In September 2007, Chrysler established ENVI, an in-house organization focused on electric-drive vehicles and related technologies which was disbanded by late 2009.In August 2009, Chrysler took US$70 million in grants from the U.S. Department of Energy to develop a test fleet of 220 hybrid pickup trucks and minivans.The first hybrid models, the Chrysler Aspen hybrid and the Dodge Durango hybrid, were discontinued a few months after production in 2008, sharing their GM-designed hybrid technology with GM, Daimler and BMW.Chrysler was on the Advisory Council of the PHEV Research Center, and undertook a government sponsored demonstration project with Ram and minivan vehicles.In 2012, FCA CEO Sergio Marchionne stated that Chrysler and Fiat planned to focus primarily on alternative fuels, such as compressed natural gas and Diesel, instead of hybrid and electric drivetrains for their consumer products.Fiat Chrysler bought a total of 8.2 million megagrams of U.S. greenhouse gas emission credits from competitors including Toyota, Honda, Tesla and Nissan for the 2010, 2011, 2013, and 2014 model years.", "It had the worst fleet average fuel economy among major manufacturers selling in the US from model years 2012–2022." ], [ "Chrysler Defense", "The dedicated tank building division of Chrysler, this division was founded as the Chrysler Tank division in 1940, originally with the intention of providing another production line for the M2 Medium Tank, so that the U.S. Army could more rapidly build up its inventory of the type.", "Its first plant was the Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant.", "When the M2A1 was unexpectedly declared obsolete in August of the same year, plans were altered (though not without considerable difficulty) to produce the M3 Grant instead, primarily for the British as part of the United States under the counter support for Great Britain against Nazi Germany (the U.S. not yet being formally in the war), with the balance of the revised order going to the U.S. Army as the ''Lee''.", "After December 1941 and the United States' entry into the war against the Axis powers, the Tank division rapidly expanded, with new facilities such as the Tank Arsenal Proving Ground at (then) Utica, Michigan.", "It also quickly widened the range of products it was developing and producing, including the M4 Sherman tank and the Chrysler A57 multibank tank engine." ], [ "Special programs", "During World War II, essentially all of Chrysler's facilities were devoted to building military vehicles (the Jeep brand came later, after Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation).", "They were also designing V12 and V16 hemi-engines producing for airplanes, but they did not make it into production as jets were developed and were seen as the future for air travel.", "During the 1950s Cold War period, Chrysler made air raid sirens powered by its Hemi V-8 engines.===Radar antennas===When the Radiation Laboratory at MIT was established in 1941 to develop microwave radars, one of the first projects resulted in the SCR-584, the most widely recognized radar system of the war era.", "This system included a parabolic antenna six feet in diameter that was mechanically aimed in a helical pattern (round and round as well as up and down).One of Chrysler's most significant contributions to the war effort was in radar technology.", "For the final production design of this antenna and its highly complex drive mechanism, the Army's Signal Corps Laboratories turned to Chrysler's Central Engineering Office.", "There, the parabola was changed from aluminum to steel, allowing production to form using standard automotive presses.", "To keep weight down, 6,000 equally spaced holes were drilled in the face (this had no effect on the radiation pattern).", "The drive mechanism was completely redesigned, using technology derived from Chrysler's research in automotive gears and differentials.", "The changes resulted in improved performance, reduced weight, and easier maintenance.", "A large portion of the Dodge plant was used in building 1,500 of the SCR-584 antennas as well as the vans used in the systems.===Aircraft===* Chrysler VZ-6===Missiles===In April 1950, the U.S. Army established the Ordnance Guided Missile Center (OGMC) at Redstone Arsenal, adjacent to Huntsville, Alabama.", "To form OGMC, over 1,000 civilian and military personnel were transferred from Fort Bliss, Texas.", "Included was a group of German scientists and engineers led by Wernher von Braun; this group had been brought to America under Project Paperclip.", "OGMC designed the Army's first short-range ballistic missile, the PGM-11 Redstone, based on the WWII German V-2 missile.", "Chrysler established the Missile Division to serve as the Redstone prime contractor, setting up an engineering operation in Huntsville and for production obtaining use from the U.S. Navy of a large plant in Sterling Heights, Michigan.", "The Redstone was in active service from 1958 until 1964; it was also the first missile to test-launch a live nuclear weapon, first detonated in a 1958 test in the South Pacific.Working together, the Missile Division and von Braun's team greatly increased the capability of the Redstone, resulting in the PGM-19 Jupiter, a medium-range ballistic missile.", "In May 1959, a Jupiter missile launched two small monkeys into space in a nose cone; this was America's first successful flight and recovery of live space payloads.", "Responsibility for deploying Jupiter missiles was transferred from the Army to the Air Force; armed with nuclear warheads, they were first deployed in Italy and Turkey during the early 1960s.===Space boosters===In July 1959, NASA chose the Redstone missile as the basis for the Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle to be used for suborbital test flights of the Project Mercury spacecraft.", "Three uncrewed MRLV launch attempts were made between November 1960 and March 1961, two of which were successful.", "The MRLV successfully launched the chimpanzee Ham, and astronauts Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom on three suborbital flights in January, May, and July 1961, respectively.America's more ambitious crewed space travel plans included the design of the Saturn series of heavy-lift launch vehicles by a team headed by Wernher von Braun.", "Chrysler's Huntsville operation, then designated the Space Division, became Marshall Space Flight Center's prime contractor for the first stage of the Saturn I and Saturn IB versions.", "The design was based on a cluster of Redstone and Jupiter fuel tanks and Chrysler built it for the Apollo program in the Michoud Assembly Facility in East New Orleans, one of the largest manufacturing plants in the world.", "Between October 1961 and July 1975, NASA used ten Saturn Is and nine Saturn IBs for suborbital and orbital flights, all of which were successful; Chrysler missiles and boosters never suffered a launch failure.", "The division was also a subcontractor which modified one of the mobile launcher platforms for use with the Saturn IB rockets using Saturn V infrastructure." ], [ "See also", "* Carl Breer* Chrysler Building* Chrysler World Headquarters and Technology Center* Chrysler Hemi engine* Chrysler Proving Grounds* Frederick Morrell Zeder* History of Chrysler* Lee Iacocca* List of automobile manufacturers of the United States* List of Chrysler engines* List of Chrysler factories* List of Chrysler platforms* List of Chrysler vehicles* Mopar* Owen Ray Skelton* Virginia Sink* Seida* The Three Musketeers (Studebaker engineers)* Walter P. Chrysler Museum* Maxwell-Chalmers Automobiles* United States Motor Company* American Motors Corporation===Countries===* Chrysler Australia* Chrysler Fevre Argentina - sold to Volkswagen in 1980* FCA Canada* Chrysler Kamyon Turkey - sold to the ASKAM in 2003." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Goolsbee, Austan D., and Alan B. Krueger.", "\"A retrospective look at rescuing and restructuring General Motors and Chrysler.\"", "''Journal of Economic Perspectives'' 29.2 (2015): 3-24.online*" ], [ "External links", "* * Chrysler Scientific Labs and Test Services* Chrysler SEC Filings * Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) documentation, filed under 12200 East Jefferson Avenue, Detroit, Wayne County, MI:** ** ** * \"Chrysler; Once Upon A Time and Now,\", The American Archive of Public Broadcasting" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "City of London" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''City of London''', widely referred to simply as '''the City''', is a city, ceremonial county and local government district that contains the ancient centre, and constitutes, alongside Canary Wharf, the primary central business district (CBD) of London and one of the leading financial centres of the world.", "It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, but the modern area referred to as London has since grown far beyond the City of London boundary.", "The City is now only a small part of the metropolis of Greater London, though it remains a notable part of central London.", "Administratively, the City of London is not one of the London boroughs, a status reserved for the other 32 districts (including Greater London's only other city, the City of Westminster).", "It is also a separate ceremonial county, being an enclave surrounded by Greater London, and is the smallest ceremonial county in England.The City of London is known colloquially as the '''Square Mile''', as it is in area.", "Both the terms ''the City'' and the ''Square Mile'' are often used as metonyms for the UK's trading and financial services industries, which continue a notable history of being largely based in the City.", "The name ''London'' is now ordinarily used for a far wider area than just the City.", "''London'' most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 Greater London boroughs, in addition to the City of London itself.", "The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council, such as being the police authority.", "It is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries.", "The corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London (an office separate from, and much older than, the Mayor of London).", "The Lord Mayor, as of November 2023, is Michael Mainelli.", "The City is made up of 25 wards, with administration at the historic Guildhall.", "Other historic sites include St Paul's Cathedral, Royal Exchange, Mansion House, Old Bailey, and Smithfield Market.", "Although not within the City, the adjacent Tower of London, built to dominate the City, is part of its old defensive perimeter.", "The City has responsibility for five bridges in its capacity as trustee of the Bridge House Estates: Blackfriars Bridge, Millennium Bridge, Southwark Bridge, London Bridge and Tower Bridge.The City is a major business and financial centre, with both the Bank of England and the London Stock Exchange based in the City.", "Throughout the 19th century, the City was the world's primary business centre, and it continues to be a major meeting point for businesses.", "London came second (after New York) in the Global Financial Centres Index, published in 2022.The insurance industry is located in the eastern side of the city, around Lloyd's building.", "Since about the 1980s, a secondary financial district has existed outside the city, at Canary Wharf, to the east.", "The legal profession forms a major component of the northern and western sides of the City, especially in the Temple and Chancery Lane areas where the Inns of Court are located, of which two—Inner Temple and Middle Temple—fall within the City of London boundary.The City has a resident population of 8,583 based on 2021 census figures, but over 500,000 are employed there (as of 2019) and some estimates put the number of workers in the City to be over 1 million.", "About three-quarters of the jobs in the City of London are in the financial, professional, and associated business services sectors." ], [ "History", "=== Origins === The Waterloo Helmet, –50 BC, found in the River ThamesA surviving fragment of the London Wall, built around AD 200, close to Tower HillThe Roman legions established a settlement known as \"Londinium\" on the current site of the City of London around AD 43.Its bridge over the River Thames turned the city into a road nexus and major port, serving as a major commercial centre in Roman Britain until its abandonment during the 5th century.", "Archaeologist Leslie Wallace notes that, because extensive archaeological excavation has not revealed any signs of a significant pre-Roman presence, \"arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial.", "\"At its height, the Roman city had a population of approximately 45,000–60,000 inhabitants.", "Londinium was an ethnically diverse city, with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.", "The Romans built the London Wall some time between AD 190 and 225.The boundaries of the Roman city were similar to those of the City of London today, though the City extends further west than Londinium's Ludgate, and the Thames was undredged and thus wider than it is today, with Londinium's shoreline slightly north of the city's present shoreline.", "The Romans built a bridge across the river, as early as AD 50, near to today's London Bridge.=== Decline ===By the time the London Wall was constructed, the city's fortunes were in decline, and it faced problems of plague and fire.", "The Roman Empire entered a long period of instability and decline, including the Carausian Revolt in Britain.", "In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the city was under attack from Picts, Scots, and Saxon raiders.", "The decline continued, both for Londinium and the Empire, and in AD 410 the Romans withdrew entirely from Britain.", "Many of the Roman public buildings in Londinium by this time had fallen into decay and disuse, and gradually after the formal withdrawal the city became almost (if not, at times, entirely) uninhabited.", "The centre of trade and population moved away from the walled Londinium to Lundenwic (\"London market\"), a settlement to the west, roughly in the modern-day Strand/Aldwych/Covent Garden area.=== Anglo-Saxon restoration ===During the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, the London area came in turn under the Kingdoms of Essex, Mercia, and later Wessex, though from the mid 8th century it was frequently under threat from raids by different groups including the Vikings.Plaque near Southwark Bridge noting the activities around the time of King AlfredBede records that in AD 604 St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht.", "Sæberht's uncle and overlord, Æthelberht, king of Kent, built a church dedicated to St Paul in London, as the seat of the new bishop.", "It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the same site as the later medieval and the present cathedrals.Alfred the Great, King of Wessex occupied and began the resettlement of the old Roman walled area, in 886, and appointed his son-in-law Earl Æthelred of Mercia over it as part of their reconquest of the Viking occupied parts of England.", "The refortified Anglo-Saxon settlement was known as Lundenburh (\"London Fort\", a borough).", "The historian Asser said that \"Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more.\"", "Alfred's \"restoration\" entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building quays along the Thames, and laying a new city street plan.Alfred's taking of London and the rebuilding of the old Roman city was a turning point in history, not only as the permanent establishment of the City of London, but also as part of a unifying moment in early England, with Wessex becoming the dominant English kingdom and the repelling (to some degree) of the Viking occupation and raids.", "While London, and indeed England, were afterwards subjected to further periods of Viking and Danish raids and occupation, the establishment of the City of London and the Kingdom of England prevailed.In the 10th century, Athelstan permitted eight mints to be established, compared with six in his capital, Winchester, indicating the wealth of the city.", "London Bridge, which had fallen into ruin following the Roman evacuation and abandonment of Londinium, was rebuilt by the Saxons, but was periodically destroyed by Viking raids and storms.As the focus of trade and population was moved back to within the old Roman walls, the older Saxon settlement of Lundenwic was largely abandoned and gained the name of ''Ealdwic'' (the \"old settlement\").", "The name survives today as Aldwych (the \"old market-place\"), a name of a street and an area of the City of Westminster between Westminster and the City of London.=== Medieval era ===Map of London in about 1300A pivotal event during the Peasants' Revolt, 1381: their leader Wat Tyler is stabbed by William Walworth, Lord Mayor.Following the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror marched on London, reaching as far as Southwark, but failed to get across London Bridge or defeat the Londoners.", "He eventually crossed the River Thames at Wallingford, pillaging the land as he went.", "Rather than continuing the war, Edgar the Ætheling, Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria surrendered at Berkhamsted.", "William granted the citizens of London a charter in 1075; the city was one of a few examples of the English retaining some authority.", "The city was not covered by the Domesday Book.William built three castles around the city, to keep Londoners subdued:* Tower of London, which is still a major establishment.", "* Baynard's Castle, which no longer exists but gave its name to a city ward.", "* Montfichet's Tower or Castle on Ludgate Hill, which was dismantled and sold off in the 13th century.About 1130, Henry I granted a sheriff to the people of London, along with control of the county of Middlesex: this meant that the two entities were regarded as one administratively for addressing crime and keeping the peace (not that the county was a dependency of the city) until the Local Government Act 1888.By 1141 the whole body of the citizenry was considered to constitute a single community.", "This 'commune' was the origin of the City of London Corporation and the citizens gained the right to appoint, with the king's consent, a mayor in 1189—and to directly elect the mayor from 1215.From medieval times, the city has been composed of 25 ancient wards, each headed by an alderman, who chairs Wardmotes, which still take place at least annually.", "A Folkmoot, for the whole of the City held at the outdoor cross of St Paul's Cathedral, was formerly also held.", "Many of the medieval offices and traditions continue to the present day, demonstrating the unique nature of the City and its Corporation.In 1381, the Peasants' Revolt affected London.", "The rebels took the City and the Tower of London, but the rebellion ended after its leader, Wat Tyler, was killed during a confrontation that included Lord Mayor William Walworth.", "In 1450, rebel forces again occupied the City during Jack Cade's Rebellion before being ousted by London citizens following a bloody battle on London Bridge.", "In 1550, the area south of London Bridge in Southwark came under the control of the City with the establishment of the ward of Bridge Without.", "\"Woodcut\" map of London, dating from the 1560sMap showing the extent of the Great Fire of London, which destroyed nearly 80% of the CityThe 1666 Great Fire as depicted in a 17th-century painting: it depicts Old London Bridge, churches, houses, and the Tower of London as seen from a boat near Tower Wharf.The city was burnt severely on a number of occasions, the worst being in 1123 and in the Great Fire of London in 1666.Both of these fires were referred to as ''the'' Great Fire.", "After the fire of 1666, a number of plans were drawn up to remodel the city and its street pattern into a renaissance-style city with planned urban blocks, squares and boulevards.", "These plans were almost entirely not taken up, and the medieval street pattern re-emerged almost intact.=== Early modern period ===In the 1630s the Crown sought to have the Corporation of the City of London extend its jurisdiction to surrounding areas.", "In what is sometimes called the \"great refusal\", the Corporation said no to the King, which in part accounts for its unique government structure to the present.By the late 16th century, London increasingly became a major centre for banking, international trade and commerce.", "The Royal Exchange was founded in 1565 by Sir Thomas Gresham as a centre of commerce for London's merchants, and gained Royal patronage in 1571.Although no longer used for its original purpose, its location at the corner of Cornhill and Threadneedle Street continues to be the geographical centre of the city's core of banking and financial services, with the Bank of England moving to its present site in 1734, opposite the Royal Exchange.", "Immediately to the south of Cornhill, Lombard Street was the location from 1691 of Lloyd's Coffee House, which became the world-leading insurance market.", "London's insurance sector continues to be based in the area, particularly in Lime Street.In 1708, Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral, was completed on his birthday.", "The first service had been held on 2 December 1697, more than 10 years earlier.", "It replaced the original St Paul's, which had been completely destroyed in the Great Fire of London, and is considered to be one of the finest cathedrals in Britain and a fine example of Baroque architecture.=== Growth of London ===The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of the Industrial Revolution, and London's role at the centre of the evolving British Empire.", "The urban area expanded beyond the borders of the City of London, most notably during this period towards the West End and Westminster.Expansion continued and became more rapid by the beginning of the 19th century, with London growing in all directions.", "To the East the Port of London grew rapidly during the century, with the construction of many docks, needed as the Thames at the City could not cope with the volume of trade.", "The arrival of the railways and the Tube meant that London could expand over a much greater area.", "By the mid-19th century, with London still rapidly expanding in population and area, the City had already become only a small part of the wider metropolis.=== 19th and 20th centuries ===An attempt was made in 1894 with the Royal Commission on the Amalgamation of the City and County of London to end the distinction between the city and the surrounding County of London, but a change of government at Westminster meant the option was not taken up.", "The city as a distinct polity survived despite its position within the London conurbation and numerous local government reforms.", "Supporting this status, the city was a special parliamentary borough that elected four members to the unreformed House of Commons, who were retained after the Reform Act 1832; reduced to two under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885; and ceased to be a separate constituency under the Representation of the People Act 1948.Since then the city is a minority (in terms of population and area) of the Cities of London and Westminster.St Paul's Cathedral (pictured 1896) dominated the skyline of the City for centuries — its current structure by Christopher Wren was completed in 1706, after its medieval predecessor burned with much of the City in the Great Fire of 1666.The city's population fell rapidly in the 19th century and through most of the 20th century, as people moved outwards in all directions to London's vast suburbs, and many residential buildings were demolished to make way for office blocks.", "Like many areas of London and other British cities, the City fell victim to large scale and highly destructive aerial bombing during World War II, especially in the Blitz.", "Whilst St Paul's Cathedral survived the onslaught, large swathes of the area did not and the particularly heavy raids of late December 1940 led to a firestorm called the Second Great Fire of London.There was a major rebuilding programme in the decades following the war, in some parts (such as at the Barbican) dramatically altering the urban landscape.", "But the destruction of the older historic fabric allowed the construction of modern and larger-scale developments, whereas in those parts not so badly affected by bomb damage the City retains its older character of smaller buildings.", "The street pattern, which is still largely medieval, was altered slightly in places, although there is a more recent trend of reversing some of the post-war modernist changes made, such as at Paternoster Square.The City suffered terrorist attacks including the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing (IRA) and the 7 July 2005 London bombings (Islamist).", "In response to the 1993 bombing, a system of road barriers, checkpoints and surveillance cameras referred to as the \"ring of steel\" has been maintained to control entry points to the city.The 1970s saw the construction of tall office buildings including the 600-foot (183 m), 47-storey NatWest Tower, the first skyscraper in the UK.", "By the 2010s, office space development had intensified in the City, especially in the central, northern and eastern parts, with skyscrapers including 30 St. Mary Axe (\"the Gherkin\"'), Leadenhall Building (\"the Cheesegrater\"), 20 Fenchurch Street (\"the Walkie-Talkie\"), the Broadgate Tower, the Heron Tower and 22 Bishopsgate.The main residential section of the City today is the Barbican Estate, constructed between 1965 and 1976.The Museum of London was based there until March 2023 (due to reopen in West Smithfield in 2026), whilst a number of other services provided by the corporation are still maintained on the Barbican Estate." ], [ "Governance", "Guildhall is the ceremonial and administrative centre of the city.Mansion House is the official residence of the Lord Mayor.John Stuttard, Lord Mayor of the City of London 2006–2007, during the Lord Mayor's Show of 2006The city has a unique political status, a legacy of its uninterrupted integrity as a corporate city since the Anglo-Saxon period and its singular relationship with the Crown.", "Historically its system of government was not unusual, but it was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 and little changed by later reforms, so that it is the only local government in the UK where elections are not run on the basis of one vote for every adult citizen.It is administered by the City of London Corporation, headed by the Lord Mayor of London (not to be confused with the separate Mayor of London, an office created only in the year 2000), which is responsible for a number of functions and has interests in land beyond the city's boundaries.", "Unlike other English local authorities, the corporation has two council bodies: the (now largely ceremonial) Court of Aldermen and the Court of Common Council.", "The Court of Aldermen represents the wards, with each ward (irrespective of size) returning one alderman.", "The chief executive of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London.The city is a ceremonial county which has a Commission of Lieutenancy headed by the Lord Mayor instead of a Lord-Lieutenant and has two Sheriffs instead of a High Sheriff (see list of Sheriffs of London), quasi-judicial offices appointed by the livery companies, an ancient political system based on the representation and protection of trades (guilds).", "Senior members of the livery companies are known as liverymen and form the Common Hall, which chooses the lord mayor, the sheriffs and certain other officers.=== Wards ===The city is made up of 25 wards.", "They are survivors of the medieval government system that allowed a very local area to exist as a self-governing unit within the wider city.", "They can be described as electoral/political divisions; ceremonial, geographic and administrative entities; sub-divisions of the city.", "Each ward has an Alderman, who until the mid-1960s held office for life but since put themselves up for re-election at least every 6 years, and are the only directly elected Aldermen in the United Kingdom.", "Wards continue to have a Beadle, an ancient position which is now largely ceremonial whose main remaining function is the running of an annual Wardmote of electors, representatives and officials.", "At the Wardmote the ward's Alderman appoints at least one Deputy for the year ahead, and Wardmotes are also held during elections.", "Each ward also has a Ward Club, which is similar to a residents' association.The wards are ancient and their number has changed three times since time immemorial:*in 1394 Farringdon was divided into Farringdon Within and Farringdon Without*in 1550 the ward of Bridge Without, south of the river, was created, the ward of Bridge becoming Bridge Within;*in 1978 these Bridge wards were merged as Bridge ward.A map of the wards as they were in the late 19th centuryA map of the wards since 2003Following boundary changes in 1994, and later reform of the business vote in the city, there was a major boundary and electoral representation revision of the wards in 2003, and they were reviewed again in 2010 for change in 2013, though not to such a dramatic extent.", "The review was conducted by senior officers of the corporation and senior judges of the Old Bailey; the wards are reviewed by this process to avoid malapportionment.", "The procedure of review is unique in the United Kingdom as it is not conducted by the Electoral Commission or a local government boundary commission every 8 to 12 years, which is the case for all other wards in Great Britain.", "Particular churches, livery company halls and other historic buildings and structures are associated with a ward, such as St Paul's Cathedral with Castle Baynard, and London Bridge with Bridge; boundary changes in 2003 removed some of these historic connections.Each ward elects an alderman to the Court of Aldermen, and commoners (the City equivalent of a councillor) to the Court of Common Council of the corporation.", "Only electors who are Freemen of the City of London are eligible to stand.", "The number of commoners a ward sends to the Common Council varies from two to ten, depending on the number of electors in each ward.", "Since the 2003 review it has been agreed that the four more residential wards: Portsoken, Queenhithe, Aldersgate and Cripplegate together elect 20 of the 100 commoners, whereas the business-dominated remainder elect the remaining 80 commoners.", "2003 and 2013 boundary changes have increased the residential emphasis of the mentioned four wards.Census data provides eight nominal rather than 25 real wards, all of varying size and population.", "Being subject to renaming and definition at any time, these census 'wards' are notable in that four of the eight wards accounted for 67% of the 'square mile' and held 86% of the population, and these were in fact similar to and named after four City of London wards:+ Extract of census 'wards' where approximate to underlying legal wardsCensus ward% of the Cityof LondonResidents% of built-upon landCommercialResidentialCripplegate (east half of Barbican neighbourhood)10.0%\t2,782\t\t79%\t21%Aldersgate (west half of Barbican neighbourhood)4.5%\t1,465\t\t81%\t19%Farringdon Without (and much of Castle Baynard)22.1%1,099\t\t90%\t10%Portsoken (contains Aldgate Underground station)6.6%98586%14%=== Elections ===The city has a unique electoral system.", "Most of its voters are representatives of businesses and other bodies that occupy premises in the city.", "Its ancient wards have very unequal numbers of voters.", "In elections, both the businesses based in the city and the residents of the City vote.The City of London Corporation was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, because it had a more extensive electoral franchise than any other borough or city; in fact, it widened this further with its own equivalent legislation allowing one to become a freeman without being a liveryman.", "In 1801, the city had a population of about 130,000, but increasing development of the city as a central business district led to this falling to below 5,000 after the Second World War.", "It has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate.", "In 2009, the business vote was about 24,000, greatly exceeding residential voters.", "As the City of London Corporation has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, its electoral practice has become increasingly anomalous.", "Uniquely for city or borough elections, its elections remain independent-dominated.The business or \"non-residential vote\" was abolished in other UK local council elections by the Representation of the People Act 1969, but was preserved in the City of London.", "The principal reason given by successive UK governments for retaining this mechanism for giving businesses representation, is that the city is \"primarily a place for doing business\".", "About 330,000 non-residents constitute the day-time population and use most of its services, far outnumbering residents, who number around 7,000 (2011).", "By contrast, opponents of the retention of the business vote argue that it is a cause of institutional inertia.The City of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002, a private Act of Parliament, reformed the voting system and greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented.", "Under the new system, the number of non-resident voters has doubled from 16,000 to 32,000.Previously disenfranchised firms (and other organisations) are entitled to nominate voters, in addition to those already represented, and all such bodies are now required to choose their voters in a representative fashion.", "Bodies employing fewer than 10 people may appoint 1 voter; those employing 10 to 50 people 1 voter for every 5 employees; those employing more than 50 people 10 voters and 1 additional voter for each 50 employees beyond the first 50.The Act also removed other anomalies which had been unchanged since the 1850s.=== The Temple ===Inner Temple and Middle Temple (which neighbour each other) in the western ward of Farringdon Without are within the boundaries and liberties of the City, but can be thought of as independent enclaves.", "They are two of the few remaining liberties, an old name for a geographic division with special rights.", "They are extra-parochial areas, historically not governed by the City of London Corporation (and are today regarded as local authorities for most purposes) and equally outside the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishop of London.=== Other functions ===Leadenhall Market is a historic market nestled between Gracechurch Street and Lime Street.Within the city, the Corporation owns and runs both Smithfield Market and Leadenhall Market.", "It owns land beyond its boundaries, including open spaces (parks, forests and commons) in and around Greater London, including most of Epping Forest and Hampstead Heath.", "The Corporation owns Old Spitalfields Market and Billingsgate Fish Market, in the neighbouring London Borough of Tower Hamlets.", "It owns and helps fund the Old Bailey, the Central Criminal Court for England and Wales, as a gift to the nation, having begun as the City and Middlesex Sessions.", "The Honourable The Irish Society, a body closely linked with the corporation, also owns many public spaces in Northern Ireland.The city has its own independent police force, the City of London Police—the Common Council (the main body of the corporation) is the police authority.", "The corporation also run the Hampstead Heath Constabulary, Epping Forest Keepers and the City of London market constabularies (whose members are no longer attested as constables but retain the historic title).", "The majority of Greater London is policed by the Metropolitan Police Service, based at New Scotland Yard.The city has one hospital, St Bartholomew's Hospital, also known as 'Barts'.", "Founded in 1123, it is located at Smithfield, and is undergoing a long-awaited regeneration after doubts as to its continuing use during the 1990s.The city is the third largest UK patron of the arts.", "It oversees the Barbican Centre and subsidises several important performing arts companies.The London Port Health Authority, which is the responsibility of the corporation, is responsible for all port health functions on the tidal part of the Thames, including various seaports and London City Airport.", "The Corporation oversees the Bridge House Estates, which maintains Blackfriars Bridge, Millennium Bridge, Southwark Bridge, London Bridge and Tower Bridge.", "The City's flag flies over Tower Bridge, although neither footing is in the city.=== The boundary of the City ===City of London boundary markerThe size of the city was constrained by a defensive perimeter wall, known as London Wall, which was built by the Romans in the late 2nd century to protect their strategic port city.", "However the boundaries of the City of London no longer coincide with the old city wall, as the City expanded its jurisdiction slightly over time.", "During the medieval era, the city's jurisdiction expanded westwards, crossing the historic western border of the original settlement—the River Fleet—along Fleet Street to Temple Bar.", "The city also took in the other \"City bars\" which were situated just beyond the old walled area, such as at Holborn, Aldersgate, West Smithfield, Bishopsgate and Aldgate.", "These were the important entrances to the city and their control was vital in maintaining the city's special privileges over certain trades.Temple Bar monument, which marks the boundary between the City of London and City of WestminsterMost of the wall has disappeared, but several sections remain visible.", "A section near the Museum of London was revealed after the devastation of an air raid on 29 December 1940 at the height of the Blitz.", "Other visible sections are at St Alphage, and there are two sections near the Tower of London.", "The River Fleet was canalised after the Great Fire of 1666 and then in stages was bricked up and has been since the 18th century one of London's \"lost rivers or streams\", today underground as a storm drain.The boundary of the city was unchanged until minor boundary changes on 1 April 1994, when it expanded slightly to the west, north and east, taking small parcels of land from the London Boroughs of Westminster, Camden, Islington, Hackney and Tower Hamlets.", "The main purpose of these changes was to tidy up the boundary where it had been rendered obsolete by changes in the urban landscape.", "In this process the city also lost small parcels of land, though there was an overall net gain (the City grew from 1.05 to 1.12 square miles).", "Most notably, the changes placed the (then recently developed) Broadgate estate entirely in the city.Southwark, to the south of the city on the other side of the Thames, was within the City between 1550 and 1899 as the Ward of Bridge Without, a situation connected with the Guildable Manor.", "The city's administrative responsibility there had in practice disappeared by the mid-Victorian period as various aspects of metropolitan government were extended into the neighbouring areas.", "Today it is part of the London Borough of Southwark.", "The Tower of London has always been outside the city and comes under the London Borough of Tower Hamlets.=== Arms, motto and flag ===City of London arms on a saddle blanket, as seen outside the Royal Courts of Justice during the Lord Mayor's Show, 2011The Corporation of the City of London has a full achievement of armorial bearings consisting of a shield on which the arms are displayed, a crest displayed on a helm above the shield, supporters on either side and a motto displayed on a scroll beneath the arms.The coat of arms is \"anciently recorded\" at the College of Arms.", "The arms consist of a silver shield bearing a red cross with a red upright sword in the first quarter.", "They combine the emblems of the patron saints of England and London: the Cross of St George with the symbol of the martyrdom of Saint Paul.", "The sword is often erroneously supposed to commemorate the killing of Peasants' Revolt leader Wat Tyler by Lord Mayor of London William Walworth.", "However the arms were in use some months before Tyler's death, and the tradition that Walworth's dagger is depicted may date from the late 17th century.The Latin motto of the city is \"''Domine dirige nos''\", which translates as \"Lord, direct us\".", "It is thought to have been adopted in the 17th century, as the earliest record of it is in 1633.A banner of the arms (the design on the shield) is flown as a flag." ], [ "Geography", "The City of London is the smallest ceremonial county of England by area and population, and the fourth most densely populated.", "Of the 326 English districts, it is the second smallest by population, after the Isles of Scilly, and the smallest by area.", "It is also the smallest English city by population (and in Britain, only two cities in Wales are smaller), and the smallest in the UK by area.The elevation of the City ranges from sea level at the Thames to at the junction of High Holborn and Chancery Lane.", "Two small but notable hills are within the historic core, Ludgate Hill to the west and Cornhill to the east.", "Between them ran the Walbrook, one of the many \"lost\" rivers or streams of London (another is the Fleet).=== Boundary ===Modern borders of the City of London, showing surrounding London boroughs and the pre-1994 boundary (where changed) in red.", "The area covered by the Inner and Middle Temple is marked in green.Beginning in the west, where the City borders Westminster, the boundary crosses the Victoria Embankment from the Thames, passes to the west of Middle Temple, then turns for a short distance along Strand and near Temple Bar then north up Chancery Lane, where it borders Camden.", "It turns east along Holborn to Holborn Circus and then goes northeast to Charterhouse Street.", "As it crosses Farringdon Road it becomes the boundary with Islington.", "It continues to Aldersgate, goes north, and turns east into some back streets soon after Aldersgate becomes Goswell Road, since 1994 embracing all of the corporation's Golden Lane Estate.", "Here, at Baltic Street West, is the most northerly extent.", "The boundary includes all of the Barbican Estate and continues east along Ropemaker Street and its continuation on the other side of Moorgate, becomes South Place.", "It goes north, reaching the border with Hackney, then east, north, east on back streets, with Worship Street forming a northern boundary, so as to include the Broadgate estate.", "The boundary then turns south at Norton Folgate and becomes the border with Tower Hamlets.", "It continues south into Bishopsgate, and takes some backstreets to Middlesex Street (Petticoat Lane) where it continues south-east then south.", "It then turns south-west, crossing the Minories so as to exclude the Tower of London, and then reaches the river.", "It then runs up the centre of the Thames, with the exception that Blackfriars Bridge falls within the city; the City controls London Bridge (as part of Bridge ward) but only half of the river underneath it.The boundaries are marked by black bollards bearing the city's emblem, and by dragon boundary marks at major entrances, such as Holborn.", "A more substantial monument marks the boundary at Temple Bar on Fleet Street.In some places, the financial district extends slightly beyond the boundaries, notably to the north and east, into the London boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Islington, and informally these locations are seen as part of the \"Square Mile\".", "Since the 1990s the eastern fringe, extending into Hackney and Tower Hamlets, has increasingly been a focus for large office developments due to the availability of large sites compared to within the city.=== Gardens and public art ===Finsbury Circus, the largest public open space, seen from Tower 42The city has no sizeable parks within its boundary, but does have a network of a large number of gardens and small open spaces, many of them maintained by the corporation.", "These range from formal gardens such as the one in Finsbury Circus, containing a bowling green and bandstand, to churchyards such as St Olave Hart Street, to water features and artwork in courtyards and pedestrianised lanes.Gardens include:* Barber-Surgeon's Hall Garden, London Wall* Cleary Garden, Queen Victoria Street* Finsbury Circus, Blomfield Street/London Wall/Moorgate* Jubilee Garden, Houndsditch* Portsoken Street Garden, Portsoken Street/Goodman's Yard* Postman's Park, Little Britain* Seething Lane Garden, Seething Lane* St Dunstan-in-the-East, St Dunstan's Hill* St Mary Aldermanbury, Aldermanbury* St Olave Hart Street churchyard, Seething Lane* St Paul's churchyard, St Paul's Cathedral* West Smithfield Garden, West Smithfield* Whittington Gardens, College StreetThere are a number of private gardens and open spaces, often within courtyards of the larger commercial developments.", "Two of the largest are those of the Inner Temple and Middle Temple Inns of Court, in the far southwest.The Thames and its riverside walks are increasingly being valued as open space and in recent years efforts have been made to increase the ability for pedestrians to access and walk along the river.=== Climate ===The nearest weather station has historically been the London Weather Centre at Kingsway/ Holborn, although observations ceased in 2010.Now St. James Park provides the nearest official readings.The city has an oceanic climate (Köppen \"Cfb\") modified by the urban heat island in the centre of London.", "This generally causes higher night-time minima than outlying areas.", "For example, the August mean minimum of compares to a figure of for Greenwich and Heathrow whereas is at Wisley in the middle of several square miles of Metropolitan Green Belt.", "All figures refer to the observation period 1971–2000.Accordingly, the weather station holds the record for the UK's warmest overnight minimum temperature, , recorded on 4 August 1990.The maximum is , set on 10 August 2003.The absolute minimum for the weather station is a mere , compared to readings around towards the edges of London.", "Unusually, this temperature was during a windy and snowy cold spell (mid-January 1987), rather than a cold clear night—cold air drainage is arrested due to the vast urban area surrounding the city.The station holds the record for the highest British mean monthly temperature, (mean maximum , mean minimum during July 2006).", "However, in terms of daytime maximum temperatures, Cambridge NIAB and Botanical Gardens with a mean maximum of , and Heathrow with all exceeded this." ], [ "Public services", "City of London coat of arms on the street=== Police and security ===A City of London Police vehicle on Blackfriars BridgeThe city is a police area and has its own police force, the City of London Police, separate from the Metropolitan Police Service covering the majority of Greater London.", "The City Police previously had three police stations, at Snow Hill, Wood Street and Bishopsgate.", "They now only retain Bishopsgate along with an administrative headquarters at Guildhall Yard East.", "The force comprises 735 police officers including 273 detectives.", "It is the smallest territorial police force in England and Wales, in both geographic area and the number of police officers.Where the majority of British police forces have silver-coloured badges, those of the City of London Police are black and gold featuring the City crest.", "The force has rare red and white chequered cap bands and unique red and white striped duty arm bands on the sleeves of the tunics of constables and sergeants (red and white being the colours of the city), which in most other British police forces are black and white.", "City police sergeants and constables wear crested custodian helmets whilst on foot patrol.", "These helmets do not feature either St Edward's Crown or the Brunswick Star, which are used on most other police helmets in England and Wales.The city's position as the United Kingdom's financial centre and a critical part of the country's economy, contributing about 2.5% of the UK's gross national product, has resulted in it becoming a target for political violence.", "The Provisional IRA exploded several bombs in the early 1990s, including the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing.The area is also spoken of as a possible target for al-Qaeda.", "For instance, when in May 2004 the BBC's ''Panorama'' programme examined the preparedness of Britain's emergency services for a terrorist attack on the scale of the 11 September 2001 attacks, they simulated a chemical explosion on Bishopsgate in the east of the city.", "The \"Ring of Steel\" was established in the wake of the IRA bombings to guard against terrorist threats.=== Fire brigade ===The city has fire risks in many historic buildings, including St Paul's Cathedral, Old Bailey, Mansion House, Smithfield Market, the Guildhall, and also in numerous high-rise buildings.", "There is one London Fire Brigade station in the city, at Dowgate, with one pumping appliance.", "The City relies upon stations in the surrounding London boroughs to support it at some incidents.", "The first fire engine is in attendance in roughly five minutes on average, the second when required in a little over five and a half minutes.", "There were 1,814 incidents attended in the City in 2006/2007—the lowest in Greater London.", "No-one died in an event arising from a fire in the four years prior to 2007.===Power===There is power station located in Charterhouse Street that also provides heat to some of the surrounding buildings." ], [ "Demography", "Population pyramid of the City of London in 2021The Office for National Statistics recorded the population in 2011 as 7,375; slightly higher than in the previous census, 2001, and estimates the population as at mid-2016 to be 9,401.At the 2001 census the ethnic composition was 84.6% White, 6.8% South Asian, 2.6% Black, 2.3% Mixed, 2.0% Chinese and 1.7% were listed as \"other\".", "To the right is a table showing the change in population since 1801, based on decadal censuses.", "The first half of the 19th century shows a population of between 120,000 and 140,000, decreasing dramatically from 1851 to 1991, with a small increase between 1991 and 2001.The only notable boundary change since the first census in 1801 occurred in 1994.The city's full-time working residents have much higher gross weekly pay than in London and Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland): £773.30 compared to £598.60 and £491.00 respectively.", "There is a large inequality of income between genders (£1,085.90 in men compared to £653.50 in women), though this can be explained by job type and length of employment respectively.", "The 2001 Census showed the city as a unique district amongst 376 districts surveyed in England and Wales.", "The city had the highest proportional population increase, one-person households, people with qualifications at degree level or higher and the highest indications of overcrowding.", "It recorded the lowest proportion of households with cars or vans, people who travel to work by car, married couple households and the lowest average household size: just 1.58 people.", "It also ranked highest within the Greater London area for the percentage of people with no religion and people who are employed.===Ethnicity===Ethnic GroupYear1981 estimations1991200120112021Number%Number%Number%Number%Number% White: Total 3,73295.5%3,84092.7% 6,075 84.6% 5,799 78.5%5,95569.4% White: British–––– 4,909 68.3% 4,243 57.5%3,64942.5% White: Irish–––– 241 % 180 2.4%1852.2% White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller–––– 3 0.0%00.0% White: Roma––590.7% White: Other–––– 925 12.8% 1,373 18.6%2,06224.0% Asian or Asian British: Total ––2175.2% 638 8.9% 940 12.5%1,44516.7% Asian or Asian British: Indian––691.7% 159 2.2 % 216 2.9%3213.7% Asian or Asian British: Pakistani––200.5% 23 0.3 % 16 0.2%330.4% Asian or Asian British: Bangladeshi––9– 276 3.8 % 232 3.1%2873.3% Asian or Asian British: Chinese––561.3% 147 2 % 263 3.5%5456.3% Asian or Asian British: Other Asian ––631.5% 33 % 213 2.8%2593.0% Black or Black British: Total ––380.9% 184 2.6% 193 2.5%2322.7% Black or Black British: African––120.3% 117 1.6 % 98 1.3%1531.8% Black or Black British: Caribbean––120.3% 51 % 46 0.6%540.6% Black or Black British: Other Black––140.3% 16 % 49 0.6%250.3% Mixed or British Mixed: Total –––– 163 2.3% 289 3.8%4705.5% Mixed: White and Black Caribbean –––– 33 % 38 0.5%530.6% Mixed: White and Black African –––– 16 % 37 0.5%490.6% Mixed: White and Asian –––– 57 % 111 1.5%1792.1% Mixed: Other Mixed –––– 57 % 103 1.3%1892.2% Other: Total ––471.1% 125 1.7% 154 2%4825.6% Other: Arab–––– 69 0.9%1141.3% Other: Any other ethnic group ––471.1% 125 1.7 % 85 1.1%3684.3% Ethnic minority: Total 1774.5%3027.3% 1,110 15.4% 1,576 21.5%2,62930.6% Total 3,909100%4,142100% 7,185 100% 7,375 100%8584100%" ], [ "Economy", "The Bank of England, on Threadneedle Street, is the central bank of the United Kingdom.The City of London vies with New York City's Downtown Manhattan as the financial capital of the world.", "The London Stock Exchange (shares and bonds), Lloyd's of London (insurance) and the Bank of England are all based in the city.", "Over 500 banks have offices in the city.", "The Alternative Investment Market, a market for trades in equities of smaller firms, is a recent development.", "In 2009, the City of London accounted for 2.4% of UK GDP.London's foreign exchange market has been described by Reuters as 'the crown jewel of London's financial sector'.", "Of the $3.98 trillion daily global turnover, as measured in 2009, trading in London accounted for around $1.85 trillion, or 46.7% of the total.", "The pound sterling, the currency of the United Kingdom, is globally the fourth-most traded currency and the fourth most held reserve currency.Canary Wharf, a few miles east of the City in Tower Hamlets, which houses many banks and other institutions formerly located in the Square Mile, has since 1991 become another centre for London's financial services industry.", "Although growth has continued in both locations, and there have been relocations in both directions, the Corporation has come to realise that its planning policies may have been causing financial firms to choose Canary Wharf as a location.In 2022, 12.3% of City of London residents had been granted non-domicile status in order to avoid their paying tax in the UK.=== Headquarters ===Paternoster Square, since 2004 the home of the London Stock ExchangeMany major global companies have their headquarters in the city, including Aviva, BT Group, Lloyds Banking Group, Quilter, Prudential, Schroders, Standard Chartered, and Unilever.A number of the world's largest law firms are headquartered in the city, including four of the \"Magic Circle\" law firms (Allen & Overy, Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, Linklaters and Slaughter & May), as well as other firms such as Ashurst LLP, DLA Piper, Eversheds Sutherland, Herbert Smith Freehills and Hogan Lovells.=== Other sectors ===Barbican CentreWhilst the financial sector, and related businesses and institutions, continue to dominate, the economy is not limited to that sector.", "The legal profession has a strong presence, especially in the west and north (i.e., towards the Inns of Court).", "Retail businesses were once important, but have gradually moved to the West End of London, though it is now Corporation policy to encourage retailing in some locations, for example at Cheapside near St Paul's.", "The city has a number of visitor attractions, mainly based on its historic heritage as well as the Barbican Centre and adjacent Museum of London, though tourism is not at present a major contributor to the city's economy or character.", "The city has many pubs, bars and restaurants, and the \"night-time\" economy does feature in the Bishopsgate area, towards Shoreditch.", "The meat market at Smithfield, wholly within the city, continues to be one of London's main markets (the only one remaining in central London) and the country's largest meat market.", "In the east is Leadenhall Market, a fresh food market that is also a visitor attraction.=== Retail and residential ===The trend for purely office development is beginning to reverse as the Corporation encourages residential use, albeit with development occurring when it arises on windfall sites.", "The city has a target of 90 additional dwellings per year.", "Some of the extra accommodation is in small pre-World War II listed buildings, which are not suitable for occupation by the large companies which now provide much of the city's employment.", "Recent residential developments include \"the Heron\", a high-rise residential building on the Milton Court site adjacent to the Barbican, and the Heron Plaza development on Bishopsgate is also expected to include residential parts.Since the 1990s, the City has diversified away from near exclusive office use in other ways.", "For example, several hotels and the first department store opened in the 2000s.", "A shopping centre was more recently opened at One New Change, Cheapside (near St Paul's Cathedral) in October 2010, which is open seven days a week.", "However, large sections remain quiet at weekends, especially in the eastern section, and it is quite common to find shops, pubs and cafes closed on these days." ], [ "Landmarks", "=== Historic buildings ===Fire, bombing and post-World War II redevelopment have meant that the city, despite its history, has fewer intact historic structures than one might expect.", "Nonetheless, there remain many dozens of (mostly Victorian and Edwardian) fine buildings, typically in historicist and neoclassical style.", "They include the Monument to the Great Fire of London (\"the Monument\"), St Paul's Cathedral, the Guildhall, the Royal Exchange, Dr. Johnson's House, Mansion House and a great many churches, many designed by Sir Christopher Wren, who also designed St Paul's.", "Prince Henry's Room and 2 King's Bench Walk are notable historic survivors of heavy bombing of the Temple area, which has largely been rebuilt to its historic form.", "Another example of a bomb-damaged place having been restored is Staple Inn on Holborn.", "A few small sections of the Roman London Wall exist, for example near the Tower of London and in the Barbican area.", "Among the twentieth-century listed buildings are Bracken House, the first post World War II buildings in the country to be given statutory protection, and the whole of the Barbican and Golden Lane Estate.The Tower of London is not in the city, but is a notable visitor attraction which brings tourists to the southeast of the city.", "Other landmark buildings with historical significance include the Bank of England, the Old Bailey, the Custom House, Smithfield Market, Leadenhall Market and St Bartholomew's Hospital.", "Noteworthy contemporary buildings include a number of modern high-rise buildings (see section below) as well as the Lloyd's building.The Bank of England (left) and the Royal Exchange (centre) are two of the many significant buildings in the City of London.=== Skyscrapers and tall buildings ===The City skyline in 2021, including 20 Fenchurch Street, the Leadenhall Building, 30 St Mary Axe & 22 Bishopgate, the tallest building in the City of London.", "London Bridge to the bottom left.", ";CompletedA growing number of tall buildings and skyscrapers are principally used by the financial sector.", "Almost all are situated in the eastern side around Bishopsgate, Leadenhall Street and Fenchurch Street, in the financial core of the city.", "In the north there is a smaller cluster comprising the Barbican Estate's three tall residential towers and the commercial CityPoint tower.", "In 2007, the tall Drapers' Gardens building was demolished and replaced by a shorter tower.The city's buildings of at least in height are:RankNameCompletedImageArchitectUseHeight to roofFloorsLocationmetres feet 1 Twentytwo 2020 168x168px PLP Architects Office 278 912 62 22 Bishopsgate 2 Heron Tower 2010 120x120px Kohn Pedersen Fox Office 230 754 46 110 Bishopsgate 3 Leadenhall Building 2014 136x136px Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners Office 225 737 48 122 Leadenhall Street 4 8 Bishopsgate 2022 136x136px WilkinsonEyre Office 204 669 51 8 Bishopsgate 5 The Scalpel 2018 107x107px Kohn Pedersen Fox Office 190 630 39 52 Lime Street 6 Tower 42 1980 160x160px R Siefert & Partners Office 183 600 47 25 Old Broad Street 7 30 St Mary Axe 2003 110x110px Foster and Partners Office 180 590 40 30 St Mary Axe 8 100 Bishopsgate 2019 141x141px Allies and Morrison Office 172 563 40 100 Bishopsgate 9 Broadgate Tower 2008 128x128px Skidmore, Owings & Merrill Office 164 538 35 201 Bishopsgate 10 20 Fenchurch Street 2014 120x120px Rafael Viñoly Office 160 525 37 20 Fenchurch Street 11 40 Leadenhall Street 2022 120x120px Make Architects Office 154 505 34 40 Leadenhall Street 12 One Bishopsgate Plaza 2020 120x120px MSMR Hotel 135 443 44 150 Bishopsgate 13 CityPoint 1967 106x106px F. Milton Cashmore and H. N. W. Grosvenor Office 127 417 36 1 Ropemaker Street 14 Willis Building 2007 163x163px Foster and Partners Office 125 410 26 51 Lime Street =15 Cromwell Tower 1973 133x133px Chamberlin, Powell and Bon Residential 123 404 42 Barbican Estate =15 Lauderdale Tower 1974 131x131px Chamberlin, Powell and Bon Residential 123 404 42 Barbican Estate =15 Shakespeare Tower 1976 120x120px Chamberlin, Powell and Bon Residential 123 404 42 Barbican Estate 18 St. Helen's 1969 80x80px GMW Architects Office 118 387 28 1 Undershaft 19 The Heron 2013 107x107px David Walker Architects Residential 112 367 35 Milton Court 20 St Paul's Cathedral 1710 80x80px Sir Christopher Wren Cathedral 111 365 n/a Ludgate Hill 21 Chapter Spitalfields 2009 119x119px TB Bennetts Student 105 344 34 100 Middlesex Street 22 99 Bishopsgate 1976 106x106px GMW Architects Office 104 340 26 99 Bishopsgate 23 One Angel Court 2017 116x116px Fletcher Priest Office 101 331 24 1 Angel Court 24 Stock Exchange Tower 1970 107x107px Richard Llewelyn-Davies, Baron Llewelyn-Davies, Weeks, Forestier-Walker and Bar Office 100 328 27 125 Old Broad Street;TimelineThe timeline of the tallest building in the city is as follows:NameYears as tallestHeight to roof (m)Height to roof (ft)Floors Twentytwo 2019–present 278 912 62 Heron Tower 2010–2019 230 754 46 Tower 42 1980–2010 183 600 47 CityPoint 1967–1980 122 400 35 St Paul's Cathedral 1710–1967 111 365 n/a St Mary-le-Bow 1683–1710 72 236 n/a Monument to the Great Fire of London 1677–1683 62 202 n/a Old St Paul's Cathedral 1310–1677 150 493 n/a" ], [ "Transport", "London Underground roundel (flanked by City dragons) at Bank station|283x283px=== Rail and Tube ===The city is well served by the London Underground (\"tube\") and National Rail networks.Seven London Underground lines serve the city:* Aldgate * Bank and Monument * Barbican * Blackfriars * Cannon Street * Liverpool Street * Mansion House * Moorgate * St. Paul's Aldgate East ( ), Chancery Lane (), Farringdon ( ), Temple ( ) and Tower Hill ( ) tube stations are all situated within metres of the City of London boundary.DLR trains link the City directly to Canary Wharf.The Docklands Light Railway (DLR ) has two termini in the city: Bank and Tower Gateway.", "The DLR links the City directly to the East End.", "Destinations include Canary Wharf and London City Airport.The Elizabeth line (constructed by the Crossrail project) runs east–west underneath the City of London.", "The line serves two stations in the City – Farringdon and Liverpool Street – which additionally serves the Barbican and Moorgate areas.", "Elizabeth line services link the City directly to destinations such as Canary Wharf, Heathrow Airport, and the M4 Corridor high-technology hub (serving Slough and Reading).The city is served by a frequent Thameslink rail service which runs north–south through London.", "Thameslink services call at Farringdon, City Thameslink, and London Blackfriars.", "This provides the city with a direct link to key destinations across London, including Elephant & Castle, London Bridge, and St Pancras International (for the Eurostar to mainland Europe).", "There are also regular, direct trains from these stations to major destinations across East Anglia and the South East, including Bedford, Brighton, Cambridge, Gatwick Airport, Luton Airport, and Peterborough.The Stansted Express departs from Liverpool Street Station in the city and runs directly to Stansted Airport in Essex.There are several \"London Terminals\" in the city:* London Blackfriars – Thameslink services and some Southeastern services to South East London and Kent.", "* London Cannon Street – Southeastern services to South East London and Kent.", "* London Fenchurch Street – C2c services along the Thames Estuary towards East London, south Essex, and Southend.", "* London Liverpool Street – Greater Anglia and some C2c services towards destinations in East London and East Anglia, including Stratford, Cambridge, Chelmsford, Ipswich, Norwich, Southend, and Southend Airport.", "Stansted Express to Stansted Airport.", "London Overground () to destinations in north-east London including Hackney Downs, Seven Sisters, Walthamstow, Chingford, Enfield, and Cheshunt.", "* Moorgate – Great Northern towards Finsbury Park, Enfield, and other destinations in North London and Hertfordshire, including Hertford and Welwyn Garden City.All stations in the city are in London fare zone 1.=== Road ===292x292pxThe national A1, A10 A3, A4, and A40 road routes begin in the city.", "The city is in the London congestion charge zone, with the small exception on the eastern boundary of the sections of the A1210/A1211 that are part of the Inner Ring Road.", "The following bridges, listed west to east (downstream), cross the River Thames: Blackfriars Bridge, Blackfriars Railway Bridge, Millennium Bridge (footbridge), Southwark Bridge, Cannon Street Railway Bridge and London Bridge; Tower Bridge is not in the city.", "The city, like most of central London, is well served by buses, including night buses.", "Two bus stations are in the city, at Aldgate on the eastern boundary with Tower Hamlets, and at Liverpool Street by the railway station.However although the London Road Traffic Act 1924 removed from existing local authorities the powers to prevent the development of road passengers transport services within the London Metropolitan Area, the City of London retained most such powers.", "As a consequence, neither Trolleybus nor Green Line Coach services were permitted to enter the City to pick up or set down passengers.", "Hence the building of Aldgate (Minories) Trolleybus and Coach station as well as the complex terminal arrangements at Parliament Hill Fields.", "This restriction was removed by the Transport Act 1985=== Cycling ===Cycleway 6 runs between Elephant & Castle and Kentish Town, passing through the City of London between Blackfriars and Farringdon.Cycling infrastructure in the city is maintained by the City of London Corporation and Transport for London (TfL).", "* Cycle Superhighway 1 runs from Tottenham to the city.", "It is a signposted cycle route, passing through Stoke Newington and Hackney before entering the City south of Old Street.", "* Cycle Superhighway 2 runs from Stratford to the city, via Bow, Mile End, and Whitechapel.", "The route enters the city near Aldgate.", "The route runs primarily on segregated cycle track.", "* Cycleway 3 is an east–west bike freeway through the city.", "The route runs along the southern rim of the city, following the route of the Thames.", "Eastbound, Cycleway 3 provides cyclists with a direct, signposted cycle link to Shadwell, Poplar and Canary Wharf, and Barking.", "The route runs Westbound on traffic-free track to Lancaster Gate via Parliament Square, Buckingham Palace, and Hyde Park.", "* Cycleway 6 runs north–south through the city on traffic-free cycle track.", "The track passes Farringdon Station, the Holborn Viaduct, Ludgate Circus, Blackfriars station, and Blackfriars Bridge.", "Northbound, the route passes through Clerkenwell, Bloomsbury, King's Cross, and Kentish Town.", "The route southbound carries cyclists to Elephant and Castle.", "* Cycle Superhighway 7 begins in the City at an interchange with Cycleway 3.It leaves the City over Southwark Bridge and provides cyclists with an unbroken, signposted route to Colliers Wood via Elephant and Castle, Clapham, and Tooting, amongst other destinations.", "* Quietway 11 is a northbound continuation of Cycleway 7.It is a signposted cycle route which runs from Southwark Bridge to Hoxton, via the Barbican and Moorgate.The Sandander Cycles and Beryl bike sharing systems operate in the City of London.=== River ===One London River Services pier is on the Thames in the city, Blackfriars Millennium Pier, though the Tower Millennium Pier lies adjacent to the boundary near the Tower of London.", "One of the Port of London's 25 safeguarded wharves, Walbrook Wharf, is adjacent to Cannon Street station, and is used by the corporation to transfer waste via the river.", "Swan Lane Pier, just upstream of London Bridge, is proposed to be replaced and upgraded for regular passenger services, planned to take place in 2012–2015.Before then, Tower Pier is to be extended.There is a public riverside walk along the river bank, opened in stages over recent years.", "The only section not running along the river is a short stretch at Queenhithe.", "The walk along Walbrook Wharf is closed to pedestrians when waste is being transferred onto barges.=== Travel to work (by residents) ===According to a survey conducted in March 2011, the methods by which employed residents 16–74 get to work varied widely: 48.4% go on foot; 19.5% via light rail, (i.e.", "the Underground, DLR, etc.", "); 9.2% work mainly from home; 5.8% take the train; 5.6% travel by bus, minibus, or coach; and 5.3% go by bicycle; with just 3.4% commuting by car or van, as driver or passenger." ], [ "Education", "The Aldgate School (using its former name)The city is home to a number of higher education institutions including: the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, the Cass Business School, The London Institute of Banking & Finance and parts of three of the universities in London: the Maughan Library of King's College London on Chancery Lane, the business school of London Metropolitan University, and a campus of the University of Chicago Booth School of Business.", "The College of Law has its London campus in Moorgate.", "Part of Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry is on the Barts hospital site at West Smithfield.The city has only one directly maintained primary school, The Aldgate School (formerly Sir John Cass's Foundation Primary School) at Aldgate (ages 4 to 11).", "It is a Voluntary-Aided (VA) Church of England school, maintained by the Education Service of the City of London.City residents send their children to schools in neighbouring Local Education Authorities, such as Islington, Tower Hamlets, Westminster and Southwark.The City controls three independent schools, City of London School (a boys' school) and City of London School for Girls in the city, and the City of London Freemen's School (co-educational day and boarding) in Ashtead, Surrey.", "The City of London School for Girls and City of London Freemen's School have their own preparatory departments for entrance at age seven.", "It is the principal sponsor of The City Academy, Hackney, City of London Academy Islington, and City of London Academy, Southwark.=== Public libraries ===The Maughan Library, King's College London, located on Chancery LaneLibraries operated by the Corporation include three lending libraries; Barbican Library, Shoe Lane Library and Artizan Street Library and Community Centre.", "Membership is open to all – with one official proof of address required to join.Guildhall Library, and City Business Library are also public reference libraries, specialising in the history of London and business reference resources." ], [ "Money Laundering", "The City of London's role in illicit financial activity such as money laundering has earned the financial hub sobriquets like ‘The Laundromat’ and ‘Londongrad.’ London’s role as the world’s dirty money clearing house is well-documented but efforts are being made to clean up through legislation, e.g.", "authorizing unexplained wealth orders.", "High-value properties are sought after by criminals and money launderers legitimising their gains by investing in the city’s prestigious real estate." ], [ "See also", "* City of London Corporation* City of London School* City of London Freemen's School* List of churches in the City of London* List of areas of London* Londinium* Street names of the City of London" ], [ "References", "102.^ \"Chancery Lane\".", ".", "short waking distance from famous Hatton Garden." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Clitoris" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''clitoris''' ( or ; : '''clitorises''' or '''clitorides''') is a female sex organ present in mammals, ostriches, and a limited number of other animals.", "In humans, the visible portionthe glansis at the front junction of the labia minora (inner lips), above the opening of the urethra.", "Unlike the penis, the male homologue (equivalent) to the clitoris, it usually does not contain the distal portion (or opening) of the urethra and is therefore not used for urination.", "In most species, the clitoris lacks any reproductive function.", "While few animals urinate through the clitoris or use it reproductively, the spotted hyena, which has an especially large clitoris, urinates, mates, and gives birth via the organ.", "Some other mammals, such as lemurs and spider monkeys, also have a large clitoris.The clitoris is the human female's most sensitive erogenous zone and generally the primary anatomical source of human female sexual pleasure.", "The clitoris is a complex structure, and its size and sensitivity can vary.", "The glans (head) of the human clitoris is roughly the size and shape of a pea and is estimated to have 8,000 and possibly more than 10,000 sensory nerve endings.Sexological, medical, and psychological debate has focused on the clitoris, and it has been subject to social constructionist analyses and studies.", "Such discussions range from anatomical accuracy, gender inequality, female genital mutilation, and orgasmic factors and their physiological explanation for the G-spot.", "Although, in humans, the only known purpose of the clitoris is to provide sexual pleasure, whether the clitoris is vestigial, an adaptation, or serves a reproductive function has been debated.", "Social perceptions of the clitoris include the significance of its role in female sexual pleasure, assumptions about its true size and depth, and varying beliefs regarding genital modification such as clitoris enlargement, clitoris piercing and clitoridectomy.", "Genital modification may be for aesthetic, medical or cultural reasons.Knowledge of the clitoris is significantly affected by cultural perceptions of the organ.", "Studies suggest that knowledge of its existence and anatomy is scant in comparison with that of other sexual organs and that more education about it could help alleviate social stigmas associated with the female body and female sexual pleasure.", "Examples of stigma include the ideas that the clitoris and vulva in general are visually unappealing, that female masturbation is taboo, or that men should be expected to master and control women's orgasms." ], [ "Etymology", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' states that the word ''clitoris'' likely has its origin in the Ancient Greek , , perhaps derived from the verb , , \"to shut\".", "''Clitoris'' is also Greek for the word ''key'', \"indicating that the ancient anatomists considered it the key\" to female sexuality.", "In addition to ''key,'' the ''Online Etymology Dictionary'' suggests other Greek candidates for the word's etymology include a noun meaning \"latch\" or \"hook\"; a verb meaning \"to touch or titillate lasciviously\", \"to tickle\" (one German synonym for the clitoris is ''der Kitzler'', \"the tickler\"), although this verb is more likely derived from \"clitoris\"; and a word meaning \"side of a hill\", from the same root as \"climax\".", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' also states that the shortened form \"clit\", the first occurrence of which was noted in the United States, has been used in print since 1958: until then, the common abbreviation was \"clitty\".The plural forms are ''clitorises'' in English and ''clitorides'' in Latin.", "The Latin genitive is ''clitoridis'', as in \"glans clitoridis\".", "In medical and sexological literature, the clitoris is sometimes referred to as \"the female penis\" or pseudo-penis, and the term is commonly used to refer to the glans alone; partially because of this, there have been various terms for the organ that have historically confused its anatomy." ], [ "Structure", "=== Development === Stages in the development of the clitorisIn mammals, sexual differentiation is determined by the sperm that carries either anX or aY (male) chromosome.", "TheY chromosome contains a sex-determining gene (SRY) that encodes a transcription factor for the protein TDF (testis determining factor) and triggers the creation of testosterone and anti-Müllerian hormone for the embryo's development into a male.", "This differentiation begins about eight or nine weeks after conception.", "Some sources state that it continues until the twelfth week, while others state that it is evident by the thirteenth week and that the sex organs are fully developed by the sixteenth week.The clitoris develops from a phallic outgrowth in the embryo called the genital tubercle.", "Initially undifferentiated, the tubercle develops into either a clitoris or penis during the development of the reproductive system depending on exposure to androgens (which are primarily male hormones).", "The clitoris forms from the same tissues that become the glans and shaft of the penis, and this shared embryonic origin makes these two organs homologous (different versions of the same structure).If exposed to testosterone, the genital tubercle elongates to form the penis.", "By fusion of the urogenital foldselongated spindle-shaped structures that contribute to the formation of the urethral groove on the belly aspect of the genital tuberclethe urogenital sinus closes completely and forms the spongy urethra, and the labioscrotal swellings unite to form the scrotum.", "In the absence of testosterone, the genital tubercle allows for the formation of the clitoris; the initially rapid growth of the phallus gradually slows and the clitoris is formed.", "The urogenital sinus persists as the vestibule of the vagina, the two urogenital folds form the labia minora, and the labioscrotal swellings enlarge to form the labia majora, completing the female genitalia.", "A rare condition that can develop from higher than average androgen exposure is clitoromegaly.=== Gross anatomy and histology ======= General ==== Helen O'Connell using MRI, the first 3Dimage of a clitoris in an erect state with the adjacent organs of the uterus and urinary bladderClitoris; deep dissectionThe clitoris contains external and internal components.", "It consists of the glans, the body (which is composed of two erectile structures known as the corpora cavernosa), and two crura.", "It has a hood formed by the labia minora (inner lips).", "It also has vestibular or clitoral bulbs.", "The frenulum of the clitoris is beneath the glans.", "The clitoral body supports the glans, and its shape can be seen and felt through the clitoral hood.Research indicates that clitoral tissue extends into the vagina's anterior wall.", "Şenaylı et al.", "said that the histological evaluation of the clitoris, \"especially of the corpora cavernosa, is incomplete because for many years the clitoris was considered a rudimentary and nonfunctional organ.\"", "They added that Baskin and colleagues examined the clitoris' masculinization after dissection and using imaging software after Masson chrome staining, put the serial dissected specimens together; this revealed that the nerves of the clitoris surround the whole clitoral body.The clitoris, vestibular bulbs, labia minora, and urethra involve two histologically distinct types of vascular tissue (tissue related to blood vessels), the first of which is trabeculated, erectile tissue innervated by the cavernous nerves.", "The trabeculated tissue has a spongy appearance; along with blood, it fills the large, dilated vascular spaces of the clitoris and the bulbs.", "Beneath the epithelium of the vascular areas is smooth muscle.", "As indicated by Yang etal.", "'s research, it may also be that the urethral lumen (the inner open space or cavity of the urethra), which is surrounded by a spongy tissue, has tissue that \"is grossly distinct from the vascular tissue of the clitoris and bulbs, and on macroscopic observation, is paler than the dark tissue\" of the clitoris and bulbs.", "The second type of vascular tissue is non-erectile, which may consist of blood vessels that are dispersed within a fibrous matrix and have only a minimal amount of smooth muscle.==== Glans ==== A partially exposed clitoral glans, which cannot be fully exposed due to a mild case of adhesions to the clitoral hoodHighly innervated, the '''clitoral glans''' ('''''glans clitoridis''''') exists at the tip of the clitoral body as a fibro-vascular cap and is usually the size and shape of a pea, although it is sometimes much larger or smaller.", "It is homologous to the male glans penis.", "The clitoral glans, or the entire clitoris, is estimated to have 8,000 and possibly 10,000 or more, sensory nerve endings.", "Research conflicts on whether or not the glans is composed of erectile or non-erectile tissue.", "Although the clitoral body becomes engorged with blood upon sexual arousal, erecting the clitoral glans, some sources describe the clitoral glans and labia minora as composed of non-erectile tissue; this is especially the case for the glans.", "They state that the clitoral glans and labia minora have blood vessels that are dispersed within a fibrous matrix and have only a minimal amount of smooth muscle, or that the clitoral glans is \"a midline, densely neural, non-erectile structure\".Other descriptions of the glans assert that it is composed of erectile tissue and that erectile tissue is present within the labia minora.", "The glans may be noted as having glandular vascular spaces that are not as prominent as those in the clitoral body, with the spaces being separated more by smooth muscle than in the body and crura.", "Adipose tissue is absent in the labia minora, but the organ may be described as being made up of dense connective tissue, erectile tissue and elastic fibers.==== Frenulum ====Frenulum of the clitoris located at 3The '''clitoral frenulum''' or '''frenum''' ('''''frenulum clitoridis''''' and '''''crus glandis clitoridis''''' in Latin) is a band of tissue formed between the undersurface of the glans and the top ends of the labia minora.", "It is homologous to the penile frenulum in males.", "The frenulum's main function is to maintain the clitoris in its innate position.==== Body ====Clitoral body located at 2The '''clitoral body''' (also known as the '''''corpus clitoridis''''' or '''shaft''' of the clitoris) forms a wishbone-shaped structure containing the corpora cavernosaa pair of sponge-like regions of erectile tissue that contain most of the blood in the clitoris during clitoral erection.", "It is homologous to the penile shaft in the male.", "The two corpora forming the clitoral body are surrounded by thick fibro-elastic tunica albuginea, literally meaning \"white covering\", connective tissue.", "These corpora are separated incompletely from each other in the midline by a fibrous pectiniform septuma comblike band of connective tissue extending between the corpora cavernosa.", "The clitoral body extends up to several centimeters before reversing direction and branching, resulting in an inverted\"V\" shape that extends as a pair of crura (\"legs\").", "The crura are the proximal portions of the arms of the wishbone.", "Ending at the glans of the clitoris, the tip of the body bends anteriorly away from the pubis.", "Each crus (singular form of crura) is attached to the corresponding ischial ramusextensions of the copora beneath the descending pubic rami.", "Concealed behind the labia minora, the crura ends with attachment at or just below the middle of the pubic arch.", "Associated are the urethral sponge, perineal sponge, a network of nerves and blood vessels, the suspensory ligament of the clitoris, muscles and the pelvic floor.There is no identified correlation between the size of the clitoral glans or clitoris as a whole, and a woman's age, height, weight, use of hormonal contraception, or being post-menopausal, although women who have given birth may have significantly larger clitoral measurements.", "Centimeter (cm) and millimeter (mm) measurements of the clitoris show variations in its size.", "The clitoral glans have been cited as typically varying from 2 mm to 1 cm and usually being estimated at four to five mm in both the transverse and longitudinal planes.A 1992 study concluded that the total clitoral length, including glans and body, is , where is the mean and is the standard deviation.", "Concerning other studies, researchers from the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Obstetric Hospital in London measured the labia and other genital structures of 50 women from the age of 18 to 50, with a mean age of 35.6., from 2003 to 2004, and the results given for the clitoral glans were 310 mm for the range and 5.5 1.7 mm for the mean.", "Other research indicates that the clitoral body can measure in length, while the clitoral body and crura together can be or more in length.==== Hood ==== The clitoral hood has a normal anatomical variation in size and appearance in different adult women: while it is completely covered by the labia majora in some women, standing with their legs closed, in others it is pronounced and visible.The clitoral hood projects at the front of the labia commissure, where the edges of the labia majora (outer lips) meet at the base of the pubic mound; it is partially formed by fusion of the upper part of the external folds of the labia minora (inner lips) and covers the glans and external shaft.", "There is considerable variation in how much of the glans protrudes from the hood and how much is covered by it, ranging from completely covered to fully exposed, and tissue of the labia minora also encircles the base of the glans.==== Bulbs ==== The vestibular bulbs are more closely related to the clitoris than the vestibule because of the similarity of the trabecular and erectile tissue within the clitoris and bulbs, and the absence of trabecular tissue in other genital organs, with the erectile tissue's trabecular nature allowing engorgement and expansion during sexual arousal.", "The vestibular bulbs are typically described as lying close to the crura on either side of the vaginal opening; internally, they are beneath the labia majora.", "When engorged with blood, they cuff the vaginal opening and cause the vulva to expand outward.", "Although several texts state that they surround the vaginal opening, Ginger etal.", "state that this does not appear to be the case and tunica albuginea does not envelop the erectile tissue of the bulbs.", "In Yang et al.", "'s assessment of the bulbs' anatomy, they conclude that the bulbs \"arch over the distal urethra, outlining what might be appropriately called the 'bulbar urethra' in women.", "\"=== Homology === The clitoris and penis generally have the same anatomical structure, although the distal portion (or opening) of the urethra is absent in the clitoris of humans and most other animals.", "The idea that males have clitorises was suggested in 1987 by researcher Josephine Lowndes Sevely theorized that the male corpora cavernosa (a pair of sponge-like regions of erectile tissue that contain most of the blood in the penis during penile erection) are the true counterpart of the clitoris.", "She argued that \"the male clitoris\" is directly beneath the rim of the glans penis, where the frenulum of prepuce of the penis (a fold of the prepuce) is located, and proposed that this area be called the \"Lownde's crown\".", "Her theory and proposal, though acknowledged in anatomical literature, did not materialize in anatomy books.", "Modern anatomical texts show that the clitoris displays a hood that is the equivalent of the penis' foreskin, which covers the glans.", "It also has a shaft that is attached to the glans.", "The male corpora cavernosa are homologous to the corpus cavernosum clitoridis (the female cavernosa), the bulb of the penis is homologous to the vestibular bulbs beneath the labia minora, the scrotum is homologous to the labia majora, and the penile raphe is homologous to the labia minora.Upon anatomical study, the penis can be described as a clitoris that has been mostly pulled out of the body and grafted on top of a significantly smaller piece of spongiosum containing the urethra.", "Concerning nerve endings, the human clitoris' estimated number of nerve endings (8,000 to over 10,000) is commonly cited as being twice as many as the nerve endings found in the human penis (for its glans or body as a whole) and as more than any other part of the human body.", "These reports sometimes conflict with other sources on clitoral anatomy or those concerning the nerve endings in the human penis.", "For example, while some sources estimate that the human penis has 4,000 nerve endings, other sources state that the glans or the entire penile structure have the same amount of nerve endings as the clitoral glans.", "Some sources state that in contrast to the glans penis, the clitoral glans lacks smooth muscle within its fibrovascular cap and is thus differentiated from the erectile tissues of the clitoris and bulbs; additionally, bulb size varies and may be dependent on age and estrogenization.", "While the bulbs are considered the equivalent of the male spongiosum, they do not completely encircle the urethra.The thin corpus spongiosum of the penis runs along the underside of the penile shaft, enveloping the urethra, and expands at the end to form the glans.", "It partially contributes to erection, which is primarily caused by the two corpora cavernosa that comprise the bulk of the shaft; like the female cavernosa, the male cavernosa soak up blood and become erect when sexually excited.", "The male corpora cavernosa taper off internally on reaching the spongiosum head.", "Concerning the Y-shape of the cavernosacrown, body, and legsthe body accounts for much more of the structure in men, and the legs are stubbier; typically, the cavernosa are longer and thicker in males than in females.== Function == === Sexual activity === ==== General ==== The clitoris has an abundance of nerve endings, and is the human female's most sensitive erogenous zone and generally the primary anatomical source of human female sexual pleasure.", "When sexually stimulated, it may incite female sexual arousal.", "Sexual stimulation, including arousal, may result from mental stimulation, foreplay with a sexual partner, or masturbation, and can lead to orgasm.", "The most effective sexual stimulation of the organ is usually manually or orally (cunnilingus), which is often referred to as direct clitoral stimulation; in cases involving sexual penetration, these activities may also be referred to as additional or assisted clitoral stimulation.Direct clitoral stimulation involves physical stimulation to the external anatomy of the clitorisglans, hood, and the external shaft.", "Stimulation of the labia minora (inner lips), due to its external connection with the glans and hood, may have the same effect as direct clitoral stimulation.", "Though these areas may also receive indirect physical stimulation during sexual activity, such as when in friction with the labia majora (outer lips), indirect clitoral stimulation is more commonly attributed to penile-vaginal penetration.", "Penile-anal penetration may also indirectly stimulate the clitoris by the shared sensory nerves (especially the pudendal nerve, which gives off the inferior anal nerves and divides into two terminal branches: the perineal nerve and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris).Due to the glans' high sensitivity, direct stimulation to it is not always pleasurable; instead, direct stimulation to the hood or the areas near the glans is often more pleasurable, with the majority of women preferring to use the hood to stimulate the glans, or to have the glans rolled between the lips of the labia, for indirect touch.", "It is also common for women to enjoy the shaft of the clitoris being softly caressed in concert with the occasional circling of the clitoral glans.", "This might be with or without manual penetration of the vagina, while other women enjoy having the entire area of the vulva caressed.", "As opposed to the use of dry fingers, stimulation from well-lubricated fingers, either by vaginal lubrication or a personal lubricant, is usually more pleasurable for the external anatomy of the clitoris.As the clitoris' external location does not allow for direct stimulation by sexual penetration, any external clitoral stimulation while in the missionary position usually results from the pubic bone area, the movement of the groins when in contact.", "As such, some couples may engage in the woman-on-top position or the coital alignment technique, a sex position combining the \"riding high\" variation of the missionary position with pressure-counterpressure movements performed by each partner in rhythm with sexual penetration, to maximize clitoral stimulation.", "Lesbian couples may engage in tribadism for ample clitoral stimulation or mutual clitoral stimulation during whole-body contact.", "Pressing the penis in a gliding or circular motion against the clitoris (intercrural sex), or stimulating it by the movement against another body part, may also be practiced.", "A vibrator (such as a clitoral vibrator), dildo or other sex toy may be used.", "Other women stimulate the clitoris by use of a pillow or other inanimate object, by a jet of water from the faucet of a bathtub or shower, or by closing their legs and rocking.During sexual arousal, the clitoris and the whole of the genitalia engorge and change color as the erectile tissues fill with blood (vasocongestion), and the individual experiences vaginal contractions.", "The ischiocavernosus and bulbocavernosus muscles, which insert into the corpora cavernosa, contract and compress the dorsal vein of the clitoris (the only vein that drains the blood from the spaces in the corpora cavernosa), and the arterial blood continues a steady flow and having no way to drain out, fills the venous spaces until they become turgid and engorged with blood.", "This is what leads to clitoral erection.The clitoral glans doubles in diameter upon arousal and further stimulation become less visible as it is covered by the swelling of tissues of the clitoral hood.", "The swelling protects the glans from direct contact, as direct contact at this stage can be more irritating than pleasurable.", "Vasocongestion eventually triggers a muscular reflex, which expels the blood that was trapped in surrounding tissues, and leads to an orgasm.", "A short time after stimulation has stopped, especially if orgasm has been achieved, the glans becomes visible again and returns to its normal state, with a few seconds (usually 510) to return to its normal position and 510 minutes to return to its original size.", "If orgasm is not achieved, the clitoris may remain engorged for a few hours, which women often find uncomfortable.", "Additionally, the clitoris is very sensitive after orgasm, making further stimulation initially painful for some women.==== Clitoral and vaginal orgasmic factors ====General statistics indicate that 7080 percent of women require direct clitoral stimulation (consistent manual, oral, or other concentrated friction against the external parts of the clitoris) to reach orgasm.", "Indirect clitoral stimulation (for example, via vaginal penetration) may also be sufficient for female orgasm.", "The area near the entrance of the vagina (the lower third) contains nearly 90 percent of the vaginal nerve endings, and there are areas in the anterior vaginal wall and between the top junction of the labia minora and the urethra that are especially sensitive, but intense sexual pleasure, including orgasm, solely from vaginal stimulation is occasional or otherwise absent because the vagina has significantly fewer nerve endings than the clitoris.The prominent debate over the quantity of vaginal nerve endings began with Alfred Kinsey.", "Although Sigmund Freud's theory that clitoral orgasms are a prepubertal or adolescent phenomenon and that vaginal (or G-spot) orgasms are something that only physically mature females experience had been criticized before, Kinsey was the first researcher to harshly criticize the theory.", "Through his observations of female masturbation and interviews with thousands of women, Kinsey found that most of the women he observed and surveyed could not have vaginal orgasms, a finding that was also supported by his knowledge of sex organ anatomy.", "Scholar JaniceM.", "Irvine stated that he \"criticized Freud and other theorists for projecting male constructs of sexuality onto women\" and \"viewed the clitoris as the main center of sexual response\".", "He considered the vagina to be \"relatively unimportant\" for sexual satisfaction, relaying that \"few women inserted fingers or objects into their vaginas when they masturbated\".", "Believing that vaginal orgasms are \"a physiological impossibility\" because the vagina has insufficient nerve endings for sexual pleasure or climax, he \"concluded that satisfaction from penile penetration is mainly psychological or perhaps the result of referred sensation\".Masters and Johnson's research, as well as Shere Hite's, generally supported Kinsey's findings about the female orgasm.", "Masters and Johnson were the first researchers to determine that the clitoral structures surround and extend along and within the labia.", "They observed that both clitoral and vaginal orgasms have the same stages of physical response, and found that the majority of their subjects could only achieve clitoral orgasms, while a minority achieved vaginal orgasms.", "On that basis, they argued that clitoral stimulation is the source of both kinds of orgasms, reasoning that the clitoris is stimulated during penetration by friction against its hood.", "The research came at the time of the second-wave feminist movement, which inspired feminists to reject the distinction made between clitoral and vaginal orgasms.", "Feminist Anne Koedt argued that because men \"have orgasms essentially by friction with the vagina\" and not the clitoral area, this is why women's biology had not been properly analyzed.", "\"Today, with extensive knowledge of anatomy, with C. Lombard Kelly, Kinsey, and Masters and Johnson, to mention just a few sources, there is no ignorance on the subject of the female orgasm,\" she stated in her 1970 article ''The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm.''", "She added, \"There are, however, social reasons why this knowledge has not been popularized.", "We are living in a male society which has not sought change in women's role.", "\"Supporting an anatomical relationship between the clitoris and vagina is a study published in 2005, which investigated the size of the clitoris; Australian urologist Helen O'Connell, described as having initiated discourse among mainstream medical professionals to refocus on and redefine the clitoris, noted a direct relationship between the legs or roots of the clitoris and the erectile tissue of the clitoral bulbs and corpora, and the distal urethra and vagina while using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology.", "While some studies, using ultrasound, have found physiological evidence of the G-spot in women who report having orgasms during vaginal intercourse, O'Connell argues that this interconnected relationship is the physiological explanation for the conjectured G-Spot and experience of vaginal orgasms, taking into account the stimulation of the internal parts of the clitoris during vaginal penetration.", "\"The vaginal wall is, in fact, the clitoris,\" she said.", "\"If you lift the skin off the vagina on the side walls, you get the bulbs of the clitoristriangular, crescental masses of erectile tissue.\"", "O'Connell etal., having performed dissections on the female genitals of cadavers and used photography to map the structure of nerves in the clitoris, made the assertion in 1998 that there is more erectile tissue associated with the clitoris than is generally described in anatomical textbooks and were thus already aware that the clitoris is more than just its glans.", "They concluded that some females have more extensive clitoral tissues and nerves than others, especially having observed this in young cadavers compared to elderly ones, and therefore whereas the majority of females can only achieve orgasm by direct stimulation of the external parts of the clitoris, the stimulation of the more generalized tissues of the clitoris via vaginal intercourse may be sufficient for others.French researchers Odile Buisson (fr) and Pierre Foldès reported similar findings to that of O'Connell's.", "In 2008, they published the first complete3D sonography of the stimulated clitoris and republished it in 2009 with new research, demonstrating how erectile tissue of the clitoris engorges and surrounds the vagina.", "Based on their findings, they argued that women may be able to achieve vaginal orgasm via stimulation of the G-spot because the highly innervated clitoris is pulled closely to the anterior wall of the vagina when the woman is sexually aroused and during vaginal penetration.", "They assert that since the front wall of the vagina is inextricably linked with the internal parts of the clitoris, stimulating the vagina without activating the clitoris may be next to impossible.", "In their 2009 published study, the \"coronal planes during perineal contraction and finger penetration demonstrated a close relationship between the root of the clitoris and the anterior vaginal wall\".", "Buisson and Foldès suggested \"that the special sensitivity of the lower anterior vaginal wall could be explained by pressure and movement of clitoris' root during a vaginal penetration and subsequent perineal contraction\".Researcher Vincenzo Puppo, who, while agreeing that the clitoris is the center of female sexual pleasure and believing that there is no anatomical evidence of the vaginal orgasm, disagrees with O'Connell and other researchers' terminological and anatomical descriptions of the clitoris (such as referring to the vestibular bulbs as the \"clitoral bulbs\") and states that \"the inner clitoris\" does not exist because the penis cannot come in contact with the congregation of multiple nerves/veins situated until the angle of the clitoris, detailed by Kobelt, or with the roots of the clitoris, which do not have sensory receptors or erogenous sensitivity, during vaginal intercourse.", "Puppo's belief contrasts the general belief among researchers that vaginal orgasms are the result of clitoral stimulation; they reaffirm that clitoral tissue extends, or is at least stimulated by its bulbs, even in the area most commonly reported to be the G-spot.The G-spot is analogous to the base of the male penis and has additionally been theorized, with the sentiment from researcher Amichai Kilchevsky that because female fetal development is the \"default\" state in the absence of substantial exposure to male hormones and therefore the penis is essentially a clitoris enlarged by such hormones, there is no evolutionary reason why females would have an entity in addition to the clitoris that can produce orgasms.", "The general difficulty of achieving orgasms vaginally, which is a predicament that is likely due to nature easing the process of childbearing by drastically reducing the number of vaginal nerve endings, challenge arguments that vaginal orgasms help encourage sexual intercourse to facilitate reproduction.", "Supporting a distinct G-spot, however, is a study by Rutgers University, published in 2011, which was the first to map the female genitals onto the sensory portion of the brain; the scans indicated that the brain registered distinct feelings between stimulating the clitoris, the cervix and the vaginal wallwhere the G-spot is reported to bewhen several women stimulated themselves in a functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) machine.", "Barry Komisaruk, head of the research findings, stated that he feels that \"the bulk of the evidence shows that the G-spot is not a particular thing\" and that it is \"a region, it's a convergence of many different structures\".=== Vestigiality, adaptionist and reproductive views === Whether the clitoris is vestigial, an adaptation, or serves a reproductive function has also been debated.", "Geoffrey Miller stated that Helen Fisher, Meredith Small and Sarah Blaffer Hrdy \"have viewed the clitoral orgasm as a legitimate adaptation in its own right, with major implications for female sexual behavior and sexual evolution\".", "Like Lynn Margulis and Natalie Angier, Miller believes, \"The human clitoris shows no apparent signs of having evolved directly through male mate choice.", "It is not especially large, brightly colored, specifically shaped or selectively displayed during courtship.\"", "He contrasts this with other female species such as spider monkeys and spotted hyenas that have clitorises as long as their male counterparts.", "He said the human clitoris \"could have evolved to be much more conspicuous if males had preferred sexual partners with larger brighter clitorises\" and that \"its inconspicuous design combined with its exquisite sensitivity suggests that the clitoris is important not as an object of male mate choice, but as a mechanism of female choice.", "\"While Miller stated that male scientists such as Stephen Jay Gould and Donald Symons \"have viewed the female clitoral orgasm as an evolutionary side-effect of the male capacity for penile orgasm\" and that they \"suggested that clitoral orgasm cannot be an adaptation because it is too hard to achieve\", Gould acknowledged that \"most female orgasms emanate from a clitoral, rather than vaginal (or some other), site\" and that his nonadaptive belief \"has been widely misunderstood as a denial of either the adaptive value of female orgasm in general or even as a claim that female orgasms lack significance in some broader sense\".", "He said that although he accepts that \"clitoral orgasm plays a pleasurable and central role in female sexuality and its joys,\" \"all these favorable attributes, however, emerge just as clearly and just as easily, whether the clitoral site of orgasm arose as a spandrel or an adaptation\".", "He added that the \"male biologists who fretted over the adaptionist questions simply assumed that a deeply vaginal site, nearer the region of fertilization, would offer greater selective benefit\" due to their Darwinian, ''summum bonum'' beliefs about enhanced reproductive success.Similar to Gould's beliefs about adaptionist views and that \"females grow nipples as adaptations for suckling, and males grow smaller unused nipples as a spandrel based upon the value of single development channels\", Elisabeth Lloyd suggested that there is little evidence to support an adaptionist account of female orgasm.", "Meredith L. Chivers stated that \"Lloyd views female orgasm as an ontogenetic leftover; women have orgasms because the urogenital neurophysiology for orgasm is so strongly selected for in males that this developmental blueprint gets expressed in females without affecting fitness\" and this is similar to \"males having nipples that serve no fitness-related function.", "\"At the 2002 conference for Canadian Society of Women in Philosophy, Nancy Tuana argued that the clitoris is unnecessary in reproduction; she stated that it has been ignored because of \"a fear of pleasure.", "It is pleasure separated from reproduction.", "That's the fear.\"", "She reasoned that this fear causes ignorance, which veils female sexuality.", "O'Connell stated, \"It boils down to rivalry between the sexes: the idea that one sex is sexual and the other reproductive.", "The truth is that both are sexual and both are reproductive.\"", "She reiterated that the vestibular bulbs appear to be part of the clitoris and that the distal urethra and vagina are intimately related structures, although they are not erectile in character, forming a tissue cluster with the clitoris that appears to be the location of female sexual function and orgasm." ], [ "Clinical significance", "=== Modification ===An enlarged clitoris due to clitoromegalyModifications to the clitoris can be intentional or unintentional.", "They include female genital mutilation (FGM), sex reassignment surgery (for trans men as part transitioning, which may also include clitoris enlargement), intersex surgery, and genital piercings.", "Use of anabolic steroids by bodybuilders and other athletes can result in significant enlargement of the clitoris in concert with other masculinizing effects on their bodies.", "Abnormal enlargement of the clitoris may also be referred to as ''clitoromegaly'', but clitoromegaly is more commonly seen as a congenital anomaly of the genitalia.People taking hormones or other medications as part of a transgender transition usually experience dramatic clitoral growth; individual desires and the difficulties of phalloplasty (construction of a penis) often result in the retention of the original genitalia with the enlarged clitoris as a penis analog (metoidioplasty).", "However, the clitoris cannot reach the size of the penis through hormones.", "Asurgery to add function to the clitoris, such as metoidioplasty, is an alternative to phalloplasty that permits the retention of sexual sensation in the clitoris.In clitoridectomy, the clitoris may be removed as part of a radical vulvectomy to treat cancer such as vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia; however, modern treatments favor more conservative approaches, as invasive surgery can have psychosexual consequences.", "Clitoridectomy more often involves parts of the clitoris being partially or completely removed during FGM, which may be additionally known as female circumcision or female genital cutting (FGC).", "Removing the glans of the clitoris does not mean that the whole structure is lost, since the clitoris reaches deep into the genitals.In reduction clitoroplasty, a common intersex surgery, the glans are preserved and parts of the erectile bodies are excised.", "Problems with this technique include loss of sensation, loss of sexual function, and sloughing of the glans.", "One way to preserve the clitoris with its innervations and function is to imbricate and bury the clitoral glans; however, Şenaylı et al.", "state that \"pain during stimulus because of trapped tissue under the scarring is nearly routine.", "In another method, 50 percent of the ventral clitoris is removed through the level base of the clitoral shaft, and it is reported that good sensation and clitoral function are observed in follow-up\"; additionally, it has \"been reported that the complications are from the same as those in the older procedures for this method\".Concerning females who have the condition congenital adrenal hyperplasia, the largest group requiring surgical genital correction, researcher Atilla Şenaylı stated, \"The main expectations for the operations are to create a normal female anatomy, with minimal complications and improvement of life quality.\"", "Şenaylı added that \"cosmesis, structural integrity, the coital capacity of the vagina, and absence of pain during sexual activity are the parameters to be judged by the surgeon.\"", "(Cosmesis usually refers to the surgical correction of a disfiguring defect.)", "He stated that although \"expectations can be standardized within these few parameters, operative techniques have not yet become homogeneous.", "Investigators have preferred different operations for different ages of patients\".Gender assessment and surgical treatment are the two main steps in intersex operations.", "\"The first treatments for clitoromegaly were simply resection of the clitoris.", "Later, it was understood that the clitoris glans and sensory input are important to facilitate orgasm,\" stated Atilla.", "The clitoral glans' epithelium \"has high cutaneous sensitivity, which is important in sexual responses\", and it is because of this that \"recession clitoroplasty was later devised as an alternative, but reduction clitoroplasty is the method currently performed.", "\"What is often referred to as \"clit piercing\" is the more common (and significantly less complicated) clitoral hood piercing.", "Since piercing the clitoris is difficult and very painful, piercing the clitoral hood is more common than piercing the clitoral shaft, owing to the small percentage of people who are anatomically suited for it.", "Clitoral hood piercings are usually channeled in the form of vertical piercings, and, to a lesser extent, horizontal piercings.", "The triangle piercing is a very deep horizontal hood piercing and is done behind the clitoris as opposed to in front of it.", "For styles such as the Isabella piercing, which pass through the clitoral shaft but are placed deep at the base, they provide unique stimulation and still require the proper genital build.", "The Isabella starts between the clitoral glans and the urethra, exiting at the top of the clitoral hood; this piercing is highly risky concerning the damage that may occur because of intersecting nerves.=== Sexual disorders === Persistent genital arousal disorder (PGAD) results in spontaneous, persistent, and uncontrollable genital arousal in women, unrelated to any feelings of sexual desire.", "Clitoral priapism, also known as clitorism, is a rare, potentially painful medical condition and is sometimes described as an aspect of PGAD.", "With PGAD, arousal lasts for an unusually extended period (ranging from hours to days); it can also be associated with morphometric and vascular modifications of the clitoris.Drugs may cause or affect clitoral priapism.", "The drug trazodone is known to cause male priapism as a side effect, but there is only one documented report that it may have caused clitoral priapism, in which case discontinuing the medication may be a remedy.", "Additionally, nefazodone is documented to have caused clitoral engorgement, as distinct from clitoral priapism, in one case, and clitoral priapism can sometimes start as a result of, or only after, the discontinuation of antipsychotics or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).Because PGAD is relatively rare and, as its concept apart from clitoral priapism, has only been researched since 2001, there is little research into what may cure or remedy the disorder.", "In some recorded cases, PGAD was caused by or caused, a pelvic arterial-venous malformation with arterial branches to the clitoris; surgical treatment was effective in these cases.In 2022, an article in ''The New York Times'' reported several instances of women experiencing reduced clitoral sensitivity or inability to orgasm following various surgical procedures, including biopsies of the vulva, pelvic mesh surgeries (sling surgeries), and labiaplasties.", "The Times quoted several researchers who suggest that surgeons' lack of training in clitoral anatomy and nerve distribution may have been a factor." ], [ "Society and culture", "=== Ancient Greek–16th century knowledge and vernacular ===Concerning historical and modern perceptions of the clitoris, the clitoris, and the penis was considered equivalent by some scholars for more than 2,500 years in all respects except their arrangement.", "Due to it being frequently omitted from, or misrepresented in, historical and contemporary anatomical texts, it was also subject to a continual cycle of male scholars claiming to have discovered it.", "The ancient Greeks, ancient Romans, and Greek and Roman generations up to and throughout the Renaissance, were aware that male and female sex organs are anatomically similar, but prominent anatomists such as Galen (129 AD) and Vesalius (15141564) regarded the vagina as the structural equivalent of the penis, except for being inverted; Vesalius argued against the existence of the clitoris in normal women, and his anatomical model described how the penis corresponds with the vagina, without a role for the clitoris.Ancient Greek and Roman sexuality additionally designated penetration as \"male-defined\" sexuality.", "The term ''tribas'', or , was used to refer to a woman or intersex individual who actively penetrated another person (male or female) through the use of the clitoris or a dildo.", "As any sexual act was believed to require that one of the partners be \"phallic\" and that therefore sexual activity between women was impossible without this feature, mythology popularly associated lesbians with either having enlarged clitorises or as incapable of enjoying sexual activity without the substitution of a phallus.", "''De re anatomica''In 1545, Charles Estienne was the first writer to identify the clitoris in a work based on dissection, but he concluded that it had a urinary function.", "Following this study, Realdo Colombo (also known as Renaldus Columbus), a lecturer in surgery at the University of Padua, Italy, published a book called ''Dere anatomica'' in 1559, in which he describes the \"seat of woman's delight\".", "In his role as researcher, Colombo concluded, \"Since no one has discerned these projections and their workings, if it is permissible to give names to things discovered by me, it should be called the love or sweetness of Venus.", "\", about the mythological Venus, goddess of erotic love.", "Colombo's claim was disputed by his successor at Padua, Gabriele Falloppio (discoverer of the fallopian tube), who claimed that he was the first to discover the clitoris.", "In 1561, Falloppio stated, \"Modern anatomists have entirely neglected it ... and do not say a word about it ... and if others have spoken of it, know that they have taken it from me or my students.\"", "This caused an upset in the European medical community, and, having read Colombo's and Falloppio's detailed descriptions of the clitoris, Vesalius stated, \"It is unreasonable to blame others for incompetence on the basis of some sport of nature you have observed in some women and you can hardly ascribe this new and useless part, as if it were an organ, to healthy women.\"", "He concluded, \"I think that such a structure appears in hermaphrodites who otherwise have well-formed genitals, as Paul of Aegina describes, but I have never once seen in any woman a penis (which Avicenna called albaratha and the Greeks called an enlarged nympha and classed as an illness) or even the rudiments of a tiny phallus.", "\"The average anatomist had difficulty challenging Galen's or Vesalius' research; Galen was the most famous physician of the Greek era and his works were considered the standard of medical understanding up to and throughout the Renaissance (i.e.", "for almost two thousand years), and various terms being used to describe the clitoris seemed to have further confused the issue of its structure.", "In addition to Avicenna's naming it the ''albaratha'' or ''virga'' (\"rod\") and Colombo's calling it the sweetness of Venus, Hippocrates used the term ''columella'' (\"little pillar'\"), and Albucasis, an Arabic medical authority, named it ''tentigo'' (\"tension\").", "The names indicated that each description of the structures was about the body and glans of the clitoris but usually the glans.", "It was additionally known to the Romans, who named it (vulgar slang) ''landica''.", "However, Albertus Magnus, one of the most prolific writers of the Middle Ages, felt that it was important to highlight \"homologies between male and female structures and function\" by adding \"a psychology of sexual arousal\" that Aristotle had not used to detail the clitoris.", "While in Constantine's treatise ''Liber de Coitu'', the clitoris is referred to a few times, Magnus gave an equal amount of attention to male and female organs.Like Avicenna, Magnus also used the word ''virga'' for the clitoris, but employed it for the male and female genitals; despite his efforts to give equal ground to the clitoris, the cycle of suppression and rediscovery of the organ continued, and a 16th-century justification for clitoridectomy appears to have been confused by hermaphroditism and the imprecision created by the word ''nymphae'' substituted for the word ''clitoris''.", "Nymphotomia was a medical operation to excise an unusually large clitoris, but what was considered \"unusually large\" was often a matter of perception.", "The procedure was routinely performed on Egyptian women, due to physicians such as Jacques Daléchamps who believed that this version of the clitoris was \"an unusual feature that occurred in almost all Egyptian women and some of ours, so that when they find themselves in the company of other women, or their clothes rub them while they walk or their husbands wish to approach them, it erects like a male penis and indeed they use it to play with other women, as their husbands would do ...", "Thus the parts are cut\".=== 17th century–present day knowledge and vernacular === A Georg Ludwig Kobelt illustration of the anatomy of the clitorisCaspar Bartholin, a 17th-century Danish anatomist, dismissed Colombo's and Falloppio's claims that they discovered the clitoris, arguing that the clitoris had been widely known to medical science since the second century.", "Although 17th-century midwives recommended to men and women that women should aspire to achieve orgasms to help them get pregnant for general health and well-being and to keep their relationships healthy, debate about the importance of the clitoris persisted, notably in the work of Regnier de Graaf in the 17th century and Georg Ludwig Kobelt in the 19th.Like Falloppio and Bartholin, de Graaf criticized Colombo's claim of having discovered the clitoris; his work appears to have provided the first comprehensive account of clitoral anatomy.", "\"We are extremely surprised that some anatomists make no more mention of this part than if it did not exist at all in the universe of nature,\" he stated.", "\"In every cadaver, we have so far dissected we have found it quite perceptible to sight and touch.\"", "De Graaf stressed the need to distinguish from , choosing to \"always give the clitoris the name clitoris\" to avoid confusion; this resulted in the frequent use of the correct name for the organ among anatomists, but considering that was also varied in its use and eventually became the term specific to the labia minora, more confusion ensued.", "Debate about whether orgasm was even necessary for women began in the Victorian era, and Freud's 1905 theory about the immaturity of clitoral orgasms (see above) negatively affected women's sexuality throughout most of the 20th century.Toward the end of World War I, a maverick BritishMP named Noel Pemberton Billing published an article entitled \"The Cult of the Clitoris\", furthering his conspiracy theories and attacking the actress Maud Allan and Margot Asquith, wife of the prime minister.", "The accusations led to a sensational libel trial, which Billing eventually won; Philip Hoare reports that Billing argued that \"as a medical term, 'clitoris' would only be known to the 'initiated', and was incapable of corrupting moral minds\".", "Jodie Medd argues regarding \"The Cult of the Clitoris\" that \"the female non-reproductive but desiring body ... simultaneously demands and refuses interpretative attention, inciting scandal through its very resistance to representation.", "\"From the 18th to the 20th century, especially during the 20th, details of the clitoris from various genital diagrams presented in earlier centuries were omitted from later texts.", "The full extent of the clitoris was alluded to by Masters and Johnson in 1966, but in such a muddled fashion that the significance of their description became obscured; in 1981, the Federation of Feminist Women's Health Clinics (FFWHC) continued this process with anatomically precise illustrations identifying 18 structures of the clitoris.", "Despite the FFWHC's illustrations, Josephine Lowndes Sevely, in 1987, described the vagina as more of the counterpart of the penis.Concerning other beliefs about the clitoris, Hite (1976 and 1981) found that, during sexual intimacy with a partner, clitoral stimulation was more often described by women as foreplay than as a primary method of sexual activity, including orgasm.", "Further, although the FFWHC's work significantly propelled feminist reformation of anatomical texts, it did not have a general impact.", "Helen O'Connell's late 1990s research motivated the medical community to start changing the way the clitoris is anatomically defined.", "O'Connell describes typical textbook descriptions of the clitoris as lacking detail and including inaccuracies, such as older and modern anatomical descriptions of the female human urethral and genital anatomy having been based on dissections performed on elderly cadavers whose erectile (clitoral) tissue had shrunk.", "She instead credits the work of Georg Ludwig Kobelt as the most comprehensive and accurate description of clitoral anatomy.", "MRI measurements, which provide a live and multi-planar method of examination, now complement the FFWHC's, as well as O'Connell's, research efforts concerning the clitoris, showing that the volume of clitoral erectile tissue is ten times that which is shown in doctors' offices and anatomy textbooks.In Bruce Bagemihl's survey of ''The Zoological Record'' (1978–1997)which contains over a million documents from over 6,000 scientific journals539 articles focusing on the penis were found, while seven were found focusing on the clitoris.", "In 2000, researchers Shirley Ogletree and Harvey Ginsberg concluded that there is a general neglect of the word in the common vernacular.", "They looked at the terms used to describe genitalia in the PsycINFO database from 1887 to 2000 and found that was used in 1,482 sources, in 409, while was only mentioned in 83.They additionally analyzed 57 books listed in a computer database for sex instruction.", "In the majority of the books, was the most commonly discussed body partmentioned more than , , and put together.", "They last investigated terminology used by college students, ranging from Euro-American (76%/76%), Hispanic (18%/14%), and African American (4%/7%), regarding the students' beliefs about sexuality and knowledge on the subject.", "The students were overwhelmingly educated to believe that the vagina is the female counterpart of the penis.", "The authors found that the student's belief that the inner portion of the vagina is the most sexually sensitive part of the female body correlated with negative attitudes toward masturbation and strong support for sexual myths.Girl protesting for clitoris-awareness at a women's rights rally in Paris, 2019A study in 2005 reported that, among a sample of undergraduate students, the most frequently cited sources for knowledge about the clitoris were school and friends, and that this was associated with the least tested knowledge.", "Knowledge of the clitoris by self-exploration was the least cited, but \"respondents correctly answered, on average, three of the five clitoral knowledge measures\".", "The authors stated that \"knowledge correlated significantly with the frequency of women's orgasm in masturbation but not partnered sex\" and that their \"results are discussed in light of gender inequality and a social construction of sexuality, endorsed by both men and women, that privileges men's sexual pleasure over women's, such that orgasm for women is pleasing but ultimately incidental.\"", "They concluded that part of the solution to remedying \"this problem\" requires that males and females are taught more about the clitoris than is currently practiced.The humanitarian group Clitoraid launched the first annual International Clitoris Awareness Week, from 6to12 May in 2015.Clitoraid spokesperson Nadine Gary stated that the group's mission is to raise public awareness about the clitoris because it has \"been ignored, vilified, made taboo, and considered sinful and shameful for centuries\".Odile Fillod created a 3D printable, open source, full-size model of the clitoris, for use in a set of anti-sexist videos she had been commissioned to produce.", "Fillod was interviewed by Stephanie Theobald, whose article in ''The Guardian'' stated that the 3Dmodel would be used for sex education in French schools, from primary to secondary level, from September 2016 onwards; this was not the case, but the story went viral across the world.A questionnaire in a 2019 study was administered to a sample of educational sciences postgraduate students to trace the level of their knowledge concerning the organs of the female and male reproductive system.", "The authors reported that about two-thirds of the students failed to name external female genitals, such as the clitoris and labia, even after detailed pictures were provided to them.", "An analysis in 2022 reported that the clitoris is mentioned in only one out of 113 Greek secondary education textbooks used in biology classes from the 1870s to present.=== Contemporary art ===New York artist Sophia Wallace started work in 2012 on a multimedia project to challenge misconceptions about the clitoris.", "Based on O'Connell's 1998 research, Wallace's work emphasizes the sheer scope and size of the human clitoris.", "She says that ignorance of this still seems to be pervasive in modern society.", "\"It is a curious dilemma to observe the paradox that on the one hand, the female body is the primary metaphor for sexuality, its use saturates advertising, art, and the mainstream erotic imaginary,\" she said.", "\"Yet, the clitoris, the true female sexual organ, is virtually invisible.\"", "The project is called and it includes a \"clit rodeo\", which is interactive, climb-on model of a giant golden clitoris, including its inner parts, produced with the help of sculptor Kenneth Thomas.", "\"It's been a showstopper wherever it's been shown.", "People are hungry to be able to talk about this,\" Wallace said.", "\"I love seeing men standing up for the clit ... Cliteracy is about not having one's body controlled or legislated ... Not having access to the pleasure that is your birthright is a deeply political act.", "\"Another project started in New York, in 2016, street art that has since spread to almost 100 cities: Clitorosity, a \"community-driven effort to celebrate the full structure of the clitoris\", combining chalk drawings and words to spark interaction and conversation with passers-by, which the team documents on social media.", "In 2016, Lori-Malépart Traversy made an animated documentary about the unrecognized anatomy of the clitoris.Alli Sebastian Wolf created a golden scale model anatomical of a clitoris in 2017, called the ''Glitoris'' and said, she hopes knowledge of the clitoris will soon become so uncontroversial that making art about them would be as irrelevant as making art about penises.Other projects listed by the BBC include Clito Clito, body-positive jewellery made in Berlin; ''Clitorissima'', a documentary intended to normalize mother-daughter conversations about the clitoris; and a ClitArt festival in London, encompassing spoken word performances as well as visual art.", "French art collective Les Infemmes (a pun on \"infamous\" and \"women\") published a fanzine whose title can be translated as \"The Clit Cheatsheet\".=== Influence on female genital mutilation ===Significant controversy surrounds female genital mutilation (FGM), with the World Health Organization (WHO) being one of many health organizations that have campaigned against the procedures on behalf of human rights, stating that \"FGM has no health benefits\" and that it is \"a violation of the human rights of girls and women\" which \"reflects deep-rooted inequality between the sexes\".", "The practice has existed at one point or another in almost all human civilizations, most commonly to exert control over the sexual behavior, including masturbation, of girls and women, but also to change the clitoris' appearance.", "Custom and tradition are the most frequently cited reasons for FGM, with some cultures believing that not performing it has the possibility of disrupting the cohesiveness of their social and political systems, such as FGM also being a part of a girl's initiation into adulthood.", "Often, a girl is not considered an adult in an FGM-practicing society unless she has undergone FGM, and the \"removal of the clitoris and labiaviewed by some as the of a woman's bodyis thought to enhance the girl's femininity, often synonymous with docility and obedience\".Female genital mutilation is carried out in several societies, especially in Africa, with85 percent of genital mutilations performed in Africa consisting of clitoridectomy or excision, and to a lesser extent in other parts of the Middle East and Southeast Asia, on girls from a few days old to mid-adolescent, often to reduce the sexual desire to preserve vaginal virginity.", "The practice of FGM has spread globally, as immigrants from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East bring the custom with them.", "In the United States, it is sometimes practiced on girls born with a clitoris that is larger than usual.", "Comfort Momoh, who specializes in the topic of FGM, states that FGM might have been \"practiced in ancient Egypt as a sign of distinction among the aristocracy\"; there are reports that traces of infibulation are on Egyptian mummies.", "FGM is still routinely practiced in Egypt.", "Greenberg etal.", "report that \"one study found that97 percent of married women in Egypt had had some form of genital mutilation performed.\"", "Amnesty International estimated in 1997 that more than two million FGM procedures are performed every year." ], [ "Other animals", "Although the clitoris exists in all mammal species, few detailed studies of the anatomy of the clitoris in non-humans exist.", "Studies have been done on the clitoris of cats, sheep and mice.", "The clitoris is especially developed in fossas, apes, lemurs, moles, and, like the penis in many non-human placental mammals, often contains a small bone.", "In females, this bone is known as the os clitoridis.", "Many species of Talpid moles exhibit peniform clitorises that are tunneled by the urethra and are found to have erectile tissue.", "Studies of Spanish moles have revealed that the female gonads develop in a \"testis-like pattern\".", "The clitoris exists in turtles, ostriches, crocodiles, and in species of birds in which the male counterpart has a penis.", "Some intersex female bears mate and give birth through the tip of the clitoris; these species are grizzly bears, brown bears, American black bears and polar bears.", "Although the bears have been described as having \"a birth canal that runs through the clitoris rather than forming a separate vagina\" (a feature that is estimated to make up 10 to 20 percent of the bears' population), scientists state that female spotted hyenas are the only non-hermaphroditic female mammals devoid of an external vaginal opening, and whose sexual anatomy is distinct from usual intersex cases.", "===Non-human primates===In spider monkeys, the clitoris is especially developed and has an interior passage, or urethra, that makes it almost identical to the penis, and it retains and distributes urine droplets as the female spider monkey moves around.", "Scholar Alan F. Dixson stated that this urine \"is voided at the bases of the clitoris, flows down the shallow groove on its perineal surface, and is held by the skin folds on each side of the groove\".", "Because spider monkeys of South America have pendulous and erectile clitorises long enough to be mistaken for a penis, researchers and observers of the species look for a scrotum to determine the animal's sex; a similar approach is to identify scent-marking glands that may also be present on the clitoris.The clitoris erects in squirrel monkeys during dominance displays, which indirectly influences the squirrel monkeys' reproductive success.The clitoris of bonobos is larger and more externalized than in most mammals; Natalie Angier said that a young adolescent \"female bonobo is maybe half the weight of a human teenager, but her clitoris is three times bigger than the human equivalent, and visible enough to waggle unmistakably as she walks\".", "Female bonobos often engage in the practice of genital-genital (GG) rubbing, which is the non-human form of tribadism that human females engage in.", "Ethologist Jonathan Balcombe stated that female bonobos rub their clitorises together rapidly for ten to twenty seconds, and this behavior, \"which may be repeated in rapid succession, is usually accompanied by grinding, shrieking, and clitoral engorgement\"; he added that, on average, they engage in this practice \"about once every two hours\", and as bonobos sometimes mate face-to-face, \"evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk has suggested that the position of the clitoris in bonobos and some other primates has evolved to maximize stimulation during sexual intercourse\".Many strepsirrhine species exhibit elongated clitorises that are either fully or partially tunneled by the urethra, including mouse lemurs, dwarf lemurs, all ''Eulemur'' species, lorises and galagos.", "Some of these species also exhibit a membrane seal across the vagina that closes the vaginal opening during the non-mating seasons, most notably mouse and dwarf lemurs.", "The clitoral morphology of the ring-tailed lemur is the most well-studied.", "They are described as having \"elongated, pendulous clitorises that are fully tunneled by a urethra\".", "The urethra is surrounded by erectile tissue, which allows for significant swelling during breeding seasons, but this erectile tissue differs from the typical male corpus spongiosum.", "Non-pregnant adult ring-tailed females do not show higher testosterone levels than males, but they do exhibit higher A4 and estrogen levels during seasonal aggression.", "During pregnancy, estrogen, A4, and testosterone levels are raised, but female fetuses are still \"protected\" from excess testosterone.", "These \"masculinized\" genitalia are often found alongside other traits, such as female-dominated social groups, reduced sexual dimorphism that makes females the same size as males, and even ratios of sexes in adult populations.", "This phenomenon that has been dubbed the \"lemur syndrome\".", "A 2014 study of ''Eulemur'' masculinization proposed that behavioral and morphological masculinization in female lemuriformes is an ancestral trait that likely emerged after their split from lorisiformes.===Spotted hyenas===urogenital system in which the female urinates, mates and gives birth via an enlarged, erectile clitoris, female spotted hyenas are the only female mammals devoid of an external vaginal opening.While female spotted hyenas are sometimes referred to as hermaphrodites or as intersex, and scientists of ancient and later historical times believed that they were hermaphrodites, modern scientists do not refer to them as such.", "That designation is typically reserved for those who simultaneously exhibit features of both sexes; the genetic makeup of female spotted hyenas \"are clearly distinct\" from male spotted hyenas.Female spotted hyenas have a clitoris 90 percent as long and the same diameter as a male penis (171 millimeters long and 22 millimeters in diameter), and this pseudo-penis' formation seems largely androgen-independent because it appears in the female fetus before differentiation of the fetal ovary and adrenal gland.", "The spotted hyenas have a highly erectile clitoris, complete with a false scrotum; author John C. Wingfield stated that \"the resemblance to male genitalia is so close that sex can be determined with confidence only by palpation of the scrotum\".", "The pseudo-penis can also be distinguished from the males' genitalia by its greater thickness and more rounded glans.", "The female possesses no external vagina, as the labia are fused to form a pseudo-scrotum.", "In the females, this scrotum consists of soft adipose tissue.", "Like male spotted hyenas with regard to their penises, the female spotted hyenas have small penile spines on the head of their clitorises, which scholar said makes \"the clitoris tip feel like soft sandpaper\".", "She added that the clitoris \"extends away from the body in a sleek and slender arc, measuring, on average, over 17 cm from root to tip.", "Just like a penis, it is fully erectile, raising its head in hyena greeting ceremonies, social displays, games of rough and tumble or when sniffing out peers\".", "'''Male and female reproductive systems of the spotted hyena, from Schmotzer & Zimmerman, ''Anatomischer Anzeiger'' (1922)'''.", "Abb.", "1 (Fig.", "1.)", "''Male reproductive anatomy.''", "Abb.", "2 (Fig.", "2.)", "''Female reproductive anatomy.''", "Principal abbreviations (from Schmotzer & Zimmerman) are: '''T''', testis; '''Vd''', vas deferens; '''BU''', urethral bulb; '''Ur''', urethra; '''R''', rectum; '''P''', penis; '''S''', scrotum; '''O''', ovary; '''FT''', tuba Fallopii; '''RL''', ligament uteri; '''Ut''', uterus; '''CC''', Corpus clitoris.", "Remaining abbreviations, in alphabetical order, are: ''AG'', parotid analis; ''B'', vesica urinaria; ''CG'', parotid Cowperi; ''CP'', Corpus penis; ''CS'', corpus spongiosum; ''GC'', glans; ''GP'', glans penis; ''LA'', levator ani muscle; ''Pr'', prepuce; ''RC'', musculus retractor clitoris; ''RP'', Musculus retractor penis; ''UCG'', Canalis urogenital.Due to their higher levels of androgen exposure during fetal development, the female hyenas are significantly more muscular and aggressive than their male counterparts; social-wise, they are of higher rank than the males, being dominant or dominant and alpha, and the females who have been exposed to higher levels of androgen than average become higher-ranking than their female peers.", "Subordinate females lick the clitorises of higher-ranked females as a sign of submission and obedience, but females also lick each other's clitorises as a greeting or to strengthen social bonds; in contrast, while all males lick the clitorises of dominant females, the females will not lick the penises of males because males are considered to be of lowest rank.The urethra and vagina of the female spotted hyena exit through the clitoris, allowing the females to urinate, copulate and give birth through this organ.", "This trait makes mating more laborious for the male than in other mammals, and also makes attempts to sexually coerce (physically force sexual activity on) females futile.", "Joan Roughgarden, an ecologist and evolutionary biologist, said that because the hyena's clitoris is higher on the belly than the vagina in most mammals, the male hyena \"must slide his rear under the female when mating so that his penis lines up with her clitoris\".", "In an action similar to pushing up a shirtsleeve, the \"female retracts the pseudo-penis on itself, and creates an opening into which the male inserts his own penis\".", "The male must practice this act, which can take a couple of months to successfully perform.", "Female spotted hyenas exposed to larger doses of androgen have significantly damaged ovaries, making it difficult to conceive.", "After giving birth, the pseudo-penis is stretched and loses much of its original aspects; it becomes a slack-walled and reduced prepuce with an enlarged orifice with split lips.", "Approximately 15% of the females die during their first time giving birth, and over 60% of their species' firstborn young die.A 2006 Baskin et al.", "study concluded, \"The basic anatomical structures of the corporeal bodies in both sexes of humans and spotted hyenas were similar.", "As in humans, the dorsal nerve distribution was unique in being devoid of nerves at the 12 o'clock position in the penis and clitoris of the spotted hyena\" and that \"dorsal nerves of the penis/clitoris in humans and male spotted hyenas tracked along both sides of the corporeal body to the corpus spongiosum at the 5 and 7 o'clock positions.", "The dorsal nerves penetrated the corporeal body and distally the glans in the hyena\", and in female hyenas, \"the dorsal nerves fanned out laterally on the clitoral body.", "Glans morphology was different in appearance in both sexes, being wide and blunt in the female and tapered in the male\"." ], [ "See also", "* Clitoraid, a non-profit organization working against female genital mutilation* Clitoral erection* Clitoral pump* Clitoria, a type of tropical plant* ''The Evolution of Human Sexuality''" ], [ "Notes", "== References == ===Journals===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * ** * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * \"The Clitoris – Animated Documentary\" by Lori-Malépart Traversy (Video), 2016." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chicago" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chicago''' ( , ; ; ) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Illinois and the third-most populous in the United States after New York City and Los Angeles.", "With a population of 2,746,388 in the 2020 census, it is also the most populous city in the Midwest.", "As the seat of Cook County, the second-most populous county in the U.S., Chicago is the center of the Chicago metropolitan area.Located on the shore of Lake Michigan, Chicago was incorporated as a city in 1837 near a portage between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River watershed.", "It grew rapidly in the mid-19th century.", "In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed several square miles and left more than 100,000 homeless, but Chicago's population continued to grow.", "Chicago made noted contributions to urban planning and architecture, such as the Chicago School, the development of the City Beautiful Movement, and the steel-framed skyscraper.Chicago is an international hub for finance, culture, commerce, industry, education, technology, telecommunications, and transportation.", "It has the largest and most diverse derivatives market in the world, generating 20% of all volume in commodities and financial futures alone.", "O'Hare International Airport is routinely ranked among the world's top six busiest airports by passenger traffic, and the region is also the nation's railroad hub.", "The Chicago area has one of the highest gross domestic products (GDP) in the world, generating $689 billion in 2018.Chicago's economy is diverse, with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce.Chicago is a major tourist destination.", "Chicago's culture has contributed much to the visual arts, literature, film, theater, comedy (especially improvisational comedy), food, dance, and music (particularly jazz, blues, soul, hip-hop, gospel, and electronic dance music, including house music).", "Chicago is home to the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and the Lyric Opera of Chicago, while the Art Institute of Chicago provides an influential visual arts museum and art school.", "The Chicago area also hosts the University of Chicago, Northwestern University, and the University of Illinois Chicago, among other institutions of learning.", "Chicago has professional sports teams in each of the major professional leagues, including two Major League Baseball teams." ], [ "Etymology and nicknames", "The name ''Chicago'' is derived from a French rendering of the indigenous Miami-Illinois word for a wild relative of the onion; it is known to botanists as ''Allium tricoccum'' and known more commonly as \"ramps\".", "The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as \"\" was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir.", "Henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the eponymous wild \"garlic\" grew profusely in the area.", "According to his diary of late September 1687:The city has had several nicknames throughout its history, such as the Windy City, Chi-Town, Second City, and City of the Big Shoulders." ], [ "History", "=== Beginnings ===Traditional Potawatomi regalia on display at the Field Museum of Natural History|leftIn the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by the Potawatomi, an indigenous tribe who had succeeded the Miami and Sauk and Fox peoples in this region.Great Chicago Fire of 1871|leftleft Court of Honor at the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893The first known permanent settler in Chicago was trader Jean Baptiste Point du Sable.", "Du Sable was of African descent, perhaps born in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti), and established the settlement in the 1780s.", "He is commonly known as the \"Founder of Chicago\".In 1795, following the victory of the new United States in the Northwest Indian War, an area that was to be part of Chicago was turned over to the U.S. for a military post by native tribes in accordance with the Treaty of Greenville.", "In 1803, the U.S. Army constructed Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed during the War of 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn by the Potawatomi before being later rebuilt.After the War of 1812, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis.", "The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the 1833 Treaty of Chicago and sent west of the Mississippi River as part of the federal policy of Indian removal.===19th century===On August 12, 1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200.Within seven years it grew to more than 6,000 people.", "On June 15, 1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as Receiver of Public Monies.", "The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4, 1837, and for several decades was the world's fastest-growing city.As the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States.", "Chicago's first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois and Michigan Canal opened in 1848.The canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River.A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad.", "Manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy.", "The Chicago Board of Trade (established 1848) listed the first-ever standardized \"exchange-traded\" forward contracts, which were called futures contracts.In the 1850s, Chicago gained national political prominence as the home of Senator Stephen Douglas, the champion of the Kansas–Nebraska Act and the \"popular sovereignty\" approach to the issue of the spread of slavery.", "These issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage.", "Lincoln was nominated in Chicago for U.S. president at the 1860 Republican National Convention, which was held in a purpose-built auditorium called the Wigwam.", "He defeated Douglas in the general election, and this set the stage for the American Civil War.To accommodate rapid population growth and demand for better sanitation, the city improved its infrastructure.", "In February 1856, Chicago's Common Council approved Chesbrough's plan to build the United States' first comprehensive sewerage system.", "The project raised much of central Chicago to a new grade with the use of jackscrews for raising buildings.", "While elevating Chicago, and at first improving the city's health, the untreated sewage and industrial waste now flowed into the Chicago River, and subsequently into Lake Michigan, polluting the city's primary freshwater source.The city responded by tunneling out into Lake Michigan to newly built water cribs.", "In 1900, the problem of sewage contamination was largely resolved when the city completed a major engineering feat.", "It reversed the flow of the Chicago River so that the water flowed away from Lake Michigan rather than into it.", "This project began with the construction and improvement of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, and was completed with the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal that connects to the Illinois River, which flows into the Mississippi River.In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed an area about long and wide, a large section of the city at the time.", "Much of the city, including railroads and stockyards, survived intact, and from the ruins of the previous wooden structures arose more modern constructions of steel and stone.", "These set a precedent for worldwide construction.", "During its rebuilding period, Chicago constructed the world's first skyscraper in 1885, using steel-skeleton construction.The city grew significantly in size and population by incorporating many neighboring townships between 1851 and 1920, with the largest annexation happening in 1889, with five townships joining the city, including the Hyde Park Township, which now comprises most of the South Side of Chicago and the far southeast of Chicago, and the Jefferson Township, which now makes up most of Chicago's Northwest Side.", "The desire to join the city was driven by municipal services that the city could provide its residents.Chicago's flourishing economy attracted huge numbers of new immigrants from Europe and migrants from the Eastern United States.", "Of the total population in 1900, more than 77% were either foreign-born or born in the United States of foreign parentage.", "Germans, Irish, Poles, Swedes, and Czechs made up nearly two-thirds of the foreign-born population (by 1900, whites were 98.1% of the city's population).Labor conflicts followed the industrial boom and the rapid expansion of the labor pool, including the Haymarket affair on May 4, 1886, and in 1894 the Pullman Strike.", "Anarchist and socialist groups played prominent roles in creating very large and highly organized labor actions.", "Concern for social problems among Chicago's immigrant poor led Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr to found Hull House in 1889.Programs that were developed there became a model for the new field of social work.During the 1870s and 1880s, Chicago attained national stature as the leader in the movement to improve public health.", "City laws and later, state laws that upgraded standards for the medical profession and fought urban epidemics of cholera, smallpox, and yellow fever were both passed and enforced.", "These laws became templates for public health reform in other cities and states.The city established many large, well-landscaped municipal parks, which also included public sanitation facilities.", "The chief advocate for improving public health in Chicago was John H. Rauch, M.D.", "Rauch established a plan for Chicago's park system in 1866.He created Lincoln Park by closing a cemetery filled with shallow graves, and in 1867, in response to an outbreak of cholera he helped establish a new Chicago Board of Health.", "Ten years later, he became the secretary and then the president of the first Illinois State Board of Health, which carried out most of its activities in Chicago.In the 1800s, Chicago became the nation's railroad hub, and by 1910 over 20 railroads operated passenger service out of six different downtown terminals.", "In 1883, Chicago's railway managers needed a general time convention, so they developed the standardized system of North American time zones.", "This system for telling time spread throughout the continent.In 1893, Chicago hosted the World's Columbian Exposition on former marshland at the present location of Jackson Park.", "The Exposition drew 27.5 million visitors, and is considered the most influential world's fair in history.", "The University of Chicago, formerly at another location, moved to the same South Side location in 1892.The term \"midway\" for a fair or carnival referred originally to the Midway Plaisance, a strip of park land that still runs through the University of Chicago campus and connects the Washington and Jackson Parks.===20th and 21st centuries===Men outside a soup kitchen during the Great Depression (1931)====1900 to 1939====Aerial motion film photography of Chicago in 1914 as filmed by A. Roy KnabenshueDuring World War I and the 1920s there was a major expansion in industry.", "The availability of jobs attracted African Americans from the Southern United States.", "Between 1910 and 1930, the African American population of Chicago increased dramatically, from 44,103 to 233,903.This Great Migration had an immense cultural impact, called the Chicago Black Renaissance, part of the New Negro Movement, in art, literature, and music.", "Continuing racial tensions and violence, such as the Chicago race riot of 1919, also occurred.The ratification of the 18th amendment to the Constitution in 1919 made the production and sale (including exportation) of alcoholic beverages illegal in the United States.", "This ushered in the beginning of what is known as the gangster era, a time that roughly spans from 1919 until 1933 when Prohibition was repealed.", "The 1920s saw gangsters, including Al Capone, Dion O'Banion, Bugs Moran and Tony Accardo battle law enforcement and each other on the streets of Chicago during the Prohibition era.", "Chicago was the location of the infamous St. Valentine's Day Massacre in 1929, when Al Capone sent men to gun down members of a rival gang, North Side, led by Bugs Moran.Chicago was the first American city to have a homosexual-rights organization.", "The organization, formed in 1924, was called the Society for Human Rights.", "It produced the first American publication for homosexuals, ''Friendship and Freedom''.", "Police and political pressure caused the organization to disband.The Great Depression brought unprecedented suffering to Chicago, in no small part due to the city's heavy reliance on heavy industry.", "Notably, industrial areas on the south side and neighborhoods lining both branches of the Chicago River were devastated; by 1933 over 50% of industrial jobs in the city had been lost, and unemployment rates amongst blacks and Mexicans in the city were over 40%.", "The Republican political machine in Chicago was utterly destroyed by the economic crisis, and every mayor since 1931 has been a Democrat.From 1928 to 1933, the city witnessed a tax revolt, and the city was unable to meet payroll or provide relief efforts.", "The fiscal crisis was resolved by 1933, and at the same time, federal relief funding began to flow into Chicago.", "Chicago was also a hotbed of labor activism, with Unemployed Councils contributing heavily in the early depression to create solidarity for the poor and demand relief, these organizations were created by socialist and communist groups.", "By 1935 the Workers Alliance of America begun organizing the poor, workers, the unemployed.", "In the spring of 1937 Republic Steel Works witnessed the Memorial Day massacre of 1937 in the neighborhood of East Side.In 1933, Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak was fatally wounded in Miami, Florida, during a failed assassination attempt on President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt.", "In 1933 and 1934, the city celebrated its centennial by hosting the Century of Progress International Exposition World's Fair.", "The theme of the fair was technological innovation over the century since Chicago's founding.====1940 to 1979====The Chicago Picasso (1967) inspired a new era in urban public art.During World War II, the city of Chicago alone produced more steel than the United Kingdom every year from 1939 – 1945, and more than Nazi Germany from 1943 – 1945.Grant Park outside the 1968 Democratic National ConventionThe Great Migration, which had been on pause due to the Depression, resumed at an even faster pace in the second wave, as hundreds of thousands of blacks from the South arrived in the city to work in the steel mills, railroads, and shipping yards.On December 2, 1942, physicist Enrico Fermi conducted the world's first controlled nuclear reaction at the University of Chicago as part of the top-secret Manhattan Project.", "This led to the creation of the atomic bomb by the United States, which it used in World War II in 1945.Mayor Richard J. Daley, a Democrat, was elected in 1955, in the era of machine politics.", "In 1956, the city conducted its last major expansion when it annexed the land under O'Hare airport, including a small portion of DuPage County.By the 1960s, white residents in several neighborhoods left the city for the suburban areas – in many American cities, a process known as white flight – as Blacks continued to move beyond the Black Belt.", "While home loan discriminatory redlining against blacks continued, the real estate industry practiced what became known as blockbusting, completely changing the racial composition of whole neighborhoods.", "Structural changes in industry, such as globalization and job outsourcing, caused heavy job losses for lower-skilled workers.", "At its peak during the 1960s, some 250,000 workers were employed in the steel industry in Chicago, but the steel crisis of the 1970s and 1980s reduced this number to just 28,000 in 2015.In 1966, Martin Luther King Jr. and Albert Raby led the Chicago Freedom Movement, which culminated in agreements between Mayor Richard J. Daley and the movement leaders.Two years later, the city hosted the tumultuous 1968 Democratic National Convention, which featured physical confrontations both inside and outside the convention hall, with anti-war protesters, journalists and bystanders being beaten by police.", "Major construction projects, including the Sears Tower (now known as the Willis Tower, which in 1974 became the world's tallest building), University of Illinois at Chicago, McCormick Place, and O'Hare International Airport, were undertaken during Richard J. Daley's tenure.", "In 1979, Jane Byrne, the city's first female mayor, was elected.", "She was notable for temporarily moving into the crime-ridden Cabrini-Green housing project and for leading Chicago's school system out of a financial crisis.====1980 to present====In 1983, Harold Washington became the first black mayor of Chicago.", "Washington's first term in office directed attention to poor and previously neglected minority neighborhoods.", "He was re‑elected in 1987 but died of a heart attack soon after.", "Washington was succeeded by 6th ward alderperson Eugene Sawyer, who was elected by the Chicago City Council and served until a special election.Richard M. Daley, son of Richard J. Daley, was elected in 1989.His accomplishments included improvements to parks and creating incentives for sustainable development, as well as closing Meigs Field in the middle of the night and destroying the runways.", "After successfully running for re-election five times, and becoming Chicago's longest-serving mayor, Richard M. Daley declined to run for a seventh term.In 1992, a construction accident near the Kinzie Street Bridge produced a breach connecting the Chicago River to a tunnel below, which was part of an abandoned freight tunnel system extending throughout the downtown Loop district.", "The tunnels filled with of water, affecting buildings throughout the district and forcing a shutdown of electrical power.", "The area was shut down for three days and some buildings did not reopen for weeks; losses were estimated at $1.95 billion.On February 23, 2011, Rahm Emanuel, a former White House Chief of Staff and member of the House of Representatives, won the mayoral election.", "Emanuel was sworn in as mayor on May 16, 2011, and won re-election in 2015.Lori Lightfoot, the city's first African American woman mayor and its first openly LGBTQ mayor, was elected to succeed Emanuel as mayor in 2019.All three city-wide elective offices were held by women (and women of color) for the first time in Chicago history: in addition to Lightfoot, the city clerk was Anna Valencia and the city treasurer was Melissa Conyears-Ervin.On May 15, 2023, Brandon Johnson assumed office as the 57th mayor of Chicago." ], [ "Geography", "===Topography===Aerial view of the Chicago Loop in 2012Downtown and the North Side with beaches lining the waterfrontA satellite image of ChicagoChicago is located in northeastern Illinois on the southwestern shores of freshwater Lake Michigan.", "It is the principal city in the Chicago metropolitan area, situated in both the Midwestern United States and the Great Lakes region.", "The city rests on a continental divide at the site of the Chicago Portage, connecting the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes watersheds.", "In addition to it lying beside Lake Michigan, two rivers—the Chicago River in downtown and the Calumet River in the industrial far South Side—flow either entirely or partially through the city.Chicago's history and economy are closely tied to its proximity to Lake Michigan.", "While the Chicago River historically handled much of the region's waterborne cargo, today's huge lake freighters use the city's Lake Calumet Harbor on the South Side.", "The lake also provides another positive effect: moderating Chicago's climate, making waterfront neighborhoods slightly warmer in winter and cooler in summer.When Chicago was founded in 1837, most of the early building was around the mouth of the Chicago River, as can be seen on a map of the city's original 58 blocks.", "The overall grade of the city's central, built-up areas is relatively consistent with the natural flatness of its overall natural geography, generally exhibiting only slight differentiation otherwise.", "The average land elevation is above sea level.", "While measurements vary somewhat, the lowest points are along the lake shore at , while the highest point, at , is the morainal ridge of Blue Island in the city's far south side.Lake Shore Drive runs adjacent to a large portion of Chicago's waterfront.", "Some of the parks along the waterfront include Lincoln Park, Grant Park, Burnham Park, and Jackson Park.", "There are 24 public beaches across of the waterfront.", "Landfill extends into portions of the lake providing space for Navy Pier, Northerly Island, the Museum Campus, and large portions of the McCormick Place Convention Center.", "Most of the city's high-rise commercial and residential buildings are close to the waterfront.An informal name for the entire Chicago metropolitan area is \"Chicagoland\", which generally means the city and all its suburbs, though different organizations have slightly different definitions.===Communities===Community areas of ChicagoMajor sections of the city include the central business district, called the Loop, and the North, South, and West Sides.", "The three sides of the city are represented on the Flag of Chicago by three horizontal white stripes.", "The North Side is the most-densely-populated residential section of the city, and many high-rises are located on this side of the city along the lakefront.", "The South Side is the largest section of the city, encompassing roughly 60% of the city's land area.", "The South Side contains most of the facilities of the Port of Chicago.In the late-1920s, sociologists at the University of Chicago subdivided the city into 77 distinct community areas, which can further be subdivided into over 200 informally defined neighborhoods.===Streetscape===Chicago's streets were laid out in a street grid that grew from the city's original townsite plot, which was bounded by Lake Michigan on the east, North Avenue on the north, Wood Street on the west, and 22nd Street on the south.", "Streets following the Public Land Survey System section lines later became arterial streets in outlying sections.", "As new additions to the city were platted, city ordinance required them to be laid out with eight streets to the mile in one direction and sixteen in the other direction, about one street per 200 meters in one direction and one street per 100 meters in the other direction.", "The grid's regularity provided an efficient means of developing new real estate property.", "A scattering of diagonal streets, many of them originally Native American trails, also cross the city (Elston, Milwaukee, Ogden, Lincoln, etc.).", "Many additional diagonal streets were recommended in the Plan of Chicago, but only the extension of Ogden Avenue was ever constructed.In 2016, Chicago was ranked the sixth-most walkable large city in the United States.", "Many of the city's residential streets have a wide patch of grass or trees between the street and the sidewalk itself.", "This helps to keep pedestrians on the sidewalk further away from the street traffic.", "Chicago's Western Avenue is the longest continuous urban street in the world.", "Other notable streets include Michigan Avenue, State Street, 95th Street, Cicero Avenue, Clark Street, and Belmont Avenue.", "The City Beautiful movement inspired Chicago's boulevards and parkways.===Architecture===The Chicago Building (1904–05) is a prime example of the Chicago School, displaying both variations of the Chicago window.The destruction caused by the Great Chicago Fire led to the largest building boom in the history of the nation.", "In 1885, the first steel-framed high-rise building, the Home Insurance Building, rose in the city as Chicago ushered in the skyscraper era, which would then be followed by many other cities around the world.", "Today, Chicago's skyline is among the world's tallest and densest.Some of the United States' tallest towers are located in Chicago; Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) is the second tallest building in the Western Hemisphere after One World Trade Center, and Trump International Hotel and Tower is the third tallest in the country.", "The Loop's historic buildings include the Chicago Board of Trade Building, the Fine Arts Building, 35 East Wacker, and the Chicago Building, 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments by Mies van der Rohe.", "Many other architects have left their impression on the Chicago skyline such as Daniel Burnham, Louis Sullivan, Charles B. Atwood, John Root, and Helmut Jahn.The Merchandise Mart, once first on the list of largest buildings in the world, currently listed as 44th-largest 2013 as September 9, 2013, had its own zip code until 2008, and stands near the junction of the North and South branches of the Chicago River.", "Presently, the four tallest buildings in the city are Willis Tower (formerly the Sears Tower, also a building with its own zip code), Trump International Hotel and Tower, the Aon Center (previously the Standard Oil Building), and the John Hancock Center.", "Industrial districts, such as some areas on the South Side, the areas along the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, and the Northwest Indiana area are clustered.Chicago gave its name to the Chicago School and was home to the Prairie School, two movements in architecture.", "Multiple kinds and scales of houses, townhouses, condominiums, and apartment buildings can be found throughout Chicago.", "Large swaths of the city's residential areas away from the lake are characterized by brick bungalows built from the early 20th century through the end of World War II.", "Chicago is also a prominent center of the Polish Cathedral style of church architecture.", "The Chicago suburb of Oak Park was home to famous architect Frank Lloyd Wright, who had designed The Robie House located near the University of Chicago.A popular tourist activity is to take an architecture boat tour along the Chicago River.===Monuments and public art===Replica of Daniel Chester French's Statue of The Republic at the site of the World's Columbian ExpositionChicago is famous for its outdoor public art with donors establishing funding for such art as far back as Benjamin Ferguson's 1905 trust.", "A number of Chicago's public art works are by modern figurative artists.", "Among these are Chagall's Four Seasons; the Chicago Picasso; Miro's Chicago; Calder's Flamingo; Oldenburg's Batcolumn; Moore's Large Interior Form, 1953-54, Man Enters the Cosmos and Nuclear Energy; Dubuffet's Monument with Standing Beast, Abakanowicz's Agora; and, Anish Kapoor's Cloud Gate which has become an icon of the city.", "Some events which shaped the city's history have also been memorialized by art works, including the Great Northern Migration (Saar) and the centennial of statehood for Illinois.", "Finally, two fountains near the Loop also function as monumental works of art: Plensa's Crown Fountain as well as Burnham and Bennett's Buckingham Fountain.===Climate===January 2014 cold waveThe city lies within the typical hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen: ''Dfa''), and experiences four distinct seasons.", "Summers are hot and humid, with frequent heat waves.", "The July daily average temperature is , with afternoon temperatures peaking at .", "In a normal summer, temperatures reach at least on 17 days, with lakefront locations staying cooler when winds blow off the lake.", "Winters are relatively cold and snowy.", "Blizzards do occur, such as in winter 2011.There are many sunny but cold days.", "The normal winter high from December through March is about .", "January and February are the coldest months.", "A polar vortex in January 2019 nearly broke the city's cold record of , which was set on January 20, 1985.Measurable snowfall can continue through the first or second week of April.Spring and autumn are mild, short seasons, typically with low humidity.", "Dew point temperatures in the summer range from an average of in June to in July.", "They can reach nearly , such as during the July 2019 heat wave.", "The city lies within USDA plant hardiness zone 6a, transitioning to 5b in the suburbs.According to the National Weather Service, Chicago's highest official temperature reading of was recorded on July 24, 1934.Midway Airport reached one day prior and recorded a heat index of during the 1995 heatwave.", "The lowest official temperature of was recorded on January 20, 1985, at O'Hare Airport.", "Most of the city's rainfall is brought by thunderstorms, averaging 38 a year.", "The region is prone to severe thunderstorms during the spring and summer which can produce large hail, damaging winds, and occasionally tornadoes.Like other major cities, Chicago experiences an urban heat island, making the city and its suburbs milder than surrounding rural areas, especially at night and in winter.", "The proximity to Lake Michigan tends to keep the Chicago lakefront somewhat cooler in summer and less brutally cold in winter than inland parts of the city and suburbs away from the lake.", "Northeast winds from wintertime cyclones departing south of the region sometimes bring the city lake-effect snow.Sunshine data for ChicagoMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearMean daily daylight hours10.011.012.013.015.015.015.014.012.011.010.09.012.2Source: Weather Atlas===Time zone===As in the rest of the state of Illinois, Chicago forms part of the Central Time Zone.", "The border with the Eastern Time Zone is located a short distance to the east, used in Michigan and certain parts of Indiana." ], [ "Demographics", "During its first hundred years, Chicago was one of the fastest-growing cities in the world.", "When founded in 1833, fewer than 200 people had settled on what was then the American frontier.", "By the time of its first census, seven years later, the population had reached over 4,000.In the forty years from 1850 to 1890, the city's population grew from slightly under 30,000 to over 1 million.", "At the end of the 19th century, Chicago was the fifth-largest city in the world, and the largest of the cities that did not exist at the dawn of the century.", "Within sixty years of the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, the population went from about 300,000 to over 3 million, and reached its highest ever recorded population of 3.6 million for the 1950 census.From the last two decades of the 19th century, Chicago was the destination of waves of immigrants from Ireland, Southern, Central and Eastern Europe, including Italians, Jews, Russians, Poles, Greeks, Lithuanians, Bulgarians, Albanians, Romanians, Turkish, Croatians, Serbs, Bosnians, Montenegrins and Czechs.", "To these ethnic groups, the basis of the city's industrial working class, were added an additional influx of African Americans from the American South—with Chicago's black population doubling between 1910 and 1920 and doubling again between 1920 and 1930.Chicago has a significant Bosnian population, many of whom arrived in the 1990s and 2000s.In the 1920s and 1930s, the great majority of African Americans moving to Chicago settled in a so‑called \"Black Belt\" on the city's South Side.", "A large number of blacks also settled on the West Side.", "By 1930, two-thirds of Chicago's black population lived in sections of the city which were 90% black in racial composition.", "Around that time, a lesser known fact about African Americans on the North Side is that the block of 4600 Winthrop Avenue in Uptown was the only block African Americans could live or open establishments.", "Chicago's South Side emerged as United States second-largest urban black concentration, following New York's Harlem.", "In 1990, Chicago's South Side and the adjoining south suburbs constituted the largest black majority region in the entire United States.Most of Chicago's foreign-born population were born in Mexico, Poland and India.Chicago's population declined in the latter half of the 20th century, from over 3.6 million in 1950 down to under 2.7 million by 2010.By the time of the official census count in 1990, it was overtaken by Los Angeles as the United States' second largest city.The city has seen a rise in population for the 2000 census and after a decrease in 2010, it rose again for the 2020 census.According to U.S. census estimates , Chicago's largest racial or ethnic group is non-Hispanic White at 32.8% of the population, Blacks at 30.1% and the Hispanic population at 29.0% of the population.", "Racial composition 2020 2010 1990 1970 1940White (non-Hispanic)31.4%31.7% 37.9% 59.0% 91.2%Hispanic or Latino 29.8%28.9% 19.6% 7.4% 0.5%Black or African American (non-Hispanic) 28.7%32.3% 39.1% 32.7% 8.2%Asian (non-Hispanic)6.9%5.4% 3.7% 0.9% 0.1%Two or more races (non-Hispanic)2.6% 1.3% n/a n/a n/arightMap of racial distribution in Chicago, 2010 U.S. census.", "Each dot is 25 people: + Racial and ethnic composition as of the 2020 census Race or Ethnicity Race AloneTotal White Black or African American Hispanic or Latino Asian Native American Mixed Other Chicago has the third-largest LGBT population in the United States.", "In 2018, the Chicago Department of Health, estimated 7.5% of the adult population, approximately 146,000 Chicagoans, were LGBTQ.", "In 2015, roughly 4% of the population identified as LGBT.", "Since the 2013 legalization of same-sex marriage in Illinois, over 10,000 same-sex couples have wed in Cook County, a majority of them in Chicago.Chicago became a \"de jure\" sanctuary city in 2012 when Mayor Rahm Emanuel and the City Council passed the Welcoming City Ordinance.According to the U.S. Census Bureau's American Community Survey data estimates for 2008–2012, the median income for a household in the city was $47,408, and the median income for a family was $54,188.Male full-time workers had a median income of $47,074 versus $42,063 for females.", "About 18.3% of families and 22.1% of the population lived below the poverty line.", "In 2018, Chicago ranked seventh globally for the highest number of ultra-high-net-worth residents with roughly 3,300 residents worth more than $30 million.According to the 2008–2012 American Community Survey, the ancestral groups having 10,000 or more persons in Chicago were:* Ireland (137,799)* Poland (134,032)* Germany (120,328)* Italy (77,967)* China (66,978)* American (37,118)* UK (36,145)* recent African (32,727)* India (25,000)* Russia (19,771)* Arab (17,598)* European (15,753)* Sweden (15,151)* Japan (15,142)* Greece (15,129)* France (except Basque) (11,410)* Ukraine (11,104)* West Indian (except Hispanic groups) (10,349)Persons identifying themselves in \"Other groups\" were classified at 1.72 million, and unclassified or not reported were approximately 153,000.===Religion===According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, Christianity is the most prevalently practiced religion in Chicago (71%), with the city being the fourth-most religious metropolis in the United States after Dallas, Atlanta and Houston.", "Roman Catholicism and Protestantism are the largest branches (34% and 35% respectively), followed by Eastern Orthodoxy and Jehovah's Witnesses with 1% each.", "Chicago also has a sizable non-Christian population.", "Non-Christian groups include Irreligious (22%), Judaism (3%), Islam (2%), Buddhism (1%) and Hinduism (1%).Chicago is the headquarters of several religious denominations, including the Evangelical Covenant Church and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.", "It is the seat of several dioceses.", "The Fourth Presbyterian Church is one of the largest Presbyterian congregations in the United States based on memberships.", "Since the 20th century Chicago has also been the headquarters of the Assyrian Church of the East.", "In 2014 the Catholic Church was the largest individual Christian denomination (34%), with the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago being the largest Catholic jurisdiction.", "Evangelical Protestantism form the largest theological Protestant branch (16%), followed by Mainline Protestants (11%), and historically Black churches (8%).", "Among denominational Protestant branches, Baptists formed the largest group in Chicago (10%); followed by Nondenominational (5%); Lutherans (4%); and Pentecostals (3%).Non-Christian faiths accounted for 7% of the religious population in 2014.Judaism has at least 261,000 adherents which is 3% of the population, making it the second largest religion.", "A 2020 study estimated the total Jewish population of the Chicago metropolitan area, both religious and irreligious, at 319,500.The first two Parliament of the World's Religions in 1893 and 1993 were held in Chicago.", "Many international religious leaders have visited Chicago, including Mother Teresa, the Dalai Lama and Pope John Paul II in 1979." ], [ "Economy", "Federal Reserve Bank of ChicagoThe Chicago Board of Trade BuildingChicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $670.5 billion according to September 2017 estimates.", "The city has also been rated as having the most balanced economy in the United States, due to its high level of diversification.", "The Chicago metropolitan area has the third-largest science and engineering work force of any metropolitan area in the nation.", "Chicago was the base of commercial operations for industrialists John Crerar, John Whitfield Bunn, Richard Teller Crane, Marshall Field, John Farwell, Julius Rosenwald, and many other commercial visionaries who laid the foundation for Midwestern and global industry.Chicago is a major world financial center, with the second-largest central business district in the United States, following Midtown Manhattan.", "The city is the seat of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, the Bank's Seventh District.", "The city has major financial and futures exchanges, including the Chicago Stock Exchange, the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE), and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (the \"Merc\"), which is owned, along with the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), by Chicago's CME Group.", "In 2017, Chicago exchanges traded 4.7 billion in derivatives.", "Chase Bank has its commercial and retail banking headquarters in Chicago's Chase Tower.", "Academically, Chicago has been influential through the Chicago school of economics, which fielded 12 Nobel Prize winners.The city and its surrounding metropolitan area contain the third-largest labor pool in the United States with about 4.63 million workers.", "Illinois is home to 66 ''Fortune'' 1000 companies, including those in Chicago.", "The city of Chicago also hosts 12 ''Fortune'' Global 500 companies and 17 ''Financial Times'' 500 companies.", "The city claims three Dow 30 companies: aerospace giant Boeing, which moved its headquarters from Seattle to the Chicago Loop in 2001; McDonald's; and Walgreens Boots Alliance.", "For six consecutive years from 2013 through 2018, Chicago was ranked the nation's top metropolitan area for corporate relocations.", "However, three ''Fortune'' 500 companies left Chicago in 2022, leaving the city with 35, still second to New York City.Manufacturing, printing, publishing, and food processing also play major roles in the city's economy.", "Several medical products and services companies are headquartered in the Chicago area, including Baxter International, Boeing, Abbott Laboratories, and the Healthcare division of General Electric.", "Prominent food companies based in Chicago include the world headquarters of Conagra, Ferrara Candy Company, Kraft Heinz, McDonald's, Mondelez International, and Quaker Oats.", "Chicago has been a hub of the retail sector since its early development, with Montgomery Ward, Sears, and Marshall Field's.", "Today the Chicago metropolitan area is the headquarters of several retailers, including Walgreens, Sears, Ace Hardware, Claire's, ULTA Beauty, and Crate & Barrel.Late in the 19th century, Chicago was part of the bicycle craze, with the Western Wheel Company, which introduced stamping to the production process and significantly reduced costs, while early in the 20th century, the city was part of the automobile revolution, hosting the Brass Era car builder Bugmobile, which was founded there in 1907.Chicago was also the site of the Schwinn Bicycle Company.Chicago is a major world convention destination.", "The city's main convention center is McCormick Place.", "With its four interconnected buildings, it is the largest convention center in the nation and third-largest in the world.", "Chicago also ranks third in the U.S. (behind Las Vegas and Orlando) in number of conventions hosted annually.Chicago's minimum wage for non-tipped employees is one of the highest in the nation and reached $15 in 2021." ], [ "Culture and contemporary life", "The National Hellenic Museum in Greektown is one of several ethnic museums comprising the Chicago Cultural Alliance.Andy's Jazz Club in River North, a staple of the Chicago jazz scene since the 1950sThe city's waterfront location and nightlife has attracted residents and tourists alike.", "Over a third of the city population is concentrated in the lakefront neighborhoods from Rogers Park in the north to South Shore in the south.", "The city has many upscale dining establishments as well as many ethnic restaurant districts.", "These districts include the Mexican American neighborhoods, such as Pilsen along 18th street, and ''La Villita'' along 26th Street; the Puerto Rican enclave of Paseo Boricua in the Humboldt Park neighborhood; Greektown, along South Halsted Street, immediately west of downtown; Little Italy, along Taylor Street; Chinatown in Armour Square; Polish Patches in West Town; Little Seoul in Albany Park around Lawrence Avenue; Little Vietnam near Broadway in Uptown; and the Desi area, along Devon Avenue in West Ridge.Downtown is the center of Chicago's financial, cultural, governmental and commercial institutions and the site of Grant Park and many of the city's skyscrapers.", "Many of the city's financial institutions, such as the CBOT and the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, are located within a section of downtown called \"The Loop\", which is an eight-block by five-block area of city streets that is encircled by elevated rail tracks.", "The term \"The Loop\" is largely used by locals to refer to the entire downtown area as well.", "The central area includes the Near North Side, the Near South Side, and the Near West Side, as well as the Loop.", "These areas contribute famous skyscrapers, abundant restaurants, shopping, museums, a stadium for the Chicago Bears, convention facilities, parkland, and beaches.Lincoln Park contains the Lincoln Park Zoo and the Lincoln Park Conservatory.", "The River North Gallery District features the nation's largest concentration of contemporary art galleries outside of New York City.Lakeview is home to Boystown, the city's large LGBT nightlife and culture center.", "The Chicago Pride Parade, held the last Sunday in June, is one of the world's largest with over a million people in attendance.North Halsted Street is the main thoroughfare of Boystown.The South Side neighborhood of Hyde Park is the home of former U.S. President Barack Obama.", "It also contains the University of Chicago, ranked one of the world's top ten universities, and the Museum of Science and Industry.", "The long Burnham Park stretches along the waterfront of the South Side.", "Two of the city's largest parks are also located on this side of the city: Jackson Park, bordering the waterfront, hosted the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893, and is the site of the aforementioned museum; and slightly west sits Washington Park.", "The two parks themselves are connected by a wide strip of parkland called the Midway Plaisance, running adjacent to the University of Chicago.", "The South Side hosts one of the city's largest parades, the annual African American Bud Billiken Parade and Picnic, which travels through Bronzeville to Washington Park.", "Ford Motor Company has an automobile assembly plant on the South Side in Hegewisch, and most of the facilities of the Port of Chicago are also on the South Side.The West Side holds the Garfield Park Conservatory, one of the largest collections of tropical plants in any U.S. city.", "Prominent Latino cultural attractions found here include Humboldt Park's Institute of Puerto Rican Arts and Culture and the annual Puerto Rican People's Parade, as well as the National Museum of Mexican Art and St. Adalbert's Church in Pilsen.", "The Near West Side holds the University of Illinois at Chicago and was once home to Oprah Winfrey's Harpo Studios, the site of which has been rebuilt as the global headquarters of McDonald's.The city's distinctive accent, made famous by its use in classic films like ''The Blues Brothers'' and television programs like the ''Saturday Night Live'' skit \"Bill Swerski's Superfans\", is an advanced form of Inland Northern American English.", "This dialect can also be found in other cities bordering the Great Lakes such as Cleveland, Milwaukee, Detroit, and Rochester, New York, and most prominently features a rearrangement of certain vowel sounds, such as the short 'a' sound as in \"cat\", which can sound more like \"kyet\" to outsiders.", "The accent remains well associated with the city.===Entertainment and the arts ===The Chicago TheatreCopernicus Center is modeled on the Royal Castle in Warsaw.Jay Pritzker Pavilion at nightRenowned Chicago theater companies include the Goodman Theatre in the Loop; the Steppenwolf Theatre Company and Victory Gardens Theater in Lincoln Park; and the Chicago Shakespeare Theater at Navy Pier.", "Broadway In Chicago offers Broadway-style entertainment at five theaters: the Nederlander Theatre, CIBC Theatre, Cadillac Palace Theatre, Auditorium Building of Roosevelt University, and Broadway Playhouse at Water Tower Place.", "Polish language productions for Chicago's large Polish speaking population can be seen at the historic Gateway Theatre in Jefferson Park.", "Since 1968, the Joseph Jefferson Awards are given annually to acknowledge excellence in theater in the Chicago area.", "Chicago's theater community spawned modern improvisational theater, and includes the prominent groups The Second City and I.O.", "(formerly ImprovOlympic).The Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSO) performs at Symphony Center, and is recognized as one of the best orchestras in the world.", "Also performing regularly at Symphony Center is the Chicago Sinfonietta, a more diverse and multicultural counterpart to the CSO.", "In the summer, many outdoor concerts are given in Grant Park and Millennium Park.", "Ravinia Festival, located north of Chicago, is the summer home of the CSO, and is a favorite destination for many Chicagoans.", "The Civic Opera House is home to the Lyric Opera of Chicago.", "The Lithuanian Opera Company of Chicago was founded by Lithuanian Chicagoans in 1956, and presents operas in Lithuanian.The Joffrey Ballet and Chicago Festival Ballet perform in various venues, including the Harris Theater in Millennium Park.", "Chicago has several other contemporary and jazz dance troupes, such as the Hubbard Street Dance Chicago and Chicago Dance Crash.Other live-music genre which are part of the city's cultural heritage include Chicago blues, Chicago soul, jazz, and gospel.", "The city is the birthplace of house music (a popular form of electronic dance music) and industrial music, and is the site of an influential hip hop scene.", "In the 1980s and 90s, the city was the global center for house and industrial music, two forms of music created in Chicago, as well as being popular for alternative rock, punk, and new wave.", "The city has been a center for rave culture, since the 1980s.", "A flourishing independent rock music culture brought forth Chicago indie.", "Annual festivals feature various acts, such as Lollapalooza and the Pitchfork Music Festival.", "Lollapalooza originated in Chicago in 1991 and at first travelled to many cities, but as of 2005 its home has been Chicago.", "A 2007 report on the Chicago music industry by the University of Chicago Cultural Policy Center ranked Chicago third among metropolitan U.S. areas in \"size of music industry\" and fourth among all U.S. cities in \"number of concerts and performances\".Chicago has a distinctive fine art tradition.", "For much of the twentieth century, it nurtured a strong style of figurative surrealism, as in the works of Ivan Albright and Ed Paschke.", "In 1968 and 1969, members of the Chicago Imagists, such as Roger Brown, Leon Golub, Robert Lostutter, Jim Nutt, and Barbara Rossi produced bizarre representational paintings.", "Henry Darger is one of the most celebrated figures of outsider art.===Tourism===Ferries offer sightseeing tours and water-taxi transportation along the Chicago River and Lake Michigan.Aerial view of Navy Pier at nightMagnificent Mile hosts numerous upscale stores and landmarks, including the Chicago Water Tower., Chicago attracted 50.17 million domestic leisure travelers, 11.09 million domestic business travelers and 1.308 million overseas visitors.", "These visitors contributed more than billion to Chicago's economy.", "Upscale shopping along the Magnificent Mile and State Street, thousands of restaurants, as well as Chicago's eminent architecture, continue to draw tourists.", "The city is the United States' third-largest convention destination.", "A 2017 study by Walk Score ranked Chicago the sixth-most walkable of fifty largest cities in the United States.", "Most conventions are held at McCormick Place, just south of Soldier Field.", "Navy Pier, located just east of Streeterville, is long and houses retail stores, restaurants, museums, exhibition halls and auditoriums.", "Chicago was the first city in the world to ever erect a ferris wheel.", "The Willis Tower (formerly named Sears Tower) is a popular destination for tourists.=== Museums ===Among the city's museums are the Adler Planetarium & Astronomy Museum, the Field Museum of Natural History, and the Shedd Aquarium.", "The Museum Campus joins the southern section of Grant Park, which includes the renowned Art Institute of Chicago.", "Buckingham Fountain anchors the downtown park along the lakefront.", "The University of Chicago's Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, West Asia & North Africa has an extensive collection of ancient Egyptian and Near Eastern archaeological artifacts.", "Other museums and galleries in Chicago include the Chicago History Museum, the Driehaus Museum, the DuSable Museum of African American History, the Museum of Contemporary Art, the Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum, the Polish Museum of America, the Museum of Broadcast Communications, the Pritzker Military Library, the Chicago Architecture Foundation, and the Museum of Science and Industry.===Cuisine===Chicago-style deep-dish pizzaPolish market in Chicago Chicago lays claim to a large number of regional specialties that reflect the city's ethnic and working-class roots.", "Included among these are its nationally renowned deep-dish pizza; this style is said to have originated at Pizzeria Uno.", "The Chicago-style thin crust is also popular in the city.", "Certain Chicago pizza favorites include Lou Malnati's and Giordano's.The Chicago-style hot dog, typically an all-beef hot dog, is loaded with an array of toppings that often includes pickle relish, yellow mustard, pickled sport peppers, tomato wedges, dill pickle spear and topped off with celery salt on a poppy seed bun.", "Enthusiasts of the Chicago-style hot dog frown upon the use of ketchup as a garnish, but may prefer to add giardiniera.A distinctly Chicago sandwich, the Italian beef sandwich is thinly sliced beef simmered in au jus and served on an Italian roll with sweet peppers or spicy giardiniera.", "A popular modification is the Combo—an Italian beef sandwich with the addition of an Italian sausage.", "The Maxwell Street Polish is a grilled or deep-fried kielbasa—on a hot dog roll, topped with grilled onions, yellow mustard, and hot sport peppers.Chicken Vesuvio is roasted bone-in chicken cooked in oil and garlic next to garlicky oven-roasted potato wedges and a sprinkling of green peas.", "The Puerto Rican-influenced jibarito is a sandwich made with flattened, fried green plantains instead of bread.", "The mother-in-law is a tamale topped with chili and served on a hot dog bun.", "The tradition of serving the Greek dish saganaki while aflame has its origins in Chicago's Greek community.", "The appetizer, which consists of a square of fried cheese, is doused with Metaxa and flambéed table-side.", "Chicago-style barbecue features hardwood smoked rib tips and hot links which were traditionally cooked in an aquarium smoker, a Chicago invention.", "Annual festivals feature various Chicago signature dishes, such as Taste of Chicago and the Chicago Food Truck Festival.One of the world's most decorated restaurants and a recipient of three Michelin stars, Alinea is located in Chicago.", "Well-known chefs who have had restaurants in Chicago include: Charlie Trotter, Rick Tramonto, Grant Achatz, and Rick Bayless.", "In 2003, ''Robb Report'' named Chicago the country's \"most exceptional dining destination\".===Literature===Carl Sandburg's most famous description of the city is as \"Hog Butcher for the World / Tool Maker, Stacker of Wheat / Player with Railroads and the Nation's Freight Handler, / Stormy, Husky, Brawling, City of the Big Shoulders.", "\"Chicago literature finds its roots in the city's tradition of lucid, direct journalism, lending to a strong tradition of social realism.", "In the ''Encyclopedia of Chicago'', Northwestern University Professor Bill Savage describes Chicago fiction as prose which tries to \"''capture the essence of the city, its spaces and its people''\".", "The challenge for early writers was that Chicago was a frontier outpost that transformed into a global metropolis in the span of two generations.", "Narrative fiction of that time, much of it in the style of \"high-flown romance\" and \"genteel realism\", needed a new approach to describe the urban social, political, and economic conditions of Chicago.", "Nonetheless, Chicagoans worked hard to create a literary tradition that would stand the test of time, and create a \"city of feeling\" out of concrete, steel, vast lake, and open prairie.", "Much notable Chicago fiction focuses on the city itself, with social criticism keeping exultation in check.At least three short periods in the history of Chicago have had a lasting influence on American literature.", "These include from the time of the Great Chicago Fire to about 1900, what became known as the Chicago Literary Renaissance in the 1910s and early 1920s, and the period of the Great Depression through the 1940s.What would become the influential ''Poetry'' magazine was founded in 1912 by Harriet Monroe, who was working as an art critic for the ''Chicago Tribune''.", "The magazine discovered such poets as Gwendolyn Brooks, James Merrill, and John Ashbery.", "T. S. Eliot's first professionally published poem, \"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock\", was first published by ''Poetry''.", "Contributors have included Ezra Pound, William Butler Yeats, William Carlos Williams, Langston Hughes, and Carl Sandburg, among others.", "The magazine was instrumental in launching the Imagist and Objectivist poetic movements.", "From the 1950s through 1970s, American poetry continued to evolve in Chicago.", "In the 1980s, a modern form of poetry performance began in Chicago, the poetry slam." ], [ "Sports", "The city has two Major League Baseball (MLB) teams: the Chicago Cubs of the National League play in Wrigley Field on the North Side; and the Chicago White Sox of the American League play in Guaranteed Rate Field on the South Side.", "The two teams have faced each other in a World Series only once, in 1906.The Cubs are the oldest Major League Baseball team to have never changed their city; they have played in Chicago since 1871.They had the dubious honor of having the longest championship drought in American professional sports, failing to win a World Series between 1908 and 2016.The White Sox have played on the South Side continuously since 1901.They have won three World Series titles (1906, 1917, 2005) and six American League pennants, including the first in 1901.The Chicago Bears, one of the last two remaining charter members of the National Football League (NFL), have won nine NFL Championships, including the 1985 Super Bowl XX.", "The Bears play their home games at Soldier Field.The Chicago Bulls of the National Basketball Association (NBA) is one of the most recognized basketball teams in the world.", "During the 1990s, with Michael Jordan leading them, the Bulls won six NBA championships in eight seasons.The Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL) began play in 1926, and are one of the \"Original Six\" teams of the NHL.", "The Blackhawks have won six Stanley Cups, including in 2010, 2013, and 2015.Both the Bulls and the Blackhawks play at the United Center.+ Major league professional teams in Chicago (ranked by attendance)ClubLeagueSportVenueAttendanceFoundedChampionshipsChicago BearsNFLFootballSoldier Field61,14219199 Championships (1 Super Bowl)Chicago CubsMLBBaseballWrigley Field41,64918703 World SeriesChicago White SoxMLBBaseballGuaranteed Rate Field40,61519003 World SeriesChicago BlackhawksNHLIce hockeyUnited Center21,65319266 Stanley CupsChicago BullsNBABasketball20,77619666 NBA ChampionshipsChicago FireMLSSoccerSoldier Field17,38319971 MLS Cup, 1 Supporters ShieldChicago SkyWNBABasketballWintrust Arena10,38720061 WNBA ChampionshipsChicago Red StarsNWSLSoccerSeatGeek Stadium5,86320131 WPSL Elite championshipChicago Half Marathon on Lake Shore Drive on the South SideChicago Fire FC is a member of Major League Soccer (MLS) and plays at Soldier Field.", "The Fire have won one league title and four U.S. Open Cups, since their founding in 1997.In 1994, the United States hosted a successful FIFA World Cup with games played at Soldier Field.The Chicago Red Stars are a team in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL).", "They previously played in Women's Professional Soccer (WPS), of which they were a founding member, before joining the NWSL in 2013.They play at SeatGeek Stadium in Bridgeview, Illinois.The Chicago Sky is a professional basketball team playing in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA).", "They play home games at the Wintrust Arena.", "The team was founded before the 2006 WNBA season began.The Chicago Marathon has been held each year since 1977 except for 1987, when a half marathon was run in its place.", "The Chicago Marathon is one of six World Marathon Majors.Five area colleges play in Division I conferences: two from major conferences—the DePaul Blue Demons (Big East Conference) and the Northwestern Wildcats (Big Ten Conference)—and three from other D1 conferences—the Chicago State Cougars (Western Athletic Conference); the Loyola Ramblers (Atlantic 10 Conference); and the UIC Flames (Missouri Valley Conference).Chicago has also entered into esports with the creation of the Chicago Huntsmen, a professional Call of Duty team that participates within the CDL." ], [ "Parks and greenspace", "When Chicago was incorporated in 1837, it chose the motto ''Urbs in Horto'', a Latin phrase which means \"City in a Garden\".", "Today, the Chicago Park District consists of more than 570 parks with over of municipal parkland.", "There are 31 sand beaches, a plethora of museums, two world-class conservatories, and 50 nature areas.", "Lincoln Park, the largest of the city's parks, covers and has over 20 million visitors each year, making it third in the number of visitors after Central Park in New York City, and the National Mall and Memorial Parks in Washington, D.C.There is a historic boulevard system, a network of wide, tree-lined boulevards which connect a number of Chicago parks.", "The boulevards and the parks were authorized by the Illinois legislature in 1869.A number of Chicago neighborhoods emerged along these roadways in the 19th century.", "The building of the boulevard system continued intermittently until 1942.It includes nineteen boulevards, eight parks, and six squares, along twenty-six miles of interconnected streets.", "The ''Chicago Park Boulevard System Historic District'' was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2018.With berths for more than 6,000 boats, the Chicago Park District operates the nation's largest municipal harbor system.", "In addition to ongoing beautification and renewal projects for the existing parks, a number of new parks have been added in recent years, such as the Ping Tom Memorial Park in Chinatown, DuSable Park on the Near North Side, and most notably, Millennium Park, which is in the northwestern corner of one of Chicago's oldest parks, Grant Park in the Chicago Loop.The wealth of greenspace afforded by Chicago's parks is further augmented by the Cook County Forest Preserves, a network of open spaces containing forest, prairie, wetland, streams, and lakes that are set aside as natural areas which lie along the city's outskirts, including both the Chicago Botanic Garden in Glencoe and the Brookfield Zoo in Brookfield.", "Washington Park is also one of the city's biggest parks; covering nearly .", "The park is listed on the National Register of Historic Places listings in South Side Chicago." ], [ "Law and government", "===Government===Daley Plaza and Chicago Picasso, with City Hall-County Building visible in background.", "At right, the Daley Center contains the state law courts.The government of the City of Chicago is divided into executive and legislative branches.", "The mayor of Chicago is the chief executive, elected by general election for a term of four years, with no term limits.", "The current mayor is Brandon Johnson.", "The mayor appoints commissioners and other officials who oversee the various departments.", "As well as the mayor, Chicago's clerk and treasurer are also elected citywide.", "The City Council is the legislative branch and is made up of 50 alderpersons, one elected from each ward in the city.", "The council takes official action through the passage of ordinances and resolutions and approves the city budget.The Chicago Police Department provides law enforcement and the Chicago Fire Department provides fire suppression and emergency medical services for the city and its residents.", "Civil and criminal law cases are heard in the Cook County Circuit Court of the State of Illinois court system, or in the Northern District of Illinois, in the federal system.", "In the state court, the public prosecutor is the Illinois state's attorney; in the Federal court it is the United States attorney.===Politics===+ '''Presidential election results in Chicago''' Year Democratic Republican Others'''2020''''''82.5%''' ''944,735''15.8% ''181,234''1.6% ''18,772'''''2016''''''82.9%''' ''912,945''12.3% ''135,320''4.8% ''53,262''During much of the last half of the 19th century, Chicago's politics were dominated by a growing Democratic Party organization.", "During the 1880s and 1890s, Chicago had a powerful radical tradition with large and highly organized socialist, anarchist and labor organizations.", "For much of the 20th century, Chicago has been among the largest and most reliable Democratic strongholds in the United States; with Chicago's Democratic vote the state of Illinois has been \"solid blue\" in presidential elections since 1992.Even before then, it was not unheard of for Republican presidential candidates to win handily in downstate Illinois, only to lose statewide due to large Democratic margins in Chicago.", "The citizens of Chicago have not elected a Republican mayor since 1927, when William Thompson was voted into office.", "The strength of the party in the city is partly a consequence of Illinois state politics, where the Republicans have come to represent rural and farm concerns while the Democrats support urban issues such as Chicago's public school funding.Chicago contains less than 25% of the state's population, but it is split between eight of Illinois' 17 districts in the United States House of Representatives.", "All eight of the city's representatives are Democrats; only two Republicans have represented a significant portion of the city since 1973, for one term each: Robert P. Hanrahan from 1973 to 1975, and Michael Patrick Flanagan from 1995 to 1997.Machine politics persisted in Chicago after the decline of similar machines in other large U.S. cities.", "During much of that time, the city administration found opposition mainly from a liberal \"independent\" faction of the Democratic Party.", "The independents finally gained control of city government in 1983 with the election of Harold Washington (in office 1983–1987).", "From 1989 until May 16, 2011, Chicago was under the leadership of its longest-serving mayor, Richard M. Daley, the son of Richard J. Daley.", "Because of the dominance of the Democratic Party in Chicago, the Democratic primary vote held in the spring is generally more significant than the general elections in November for U.S. House and Illinois State seats.", "The aldermanic, mayoral, and other city offices are filled through nonpartisan elections with runoffs as needed.The city is home of former United States President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama; Barack Obama was formerly a state legislator representing Chicago and later a U.S. senator.", "The Obamas' residence is located near the University of Chicago in Kenwood on the city's south side.===Crime===Chicago Police Department SUV, 2011Chicago's crime rate in 2020 was 3,926 per 100,000 people.", "Chicago experienced major rises in violent crime in the 1920s, in the late 1960s, and in the 2020s.", "Chicago's biggest criminal justice challenges have changed little over the last 50 years, and statistically reside with homicide, armed robbery, gang violence, and aggravated battery.", "Chicago has attracted attention for a high murder rate and perceived crime rate compared to other major cities like New York and Los Angeles.", "However, while it has a large absolute number of crimes due to its size, Chicago is not among the top-25 most violent cities in the United States.Murder rates in Chicago vary greatly depending on the neighborhood in question.", "The neighborhoods of Englewood on the South Side, and Austin on the West side, for example, have homicide rates that are ten times higher than other parts of the city.", "Chicago has an estimated population of over 100,000 active gang members from nearly 60 factions.", "According to reports in 2013, \"most of Chicago's violent crime comes from gangs trying to maintain control of drug-selling territories\", and is specifically related to the activities of the Sinaloa Cartel, which is active in several American cities.", "Violent crime rates vary significantly by area of the city, with more economically developed areas having low rates, but other sections have much higher rates of crime.", "In 2013, the violent crime rate was 910 per 100,000 people; the murder rate was 10.4 – while high crime districts saw 38.9, low crime districts saw 2.5 murders per 100,000.Chicago has a long history of public corruption that regularly draws the attention of federal law enforcement and federal prosecutors.", "From 2012 to 2019, 33 Chicago alderpersons were convicted on corruption charges, roughly one third of those elected in the time period.", "A report from the Office of the Legislative Inspector General noted that over half of Chicago's elected alderpersons took illegal campaign contributions in 2013.Most corruption cases in Chicago are prosecuted by the U.S. Attorney's office, as legal jurisdiction makes most offenses punishable as a federal crime." ], [ "Education", "===Schools and libraries===When it was opened in 1991, the central Harold Washington Library appeared in ''Guinness World Records'' as the largest municipal public library building in the world.Chicago Public Schools (CPS) is the governing body of the school district that contains over 600 public elementary and high schools citywide, including several selective-admission magnet schools.", "There are eleven selective enrollment high schools in the Chicago Public Schools, designed to meet the needs of Chicago's most academically advanced students.", "These schools offer a rigorous curriculum with mainly honors and Advanced Placement (AP) courses.", "Walter Payton College Prep High School is ranked number one in the city of Chicago and the state of Illinois.Chicago high school rankings are determined by the average test scores on state achievement tests.", "The district, with an enrollment exceeding 400,545 students (2013–2014 20th Day Enrollment), is the third-largest in the U.S. On September 10, 2012, teachers for the Chicago Teachers Union went on strike for the first time since 1987 over pay, resources and other issues.", "According to data compiled in 2014, Chicago's \"choice system\", where students who test or apply and may attend one of a number of public high schools (there are about 130), sorts students of different achievement levels into different schools (high performing, middle performing, and low performing schools).Chicago has a network of Lutheran schools, and several private schools are run by other denominations and faiths, such as the Ida Crown Jewish Academy in West Ridge.", "The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago operates Catholic schools, that include Jesuit preparatory schools and others.", "A number of private schools are completely secular.", "There are also the private Chicago Academy for the Arts, a high school focused on six different categories of the arts and the public Chicago High School for the Arts, a high school focused on five categories (visual arts, theatre, musical theatre, dance, and music) of the arts.The Chicago Public Library system operates 3 regional libraries and 77 neighbourhood branches, including the central library.===Colleges and universities===The University of Chicago, as seen from the Midway PlaisanceSince the 1850s, Chicago has been a world center of higher education and research with several universities.", "These institutions consistently rank among the top \"National Universities\" in the United States, as determined by ''U.S.", "News & World Report''.", "Highly regarded universities in Chicago and the surrounding area are: the University of Chicago; Northwestern University; Illinois Institute of Technology; Loyola University Chicago; DePaul University; Columbia College Chicago and University of Illinois at Chicago.", "Other notable schools include: Chicago State University; the School of the Art Institute of Chicago; East–West University; National Louis University; North Park University; Northeastern Illinois University; Robert Morris University Illinois; Roosevelt University; Saint Xavier University; Rush University; and Shimer College.William Rainey Harper, the first president of the University of Chicago, was instrumental in the creation of the junior college concept, establishing nearby Joliet Junior College as the first in the nation in 1901.His legacy continues with the multiple community colleges in the Chicago proper, including the seven City Colleges of Chicago: Richard J. Daley College, Kennedy–King College, Malcolm X College, Olive–Harvey College, Truman College, Harold Washington College and Wilbur Wright College, in addition to the privately held MacCormac College.Chicago also has a high concentration of post-baccalaureate institutions, graduate schools, seminaries, and theological schools, such as the Adler School of Professional Psychology, The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, the Erikson Institute, The Institute for Clinical Social Work, the Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, the Catholic Theological Union, the Moody Bible Institute, and the University of Chicago Divinity School." ], [ "Media", "WGN began in the early days of radio and developed into a multi-platform broadcaster, including a cable television super-station.Chicago was home of ''The Oprah Winfrey Show'' from 1986 until 2011 and other Harpo Production operations until 2015.===Television===The Chicago metropolitan area is a major media hub and the third-largest media market in the United States, after New York City and Los Angeles.", "Each of the big four U.S. television networks, CBS, ABC, NBC and Fox, directly owns and operates a high-definition television station in Chicago (WBBM 2, WLS 7, WMAQ 5 and WFLD 32, respectively).", "Former CW affiliate WGN-TV 9, which was owned from its inception by Tribune Broadcasting (now owned by the Nexstar Media Group since 2019), is carried with some programming differences, as \"WGN America\" on cable and satellite TV nationwide and in parts of the Caribbean.", "WGN America eventually became NewsNation in 2021.Chicago has also been the home of several prominent talk shows, including ''The Oprah Winfrey Show'', ''Steve Harvey Show'', ''The Rosie Show'', ''The Jerry Springer Show'', ''The Phil Donahue Show'', ''The Jenny Jones Show'', and more.", "The city also has one PBS member station (its second: WYCC 20, removed its affiliation with PBS in 2017): WTTW 11, producer of shows such as ''Sneak Previews'', ''The Frugal Gourmet'', ''Lamb Chop's Play-Along'' and ''The McLaughlin Group''.", ", ''Windy City Live'' is Chicago's only daytime talk show, which is hosted by Val Warner and Ryan Chiaverini at ABC7 Studios with a live weekday audience.", "Since 1999, ''Judge Mathis'' also films his syndicated arbitration-based reality court show at the NBC Tower.", "Beginning in January 2019, ''Newsy'' began producing 12 of its 14 hours of live news programming per day from its new facility in Chicago.====Television stations====Most of Chicago's television stations are owned and operated by the big television network companies.They are:*WBBM-TV (2), owned and operated by CBS.", "*WMAQ-TV (5), owned and operated by NBC.", "*WLS-TV (7), owned and operated by ABC.", "*WGN-TV (9), an independent station owned by Nexstar Media Group.", "*WTTW (11), a PBS member station owned by Window to the World Communications, Inc.*WCIU-TV (26), a CW and MeTV affiliate owned by Weigel Broadcasting.", "*WFLD (32), owned and operated by Fox.", "*WWTO-TV (35), owned and operated by TBN, licensed in Naperville.", "*WCPX-TV (38), owned and operated by Ion Television.", "*WSNS-TV (44), owned and operated by Telemundo.", "*WPWR-TV (50), owned and operated by MyNetworkTV (Fox), licensed to Gary, Indiana.", "*WYIN (56), a PBS member station owned by Northwest Indiana Public Broadcasting, Inc., licensed in Gary, Indiana.", "*WTVK (59), an independent station owned by Venture Technologies Group, licensed in Oswego, Illinois.", "*WXFT-DT (60), owned and operated by Unimas.", "*WJYS (62), an independent station owned by Millennial Telecommunications, Inc., licensed to Hammond, Indiana.", "*WGBO-DT (66), owned and operated by Univision.===Newspapers===Two major daily newspapers are published in Chicago: the ''Chicago Tribune'' and the ''Chicago Sun-Times'', with the Tribune having the larger circulation.", "There are also several regional and special-interest newspapers and magazines, such as ''Chicago'', the ''Dziennik Związkowy'' (''Polish Daily News''), ''Draugas'' (the Lithuanian daily newspaper), the ''Chicago Reader'', the ''SouthtownStar'', the ''Chicago Defender'', the ''Daily Herald'', ''Newcity'', ''StreetWise'' and the ''Windy City Times''.", "The entertainment and cultural magazine ''Time Out Chicago'' and ''GRAB'' magazine are also published in the city, as well as local music magazine ''Chicago Innerview''.", "In addition, Chicago is the home of satirical national news outlet, ''The Onion'', as well as its sister pop-culture publication, ''The A.V.", "Club''.===Movies and filming======Radio===Chicago has five 50,000 watt AM radio stations: the Audacy-owned WBBM and WSCR; the Tribune Broadcasting-owned WGN; the Cumulus Media-owned WLS; and the ESPN Radio-owned WMVP.", "Chicago is also home to a number of national radio shows, including ''Beyond the Beltway'' with Bruce DuMont on Sunday evenings.Chicago Public Radio produces nationally aired programs such as PRI's ''This American Life'' and NPR's ''Wait Wait...Don't Tell Me!", "''." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transportation===Aerial photo of the Jane Byrne Interchange (2022) after reconstruction, initially opened in the 1960sChicago is a major transportation hub in the United States.", "It is an important component in global distribution, as it is the third-largest inter-modal port in the world after Hong Kong and Singapore.The city of Chicago has a higher than average percentage of households without a car.", "In 2015, 26.5 percent of Chicago households were without a car, and increased slightly to 27.5 percent in 2016.The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016.Chicago averaged 1.12 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.====Parking====Due to Chicago's Wheel Tax, residents of Chicago who own a vehicle are required to purchase a Chicago City Vehicle Sticker.", "In established Residential Parking Zones, only local residents can purchase Zone-specific parking stickers for themselves and guests.Chicago since 2009 has relinquished rights to its public street parking.", "In 2008, as Chicago struggled to close a growing budget deficit, the city agreed to a 75-year, $1.16 billion deal to lease its parking meter system to an operating company created by Morgan Stanley, called Chicago Parking Meters LLC.", "Daley said the \"agreement is very good news for the taxpayers of Chicago because it will provide more than $1 billion in net proceeds that can be used during this very difficult economy.", "\"The rights of the parking ticket lease end in 2081, and since 2022 have already recouped over $1.5 billion in revenue for Chicago Parking Meters LLC investors.====Expressways====Seven mainline and four auxiliary interstate highways (55, 57, 65 (only in Indiana), 80 (also in Indiana), 88, 90 (also in Indiana), 94 (also in Indiana), 190, 290, 294, and 355) run through Chicago and its suburbs.", "Segments that link to the city center are named after influential politicians, with three of them named after former U.S. Presidents (Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Reagan) and one named after two-time Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson.The Kennedy and Dan Ryan Expressways are the busiest state maintained routes in the entire state of Illinois.====Transit systems====Chicago Union Station, opened in 1925, is the third-busiest passenger rail terminal in the United States.The Regional Transportation Authority (RTA) coordinates the operation of the three service boards: CTA, Metra, and Pace.", "* The Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) handles public transportation in the City of Chicago and a few adjacent suburbs outside of the Chicago city limits.", "The CTA operates an extensive network of buses and a rapid transit elevated and subway system known as the Chicago \"L\" or just the \"L\" (short for \"elevated\"), with lines designated by colors.", "These rapid transit lines also serve both Midway and O'Hare Airports.", "The CTA's rail lines consist of the Red, Blue, Green, Orange, Brown, Purple, Pink, and Yellow lines.", "Both the Red and Blue lines offer 24‑hour service which makes Chicago one of a handful of cities around the world (and one of two in the United States, the other being New York City) to offer rail service 24 hours a day, every day of the year, within the city's limits.", "* Metra, the nation's second-most used passenger regional rail network, operates an 11-line commuter rail service in Chicago and throughout the Chicago suburbs.", "The Metra Electric Line shares its trackage with Northern Indiana Commuter Transportation District's South Shore Line, which provides commuter service between South Bend and Chicago.", "* Pace provides bus and paratransit service in over 200 surrounding suburbs with some extensions into the city as well.", "A 2005 study found that one quarter of commuters used public transit.Greyhound Lines provides inter-city bus service to and from the city at the Chicago Bus Station, and Chicago is also the hub for the Midwest network of Megabus (North America).====Passenger rail====Amtrak train on the Empire Builder route departs Chicago from Union Station.Amtrak long distance and commuter rail services originate from Union Station.", "Chicago is one of the largest hubs of passenger rail service in the nation.", "The services terminate in the San Francisco area, Washington, D.C., New York City, New Orleans, Portland, Seattle, Milwaukee, Quincy, St. Louis, Carbondale, Boston, Grand Rapids, Port Huron, Pontiac, Los Angeles, and San Antonio.", "Future services will terminate at Rockford and Moline.", "An attempt was made in the early 20th century to link Chicago with New York City via the Chicago – New York Electric Air Line Railroad.", "Parts of this were built, but it was never completed.====Bicycle and scooter sharing systems====In July 2013, the bicycle-sharing system Divvy was launched with 750 bikes and 75 docking stations It is operated by Lyft for the Chicago Department of Transportation.", "As of July 2019, Divvy operated 5800 bicycles at 608 stations, covering almost all of the city, excluding Pullman, Rosedale, Beverly, Belmont Cragin and Edison Park.In May 2019, The City of Chicago announced its Chicago's Electric Shared Scooter Pilot Program, scheduled to run from June 15 to October 15.The program started on June 15 with 10 different scooter companies, including scooter sharing market leaders Bird, Jump, Lime and Lyft.", "Each company was allowed to bring 250 electric scooters, although both Bird and Lime claimed that they experienced a higher demand for their scooters.", "The program ended on October 15, with nearly 800,000 rides taken.====Freight rail====Chicago is the largest hub in the railroad industry.", "All five Class I railroads meet in Chicago.", ", severe freight train congestion caused trains to take as long to get through the Chicago region as it took to get there from the West Coast of the country (about 2 days).", "According to U.S. Department of Transportation, the volume of imported and exported goods transported via rail to, from, or through Chicago is forecast to increase nearly 150 percent between 2010 and 2040.CREATE, the Chicago Region Environmental and Transportation Efficiency Program, comprises about 70 programs, including crossovers, overpasses and underpasses, that intend to significantly improve the speed of freight movements in the Chicago area.====Airports====O'Hare International AirportChicago is served by O'Hare International Airport, the world's busiest airport measured by airline operations, on the far Northwest Side, and Midway International Airport on the Southwest Side.", "In 2005, O'Hare was the world's busiest airport by aircraft movements and the second-busiest by total passenger traffic.", "Both O'Hare and Midway are owned and operated by the City of Chicago.", "Gary/Chicago International Airport and Chicago Rockford International Airport, located in Gary, Indiana and Rockford, Illinois, respectively, can serve as alternative Chicago area airports, however they do not offer as many commercial flights as O'Hare and Midway.", "In recent years the state of Illinois has been leaning towards building an entirely new airport in the Illinois suburbs of Chicago.", "The City of Chicago is the world headquarters for United Airlines, the world's third-largest airline.====Port authority====The Port of Chicago consists of several major port facilities within the city of Chicago operated by the Illinois International Port District (formerly known as the Chicago Regional Port District).", "The central element of the Port District, Calumet Harbor, is maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.", "* Iroquois Landing Lakefront Terminal: at the mouth of the Calumet River, it includes of warehouses and facilities on Lake Michigan with over of storage.", "* Lake Calumet terminal: located at the union of the Grand Calumet River and Little Calumet River inland from Lake Michigan.", "Includes three transit sheds totaling over adjacent to over 900 linear meters (3,000 linear feet) of ship and barge berthing.", "* Grain (14 million bushels) and bulk liquid (800,000 barrels) storage facilities along Lake Calumet.", "* The Illinois International Port district also operates Foreign trade zone No.", "22, which extends from Chicago's city limits.===Utilities===Electricity for most of northern Illinois is provided by Commonwealth Edison, also known as ComEd.", "Their service territory borders Iroquois County to the south, the Wisconsin border to the north, the Iowa border to the west and the Indiana border to the east.", "In northern Illinois, ComEd (a division of Exelon) operates the greatest number of nuclear generating plants in any U.S. state.", "Because of this, ComEd reports indicate that Chicago receives about 75% of its electricity from nuclear power.", "Recently, the city began installing wind turbines on government buildings to promote renewable energy.Natural gas is provided by Peoples Gas, a subsidiary of Integrys Energy Group, which is headquartered in Chicago.Domestic and industrial waste was once incinerated but it is now landfilled, mainly in the Calumet area.", "From 1995 to 2008, the city had a blue bag program to divert recyclable refuse from landfills.", "Because of low participation in the blue bag programs, the city began a pilot program for blue bin recycling like other cities.", "This proved successful and blue bins were rolled out across the city.===Health systems===Prentice Women's Hospital on the Northwestern Memorial Hospital Downtown CampusThe Illinois Medical District is on the Near West Side.", "It includes Rush University Medical Center, ranked as the second best hospital in the Chicago metropolitan area by ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' for 2014–16, the University of Illinois Medical Center at Chicago, Jesse Brown VA Hospital, and John H. Stroger Jr. Hospital of Cook County, one of the busiest trauma centers in the nation.Two of the country's premier academic medical centers reside in Chicago, including Northwestern Memorial Hospital and the University of Chicago Medical Center.", "The Chicago campus of Northwestern University includes the Feinberg School of Medicine; Northwestern Memorial Hospital, which is ranked as the best hospital in the Chicago metropolitan area by ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' for 2017–18; the Shirley Ryan AbilityLab (formerly named the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago), which is ranked the best U.S. rehabilitation hospital by ''U.S.", "News & World Report''; the new Prentice Women's Hospital; and Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago.The University of Illinois College of Medicine at UIC is the second largest medical school in the United States (2,600 students including those at campuses in Peoria, Rockford and Urbana–Champaign).In addition, the Chicago Medical School and Loyola University Chicago's Stritch School of Medicine are located in the suburbs of North Chicago and Maywood, respectively.", "The Midwestern University Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine is in Downers Grove.The American Medical Association, Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education, American Osteopathic Association, American Dental Association, Academy of General Dentistry, Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, American College of Surgeons, American Society for Clinical Pathology, American College of Healthcare Executives, the American Hospital Association and Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association are all based in Chicago." ], [ "Sister cities" ], [ "See also", "* Chicago area water quality* Chicago Wilderness* Gentrification of Chicago* Index of Illinois-related articles* List of cities with the most skyscrapers* National Register of Historic Places listings in Central Chicago* National Register of Historic Places listings in North Side Chicago* National Register of Historic Places listings in West Side Chicago* USS Chicago, 4 ships" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations", "=== Cited references ===* * * * * * * Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds.", "''Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980'' (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980.online; see index at pp.", "406–411 for list.", "* * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ''Encyclopedia of Chicago'' (2004), comprehensive coverage of city and suburbs, past and present* ()* Choose Chicago—Official tourism website* Chicago History * Maps of Chicago from the American Geographical Society Library* * Chicago – LocalWiki Local Chicago Wiki* *" ] ]
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