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[ [ "List of cryptographers" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a '''list of cryptographers'''.", "Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties called adversaries." ], [ "Pre twentieth century", "* Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi: wrote a (now lost) book on cryptography titled the \"''Book of Cryptographic Messages''\".", "* Al-Kindi, 9th century Arabic polymath and originator of frequency analysis.", "* Athanasius Kircher, attempts to decipher crypted messages* Augustus the Younger, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, wrote a standard book on cryptography* Ibn Wahshiyya: published several cipher alphabets that were used to encrypt magic formulas.", "* John Dee, wrote an occult book, which in fact was a cover for crypted text* Ibn 'Adlan: 13th-century cryptographer who made important contributions on the sample size of the frequency analysis.", "* Duke of Mantua Francesco I Gonzaga is the one who used the earliest example of homophonic Substitution cipher in early 1400s.", "* Ibn al-Durayhim: gave detailed descriptions of eight cipher systems that discussed substitution ciphers, leading to the earliest suggestion of a \"tableau\" of the kind that two centuries later became known as the \"Vigenère table\".", "* Ahmad al-Qalqashandi: Author of ''Subh al-a 'sha'', a fourteen volume encyclopedia in Arabic, which included a section on cryptology.", "The list of ciphers in this work included both substitution and transposition, and for the first time, a cipher with multiple substitutions for each plaintext letter.", "* Charles Babbage, UK, 19th century mathematician who, about the time of the Crimean War, secretly developed an effective attack against polyalphabetic substitution ciphers.", "* Leone Battista Alberti, polymath/universal genius, inventor of polyalphabetic substitution (more specifically, the Alberti cipher), and what may have been the first mechanical encryption aid.", "* Giovanni Battista della Porta, author of a seminal work on cryptanalysis.", "* Étienne Bazeries, French, military, considered one of the greatest natural cryptanalysts.", "Best known for developing the \"Bazeries Cylinder\" and his influential 1901 text ''Les Chiffres secrets dévoilés'' (\"Secret ciphers unveiled\").", "* Giovan Battista Bellaso, Italian cryptologist* Giovanni Fontana (engineer), wrote two encrypted books* Hildegard of Bingen used her own alphabet to write letters.", "* Julius Caesar, Roman general/politician, has the Caesar cipher named after him, and a lost work on cryptography by Probus (probably Valerius Probus) is claimed to have covered his use of military cryptography in some detail.", "It is likely that he did not invent the cipher named after him, as other substitution ciphers were in use well before his time.", "* Friedrich Kasiski, author of the first published attack on the Vigenère cipher, now known as the Kasiski test.", "* Auguste Kerckhoffs, known for contributing cipher design principles.", "* Edgar Allan Poe, author of the book, ''A Few Words on Secret Writing'', an essay on cryptanalysis, and ''The Gold Bug'', a short story featuring the use of letter frequencies in the solution of a cryptogram.", "* Johannes Trithemius, mystic and first to describe ''tableaux'' (tables) for use in polyalphabetic substitution.", "Wrote an early work on steganography and cryptography generally.", "* Philips van Marnix, lord of Sint-Aldegonde, deciphered Spanish messages for William the Silent during the Dutch revolt against the Spanish.", "* John Wallis codebreaker for Cromwell and Charles II* Sir Charles Wheatstone, inventor of the so-called Playfair cipher and general polymath." ], [ "World War I and World War II wartime cryptographers", "* Richard J. Hayes (1902-1976) Irish code breaker in World War II.", "* Jean Argles (1925–2023), British code breaker in World War II* Arne Beurling, Swedish mathematician and cryptograph.", "* Lambros D. Callimahos, US, NSA, worked with William F. Friedman, taught NSA cryptanalysts.", "* Ann Z. Caracristi, US, SIS, solved Japanese Army codes in World War II, later became deputy director of National Security Agency.", "* Alec Naylor Dakin, UK, Hut 4, Bletchley park during World War II.", "* Ludomir Danilewicz, Poland, Biuro Szyfrow, helped to construct the Enigma machine copies to break the ciphers.", "* Patricia Davies (born 1923), British code breaker in World War II* Alastair Denniston, UK, director of GC&CS at Bletchley Park from 1919 to 1942.", "* Agnes Meyer Driscoll, US, broke several Japanese ciphers.", "* Genevieve Grotjan Feinstein, US, SIS, noticed the pattern that led to breaking Purple.", "* Elizebeth Smith Friedman, US, Coast Guard and US Treasury Department cryptographer, co-invented modern cryptography.", "* William F. Friedman, US, SIS, introduced statistical methods into cryptography.", "* Cecilia Elspeth Giles, UK, Bletchley Park* Jack Good UK, GC&CS, Bletchley Park worked with Alan Turing on the statistical approach to cryptanalysis.", "* Nigel de Grey, UK, Room 40, played an important role in the decryption of the Zimmermann Telegram during World War I.", "* Dillwyn Knox, UK, Room 40 and GC&CS, broke commercial Enigma cipher as used by the Abwehr (German military intelligence).", "* Solomon Kullback US, SIS, helped break the Japanese Red cipher, later Chief Scientist at the National Security Agency.", "* Frank W. Lewis US, worked with William F. Friedman, puzzle master* William Hamilton Martin and Bernon F. Mitchell, U.S. National Security Agency cryptologists who defected to the Soviet Union in 1960* Leo Marks UK, SOE cryptography director, author and playwright.", "* Donald Michie UK, GC&CS, Bletchley Park worked on Cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher and the Colossus computer.", "* Consuelo Milner, US, crytopgraher for the Naval Applied Science Lab* Max Newman, UK, GC&CS, Bletchley Park headed the section that developed the Colossus computer for Cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher.", "* Georges Painvin French, broke the ADFGVX cipher during the First World War.", "* Marian Rejewski, Poland, Biuro Szyfrów, a Polish mathematician and cryptologist who, in 1932, solved the Enigma machine with plugboard, the main cipher device then in use by Germany.", "The first to break the cipher in history.", "* John Joseph Rochefort US, made major contributions to the break into JN-25 after the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "* Leo Rosen US, SIS, deduced that the Japanese Purple machine was built with stepping switches.", "* Frank Rowlett US, SIS, leader of the team that broke Purple.", "* Jerzy Różycki, Poland, Biuro Szyfrów, helped break German Enigma ciphers.", "* Luigi Sacco, Italy, Italian General and author of the ''Manual of Cryptography''.", "* Laurance Safford US, chief cryptographer for the US Navy for 2 decades+, including World War II.", "* Abraham Sinkov US, SIS.", "* John Tiltman UK, Brigadier, Room 40, GC&CS, Bletchley Park, GCHQ, NSA.", "Extraordinary length and range of cryptographic service* Alan Mathison Turing UK, GC&CS, Bletchley Park where he was chief cryptographer, inventor of the Bombe that was used in decrypting Enigma, mathematician, logician, and renowned pioneer of Computer Science.", "* William Thomas Tutte UK, GC&CS, Bletchley Park, with John Tiltman, broke Lorenz SZ 40/42 encryption machine (codenamed Tunny) leading to the development of the Colossus computer.", "* William Stone Weedon, US, * Gordon Welchman UK, GC&CS, Bletchley Park where he was head of Hut Six (German Army and Air Force Enigma cipher.", "decryption), made an important contribution to the design of the Bombe.", "* Herbert Yardley US, MI8 (US), author \"The American Black Chamber\", worked in China as a cryptographer and briefly in Canada.", "* Henryk Zygalski, Poland, Biuro Szyfrów, inventor of Zygalski sheets, broke German Enigma ciphers pre-1939.", "* Karl Stein German, Head of the Division IVa (security of own processes) at Cipher Department of the High Command of the Wehrmacht.", "Discoverer of Stein manifold.", "* Gisbert Hasenjaeger German, Tester of the Enigma.", "Discovered new proof of the completeness theorem of Kurt Gödel for predicate logic.", "* Heinrich Scholz German, Worked in Division IVa at OKW.", "Logician and pen friend of Alan Turning.", "* Gottfried Köthe German, Cryptanalyst at OKW.", "Mathematician created theory of topological vector spaces.", "* Ernst Witt German, Mathematician at OKW.", "Mathematical Discoveries Named After Ernst Witt.", "* Helmut Grunsky German, worked in complex analysis and geometric function theory.", "He introduced Grunsky's theorem and the Grunsky inequalities.", "* Georg Hamel.", "* Oswald Teichmüller German, Temporarily employed at OKW as cryptanalyst.", "Introduced quasiconformal mappings and differential geometric methods into complex analysis.", "Described by Friedrich L. Bauer as an extreme Nazi and a true genius.", "* Hans Rohrbach German, Mathematician at AA/Pers Z, the German department of state, civilian diplomatic cryptological agency.", "* Wolfgang Franz German, Mathematician who worked at OKW.", "Later significant discoveries in Topology.", "* Werner Weber German, Mathematician at OKW.", "* Georg Aumann German, Mathematician at OKW.", "His doctoral student was Friedrich L.", "Bauer.", "* Otto Leiberich German, Mathematician who worked as a linguist at the Cipher Department of the High Command of the Wehrmacht.", "* Alexander Aigner German, Mathematician who worked at OKW.", "* Erich Hüttenhain German, Chief cryptanalyst of and led Chi IV (section 4) of the Cipher Department of the High Command of the Wehrmacht.", "A German mathematician and cryptanalyst who tested a number of German cipher machines and found them to be breakable.", "* Wilhelm Fenner German, Chief Cryptologist and Director of Cipher Department of the High Command of the Wehrmacht.", "* Walther Fricke German, Worked alongside Dr Erich Hüttenhain at Cipher Department of the High Command of the Wehrmacht.", "Mathematician, logician, cryptanalyst and linguist.", "* Fritz Menzer German.", "Inventor of SG39 and SG41." ], [ "Other pre-computer", "* Rosario Candela, US, Architect and notable amateur cryptologist who authored books and taught classes on the subject to civilians at Hunter College.", "* Claude Elwood Shannon, US, founder of information theory, proved the one-time pad to be unbreakable." ], [ "Modern", "See also: Category:Modern cryptographers for a more exhaustive list.===Symmetric-key algorithm inventors===* Ross Anderson, UK, University of Cambridge, co-inventor of the Serpent cipher.", "* Paulo S. L. M. Barreto, Brazilian, University of São Paulo, co-inventor of the Whirlpool hash function.", "* George Blakley, US, independent inventor of secret sharing.", "* Eli Biham, Israel, co-inventor of the Serpent cipher.", "* Don Coppersmith, co-inventor of DES and MARS ciphers.", "* Joan Daemen, Belgian, co-developer of Rijndael which became the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), and Keccak which became SHA-3.", "* Horst Feistel, German, IBM, namesake of Feistel networks and Lucifer cipher.", "* Lars Knudsen, Denmark, co-inventor of the Serpent cipher.", "* Ralph Merkle, US, inventor of Merkle trees.", "* Bart Preneel, Belgian, co-inventor of RIPEMD-160.", "* Vincent Rijmen, Belgian, co-developer of Rijndael which became the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES).", "* Ronald L. Rivest, US, MIT, inventor of RC cipher series and MD algorithm series.", "* Bruce Schneier, US, inventor of Blowfish and co-inventor of Twofish and Threefish.", "* Xuejia Lai, CH, co-inventor of International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA).", "* Adi Shamir, Israel, Weizmann Institute, inventor of secret sharing.===Asymmetric-key algorithm inventors===Whitfield Diffie, Martin Hellman, Ronald Rivest, and Adi Shamir at RSA 2008* Leonard Adleman, US, USC, the 'A' in RSA.", "* David Chaum, US, inventor of blind signatures.", "* Clifford Cocks, UK GCHQ first inventor of RSA, a fact that remained secret until 1997 and so was unknown to Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman.", "* Whitfield Diffie, US, (public) co-inventor of the Diffie-Hellman key-exchange protocol.", "* Taher Elgamal, US (born Egyptian), inventor of the Elgamal discrete log cryptosystem.", "* Shafi Goldwasser, US and Israel, MIT and Weizmann Institute, co-discoverer of zero-knowledge proofs, and of Semantic security.", "* Martin Hellman, US, (public) co-inventor of the Diffie-Hellman key-exchange protocol.", "* Neal Koblitz, independent co-creator of elliptic curve cryptography.", "* Alfred Menezes, co-inventor of MQV, an elliptic curve technique.", "* Silvio Micali, US (born Italian), MIT, co-discoverer of zero-knowledge proofs, and of Semantic security.", "* Victor Miller, independent co-creator of elliptic curve cryptography.", "* David Naccache, inventor of the Naccache–Stern cryptosystem and of the Naccache–Stern knapsack cryptosystem.", "* Moni Naor, co-inventor the Naor–Yung encryption paradigm for CCA security.", "* Rafail Ostrovsky, co-inventor of Oblivious RAM, of single-server Private Information Retrieval, and proactive cryptosystems.", "* Pascal Paillier, inventor of Paillier encryption.", "* Michael O. Rabin, Israel, inventor of Rabin encryption.", "* Ronald L. Rivest, US, MIT, the 'R' in RSA.", "* Adi Shamir, Israel, Weizmann Institute, the 'S' in RSA.", "* Moti Yung, co-inventor of the Naor–Yung encryption paradigm for CCA security, of threshold cryptosystems, and proactive cryptosystems.===Cryptanalysts===* Joan Clarke, English cryptanalyst and numismatist best known for her work as a code-breaker at Bletchley Park during the Second World War.", "* Ross Anderson, UK.", "* Eli Biham, Israel, co-discoverer of differential cryptanalysis and Related-key attack.", "* Matt Blaze, US.", "* Dan Boneh, US, Stanford University.", "* Niels Ferguson, Netherlands, co-inventor of Twofish and Fortuna.", "* Ian Goldberg, Canada, University of Waterloo.", "* Lars Knudsen, Denmark, DTU, discovered integral cryptanalysis.", "* Paul Kocher, US, discovered differential power analysis.", "* Mitsuru Matsui, Japan, discoverer of linear cryptanalysis.", "* David Wagner, US, UC Berkeley, co-discoverer of the slide and boomerang attacks.", "* Xiaoyun Wang, the People's Republic of China, known for MD5 and SHA-1 hash function attacks.", "* Alex Biryukov, University of Luxembourg, known for impossible differential cryptanalysis and slide attack.", "*Moti Yung, Kleptography.===Algorithmic number theorists===* Daniel J. Bernstein, US, developed several popular algorithms, fought US government restrictions in ''Bernstein v. United States.", "''* Don Coppersmith, US* Dorian M. Goldfeld, US.", "Along with Michael Anshel and Iris Anshel invented the Anshel–Anshel–Goldfeld key exchange and the Algebraic Eraser.", "They also helped found Braid Group Cryptography.===Theoreticians===* Mihir Bellare, US, UCSD, co-proposer of the Random oracle model.", "* Dan Boneh, US, Stanford.", "* Gilles Brassard, Canada, Université de Montréal.", "Co-inventor of quantum cryptography.", "* Claude Crépeau, Canada, McGill University.", "* Oded Goldreich, Israel, Weizmann Institute, author of Foundations of Cryptography.", "* Shafi Goldwasser, US and Israel.", "* Silvio Micali, US, MIT.", "* Rafail Ostrovsky, US, UCLA.", "* Charles Rackoff, co-discoverer of zero-knowledge proofs.", "* Oded Regev, inventor of learning with errors.", "* Phillip Rogaway, US, UC Davis, co-proposer of the Random oracle model.", "* Amit Sahai, US, UCLA.", "* Gustavus Simmons, US, Sandia, authentication theory.", "* Moti Yung, US, Google.===Government cryptographers===* Clifford Cocks, UK, GCHQ, secret inventor of the algorithm later known as RSA.", "* James H. Ellis, UK, GCHQ, secretly proved the possibility of asymmetric encryption.", "* Lowell Frazer, US, National Security Agency* Laura Holmes, US, National Security Agency* Julia Wetzel, US, National Security Agency* Malcolm Williamson, UK, GCHQ, secret inventor of the protocol later known as the Diffie–Hellman key exchange.===Cryptographer businesspeople===* Bruce Schneier, US, CTO and founder of Counterpane Internet Security, Inc. and cryptography author.", "* Scott Vanstone, Canada, founder of Certicom and elliptic curve cryptography proponent." ], [ "See also", "* Cryptography" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* List of cryptographers' home pages" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chocolate" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chocolate''' or '''cocoa''' is a food made from roasted and ground cacao seed kernels that is available as a liquid, solid, or paste, either on its own or as a flavoring agent in other foods.", "Cacao has been consumed in some form for at least 5,300 years starting with the Mayo-Chinchipe culture in what is present-day Ecuador and later Mesoamerican civilizations also consumed chocolate beverages before being introduced to Europe in the 16th century.The seeds of the cacao tree have an intense bitter taste and must be fermented to develop the flavor.", "After fermentation, the seeds are dried, cleaned, and roasted.", "The shell is removed to produce cocoa nibs, which are then ground to cocoa mass, unadulterated chocolate in rough form.", "Once the cocoa mass is liquefied by heating, it is called chocolate liquor.", "The liquor may also be cooled and processed into its two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter.", "Baking chocolate, also called bitter chocolate, contains cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions without any added sugar.", "Powdered baking cocoa, which contains more fiber than cocoa butter, can be processed with alkali to produce Dutch cocoa.", "Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, a combination of cocoa solids, cocoa butter, or added vegetable oils and sugar.", "Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk.", "White chocolate contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk, but no cocoa solids.Chocolate is one of the most popular food types and flavors in the world, and many foodstuffs involving chocolate exist, particularly desserts, including cakes, pudding, mousse, chocolate brownies, and chocolate chip cookies.", "Many candies are filled with or coated with sweetened chocolate.", "Chocolate bars, either made of solid chocolate or other ingredients coated in chocolate, are eaten as snacks.", "Gifts of chocolate molded into different shapes (such as eggs, hearts, and coins) are traditional on certain Western holidays, including Christmas, Easter, Valentine's Day, and Hanukkah.", "Chocolate is also used in cold and hot beverages, such as chocolate milk and hot chocolate, and in some alcoholic drinks, such as creme de cacao.Although cocoa originated in the Americas, West African countries, particularly Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, are the leading producers of cocoa in the 21st century, accounting for some 60% of the world cocoa supply.With some two million children involved in the farming of cocoa in West Africa, child slavery and trafficking associated with the cocoa trade remain major concerns.", "A 2018 report argued that international attempts to improve conditions for children were doomed to failure because of persistent poverty, the absence of schools, increasing world cocoa demand, more intensive farming of cocoa, and continued exploitation of child labor." ], [ "Etymology", "Maya glyph for cocoaCocoa, pronounced by the Olmecs as ''kakawa'', dates to 1000 BC or earlier.", "The word \"chocolate\" entered the English language from Spanish in about 1600.The word entered Spanish from the word ''chocolātl'' in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs.", "The origin of the Nahuatl word is uncertain, as it does not appear in any early Nahuatl source, where the word for chocolate drink is ''cacahuatl'', \"cocoa water\".", "It is possible that the Spaniards coined the word (perhaps in order to avoid ''caca'', a vulgar Spanish word for \"faeces\") by combining the Yucatec Mayan word ''chocol'', \"hot\", with the Nahuatl word ''atl'', \"water\".", "A widely cited proposal is that the derives from unattested ''xocolatl'' meaning \"bitter drink\" is unsupported; the change from ''x-'' to ''ch-'' is unexplained, as is the ''-l-''.", "Another proposed etymology derives it from the word ''chicolatl'', meaning \"beaten drink\", which may derive from the word for the frothing stick, ''chicoli''.", "Other scholars reject all these proposals, considering the origin of first element of the name to be unknown.", "The term \"chocolatier\", for a chocolate confection maker, is attested from 1888." ], [ "History", "=== South America ===The cocoa bean was first domesticated at least 5,300 years ago, in equatorial South America from the Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF) site in what is present-day southeast Ecuador (Zamora-Chinchipe Province) by the Mayo-Chinchipe culture, before being introduced in Mesoamerica.===Mesoamerican usage===Maya ceramic depicting a container of frothed chocolateChocolate has been prepared as a drink for nearly all of its history.", "For example, one vessel found at an Olmec archaeological site on the Gulf Coast of Veracruz, Mexico, dates chocolate's preparation by pre-Olmec peoples as early as 1750 BC.", "On the Pacific coast of Chiapas, Mexico, a Mokaya archaeological site provides evidence of cocoa beverages dating even earlier to 1900 BCE.", "The residues and the kind of vessel in which they were found indicate the initial use of cocoa was not simply as a beverage; the white pulp around the cocoa beans was likely used as a source of fermentable sugars for an alcoholic drink.Mexica.", "''Man Carrying a Cacao Pod'', 1440–1521.Volcanic stone, traces of red pigment.", "Brooklyn Museum.An early Classic-period (460–480 CE) Maya tomb from the site in Rio Azul had vessels with the Maya glyph for cocoa on them with residue of a chocolate drink, which suggests that the Maya were drinking chocolate around 400 CE.", "Documents in Maya hieroglyphs stated that chocolate was used for ceremonial purposes in addition to everyday life.", "The Maya grew cacao trees in their backyards and used the cocoa seeds the trees produced to make a frothy, bitter drink.By the 15th century, the Aztecs had gained control of a large part of Mesoamerica and had adopted cocoa into their culture.", "They associated chocolate with Quetzalcoatl, who, according to one legend, was cast away by the other gods for sharing chocolate with humans, and identified its extrication from the pod with the removal of the human heart in sacrifice.", "In contrast to the Maya, who liked their chocolate warm, the Aztecs drank it cold, seasoning it with a broad variety of additives, including the petals of the ''Cymbopetalum penduliflorum'' tree, chili pepper, allspice, vanilla, and honey.The Aztecs were unable to grow cocoa themselves, as their home in the Mexican highlands was unsuitable for it, so chocolate was a luxury imported into the empire.", "Those who lived in areas ruled by the Aztecs were required to offer cocoa seeds in payment of the tax they deemed \"tribute\".", "Cocoa beans were often used as currency.", "For example, the Aztecs used a system in which one turkey cost 100 cocoa beans and one fresh avocado was worth three beans.The Maya and Aztecs associated cocoa with human sacrifice, and chocolate drinks specifically with sacrificial human blood.The Spanish royal chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés described a chocolate drink he had seen in Nicaragua in 1528, mixed with achiote: \"because those people are fond of drinking human blood, to make this beverage seem like blood, they add a little achiote, so that it then turns red.", "... and part of that foam is left on the lips and around the mouth, and when it is red for having achiote, it seems a horrific thing, because it seems like blood itself.", "\"===Adaptation outside Mesoamerica===''\"Traités nouveaux & curieux du café du thé et du chocolate\"'', by Philippe Sylvestre Dufour, 1685 (''\"New and curious treatises of coffee, tea and chocolate\"'')Until the 16th century, no European had ever heard of the popular drink from the Central American peoples.", "Christopher Columbus and his son Ferdinand encountered the cocoa bean on Columbus's fourth mission to the Americas on 15 August 1502, when he and his crew stole a large native canoe that proved to contain cocoa beans among other goods for trade.", "Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés may have been the first European to encounter it, as the frothy drink was part of the after-dinner routine of Montezuma.", "José de Acosta, a Spanish Jesuit missionary who lived in Peru and then Mexico in the later 16th century, wrote of its growing influence on the Spaniards:Although bananas are more profitable, cocoa is more highly esteemed in Mexico... Cocoa is a smaller fruit than almonds and thicker, which toasted do not taste bad.", "It is so prized among the Indians and even among Spaniards... because since it is a dried fruit it can be stored for a long time without deterioration, and they brings ships loaded with them from the province of Guatemala...", "It also serves as currency, because with five cocoas you can buy one thing, with thirty another, and with a hundred something else, without there being contradiction; and they give these cocoas as alms to the poor who beg for them.", "The principal product of this cocoa is a concoction which they make that they call \"chocolate\", which is a crazy thing treasured in that land, and those who are not accustomed are disgusted by it, because it has a foam on top and a bubbling like that of feces, which certainly takes a lot to put up with.", "Anyway, it is the prized beverage which the Indians offer to nobles who come to or pass through their lands; and the Spaniards, especially Spanish women born in those lands die for black chocolate.", "This aforementioned chocolate is said to be made in various forms and temperaments, hot, cold, and lukewarm.", "They are wont to use spices and much chili; they also make it into a paste, and it is said that it is a medicine to treat coughs, the stomach, and colds.", "Whatever may be the case, in fact those who have not been reared on this opinion are not appetized by it.Chocolate soon became a fashionable drink of the European nobility after the discovery of the Americas.", "''The morning chocolate'' by Pietro Longhi; Venice, 1775–1780While Columbus had taken cocoa beans with him back to Spain, chocolate made no impact until Spanish friars introduced it to the Spanish court.", "Agustín Farfán, a former court physician and Friar in New Spain, in ''Tratado Breve de Medicina'' first introduced cocoa, derived from cacao (native to New Spain), to Europe with a medical use (digestion).", "Through the 17th and 18th centuries, doctors affirmed the healthy effects of chocolate, consequently boosting the import of chocolate and introducing its consumption in the Europe.After the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, chocolate was imported to Europe.", "There, it quickly became a court favorite.", "It was still served as a beverage, but the Spanish added sugar, as well as honey (the original sweetener used by the Aztecs for chocolate), to counteract the natural bitterness.", "Vanilla, another indigenous American introduction, was also a popular additive, with pepper and other spices sometimes used to give the illusion of a more potent vanilla flavor.", "Unfortunately, these spices tended to unsettle the European constitution; the ''Encyclopédie'' states, \"The pleasant scent and sublime taste it imparts to chocolate have made it highly recommended; but a long experience having shown that it could potentially upset one's stomach\", which is why chocolate without vanilla was sometimes referred to as \"healthy chocolate\".", "By 1602, chocolate had made its way from Spain to Austria.", "By 1662, Pope Alexander VII had declared that religious fasts were not broken by consuming chocolate drinks.", "Within about a hundred years, chocolate established a foothold throughout Europe.Silver chocolate pot with hinged finial to insert a ''moulinet'' or swizzle stick, London 1714–15 (Victoria and Albert Museum)The new craze for chocolate brought with it a thriving slave market, as between the early 1600s and late 1800s, the laborious and slow processing of the cocoa bean was manual.", "Cocoa plantations spread, as the English, Dutch, and French colonized and planted.", "With the depletion of Mesoamerican workers, largely to disease, cocoa production was often the work of poor wage laborers and African slaves.", "Wind-powered and horse-drawn mills were used to speed production, augmenting human labor.", "Heating the working areas of the table-mill, an innovation that emerged in France in 1732, also assisted in extraction.In 1729, the first water-powered machinery to grind cocoa beans was developed by Charles Churchman and his son Walter in Bristol, England.", "In 1761, Joseph Fry and his partner John Vaughan bought Churchman's premises, founding Fry's.", "The same year, Fry and Vaughan also acquired their own patent for a water-powered machine that could grind the cocoa beans to a fine powder and thus produce a superior cocoa drink.", "In 1795, chocolate production entered the Industrial era when Fry's, under the founder's son Joseph Storrs Fry, used a Watt steam engine to ground cocoa beans.", "The Baker Chocolate Company, which makes Baker's Chocolate, is the oldest producer of chocolate in the United States.", "Founded by Dr. James Baker and John Hannon in Boston in 1765, the business is still in operation.====Solid chocolate====Despite the drink remaining the traditional form of consumption for a long time, solid chocolate was increasingly consumed since the 18th century.", "Tablets, facilitating the consumption of chocolate under its solid form, have been produced since the early 19th century.", "Cailler (1819) and Menier (1836) are early examples.", "In 1830, chocolate is paired with hazelnuts, an innovation due to Kohler.Dutch chemist Coenraad Johannes van Houten invented \"Dutch cocoa\" by treating cocoa mass with alkaline salts to reduce the natural bitterness without adding sugar or milk to get usable cocoa powder.Meanwhile, new processes that sped the production of chocolate emerged early in the Industrial Revolution.", "In 1815, Dutch chemist Coenraad van Houten introduced alkaline salts to chocolate, which reduced its bitterness.", "A few years thereafter, in 1828, he created a press to remove about half the natural fat (cocoa butter) from chocolate liquor, which made chocolate both cheaper to produce and more consistent in quality.", "This innovation introduced the modern era of chocolate, allowing the mass-production of both pure cocoa butter and cocoa powder.The first mass-produced chocolate bar, Fry's Chocolate Cream, was produced by Fry's in 1866.Known as \"Dutch cocoa\", this machine-pressed chocolate was instrumental in the transformation of chocolate to its solid form when, in 1847, English chocolatier Joseph Fry discovered a way to make chocolate more easily moldable when he mixed the ingredients of cocoa powder and sugar with melted cocoa butter.", "Subsequently, in 1866 his chocolate factory, Fry's, launched the first mass-produced chocolate bar, Fry's Chocolate Cream, and they became very popular.", "Milk had sometimes been used as an addition to chocolate beverages since the mid-17th century, but in 1875 Swiss chocolatier Daniel Peter invented milk chocolate by mixing a powdered milk developed by Henri Nestlé with the liquor.", "In 1879, the texture and taste of chocolate was further improved when Rudolphe Lindt invented the conching machine.Besides Nestlé, several notable chocolate companies had their start in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "Rowntree's of York set up and began producing chocolate in 1862, after buying out the Tuke family business.", "Cadbury of Birmingham was manufacturing boxed chocolates in England by 1868.Manufacturing their first Easter egg in 1875, Cadbury created the modern chocolate Easter egg after developing a pure cocoa butter that could easily be molded into smooth shapes.", "In 1893, Milton S. Hershey purchased chocolate processing equipment at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, and soon began the career of Hershey's chocolates with chocolate-coated caramels." ], [ "Types", "Barks made of different varieties of chocolateSeveral types of chocolate can be distinguished.", "Pure, unsweetened chocolate, often called \"baking chocolate\", contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions.", "Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, which combines chocolate with sugar.===Eating chocolate===The traditional types of chocolate are dark, milk and white.", "All of them contain cocoa butter, which is the ingredient defining the physical properties of chocolate (consistency and melting temperature).", "Plain (or dark) chocolate, as it name suggests, is a form of chocolate that is similar to pure cocoa liquor, although is usually made with a slightly higher proportion of cocoa butter.", "It is simply defined by its cocoa percentage.", "In milk chocolate, the non-fat cocoa solids are partly or mostly replaced by milk solids.", "In white chocolate, they are all replaced by milk solids, hence its ivory color.Other forms of eating chocolate exist, these include raw chocolate (made with unroasted beans) and ruby chocolate.", "An additional popular form of eating chocolate, gianduja, is made by incorporating nut paste (typically hazelnut) to the chocolate paste.===Other types===Other types of chocolate are used in baking and confectionery.", "These include baking chocolate (often unsweetened), couverture chocolate (used for coating), compound chocolate (a lower-cost alternative) and modeling chocolate.", "Modeling chocolate is a chocolate paste made by melting chocolate and combining it with corn syrup, glucose syrup, or golden syrup." ], [ "Production", "Chocolate is created from the cocoa bean.", "A cacao tree with fruit pods in various stages of ripening.Roughly two-thirds of the entire world's cocoa is produced in West Africa, with 43% sourced from Côte d'Ivoire, where, , child labor is a common practice to obtain the product.", "According to the World Cocoa Foundation, in 2007 some 50 million people around the world depended on cocoa as a source of livelihood.", "in the UK, most chocolatiers purchase their chocolate from them, to melt, mold and package to their own design.", "According to the WCF's 2012 report, the Ivory Coast is the largest producer of cocoa in the world.", "The two main jobs associated with creating chocolate candy are chocolate makers and chocolatiers.", "Chocolate makers use harvested cocoa beans and other ingredients to produce couverture chocolate (covering).", "Chocolatiers use the finished couverture to make chocolate candies (bars, truffles, etc.", ").Production costs can be decreased by reducing cocoa solids content or by substituting cocoa butter with another fat.", "Cocoa growers object to allowing the resulting food to be called \"chocolate\", due to the risk of lower demand for their crops.===Genome===The sequencing in 2010 of the genome of the cacao tree may allow yields to be improved.", "Due to concerns about global warming effects on lowland climate in the narrow band of latitudes where cocoa is grown (20 degrees north and south of the equator), the commercial company Mars, Incorporated and the University of California, Berkeley, are conducting genomic research in 2017–18 to improve the survivability of cacao plants in hot climates.===Cacao varieties===Toasted cocoa beans at a chocolate workshop at the La Chonita Hacienda in TabascoChocolate is made from cocoa beans, the dried and fermented seeds of the cacao tree (''Theobroma cacao''), a small, 4–8 m tall (15–26 ft tall) evergreen tree native to the deep tropical region of the Americas.", "Recent genetic studies suggest the most common genotype of the plant originated in the Amazon basin and was gradually transported by humans throughout South and Central America.", "Early forms of another genotype have also been found in what is now Venezuela.", "The scientific name, ''Theobroma'', means \"food of the gods\".", "The fruit, called a cocoa pod, is ovoid, long and wide, ripening yellow to orange, and weighing about when ripe.Cacao trees are small, understory trees that need rich, well-drained soils.", "They naturally grow within 20° of either side of the equator because they need about 2000 mm of rainfall a year, and temperatures in the range of .", "Cacao trees cannot tolerate a temperature lower than .The three main varieties of cocoa beans used in chocolate are criollo, forastero, and trinitario.===Processing ===Cocoa pods are harvested by cutting them from the tree using a machete, or by knocking them off the tree using a stick.", "It is important to harvest the pods when they are fully ripe, because if the pod is unripe, the beans will have a low cocoa butter content, or low sugar content, reducing the ultimate flavor.==== Microbial fermentation ====\"Dancing the cocoa\", Trinidad, c. 1957The beans (which are sterile within their pods) and their surrounding pulp are removed from the pods and placed in piles or bins to ferment.", "Micro-organisms, present naturally in the environment, ferment the pectin-containing material.", "Yeasts produce ethanol, lactic acid bacteria produce lactic acid, and acetic acid bacteria produce acetic acid.", "In some cocoa-producing regions an association between filamentous fungi and bacteria (called \"cocobiota\") acts to produce metabolites beneficial to human health when consumed.", "The fermentation process, which takes up to seven days, also produces several flavor precursors, that eventually provide the chocolate taste.After fermentation, the beans must be dried to prevent mold growth.", "Climate and weather permitting, this is done by spreading the beans out in the sun from five to seven days.", "In some growing regions (for example, Tobago), the dried beans are then polished for sale by \"dancing the cocoa\": spreading the beans onto a floor, adding oil or water, and shuffling the beans against each other using bare feet.The dried beans are then transported to a chocolate manufacturing facility.", "The beans are cleaned (removing twigs, stones, and other debris), roasted, and graded.", "Next, the shell of each bean is removed to extract the nib.", "The nibs are ground and liquefied, resulting in pure chocolate liquor.", "The liquor can be further processed into cocoa solids and cocoa butter.==== Moist incubation ====In this alternative process, the beans are dried without fermentation.", "The nibs are then removed and hydrated in an acidic solution.", "They are heated for 72 hours and dried again.", "Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry showed that the incubated chocolate had higher levels of Strecker aldehydes, and lower levels of pyrazines.===Blending===Chocolate liquor is blended with the cocoa butter in varying quantities to make different types of chocolate or couverture.", "The basic blends of ingredients for the various types of chocolate (in order of highest quantity of cocoa liquor first), are:Fountain chocolate is made with high levels of cocoa butter, allowing it to flow gently over a chocolate fountain to serve as dessert fondue.", "* Dark chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, and (sometimes) vanilla* Milk chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, milk or milk powder, and vanilla* White chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, milk or milk powder, and vanillaUsually, an emulsifying agent, such as soy lecithin, is added, though a few manufacturers prefer to exclude this ingredient for purity reasons and to remain GMO-free, sometimes at the cost of a perfectly smooth texture.", "Some manufacturers are now using PGPR, an artificial emulsifier derived from castor oil that allows them to reduce the amount of cocoa butter while maintaining the same mouthfeel.The texture is also heavily influenced by processing, specifically conching (see below).", "The more expensive chocolate tends to be processed longer and thus has a smoother texture and mouthfeel, regardless of whether emulsifying agents are added.Different manufacturers develop their own \"signature\" blends based on the above formulas, but varying proportions of the different constituents are used.", "The finest, plain dark chocolate couverture contains at least 70% cocoa (both solids and butter), whereas milk chocolate usually contains up to 50%.", "High-quality white chocolate couverture contains only about 35% cocoa butter.Producers of high-quality, small-batch chocolate argue that mass production produces bad-quality chocolate.", "Some mass-produced chocolate contains much less cocoa (as low as 7% in many cases), and fats other than cocoa butter.", "Vegetable oils and artificial vanilla flavor are often used in cheaper chocolate to mask poorly fermented and/or roasted beans.In 2007, the Chocolate Manufacturers Association in the United States, whose members include Hershey, Nestlé, and Archer Daniels Midland, lobbied the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to change the legal definition of chocolate to let them substitute partially hydrogenated vegetable oils for cocoa butter, in addition to using artificial sweeteners and milk substitutes.", "Currently, the FDA does not allow a product to be referred to as \"chocolate\" if the product contains any of these ingredients.In the EU a product can be sold as chocolate if it contains up to 5% vegetable oil, and must be labeled as \"family milk chocolate\" rather than \"milk chocolate\" if it contains 20% milk.According to Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, a \"chocolate product\" is a food product that is sourced from at least one \"cocoa product\" and contains at least one of the following: \"chocolate, bittersweet chocolate, semi-sweet chocolate, dark chocolate, sweet chocolate, milk chocolate, or white chocolate\".", "A \"cocoa product\" is defined as a food product that is sourced from cocoa beans and contains \"cocoa nibs, cocoa liquor, cocoa mass, unsweetened chocolate, bitter chocolate, chocolate liquor, cocoa, low-fat cocoa, cocoa powder, or low-fat cocoa powder\".===Conching===Chocolate melanger mixing raw ingredientsThe penultimate process is called conching.", "A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders.", "The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept in a liquid state by frictional heat.", "Chocolate before conching has an uneven and gritty texture.", "The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect (typically around 20 μm) and reduces rough edges, hence the smooth feel in the mouth.", "The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate.", "High-quality chocolate is conched for about 72 hours, and lesser grades about four to six hours.", "After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to about until final processing.===Tempering===Video of cocoa beans being ground and mixed with other ingredients to make chocolate at a Mayordomo store in OaxacaThe final process is called tempering.", "Uncontrolled crystallization of cocoa butter typically results in crystals of varying size, some or all large enough to be seen with the naked eye.", "This causes the surface of the chocolate to appear mottled and matte, and causes the chocolate to crumble rather than snap when broken.", "The uniform sheen and crisp bite of properly processed chocolate are the results of consistently small cocoa butter crystals produced by the tempering process.The fats in cocoa butter can crystallize in six different forms (polymorphous crystallization).", "The primary purpose of tempering is to assure that only the best form, Type V, is present.", "The six different crystal forms have different properties.", "Crystal Melting temp.", "NotesISoft, crumbly, melts too easilyIISoft, crumbly, melts too easilyIIIFirm, poor snap, melts too easilyIVFirm, good snap, melts too easilyVGlossy, firm, best snap, melts near body temperature (37 °C)VIHard, takes weeks to formMolten chocolate and a piece of a chocolate barAs a solid piece of chocolate, the cocoa butter fat particles are in a crystalline rigid structure that gives the chocolate its solid appearance.", "Once heated, the crystals of the polymorphic cocoa butter can break apart from the rigid structure and allow the chocolate to obtain a more fluid consistency as the temperature increases – the melting process.", "When the heat is removed, the cocoa butter crystals become rigid again and come closer together, allowing the chocolate to solidify.The temperature in which the crystals obtain enough energy to break apart from their rigid conformation would depend on the milk fat content in the chocolate and the shape of the fat molecules, as well as the form of the cocoa butterfat.", "Chocolate with a higher fat content will melt at a lower temperature.Making chocolate considered \"good\" is about forming as many type V crystals as possible.", "This provides the best appearance and texture and creates the most stable crystals, so the texture and appearance will not degrade over time.", "To accomplish this, the temperature is carefully manipulated during the crystallization.Chocolate cubes, ''pistoles'' and ''callets''Generally, the chocolate is first heated to to melt all six forms of crystals.", "Next, the chocolate is cooled to about , which will allow crystal types IV and V to form.", "At this temperature, the chocolate is agitated to create many small crystal \"seeds\" which will serve as nuclei to create small crystals in the chocolate.", "The chocolate is then heated to about to eliminate any type IV crystals, leaving just type V. After this point, any excessive heating of the chocolate will destroy the temper and this process will have to be repeated.", "Other methods of chocolate tempering are used as well.", "The most common variant is introducing already tempered, solid \"seed\" chocolate.", "The temper of chocolate can be measured with a chocolate temper meter to ensure accuracy and consistency.", "A sample cup is filled with the chocolate and placed in the unit which then displays or prints the results.Two classic ways of manually tempering chocolate are:* Working the molten chocolate on a heat-absorbing surface, such as a stone slab, until thickening indicates the presence of sufficient crystal \"seeds\"; the chocolate is then gently warmed to working temperature.", "* Stirring solid chocolate into molten chocolate to \"inoculate\" the liquid chocolate with crystals (this method uses the already formed crystals of the solid chocolate to \"seed\" the molten chocolate).Chocolate tempering machines (or temperers) with computer controls can be used for producing consistently tempered chocolate.", "In particular, continuous tempering machines are used in large volume applications.", "Various methods and apparatuses for continuous flow tempering.", "In general, molten chocolate coming in at 40–50 °C is cooled in heat exchangers to crystallization temperates of about 26–30 °C, passed through a tempering column consisting of spinning plates to induce shear, then warmed slightly to re-melt undesirable crystal formations.===Shaping===Chocolate is molded in different shapes for different uses:* Chocolate bars (tablets) are rectangular blocks of chocolate meant to be broken down to cubes (or other predefined shapes), which can then be used for consumption, cooking and baking.", "The term is also used for combination bars, which are a type of candy bars* Chocolate chips are small pieces of chocolate, usually drop-like, which are meant for decoration and baking* ''Pistoles'', ''callets'' and ''fèves'' are small, coin-like or bean-like pieces of chocolate meant for baking and patisserie applications (also see Pistole (coin) and Fève (trinket))* Chocolate blocks are large, cuboid chunks of chocolate meant for professional use and further processing* Other, more specialized shapes for chocolate include sticks, curls and hollow semi-spheres===Storage===Packaged chocolate in the Ghirardelli Chocolate Company is stored in controlled conditions.Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity.", "Ideal storage temperatures are between , with a relative humidity of less than 50%.", "If refrigerated or frozen without containment, chocolate can absorb enough moisture to cause a whitish discoloration, the result of fat or sugar crystals rising to the surface.", "Various types of \"blooming\" effects can occur if chocolate is stored or served improperly.Chocolate bloom is caused by storage temperature fluctuating or exceeding , while sugar bloom is caused by temperature below or excess humidity.", "To distinguish between different types of bloom, one can rub the surface of the chocolate lightly, and if the bloom disappears, it is fat bloom.", "Moving chocolate between temperature extremes, can result in an oily texture.", "Although visually unappealing, chocolate suffering from bloom is safe for consumption and taste unaffected.", "Bloom can be reversed by retempering the chocolate or using it for any use that requires melting the chocolate.Chocolate is generally stored away from other foods, as it can absorb different aromas.", "Ideally, chocolates are packed or wrapped, and placed in proper storage with the correct humidity and temperature.", "Additionally, chocolate is frequently stored in a dark place or protected from light by wrapping paper.", "The glossy shine, snap, aroma, texture, and taste of the chocolate can show the quality and if it was stored well." ], [ "Nutrition", "One hundred grams of milk chocolate supplies 540 calories.", "It is 59% carbohydrates (52% as sugar and 3% as dietary fiber), 30% fat and 8% protein (table).", "Approximately 65% of the fat in milk chocolate is saturated, mainly palmitic acid and stearic acid, while the predominant unsaturated fat is oleic acid (table).100-grams of milk chocolate is an ''excellent source'' (over 19% of the Daily Value, DV) of riboflavin, vitamin B12 and the dietary minerals, manganese, phosphorus and zinc.", "Chocolate is a ''good source'' (10–19% DV) of calcium, magnesium and iron.Assorted chocolates" ], [ "Health effects", "===Phytochemicals===Chocolate contains polyphenols, especially flavan-3-ols (catechins) and smaller amounts of other flavonoids.", "It also contains alkaloids, such as theobromine, phenethylamine, and caffeine.", "which are under study for their potential effects in the body.", "===Lead===It is unlikely that chocolate consumption in small amounts causes lead poisoning.", "Some studies have shown that lead may bind to cocoa shells, and contamination may occur during the manufacturing process.", "One study showed the mean lead level in milk chocolate candy bars was 0.027 µg lead per gram of candy; another study found that some chocolate purchased at U.S. supermarkets contained up to 0.965 µg per gram, close to the international (voluntary) standard limit for lead in cocoa powder or beans, which is 1 µg of lead per gram.", "In 2006, the U.S. FDA lowered by one-fifth the amount of lead permissible in candy, but compliance is only voluntary.", "Studies concluded that \"children, who are big consumers of chocolates, may be at risk of exceeding the daily limit of lead; whereas one 10 g cube of dark chocolate may contain as much as 20% of the daily lead oral limit.", "\"Moreover chocolate may not be the only source of lead in their nutrition\" and \"chocolate might be a significant source of cadmium and lead ingestion, particularly for children.\"", "According to a 2005 study, the average lead concentration of cocoa beans is ≤ 0.5 ng/g, which is one of the lowest reported values for a natural food.", "However, during cultivation and production, chocolate may absorb lead from the environment (such as in atmospheric emissions of now unused leaded gasoline).===Cadmium===The European Food Safety Authority recommended a tolerable weekly intake for cadmium of 2.5 micrograms per kg of body weight for Europeans, indicating that consuming chocolate products caused exposure of about 4% among all foods eaten.", "1986 California Proposition 65 requires a warning label on chocolate products having more than 4.1 mg of cadmium per daily serving of a single product.===Caffeine===One tablespoonful (5 grams) of dry unsweetened cocoa powder has 12.1 mg of caffeine and a 25-g single serving of dark chocolate has 22.4 mg of caffeine.", "Although a single 7 oz.", "(200 ml) serving of coffee may contain 80–175 mg, studies have shown psychoactive effects in caffeine doses as low as 9 mg, and a dose as low as 12.5 mg was shown to have effects on cognitive performance.===Theobromine and oxalate===Chocolate may be a factor for heartburn in some people because one of its constituents, theobromine, may affect the esophageal sphincter muscle in a way that permits stomach acids to enter the esophagus.", "Theobromine poisoning is an overdosage reaction to the bitter alkaloid, which happens more frequently in domestic animals than humans.", "However, daily intake of 50–100 g cocoa (0.8–1.5 g theobromine) by humans has been associated with sweating, trembling, and severe headache.Chocolate and cocoa contain moderate to high amounts of oxalate, which may increase the risk of kidney stones.====Non-human animals====In sufficient amounts, the theobromine found in chocolate is toxic to animals such as cats, dogs, horses, parrots, and small rodents because they are unable to metabolise the chemical effectively.", "If animals are fed chocolate, the theobromine may remain in the circulation for up to 20 hours, possibly causing epileptic seizures, heart attacks, internal bleeding, and eventually death.", "Medical treatment performed by a veterinarian involves inducing vomiting within two hours of ingestion and administration of benzodiazepines or barbiturates for seizures, antiarrhythmics for heart arrhythmias, and fluid diuresis.A typical dog will normally experience great intestinal distress after eating less than of dark chocolate, but will not necessarily experience bradycardia or tachycardia unless it eats at least a half a kilogram (1.1 lb) of milk chocolate.", "Dark chocolate has 2 to 5 times more theobromine and thus is more dangerous to dogs.", "According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, approximately 1.3 grams of baker's chocolate per kilogram of a dog's body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to cause symptoms of toxicity.", "For example, a typical baker's chocolate bar would be enough to bring about symptoms in a dog.", "In the 20th century, there were reports that mulch made from cacao bean shells is dangerous to dogs and livestock." ], [ "Research", "===Obesity===Commonly consumed chocolate is high in fat and sugar, which are associated with an increased risk for obesity when chocolate is consumed in excess.", "===Acne===Overall evidence is insufficient to determine the relationship between chocolate consumption and acne.", "Various studies point not to chocolate, but to the high glycemic nature of certain foods, like sugar, corn syrup, and other simple carbohydrates, as potential causes of acne, along with other possible dietary factors.===Addiction===Food, including chocolate, is not typically viewed as addictive.", "Some people, however, may want or crave chocolate, leading to a self-described term, ''chocoholic''.===Mood===By some popular myths, chocolate is considered to be a mood enhancer, such as by increasing sex drive or stimulating cognition, but there is little scientific evidence that such effects are consistent among all chocolate consumers.", "If mood improvement from eating chocolate occurs, there is not enough research to indicate whether it results from the favorable flavor or from the stimulant effects of its constituents, such as caffeine, theobromine, or their parent molecule, methylxanthine.", "A 2019 review reported that chocolate consumption does not improve depressive mood.===Heart and blood vessels===Reviews support a short-term effect of lowering blood pressure by consuming cocoa products, but there is no evidence of long-term cardiovascular health benefit.", "Chocolate and cocoa are under preliminary research to determine if consumption affects the risk of certain cardiovascular diseases or cognitive abilities.While daily consumption of cocoa flavanols (minimum dose of 200 mg) appears to benefit platelet and vascular function, there is no good evidence to indicate an effect on heart attacks or strokes.", "Research has also shown that consuming dark chocolate does not substantially affect blood pressure." ], [ "Labeling", "Some manufacturers provide the percentage of chocolate in a finished chocolate confection as a label quoting percentage of \"cocoa\" or \"cacao\".", "This refers to the combined percentage of both cocoa solids and cocoa butter in the bar, not just the percentage of cocoa solids.", "The Belgian AMBAO certification mark indicates that no non-cocoa vegetable fats have been used in making the chocolate.", "A long-standing dispute between Britain on the one hand and Belgium and France over British use of vegetable fats in chocolate ended in 2000 with the adoption of new standards which permitted the use of up to five percent vegetable fats in clearly labelled products.", "This British style of chocolate has sometimes been pejoratively referred to as \"vegelate\".Chocolates that are organic or fair trade certified carry labels accordingly.In the United States, some large chocolate manufacturers lobbied the federal government to permit confections containing cheaper hydrogenated vegetable oil in place of cocoa butter to be sold as \"chocolate\".", "In June 2007, in response to consumer concern about the proposal, the FDA reiterated \"Cacao fat, as one of the signature characteristics of the product, will remain a principal component of standardized chocolate.\"" ], [ "Industry", "Chocolate, prevalent throughout the world, is a steadily growing, US$50 billion-a-year worldwide business.", "Europe accounts for 45% of the world's chocolate revenue, and the US spent $20 billion in 2013.Big Chocolate is the grouping of major international chocolate companies in Europe and the U.S. U.S. companies Mars and Hershey's alone generated $13 billion a year in chocolate sales and account for two-thirds of U.S. production in 2004.Despite the expanding reach of the chocolate industry internationally, cocoa farmers and labourers in the Ivory Coast are often unaware of the uses of the beans; the high cost of chocolate products in the Ivory Coast makes them inaccessible to the majority of the population, who do not know what chocolate tastes like.===Manufacturers===Chocolate with various fillingsChocolate manufacturers produce a range of products from chocolate bars to fudge.", "Large manufacturers of chocolate products include Cadbury (the world's largest confectionery manufacturer), Ferrero, Guylian, The Hershey Company, Lindt & Sprüngli, Mars, Incorporated, Milka, Neuhaus and Suchard.Guylian is best known for its chocolate sea shells; Cadbury for its Dairy Milk and Creme Egg.", "The Hershey Company, the largest chocolate manufacturer in North America, produces the Hershey Bar and Hershey's Kisses.", "Mars Incorporated, a large privately owned U.S. corporation, produces Mars Bar, Milky Way, M&M's, Twix, and Snickers.", "Lindt is known for its truffle balls and gold foil-wrapped Easter bunnies.Food conglomerates Nestlé SA and Kraft Foods both have chocolate brands.", "Nestlé acquired Rowntree's in 1988 and now markets chocolates under their brand, including Smarties (a chocolate candy) and Kit Kat (a chocolate bar); Kraft Foods through its 1990 acquisition of Jacobs Suchard, now owns Milka and Suchard.", "In February 2010, Kraft also acquired British-based Cadbury; Fry's, Trebor Basset and the fair trade brand Green & Black's also belongs to the group.===Child labor in cocoa harvesting===The widespread use of children in cocoa production is controversial, not only for the concerns about child labor and exploitation, but also because up to 12,000 of the 200,000 children working in the Ivory Coast, the world's biggest producer of cocoa, may be victims of trafficking or slavery.", "Most attention on this subject has focused on West Africa, which collectively supplies 69 percent of the world's cocoa, and the Ivory Coast in particular, which supplies 35 percent of the world's cocoa.", "Thirty percent of children under age 15 in sub-Saharan Africa are child laborers, mostly in agricultural activities including cocoa farming.", "Major chocolate producers, such as Nestlé, buy cocoa at commodities exchanges where Ivorian cocoa is mixed with other cocoa.In 2009, Salvation Army International Development (SAID) UK stated that 12,000 children have been trafficked on cocoa farms in the Ivory Coast of Africa, where half of the world's chocolate is made.", "SAID UK states that it is these child slaves who are likely to be working in \"harsh and abusive\" conditions for the production of chocolate, and an increasing number of health-food and anti-slavery organisations are highlighting and campaigning against the use of trafficking in the chocolate industry.As of 2017, approximately 2.1 million children in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire were involved in farming cocoa, carrying heavy loads, clearing forests, and being exposed to pesticides.", "According to Sona Ebai, the former secretary-general of the Alliance of Cocoa Producing Countries: \"I think child labor cannot be just the responsibility of industry to solve.", "I think it's the proverbial all-hands-on-deck: government, civil society, the private sector.", "And there, you need leadership.\"", "Reported in 2018, a 3-year pilot program – conducted by Nestlé with 26,000 farmers mostly located in Côte d'Ivoire – observed a 51% decrease in the number of children doing hazardous jobs in cocoa farming.", "The US Department of Labor formed the Child Labor Cocoa Coordinating Group as a public-private partnership with the governments of Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire to address child labor practices in the cocoa industry.", "The International Cocoa Initiative involving major cocoa manufacturers established the Child Labor Monitoring and Remediation System intended to monitor thousands of farms in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire for child labor conditions, but the program reached less than 20% of the child laborers.", "Despite these efforts, goals to reduce child labor in West Africa by 70% before 2020 are frustrated by persistent poverty, absence of schools, expansion of cocoa farmland, and increased demand for cocoa.In April 2018, the Cocoa Barometer report stated: \"Not a single company or government is anywhere near reaching the sector-wide objective of the elimination of child labor, and not even near their commitments of a 70% reduction of child labor by 2020\".===Fair trade===In the 2000s, some chocolate producers began to engage in fair trade initiatives, to address concerns about the marginalization of cocoa laborers in developing countries.", "Traditionally, Africa and other developing countries received low prices for their exported commodities such as cocoa, which caused poverty to abound.", "Fairtrade seeks to establish a system of direct trade from developing countries to counteract this unfair system.", "One solution for fair labor practices is for farmers to become part of an Agricultural cooperative.", "Cooperatives pay farmers a fair price for their cocoa so farmers have enough money for food, clothes, and school fees.", "One of the main tenets of fair trade is that farmers receive a fair price, but this does not mean that the larger amount of money paid for fair trade cocoa goes directly to the farmers.", "The effectiveness of fair trade has been questioned.", "In a 2014 article, ''The Economist'' stated that workers on fair trade farms have a lower standard of living than on similar farms outside the fair trade system." ], [ "Usage and consumption", "===Bars===A chocolate barChocolate is sold in chocolate bars, which come in dark chocolate, milk chocolate and white chocolate varieties.", "Some bars that are mostly chocolate have other ingredients blended into the chocolate, such as nuts, raisins, or crisped rice.", "Chocolate is used as an ingredient in a huge variety of bars, which typically contain various confectionary ingredients (e.g., nougat, wafers, caramel, nuts, etc.)", "which are coated in chocolate.===Coating and filling===Chocolate cake with chocolate frostingChocolate is used as a flavouring product in many desserts, such as chocolate cakes, chocolate brownies, chocolate mousse and chocolate chip cookies.", "Numerous types of candy and snacks contain chocolate, either as a filling (e.g., M&M's) or as a coating (e.g., chocolate-coated raisins or chocolate-coated peanuts).===Beverages===Some non-alcoholic beverages contain chocolate, such as chocolate milk, hot chocolate, chocolate milkshakes and tejate.", "Some alcoholic liqueurs are flavoured with chocolate, such as chocolate liqueur and creme de cacao.", "Chocolate is a popular flavour of ice cream and pudding, and chocolate sauce is a commonly added as a topping on ice cream sundaes.", "The caffè mocha is an espresso beverage containing chocolate." ], [ "Popular culture", "===Religious and cultural links===A gift box of chocolates, which is a common gift for Valentine's DayChocolate is associated with festivals such as Easter, when moulded chocolate rabbits and eggs are traditionally given in Christian communities, and Hanukkah, when chocolate coins are given in Jewish communities.", "Chocolate hearts and chocolate in heart-shaped boxes are popular on Valentine's Day and are often presented along with flowers and a greeting card.", "In 1868, Cadbury created a decorated box of chocolates in the shape of a heart for Valentine's Day.", "Boxes of filled chocolates quickly became associated with the holiday.", "Chocolate is an acceptable gift on other holidays and on occasions such as birthdays.Many confectioners make holiday-specific chocolate candies.", "Chocolate Easter eggs or rabbits and Santa Claus figures are two examples.", "Such confections can be solid, hollow, or filled with sweets or fondant.===Books and film===Chocolate has been the center of several successful book and film adaptations.In 1964, Roald Dahl published a children's novel titled ''Charlie and the Chocolate Factory''.", "The novel centers on a poor boy named Charlie Bucket who takes a tour through the greatest chocolate factory in the world, owned by the eccentric Willy Wonka.", "Two film adaptations of the novel were produced: ''Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory'' (1971) and ''Charlie and the Chocolate Factory'' (2005).", "A third adaptation, an origin prequel film titled ''Wonka'', is scheduled for release in 2023.", "''Like Water for Chocolate'' a 1989 love story by novelist Laura Esquivel, was adapted to film in 1992.", "''Chocolat'', a 1999 novel by Joanne Harris, was adapted for film in ''Chocolat'' which was released a year later." ], [ "See also", "* ''Candida krusei''* Candy making* Children in cocoa production* Chocolataire* Chocolate almonds* Chocolate chip* Chocoholic* ''Cuestión moral: si el chocolate quebranta el ayuno eclesiástico''* List of chocolate-covered foods* List of chocolate beverages* List of chocolate companies* ''Theobroma cacao'', the cocoa/chocolate plant* United States military chocolate* Types of chocolate" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Norton, Marcy.", "''Sacred Gifts, Profane Pleasures: A History of Tobacco and Chocolate in the Atlantic World'' (Cornell UP, 2008)* * Rosenblum, Mort (2006).", "''Chocolate: A Bittersweet Saga of Dark and Light''.", "North Point Press.", "* Ryan, Órla (2011).", "''Chocolate Nations: Living and Dying for Cocoa in West Africa''.", "Zed Books.", "* * Young, Allen M. (2007).", "''The Chocolate Tree: A Natural History of Cacao'' (Rev.", "and expanded ed.).", "University Press of Florida." ], [ "External links", "******* Chocolate Tempering* \"Chocolate and Tea\" , American Enterprise Exhibition, National Museum of American History (exhibit on 18th century American trade)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cornet" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''cornet''' (, ) is a brass instrument similar to the trumpet but distinguished from it by its conical bore, more compact shape, and mellower tone quality.", "The most common cornet is a transposing instrument in B.", "There is also a soprano cornet in E and cornets in A and C. All are unrelated to the Renaissance and early Baroque cornett." ], [ "History", "The cornet was derived from the posthorn by applying rotary valves to it in the 1820s, in France.", "However, by the 1830s, Parisian makers were using piston valves.", "Cornets first appeared as separate instrumental parts in 19th-century French compositions.The instrument could not have been developed without the improvement of piston valves by Silesian horn players Friedrich Blühmel (or Blümel) and Heinrich Stölzel, in the early 19th century.", "These two instrument makers almost simultaneously invented valves, though it is likely that Blühmel was the inventor, while Stölzel developed a practical instrument.", "They were jointly granted a patent for a period of ten years.", "François Périnet received a patent in 1838 for an improved valve, which became the model for modern brass instrument piston valves.", "The first notable virtuoso player was Jean-Baptiste Arban, who studied the cornet extensively and published , commonly referred to as the ''Arban method'', in 1864.Up until the early 20th century, the trumpet and cornet co-existed in musical ensembles; symphonic repertoire often involves separate parts for trumpet and cornet.", "As several instrument builders made improvements to both instruments, they started to look and sound more alike.", "The modern-day cornet is used in brass bands, concert bands, and in specific orchestral repertoire that requires a more mellow sound.The name \"cornet\" derives from the French ''corne'', meaning \"horn\", itself from Latin .", "While not musically related, instruments of the Zink family (which includes serpents) are named \"cornetto\" or \"cornett\" in modern English, to distinguish them from the valved cornet described here.", "The 11th edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' referred to serpents as \"old wooden cornets\".", "The Roman/Etruscan cornu (or simply \"horn\") is the lingual ancestor of these.", "It is a predecessor of the post horn, from which the cornet evolved, and was used like a bugle to signal orders on the battlefield." ], [ "Relationship to trumpet", "The cornet's valves allowed for melodic playing throughout the instrument's register.", "Trumpets were slower to adopt the new valve technology, so for 100 years or more, composers often wrote separate parts for trumpet and cornet.", "The trumpet would play fanfare-like passages, while the cornet played more melodic ones.", "The modern trumpet has valves that allow it to play the same notes and fingerings as the cornet.Cornets and trumpets made in a given key (usually the key of B) play at the same pitch, and the technique for playing the instruments is nearly identical.", "However, cornets and trumpets are not entirely interchangeable, as they differ in timbre.", "Also available, but usually seen only in the brass band, is an E soprano model, pitched a fourth above the standard B.Unlike the trumpet, which has a cylindrical bore up to the bell section, the tubing of the cornet has a mostly conical bore, starting very narrow at the mouthpiece and gradually widening towards the bell.", "Cornets following the 1913 patent of E. A. Couturier can have a continuously conical bore.", "This shape is primarily responsible for the instrument's characteristic warm, mellow tone, which can be distinguished from the more penetrating sound of the trumpet.", "The conical bore of the cornet also makes it more agile than the trumpet when playing fast passages, but correct pitching is often less assured.", "The cornet is often preferred for young beginners as it is easier to hold, with its centre of gravity much closer to the player.The cornet mouthpiece has a shorter and narrower shank than that of a trumpet, so it can fit the cornet's smaller mouthpiece receiver.", "The cup size is often deeper than that of a trumpet mouthpiece.Short-model traditional cornet, also known as a shepherd's crook—shaped model (Webster's Dictionary 1911)One variety is the short-model traditional cornet, also known as a \"Shepherd's Crook\" shaped model.", "These are most often large-bore instruments with a rich mellow sound.", "There is also a long-model, or \"American-wrap\" cornet, often with a smaller bore and a brighter sound, which is produced in a variety of different tubing wraps and is closer to a trumpet in appearance.", "The Shepherd's Crook model is preferred by cornet traditionalists.", "The long-model cornet is generally used in concert bands in the United States and has found little following in British-style brass and concert bands.A third, and relatively rare variety—distinct from the \"American-wrap\" cornet—is the \"long cornet\", which was produced in the mid-20th century by C. G. Conn and F. E. Olds and is visually nearly indistinguishable from a trumpet, except that it has a receiver fashioned to accept cornet mouthpieces.===Echo cornet===The echo cornet has been called an obsolete variant.", "It has a mute chamber (or echo chamber) mounted to the side, acting as a second bell when the fourth valve is pressed.", "The second bell has a sound similar to that of a Harmon mute and is typically used to play echo phrases, whereupon the player imitates the sound from the primary bell using the echo chamber." ], [ "Playing technique", "Connie Jones playing a long-model cornetLike the trumpet and all other modern brass wind instruments, the cornet makes a sound when the player vibrates (\"buzzes\") the lips in the mouthpiece, creating a vibrating column of air in the tubing.", "The frequency of the air column's vibration can be modified by changing the lip tension and aperture, or embouchure, and by altering the tongue position to change the shape of the oral cavity, thereby increasing or decreasing the speed of the airstream.", "In addition, the column of air can be lengthened by engaging one or more valves, thus lowering the pitch.", "Double and triple tonguing are also possible.Without valves, the player could produce only a harmonic series of notes, like those played by the bugle and other \"natural\" brass instruments.", "These notes are far apart for most of the instrument's range, making diatonic and chromatic playing impossible, except in the extreme high register.", "The valves change the length of the vibrating column and provide the cornet with the ability to play chromatically." ], [ "Ensembles with cornets", "===Brass band===British brass bands consist only of brass instruments and a percussion section.", "The cornet is the leading melodic instrument in this ensemble; trumpets are never used.", "The ensemble consists of about thirty musicians, including nine B cornets and one E cornet (soprano cornet).", "In the UK, companies such as Besson and Boosey & Hawkes specialized in instruments for brass bands.", "In America, 19th-century manufacturers such as Graves and Company, Hall and Quinby, E. G. Wright, and the Boston Musical Instrument Manufactury made instruments for this ensemble.===Concert band===The cornet features in the British-style concert band, and early American concert band pieces, particularly those written or transcribed before 1960, often feature distinct, separate parts for trumpets and cornets.", "Cornet parts are rarely included in later American pieces, however, and they are replaced in modern American bands by the trumpet.", "This slight difference in instrumentation derives from the British concert band's heritage in military bands, where the highest brass instrument is always the cornet.", "There are usually four to six B cornets present in a British concert band, but no E instrument, as this role is taken by the E clarinet.===Fanfareorkest===Fanfareorkesten (\"fanfare orchestras\"), found in only the Netherlands, Belgium, northern France, and Lithuania, use the complete saxhorn family of instruments.", "The standard instrumentation includes both the cornet and the trumpet; however, in recent decades, the cornet has largely been replaced by the trumpet.===Jazz ensemble===In old-style jazz bands, the cornet was preferred to the trumpet, but from the swing era onwards, it has been largely replaced by the louder, more piercing trumpet.", "Likewise, the cornet has been largely phased out of big bands by a growing taste for louder and more aggressive instruments, especially since the advent of bebop in the post-World War II era.Jazz pioneer Buddy Bolden played the cornet, and Louis Armstrong started off on the instrument, but his switch to the trumpet is often credited with the beginning of the trumpet's dominance in jazz.", "Cornetists such as Bubber Miley and Rex Stewart contributed substantially to the Duke Ellington Orchestra's early sound.", "Other influential jazz cornetists include Freddie Keppard, King Oliver, Bix Beiderbecke, Ruby Braff, Bobby Hackett, and Nat Adderley.", "Notable performances on cornet by players generally associated with the trumpet include Freddie Hubbard's on ''Empyrean Isles'', by Herbie Hancock, and Don Cherry's on ''The Shape of Jazz to Come'', by Ornette Coleman.", "The band Tuba Skinny is led by cornetist Shaye Cohn.===Symphony orchestra===Soon after its invention, the cornet was introduced into the symphony orchestra, supplementing the trumpets.", "The use of valves meant they could play a full chromatic scale in contrast with trumpets, which were still restricted to the harmonic series.", "In addition, their tone was found to unify the horn and trumpet sections.", "Hector Berlioz was the first significant composer to use them in these ways, and his orchestral works often use pairs of both trumpets and cornets, the latter playing more of the melodic lines.", "In his ''Symphonie fantastique'' (1830), he added a counter-melody for a solo cornet in the second movement ().Cornets continued to be used, particularly in French compositions, well after the valve trumpet was common.", "They blended well with other instruments and were held to be better suited to certain types of melody.", "Tchaikovsky used them effectively this way in his ''Capriccio Italien'' (1880).From the early 20th century, the cornet and trumpet combination was still favored by some composers, including Edward Elgar and Igor Stravinsky, but tended to be used for occasions when the composer wanted the specific mellower and more agile sound.", "The sounds of the cornet and trumpet have grown closer together over time, and the former is now rarely used as an ensemble instrument: in the first version of his ballet ''Petrushka'' (1911), Stravinsky gives a celebrated solo to the cornet; in the 1946 revision, he removed cornets from the orchestration and instead assigned the solo to the trumpet." ], [ "See also", "* Flugelhorn" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Cornet Compendium" ] ]
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[ [ "CAMP" ], [ "Introduction", "'''CAMP''', '''cAMP''' or '''camP''' may stand for:* CAMP:**Cathelicidin, or Cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide**Campaign Against Marijuana Planting**CAMP, part of the Prague Institute of Planning and Development**Central Atlantic magmatic province**CAMP (company), an Italian manufacturer of climbing equipment**CAMP (studio), a media studio in Mumbai* cAMP:** Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)** (+)-cis-2-Aminomethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid, a GABAA-ρ agonist* camP:** 2,5-diketocamphane 1,2-monooxygenase, an enzyme" ], [ "See also", "*Camp (disambiguation)*Camping (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Cotton Mather" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cotton Mather''' (; February 12, 1663 – February 13, 1728) was a Puritan clergyman and author in colonial New England, who wrote extensively on theological, historical, and scientific subjects.", "After being educated at Harvard College, he joined his father Increase as minister of the Congregationalist Old North Meeting House in Boston, Massachusetts, where he preached for the rest of his life.", "He has been referred to as the \"first American Evangelical\".A major intellectual and public figure in English-speaking colonial America, Cotton Mather helped lead the successful revolt of 1689 against Sir Edmund Andros, the governor imposed on New England by King James II.", "Mather's subsequent involvement in the Salem witch trials of 1692–1693, which he defended in the book ''Wonders of the Invisible World'' (1693), attracted intense controversy in his own day and has negatively affected his historical reputation.", "As a historian of colonial New England, Mather is noted for his ''Magnalia Christi Americana'' (1702).Personally and intellectually committed to the waning social and religious orders in New England, Cotton Mather unsuccessfully sought the presidency of Harvard College.", "After 1702, Cotton Mather clashed with Joseph Dudley, the governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, whom Mather attempted unsuccessfully to drive out of power.", "Mather championed the new Yale College as an intellectual bulwark of Puritanism in New England.", "He corresponded extensively with European intellectuals and received an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree from the University of Glasgow in 1710.A promoter of the new experimental science in America, Cotton Mather carried out original research on plant hybridization.", "He also researched the variolation method of inoculation as a means of preventing smallpox contagion, which he learned about from an African-American slave that he owned, Onesimus.", "He dispatched many reports on scientific matters to the Royal Society of London, which elected him as a fellow in 1713.Mather's promotion of inoculation against smallpox caused violent controversy in Boston during the outbreak of 1721.Scientist and US founding father Benjamin Franklin, who as a young Bostonian had opposed the old Puritan order represented by Mather and participated in the anti-inoculation campaign, later described Mather's book ''Bonifacius'', or ''Essays to Do Good'' (1710) as a major influence on his life." ], [ "Early life and education", "Richard MatherJohn Cotton (1585–1652)Cotton Mather was born in 1663 in the city of Boston, the capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, to the Rev.", "Increase Mather and his wife Maria ''née'' Cotton.", "His grandfathers were Richard Mather and John Cotton, both of them prominent Puritan ministers who had played major roles in the establishment and growth of the Massachusetts colony.", "Richard Mather was a graduate of the University of Oxford and John Cotton a graduate of the University of Cambridge.", "Increase Mather was a graduate of Harvard College and the Trinity College Dublin, and served as the minister of Boston's original North Church (not to be confused with the Anglican Old North Church of Paul Revere fame).", "This was one of the two principal Congregationalist churches in the city, the other being the First Church established by John Winthrop.", "Cotton Mather was therefore born into one of the most influential and intellectually distinguished families in colonial New England and seemed destined to follow his father and grandfathers into the Puritan clergy.Cotton entered Harvard College, in the neighboring town of Cambridge, in 1674.Aged only eleven and a half, he is the youngest student ever admitted to that institution.", "At around this time, Cotton began to be afflicted by stuttering, a speech disorder that he would struggle to overcome throughout the rest of his life.", "Bullied by the older students and fearing that his stutter would make him unsuitable as a preacher, Cotton withdrew temporarily from the College, continuing his education at home.", "He also took an interest in medicine and considered the possibility of pursuing a career as a physician rather than as a religious minister.", "Cotton eventually returned to Harvard and received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1678, followed by a Master of Arts degree in 1681, the same year his father became Harvard President.", "At Harvard, Cotton studied Hebrew and the sciences.After completing his education, Cotton joined his father's church as assistant pastor.", "In 1685, Cotton was ordained and assumed full responsibilities as co-pastor of the church.", "Father and son continued to share responsibility for the care of the congregation until the death of Increase in 1723.Cotton would die less than five years after his father, and was therefore throughout most of his career in the shadow of the respected and formidable Increase.When Increase Mather became president of Harvard in 1692, he exercised considerable influence on the politics of the Massachusetts colony.", "Despite Cotton's efforts, he never became quite as influential as his father.", "One of the most public displays of their strained relationship emerged during the Salem witch trials, which Increase Mather reportedly did not support.", "Cotton did surpass his father's output as a writer, producing nearly 400 works." ], [ "Personal life", "Hanover Street, Boston, 1688–1718Cotton Mather married Abigail Phillips, daughter of Colonel John Phillips of Charlestown, on May 4, 1686, when Cotton was twenty-three and Abigail was not quite sixteen years old.", "They had eight children.Abigail died of smallpox in 1702, having previously suffered a miscarriage.", "He married widow Elizabeth Hubbard in 1703.Like his first marriage, he was happily married to a very religious and emotionally stable woman.", "They had six children.", "Elizabeth, the couple's newborn twins, and a two-year-old daughter, Jerusha, all succumbed to a measles epidemic in 1713.On July 5, 1715, Mather married widow Lydia Lee George.", "Her daughter Katherine, wife of Nathan Howell, became a widow shortly after Lydia married Mather and she came to live with the newly married couple.", "Also living in the Mather household at that time were Mather's children Abigal (21), Hannah (18), Elizabeth (11), and Samuel (9).", "Initially, Mather wrote in his journal how lovely he found his wife and how much he enjoyed their discussions about scripture.", "Within a few years of their marriage, Lydia was subject to rages which left Mather humiliated and depressed.", "They clashed over Mather's piety and his mishandling of Nathan Howell's estate.", "He began to call her deranged.", "She left him for ten days, returning when she learned that Mather's son Increase was lost at sea.", "Lydia nursed him through illnesses, the last of which lasted five weeks and ended with his death on February 15, 1728.Of the children that Mather had with Abigail and Elizabeth, the only children to survive him were Hannah and Samuel.", "He did not have any children with Lydia." ], [ "Revolt of 1689", "On May 14, 1686, ten days after Cotton Mather's marriage to Abigail Phillips, Edward Randolph disembarked in Boston bearing letters patent from King James II of England that revoked the Charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company and commissioned Randolph to reorganize the colonial government.", "James's intention was to curb Massachusetts's religious separatism by incorporating the colony it into a larger Dominion of New England, without an elected legislature and under a governor who would serve at the pleasure of the Crown.", "Later that year, the King appointed Sir Edmund Andros as governor of that new Dominion.", "This was a direct attack upon the Puritan religious and social orders that the Mathers represented, as well as upon the local autonomy of Massachusetts.", "The colonists were particularly outraged when Andros declared that all grants of land made in the name of the old Massachusetts Bay Company were invalid, forcing them to apply and pay for new royal patents on land that they already occupied or face eviction.", "In April 1687, Increase Mather sailed to London, where he remained for the next four years, pleading with the Court for what he regarded as the interests of the Massachusetts colony.The birth of a male heir to King James in June 1688, which could have cemented a Roman Catholic dynasty in the English throne, triggered the so-called Glorious Revolution in which Parliament deposed James and gave the Crown jointly to his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband, the Dutch Prince William of Orange.", "News of the events in London greatly emboldened the opposition in Boston to Governor Andros, finally precipitating the 1689 Boston revolt.", "Cotton Mather, then aged twenty-six, was one of the Puritan ministers who guided resistance in Boston to Andros's regime.", "Early in 1689, Randolph had a warrant issued for Cotton Mather's arrest on a charge of \"scandalous libel\", but the warrant was overruled by Wait Winthrop.According to some sources, Cotton Mather escaped a second attempted arrest on April 18, 1689, the same day that the people of Boston took up arms against Andros.", "The young Mather may have authored, in whole or in part, the \"Declaration of the Gentlemen, Merchants, and Inhabitants of Boston and the Country Adjacent\", which justified that uprising by a list of grievances that the declaration attributed to the deposed officials.", "The authorship of that document is uncertain: it was not signed by Mather or any other clergymen, and Puritans frowned upon the clergy being seen to play too direct and personal a hand in political affairs.", "That day, Mather probably read the Declaration to a crowd gathered in front of the Boston Town House.In July, Andros, Randolph, Joseph Dudley, and other officials who had been deposed and arrested in the Boston revolt were summoned to London to answer the complaints against them.", "The administration of Massachusetts was temporarily assumed by Simon Bradstreet, whose rule proved weak and contentious.", "In 1691, the government of King William and Queen Mary issued a new Massachusetts Charter.", "This charter united the Massachusetts Bay Colony with Plymouth Colony into the new Province of Massachusetts Bay.", "Rather than restoring the old Puritan rule, the Charter of 1691 mandated religious toleration for all non-Catholics and established a government led by a Crown-appointed governor.", "The first governor under the new charter was Sir William Phips, who was a member of the Mathers' church in Boston." ], [ "Involvement with the Salem witch trials", "Cotton Mather's reputation, in his own day as well as in the historiography and popular culture of subsequent generations, has been very adversely affected by his association with the events surrounding the Salem witch trials of 1692–1693.As a consequence of those trials, nineteen people were executed by hanging for practicing witchcraft and one was pressed to death for refusing to enter a plea before the court.", "Although Mather had no official role in the legal proceedings, he wrote the book ''Wonders of the Invisible World'', which appeared in 1693 with the endorsement of William Stoughton, the Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts and chief judge of the Salem witch trials.", "Mather's book constitutes the most detailed written defense of the conduct of those trials.", "Mather's role in drumming up and sustaining the witch hysteria behind those proceedings was denounced by Robert Calef in his book ''More Wonders of the Invisible World'', published in 1700.In the 19th century, Nathaniel Hawthorne called Mather \"the chief agent of the mischief\" at Salem.More recently historians have tended to downplay Mather's role in the events at Salem.", "According to Jan Stievermann, of the Heidelberg Center for American Studies,===Prelude: The Goodwin case===In 1689, Mather published ''Memorable Providences, Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions'', based on his study of events surrounding the affliction of the children of a Boston mason named John Goodwin.", "Those afflictions had begun after Goodwin's eldest daughter confronted a washerwoman whom she suspected of stealing some of the family's linen.", "In response to this, the washerwoman's mother, Ann Glover, verbally insulted the Goodwin girl, who soon began to suffer from hysterical fits that later began to afflict also the three other Goodwin children.", "Glover was an Irish Catholic widow who could understand English but spoke only Gaelic.", "Interrogated by the magistrates, she admitted that she tormented her enemies by stroking certain images or dolls with her finger wetted with spittle.", "After she was sentenced to death for witchcraft, Mather visited her in prison and interrogated her through an interpreter.Before her execution, Glover warned that her death would not bring relief to the Goodwin children, as she was not the one responsible for their torments.", "Indeed, after Glover was hanged the children's afflictions increased.", "Mather documented these events and attempted to de-possess the \"Haunted Children\" by prayer and fasting.", "He also took in the eldest Goodwin child, Martha, into his own home, where she lived for several weeks.", "Eventually, the afflictions ceased and Martha was admitted into Mather's church.The publication of Mather's ''Memorable Providences'' attracted attention on both sides of the Atlantic, including from the eminent English Puritan Richard Baxter.", "In his book, Mather argued that since there are witches and devils, there are \"immortal souls\".", "He also claimed that witches appear spectrally as themselves.", "He opposed any natural explanations for the fits, believed that people who confessed to using witchcraft were sane, and warned against all magical practices due to their diabolical connections.Mather's contemporary Robert Calef would later accuse Mather of laying the groundwork, with his ''Memorable Providences'', for the witchcraft hysteria that gripped Salem three years later:Similar views, on Mather's responsibility for the climate of hysteria over witchcraft that led to the Salem trials, were repeated by later commentators, such as the politician and historian Charles W. Upham in the 19th century.===Preparation for the Salem trials===When the accusations of witchcraft arose in Salem Village in 1692, Cotton Mather was incapacitated by a serious illness, which he attributed to overwork.", "He suggested that the afflicted girls be separated and offered to take six of them into his home, as he had done previously with Martha Goodwin.", "That offer was not accepted.Holograph copy of Cotton Mather's letter of advice to John Richards concerning the impending trials at Salem, May 31, 1692In May of that year, Sir William Phips, governor of the newly chartered Province of Massachusetts Bay, appointed a special \"Court of Oyer and Terminer\" to try the cases of witchcraft in Salem.", "The chief judge of that court was Phips's lieutenant governor, William Stoughton.", "Stoughton had close ties to the Mathers and had been recommended as Governor Phips's lieutenant by Increase Mather.Another of the judges in the new court, John Richards, requested that Cotton Mather accompany him to Salem, but Mather refused due to his ill health.", "Instead, Mather wrote a long letter to Richards in which he gave his advice on the impending trials.", "In that letter, Mather states that witches guilty of the most grievous crimes should be executed, but that witches convicted of lesser offenses deserve more lenient punishment.", "He also wrote that the identification and conviction of all witches should be undertaken with the greatest caution and warned against the use of spectral evidence (i.e., testimony that the specter of the accused had tormented a victim) on the grounds that devils could assume the form of innocent and even virtuous people.", "Under English law, spectral evidence had been admissible in witchcraft trials for a century before the events in Salem, and it would remain admissible until 1712.There was, however, debate among experts as to how much weight should be given to such testimonies.===Response to the trials===''The Return of Several Ministers'', written in Cotton Mather's handOn June 10, 1692, Bridget Bishop, the thrice-married owner of an unlicensed tavern, was hanged after being convicted and sentenced by the Court of Oyer and Terminer, based largely on spectral evidence.", "A group of twelve Puritan ministers issued a statement, drawn up by Cotton Mather and presented to Governor Phips and his council a few days later, entitled ''The Return of Several Ministers''.", "In that document, Mather criticized the court's reliance on spectral evidence and recommended that it adopt a more cautious procedure.", "However, he ended the document with a statement defending the continued prosecution of witchcraft according to the \"Direction given by the Laws of God, and the wholesome Statues of the English Nation\".", "Robert Calef would later criticize Mather's intervention in ''The Return of Several Ministers'' as \"perfectly ambidexter, giving a great or greater encouragement to proceed in those dark methods, than cautions against them.", "\"On August 4, Cotton Mather preached a sermon before his North Church congregation on the text of Revelation 12:12: \"Woe to the Inhabitants of the Earth, and of the Sea; for the Devil is come down unto you, having great Wrath; because he knoweth, that he hath but a short time.\"", "In the sermon, Mather claimed that the witches \"have associated themselves to do no less a thing than to destroy the Kingdom of our Lord Jesus Christ, in these parts of the World.\"", "Although he did not intervene in any of the trials, there are some testimonies that Mather was present at the executions that were carried out in Salem on August 19.According to his Mather's contemporary critic Robert Calef, the crowd was disturbed by George Burroughs's eloquent declarations of innocence from the scaffold and by his recitation of the Lord's Prayer, of which witches were commonly believed to be incapable.", "Calef claimed that, after Burroughs had been hanged,William Stoughton, September 2, 1692As public discontent with the witch trials grew in the summer of 1692, threatening civil unrest, the conservative Cotton Mather felt compelled to defend the responsible authorities.", "On September 2, 1692, after eleven people had been executed as witches, Cotton Mather wrote a letter to Judge Stoughton congratulating him on \"extinguishing of as wonderful a piece of devilism as has been seen in the world\".", "As the opposition to the witch trials was bringing them to a halt, Mather wrote ''Wonders of the Invisible World'', a defense of the trials that carried Stoughton's official approval.===Post-trials===Mather's ''Wonders'' did little to appease the growing clamor against the Salem witch trials.", "At around the same time that the book began to circulate in manuscript form, Governor Phips decided to restrict greatly the use of spectral evidence, thus raising a great barrier against further convictions.", "The Court of Oyer and Terminer was dismissed on October 29.A new court convened on January 1693 to hear the remaining cases, almost all of which ended in acquittal.", "In May, Governor Phips issued a general pardon, thus bringing the witch trials to an end.The last major events in Mather's involvement with witchcraft were his interactions with Mercy Short in December 1692 and Margaret Rule in September 1693.Mather appears to have remained convinced that genuine witches had been executed in Salem and he never publicly expressed regrets over his role in those events.", "Robert Calef, an otherwise obscure Boston merchant, published ''More Wonders of the Invisible World'' in 1700, bitterly attacking Cotton Mather over his role in the events of 1692.In the words of 20th-century historian Samuel Eliot Morison, \"Robert Calef tied a tin can to Cotton Mather which has rattled and banged through the pages of superficial and popular historians\".", "Intellectual historian Reiner Smolinski, an expert on the writings of Cotton Mather, found it \"deplorable that Mather's reputation is still overshadowed by the specter of Salem witchcraft.\"" ], [ "Historical and theological writings", "Cotton Mather was an extremely prolific writer, producing 388 different books and pamphlets during his lifetime.", "His most widely distributed work was ''Magnalia Christi Americana'' (which may be translated as \"The Glorious Works of Christ in America\"), subtitled \"The ecclesiastical history of New England, from its first planting in the year 1620 unto the year of Our Lord 1698.In seven books.\"", "Despite the Latin title, the work is written in English.", "Mather began working on it towards the end of 1693 and it was finally published in London in 1702.The work incorporates information that Mather put together from a variety of sources, such as letters, diaries, sermons, Harvard College records, personal conversations, and the manuscript histories composed by William Hubbard and William Bradford.", "The ''Magnalia'' includes about fifty biographies of eminent New Englanders (ranging from John Eliot, the first Puritan missionary to the Native Americans, to Sir William Phips, the incumbent governor of Massachusetts at the time that Mather began writing), plus dozens of brief biographical sketches, including those of Hannah Duston and Hannah Swarton.According to Kenneth Silverman, an expert on early American literature and Cotton Mather's biographer,Silverman argues that, although Mather glorifies New England's Puritan past, in the ''Magnalia'' he also attempts to transcend the religious separatism of the old Puritan settlers, reflecting Mather's more ecumenical and cosmopolitan embrace of a Transatlantic Protestant Christianity that included, in addition to Mather's own Congregationalists, also Presbyterians, Baptists, and low church Anglicans.In 1693 Mather also began work on a grand intellectual project that he titled ''Biblia Americana'', which sought to provide a commentary and interpretation of the Christian Bible in light of \"all of the Learning in the World\".", "Mather, who continued to work on it for many years, sought to incorporate into his reading of Scripture the new scientific knowledge and theories, including geography, heliocentrism, atomism, and Newtonianism.", "According to Silverman, the project \"looks forward to Mather's becoming probably the most influential spokesman in New England for a rationalized, scientized Christianity.\"", "Mather could not find a publisher for the ''Biblia Americana'', which remained in manuscript form during his lifetime.", "It is currently being edited in ten volumes, published by Mohr Siebeck under the direction of Reiner Smolinski and Jan Stievermann.", "As of 2023, seven of the ten volumes have appeared in print." ], [ "Conflict with Governor Dudley", "In Massachusetts at the start of the 18th century, Joseph Dudley was a highly controversial figure, as he had participated actively in the government of Sir Edmund Andros in 1686–1689.Dudley was among those arrested in the revolt of 1689, and was later called to London to answer the charges against him brought by a committee of the colonists.", "However, Dudley was able to pursue a successful political career in Britain.", "Upon the death in 1701 of acting governor William Stoughton, Dudley began enlisting support in London to procure appointment as the new governor of Massachusetts.Although the Mathers (to whom he was related by marriage), continued to resent Dudley's role in the Andros administration, they eventually came around to the view that Dudley would now be preferable as governor to the available alternatives, at a time when the English Parliament was threatening to repeal the Massachusetts Charter.", "With the Mathers' support, Dudley was appointed governor by the Crown and returned to Boston in 1702.Contrary to the promises that he had made to the Mathers, Governor Dudley proved a divisive and high-handed executive, reserving his patronage for a small circle composed of transatlantic merchants, Anglicans, and religious liberals such as Thomas Brattle, Benjamin Colman, and John Leverett.In the context of Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), Cotton Mather preached and published against Governor Dudley, whom Mather accused of corruption and misgovernment.", "Mather sought unsuccessfully to have Dudley replaced by Sir Charles Hobby.", "Outmaneuvered by Dudley, this political rivalry left Mather increasingly isolated at a time when Massachusetts society was steadily moving away from the Puritan tradition that Mather represented." ], [ "Relationship with Harvard and Yale", "Cotton Mather was a fellow of Harvard College from 1690 to 1702, and at various times sat on its Board of Overseers.", "His father Increase had succeeded John Rogers as president of Harvard in 1684, first as acting president (1684–1686), later with the title of \"rector\" (1686–1692, during much of which period he was away from Massachusetts, pleading the Puritans' case before the Royal Court in London), and finally with the full title of president (1692–1701).", "Increase was unwilling to move permanently to the Harvard campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts, since his congregation in Boston was much larger than the Harvard student body, which at the time counted only a few dozen.", "Instructed by a committee of the Massachusetts General Assembly that the president of Harvard had to reside in Cambridge and preach to the students in person, Increase resigned in 1701 and was replaced by the Rev.", "Samuel Willard as acting president.Cotton Mather sought the presidency of Harvard, but in 1708 the fellows instead appointed a layman, John Leverett, who had the support of Governor Dudley.", "The Mathers disapproved of the increasing independence and liberalism of the Harvard faculty, which they regarded as laxity.", "Cotton Mather came to see the Collegiate School, which had moved in 1716 from Saybrook to New Haven, Connecticut, as a better vehicle for preserving the Puritan orthodoxy in New England.", "In 1718, Cotton convinced Boston-born British businessman Elihu Yale to make a charitable gift sufficient to ensure the school's survival.", "It was also Mather who suggested that the school change its name to Yale College after it accepted that donation.Cotton Mather sought the presidency of Harvard again after Leverett's death in 1724, but the fellows offered the position to the Rev.", "Joseph Sewall (son of Judge Samuel Sewall, who had repented publicly for his role in the Salem witch trials).", "When Sewall turned it down, Mather once again hoped that he might get the appointment.", "Instead, the fellows offered it to one of its own number, the Rev.", "Benjamin Coleman, an old rival of Mather.", "When Coleman refused it, the presidency went finally to the Rev.", "Benjamin Wadsworth." ], [ "Advocacy for smallpox inoculation", "painting of Cotton Mather by Richard L. GunnThe practice of smallpox inoculation (as distinguished from to the later practice of vaccination) was developed possibly in 8th-century India or 10th-century China and by the 17th-century had reached Turkey.", "It was also practiced in western Africa, but it is not known when it started there.", "Inoculation or, rather, variolation, involved infecting a person via a cut in the skin with exudate from a patient with a relatively mild case of smallpox (variola), to bring about a manageable and recoverable infection that would provide later immunity.", "By the beginning of the 18th century, the Royal Society in England was discussing the practice of inoculation, and the smallpox epidemic in 1713 spurred further interest.", "It was not until 1721, however, that England recorded its first case of inoculation.===Early New England===Smallpox was a serious threat in colonial America, most devastating to Native Americans, but also to Anglo-American settlers.", "New England suffered smallpox epidemics in 1677, 1689–90, and 1702.It was highly contagious, and mortality could reach as high as 30 percent.", "Boston had been plagued by smallpox outbreaks in 1690 and 1702.During this era, public authorities in Massachusetts dealt with the threat primarily by means of quarantine.", "Incoming ships were quarantined in Boston Harbor, and any smallpox patients in town were held under guard or in a \"pesthouse\".In 1716, Onesimus, one of Mather's slaves, explained to Mather how he had been inoculated as a child in Africa.", "Mather was fascinated by the idea.", "By July 1716, he had read an endorsement of inoculation by Dr Emanuel Timonius of Constantinople in the ''Philosophical Transactions''.", "Mather then declared, in a letter to Dr John Woodward of Gresham College in London, that he planned to press Boston's doctors to adopt the practice of inoculation should smallpox reach the colony again.By 1721, a whole generation of young Bostonians was vulnerable and memories of the last epidemic's horrors had by and large disappeared.", "Smallpox returned on April 22 of that year, when HMS ''Seahorse'' arrived from the West Indies carrying smallpox on board.", "Despite attempts to protect the town through quarantine, nine known cases of smallpox appeared in Boston by May 27, and by mid-June, the disease was spreading at an alarming rate.", "As a new wave of smallpox hit the area and continued to spread, many residents fled to outlying rural settlements.", "The combination of exodus, quarantine, and outside traders' fears disrupted business in the capital of the Bay Colony for weeks.", "Guards were stationed at the House of Representatives to keep Bostonians from entering without special permission.", "The death toll reached 101 in September, and the Selectmen, powerless to stop it, \"severely limited the length of time funeral bells could toll.\"", "As one response, legislators delegated a thousand pounds from the treasury to help the people who, under these conditions, could no longer support their families.On June 6, 1721, Mather sent an abstract of reports on inoculation by Timonius and Jacobus Pylarinus to local physicians, urging them to consult about the matter.", "He received no response.", "Next, Mather pleaded his case to Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, who tried the procedure on his youngest son and two slaves—one grown and one a boy.", "All recovered in about a week.", "Boylston inoculated seven more people by mid-July.", "The epidemic peaked in October 1721, with 411 deaths; by February 26, 1722, Boston was again free from smallpox.", "The total number of cases since April 1721 came to 5,889, with 844 deaths—more than three-quarters of all the deaths in Boston during 1721.Meanwhile, Boylston had inoculated 287 people, with six resulting deaths.===Inoculation debate===Boylston and Mather's inoculation crusade \"raised a horrid Clamour\" among the people of Boston.", "Both Boylston and Mather were \"Objects of their Fury; their furious Obloquies and Invectives\", which Mather acknowledges in his diary.", "Boston's Selectmen, consulting a doctor who claimed that the practice caused many deaths and only spread the infection, forbade Boylston from performing it again.", "''The New-England Courant'' published writers who opposed the practice.", "The editorial stance was that the Boston populace feared that inoculation spread, rather than prevented, the disease; however, some historians, notably H. W. Brands, have argued that this position was a result of the contrarian positions of editor-in-chief James Franklin (a brother of Benjamin Franklin).", "Public discourse ranged in tone from organized arguments by John Williams from Boston, who posted that \"several arguments proving that inoculating the smallpox is not contained in the law of Physick, either natural or divine, and therefore unlawful\", to those put forth in a pamphlet by Dr. William Douglass of Boston, entitled ''The Abuses and Scandals of Some Late Pamphlets in Favour of Inoculation of the Small Pox'' (1721), on the qualifications of inoculation's proponents.", "(Douglass was exceptional at the time for holding a medical degree from Europe.)", "At the extreme, in November 1721, someone hurled a lighted grenade into Mather's home.====Medical opposition====Several opponents of smallpox inoculation, among them John Williams, stated that there were only two laws of physick (medicine): sympathy and antipathy.", "In his estimation, inoculation was neither a sympathy toward a wound or a disease, or an antipathy toward one, but the creation of one.", "For this reason, its practice violated the natural laws of medicine, transforming health care practitioners into those who harm rather than heal.As with most colonists, Williams' Puritan beliefs were enmeshed in every aspect of his life, and he used the Bible to state his case.", "He quoted Matthew 9:12, when Jesus said: \"It is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick.\"", "William Douglass proposed a more secular argument against inoculation, stressing the importance of reason over passion and urging the public to be pragmatic in their choices.", "In addition, he demanded that ministers leave the practice of medicine to physicians, and not meddle in areas where they lacked expertise.", "According to Douglass, smallpox inoculation was \"a medical experiment of consequence,\" one not to be undertaken lightly.", "He believed that not all learned individuals were qualified to doctor others, and while ministers took on several roles in the early years of the colony, including that of caring for the sick, they were now expected to stay out of state and civil affairs.", "Douglass felt that inoculation caused more deaths than it prevented.", "The only reason Mather had had success in it, he said, was because Mather had used it on children, who are naturally more resilient.", "Douglass vowed to always speak out against \"the wickedness of spreading infection\".", "Speak out he did: \"The battle between these two prestigious adversaries Douglass and Mather lasted far longer than the epidemic itself, and the literature accompanying the controversy was both vast and venomous.", "\"====Puritan resistance====Generally, Puritan pastors favored the inoculation experiments.", "Increase Mather, Cotton's father, was joined by prominent pastors Benjamin Colman and William Cooper in openly propagating the use of inoculations.", "\"One of the classic assumptions of the Puritan mind was that the will of God was to be discerned in nature as well as in revelation.\"", "Nevertheless, Williams questioned whether the smallpox \"is not one of the strange works of God; and whether inoculation of it be not a fighting with the most High.\"", "He also asked his readers if the smallpox epidemic may have been given to them by God as \"punishment for sin,\" and warned that attempting to shield themselves from God's fury (via inoculation), would only serve to \"provoke him more\".Puritans found meaning in affliction, and they did not yet know why God was showing them disfavor through smallpox.", "Not to address their errant ways before attempting a cure could set them back in their \"errand\".", "Many Puritans believed that creating a wound and inserting poison was doing violence and therefore was antithetical to the healing art.", "They grappled with adhering to the Ten Commandments, with being proper church members and good caring neighbors.", "The apparent contradiction between harming or murdering a neighbor through inoculation and the Sixth Commandment—\"thou shalt not kill\"—seemed insoluble and hence stood as one of the main objections against the procedure.", "Williams maintained that because the subject of inoculation could not be found in the Bible, it was not the will of God, and therefore \"unlawful.\"", "He explained that inoculation violated The Golden Rule, because if one neighbor voluntarily infected another with disease, he was not doing unto others as he would have done to him.", "With the Bible as the Puritans' source for all decision-making, lack of scriptural evidence concerned many, and Williams vocally scorned Mather for not being able to reference an inoculation edict directly from the Bible.====Inoculation defended====With the smallpox epidemic catching speed and racking up a staggering death toll, a solution to the crisis was becoming more urgently needed by the day.", "The use of quarantine and various other efforts, such as balancing the body's humors, did not slow the spread of the disease.", "As news rolled in from town to town and correspondence arrived from overseas, reports of horrific stories of suffering and loss due to smallpox stirred mass panic among the people.", "\"By circa 1700, smallpox had become among the most devastating of epidemic diseases circulating in the Atlantic world.", "\"Mather strongly challenged the perception that inoculation was against the will of God and argued the procedure was not outside of Puritan principles.", "He wrote that \"whether a Christian may not employ this Medicine (let the matter of it be what it will) and humbly give Thanks to God's good Providence in discovering of it to a miserable World; and humbly look up to His Good Providence (as we do in the use of any other Medicine) It may seem strange, that any wise Christian cannot answer it.", "And how strangely do Men that call themselves Physicians betray their Anatomy, and their Philosophy, as well as their Divinity in their invectives against this Practice?\"", "The Puritan minister began to embrace the sentiment that smallpox was an inevitability for anyone, both the good and the wicked, yet God had provided them with the means to save themselves.", "Mather reported that, from his view, \"none that have used it ever died of the Small Pox, tho at the same time, it were so malignant, that at least half the People died, that were infected With it in the Common way.", "\"While Mather was experimenting with the procedure, prominent Puritan pastors Benjamin Colman and William Cooper expressed public and theological support for them.", "The practice of smallpox inoculation was eventually accepted by the general population due to first-hand experiences and personal relationships.", "Although many were initially wary of the concept, it was because people were able to witness the procedure's consistently positive results, within their own community of ordinary citizens, that it became widely utilized and supported.", "One important change in the practice after 1721 was regulated quarantine of inoculees.===The aftermath===Although Mather and Boylston were able to demonstrate the efficacy of the practice, the debate over inoculation would continue even beyond the epidemic of 1721–22.After overcoming considerable difficulty and achieving notable success, Boylston traveled to London in 1725, where he published his results and was elected to the Royal Society in 1726, with Mather formally receiving the honor two years prior." ], [ "Other scientific work", "In 1716, Mather used different varieties of maize (\"Indian corn\") to conduct one of the first recorded experiments on plant hybridization.", "He described the results in a letter to his friend James Petiver:In his ''Curiosa Americana'' (1712–1724) collection, Mather also announced that flowering plants reproduce sexually, an observation that later became the basis of the Linnaean system of plant classification.", "Mather may also have been the first to develop the concept of genetic dominance, which later would underpin Mendelian genetics.In 1713, the Secretary of the Royal Society of London, naturalist Richard Waller, informed Mather that he had been elected as a fellow of the Society.", "Mather was the eighth colonial American to join that learned body, with the first having been John Winthrop the Younger in 1662.During the controversies surrounding Mather's smallpox inoculation campaign of 1721, his adversaries questioned that credential on the grounds that Mather's name did not figure in the published lists of the Society's members.", "At the time, the Society responded that those published lists included only members who had been inducted in person and who were therefore entitled to vote in the Society's yearly elections.", "In May 1723, Mather's correspondent John Woodward discovered that, although Mather had been duly nominated in 1713, approved by the council, and informed by Waller of his election at that time, due to an oversight the nomination had not in fact been voted upon by the full assembly of fellows or the vote had not been recorded.", "After Woodward informed the Society of the situation, the members proceeded to elect Mather by a formal vote.Mather's enthusiasm for experimental science was strongly influenced by his reading of Robert Boyle's work.", "Mather was a significant popularizer of the new scientific knowledge and promoted Copernican heliocentrism in some of his sermons.", "He also argued against the spontaneous generation of life and compiled a medical manual titled ''The Angel of Bethesda'' that he hoped would assist people who were unable to procure the services of a physician, but which went unpublished in Mather's lifetime.", "This was the only comprehensive medical work written in colonial English-speaking America.", "Although much of what Mather included in that manual were folk remedies now regarded as unscientific or superstitious, some of them are still valid, including smallpox inoculation and the use of citrus juice to treat scurvy.", "Mather also outlined an early form of germ theory and discussed psychogenic diseases, while recommending hygiene, physical exercise, temperate diet, and avoidance of tobacco smoking.In his later years, Mather also promoted the professionalization of scientific research in America.", "He presented a Boston tradesman named Grafton Feveryear with the barometer that Feveryear used to make the first quantitative meteorological observations in New England, which he communicated to the Royal Society in 1727.Mather also sponsored Isaac Greenwood, a Harvard graduate and member of Mather's church, who travelled to London and collaborated with the Royal Society's curator of experiments, John Theophilus Desaguliers.", "Greenwood later became the first Hollis professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Harvard, and may well have been the first American to practice science professionally." ], [ "Slavery and racial attitudes", "Cotton Mather's household included both free servants and a number of slaves who performed domestic chores.", "Surviving records indicate that, over the course of his lifetime, Mather owned at least three, and probably more, slaves.", "Like the vast majority of Christians at the time, but unlike his political rival Judge Samuel Sewall, Mather was never an abolitionist, although he did publicly denounce what he regarded as the illegal and inhuman aspects of the burgeoning Atlantic slave trade.", "Concerned about the New England sailors enslaved in Africa since the 1680s and 1690s, in 1698 Mather wrote them his ''Pastoral Letter to the Captives'', consoling them, and expressing hope that “your slavery to the monsters of Africa will be but short.” On the return of some survivors of African slavery in 1703, Mather published ''The History of What the Goodness of God has done for the Captives, lately delivered out of Barbary,'' wherein he lamented the death of many of the American slaves, the lenght of their captivity —which he describes as between 7 and 19 years—, the harsh conditions of their bondage, and celebrated their refusal to convert to Islam, unlike others who did.In his book ''The Negro Christianized'' (1706), Mather insisted that slaveholders should treat their black slaves humanely and instruct them in Christianity with a view to promoting their salvation.", "Mather received black members of his congregation in his home and he paid a schoolteacher to instruct local black people in reading.Mather consistently held that black Africans were \"of one Blood\" with the rest of mankind and that blacks and whites would meet as equals in Heaven.", "After a number of black people carried out arson attacks in Boston in 1723, Mather asked the outraged white Bostonians whether the black population had been \"always treated according to the Rules of Humanity?", "Are they treated as those, that are of one Blood with us, and those who have Immortal Souls in them, and are not mere Beasts of Burden?", "\"Mather advocated the Christianization of black slaves both on religious grounds and as tending to make them more patient and faithful servants of their masters.", "In ''The Negro Christianized'', Mather argued against the opinion of Richard Baxter that a Christian could not enslave another baptized Christian.", "The African slave Onesimus, from whom Mather first learned about smallpox inoculation, had been purchased for him as a gift by his congregation in 1706.Despite his efforts, Mather was unable to convert Onesimus to Christianity and finally manumitted him in 1716." ], [ "Sermons against pirates and piracy", "Throughout his career Mather was also keen to minister to convicted pirates.", "He produced a number of pamphlets and sermons concerning piracy, including ''Faithful Warnings to prevent Fearful Judgments''; ''Instructions to the Living, from the Condition of the Dead''; ''The Converted Sinner… A Sermon Preached in Boston, May 31, 1724, In the Hearing and at the Desire of certain Pirates''; ''A Brief Discourse occasioned by a Tragical Spectacle of a Number of Miserables under Sentence of Death for Piracy''; ''Useful Remarks.", "An Essay upon Remarkables in the Way of Wicked Men'' and ''The Vial Poured Out Upon the Sea''.", "His father Increase had preached at the trial of Dutch pirate Peter Roderigo; Cotton Mather in turn preached at the trials and sometimes executions of pirate Captains (or the crews of) William Fly, John Quelch, Samuel Bellamy, William Kidd, Charles Harris, and John Phillips.", "He also ministered to Thomas Hawkins, Thomas Pound, and William Coward; having been convicted of piracy, they were jailed alongside \"Mary Glover the Irish Catholic witch,\" daughter of witch \"Goody\" Ann Glover at whose trial Mather had also preached.In his conversations with William Fly and his crew Mather scolded them: \"You have something within you, that will compell you to confess, That the Things which you have done, are most Unreasonable and Abominable.", "The Robberies and Piracies, you have committed, you can say nothing to Justify them.", "… It is a most hideous Article in the Heap of Guilt lying on you, that an Horrible Murder is charged upon you; There is a cry of Blood going up to Heaven against you.\"" ], [ "Death and place of burial", "Copp's Hill Cemetery in Boston, MassachusettsCotton Mather was twice widowed, and only two of his 15 children survived him.", "He died on the day after his 65th birthday and was buried on Copp's Hill Burying Ground, in Boston's North End." ], [ "Works", "Mather was a prolific writer and industrious in having his works printed, including a vast number of his sermons.", ";Major* ''Memorable Providences'' (1689) his first full book, on the subject of witchcraft* ''Wonders of the Invisible World'' (1692) his second major book, also on witchcraft, sent to London in October, 1692* ''Pillars of Salt'' (1699)* ''Magnalia Christi Americana'' (1702)* ''The Negro Christianized'' (1706)* ''Corderius Americanus: A Discourse on the Good Education of Children'' (1708)* ''Bonifacius'' (1710)* ===''Pillars of Salt''===Mather's first published sermon, printed in 1686, concerned the execution of James Morgan, convicted of murder.", "Thirteen years later, Mather published the sermon in a compilation, along with other similar works, called ''Pillars of Salt''.===''Magnalia Christi Americana''===''Magnalia Christi Americana'', considered Mather's greatest work, was published in 1702, when he was 39.The book includes several biographies of saints and describes the process of the New England settlement.", "In this context \"saints\" does not refer to the canonized saints of the Catholic church, but to those Puritan divines about whom Mather is writing.", "It comprises seven total books, including ''Pietas in Patriam: The life of His Excellency Sir William Phips'', originally published anonymously in London in 1697.Despite being one of Mather's best-known works, some have openly criticized it, labeling it as hard to follow and understand, and poorly paced and organized.", "However, other critics have praised Mather's work, citing it as one of the best efforts at properly documenting the establishment of America and growth of the people.===''The Christian Philosopher''===In 1721, Mather published ''The Christian Philosopher'', the first systematic book on science published in America.", "Mather attempted to show how Newtonian science and religion were in harmony.", "It was in part based on Robert Boyle's ''The Christian Virtuoso'' (1690).", "Mather reportedly took inspiration from ''Hayy ibn Yaqdhan'', by the 12th-century Islamic philosopher Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail.Despite condemning the \"Mahometans\" as infidels, Mather viewed the novel's protagonist, Hayy, as a model for his ideal Christian philosopher and monotheistic scientist.", "Mather viewed Hayy as a noble savage and applied this in the context of attempting to understand the Native American Indians, in order to convert them to Puritan Christianity.", "Mather's short treatise on the Lord's Supper was later translated by his cousin Josiah Cotton." ], [ "In popular culture", "===Comic books===Marvel comics features a supervillain character named Cotton Mather with alias name, 'Witch-Slayer', that is an enemy of Spider-man.", "He first appears in the 1976 comic 'Marvel Team-Up' issue #41, and appears in the subsequent issues until issue #45.===Music===The rock band Cotton Mather is named after Mather.The Handsome Family's 2006 album ''Last Days of Wonder'' is named in reference to Mather's 1693 book ''Wonders of the Invisible World'', which lyricist Rennie Sparks found intriguing because of what she called its \"madness brimming under the surface of things.", "\"===Radio===Howard da Silva portrayed Mather in ''Burn, Witch, Burn,'' a December 15, 1975 episode of the CBS Radio Mystery Theater.===Literature===One of the stories in Richard Brautigan′s collection ''Revenge of the Lawn'' is called ″1692 Cotton Mather Newsreel″.===Television===Seth Gabel portrays Cotton Mather in the TV series ''Salem'', which aired from 2014 to 2017." ], [ "See also", "* Charles Colcock Jones* John Ratcliff" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''References'''" ], [ "Sources", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ** Salem Witchcraft and Cotton Mather by Charles Wentworth Upham at Project Gutenberg* * * Cotton Mather's writings* Mather's influential commentary, collegiateway.org* ''The Wonders of the Invisible World'' (1693 edition) (PDF format)* ''The Threefold Paradise of Cotton Mather: An Edition of \"Triparadisus\"'' (PDF format)* Cotton Mather's \"~Resolved~\", ''A Puritan Father's Lesson Plan'', neprimer.com* Cotton Mather's \"The Story of Margaret Rule\", bartleby.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cordwainer Smith" ], [ "Introduction", "Smith's first professionally published science fiction story, \"Scanners Live in Vain\", originally appeared in ''Fantasy Book'' in 1950Smith's novelette ''The Ballad of Lost C'Mell'' was the cover story on the October 1962 issue of ''Galaxy Science Fiction''.", "Artwork by Virgil Finlay.", "Smith's novelette \"Drunkboat\" took the cover of the October 1963 issue of ''Amazing Stories''.", "Art by Lloyd Birmingham.", "'''Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger''' (July 11, 1913 – August 6, 1966), better known by his pen-name '''Cordwainer Smith''', was an American author known for his science fiction works.", "Linebarger was a US Army officer, a noted East Asia scholar, and an expert in psychological warfare.", "Although his career as a writer was shortened by his death at the age of 53, he is considered one of science fiction's more talented and influential authors." ], [ "Early life and education", "Linebarger's father, Paul Myron Wentworth Linebarger, was a lawyer, working as a judge in the Philippines.", "There he met Chinese nationalist Sun Yat-sen to whom he became an advisor.", "Linebarger's father sent his wife to give birth in Milwaukee, Wisconsin so that their child would be eligible to become president of the United States.", "Sun Yat-sen, who was considered the father of Chinese nationalism, became Linebarger's godfather.His young life was unsettled as his father moved the family to a succession of places in Asia, Europe, and the United States.", "He was sometimes sent to boarding schools for safety.", "In all, Linebarger attended more than 30 schools.", "In 1919, while at a boarding school in Hawaii, he was blinded in his right eye, which was replaced by a glass eye.", "The vision in his remaining eye was impaired by infection.Linebarger was familiar with English, German, and Chinese by adulthood.", "At the age of 23, he received a PhD in political science from Johns Hopkins University." ], [ "Career", "From 1937 to 1946, Linebarger held a faculty appointment at Duke University, where he began producing highly regarded works on Far Eastern affairs.While retaining his professorship at Duke after the beginning of World War II, Linebarger began serving as a second lieutenant of the United States Army, where he was involved in the creation of the Office of War Information and the Operation Planning and Intelligence Board.", "He also helped organize the army's first psychological warfare section.", "In 1943, he was sent to China to coordinate military intelligence operations.", "When he later pursued his interest in China, Linebarger became a close confidant of Chiang Kai-shek.", "By the end of the war, he had risen to the rank of major.In 1947, Linebarger moved to the Johns Hopkins University's School of Advanced International Studies in Washington, DC, where he served as Professor of Asiatic Studies.", "He used his experiences in the war to write the book ''Psychological Warfare'' (1948), regarded by many in the field as a classic text.He eventually rose to the rank of colonel in the reserves.", "He was recalled to advise the British forces in the Malayan Emergency and the U.S. Eighth Army in the Korean War.", "While he was known to call himself a \"visitor to small wars\", he refrained from becoming involved in the Vietnam War, but is known to have done work for the Central Intelligence Agency.", "In 1969 CIA officer Miles Copeland Jr. wrote that Linebarger was \"perhaps the leading practitioner of 'black' and 'gray' propaganda in the Western world\".", "According to Joseph Burkholder Smith, a former CIA operative, he conducted classes in psychological warfare for CIA agents at his home in Washington under cover of his position at the School of Advanced International Studies.", "He traveled extensively and became a member of the Foreign Policy Association, and was called upon to advise President John F. Kennedy." ], [ "Marriage and family", "In 1936, Linebarger married Margaret Snow.", "They had a daughter in 1942 and another in 1947.They divorced in 1949.In 1950, Linebarger married again to Genevieve Collins; they had no children.", "They remained married until his death from a heart attack in 1966, at Johns Hopkins University Medical Center in Baltimore, Maryland, at age 53.Linebarger had expressed a wish to retire to Australia, which he had visited in his travels.", "He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Section 35, Grave Number 4712.His widow, Genevieve Collins Linebarger, was interred with him on November 16, 1981." ], [ "Case history debate", "Linebarger is long rumored to have been \"Kirk Allen\", the fantasy-haunted subject of \"The Jet-Propelled Couch,\" a chapter in psychologist Robert M. Lindner's best-selling 1954 collection ''The Fifty-Minute Hour.''", "According to Cordwainer Smith scholar Alan C. Elms, this speculation first reached print in Brian Aldiss's 1973 history of science fiction, ''Billion Year Spree''; Aldiss, in turn, claimed to have received the information from science fiction fan and scholar Leon Stover.", "More recently, both Elms and librarian Lee Weinstein have gathered circumstantial evidence to support the case for Linebarger's being Allen, but both concede there is no direct proof that Linebarger was ever a patient of Lindner's or that he suffered from a disorder similar to that of Kirk Allen." ], [ "Science fiction style", "According to Frederik Pohl:Linebarger's identity as \"Cordwainer Smith\" was secret until his death.", "(\"Cordwainer\" is an archaic word for \"a worker in cordwain or cordovan leather; a shoemaker\", and a \"smith\" is \"one who works in iron or other metals; esp.", "a blacksmith or farrier\": two kinds of skilled workers with traditional materials.", ")Linebarger also employed the literary pseudonyms \"Carmichael Smith\" (for his political thriller ''Atomsk''), \"Anthony Bearden\" (for his poetry) and \"Felix C. Forrest\" (for the novels ''Ria'' and ''Carola'').Some of Smith's stories are written in narrative styles closer to traditional Chinese stories than to most English-language fiction, as well as reminiscent of the Genji tales of Lady Murasaki.", "The total volume of his science fiction output is relatively small, because of his time-consuming profession and his early death.Smith's works consist of one novel, originally published in two volumes in edited form as ''The Planet Buyer'', also known as ''The Boy Who Bought Old Earth'' (1964) and ''The Underpeople'' (1968), and later restored to its original form as ''Norstrilia'' (1975); and 32 short stories (collected in ''The Rediscovery of Man'' (1993), including two versions of the short story \"War No.", "81-Q\").Linebarger's cultural links to China are partially expressed in the pseudonym \"Felix C. Forrest\", which he used in addition to \"Cordwainer Smith\".", "His godfather Sun Yat-Sen suggested to Linebarger that he adopt the Chinese name \"Lin Bai-lo\" (), which may be roughly translated as \"Forest of Incandescent Bliss\"; \"Felix\" is Latin for \"happy\".", "In his later years, Linebarger proudly wore a tie with the Chinese characters for this name embroidered on it.As an expert in psychological warfare, Linebarger was very interested in the newly developing fields of psychology and psychiatry.", "He used many of their concepts in his fiction.", "His fiction often has religious overtones or motifs, particularly evident in characters who have no control over their actions.", "James B. Jordan argued for the importance of Anglicanism to Smith's works back to 1949.But Linebarger's daughter Rosana Hart has indicated that he did not become an Anglican until 1950, and was not strongly interested in religion until later still.", "The introduction to the collection ''Rediscovery of Man'' notes that from around 1960 Linebarger became more devout and expressed this in his writing.", "Linebarger's works are sometimes included in analyses of Christianity in fiction, along with the works of authors such as C. S. Lewis and J.R.R.", "Tolkien.Most of Smith's stories are set in the far future, between 4,000 and 14,000 years from now.", "After the Ancient Wars devastate Earth, humans, ruled by the Instrumentality of Mankind, rebuild and expand to the stars in the Second Age of Space around 6000 AD.", "Over the next few thousand years, mankind spreads to thousands of worlds and human life becomes safe but sterile, as robots and the animal-derived Underpeople take over many human jobs and humans themselves are genetically programmed as embryos for specified duties.", "Towards the end of this period, the Instrumentality attempts to revive old cultures and languages in a process known as the Rediscovery of Man, where humans emerge from their mundane utopia and Underpeople are freed from slavery.For years, Linebarger had a pocket notebook which he had filled with ideas about The Instrumentality and additional stories in the series.", "But while in a small boat in a lake or bay in the mid 60s, he leaned over the side, and his notebook fell out of his breast pocket into the water, where it was lost forever.", "Another story claims that he accidentally left the notebook in a restaurant in Rhodes in 1965.With the book gone, he felt empty of ideas, and decided to start a new series which was an allegory of Mid-Eastern politics.Smith's stories describe a long future history of Earth.", "The settings range from a postapocalyptic landscape with walled cities, defended by agents of the Instrumentality, to a state of sterile utopia, in which freedom can be found only deep below the surface, in long-forgotten and buried anthropogenic strata.", "These features may place Smith's works within the Dying Earth subgenre of science fiction.", "They are ultimately more optimistic and distinctive.Smith's most celebrated short story is his first-published, \"Scanners Live in Vain\", which led many of its earliest readers to assume that \"Cordwainer Smith\" was a new pen name for one of the established giants of the genre.", "It was selected as one of the best science fiction short stories of the pre-Nebula Award period by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America, appearing in ''The Science Fiction Hall of Fame Volume One, 1929-1964''.", "\"The Ballad of Lost C'Mell\" was similarly honored, appearing in ''The Science Fiction Hall of Fame, Volume Two''.After \"Scanners Live in Vain\", Smith's next story did not appear for several years, but from 1955 until his death in 1966 his stories appeared regularly, for the most part in ''Galaxy Science Fiction''.", "His universe featured creations such as:* The planet Norstrilia (Old North Australia), a semi-arid planet where an immortality drug called '''' is harvested from gigantic, virus-infected sheep each weighing more than 100 tons.", "Norstrilians are nominally the richest people in the galaxy and defend their immensely valuable with sophisticated weapons (as shown in the story \"Mother Hitton's Littul Kittons\").", "However, extremely high taxes ensure that everyone on the planet lives a frugal, rural life, like the farmers of old Australia, to keep the Norstrilians tough.", "* The punishment world Shayol (cf.", "Sheol), where criminals are punished by the regrowth and harvesting of their organs for transplanting* ''Planoforming'' spacecraft, which are crewed by humans telepathically linked with cats to defend against the attacks of malevolent entities in space, which are perceived by the humans as dragons, and by the cats as gigantic rats, in \"The Game of Rat and Dragon\".", "* The ''Underpeople'', animals modified into human form and intelligence to fulfill servile roles, and treated as property.", "Several stories feature clandestine efforts to liberate the Underpeople and grant them civil rights.", "They are seen everywhere throughout regions controlled by the Instrumentality.", "Names of Underpeople have a single-letter prefix based on their animal species.", "Thus C'Mell (\"The Ballad of Lost C'Mell\") is cat-derived; D'Joan (\"The Dead Lady of Clown Town\"), a Joan of Arc figure, is descended from dogs; and B'dikkat (\"A Planet Named Shayol\") has bovine ancestors.", "* ''Habermans'' and their supervisors, ''Scanners'', who are essential for space travel, but at the cost of having their sensory nerves cut to block the \"pain of space\", and who perceive only by vision and various life-support implants.", "A technological breakthrough removes the need for the treatment, but resistance among the Scanners to their perceived loss of status ensues, forming the basis of the story \"Scanners Live in Vain\".", "* Early works in the timeline include neologisms which are not explained to any great extent, but serve to produce an atmosphere of strangeness.", "These words are usually derived from non-English words.", "For instance, ''manshonyagger'' derives from the German words \"menschen\" meaning, in some senses, \"men\" or \"mankind\", and \"jäger\", meaning a hunter, and refers to war machines that roam the wild lands between the walled cities and prey on men, except for those they can identify as Germans.", "Another example is \"Meeya Meefla\", the only city to have preserved its name from the pre-atomic era: evidently Miami, Florida, from its abbreviated form (as on road signs) \"MIAMI FLA\".", "* Character names in the stories often derive from words in languages other than English.", "Smith seemed particularly fond of using numbers for this purpose.", "For instance, the name \"Lord Sto Odin\" in the story \"Under Old Earth\" is derived from the Russian words for \"One hundred and one\", сто один; it also suggests the name of the Norse god Odin.", "Quite a few of the names mean \"five-six\" in different languages, including both the robot Fisi (five-six), the dead Lady Panc Ashash (in Sanskrit \"pañcha\" पञ्च is \"five\" and \"ṣaṣ\" षष् is \"six\"), Limaono (lima-ono, Hawaiian and/or Fijian), Englok (ng5-luk6 五-六, in Cantonese), Goroke (go-roku 五-六, Japanese) and Femtiosex (\"fifty-six\" in Swedish) in \"The Dead Lady of Clown Town\" as well as the main character in \"Think Blue, Count Two\", Veesey-koosey, which is an English transcription of the Finnish words \"viisi\" (five) and \"kuusi\" (six).", "Four of the characters in \"Think Blue, Count Two\" are called \"Thirteen\" in different languages: Tiga-belas (both in Indonesian and Malay), Trece (Spanish), Talatashar (based on an Arabic dialect form ثلاث عشر, ''thalāth ʿashar'') and Sh'san (based on Mandarin 十三, ''shísān'', where the \"í\" is never pronounced).", "Other names, notably that of Lord Jestocost (Russian Жестокость, Cruelty), are non-English but not numbers.", "* Remnants of modern culture accordingly appear as valued antiquities or sometimes just as unrecognized survivals, lending a rare feeling of nostalgia for the present to the stories." ], [ "Published non-fiction", "right*''The Political Doctrines of Sun Yat-Sen: An Exposition of the San Min Chu I'' (1937)* ''Government in Republican China'' (1938)* ''The China of Chiang K'ai-shek: A Political Study'' (1941)* ''Psychological Warfare'' (1948; revised second edition, 1954 - available online)*''Foreign milieux (HBM 200/1)'' (1951)* ''Immediate improvement of theater-level psychological warfare in the Far East'' (1951)*''Far Eastern Government and Politics: China and Japan'' (1954; with Djang Chu and Ardath W. Burks)*\"Draft statement of a ten-year China and Indochina policy, 1956–1966\" (1956)* ''Essays on military psychological operations'' (1966)" ], [ "Unpublished novels", "*1939 (rewritten in 1947) ''General Death''*1946 ''Journey in Search of a Destination''*1947-1948 ''The Dead Can Bite'' (a.k.a.", "''Sarmantia'')" ], [ "Published fiction", "===Short stories===Titles marked with an asterisk * are independent stories not related to the Instrumentality universe.", "*\"War No.", "81-Q\" (original version, June 1928) **\"Scanners Live in Vain\" (June 1950)*\"The Game of Rat and Dragon\" (October 1955)*\"Mark Elf\" (May 1957) *\"The Burning of the Brain\" (October 1958)*\"Western Science Is So Wonderful\" (December 1958) **\"No, No, Not Rogov!\"", "(February 1959) *\"Nancy\" (March 1959) **\"When the People Fell\" (April 1959) *\"Golden the Ship Was—Oh!", "Oh!", "Oh!\"", "(April 1959)*\"Angerhelm\" (June 1959) **\"The Fife Of Bodhidharma\" (June 1959) **\"The Lady Who Sailed The Soul\" (April 1960) *\"Alpha Ralpha Boulevard\" (June 1961)*\"Mother Hitton's Littul Kittons\" (June 1961)*\"A Planet Named Shayol\" (October 1961)*\"From Gustible's Planet\"(July 1962)*\"The Ballad of Lost C'Mell\" (October 1962)*\"Think Blue, Count Two\" (February 1963)*The stories making up the collection ''Quest of the Three Worlds'':**\"On the Gem Planet\" (October 1963)**\"On the Storm Planet\" (February 1965)**\"On the Sand Planet\" (December 1965)**\"Three to a Given Star\" (October 1965)*\"Drunkboat\" (October 1963)*\"The Good Friends\" (October 1963) **\"The Boy Who Bought Old Earth\" (The first half of \"Norstrilia\", April 1964, adapted into \"The Planet Buyer\") *\"The Store Of Heart's Desire\" (The second half of \"Norstrilia\", May 1964, adapted into \"The Underpeople\") *\"The Crime and the Glory of Commander Suzdal\" (May 1964)*\"The Dead Lady of Clown Town\" (August 1964)*\"Under Old Earth\" (February 1966) *\"Down to a Sunless Sea\" (October 1975) (with Genevieve Linebarger)*\"The Queen of the Afternoon\" (April 1978) *\"The Colonel Came Back from the Nothing-at-All\" (May 1979)*\"Himself in Anachron\" (1993) (completed by Genevieve Linebarger)*\"War No.", "81-Q\" (rewritten version, 1993) ===Book format===* ''Ria'' (1947; writing as \"Felix C. Forrest\")* ''Carola'' (1948; writing as \"Felix C. Forrest\")* ''Atomsk: A Novel of Suspense'' (1949; writing as \"Carmichael Smith\")* ''You Will Never Be The Same'' (1963, collection of short science fiction stories)* ''The Planet Buyer'' (1964; first half of ''Norstrilia'', with some rearrangement)* ''Space Lords'' (1965; short science fiction stories)* ''Quest of the Three Worlds'' (1966; four related science fiction novellas)* ''The Underpeople'' (1968; second half of ''Norstrilia'', with some rearrangement)* ''Under Old Earth and Other Explorations'' (1970; short science fiction stories)* ''Stardreamer'' (1971; short science fiction stories)* ''Norstrilia'' (1975; first complete publication in intended form)* ''The Best of Cordwainer Smith'' (1975; short science fiction stories)* ''The Instrumentality of Mankind'' (1979; short science fiction stories)* ''The Rediscovery of Man'' (1993; definitive and complete compilation of short science fiction writings)* ''Norstrilia'' (1994; corrected edition with variant texts)* ''We the Underpeople'' (2006; collection of 5 Instrumentality of Mankind short stories & the novel ''Norstrilia'')* ''When the People Fell'' (2007; collection of many Instrumentality of Mankind short stories, including all of those previously collected in ''Quest of the Three Worlds'')" ], [ "See also", "*Cordwainer Smith Rediscovery Award" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * * * * * * * * Linebarger.", "Arlington National Cemetery.", "* Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger Papers at the Hoover Institution Archives* Ted Gioia.", "\"Remembering Cordwainer Smith\".", "''The Atlantic Monthly''.", "* Bud Webster.", "Past Masters: Forest of Incandescent Bliss.", "''Galactic Central''.", "* Felix C. Forrest (3 records) and Carmichael Smith (no records) at LC Authorities* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "CSS (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''CSS''', or Cascading Style Sheets, is a language used to describe the style of document presentations in web development.", "'''CSS''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Computing and telecommunications", "*Chirp spread spectrum, a modulation concept, part of the standard IEEE 802.15.4aCSS*Closed source software, software that is not distributed with source code; also known as proprietary software*Computational social science, academic sub-disciplines concerned with computational approaches to the social sciences*Content Scramble System, an encryption algorithm in DVDs*Content Services Switch, a family of load balancers produced by Cisco*CSS code, a type of error-correcting code in quantum information theory" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "*Campus SuperStar, a popular Singapore school-based singing competition*Closed Shell Syndrome, a fictional disease in the ''Ghost in the Shell'' television series*Comcast/Charter Sports Southeast, a defunct southeast U.S. sports cable television network*''Counter-Strike: Source'', an online first-person shooter computer game*CSS (band), Cansei de Ser Sexy, a Brazilian electro-rock band" ], [ "Government", "*''Canadian Survey Ship'', of the Canadian Hydrographic Service*Center for Strategic Studies in Iran*Central Security Service, the military component of the US National Security Agency*Central Superior Services of Pakistan*Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad, a U.S. railroad*Committee for State Security (Bulgaria), a former name for the Bulgarian secret service*KGB, the Committee for State Security, the Soviet Union's security agency*Supreme Security Council of Moldova, named (CSS) in Romanian" ], [ "Military", "*Combat service support*Confederate Secret Service, the secret service operations of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War*Confederate States Ship, a ship of the historical naval branch of the Confederate States armed forces*Dongfeng missile, a Chinese surface-to-surface missile system (NATO designation code CSS)*HNLMS Den Helder (A834), a ship under construction for the dutch navy, also known as a Combat Support Ship (CSS)." ], [ "Schools and education", "*Centennial Secondary School (disambiguation)*''Certificat de Sécurité Sauvetage'', the former name of ''Certificat de formation à la sécurité'', the French national degree required to be flight attendant in France*Chase Secondary School, British Columbia, Canada*Clementi Secondary School, Hong Kong SAR, China*College of Social Studies, at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, USA*College of St. Scholastica, Duluth, Minnesota, USA*Colorado Springs School, Colorado Springs, CO, USA*Columbia Secondary School, New York, NY, USA*Commonwealth Secondary School, Jurong East, Singapore*Courtice Secondary School, Courtice, Canada*Crockett State School, juvenile correctional facility in Crockett, Texas, USA*CSS Profile, College Scholarship Service Profile, a U.S. student aid application form" ], [ "Space", "* Chinese space station, a modular space station project* Catalina Sky Survey, an astronomical survey* Commercial space station* Control stick steering, a method of flying the Space Shuttle manually" ], [ "Other organisations", "* CS Sfaxien, a Tunisian sport club* Comcast/Charter Sports Southeast, a cable-exclusive regional sports television network* Citizens Signpost Service, a body of the European Commission* Community Service Society of New York* Congregation of the Sacred Stigmata, or Stigmatines, a Catholic religious order* Cryptogamic Society of Scotland, a Scottish botanical research society" ], [ "Medicine and health science", "* Cancer-specific survival, survival rates specific to cancer type* Cytokine storm syndrome* Churg–Strauss syndrome, a type of autoimmune vasculitis, also known as eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis* Cross-sectional study, a study collecting data across a population at one point in time* Coronary steal syndrome, the syndrome resulting from the blood flow problem called coronary steal* Carotid sinus syndrome (carotid sinus syncope)—see ''Carotid sinus § Disease of the carotid sinus''" ], [ "Other uses", "* Chessington South railway station, a National Rail station code in England* Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad, a freight railroad between Chicago, Illinois, and South Bend, Indiana* Constant surface speed, a mode of machine tool operation, an aspect of speeds and feeds* Context-sensitive solutions, in transportation planning* Customer satisfaction survey, a tool used in customer satisfaction research* Cyclic steam stimulation, an oil field extraction technique; see Steam injection (oil industry)* Cab Signaling System, a train protection system* Close-space sublimation, a method for producing thin film solar cells, esp.", "Cadmium telluride* Competition Scratch Score, an element of the golf handicapping system in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland* The ISO 639-3 code for Southern Ohlone, also known as Costanoan, an indigenous language or language family spoken in California* Chowk Sarwar Shaheed (CSS), a city in Punjab, Pakistan" ], [ "See also", "* Cross-site scripting (XSS)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Churnsike Lodge" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Churnsike Lodge''' is an early Victorian hunting lodge situated in the parish of Greystead, West Northumberland, England.", "Constructed in 1850 by the Charlton family, descendants of the noted Border Reivers family of the English Middle March, the lodge formed part of the extensive Hesleyside estate, located some 10 miles from Hesleyside Hall itself.Consisting of the main house, stable block, hunting-dog kennels and gamekeepers bothy, when the property was acquired by the Chesters Estate in 1887 the 'Cairnsyke' estate consisted of several thousand acres of moorland, much of which was managed to support shooting of the formerly populous black grouse.", "Although much of this land has now reverted to fellside or has been otherwise managed as part of the commercial timber plantations of Kielder Forest, areas of heather moorland persist, dotted with remnants of the shooting butts.", "It is with reference to these fells that the 1887 sale catalogue described the estate as being the \"Finest grouse moor in the Kingdom\".Historically, the Lodge was home to the Irthing Head and Kielder hounds, regionally renowned and headed by the locally famed fox hunter William Dodd.", "Dodd, and his hounds, are repeatedly referenced in the traditional Northumbrian ballads of James Armstrong's 'Wanny Blossoms'.Having fallen into ruin by the 1980s, the property fell into the care of the Forestry Commission and was slated for demolition, as many properties in the area were, until being privately purchased.", "The former gamekeepers bothy now serves as a holiday-home." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Churnsike Lodge*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "William Kidd" ], [ "Introduction", "'''William Kidd''' ( – 23 May 1701) also known as '''Captain William Kidd''' or simply '''Captain Kidd''', was a Scottish privateer.", "Conflicting accounts exist regarding his early life, but he was likely born in Dundee and later settled in New York City.", "By 1690, Kidd had become a highly successful privateer, commissioned to protect English interests in North America and the West Indies.In 1695, Kidd received a royal commission from the Earl of Bellomont, the governor of New York, Massachusetts Bay and New Hampshire, to hunt down pirates and enemy French ships in the Indian Ocean.", "He received a letter of marque and set sail on a new ship, ''Adventure Galley'', the following year.", "On his voyage he failed to find many targets, lost much of his crew and faced threats of mutiny.", "In 1698, Kidd captured his greatest prize, the 400-ton ''Quedagh Merchant'', a ship hired by Armenian merchants and captained by an Englishman.", "The political climate in England had turned against him, however, and he was denounced as a pirate.", "Bellomont engineered Kidd's arrest upon his return to Boston and sent him to stand trial in London.", "He was found guilty and hanged in 1701.Kidd was romanticized after his death and his exploits became a popular subject of pirate-themed works of fiction.", "The belief that he had left buried treasure contributed significantly to his legend, which inspired numerous treasure hunts in the following centuries." ], [ "Life and career", "===Early life and education===Kidd was born in Dundee, Scotland prior to 15 October 1654.While claims have been made of alternate birthplaces, including Greenock and even Belfast, he said himself he came from Dundee in a testimony given by Kidd to the High Court of Admiralty in 1695.There have also been records of his baptism taking place in Dundee.", "A local society supported the family financially after the death of the father.", "The myth that his \"father was thought to have been a Church of Scotland minister\" has been discounted, insofar as there is no mention of the name in comprehensive Church of Scotland records for the period.", "Others still hold the contrary view.===Early voyages===As a young man, Kidd settled in New York City, which the English had taken over from the Dutch.", "There he befriended many prominent colonial citizens, including three governors.", "Some accounts suggest that he served as a seaman's apprentice on a pirate ship during this time, before beginning his more famous seagoing exploits as a privateer.By 1689, Kidd was a member of a French–English pirate crew sailing the Caribbean under Captain Jean Fantin.", "During one of their voyages, Kidd and other crew members mutinied, ousting the captain and sailing to the British colony of Nevis.", "There they renamed the ship ''Blessed William'', and Kidd became captain either as a result of election by the ship's crew, or by appointment of Christopher Codrington, governor of the island of Nevis.Kidd was an experienced leader and sailor by that time, and the ''Blessed William'' became part of Codrington's small fleet assembled to defend Nevis from the French, with whom the English were at war.", "The governor did not pay the sailors for their defensive service, telling them instead to take their pay from the French.", "Kidd and his men attacked the French island of Marie-Galante, destroying its only town and looting the area, and gathering around 2,000 pounds sterling.Later, during the War of the Grand Alliance, on commissions from the provinces of New York and Massachusetts Bay, Kidd captured an enemy privateer off the New England coast.", "Shortly afterwards, he was awarded £150 for successful privateering in the Caribbean.", "One year later, Captain Robert Culliford, a notorious pirate, stole Kidd's ship while he was ashore at Antigua in the West Indies.In New York City, Kidd was active in financially supporting the construction of Trinity Church, New York.On 16 May 1691, Kidd married Sarah Bradley Cox Oort, who was still in her early twenties.", "She had already been twice widowed and was one of the wealthiest women in New York, based on an inheritance from her first husband.===Preparing his expedition===''Captain Kidd in New York Harbor'', in a c. 1920 painting by Jean Leon Gerome FerrisOn 11 December 1695, Richard Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont, who was governing New York, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire, asked the \"trusty and well beloved Captain Kidd\" to attack Thomas Tew, John Ireland, Thomas Wake, William Maze, and all others who associated themselves with pirates, along with any enemy French ships.", "His request had the weight of the Crown behind it, and Kidd would have been considered disloyal, carrying much social stigma, to refuse Bellomont.", "This request preceded the voyage that contributed to Kidd's reputation as a pirate and marked his image in history and folklore.Four-fifths of the cost for the 1696 venture was paid by noble lords, who were among the most powerful men in England: the Earl of Orford, the Baron of Romney, the Duke of Shrewsbury, and Sir John Somers.", "Kidd was presented with a letter of marque, signed personally by King William III of England, which authorized him as a privateer.", "This letter reserved 10% of the loot for the Crown, and Henry Gilbert's ''The Book of Pirates'' suggests that the King fronted some of the money for the voyage himself.", "Kidd and his acquaintance Colonel Robert Livingston orchestrated the whole plan; they sought additional funding from merchant Sir Richard Blackham.", "Kidd also had to sell his ship ''Antigua'' to raise funds.The new ship, ''Adventure Galley'', was well suited to the task of catching pirates, weighing over 284 tons burthen and equipped with 34 cannon, oars, and 150 men.", "The oars were a key advantage, as they enabled ''Adventure Galley'' to manoeuvre in a battle when the winds had calmed and other ships were dead in the water.", "Kidd took pride in personally selecting the crew, choosing only those whom he deemed to be the best and most loyal officers.Because of Kidd's refusal to salute, the Navy vessel's captain retaliated by pressing much of Kidd's crew into naval service, despite the captain's strong protests and the general exclusion of privateer crew from such action.", "Short-handed, Kidd sailed for New York City, capturing a French vessel en route (which was legal under the terms of his commission).", "To make up for the lack of officers, Kidd picked up replacement crew in New York, the vast majority of whom were known and hardened criminals, some likely former pirates.Among Kidd's officers was quartermaster Hendrick van der Heul.", "The quartermaster was considered \"second in command\" to the captain in pirate culture of this era.", "It is not clear, however, if Van der Heul exercised this degree of responsibility because Kidd was authorised as a privateer.", "Van der Heul is notable because he might have been African or of Dutch descent.", "A contemporary source describes him as a \"small black Man\".", "If Van der Heul was of African ancestry, he would be considered the highest-ranking black pirate or privateer so far identified.", "Van der Heul later became a master's mate on a merchant vessel and was never convicted of piracy.===Hunting for pirates===In September 1696, Kidd weighed anchor and set course for the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa.", "A third of his crew died on the Comoros due to an outbreak of cholera, the brand-new ship developed many leaks, and he failed to find the pirates whom he expected to encounter off Madagascar.With his ambitious enterprise failing, Kidd became desperate to cover its costs.", "Yet he failed to attack several ships when given a chance, including a Dutchman and a New York privateer.", "Both were out of bounds of his commission.", "The latter would have been considered out of bounds because New York was part of the territories of the Crown, and Kidd was authorised in part by the New York governor.", "Some of the crew deserted Kidd the next time that ''Adventure Galley'' anchored offshore.", "Those who decided to stay on made constant open threats of mutiny.Howard Pyle's fanciful painting of Kidd and his ship, ''Adventure Galley'', in New York HarborHoward Pyle's fanciful painting of Kidd burying treasureThe ''Charles Galley'', a contemporary vessel of a comparable design to ''Adventure Galley''Kidd killed one of his own crewmen on 30 October 1697.Kidd's gunner William Moore was on deck sharpening a chisel when a Dutch ship appeared.", "Moore urged Kidd to attack the Dutchman, an act that would have been considered piratical, since the nation was not at war with England, but also certain to anger Dutch-born King William.", "Kidd refused, calling Moore a lousy dog.", "Moore retorted, \"If I am a lousy dog, you have made me so; you have brought me to ruin and many more.\"", "Kidd reportedly dropped an ironbound bucket on Moore, fracturing his skull.", "Moore died the following day.Seventeenth-century English admiralty law allowed captains great leeway in using violence against their crew, but killing was not permitted.", "Kidd said to his ship's surgeon that he had \"good friends in England, that will bring me off for that\".===Accusations of piracy===Escaped prisoners told stories of being hoisted up by the arms and \"drubbed\" (thrashed) with a drawn cutlass by Kidd.", "On one occasion, crew members sacked the trading ship ''Mary'' and tortured several of its crew members while Kidd and the other captain, Thomas Parker, conversed privately in Kidd's cabin.Kidd was declared a pirate very early in his voyage by a Royal Navy officer, to whom he had promised \"thirty men or so\".", "Kidd sailed away during the night to preserve his crew, rather than subject them to Royal Navy impressment.", "The letter of marque was intended to protect a privateer's crew from such impressment.On 30 January 1698, Kidd raised French colours and took his greatest prize, the 400-ton ''Quedagh Merchant'', an Indian ship hired by Armenian merchants.", "It was loaded with satins, muslins, gold, silver, and a variety of East Indian merchandise, as well as extremely valuable silks.", "The captain of ''Quedagh Merchant'' was an Englishman named Wright, who had purchased passes from the French East India Company promising him the protection of the French Crown.When news of his capture of this ship reached England, however, officials classified Kidd as a pirate.", "Various naval commanders were ordered to \"pursue and seize the said Kidd and his accomplices\" for the \"notorious piracies\" they had committed.Kidd kept the French sea passes of the ''Quedagh Merchant'', as well as the vessel itself.", "British admiralty and vice-admiralty courts (especially in North America) previously had often winked at privateers' excesses amounting to piracy.", "Kidd might have hoped that the passes would provide the legal fig leaf that would allow him to keep ''Quedagh Merchant'' and her cargo.", "Renaming the seized merchantman as ''Adventure Prize'', he set sail for Madagascar.On 1 April 1698, Kidd reached Madagascar.", "After meeting privately with trader Tempest Rogers (who would later be accused of trading and selling Kidd's looted East India goods) he found the first pirate of his voyage, Robert Culliford (the same man who had stolen Kidd's ship at Antigua years before) and his crew aboard ''Mocha Frigate''.Two contradictory accounts exist of how Kidd proceeded.", "According to ''A General History of the Pyrates'', published more than 25 years after the event by an author whose identity is disputed by historians, Kidd made peaceful overtures to Culliford: he \"drank their Captain's health\", swearing that \"he was in every respect their Brother\", and gave Culliford \"a Present of an Anchor and some Guns\".", "This account appears to be based on the testimony of Kidd's crewmen Joseph Palmer and Robert Bradinham at his trial.The other version was presented by Richard Zacks in his 2002 book ''The Pirate Hunter: The True Story of Captain Kidd''.", "According to Zacks, Kidd was unaware that Culliford had only about 20 crew with him, and felt ill-manned and ill-equipped to take ''Mocha Frigate'' until his two prize ships and crews arrived.", "He decided to leave Culliford alone until these reinforcements arrived.", "After ''Adventure Prize'' and ''Rouparelle'' reached port, Kidd ordered his crew to attack Culliford's ''Mocha Frigate''.", "However, his crew refused to attack Culliford and threatened instead to shoot Kidd.", "Zacks does not refer to any source for his version of events.Both accounts agree that most of Kidd's men abandoned him for Culliford.", "Only 13 remained with ''Adventure Galley''.", "Deciding to return home, Kidd left the ''Adventure Galley'' behind, ordering her to be burnt because she had become worm-eaten and leaky.", "Before burning the ship, he salvaged every last scrap of metal, such as hinges.", "With the loyal remnant of his crew, he returned to the Caribbean aboard the ''Adventure Prize'', stopping first at St. Augustine's Bay for repairs.", "Some of his crew later returned to North America on their own as passengers aboard Giles Shelley's ship ''Nassau''.The 1698 Act of Grace, which offered a royal pardon to pirates in the Indian Ocean, specifically exempted Kidd (and Henry Every) from receiving a pardon, in Kidd's case due to his association with prominent Whig statesmen.", "Kidd became aware both that he was wanted and that he could not make use of the Act of Grace upon his arrival in Anguilla, his first port of call since St. Augustine's Bay.===Trial and execution===Prior to returning to New York City, Kidd knew that he was wanted as a pirate and that several English men-of-war were searching for him.", "Realizing that ''Adventure Prize'' was a marked vessel, he cached it in the Caribbean Sea, sold off his remaining plundered goods through pirate and fence William Burke, and continued towards New York aboard a sloop.", "He deposited some of his treasure on Gardiners Island, hoping to use his knowledge of its location as a bargaining tool.", "Kidd landed in Oyster Bay to avoid mutinous crew who had gathered in New York City.", "To avoid them, Kidd sailed around the eastern tip of Long Island, and doubled back along the Sound to Oyster Bay.", "He felt this was a safer passage than the highly trafficked Narrows between Staten Island and Brooklyn.New York Governor Bellomont, also an investor, was away in Boston, Massachusetts.", "Aware of the accusations against Kidd, Bellomont was afraid of being implicated in piracy himself and believed that presenting Kidd to England in chains was his best chance to survive.", "He lured Kidd into Boston with false promises of clemency, and ordered him arrested on 6 July 1699.Kidd was placed in Stone Prison, spending most of the time in solitary confinement.", "His wife, Sarah, was also arrested and imprisoned.", "They were separated and she never saw him again.The conditions of Kidd's imprisonment were extremely harsh, and were said to have driven him at least temporarily insane.", "By then, Bellomont had turned against Kidd and other pirates, writing that the inhabitants of Long Island were \"a lawless and unruly people\" protecting pirates who had \"settled among them\".The civil government had changed and the new Tory ministry hoped to use Kidd as a tool to discredit the Whigs who had backed him, but Kidd refused to name names, naively confident his patrons would reward his loyalty by interceding on his behalf.", "There is speculation that he could have been spared had he talked.", "Finding Kidd politically useless, the Tory leaders sent him to stand trial before the High Court of Admiralty in London, for the charges of piracy on high seas and the murder of William Moore.", "Whilst awaiting trial, Kidd was confined in the infamous Newgate Prison, regarded even by the standards of the day as a disgusting hellhole, and was held there for almost 2 years before his trial even began.gibbeted near Tilbury in Essex, following his execution in 1701.Kidd had two lawyers to assist in his defense.", "However, the money that the Admiralty had set aside for his defense was misplaced until right before the trials start, and he had no legal counsel until the morning that the trial started and had time for just one brief consultation with them before it began.", "He was shocked to learn at his trial that he was charged with murder.", "He was found guilty on all charges (murder and five counts of piracy) and sentenced to death.", "He was hanged in a public execution on 23 May 1701, at Execution Dock, Wapping, in London.", "He had to be hanged twice.", "On the first attempt, the hangman's rope broke and Kidd survived.", "Although some in the crowd called for Kidd's release, claiming the breaking of the rope was a sign from God, Kidd was hanged again minutes later, and died.", "His body was gibbeted over the River Thames at Tilbury Point, as a warning to future would-be pirates, for three years.Of Kidd's associates, Gabriel Loffe, Able Owens, and Hugh Parrot were also convicted of piracy.", "They were pardoned just prior to hanging at Execution Dock.", "Robert Lamley, William Jenkins and Richard Barleycorn were released.The French pass from the \"Quedagh Merchant\"Kidd's Whig backers were embarrassed by his trial.", "Far from rewarding his loyalty, they participated in the effort to convict him by depriving him of the money and information which might have provided him with some legal defence.", "In particular, the two sets of French passes he had kept were missing at his trial.", "These passes (and others dated 1700) resurfaced in the early 20th century, misfiled with other government papers in a London building.", "These passes confirm Kidd's version of events, and call the extent of his guilt as a pirate into question.A broadside song, \"Captain Kidd's Farewell to the Seas, or, the Famous Pirate's Lament\", was printed shortly after his execution.", "It popularised the common belief that Kidd had confessed to the charges.", "''Captain Kidd, Burying Treasure,'' from the Pirates of the Spanish Main series (N19) for Allen & Ginter Cigarettes MET DP835020." ], [ "Mythology and legend", "The belief that Kidd had left buried treasure contributed greatly to the growth of his legend.", "The 1701 broadside song \"Captain Kid's Farewell to the Seas, or, the Famous Pirate's Lament\" lists \"Two hundred bars of gold, and rix dollars manifold, we seized uncontrolled\".It also inspired numerous treasure hunts conducted on Oak Island in Nova Scotia; in Suffolk County, Long Island in New York where Gardiner's Island is located; Charles Island in Milford, Connecticut; the Thimble Islands in Connecticut and Cockenoe Island in Westport, Connecticut.Kidd was also alleged to have buried treasure on the Rahway River in New Jersey across the Arthur Kill from Staten Island.Captain Kidd did bury a small cache of treasure on Gardiners Island off the eastern coast of Long Island, New York, in a spot known as Cherry Tree Field.", "Governor Bellomont reportedly had it found and sent to England to be used as evidence against Kidd in his trial.Some time in the 1690s, Kidd visited Block Island where he was supplied with provisions by Mrs. Mercy (Sands) Raymond, daughter of the mariner James Sands.", "It was said that before he departed, Kidd asked Mrs. Raymond to hold out her apron, which he then filled with gold and jewels as payment for her hospitality.", "After her husband Joshua Raymond died, Mercy moved with her family to northern New London, Connecticut (later Montville) where she purchased much land.", "The Raymond family was said by family acquaintances to have been \"enriched by the apron\".On Grand Manan in the Bay of Fundy, as early as 1875, there were searches on the west side of the island for treasure allegedly buried by Kidd during his time as a privateer.", "For nearly 200 years, this remote area of the island has been called \"Money Cove\".In 1983, Cork Graham and Richard Knight searched for Captain Kidd's buried treasure off the Vietnamese island of Phú Quốc.", "Knight and Graham were caught, convicted of illegally landing on Vietnamese territory, and each assessed a $10,000 fine.", "They were imprisoned for 11 months until they paid the fine." ], [ "''Quedagh Merchant'' found", "For years, people and treasure hunters tried to locate the ''Quedagh Merchant''.", "It was reported on 13 December 2007 that \"wreckage of a pirate ship abandoned by Captain Kidd in the 17th century has been found by divers in shallow waters off the Dominican Republic\".", "The waters in which the ship was found were less than ten feet deep and were only off Catalina Island, just to the south of La Romana on the Dominican coast.", "The ship is believed to be \"the remains of the ''Quedagh Merchant''\".", "Charles Beeker, the director of Academic Diving and Underwater Science Programs in Indiana University (Bloomington)'s School of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, was one of the experts leading the Indiana University diving team.", "He said that it was \"remarkable that the wreck has remained undiscovered all these years given its location\", and that the ship had been the subject of so many prior failed searches.", "Captain Kidd's cannon, an artifact from the shipwreck, was added to a permanent exhibit at The Children's Museum of Indianapolis in 2011." ], [ "False find", "In May 2015, a ingot expected to be silver was found in a wreck off the coast of Île Sainte-Marie in Madagascar by a team led by marine archaeologist Barry Clifford.", "It was believed to be part of Captain Kidd's treasure.", "Clifford gave the booty to Hery Rajaonarimampianina, President of Madagascar.", "But, in July 2015, a UNESCO scientific and technical advisory body reported that testing showed the ingot consisted of 95% lead, and speculated that the wreck in question was a broken part of the Sainte-Marie port constructions." ], [ "Portrayals in popular culture", "===Literature===*Edgar Allan Poe uses the legend of Kidd's buried treasure in his story \"The Gold Bug\" (1843).", "*The 1957 children's book ''Captain Kidd's Cat'' by Robert Lawson is a largely fictionalized account of Kidd's last voyage, trial and execution.", "It is told from the point of view of his loyal ship's cat.", "The book portrays Kidd as an innocent privateer who was framed by corrupt officials as a scapegoat for their own crimes.", "*In the popular manga ''One Piece'', \"Captain\" Eustass Kid is based on him.", "*Bob Dylan used Captain Kidd in the lyrics to \"Bob Dylan's 115th Dream\".===Film and television===*Stanley Andrews as Kidd.", "Captain Kidd's Treasure (Short 1938).", "*Charles Laughton played Kidd twice on film: in ''Captain Kidd'' (1945) and in ''Abbott and Costello Meet Captain Kidd'' (1952).", "*John Crawford played Kidd in the 1953 Columbia film serial ''The Great Adventures of Captain Kidd''.", "*Love Nystrom portrayed Kidd in the 2006 mini-series ''Blackbeard''.", "*Noah Robbins played William Benedict, a man who used the alias of Captain Kidd in the 11th episode of Season 8 of the TV series ''The Blacklist''.===Music===* The traditional folk song \"The Ballad of Captain Kidd\" was popular from its publication at the time of Kidd's death, surviving in the oral tradition into the twentieth century and giving its melody to the hymn \"What Wondrous Love Is This\".", "* The song \"Ballad of William Kidd\" by the heavy metal band Running Wild is based on Kidd's life, particularly the events surrounding his trial and execution.", "* Canadian band Great Big Sea wrote and recorded the ballad \"Captain Kidd\".", "It is a sea chanty with many historically accurate allusions to the life of William Kidd.", "* He is mentioned in \"The Land of Make Believe\" by Bucks Fizz.===Video games===*In ''Persona 5'' and its related titles, Captain Kidd is the Persona of party member Ryuji Sakamoto, which appears as a skeleton dressed as a stylized pirate riding a ship.", "Likewise, Ryuji's Third-Tier Persona is called William and has a sci-fi motif mixed with pirates.", "*In ''Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag'', the character Mary Read, in order to facilitate her career as a pirate, poses as James Kidd, an illegitimate son of the late William Kidd." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "===Books===* Campbell (1853).", "''An Historical Sketch of Robin Hood and Captain Kid''.", "New York.", "* Dalton, Sir Cornelius Neale (1911).", "''The Real Captain Kidd: A Vindication''.", "New York: Duffield.", "* Gilbert, H. (1986).", "''The Book of Pirates''.", "London: Bracken Books.", "* * Konstam, Angus (2008).", "''The Complete History of Piracy''.", "(Osprey Publishing).", "* Ritchie, Robert C. (1986).", "''Captain Kidd and the War against the Pirates''.", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "* Various (2019) ''The Search for Captain Kidd’s Treasure: Early Newspaper Reports, 1836–1859'' (self-published).", "* Wilkins, Harold T. (1937).", "''Captain Kidd and His Skeleton Island''.", "New York: Liveright Publishing Corp.* Zacks, Richard (2002).", "''The Pirate Hunter: The True Story of Captain Kidd''.", "Hyperion Books.", ".===Articles===* Captain Kidd Pirate's Treasure Buried in the Connecticut River* The King's Commission to William Kidd for the Capture of Captain Thomas Tew and Others* Biography at piratesinfo.com* Dave's Blog Blog, observer with the Indiana University expedition to the Quedagh Merchant (ongoing)* National Archives – Article listing Records held concerning Captain Kidd* Pirates and the history of Lordship, Connecticut* Arraignment, Tryal and Condemnation of Captain William Kidd The court documents of the trial of William Kidd, in Early Modern English." ], [ "External links", "* Captain Kidd pub , What's in Wapping?", "Local community website" ] ]
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[ [ "Calreticulin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Calreticulin''' also known as '''calregulin''', '''CRP55''', '''CaBP3''', '''calsequestrin-like protein''', and '''endoplasmic reticulum resident protein 60''' ('''ERp60''') is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''CALR'' gene.Calreticulin is a multifunctional soluble protein that binds Ca2+ ions (a second messenger in signal transduction), rendering it inactive.", "The Ca2+ is bound with low affinity, but high capacity, and can be released on a signal (see inositol trisphosphate).", "Calreticulin is located in storage compartments associated with the endoplasmic reticulum and is considered an ER resident protein.The term \"Mobilferrin\" is considered to be the same as calreticulin by some sources." ], [ "Function", "Calreticulin binds to misfolded proteins and prevents them from being exported from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus.A similar quality-control molecular chaperone, calnexin, performs the same service for soluble proteins as does calreticulin, however it is a membrane-bound protein.", "Both proteins, calnexin and calreticulin, have the function of binding to oligosaccharides containing terminal glucose residues, thereby targeting them for degradation.", "Calreticulin and Calnexin's ability to bind carbohydrates associates them with the lectin protein family.", "In normal cellular function, trimming of glucose residues off the core oligosaccharide added during N-linked glycosylation is a part of protein processing.", "If \"overseer\" enzymes note that residues are misfolded, proteins within the rER will re-add glucose residues so that other calreticulin/calnexin can bind to these proteins and prevent them from proceeding to the Golgi.", "This leads these aberrantly folded proteins down a path whereby they are targeted for degradation.Studies on transgenic mice reveal that calreticulin is a cardiac embryonic gene that is essential during development.Calreticulin and calnexin are also integral in the production of MHC class I proteins.", "As newly synthesized MHC class I α-chains enter the endoplasmic reticulum, calnexin binds on to them retaining them in a partly folded state.", "After the β2-microglobulin binds to the peptide-loading complex (PLC), calreticulin (along with ERp57) takes over the job of chaperoning the MHC class I protein while the tapasin links the complex to the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) complex.", "This association prepares the MHC class I to bind an antigen for presentation on the cell surface.=== Transcription regulation ===Calreticulin is also found in the nucleus, suggesting that it may have a role in transcription regulation.", "Calreticulin binds to the synthetic peptide KLGFFKR, which is almost identical to an amino acid sequence in the DNA-binding domain of the superfamily of nuclear receptors.", "The amino terminus of calreticulin interacts with the DNA-binding domain of the glucocorticoid receptor and prevents the receptor from binding to its specific glucocorticoid response element.", "Calreticulin can inhibit the binding of androgen receptor to its hormone-responsive DNA element and can inhibit androgen receptor and retinoic acid receptor transcriptional activities in vivo, as well as retinoic acid-induced neuronal differentiation.", "Thus, calreticulin can act as an important modulator of the regulation of gene transcription by nuclear hormone receptors." ], [ "Clinical significance", "Calreticulin binds to antibodies in certain area of systemic lupus and Sjögren patients that contain anti-Ro/SSA antibodies.", "Systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with increased autoantibody titers against calreticulin, but calreticulin is not a Ro/SS-A antigen.", "Earlier papers referred to calreticulin as an Ro/SS-A antigen, but this was later disproven.", "Increased autoantibody titer against human calreticulin is found in infants with complete congenital heart block of both the IgG and IgM classes.In 2013, two groups detected calreticulin mutations in a majority of JAK2-negative/MPL-negative patients with essential thrombocythemia and primary myelofibrosis, which makes ''CALR'' mutations the second most common in myeloproliferative neoplasms.", "All mutations (insertions or deletions) affected the last exon, generating a reading frame shift of the resulting protein, that creates a novel terminal peptide and causes a loss of endoplasmic reticulum KDEL retention signal." ], [ "Role in cancer", "Calreticulin (CRT) is expressed in many cancer cells and plays a role to promote macrophages to engulf hazardous cancerous cells.", "The reason why most of the cells are not destroyed is the presence of another molecule with signal CD47, which blocks CRT.", "Hence antibodies that block CD47 might be useful as a cancer treatment.", "In mice models of myeloid leukemia and non-Hodgkin lymphoma, anti-CD47 were effective in clearing cancer cells while normal cells were unaffected." ], [ "Interactions", "Calreticulin has been shown to interact with Perforin and NK2 homeobox 1." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Crannog" ], [ "Introduction", "A reconstructed crannog near Kenmore, Perth and Kinross, on Loch Tay, ScotlandA '''crannog''' (; ; ) is typically a partially or entirely artificial island, usually built in lakes and estuarine waters of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.", "Unlike the prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps, which were built on the shores and not inundated until later, crannogs were built in the water, thus forming artificial islands.Crannogs were used as dwellings over five millennia, from the European Neolithic Period to as late as the 17th/early 18th century.", "In Scotland there is no convincing evidence in the archaeological record of Early and Middle Bronze Age or Norse Period use.", "The radiocarbon dating obtained from key sites such as Oakbank and Redcastle indicates at a 95.4 per cent confidence level that they date to the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age.", "The date ranges fall ''after'' around 800 BC and so could be considered Late Bronze Age by only the narrowest of margins.Crannogs have been variously interpreted as free-standing wooden structures, as at Loch Tay, although more commonly they are composed of brush, stone or timber mounds that can be revetted with timber piles.", "However, in areas such as the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, timber was unavailable from the Neolithic era onwards.", "As a result, crannogs made completely of stone and supporting drystone architecture are common there.", "Today, crannogs typically appear as small, circular islets, often in diameter, covered in dense vegetation due to their inaccessibility to grazing livestock." ], [ "Etymology and uncertain meanings", "The Irish word derives from Old Irish , which referred to a wooden structure or vessel, stemming from ''crann'', which means \"tree\", suffixed with \"-óg\" which is a diminutive ending ultimately borrowed from Welsh.", "The suffix ''-óg'' is sometimes misunderstood by non-native Irish-speakers as ''óg'', which is a separate word that means \"young\".", "This misunderstanding leads to a folk etymology whereby ''crannóg'' is misanalysed as ''crann óg'', which is pronounced differently and means \"a young tree\".", "The modern sense of the term first appears sometime around the 12th century; its popularity spread in the medieval period along with the terms ''isle'', ''ylle'', ''inis'', ''eilean'' or ''oileán''.There is some confusion on what the term ''crannog'' originally referred to, as the structure atop the island or the island itself.", "The additional meanings of Irish can be variously related as 'structure/piece of wood', including 'crow's nest', 'pulpit', or 'driver's box on a coach'; 'vessel/box/chest' more generally; and 'wooden pin'.", "The Scottish Gaelic form is and has the additional meanings of 'pulpit' and 'churn'.", "Thus, there is no real consensus on what the term ''crannog'' actually implies, although the modern adoption in the English language broadly refers to a partially or completely artificial islet that saw use from the prehistoric to the Post-Medieval period in Ireland and Scotland." ], [ "Location", "Crannogs are widespread in Ireland, with an estimated 1,200 examples, while Scotland has 389 sites officially listed as such.", "The actual number in Scotland varies considerably depending on definition—between about 350 and 500, due to the use of the term \"island dun\" for well over one hundred Hebridean examples—a distinction that has created a divide between mainland Scottish crannog and Hebridean islet settlement studies.", "Previously unknown crannogs in Scotland and Ireland are still being found as underwater surveys continue to investigate loch beds for completely submerged examples.The largest concentrations of crannogs in Ireland are found in the Drumlin Belt of the Midlands, North and Northwest.", "In Scotland, crannogs are mostly found on the western coast, with high concentrations in Argyll and Dumfries and Galloway.", "In reality, the Western Isles contain the highest density of lake-settlements in Scotland, yet they are recognised under varying terms besides \"crannog\".", "One lone Welsh example exists at Llangorse Lake, probably a product of Irish influence.Reconstructed Irish crannógs are located at Craggaunowen, County Clare, in the Irish National Heritage Park, County Wexford and at Castle Espie, County Down.", "In Scotland there are reconstructions at the \"Scottish Crannog Centre\" at Loch Tay, Perthshire; this centre offers guided tours and hands-on activities, including wool-spinning, wood-turning and making fire, holds events to celebrate wild cooking and crafts, and hosts yearly Midsummer, Lughnasadh and Samhain festivals." ], [ "Types and problems with definition", "A replica crannóg on Loch TayCrannogs took on many different forms and methods of construction based on what was available in the immediate landscape.", "The classic image of a prehistoric crannog stems from both post-medieval illustrations and highly influential excavations, such as Milton Loch in Scotland by C. M. Piggot after World War II.", "The Milton Loch interpretation is of a small islet surrounded or defined at its edges by timber piles and a gangway, topped by a typical Iron Age roundhouse.The choice of a small islet as a home may seem odd today, yet waterways were the main channels for both communication and travel until the 19th century in much of Ireland and, especially, Highland Scotland.", "Crannogs are traditionally interpreted as simple prehistorical farmsteads.", "They are also interpreted as boltholes in times of danger, as status symbols with limited access, and as inherited locations of power that imply a sense of legitimacy and ancestry towards ownership of the surrounding landscape.A strict definition of a crannog, which has long been debated, requires the use of timber.", "Sites in the Western Isles do not satisfy this criterion, although their inhabitants shared the common habit of living on water.", "If not classed as \"true\" crannogs, small occupied islets (often at least partially artificial in nature) may be referred to as \"island duns., But, rather confusingly, 22 islet-based sites are classified as \"proper\" crannogs due to the different interpretations of the inspectors or excavators who drew up field reports.Hebridean island dwellings or crannogs were commonly built on both natural and artificial islets, usually reached by a stone causeway.", "The visible structural remains are traditionally interpreted as duns or, in more recent terminology, as \"Atlantic roundhouses\".", "This terminology has recently become popular when describing the entire range of robust, drystone structures that existed in later prehistoric Atlantic Scotland.The majority of crannog excavations were poorly conducted (by modern standards) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by early antiquarians, or were purely accidental finds as lochs were drained during the improvements to increase usable farmland or pasture.", "In some early digs, labourers hauled away tons of materials, with little regard to anything that was not of immediate economic value.", "Conversely, the vast majority of early attempts at proper excavation failed to accurately measure or record stratigraphy, thereby failing to provide a secure context for artefact finds.", "Thus only extremely limited interpretations are possible.", "Preservation and conservation techniques for waterlogged materials such as logboats or structural material were all but non-existent, and a number of extremely important finds were destroyed as a result: in some instances dried out for firewood.Reconstructed crannogFrom about 1900 to the late 1940s there was very little crannog excavation in Scotland, while some important and highly influential contributions were made in Ireland.", "In contrast, relatively few crannogs have been excavated since the Second World War.", "But this number has steadily grown, especially since the early 1980s, and may soon surpass pre-war totals.", "The overwhelming majority of crannogs show multiple phases of occupation and re-use, often extending over centuries.", "Thus the re-occupiers may have viewed crannogs as a legacy that was alive in local tradition and memory.", "Crannog reoccupation is important and significant, especially in the many instances of crannogs built near natural islets, which were often completely unused.", "This long chronology of use has been verified by both radiocarbon dating and more precisely by dendrochronology.Interpretations of crannog function have not been static; instead they appear to have changed in both the archaeological and historic records.", "Rather than the simple domestic residences of prehistory, the medieval crannogs were increasingly seen as strongholds of the upper class or regional political players, such as the Gaelic chieftains of the O'Boylans and McMahons in County Monaghan and the Kingdom of Airgíalla, until the 17th century.", "In Scotland, the medieval and post-medieval use of crannogs is also documented into the early 18th century.", "Whether this increase in status is real, or just a by-product of increasingly complex material assemblages, remains to be convincingly validated." ], [ "History", "The earliest-known constructed crannog is the completely artificial Neolithic islet of Eilean Dòmhnuill, Loch Olabhat on North Uist in Scotland.", "Eilean Domhnuill has produced radiocarbon dates ranging from 3650 to 2500 BC.", "Irish crannogs appear in middle Bronze Age layers at Ballinderry (1200–600 BC).", "Recent radiocarbon dating of worked timber found in Loch Bhorghastail on the Isle of Lewis has produced evidence of crannogs as old as 3380-3630 BC.", "Prior to the Bronze Age, the existence of artificial island settlement in Ireland is not as clear.", "While lakeside settlements are evident in Ireland from 4500 BC, these settlements are not crannogs, as they were not intended to be islands.", "Despite having a lengthy chronology, their use was not at all consistent or unchanging.Crannog construction and occupation was at its peak in Scotland from about 800 BC to AD 200.Not surprisingly, crannogs have useful defensive properties, although there appears to be more significance to prehistoric use than simple defense, as very few weapons or evidence for destruction appear in excavations of prehistoric crannogs.", "In Ireland, crannogs were at their zenith during the Early Historic period, when they were the homes and retreats of kings, lords, prosperous farmers and, occasionally, socially marginalised groups, such as monastic hermits or metalsmiths who could work in isolation.", "Despite scholarly concepts supporting a strict Early Historic evolution, Irish excavations are increasingly uncovering examples that date from the \"missing\" Iron Age in Ireland." ], [ "Construction", "Loughbrickland Crannóg in Northern Ireland.The construction techniques for a crannog (prehistoric or otherwise) are as varied as the multitude of finished forms that make up the archaeological record.", "Island settlement in Scotland and Ireland is manifest through the entire range of possibilities ranging from entirely natural, small islets to completely artificial islets, therefore definitions remain contentious.", "For crannogs in the strict sense, typically the construction effort began on a shallow reef or rise in the lochbed.When timber was available, many crannogs were surrounded by a circle of wooden piles, with axe-sharpened bases that were driven into the bottom, forming a circular enclosure that helped to retain the main mound and prevent erosion.", "The piles could also be joined together by mortise and tenon, or large holes cut to carefully accept specially shaped timbers designed to interlock and provide structural rigidity.", "On other examples, interior surfaces were built up with any mixture of clay, peat, stone, timber or brush – whatever was available.", "In some instances, more than one structure was built on crannogs.In other types of crannogs, builders and occupants added large stones to the waterline of small natural islets, extending and enlarging them over successive phases of renewal.", "Larger crannogs could be occupied by extended families or communal groups, and access was either by logboats or coracles.", "Evidence for timber or stone causeways exists on a large number of crannogs.", "The causeways may have been slightly submerged; this has been interpreted as a device to make access difficult but may also be a result of loch level fluctuations over the ensuing centuries or millennia.", "Organic remains are often found in excellent condition on these water-logged sites.", "The bones of cattle, deer, and swine have been found in excavated crannogs, while remains of wooden utensils and even dairy products have been completely preserved for several millennia.=== Fire and reconstruction ===In June 2021, the Loch Tay Crannog was seriously damaged in a fire but funding was given to repair the structure, and conserve the museum materials retained.", "The UNESCO Chair in Refugee Integration through Languages and the Arts, Alison Phipps of Glasgow University and African artist Tawona Sithole considered its future and its impact as a symbol of common human history and 'potent ways of healing' including restarting the creative weaving with Soay sheep wool in 'a thousand touches'." ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Robert Lenfert MA PhD, ''crannogs.weebly.com'', \"Living on Water: Scottish Crannogs and Island Dwellings\".", "* Crannog.co.uk, The Scottish Crannog Centre Reconstruction of a crannog.", "* McMahonsOfMonaghan.org, Crannog illustration showing attack in Monaghan, Ireland in the 16th century.", "* Channel4.com, Time Team on Crannogs.", "* Channel4.com, Time Team excavation at Loch Migdale, January 2004.", "* Canmore , Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland's Canmore database, a searchable database of archaeological and architectural sites in Scotland, including crannogs.", "* About.com , Llangors Crannog.", "* The Iron Age Crannogs of Ayrshire, ''www.youtube.com'', Crannogs in Ayrshire, Scotland." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Calendar date" ], [ "Introduction", " A '''calendar date''' is a reference to a particular day represented within a calendar system.", "The calendar date allows the specific day to be identified.", "The number of days between two dates may be calculated.", "For example, \"25 \" is ten days after \"15 \".", "The date of a particular event depends on the observed time zone.", "For example, the air attack on Pearl Harbor that began at 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian time on 7 December 1941 took place at 3:18 a.m. Japan Standard Time, 8 December in Japan.A particular day may be assigned a different nominal date according to the calendar used, so an identifying suffix may be needed where ambiguity may arise.", "The Gregorian calendar is the world's most widely used civil calendar, and is designated (in English) as AD or CE.", "Many cultures use religious or regnal calendars such as the Gregorian (Western Christendom, AD), Hebrew calendar (Judaism, AM), the Hijri calendars (Islam, AH), Julian calendar (Eastern Christendom, AD) or any other of the many calendars used around the world.", "In most calendar systems, the date consists of three parts: the (numbered) ''day of the month'', the ''month'', and the (numbered) ''year''.", "There may also be additional parts, such as the ''day of the week''.", "Years are usually counted from a particular starting point, usually called the epoch, with era referring to the span of time since that epoch.A date without the year may also be referred to as a ''date'' or ''calendar date'' (such as \" \" rather than \" \").", "As such, it is either shorthand for the current year or it defines the day of an annual event, such as a birthday on 31 May, a holiday on 1 September, or Christmas on 25 December.Many computer systems internally store points in time in Unix time format or some other system time format.The date (Unix) command—internally using the C date and time functions—can be used to convert that internal representation of a point in time to most of the date representations shown here." ], [ "Date format", " There is a large variety of formats for dates in use, which differ in the order of date components.", "These variations use the sample date of 31 May 2006: (e.g.", "31/05/2006, 05/31/2006, 2006/05/31), component separators (e.g.", "31.05.2006, 31/05/2006, 31-05-2006), whether leading zeros are included (e.g.", "31/5/2006 vs. 31/05/2006), whether all four digits of the year are written (e.g., 31.05.2006 vs. 31.05.06), and whether the month is represented in Arabic or Roman numerals or by name (e.g.", "31.05.2006, 31.V.2006 vs. 31 May 2006).===Gregorian, day–month–year (DMY) ===Postal mark of Czechoslovakia dated 13 June 1939This little-endian sequence is used by a majority of the world and is the preferred form by the United Nations when writing the full date format in official documents.", "This date format originates from the custom of writing the date as \"the Nth day of month in the year of our Lord year\" in Western religious and legal documents.", "The format has shortened over time but the order of the elements has remained constant.", "The following examples use the date of 9 November 2006.", "(With the years 2000–2009, care must be taken to ensure that two digit years do not intend to be 1900–1909 or other similar years.)", "The dots have a function of ordinal dot.", "* \"9 November 2006\" or \"9.November 2006\" (the latter is common in German-speaking regions)* 9/11/2006 or 09/11/2006* 09.11.2006 or 9.11.2006* 9.11.2006* 9-11-2006 or 09-11-2006* 09-Nov-2006* 09Nov06 – Used, including in the U.S., where space needs to be saved by skipping punctuation (often seen on the dateline of Internet news articles).", "* The 9th of November 2006 – 'The' and 'of' are often spoken but generally omitted in all but the most formal writing such as legal documents.", "* 09/Nov/2006 – used in the Common Log Format* Thursday, 9 November 2006* 9/xi/06, 9.xi.06, 9-xi.06, 9/xi-06, 9.XI.2006, 9.XI.", "2006 or 9 XI 2006 (using the Roman numeral for the month) – In the past, this was a common and typical way of distinguishing day from month and was widely used in many countries, but recently this practice has been affected by the general retreat from the use of Roman numerals.", "This is usually confined to handwriting only and is not put into any form of print.", "It is associated with a number of schools and universities.", "It has also been used by the Vatican as an alternative to using months named after Roman deities.", "It is used on Canadian postmarks as a bilingual form of the month.", "It was also commonly used in the Soviet Union, in both handwriting and print.", "* 9 November 2006 CE or 9 November 2006 AD===Gregorian, year–month–day (YMD) ===In this format, the most significant data item is written before lesser data items i.e.", "the year before the month before the day.", "It is consistent with the big-endianness of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, which progresses from the highest to the lowest order magnitude.", "That is, using this format textual orderings and chronological orderings are identical.", "This form is standard in East Asia, Iran, Lithuania, Hungary, and Sweden; and some other countries to a limited extent.Examples for the 9th of November 2003:*2003-11-09: the standard Internet date/time format, a profile of the international standard ISO 8601, orders the components of a date like this, and additionally uses leading zeros, for example, 1996-05-01, to be easily read and sorted by computers.", "It is used with UTC in RFC 3339.This format is also favored in certain Asian countries, mainly East Asian countries, as well as in some European countries.", "The big-endian convention is also frequently used in Canada, but all three conventions are used there (both endians and the American MMDDYYYY format are allowed on Canadian bank cheques provided that the layout of the cheque makes it clear which style is to be used).", "* 2003 November 9* 2003Nov9 or 2003Nov09* 2003-Nov-9 or 2003-Nov-09* 2003-Nov-9, Sunday* 2003.9.– The official format in Hungary, point after year and day, month name with small initial.", "Following shorter formats also can be used: 2003.. 9., 2003.11.9., 2003.XI.", "9.", "* 2003.11.9 using dots and no leading zeros, common in China.", "* 2003.11.09* 2003/11/09 using slashes and leading zeros, common in Japan on the Internet.", "* 2003/11/9* 03/11/09* 20031109 : the \"basic format\" profile of ISO 8601, an 8-digit number providing monotonic date codes, common in computing and increasingly used in dated computer file names.", "It is used in the standard iCalendar file format defined in RFC 5545.A big advantage of the ISO 8601 \"basic format\" is that a simple textual sort is equivalent to a sort by date.It is also extended through the universal big-endian format clock time: 9 November 2003, 18h 14m 12s, or 2003/11/9/18:14:12 or (ISO 8601) 2003-11-09T18:14:12.===Gregorian, month–day–year (MDY)===This sequence is used primarily in the Philippines and the United States.", "It is also used to varying extents in Canada (though never in Quebec).", "This date format was commonly used alongside the little-endian form in the United Kingdom until the mid-20th century and can be found in both defunct and modern print media such as the ''London Gazette'' and ''The Times'', respectively.", "This format was also commonly used by several English-language print media in many former British colonies and also one of two formats commonly used in India during British Raj era until the mid-20th century.", "In the United States, it is said as of Sunday, November 9, for example, although usage of \"the\" is not uncommon (e.g.", "''Sunday, November the 9th'', and even ''November the 9th, Sunday'', are also possible and readily understood).", "* Thursday, November 9, 2006* November 9, 2006* Nov 9, 2006* Nov-9-2006* Nov-09-2006* 11/9/2006 or 11/09/2006* 11-09-2006 or 11-9-2006* 11.09.2006 or 11.9.2006* 11.09.06* 11/09/06The modern convention is to avoid using the ordinal (th, st, rd, nd) form of numbers when the day follows the month (July 4 or July 4, 2006).", "The ordinal was common in the past and is still sometimes used (the 4th of July or July 4th).===Gregorian, year–day–month (YDM)===This date format is used in Kazakhstan, Latvia, Nepal, and Turkmenistan.", "According to the official rules of documenting dates by governmental authorities, the long date format in Kazakh is written in the year–day–month order, e.g.", "2006 5 April ().===Standards===There are several standards that specify date formats:* ISO 8601 ''Data elements and interchange formats – Information interchange – Representation of dates and times'' specifies ''YYYY-MM-DD'' (the separators are optional, but only hyphens are allowed to be used), where all values are fixed length numeric, but also allows ''YYYY-DDD'', where ''DDD'' is the ordinal number of the day within the year, e.g.", "2001–365.", "* RFC 3339 ''Date and Time on the Internet: Timestamps'' specifies ''YYYY-MM-DD'', i.e.", "a particular subset of the options allowed by ISO 8601.", "* RFC 5322 ''Internet Message Format'' specifies ''day month year'' where ''day'' is one or two digits, ''month'' is a three letter month abbreviation, and ''year'' is four digits.===Difficulties===Memorial plaque to John Etty in All Saints' Church, North Street, York, uses dual dating style to record his date of death as \"28 of Jan: \" Many numerical forms can create confusion when used in international correspondence, particularly when abbreviating the year to its final two digits, with no context.", "For example, \"07/08/06\" could refer to either 7 August 2006 or July 8, 2006 (or 1906, or the sixth year of any century), or 2007 August 6, and even in some extremely rare cases it could mean 2007 8 June.", "The date format of YYYY-MM-DD in ISO 8601, as well as other international standards, have been adopted for many applications for reasons including reducing transnational ambiguity and simplifying machine processing.", "An early U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard recommended 2-digit years.", "This is now widely recognized as extremely problematic, because of the year 2000 problem.", "Some U.S. government agencies now use ISO 8601 with 4-digit years.", "When transitioning from one calendar or date notation to another, a format that includes both styles may be developed; for example Old Style and New Style dates in the transition from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar." ], [ "Advantages for ordering in sequence", "One of the advantages of using the ISO 8601 date format is that the lexicographical order (ASCIIbetical) of the representations is equivalent to the chronological order of the dates, assuming that all dates are in the same time zone.", "Thus dates can be sorted using simple string comparison algorithms, and indeed by any left to right collation.", "For example: 2003-02-28 (28 February 2003) sorts before 2006-03-01 (1 March 2006) which sorts before 2015-01-30 (30 January 2015)The YYYY-MM-DD layout is the only common format that can provide this.", "Sorting other date representations involves some parsing of the date strings.", "This also works when a time in 24-hour format is included after the date, as long as all times are understood to be in the same time zone.ISO 8601 is used widely where concise, human-readable yet easily computable and unambiguous dates are required, although many applications store dates internally as UNIX time and only convert to ISO 8601 for display.", "All modern computer Operating Systems retain date information of files outside of their titles, allowing the user to choose which format they prefer and have them sorted thus, irrespective of the files' names." ], [ "Specialized usage", "===Day and year only===The U.S. military sometimes uses a system, which they call \"Julian date format\" that indicates the year and the actual day out of the 365 days of the year (and thus a designation of the month would not be needed).", "For example, \"11 December 1999\" can be written in some contexts as \"1999345\" or \"99345\", for the 345th day of 1999.This system is most often used in US military logistics since it simplifies the process of calculating estimated shipping and arrival dates.", "For example: say a tank engine takes an estimated 35 days to ship by sea from the US to South Korea.", "If the engine is sent on 06104 (Friday, 14 April 2006), it should arrive on 06139 (Friday, 19 May).", "Outside of the US military and some US government agencies, including the Internal Revenue Service, this format is usually referred to as \"ordinal date\", rather than \"Julian date\".Such ordinal date formats are also used by many computer programs (especially those for mainframe systems).", "Using a three-digit Julian day number saves one byte of computer storage over a two-digit month plus two-digit day, for example, \"January 17\" is 017 in Julian versus 0117 in month-day format.", "OS/390 or its successor, z/OS, display dates in yy.ddd format for most operations.UNIX time stores time as a number in seconds since the beginning of the UNIX Epoch (1970-01-01).Another \"ordinal\" date system (\"ordinal\" in the sense of advancing in value by one as the date advances by one day) is in common use in astronomical calculations and referencing and uses the same name as this \"logistics\" system.", "The continuity of representation of period regardless of the time of year being considered is highly useful to both groups of specialists.", "The astronomers describe their system as also being a \"Julian date\" system.===Week number used===Companies in Europe often use year, week number, and day for planning purposes.So, for example, an event in a project can happen on (week 43) or (Monday, week 43) or, if the year needs to be indicated, on (the year 2006, week 43; i.e., Monday 23OctoberSunday 29October 2006).An ISO week-numbering year has 52 or 53 full weeks.", "That is 364 or 371 days instead of the conventional Gregorian year of 365 or 366 days.", "These 53 week years occur on all years that have Thursday as the 1st of January and on leap years that start on Wednesday the 1st.", "The extra week is sometimes referred to as a 'leap week', although ISO 8601 does not use this term.===Expressing dates in spoken English===In English-language outside North America (mostly in Anglophone Europe and some countries in Australasia), full dates are written as ''7 December 1941'' (or ''7th December 1941'') and spoken as \"the seventh of December, nineteen forty-one\" (exceedingly common usage of \"the\" and \"of\"), with the occasional usage of ''December 7, 1941'' (\"December the seventh, nineteen forty-one\").", "In common with most continental European usage, however, all-numeric dates are invariably ordered dd/mm/yyyy.In Canada and the United States, the usual written form is ''December 7, 1941'', spoken as \"December seventh, nineteen forty-one\" or colloquially \"December the seventh, nineteen forty-one\".", "Ordinal numerals, however, are not always used when writing and pronouncing dates, and \"December seven, nineteen forty-one\" is also an accepted pronunciation of the date written ''December 7, 1941''.", "A notable exception to this rule is the Fourth of July (U.S.", "Independence Day)." ], [ "See also", "* Calendar algorithms* Date and time representation by country* Date and time notation in the United Kingdom* Date and time notation in the United States* Internationalization and localization* ISO 8601 – an international standard covering the representation of dates and times* List of calendars* Time formatting and storage bugs* Year 10,000 problem" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* IETF: * The ISO 8601 Date Format* * * : Y10K and Beyond* Today's date (Gregorian) in over 400 more-or-less obscure foreign languages" ] ]
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[ [ "Cist" ], [ "Introduction", "Kistvaen on the southern edge of Dartmoor in Drizzlecombe (England) showing the capstone and the inner cist structure.", "CistA '''cist''' (; also '''kist''' ;from , Middle Welsh ''Kist'' or Germanic ''Kiste'') is a small stone-built coffin-like box or ossuary used to hold the bodies of the dead.", "Examples can be found across Europe and in the Middle East.A cist may have been associated with other monuments, perhaps under a cairn or long barrow.", "Several cists are sometimes found close together within the same cairn or barrow.", "Often ornaments have been found within an excavated cist, indicating the wealth or prominence of the interred individual.This old word is preserved in the Nordic languages as in Swedish and in Danish and Norwegian, where it is the word for a funerary coffin.", "In English it is related to ''cistern''." ], [ "Regional examples", "Stone cist graves from a Bronze Age site in Northern EstoniaDrone video of stone cist graves in Jõelähtme, Estonia;Sri Lanka* Bellanbedipalassa* Pothana* Ibbankatuwa Megalithic Stones* Udaranchamadama;England* Bellever Forest, Dartmoor* Hepburn woods, Northumberland;Estonia* Jõelähtme (Rebala) stone-cist graves, Harju County;Latvia* Batariņi;Guatemala* Mundo Perdido, Tikal, Petén Department;Israel* Tel Kabri (Area A), Upper Galilee;Scotland* Balblair cist, Beauly, Inverness* Dunan Aula, Craignish, Argyll and Bute* Holm Mains Farm, Inverness* Nether Mill, Kilbirnie, North Ayrshire" ], [ "See also", "* Kistvaen* Dartmoor kistvaens* Stone box grave" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Pretanic World - Chart of Neolithic, Bronze Age and Celtic Stone Structures" ] ]
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[ [ "Center (group theory)" ], [ "Introduction", " Cayley table for D4 showing elements of the center, {e, a2}, commute with all other elements (this can be seen by noticing that all occurrences of a given center element are arranged symmetrically about the center diagonal or by noticing that the row and column starting with a given center element are transposes of each other).", "∘ e b a a2 a3 ab a2b a3b e '''e''' b a a2 a3 ab a2b a3b b b '''e''' a3b a2b ab a3 a2 a a a ab a2 a3 '''e''' a2b a3b b a2 a2 a2b a3 '''e''' a a3b b ab a3 a3 a3b '''e''' a a2 b ab a2b ab ab a b a3b a2b '''e''' a3 a2 a2b a2b a2 ab b a3b a '''e''' a3 a3b a3b a3 a2b ab b a2 a '''e'''In abstract algebra, the '''center''' of a group is the set of elements that commute with every element of .", "It is denoted , from German ''Zentrum,'' meaning ''center''.", "In set-builder notation,:.The center is a normal subgroup, .", "As a subgroup, it is always characteristic, but is not necessarily fully characteristic.", "The quotient group, , is isomorphic to the inner automorphism group, .A group is abelian if and only if .", "At the other extreme, a group is said to be '''centerless''' if is trivial; i.e., consists only of the identity element.The elements of the center are sometimes called '''central'''." ], [ "As a subgroup", "The center of ''G'' is always a subgroup of .", "In particular:# contains the identity element of , because it commutes with every element of , by definition: , where is the identity;# If and are in , then so is , by associativity: for each ; i.e., is closed;# If is in , then so is as, for all in , commutes with : .Furthermore, the center of is always an abelian and normal subgroup of .", "Since all elements of commute, it is closed under conjugation.Note that a homomorphism between groups generally does not restrict to a homomorphism between their centers.", "Although commutes with , unless is surjective need not commute with all of and therefore need not be a subset of .", "Put another way, there is no \"center\" functor between categories Grp and Ab.", "Even though we can map objects, we cannot map arrows." ], [ "Conjugacy classes and centralizers", "By definition, the center is the set of elements for which the conjugacy class of each element is the element itself; i.e., .The center is also the intersection of all the centralizers of each element of .", "As centralizers are subgroups, this again shows that the center is a subgroup." ], [ "Conjugation", "Consider the map, , from to the automorphism group of defined by , where is the automorphism of defined by :.The function, is a group homomorphism, and its kernel is precisely the center of , and its image is called the inner automorphism group of , denoted .", "By the first isomorphism theorem we get,:.The cokernel of this map is the group of outer automorphisms, and these form the exact sequence:." ], [ "Examples", "* The center of an abelian group, , is all of .", "* The center of the Heisenberg group, , is the set of matrices of the form: * The center of a nonabelian simple group is trivial.", "* The center of the dihedral group, , is trivial for odd .", "For even , the center consists of the identity element together with the 180° rotation of the polygon.", "* The center of the quaternion group, , is .", "* The center of the symmetric group, , is trivial for .", "* The center of the alternating group, , is trivial for .", "* The center of the general linear group over a field , , is the collection of scalar matrices, .", "* The center of the orthogonal group, is .", "* The center of the special orthogonal group, is the whole group when , and otherwise when ''n'' is even, and trivial when ''n'' is odd.", "* The center of the unitary group, is .", "* The center of the special unitary group, is .", "* The center of the multiplicative group of non-zero quaternions is the multiplicative group of non-zero real numbers.", "* Using the class equation, one can prove that the center of any non-trivial finite p-group is non-trivial.", "* If the quotient group is cyclic, is abelian (and hence , so is trivial).", "* The center of the Rubik's Cube group consists of two elements – the identity (i.e.", "the solved state) and the superflip.", "The center of the Pocket Cube group is trivial.", "* The center of the Megaminx group has order 2, and the center of the Kilominx group is trivial." ], [ "Higher centers", "Quotienting out by the center of a group yields a sequence of groups called the '''upper central series'''::The kernel of the map is the '''th center''' of ('''second center''', '''third center''', etc.)", "and is denoted .", "Concretely, the ()-st center are the terms that commute with all elements up to an element of the th center.", "Following this definition, one can define the 0th center of a group to be the identity subgroup.", "This can be continued to transfinite ordinals by transfinite induction; the union of all the higher centers is called the '''hypercenter'''.The ascending chain of subgroups:stabilizes at ''i'' (equivalently, ) if and only if is centerless.===Examples===* For a centerless group, all higher centers are zero, which is the case of stabilization.", "* By Grün's lemma, the quotient of a perfect group by its center is centerless, hence all higher centers equal the center.", "This is a case of stabilization at ." ], [ "See also", "*Center (algebra)*Center (ring theory)*Centralizer and normalizer*Conjugacy class" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Commonwealth of England" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Commonwealth''' was the political structure during the period from 1649 to 1660 when England and Wales, later along with Ireland and Scotland, were governed as a republic after the end of the Second English Civil War and the trial and execution of Charles I.", "The republic's existence was declared through \"An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth\", adopted by the Rump Parliament on 19 May 1649.Power in the early Commonwealth was vested primarily in the Parliament and a Council of State.", "During the period, fighting continued, particularly in Ireland and Scotland, between the parliamentary forces and those opposed to them, in the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland and the Anglo-Scottish war of 1650–1652.In 1653, after dissolution of the Rump Parliament, the Army Council adopted the Instrument of Government, by which Oliver Cromwell was made Lord Protector of a united \"Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland\", inaugurating the period now usually known as the Protectorate.", "After Cromwell's death, and following a brief period of rule under his son, Richard Cromwell, the Protectorate Parliament was dissolved in 1659 and the Rump Parliament recalled, starting a process that led to the restoration of the monarchy in 1660.The term Commonwealth is sometimes used for the whole of 1649 to 1660 – called by some the Interregnum – although for other historians, the use of the term is limited to the years prior to Cromwell's formal assumption of power in 1653.In retrospect, the period of republican rule for England was a failure in the short term.", "During the 11-year period, no stable government was established to rule the English state for longer than a few months at a time.", "Several administrative structures were tried, and several Parliaments called and seated, but little in the way of meaningful, lasting legislation was passed.", "The only force keeping it together was the personality of Oliver Cromwell, who exerted control through the military by way of the \"Grandees\", being the Major-Generals and other senior military leaders of the New Model Army.", "Not only did Cromwell's regime crumble into near anarchy upon his death and the brief administration of his son, but the monarchy he overthrew was restored in 1660, and its first act was officially to erase all traces of any constitutional reforms of the Republican period.", "Still, the memory of the Parliamentarian cause, dubbed the Good Old Cause by the soldiers of the New Model Army, lingered on.", "It would carry through English politics and eventually result in a constitutional monarchy.", "The Commonwealth period is better remembered for the military success of Thomas Fairfax, Oliver Cromwell, and the New Model Army.", "Besides resounding victories in the English Civil War, the reformed Navy under the command of Robert Blake defeated the Dutch in the First Anglo-Dutch War which marked the first step towards England's naval supremacy.", "In Ireland, the Commonwealth period is remembered for Cromwell's brutal subjugation of the Irish, which continued the policies of the Tudor and Stuart periods." ], [ "1649–1653", "=== Rump Parliament ===The Rump was created by Pride's Purge of those members of the Long Parliament who did not support the political position of the Grandees in the New Model Army.", "Just before and after the execution of King Charles I on 30 January 1649, the Rump passed a number of acts of Parliament creating the legal basis for the republic.", "With the abolition of the monarchy, Privy Council and the House of Lords, it had unchecked executive and legislative power.", "The English Council of State, which replaced the Privy Council, took over many of the executive functions of the monarchy.", "It was selected by the Rump, and most of its members were MPs.", "However, the Rump depended on the support of the Army with which it had a very uneasy relationship.", "After the execution of Charles I, the House of Commons abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords.", "It declared the people of England \"and of all the Dominions and Territories thereunto belonging\" to be henceforth under the governance of a \"Commonwealth\", effectively a republic.==== Structure ====In Pride's Purge, all members of parliament (including most of the political Presbyterians) who would not accept the need to bring the King to trial had been removed.", "Thus the Rump never had more than two hundred members (less than half the number of the Commons in the original Long Parliament).", "They included: supporters of religious independents who did not want an established church and some of whom had sympathies with the Levellers; Presbyterians who were willing to countenance the trial and execution of the King; and later admissions, such as formerly excluded MPs who were prepared to denounce the Newport Treaty negotiations with the King.Most Rumpers were gentry, though there was a higher proportion of lesser gentry and lawyers than in previous parliaments.", "Less than one-quarter of them were regicides.", "This left the Rump as basically a conservative body whose vested interests in the existing land ownership and legal systems made it unlikely to want to reform them.==== Issues and achievements ====A 21st-century edition of the Act Declaring and Constituting the People of England to be a Commonwealth and Free-State enacted on 19 May 1649For the first two years of the Commonwealth, the Rump faced economic depression and the risk of invasion from Scotland and Ireland.", "By 1653 Cromwell and the Army had largely eliminated these threats.There were many disagreements amongst factions of the Rump.", "Some wanted a republic, but others favoured retaining some type of monarchical government.", "Most of England's traditional ruling classes regarded the Rump as an illegal government made up of regicides and upstarts.", "However, they were also aware that the Rump might be all that stood in the way of an outright military dictatorship.", "High taxes, mainly to pay the Army, were resented by the gentry.", "Limited reforms were enough to antagonise the ruling class but not enough to satisfy the radicals.Despite its unpopularity, the Rump was a link with the old constitution and helped to settle England down and make it secure after the biggest upheaval in its history.", "By 1653, France and Spain had recognised England's new government.==== Reforms ====Though the Church of England was retained, episcopacy was suppressed and the Act of Uniformity 1558 was repealed in September 1650.Mainly on the insistence of the Army, many independent churches were tolerated, although everyone still had to pay tithes to the established church.Some small improvements were made to law and court procedure; for example, all court proceedings were now conducted in English rather than in Law French or Latin.", "However, there were no widespread reforms of the common law.", "This would have upset the gentry, who regarded the common law as reinforcing their status and property rights.The Rump passed many restrictive laws to regulate people's moral behaviour, such as closing down theatres and requiring strict observance of Sunday.", "Laws were also passed banning the celebration of Easter and Christmas.", "This antagonised most of the gentry.==== Dismissal ====Cromwell, aided by Thomas Harrison, forcibly dismissed the Rump on 20 April 1653, for reasons that are unclear.", "Theories are that he feared the Rump was trying to perpetuate itself as the government, or that the Rump was preparing for an election which could return an anti-Commonwealth majority.", "Many former members of the Rump continued to regard themselves as England's only legitimate constitutional authority.", "The Rump had not agreed to its own dissolution; their legal, constitutional view that it was unlawful was based on Charles' concessionary Act prohibiting the dissolution of Parliament without its own consent (on 11 May 1641, leading to the entire Commonwealth being the latter years of the Long Parliament in their majority view).=== Barebone's Parliament, July–December 1653 ===Unite from 1653The dissolution of the Rump was followed by a short period in which Cromwell and the Army ruled alone.", "Nobody had the constitutional authority to call an election, but Cromwell did not want to impose a military dictatorship.", "Instead, he ruled through a \"nominated assembly\" which he believed would be easy for the Army to control since Army officers did the nominating.Barebone's Parliament was opposed by former Rumpers and ridiculed by many gentries as being an assembly of inferior people.", "Over 110 of its 140 members were lesser gentry or of higher social status; an exception was Praise-God Barebone, a Baptist merchant after whom the Assembly got its derogatory nickname.", "Many were well educated.The assembly reflected the range of views of the officers who nominated it.", "The Radicals (approximately 40) included a hard core of Fifth Monarchists who wanted to be rid of Common Law and any state control of religion.", "The Moderates (approximately 60) wanted some improvements within the existing system and might move to either the radical or conservative side depending on the issue.", "The Conservatives (approximately 40) wanted to keep the ''status quo'', since common law protected the interests of the gentry, and tithes and advowsons were valuable property.Cromwell saw Barebone's Parliament as a temporary legislative body which he hoped would produce reforms and develop a constitution for the Commonwealth.", "However, members were divided over key issues, only 25 had previous parliamentary experience, and although many had some legal training, there were no qualified lawyers.Cromwell seems to have expected this group of amateurs to produce reform without management or direction.", "When the radicals mustered enough support to defeat a bill which would have preserved the ''status quo'' in religion, the conservatives, together with many moderates, surrendered their authority back to Cromwell, who sent soldiers to clear the rest of the Assembly.", "Barebone's Parliament was over." ], [ "The Protectorate, 1653–1659", "Arms of Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector, used on the great seal from 1655 to 1659.Throughout 1653, Cromwell and the Army slowly dismantled the machinery of the Commonwealth state.", "The English Council of State, which had assumed the executive function formerly held by the King and his Privy Council, was forcibly dissolved by Cromwell on 20 April, and in its place a new council, filled with Cromwell's own chosen men, was installed.", "Three days after Barebone's Parliament dissolved itself, the Instrument of Government was adopted by Cromwell's council and a new state structure, now known historically as The Protectorate, was given its shape.", "This new constitution granted Cromwell sweeping powers as Lord Protector, an office which ironically had much the same role and powers as the King had under the monarchy, a fact not lost on Cromwell's critics.On 12 April 1654, under the terms of the Tender of Union, the ''Ordinance for uniting Scotland into one Commonwealth with England'' was issued by the Lord Protector and proclaimed in Scotland by the military governor of Scotland, General George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle.", "The ordinance declared that \"the people of Scotland should be united with the people of England into one Commonwealth and under one Government\" and decreed that a new \"Arms of the Commonwealth\", incorporating the Saltire, should be placed on \"all the public seals, seals of office, and seals of bodies civil or corporate, in Scotland\" as \"a badge of this Union\".===First Protectorate Parliament===Cromwell and his Council of State spent the first several months of 1654 preparing for the First Protectorate Parliament by drawing up a set of 84 bills for consideration.", "The Parliament was freely elected (as free as such elections could be in the 17th century) and as such, the Parliament was filled with a wide range of political interests, and as such did not accomplish any of its goals; it was dissolved as soon as law would allow by Cromwell having passed none of Cromwell's proposed bills.===Rule of the Major-Generals and Second Protectorate Parliament===Having decided that Parliament was not an efficient means of getting his policies enacted, Cromwell instituted a system of direct military rule of England during a period known as the Rule of the Major-Generals; all of England was divided into ten regions, each was governed directly by one of Cromwell's Major-Generals, who were given sweeping powers to collect taxes and enforce the peace.", "The Major-Generals were highly unpopular, a fact that they themselves noticed and many urged Cromwell to call another Parliament to give his rule legitimacy.Unlike the prior Parliament, which had been open to all eligible males in the Commonwealth, the new elections specifically excluded Catholics and Royalists from running or voting; as a result, it was stocked with members who were more in line with Cromwell's own politics.", "The first major bill to be brought up for debate was the Militia Bill, which was ultimately voted down by the House.", "As a result, the authority of the Major-Generals to collect taxes to support their own regimes ended, and the Rule of the Major Generals came to an end.", "The second piece of major legislation was the passage of the Humble Petition and Advice, a sweeping constitutional reform which had two purposes.", "The first was to reserve for Parliament certain rights, such as a three-year fixed-term (which the Lord Protector was required to abide by) and to reserve for the Parliament the sole right of taxation.", "The second, as a concession to Cromwell, was to make the Lord Protector a hereditary position and to convert the title to a formal constitutional Kingship.", "Cromwell refused the title of King, but accepted the rest of the legislation, which was passed in final form on 25 May 1657.A second session of the Parliament met in 1658; it allowed previously excluded MPs (who had been not allowed to take their seats because of Catholic and/or Royalist leanings) to take their seats, however, this made the Parliament far less compliant to the wishes of Cromwell and the Major-Generals; it accomplished little in the way of a legislative agenda and was dissolved after a few months.=== Richard Cromwell and the Third Protectorate Parliament ===On the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, his son, Richard Cromwell, inherited the title, Lord Protector.", "Richard had never served in the Army, which meant he lost control over the Major-Generals that had been the source of his own father's power.", "The Third Protectorate Parliament was summoned in late 1658 and was seated on 27 January 1659.Its first act was to confirm Richard's role as Lord Protector, which it did by a sizeable, but not overwhelming, majority.", "Quickly, however, it became apparent that Richard had no control over the Army and divisions quickly developed in the Parliament.", "One faction called for a recall of the Rump Parliament and a return to the constitution of the Commonwealth, while another preferred the existing constitution.", "As the parties grew increasingly quarrelsome, Richard dissolved it.", "He was quickly removed from power, and the remaining Army leadership recalled the Rump Parliament, setting the stage for the return of the Monarchy a year later." ], [ "1659–1660", "After the Grandees in the New Model Army removed Richard, they reinstalled the Rump Parliament in May 1659.Charles Fleetwood was appointed a member of the Committee of Safety and of the Council of State, and one of the seven commissioners for the army.", "On 9 June he was nominated lord-general (commander-in-chief) of the army.", "However, his power was undermined in parliament, which chose to disregard the army's authority in a similar fashion to the pre–Civil War parliament.", "On 12 October 1659 the Commons cashiered General John Lambert and other officers, and installed Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the authority of the Speaker.", "The next day Lambert ordered that the doors of the House be shut and the members kept out.", "On 26 October a \"Committee of Safety\" was appointed, of which Fleetwood and Lambert were members.", "Lambert was appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland, Fleetwood being general.", "Lambert was now sent, by the Committee of Safety, with a large force to meet George Monck, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either negotiate with him or force him to come to terms.It was into this atmosphere that General George Monck marched south with his army from Scotland.", "Lambert's army began to desert him, and he returned to London almost alone.", "On 21 February 1660, Monck reinstated the Presbyterian members of the Long Parliament \"secluded\" by Pride, so that they could prepare legislation for a new parliament.", "Fleetwood was deprived of his command and ordered to appear before parliament to answer for his conduct.", "On 3 March Lambert was sent to the Tower, from which he escaped a month later.", "Lambert tried to rekindle the civil war in favour of the Commonwealth by issuing a proclamation calling on all supporters of the \"Good Old Cause\" to rally on the battlefield of Edgehill.", "However, he was recaptured by Colonel Richard Ingoldsby, a regicide who hoped to win a pardon by handing Lambert over to the new regime.", "The Long Parliament dissolved itself on 16 March.On 4 April 1660, in response to a secret message sent by Monck, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, which made known the conditions of his acceptance of the crown of England.", "Monck organised the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on 25 April.", "On 8 May it proclaimed that King Charles II had been the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I in January 1649.Charles returned from exile on 23 May.", "He entered London on 29 May, his birthday.", "To celebrate \"his Majesty's Return to his Parliament\" 29 May was made a public holiday, popularly known as Oak Apple Day.", "He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661." ], [ "See also", "* Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660)* Flags of the English Interregnum* List of ordinances and acts of the Parliament of England, 1642–1660* Knights, baronets and peers of the Protectorate* Republicanism in the United Kingdom" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Coins from the Commonwealth of England period, 1649–1660, including halfcrowns" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Charles Evers" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Charles Evers''' (September 11, 1922July 22, 2020) was an American civil rights activist, businessman, radio personality, and politician.", "Evers was known for his role in the civil rights movement along with his younger brother Medgar Evers.", "After serving in World War II, Evers began his career as a disc jockey at WHOC in Philadelphia, Mississippi.", "In 1954, he was made the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) State Voter Registration chairman.", "After his brother's assassination in 1963, Evers took over his position as field director of the NAACP in Mississippi.", "In this role, he organized and led many demonstrations for the rights of African Americans.In 1969, Evers was named \"Man of the Year\" by the NAACP.", "On June 3, 1969, Evers was elected in Fayette, Mississippi, as the first African-American mayor of a biracial town in Mississippi since the Reconstruction era, following passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which enforced constitutional rights for citizens.At the time of Evers's election as mayor, the town of Fayette had a population of 1,600 of which 75% was African-American and almost 25% white; the white officers on the Fayette city police \"resigned rather than work under a black administration,\" according to the Associated Press.", "Evers told reporters \"I guess we will just have to operate with an all-black police department for the present.", "But I am still looking for some whites to join us in helping Fayette grow.\"", "Evers then outlawed the carrying of firearms within city limits.He ran for governor in 1971 and the United States Senate in 1978, both times as an independent candidate.", "In 1989, Evers was defeated for re-election after serving sixteen years as mayor.", "In his later life, he became a Republican, endorsing Ronald Reagan in 1980, and more recently Donald Trump in 2016.This diversity in party affiliations throughout his life was reflected in his fostering of friendships with people from a variety of backgrounds, as well as his advising of politicians from across the political spectrum.", "After his political career ended, he returned to radio and hosted his own show, ''Let's Talk''.", "In 2017, Evers was inducted into the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame for his contributions to the music industry." ], [ "Early life and education", "Charles Evers was born in Decatur, Mississippi, on September 11, 1922, to James Evers, a laborer, and Jesse Wright Evers, a maid.", "He was the eldest of four children; Medgar Evers was his younger brother.", "He attended segregated public schools, which were typically underfunded in Mississippi following the exclusion of African Americans from the political system by disenfranchisement after 1890.Evers graduated from Alcorn State University in Lorman, Mississippi." ], [ "Career", "=== Business activities ===During World War II, Charles and Medgar Evers both served in the United States Army.", "Charles fell in love with a Philippine woman while stationed overseas.", "He could not marry her and bring her home to Mississippi because the state's constitution prohibited interracial marriages.During the war he established a brothel in Quezon City which catered to American servicemen.", "After serving a year of reserve duty following the Korean War, he settled in Philadelphia, Mississippi.", "In 1949, he began working as a disc jockey at WHOC, making him the first black disc jockey in the state.", "By the early 1950s, he was managing a hotel, cab company, and burial insurance business in the town.", "He had a cafe in Philadelphia and influenced over two hundred black citizens to pay their poll tax.", "Forced to leave due to local white hostility in 1956, he moved to Chicago.", "Low on money, he began working as a meatpacker in stockyards during the day and as an attendant for the men's restroom at the Conrad Hilton Hotel at nights.", "He also began pimping and ran a numbers game, taking $500 a week from the latter.", "He gained enough money to purchase several bars, bootlegged liquor, and sold jukeboxes.===Civil rights activism===In Mississippi about 1951, brothers Charles and Medgar Evers grew interested in African freedom movements.", "They were interested in Jomo Kenyatta and the rise of the Kikuyu tribal resistance to colonialism in Kenya, known as the Mau Mau uprising as it moved to open violence.", "Along with his brother, Charles became active in the Regional Council of Negro Leadership (RCNL), a civil rights organization that promoted self-help and business ownership.", "He also helped his brother with black voter registration drives.", "Between 1952 and 1955, Evers often spoke at the RCNL's annual conferences in Mound Bayou, a town founded by freedmen, on such issues as voting rights.", "His brother Medgar continued to be involved in civil rights, becoming field secretary and head of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Mississippi.", "While working in Chicago he sent money to him, not specifying the source.Evers (far right) with President John F. Kennedy, June 1963On June 12, 1963, Byron De La Beckwith, a member of a Ku Klux Klan chapter, fatally shot Evers's brother, Medgar, in Mississippi as he arrived home from work.", "Medgar died at the hospital in Jackson.", "Charles learned of his brother's death several hours later and flew to Jackson in the morning.", "Deeply upset by the assassination, he heavily involved himself in the planning of his brother's funeral.", "He decided to relocate to Mississippi to carry on his brother's work.", "Journalist Jason Berry, who later worked for Charles, said, \"I think he wanted to be a better person.", "I think Medgar's death was a cathartic experience.\"", "A decade after his death, Evers and blues musician B.B.", "King created the Medgar Evers Homecoming Festival, an annual three-day event held the first week of June in Mississippi.Over the opposition of more establishment figures in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) such as Roy Wilkins, Evers took over his brother's post as head of the NAACP in Mississippi.", "Wilkins never managed a friendly relationship with Evers, and Medgar's widow, Myrlie, also disapproved of Charles' replacing him.", "A staunch believer in racial integration, he distrusted what he viewed as the militancy and separatism of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, a black-dominated breakaway of the segregationist Mississippi Democratic Party.", "In 1965 he launched a series of successful black boycotts in southwestern Mississippi which partnered with the Natchez Deacons for Defense and Justice, which won concessions from the Natchez authorities and ratified his unconventional boycott methods.", "Often accompanied by a group of 65 male followers, he would pressure local blacks in small towns to avoid stores under boycott and directly challenge white business leaders.", "He also led a voter registration campaign.", "He coordinated his efforts from the small town of Fayette in Jefferson County.", "Fayette was a small, economically depressed town of about 2,500 people.", "About three-fourths of the population was black, and they had long been socially and economically subordinate to the white minority.", "Evers moved the NAACP's Mississippi field office from Jackson to Fayette to take advantage of the potential of the black majority and achieve political influence in Jefferson and two adjacent counties.", "He explained, \"My feeling is that Negroes gotta control somewhere in America, and we've dropped anchor in these counties.", "We are going to control these three counties in the next ten years.", "There is no question about it.", "\"With his voter registration drives having made Fayette's number of black registered voters double the size of the white electorate, Evers helped elect a black man to the local school board in 1966.He also established the Medgar Evers Community Center at the outskirts of town, which served as a center for registration efforts, grocery store, restaurant, and dance hall.", "By early 1968 he had established a network of local NAACP branches in the region.", "The president of each branch served as Evers' deputies, and he attended all of their meetings.", "That year he made a bid for the open seat of the 3rd congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives, facing six white opponents in the Democratic primary.", "Though low on funds, he led in the primary with a plurality of the votes.", "The Mississippi Legislature responded by passing a law mandating a runoff primary in the event of no absolute majority in the initial contest, which Evers lost.", "He also supported Robert F. Kennedy's 1968 presidential campaign, serving as co-director of his Mississippi campaign organization, and was with Kennedy in Los Angeles when he was assassinated.===Mayor of Fayette===In May 1969, Evers ran for the office of Mayor of Fayette and defeated white incumbent R. J. Allen, 386 votes to 255.This made him the first black mayor of a biracial Mississippi town (unlike the all-black Mound Bayou) since Reconstruction.", "Evers' election as mayor had great symbolic significance statewide and attracted national attention.", "The NAACP named Evers their 1969 Man of the Year.", "Evers popularized the slogan, \"Hands that picked cotton can now pick the mayor.\"", "The local white community was bitter about his victory, but he became intensively popular among Mississippi's blacks.", "To celebrate his victory, he hosted an inaugural ball in Natchez, which was widely attended by black Mississippians, reporters from around the country, and prominent national liberals including Ramsey Clark, Ted Sorensen, Whitney Young, Julian Bond, Shirley MacLaine, and Paul O'Dwyer.", "The white-dominated school board refused to let Evers swear-in on property under their jurisdiction, so he took his oath of office in a parking lot.Evers appointed a black police force and several black staff members.", "He also benefitted from an influx of young, white liberal volunteers who wanted to assist a civil rights leader.", "Many ended up leaving after growing disillusioned with Evers' pursuit of personal financial success and domineering leadership style.", "Evers sought to make Fayette an upstanding community and a symbolic refuge for black people.", "Repulsed by the behavior of poor blacks in the town, he ordered the police force to enforce a 25-mile per hour speed limit on local roads, banned cursing in public, and cracked down on truancy.", "He also prohibited the carrying of firearms in town but kept a gun on himself.", "He quickly responded to concerns from poor blacks while making white businessmen wait outside of his office.", "Rhetorically, he would vacillate between messages of racial conciliation and statements of hostility.Fayette's white population remained bitter about Evers' victory.", "Many avoided the city hall where they used to socialize and ''The Fayette Chronicle'' regularly criticized him.", "He argued with the county board of supervisors over his plan to erect busts of his brother, Martin Luther King Jr., and the Kennedys on the courthouse square.", "He told the press, \"They're cooperating because they haven't blown my head off.", "This is Mississippi.\"", "In September 1969, a Klansman drove into Fayette with a collection of weapons, intending to assassinate Evers.", "A white resident tipped off the mayor and the Klansman was arrested.", "The Klansman defended his motives by saying, \"I am a Mississippi white man\".Evers' moralistic style began to create discontent; in early 1970, most of Fayette's police department resigned, saying the mayor had treated them \"like dogs\".", "Evers complained that local blacks were \"jealous\" of him.", "As the judge in the municipal court, he personally issued fines for infractions such as cursing in public.", "He regularly ignored the input of the town board of aldermen, and town employee Charles Ramberg reported that he said he would fire municipal workers who would not vote for him.", "During Evers' tenure, Fayette benefitted from several federal grants, and ITT Inc. built an assembly plant in the town, but the region's economy largely remained depressed.", "By 1981, Jefferson County had the highest unemployment rate in the state.Whites' perception that Evers was venal and self-interested persisted and began to spread among the black community.", "This problem ballooned when in 1974 the Internal Revenue Service arranged for him to be indicted for tax evasion by failing to report $156,000 in income he garnered in the late 1960s.", "Prosecutors further accused him of depositing town funds in a personal bank account.", "His attorney told the court that Evers had indeed concealed the income, but argued that the charge was invalid since this had been done before the late 1960s, as the indictment specified.", "The case resulted in a mistrial, but Evers' reputation permanently suffered.", "In the late 1970s he used a $5,300 federal grant to renovate a building he owned which he leased to a federal day care program, and used some of the employees for personal business.Evers served many terms as mayor of Fayette.", "Admired by some, he alienated others with his inflexible stands on various issues.", "Evers did not like to share or delegate power.", "Evers lost the Democratic primary for mayor in 1981 to Kennie Middleton.", "Four years later, Evers defeated Middleton in the primaries and won back the office of mayor.", "In 1989, Evers lost the nomination once again to political rival Kennie Middleton.", "In his response to the defeat, Evers accepted, said he was tired, and that: \"Twenty years is enough.", "I'm tired of being out front.", "Let someone else be out front.", "\"=== 1971 gubernatorial campaign ===Evers began mulling the possibility of a campaign for the office of governor in 1969.He decided to enter the 1971 gubernatorial election as an independent, kicking off his campaign with a rally in Decatur.", "He later explained his reason for launching the bid, saying, \"I ran for governor because if someone doesn't start running, there will never be a black man or a black woman governor of the state of Mississippi.\"", "He endorsed white segregationist Jimmy Swan in the Democratic primary, reasoning that if Swan won the nomination, moderate whites would be more inclined to vote for himself in the general election.", "He campaigned on a platform of reduced taxes—particularly for lower property taxes on the elderly, improved healthcare, and legalizing gambling along the Gulf Coast.", "Low on money, his candidacy was largely funded by the sale of campaign buttons and copies of his recently published autobiography.", "His campaign staff was largely young and inexperienced and lacked organization.Evers' rallies drew large crowds of blacks.", "''The Clarion-Ledger'', a leading Mississippian conservative newspaper, largely ignored his campaign.", "To gain attention, he unexpectedly gatecrashed the annual Fisherman's Rodeo in Pascagoula and stopped and spoke to people on the streets of Jackson during their morning commute.", "Police departments in rural towns were often horrified by the arrival of his campaign caravan.", "A total of 269 other black candidates were running for office in Mississippi that year, and many of them complained that Evers was self-absorbed and hoarding resources, despite his slim chances of winning.", "Evers did little to support them.In the general election, Evers faced Democratic nominee Bill Waller and independent segregationist Thomas Pickens Brady.", "Waller and Evers were personally acquainted with one another, as Waller had prosecuted Beckwith for the murder of Medgar.", "Despite the fears of public observers, the campaign was largely devoid of racism and Evers and Waller avoided negative tactics.", "Though about 40 percent of the Mississippi electorate in 1971 was black, Evers only secured about 22 percent of the total vote; Waller won with 601,222 votes to Evers' 172,762 and Brady's 6,653.The night of the election, Evers shook the hands of Waller supporters in Jackson and then went to a local television station where his opponent was delivering a victory speech.", "Learning that Evers had arrived, Waller's nervous aides hurried the governor-elect to his car.", "Evers approached the car shortly before its departure and told Waller, \"I just wanted to congratulate you.\"", "Waller replied, \"Whaddya say, Charlie?\"", "and his wife leaned over and shook Evers' hand.===Later political career===In 1978, Evers ran as an independent for the U.S. Senate seat vacated by Democrat James Eastland.", "He finished in third place behind his opponents, Democrat Maurice Dantin and Republican Thad Cochran.", "He received 24 percent of the vote, likely siphoning off African-American votes that would have otherwise gone to Dantin.", "Cochran won the election with a plurality of 45 percent of the vote.", "With the shift in white voters moving into the Republican Party in the state (and the rest of the South), Cochran was continuously re-elected to his Senate seat.", "After his failed Senate race, Evers briefly switched political parties and became a Republican.In 1983, Evers ran as an independent for governor of Mississippi but lost to the Democrat Bill Allain.", "Republican Leon Bramlett of Clarksdale, also known as a college All-American football player, finished second with 39 percent of the vote.Evers endorsed Ronald Reagan for President of the United States during the 1980 United States presidential election.", "Evers later attracted controversy for his support of judicial nominee Charles W. Pickering, a Republican, who was nominated by President George H. W. Bush for a seat on the U.S. Court of Appeals.", "Evers criticized the NAACP and other organizations for opposing Pickering, as he said the candidate had a record of supporting the civil rights movement in Mississippi.Evers befriended a range of people from sharecroppers to presidents.", "He was an informal adviser to politicians as diverse as Lyndon B. Johnson, George C. Wallace, Ronald Reagan and Robert F. Kennedy.", "Evers severely criticized such national leaders as Roy Wilkins, Stokely Carmichael, H. Rap Brown and Louis Farrakhan over various issues.Evers was a member of the Republican Party for 30 years when he spoke warmly of the 2008 election of Barack Obama as the first black President of the United States.", "During the 2016 presidential election, Evers supported Donald Trump's presidential campaign.===Books===Evers wrote two autobiographies or memoirs: ''Evers'' (1971), written with Grace Halsell and self-published; and ''Have No Fear,'' written with Andrew Szanton and published by John Wiley & Sons (1997)." ], [ "Personal life", "Evers was briefly married to Christine Evers until their marriage ended in annulment.", "In 1951, Evers married Nannie L. Magee, with whom he had four daughters.", "The couple divorced in June 1974.Evers lived in Brandon, Mississippi, and served as station manager of WMPR 90.1 FM in Jackson.On July 22, 2020, Evers died in Brandon at age 97." ], [ "Media portrayal", "Evers was portrayed by Bill Cobbs in the 1996 film ''Ghosts of Mississippi'' (1996)." ], [ "Honors", "* 1969: Evers was named \"Man of the Year\" by the NAACP.", "* 2012: Evers was honored with a marker on the Mississippi Blues Trail in Fayette." ], [ "See also", "* List of civil rights leaders" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Charles Evers and Andrew Szanton, ''Have No Fear, Have No *'' * .", "* Charles M. Payne, ''I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle''" ], [ "External links", "* ''The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow'', PBS * 90.1 WMPR, Jackson Mississippi, Charles Evers station manager : blues, urban contemporary gospel, talk, variety* Oral History Interview with Charles Evers, from the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library*Warren, Robert Penn.", "Interview with Charles Evers, February 12, 1964 published in Who Speaks for the Negro?", "searchable transcript at ''Who Speaks for the Negro?''", "Digital Archive of the Robert Penn Warren Center for the Humanities and the Jean and Alexander Heard Libraries at Vanderbilt University based on collections at University of Kentucky and Yale University Libraries.", "* LIFE Magazine \"A Black Governor for Mississippi?\"", "May 14, 1971*Program from Mississippi ETV, “Newsmaker; Campaign '71.Charles Evers,” American Archive of Public Broadcasting*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Code-division multiple access" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Code-division multiple access''' ('''CDMA''') is a channel access method used by various radio communication technologies.", "CDMA is an example of multiple access, where several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel.", "This allows several users to share a band of frequencies (see bandwidth).", "To permit this without undue interference between the users, CDMA employs spread spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code).CDMA optimizes the use of available bandwidth as it transmits over the entire frequency range and does not limit the user's frequency range.It is used as the access method in many mobile phone standards.", "IS-95, also called \"cdmaOne\", and its 3G evolution CDMA2000, are often simply referred to as \"CDMA\", but UMTS, the 3G standard used by GSM carriers, also uses \"wideband CDMA\", or W-CDMA, as well as TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA, as its radio technologies.", "Many carriers (such as AT&T and Verizon) shut down 3G CDMA-based networks in 2022, rendering handsets supporting only those protocols unusable for calls, even to 911.It can be also used as a channel or medium access technology, like ALOHA for example or as a permanent pilot/signalling channel to allow users to synchronize their local oscillators to a common system frequency, thereby also estimating the channel parameters permanently.In these schemes, the message is modulated on a longer spreading sequence, consisting of several chips (0es and 1es).", "Due to their very advantageous auto- and crosscorrelation characteristics, these spreading sequences have also been used for radar applications for many decades, where they are called Barker codes (with a very short sequence length of typically 8 to 32).For space-based communication applications, CDMA has been used for many decades due to the large path loss and Doppler shift caused by satellite motion.", "CDMA is often used with binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) in its simplest form, but can be combined with any modulation scheme like (in advanced cases) quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) or orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), which typically makes it very robust and efficient (and equipping them with accurate ranging capabilities, which is difficult without CDMA).", "Other schemes use subcarriers based on binary offset carrier modulation (BOC modulation), which is inspired by Manchester codes and enable a larger gap between the virtual center frequency and the subcarriers, which is not the case for OFDM subcarriers." ], [ "History", "The technology of code-division multiple access channels has long been known.===USA===In the US, one of the earliest descriptions of CDMA can be found in the summary report of Project Hartwell on \"The Security of Overseas Transport\", which was a summer research project carried out at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from June to August 1950.Further research in the context of jamming and anti-jamming was carried out in 1952 at Lincoln Lab.===USSR===In the Soviet Union (USSR), the first work devoted to this subject was published in 1935 by Dmitry Ageev.", "It was shown that through the use of linear methods, there are three types of signal separation: frequency, time and compensatory.", "The technology of CDMA was used in 1957, when the young military radio engineer Leonid Kupriyanovich in Moscow made an experimental model of a wearable automatic mobile phone, called LK-1 by him, with a base station.", "LK-1 has a weight of 3 kg, 20–30 km operating distance, and 20–30 hours of battery life.", "The base station, as described by the author, could serve several customers.", "In 1958, Kupriyanovich made the new experimental \"pocket\" model of mobile phone.", "This phone weighed 0.5 kg.", "To serve more customers, Kupriyanovich proposed the device, which he called \"correlator.\"", "In 1958, the USSR also started the development of the \"Altai\" national civil mobile phone service for cars, based on the Soviet MRT-1327 standard.", "The phone system weighed .", "It was placed in the trunk of the vehicles of high-ranking officials and used a standard handset in the passenger compartment.", "The main developers of the Altai system were VNIIS (Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications) and GSPI (State Specialized Project Institute).", "In 1963 this service started in Moscow, and in 1970 Altai service was used in 30 USSR cities." ], [ "Uses", "A CDMA2000 mobile phone* Synchronous CDM (code-division 'multiplexing', an early generation of CDMA) was implemented in the Global Positioning System (GPS).", "This predates and is distinct from its use in mobile phones.", "* The Qualcomm standard IS-95, marketed as cdmaOne.", "* The Qualcomm standard IS-2000, known as CDMA2000, is used by several mobile phone companies, including the Globalstar network.", "* The UMTS 3G mobile phone standard, which uses W-CDMA.", "* CDMA has been used in the '''OmniTRACS''' satellite system for transportation logistics." ], [ "Steps in CDMA modulation", "CDMA is a spread-spectrum multiple-access technique.", "A spread-spectrum technique spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power.", "A spreading code is a pseudo-random code in the time domain that has a narrow ambiguity function in the frequency domain, unlike other narrow pulse codes.", "In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted.", "Data for transmission is combined by bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) with the faster code.", "The figure shows how a spread-spectrum signal is generated.", "The data signal with pulse duration of (symbol period) is XORed with the code signal with pulse duration of (chip period).", "(Note: bandwidth is proportional to , where = bit time.)", "Therefore, the bandwidth of the data signal is and the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is .", "Since is much smaller than , the bandwidth of the spread-spectrum signal is much larger than the bandwidth of the original signal.", "The ratio is called the spreading factor or processing gain and determines to a certain extent the upper limit of the total number of users supported simultaneously by a base station.Generation of a CDMA signalEach user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal.", "Choosing the codes used to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA systems.", "The best performance occurs when there is good separation between the signal of a desired user and the signals of other users.", "The separation of the signals is made by correlating the received signal with the locally generated code of the desired user.", "If the signal matches the desired user's code, then the correlation function will be high and the system can extract that signal.", "If the desired user's code has nothing in common with the signal, the correlation should be as close to zero as possible (thus eliminating the signal); this is referred to as cross-correlation.", "If the code is correlated with the signal at any time offset other than zero, the correlation should be as close to zero as possible.", "This is referred to as auto-correlation and is used to reject multi-path interference.An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish to talk to each other simultaneously.", "To avoid confusion, people could take turns speaking (time division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or speak in different languages (code division).", "CDMA is analogous to the last example where people speaking the same language can understand each other, but other languages are perceived as noise and rejected.", "Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code.", "Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users associated with a particular code can communicate.In general, CDMA belongs to two basic categories: synchronous (orthogonal codes) and asynchronous (pseudorandom codes)." ], [ "Code-division multiplexing (synchronous CDMA)", "The digital modulation method is analogous to those used in simple radio transceivers.", "In the analog case, a low-frequency data signal is time-multiplied with a high-frequency pure sine-wave carrier and transmitted.", "This is effectively a frequency convolution (Wiener–Khinchin theorem) of the two signals, resulting in a carrier with narrow sidebands.", "In the digital case, the sinusoidal carrier is replaced by Walsh functions.", "These are binary square waves that form a complete orthonormal set.", "The data signal is also binary and the time multiplication is achieved with a simple XOR function.", "This is usually a Gilbert cell mixer in the circuitry.Synchronous CDMA exploits mathematical properties of orthogonality between vectors representing the data strings.", "For example, the binary string ''1011'' is represented by the vector (1, 0, 1, 1).", "Vectors can be multiplied by taking their dot product, by summing the products of their respective components (for example, if '''u''' = (''a'', ''b'') and '''v''' = (''c'', ''d''), then their dot product '''u'''·'''v''' = ''ac'' + ''bd'').", "If the dot product is zero, the two vectors are said to be ''orthogonal'' to each other.", "Some properties of the dot product aid understanding of how W-CDMA works.", "If vectors '''a''' and '''b''' are orthogonal, then and:::::Each user in synchronous CDMA uses a code orthogonal to the others' codes to modulate their signal.", "An example of 4 mutually orthogonal digital signals is shown in the figure below.", "Orthogonal codes have a cross-correlation equal to zero; in other words, they do not interfere with each other.", "In the case of IS-95, 64-bit Walsh codes are used to encode the signal to separate different users.", "Since each of the 64 Walsh codes is orthogonal to all other, the signals are channelized into 64 orthogonal signals.", "The following example demonstrates how each user's signal can be encoded and decoded.===Example===An example of 4 mutually orthogonal digital signalsStart with a set of vectors that are mutually orthogonal.", "(Although mutual orthogonality is the only condition, these vectors are usually constructed for ease of decoding, for example columns or rows from Walsh matrices.)", "An example of orthogonal functions is shown in the adjacent picture.", "These vectors will be assigned to individual users and are called the ''code'', ''chip code'', or ''chipping code''.", "In the interest of brevity, the rest of this example uses codes '''v''' with only two bits.Each user is associated with a different code, say '''v'''.", "A 1 bit is represented by transmitting a positive code '''v''', and a 0 bit is represented by a negative code '''−v'''.", "For example, if '''v''' = (''v''0, ''v''1) = (1, −1) and the data that the user wishes to transmit is (1, 0, 1, 1), then the transmitted symbols would be:('''v''', '''−v''', '''v''', '''v''') = (''v''0, ''v''1, −''v''0, −''v''1, ''v''0, ''v''1, ''v''0, ''v''1) = (1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1).For the purposes of this article, we call this constructed vector the ''transmitted vector''.Each sender has a different, unique vector '''v''' chosen from that set, but the construction method of the transmitted vector is identical.Now, due to physical properties of interference, if two signals at a point are in phase, they add to give twice the amplitude of each signal, but if they are out of phase, they subtract and give a signal that is the difference of the amplitudes.", "Digitally, this behaviour can be modelled by the addition of the transmission vectors, component by component.If sender0 has code (1, −1) and data (1, 0, 1, 1), and sender1 has code (1, 1) and data (0, 0, 1, 1), and both senders transmit simultaneously, then this table describes the coding steps: Step Encode sender0 Encode sender1 0 code0 = (1, −1), data0 = (1, 0, 1, 1) code1 = (1, 1), data1 = (0, 0, 1, 1) 1 encode0 = 2(1, 0, 1, 1) − (1, 1, 1, 1) = (1, −1, 1, 1) encode1 = 2(0, 0, 1, 1) − (1, 1, 1, 1) = (−1, −1, 1, 1) 2 signal0 = encode0 ⊗ code0= (1, −1, 1, 1) ⊗ (1, −1)= (1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1) signal1 = encode1 ⊗ code1= (−1, −1, 1, 1) ⊗ (1, 1)= (−1, −1, −1, −1, 1, 1, 1, 1)Because signal0 and signal1 are transmitted at the same time into the air, they add to produce the raw signal:(1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1) + (−1, −1, −1, −1, 1, 1, 1, 1) = (0, −2, −2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0).This raw signal is called an interference pattern.", "The receiver then extracts an intelligible signal for any known sender by combining the sender's code with the interference pattern.", "The following table explains how this works and shows that the signals do not interfere with one another:StepDecode sender0Decode sender10code0 = (1, −1), signal = (0, −2, −2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0)code1 = (1, 1), signal = (0, −2, −2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0)1decode0 = pattern.vector0decode1 = pattern.vector12decode0 = ((0, −2), (−2, 0), (2, 0), (2, 0)) · (1, −1)decode1 = ((0, −2), (−2, 0), (2, 0), (2, 0)) · (1, 1)3decode0 = ((0 + 2), (−2 + 0), (2 + 0), (2 + 0))decode1 = ((0 − 2), (−2 + 0), (2 + 0), (2 + 0))4data0=(2, −2, 2, 2), meaning (1, 0, 1, 1)data1=(−2, −2, 2, 2), meaning (0, 0, 1, 1)Further, after decoding, all values greater than 0 are interpreted as 1, while all values less than zero are interpreted as 0.For example, after decoding, data0 is (2, −2, 2, 2), but the receiver interprets this as (1, 0, 1, 1).", "Values of exactly 0 mean that the sender did not transmit any data, as in the following example:Assume signal0 = (1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1) is transmitted alone.", "The following table shows the decode at the receiver:StepDecode sender0Decode sender10code0 = (1, −1), signal = (1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1)code1 = (1, 1), signal = (1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1)1decode0 = pattern.vector0decode1 = pattern.vector12decode0 = ((1, −1), (−1, 1), (1, −1), (1, −1)) · (1, −1)decode1 = ((1, −1), (−1, 1), (1, −1), (1, −1)) · (1, 1)3decode0 = ((1 + 1), (−1 − 1), (1 + 1), (1 + 1))decode1 = ((1 − 1), (−1 + 1), (1 − 1), (1 − 1))4data0 = (2, −2, 2, 2), meaning (1, 0, 1, 1)data1 = (0, 0, 0, 0), meaning no dataWhen the receiver attempts to decode the signal using sender1's code, the data is all zeros; therefore the cross-correlation is equal to zero and it is clear that sender1 did not transmit any data." ], [ "Asynchronous CDMA", "When mobile-to-base links cannot be precisely coordinated, particularly due to the mobility of the handsets, a different approach is required.", "Since it is not mathematically possible to create signature sequences that are both orthogonal for arbitrarily random starting points and which make full use of the code space, unique \"pseudo-random\" or \"pseudo-noise\" sequences called spreading sequences are used in ''asynchronous'' CDMA systems.", "A spreading sequence is a binary sequence that appears random but can be reproduced in a deterministic manner by intended receivers.", "These spreading sequences are used to encode and decode a user's signal in asynchronous CDMA in the same manner as the orthogonal codes in synchronous CDMA (shown in the example above).", "These spreading sequences are statistically uncorrelated, and the sum of a large number of spreading sequences results in ''multiple access interference'' (MAI) that is approximated by a Gaussian noise process (following the central limit theorem in statistics).", "Gold codes are an example of a spreading sequence suitable for this purpose, as there is low correlation between the codes.", "If all of the users are received with the same power level, then the variance (e.g., the noise power) of the MAI increases in direct proportion to the number of users.", "In other words, unlike synchronous CDMA, the signals of other users will appear as noise to the signal of interest and interfere slightly with the desired signal in proportion to number of users.All forms of CDMA use the spread-spectrum spreading factor to allow receivers to partially discriminate against unwanted signals.", "Signals encoded with the specified spreading sequences are received, while signals with different sequences (or the same sequences but different timing offsets) appear as wideband noise reduced by the spreading factor.Since each user generates MAI, controlling the signal strength is an important issue with CDMA transmitters.", "A CDM (synchronous CDMA), TDMA, or FDMA receiver can in theory completely reject arbitrarily strong signals using different codes, time slots or frequency channels due to the orthogonality of these systems.", "This is not true for asynchronous CDMA; rejection of unwanted signals is only partial.", "If any or all of the unwanted signals are much stronger than the desired signal, they will overwhelm it.", "This leads to a general requirement in any asynchronous CDMA system to approximately match the various signal power levels as seen at the receiver.", "In CDMA cellular, the base station uses a fast closed-loop power-control scheme to tightly control each mobile's transmit power.In 2019, schemes to precisely estimate the required length of the codes in dependence of Doppler and delay characteristics have been developed.", "Soon after, machine learning based techniques that generate sequences of a desired length and spreading properties have been published as well.", "These are highly competitive with the classic Gold and Welch sequences.", "These are not generated by linear-feedback-shift-registers, but have to be stored in lookup tables.===Advantages of asynchronous CDMA over other techniques=======Efficient practical utilization of the fixed frequency spectrum====In theory CDMA, TDMA and FDMA have exactly the same spectral efficiency, but, in practice, each has its own challenges – power control in the case of CDMA, timing in the case of TDMA, and frequency generation/filtering in the case of FDMA.TDMA systems must carefully synchronize the transmission times of all the users to ensure that they are received in the correct time slot and do not cause interference.", "Since this cannot be perfectly controlled in a mobile environment, each time slot must have a guard time, which reduces the probability that users will interfere, but decreases the spectral efficiency.Similarly, FDMA systems must use a guard band between adjacent channels, due to the unpredictable Doppler shift of the signal spectrum because of user mobility.", "The guard bands will reduce the probability that adjacent channels will interfere, but decrease the utilization of the spectrum.====Flexible allocation of resources====Asynchronous CDMA offers a key advantage in the flexible allocation of resources i.e.", "allocation of spreading sequences to active users.", "In the case of CDM (synchronous CDMA), TDMA, and FDMA the number of simultaneous orthogonal codes, time slots, and frequency slots respectively are fixed, hence the capacity in terms of the number of simultaneous users is limited.", "There are a fixed number of orthogonal codes, time slots or frequency bands that can be allocated for CDM, TDMA, and FDMA systems, which remain underutilized due to the bursty nature of telephony and packetized data transmissions.", "There is no strict limit to the number of users that can be supported in an asynchronous CDMA system, only a practical limit governed by the desired bit error probability since the SIR (signal-to-interference ratio) varies inversely with the number of users.", "In a bursty traffic environment like mobile telephony, the advantage afforded by asynchronous CDMA is that the performance (bit error rate) is allowed to fluctuate randomly, with an average value determined by the number of users times the percentage of utilization.", "Suppose there are 2''N'' users that only talk half of the time, then 2''N'' users can be accommodated with the same ''average'' bit error probability as ''N'' users that talk all of the time.", "The key difference here is that the bit error probability for ''N'' users talking all of the time is constant, whereas it is a ''random'' quantity (with the same mean) for 2''N'' users talking half of the time.In other words, asynchronous CDMA is ideally suited to a mobile network where large numbers of transmitters each generate a relatively small amount of traffic at irregular intervals.", "CDM (synchronous CDMA), TDMA, and FDMA systems cannot recover the underutilized resources inherent to bursty traffic due to the fixed number of orthogonal codes, time slots or frequency channels that can be assigned to individual transmitters.", "For instance, if there are ''N'' time slots in a TDMA system and 2''N'' users that talk half of the time, then half of the time there will be more than ''N'' users needing to use more than ''N'' time slots.", "Furthermore, it would require significant overhead to continually allocate and deallocate the orthogonal-code, time-slot or frequency-channel resources.", "By comparison, asynchronous CDMA transmitters simply send when they have something to say and go off the air when they do not, keeping the same signature sequence as long as they are connected to the system.===Spread-spectrum characteristics of CDMA===Most modulation schemes try to minimize the bandwidth of this signal since bandwidth is a limited resource.", "However, spread-spectrum techniques use a transmission bandwidth that is several orders of magnitude greater than the minimum required signal bandwidth.", "One of the initial reasons for doing this was military applications including guidance and communication systems.", "These systems were designed using spread spectrum because of its security and resistance to jamming.", "Asynchronous CDMA has some level of privacy built in because the signal is spread using a pseudo-random code; this code makes the spread-spectrum signals appear random or have noise-like properties.", "A receiver cannot demodulate this transmission without knowledge of the pseudo-random sequence used to encode the data.", "CDMA is also resistant to jamming.", "A jamming signal only has a finite amount of power available to jam the signal.", "The jammer can either spread its energy over the entire bandwidth of the signal or jam only part of the entire signal.", "CDMA can also effectively reject narrow-band interference.", "Since narrow-band interference affects only a small portion of the spread-spectrum signal, it can easily be removed through notch filtering without much loss of information.", "Convolution encoding and interleaving can be used to assist in recovering this lost data.", "CDMA signals are also resistant to multipath fading.", "Since the spread-spectrum signal occupies a large bandwidth, only a small portion of this will undergo fading due to multipath at any given time.", "Like the narrow-band interference, this will result in only a small loss of data and can be overcome.Another reason CDMA is resistant to multipath interference is because the delayed versions of the transmitted pseudo-random codes will have poor correlation with the original pseudo-random code, and will thus appear as another user, which is ignored at the receiver.", "In other words, as long as the multipath channel induces at least one chip of delay, the multipath signals will arrive at the receiver such that they are shifted in time by at least one chip from the intended signal.", "The correlation properties of the pseudo-random codes are such that this slight delay causes the multipath to appear uncorrelated with the intended signal, and it is thus ignored.Some CDMA devices use a rake receiver, which exploits multipath delay components to improve the performance of the system.", "A rake receiver combines the information from several correlators, each one tuned to a different path delay, producing a stronger version of the signal than a simple receiver with a single correlation tuned to the path delay of the strongest signal.Frequency reuse is the ability to reuse the same radio channel frequency at other cell sites within a cellular system.", "In the FDMA and TDMA systems, frequency planning is an important consideration.", "The frequencies used in different cells must be planned carefully to ensure signals from different cells do not interfere with each other.", "In a CDMA system, the same frequency can be used in every cell, because channelization is done using the pseudo-random codes.", "Reusing the same frequency in every cell eliminates the need for frequency planning in a CDMA system; however, planning of the different pseudo-random sequences must be done to ensure that the received signal from one cell does not correlate with the signal from a nearby cell.Since adjacent cells use the same frequencies, CDMA systems have the ability to perform soft hand-offs.", "Soft hand-offs allow the mobile telephone to communicate simultaneously with two or more cells.", "The best signal quality is selected until the hand-off is complete.", "This is different from hard hand-offs utilized in other cellular systems.", "In a hard-hand-off situation, as the mobile telephone approaches a hand-off, signal strength may vary abruptly.", "In contrast, CDMA systems use the soft hand-off, which is undetectable and provides a more reliable and higher-quality signal." ], [ "Collaborative CDMA", "A novel collaborative multi-user transmission and detection scheme called collaborative CDMA has been investigated for the uplink that exploits the differences between users' fading channel signatures to increase the user capacity well beyond the spreading length in the MAI-limited environment.", "The authors show that it is possible to achieve this increase at a low complexity and high bit error rate performance in flat fading channels, which is a major research challenge for overloaded CDMA systems.", "In this approach, instead of using one sequence per user as in conventional CDMA, the authors group a small number of users to share the same spreading sequence and enable group spreading and despreading operations.", "The new collaborative multi-user receiver consists of two stages: group multi-user detection (MUD) stage to suppress the MAI between the groups and a low-complexity maximum-likelihood detection stage to recover jointly the co-spread users' data using minimal Euclidean-distance measure and users' channel-gain coefficients.", "An enhanced CDMA version known as interleave-division multiple access (IDMA) uses the orthogonal interleaving as the only means of user separation in place of signature sequence used in CDMA system." ], [ "See also", "* CDMA spectral efficiency* CDMA2000* Comparison of mobile phone standards* cdmaOne* Orthogonal variable spreading factor (OVSF), an implementation of CDMA* Pseudo-random noise* Quadrature-division multiple access (QDMA), an implementation of CDMA* Rise over thermal* Spread spectrum* W-CDMA" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Papathanassiou, A., Salkintzis, A. K., & Mathiopoulos, P. T. (2001).", "\"A comparison study of the uplink performance of W-CDMA and OFDM for mobile multimedia communications via LEO satellites\".", "''IEEE Personal Communications'', 8(3), 35–43." ], [ "External links", "* Talk at Princeton Institute for Advanced Study on Solomon Golomb's work on pseudorandom sequences" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Internet filter" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''Internet filter''' is software that restricts or controls the content an Internet user is capable to access, especially when utilized to restrict material delivered over the Internet via the Web, Email, or other means.", "Content-control software determines what content will be available or be blocked.Such restrictions can be applied at various levels: a government can attempt to apply them nationwide (see Internet censorship), or they can, for example, be applied by an Internet service provider to its clients, by an employer to its personnel, by a school to its students, by a library to its visitors, by a parent to a child's computer, or by an individual users to their own computers.The motive is often to prevent access to content which the computer's owner(s) or other authorities may consider objectionable.", "When imposed without the consent of the user, content control can be characterised as a form of internet censorship.", "Some content-control software includes time control functions that empowers parents to set the amount of time that child may spend accessing the Internet or playing games or other computer activities.In some countries, such software is ubiquitous.", "In Cuba, if a computer user at a government-controlled Internet cafe types certain words, the word processor or web browser is automatically closed, and a \"state security\" warning is given." ], [ "Terminology", "The term \"content control\" is used on occasion by CNN, ''Playboy'' magazine, the ''San Francisco Chronicle'', and ''The New York Times''.", "However, several other terms, including \"content filtering software\", \"web content filter\", \"filtering proxy servers\", \"secure web gateways\", \"censorware\", \"content security and control\", \"web filtering software\", \"content-censoring software\", and \"content-blocking software\", are often used.", "\"Nannyware\" has also been used in both product marketing and by the media.", "Industry research company Gartner uses '''\"secure web gateway\"''' (SWG) to describe the market segment.Companies that make products that selectively block Web sites do not refer to these products as censorware, and prefer terms such as \"Internet filter\" or \"URL Filter\"; in the specialized case of software specifically designed to allow parents to monitor and restrict the access of their children, \"parental control software\" is also used.", "Some products log all sites that a user accesses and rates them based on content type for reporting to an \"accountability partner\" of the person's choosing, and the term accountability software is used.", "Internet filters, parental control software, and/or accountability software may also be combined into one product.Those critical of such software, however, use the term \"censorware\" freely: consider the Censorware Project, for example.", "The use of the term \"censorware\" in editorials criticizing makers of such software is widespread and covers many different varieties and applications: Xeni Jardin used the term in a 9 March 2006 editorial in ''The New York Times,'' when discussing the use of American-made filtering software to suppress content in China; in the same month a high school student used the term to discuss the deployment of such software in his school district.In general, outside of editorial pages as described above, traditional newspapers do not use the term \"censorware\" in their reporting, preferring instead to use less overtly controversial terms such as \"content filter\", \"content control\", or \"web filtering\"; ''The New York Times'' and ''The Wall Street Journal'' both appear to follow this practice.", "On the other hand, Web-based newspapers such as CNET use the term in both editorial and journalistic contexts, for example \"Windows Live to Get Censorware.\"" ], [ "Types of filtering", "Filters can be implemented in many different ways: by software on a personal computer, via network infrastructure such as proxy servers, DNS servers, or firewalls that provide Internet access.", "No solution provides complete coverage, so most companies deploy a mix of technologies to achieve the proper content control in line with their policies.", ";Browser based filters:Browser based content filtering solution is the most lightweight solution to do the content filtering, and is implemented via a third party browser extension.", ";E-mail filters:E-mail filters act on information contained in the mail body, in the mail headers such as sender and subject, and e-mail attachments to classify, accept, or reject messages.", "Bayesian filters, a type of statistical filter, are commonly used.", "Both client and server based filters are available.", ";Client-side filters:This type of filter is installed as software on each computer where filtering is required.", "This filter can typically be managed, disabled or uninstalled by anyone who has administrator-level privileges on the system.", "A DNS-based client-side filter would be to set up a DNS Sinkhole, such as Pi-Hole.", ";Content-limited (or filtered) ISPs:Content-limited (or filtered) ISPs are Internet service providers that offer access to only a set portion of Internet content on an opt-in or a mandatory basis.", "Anyone who subscribes to this type of service is subject to restrictions.", "The type of filters can be used to implement government, regulatory or parental control over subscribers.", ";Network-based filtering:This type of filter is implemented at the transport layer as a transparent proxy, or at the application layer as a web proxy.", "Filtering software may include data loss prevention functionality to filter outbound as well as inbound information.", "All users are subject to the access policy defined by the institution.", "The filtering can be customized, so a school district's high school library can have a different filtering profile than the district's junior high school library.", ";DNS-based filtering:This type of filtering is implemented at the DNS layer and attempts to prevent lookups for domains that do not fit within a set of policies (either parental control or company rules).", "Multiple free public DNS services offer filtering options as part of their services.", "DNS Sinkholes such as Pi-Hole can be also be used for this purpose, though client-side only.", ";Search-engine filters:Many search engines, such as Google and Bing offer users the option of turning on a safety filter.", "When this safety filter is activated, it filters out the inappropriate links from all of the search results.", "If users know the actual URL of a website that features explicit or adult content, they have the ability to access that content without using a search engine.", "Some providers offer child-oriented versions of their engines that permit only child friendly websites." ], [ "Reasons for filtering", "The Internet does not intrinsically provide content blocking, and therefore there is much content on the Internet that is considered unsuitable for children, given that much content is given certifications as suitable for adults only, e.g.", "18-rated games and movies.Internet service providers (ISPs) that block material containing pornography, or controversial religious, political, or news-related content en route are often utilized by parents who do not permit their children to access content not conforming to their personal beliefs.", "Content filtering software can, however, also be used to block malware and other content that is or contains hostile, intrusive, or annoying material including adware, spam, computer viruses, worms, trojan horses, and spyware.Most content control software is marketed to organizations or parents.", "It is, however, also marketed on occasion to facilitate self-censorship, for example by people struggling with addictions to online pornography, gambling, chat rooms, etc.", "Self-censorship software may also be utilised by some in order to avoid viewing content they consider immoral, inappropriate, or simply distracting.", "A number of accountability software products are marketed as ''self-censorship'' or ''accountability software''.", "These are often promoted by religious media and at religious gatherings." ], [ "Criticism", "===Filtering errors=======Overblocking====Utilizing a filter that is overly zealous at filtering content, or mislabels content not intended to be censored can result in over blocking, or over-censoring.", "Over blocking can filter out material that should be acceptable under the filtering policy in effect, for example health related information may unintentionally be filtered along with porn-related material because of the Scunthorpe problem.", "Filter administrators may prefer to err on the side of caution by accepting over blocking to prevent any risk of access to sites that they determine to be undesirable.", "Content-control software was mentioned as blocking access to Beaver College before its name change to Arcadia University.", "Another example was the filtering of Horniman Museum.", "As well, over-blocking may encourage users to bypass the filter entirely.====Underblocking====Whenever new information is uploaded to the Internet, filters can under block, or under-censor, content if the parties responsible for maintaining the filters do not update them quickly and accurately, and a blacklisting rather than a whitelisting filtering policy is in place.===Morality and opinion===Many would not be satisfied with government filtering viewpoints on moral or political issues, agreeing that this could become support for propaganda.", "Many would also find it unacceptable that an ISP, whether by law or by the ISP's own choice, should deploy such software without allowing the users to disable the filtering for their own connections.", "In the United States, the First Amendment to the United States Constitution has been cited in calls to criminalise forced internet censorship.", "(See section below)===Legal actions===In 1998, a United States federal district court in Virginia ruled (Loudoun v. Board of Trustees of the Loudoun County Library) that the imposition of mandatory filtering in a public library violates the First Amendment.In 1996 the US Congress passed the Communications Decency Act, banning indecency on the Internet.", "Civil liberties groups challenged the law under the First Amendment, and in 1997 the Supreme Court ruled in their favor.", "Part of the civil liberties argument, especially from groups like the Electronic Frontier Foundation, was that parents who wanted to block sites could use their own content-filtering software, making government involvement unnecessary.In the late 1990s, groups such as the Censorware Project began reverse-engineering the content-control software and decrypting the blacklists to determine what kind of sites the software blocked.", "This led to legal action alleging violation of the \"Cyber Patrol\" license agreement.", "They discovered that such tools routinely blocked unobjectionable sites while also failing to block intended targets.Some content-control software companies responded by claiming that their filtering criteria were backed by intensive manual checking.", "The companies' opponents argued, on the other hand, that performing the necessary checking would require resources greater than the companies possessed and that therefore their claims were not valid.The Motion Picture Association successfully obtained a UK ruling enforcing ISPs to use content-control software to prevent copyright infringement by their subscribers.===Religious, anti-religious, and political censorship===Many types of content-control software have been shown to block sites based on the religious and political leanings of the company owners.", "Examples include blocking several religious sites (including the Web site of the Vatican), many political sites, and homosexuality-related sites.", "''X-Stop'' was shown to block sites such as the Quaker web site, the National Journal of Sexual Orientation Law, The Heritage Foundation, and parts of The Ethical Spectacle.", "CYBERsitter blocks out sites like National Organization for Women.", "Nancy Willard, an academic researcher and attorney, pointed out that many U.S. public schools and libraries use the same filtering software that many Christian organizations use.", "Cyber Patrol, a product developed by The Anti-Defamation League and Mattel's The Learning Company, has been found to block not only political sites it deems to be engaging in 'hate speech' but also human rights web sites, such as Amnesty International's web page about Israel and gay-rights web sites, such as glaad.org." ], [ "Content labeling", "Content labeling may be considered another form of content-control software.", "In 1994, the Internet Content Rating Association (ICRA) — now part of the Family Online Safety Institute — developed a content rating system for online content providers.", "Using an online questionnaire a webmaster describes the nature of their web content.", "A small file is generated that contains a condensed, computer readable digest of this description that can then be used by content filtering software to block or allow that site.ICRA labels come in a variety of formats.", "These include the World Wide Web Consortium's Resource Description Framework (RDF) as well as Platform for Internet Content Selection (PICS) labels used by Microsoft's Internet Explorer Content Advisor.ICRA labels are an example of self-labeling.", "Similarly, in 2006 the Association of Sites Advocating Child Protection (ASACP) initiated the Restricted to Adults self-labeling initiative.", "ASACP members were concerned that various forms of legislation being proposed in the United States were going to have the effect of forcing adult companies to label their content.", "The RTA label, unlike ICRA labels, does not require a webmaster to fill out a questionnaire or sign up to use.", "Like ICRA the RTA label is free.", "Both labels are recognized by a wide variety of content-control software.The Voluntary Content Rating (VCR) system was devised by Solid Oak Software for their CYBERsitter filtering software, as an alternative to the PICS system, which some critics deemed too complex.", "It employs HTML metadata tags embedded within web page documents to specify the type of content contained in the document.", "Only two levels are specified, ''mature'' and ''adult'', making the specification extremely simple." ], [ "Use in public libraries", "===Australia===The Australian Internet Safety Advisory Body has information about \"practical advice on Internet safety, parental control and filters for the protection of children, students and families\" that also includes public libraries.NetAlert, the software made available free of charge by the Australian government, was allegedly cracked by a 16-year-old student, Tom Wood, less than a week after its release in August 2007.Wood supposedly bypassed the $84 million filter in about half an hour to highlight problems with the government's approach to Internet content filtering.The Australian Government has introduced legislation that requires ISPs to \"restrict access to age restricted content (commercial MA15+ content and R18+ content) either hosted in Australia or provided from Australia\" that was due to commence from 20 January 2008, known as Cleanfeed.Cleanfeed is a proposed mandatory ISP level content filtration system.", "It was proposed by the Beazley led Australian Labor Party opposition in a 2006 press release, with the intention of protecting children who were vulnerable due to claimed parental computer illiteracy.", "It was announced on 31 December 2007 as a policy to be implemented by the Rudd ALP government, and initial tests in Tasmania have produced a 2008 report.", "Cleanfeed is funded in the current budget, and is moving towards an Expression of Interest for live testing with ISPs in 2008.Public opposition and criticism have emerged, led by the EFA and gaining irregular mainstream media attention, with a majority of Australians reportedly \"strongly against\" its implementation.", "Criticisms include its expense, inaccuracy (it will be impossible to ensure only illegal sites are blocked) and the fact that it will be compulsory, which can be seen as an intrusion on free speech rights.", "Another major criticism point has been that although the filter is claimed to stop certain materials, the underground rings dealing in such materials will not be affected.", "The filter might also provide a false sense of security for parents, who might supervise children less while using the Internet, achieving the exact opposite effect.", "Cleanfeed is a responsibility of Senator Conroy's portfolio.===Denmark===In Denmark it is stated policy that it will \"prevent inappropriate Internet sites from being accessed from children's libraries across Denmark\".", "\"'It is important that every library in the country has the opportunity to protect children against pornographic material when they are using library computers.", "It is a main priority for me as Culture Minister to make sure children can surf the net safely at libraries,' states Brian Mikkelsen in a press-release of the Danish Ministry of Culture.", "\"===United Kingdom======United States===The use of Internet filters or content-control software varies widely in public libraries in the United States, since Internet use policies are established by the local library board.", "Many libraries adopted Internet filters after Congress conditioned the receipt of universal service discounts on the use of Internet filters through the Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA).", "Other libraries do not install content control software, believing that acceptable use policies and educational efforts address the issue of children accessing age-inappropriate content while preserving adult users' right to freely access information.", "Some libraries use Internet filters on computers used by children only.", "Some libraries that employ content-control software allow the software to be deactivated on a case-by-case basis on application to a librarian; libraries that are subject to CIPA are required to have a policy that allows adults to request that the filter be disabled without having to explain the reason for their request.Many legal scholars believe that a number of legal cases, in particular ''Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union'', established that the use of content-control software in libraries is a violation of the First Amendment.", "The Children's Internet Protection Act CIPA and the June 2003 case ''United States v. American Library Association'' found CIPA constitutional as a condition placed on the receipt of federal funding, stating that First Amendment concerns were dispelled by the law's provision that allowed adult library users to have the filtering software disabled, without having to explain the reasons for their request.", "The plurality decision left open a future \"as-applied\" Constitutional challenge, however.In November 2006, a lawsuit was filed against the North Central Regional Library District (NCRL) in Washington State for its policy of refusing to disable restrictions upon requests of adult patrons, but CIPA was not challenged in that matter.", "In May 2010, the Washington State Supreme Court provided an opinion after it was asked to certify a question referred by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Washington: \"Whether a public library, consistent with Article I, § 5 of the Washington Constitution, may filter Internet access for all patrons without disabling Web sites containing constitutionally-protected speech upon the request of an adult library patron.\"", "The Washington State Supreme Court ruled that NCRL's internet filtering policy did not violate Article I, Section 5 of the Washington State Constitution.", "The Court said: \"It appears to us that NCRL's filtering policy is reasonable and accords with its mission and these policies and is viewpoint neutral.", "It appears that no article I, section 5 content-based violation exists in this case.", "NCRL's essential mission is to promote reading and lifelong learning.", "As NCRL maintains, it is reasonable to impose restrictions on Internet access in order to maintain an environment that is conducive to study and contemplative thought.\"", "The case returned to federal court.In March 2007, Virginia passed a law similar to CIPA that requires public libraries receiving state funds to use content-control software.", "Like CIPA, the law requires libraries to disable filters for an adult library user when requested to do so by the user." ], [ "Bypassing filters", "Content filtering in general can \"be bypassed entirely by tech-savvy individuals.\"", "Blocking content on a device \"will not…guarantee that users won't eventually be able to find a way around the filter.", "\"Some software may be bypassed successfully by using alternative protocols such as FTP or telnet or HTTPS, conducting searches in a different language, using a proxy server or a circumventor such as Psiphon.", "Also cached web pages returned by Google or other searches could bypass some controls as well.", "Web syndication services may provide alternate paths for content.", "Some of the more poorly designed programs can be shut down by killing their processes: for example, in Microsoft Windows through the Windows Task Manager, or in Mac OS X using Force Quit or Activity Monitor.", "Numerous workarounds and counters to workarounds from content-control software creators exist.", "Google services are often blocked by filters, but these may most often be bypassed by using ''https://'' in place of ''http://'' since content filtering software is not able to interpret content under secure connections (in this case SSL).An encrypted VPN can be used as means of bypassing content control software, especially if the content control software is installed on an Internet gateway or firewall.Other ways to bypass a content control filter include translation sites and establishing a remote connection with an uncensored device." ], [ "Products and services", "Some ISPs offer parental control options.", "Some offer security software which includes parental controls.", "Mac OS X v10.4 offers parental controls for several applications (Mail, Finder, iChat, Safari & Dictionary).", "Microsoft's Windows Vista operating system also includes content-control software.Content filtering technology exists in two major forms: application gateway or packet inspection.", "For HTTP access the application gateway is called a web-proxy or just a proxy.", "Such web-proxies can inspect both the initial request and the returned web page using arbitrarily complex rules and will not return any part of the page to the requester until a decision is made.", "In addition they can make substitutions in whole or for any part of the returned result.", "Packet inspection filters do not initially interfere with the connection to the server but inspect the data in the connection as it goes past, at some point the filter may decide that the connection is to be filtered and it will then disconnect it by injecting a TCP-Reset or similar faked packet.", "The two techniques can be used together with the packet filter monitoring a link until it sees an HTTP connection starting to an IP address that has content that needs filtering.", "The packet filter then redirects the connection to the web-proxy which can perform detailed filtering on the website without having to pass through all unfiltered connections.", "This combination is quite popular because it can significantly reduce the cost of the system.There are constraints to IP level packet-filtering, as it may result in rendering all web content associated with a particular IP address inaccessible.", "This may result in the unintentional blocking of legitimate sites that share the same IP address or domain.", "For instance, university websites commonly employ multiple domains under one IP address.", "Moreover, IP level packet-filtering can be surpassed by using a distinct IP address for certain content while still being linked to the same domain or server.Gateway-based content control software may be more difficult to bypass than desktop software as the user does not have physical access to the filtering device.", "However, many of the techniques in the Bypassing filters section still work." ], [ "See also", "*Adultism*Ad filtering*Comparison of content-control software and providers (incl.", "parental control software)*Computer and network surveillance*David Burt, a former librarian and advocate for content-control software*Deep content inspection*Egress filtering, control of outbound network traffic*Financial Coalition Against Child Pornography*Internet censorship*Internet censorship circumvention*Internet safety*Nymwar*Opposition to pornography*Parental controls*Peacefire, a U.S.-based website dedicated to \"preserving First Amendment rights for Internet users, particularly those younger than 18\"*Russian State Duma Bill 89417-6 - a proposed bill that would mandate content control software*Scunthorpe problem*Wordfilter, generic name for scripts typically used on Internet forums or chat rooms that automatically scans users' posts or comments as they are submitted and automatically changes or censors particular words or phrases" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chambered cairn" ], [ "Introduction", "Cross sections of MaeshoweA '''chambered cairn''' is a burial monument, usually constructed during the Neolithic, consisting of a sizeable (usually stone) chamber around and over which a cairn of stones was constructed.", "Some chambered cairns are also passage-graves.", "They are found throughout Britain and Ireland, with the largest number in Scotland.Typically, the chamber is larger than a cist, and will contain a larger number of interments, which are either excarnated bones or inhumations (cremations).", "Most were situated near a settlement, and served as that community's \"graveyard\"." ], [ "Scotland", "Cairn Holy I., Galloway===Background===During the early Neolithic (4000–3300 BC) architectural forms are highly regionalised with timber and earth monuments predominating in the east and stone-chambered cairns in the west.", "During the later Neolithic (3300–2500 BC) massive circular enclosures and the use of grooved ware and Unstan ware pottery emerge.", "Scotland has a particularly large number of chambered cairns; they are found in various different types described below.", "Along with the excavations of settlements such as Skara Brae, Links of Noltland, Barnhouse, Rinyo and Balfarg and the complex site at Ness of Brodgar these cairns provide important clues to the character of civilization in Scotland in the Neolithic.", "However the increasing use of cropmarks to identify Neolithic sites in lowland areas has tended to diminish the relative prominence of these cairns.In the early phases bones of numerous bodies are often found together and it has been argued that this suggests that in death at least, the status of individuals was played down.", "During the late Neolithic henge sites were constructed and single burials began to become more commonplace; by the Bronze Age it is possible that even where chambered cairns were still being built they had become the burial places of prominent individuals rather than of communities as a whole.===Clyde-Carlingford court cairns===Cairnholy II – a chambered cairn near Newton Stewart.The Clyde or Clyde-Carlingford type are principally found in northern and western Ireland and southwestern Scotland.", "They first were identified as a separate group in the Firth of Clyde region, hence the name.", "Over 100 have been identified in Scotland alone.", "Lacking a significant passage, they are a form of gallery grave.", "The burial chamber is normally located at one end of a rectangular or trapezoidal cairn, while a roofless, semi-circular forecourt at the entrance provided access from the outside (although the entrance itself was often blocked), and gives this type of chambered cairn its alternate name of court tomb or court cairn.", "These forecourts are typically fronted by large stones and it is thought the area in front of the cairn was used for public rituals of some kind.", "The chambers were created from large stones set on end, roofed with large flat stones and often sub-divided by slabs into small compartments.", "They are generally considered to be the earliest in Scotland.Examples include Cairn Holy I and Cairn Holy II near Newton Stewart, a cairn at Port Charlotte, Islay, which dates to 3900–4000 BC, and Monamore, or Meallach's Grave, Arran, which may date from the early fifth millennium BC.", "Excavations at the Mid Gleniron cairns near Cairnholy revealed a multi-period construction which shed light on the development of this class of chambered cairn.===Orkney-Cromarty===Entrance to Unstan Chambered Cairn, OrkneyThe Orkney-Cromarty group is by far the largest and most diverse.", "It has been subdivided into Yarrows, Camster and Cromarty subtypes but the differences are extremely subtle.", "The design is of dividing slabs at either side of a rectangular chamber, separating it into compartments or stalls.", "The number of these compartments ranges from 4 in the earliest examples to over 24 in an extreme example on Orkney.", "The actual shape of the cairn varies from simple circular designs to elaborate 'forecourts' protruding from each end, creating what look like small amphitheatres.", "It is likely that these are the result of cultural influences from mainland Europe, as they are similar to designs found in France and Spain.Examples include Midhowe on Rousay, and both the Unstan Chambered Cairn and Wideford Hill chambered cairn from the Orkney Mainland, both of which date from the mid 4th millennium BC and were probably in use over long periods of time.", "When the latter was excavated in 1884, grave goods were found that gave their name to Unstan ware pottery.", "Blackhammer cairn on Rousay is another example dating from the 3rd millennium BC.The Grey Cairns of Camster in Caithness are examples of this type from mainland Scotland.", "The Tomb of the Eagles on South Ronaldsay is a stalled cairn that shows some similarities with the later Maeshowe type.", "It was in use for 800 years or more and numerous bird bones were found here, predominantly white-tailed sea eagle.===Maeshowe===The interior of MaeshoweThe Maeshowe group, named after the famous Orkney monument, is among the most elaborate.", "They appear relatively late and only in Orkney and it is not clear why the use of cairns continued in the north when their construction had largely ceased elsewhere in Scotland.", "They consist of a central chamber from which lead small compartments, into which burials would be placed.", "The central chambers are tall and steep-sided and have corbelled roofing faced with high quality stone.", "The entrance to the Vinquoy cairn on EdayIn addition to Maeshowe itself, which was constructed c. 2700 BC, there are various other examples from the Orkney Mainland.", "These include Quanterness chambered cairn (3250 BC) in which the remains of 157 individuals were found when excavated in the 1970s, Cuween Hill near Finstown which was found to contain the bones of men, dogs and oxen and Wideford Hill chambered cairn, which dates from 2000 BC.Examples from elsewhere in Orkney are the Vinquoy chambered cairn, and the Huntersquoy chambered cairn, both found on the north end of the island of Eday and Quoyness on Sanday constructed about 2900 BC and which is surrounded by an arc of Bronze Age mounds.", "The central chamber of Holm of Papa Westray South cairn is over 20 metres long.===Bookan===Huntersquoy chambered cairn, EdayThe Bookan type is named after a cairn found to the north-west of the Ring of Brodgar in Orkney, which is now a dilapidated oval mound, about 16 metres in diameter.", "Excavations in 1861 indicated a rectangular central chamber surrounded by five smaller chambers.", "Because of the structure's unusual design, it was originally presumed to be an early form.", "However, later interpretations and further excavation work in 2002 suggested that they have more in common with the later Maeshowe type rather than the stalled Orkney-Cromarty cairns.Huntersquoy chambered cairn on Eday is a double storied Orkney–Cromarty type cairn with a Booken-type lower chamber.===Shetland===The Vementry cairnThe Shetland or Zetland group are relatively small passage graves, that are round or heel-shaped in outline.", "The whole chamber is cross or trefoil-shaped and there are no smaller individual compartments.", "An example is to be found on the uninhabited island of Vementry on the north side of the West Mainland, where it appears that the cairn may have originally been circular and its distinctive heel shape added as a secondary development, a process repeated elsewhere in Shetland.", "This probably served to make the cairn more distinctive and the forecourt area more defined.===Hebridean===Chambered cairn at Rubha an DùnainLike the Shetland cairn the Hebridean group appear relatively late in the Neolithic.", "They are largely found in the Outer Hebrides, although a mixture of cairn types are found here.", "These passage graves are usually larger than the Shetland type and are round or have funnel-shaped forecourts, although a few are long cairns – perhaps originally circular but with later tails added.", "They often have a polygonal chamber and a short passage to one end of the cairn.The Rubha an Dùnain peninsula on the island of Skye provides an example from the 2nd or 3rd millennium BC.", "Barpa Langass on North Uist is the best preserved chambered cairn in the Hebrides.=== Bargrennan ===Bargrennan chambered cairns are a class of passage graves found only in south-west Scotland, in western Dumfries and Galloway and southern Ayrshire.", "As well as being structurally different from the nearby Clyde cairns, Bargrennan cairns are distinguished by their siting and distribution; they are found in upland, inland areas of Galloway and Ayrshire.===Bronze Age===Corrimony chambered cairnIn addition to the increasing prominence of individual burials, during the Bronze Age regional differences in architecture in Scotland became more pronounced.", "The Clava cairns date from this period, with about 50 cairns of this type in the Inverness area.", "Corrimony chambered cairn near Drumnadrochit is an example dated to 2000 BC or older.", "The only surviving evidence of burial was a stain indicating the presence of a single body.", "The cairn is surrounded by a circle of 11 standing stones.", "The cairns at Balnuaran of Clava are of a similar date.", "The largest of three is the north-east cairn, which was partially reconstructed in the 19th century and the central cairn may have been used as a funeral pyre.Glebe cairn in Kilmartin Glen in Argyll dates from 1700 BC and has two stone cists inside one of which a jet necklace was found during 19th century excavations.", "There are numerous prehistoric sites in the vicinity including Nether Largie North cairn, which was entirely removed and rebuilt during excavations in 1930." ], [ "Wales", "alt=A short dry-stone wall retains boulders to form a cairn.", "The wall is missing at the front, right section, where the rubble has tumbled out, leaving a (previously covered) orthostat exposed.", "The wall forms a courtyard at the cromlech's entrance.", "Flat ground of short grass surrounds the cairn.", "The background is of shaded trees, mainly in leaf.Chambered cairn at Maen y Bardd, Conwy, Wales===Chambered long cairns===There are 18 Scheduled Ancient Monuments listed:* Siambr gladdu Din Dryfol, Aberffraw* Carnedd gellog hir Pen y Wyrlod, Talgarth* Siambr gladdu Llety'r Filiast, Llandudno* Siambr gladdu Bachwen, Clynnog* Siambr gladdu Rhiw, Aberdaron* Siambr gladdu Maen y Bardd, Caerhun* Siambr gladdu Ystum-Cegid, Llanystumdwy* Siambr gladdu Caer-Dynni, Cricieth* Siambr gladdu Capel Garmon, Bro Garmon, Conwy* Siambr gladdu Tyddyn Bleiddyn, Cefn Meiriadog* Siambr gladdu Hendre-Waelod, Llansanffraid Glan Conwy* Parc Cwm long cairn, Parc le Breos, Gower Peninsula* Siambr gladdu Cefn Bryn, Llanilltud Gŵyr* Siambr gladdu Dyffryn, Dyffryn Ardudwy* Siambr gladdu Carneddau Hengwm, Dyffryn Ardudwy* Siambr gladdu Cors-y-Gedol, Dyffryn Ardudwy* Siambr gladdu Tan-y-Coed, Llandrillo* Siambr gladdu Gorllewin Bron-y-Foel, Dyffryn Ardudwy===Chambered round cairns===* Siambr gladdu Bryn yr Hen Bobl, Llanddaniel Fab, Môn* Siambr gladdu Gelli, Llanfair-ar-y-bryn, Sir Gaerfyrddin* Siambr gladdu Cefnamwlch, Tudweiliog, Gwynedd* Siambr galddu Afon y Dolau Gwynion, overlooking Lake Vyrnwy, Llanwddyn, Powys" ], [ "See also", "* Unchambered long cairn* Oldest buildings in Scotland* Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site* Prehistoric Orkney* Severn-Cotswold tomb, a type of chambered long barrow found in England and Wales* Heel-shaped cairn" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Armit, Ian (1996) ''The archaeology of Skye and the Western Isles''.", "Edinburgh University Press/Historic Scotland.", "* Barclay, Gordon (2005) ''Farmers, Temples and Tombs: Scotland in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age''.", "Birlinn/Historic Scotland.", "* Edwards, Kevin J.", "& Ralston, Ian B.M.", "(Eds) (2003) ''Scotland After the Ice Age: Environment, Archaeology and History, 8000 BC – AD 1000''.", "Edinburgh.", "Edinburgh University Press.", "* * Noble, Gordon (2006) ''Neolithic Scotland: Timber, Stone, Earth and Fire.''", "Edinburgh University Press.", "* Omand, Donald (ed.)", "(2003) ''The Orkney Book''.", "Edinburgh.", "Birlinn.", "* Wickham-Jones, Caroline (2007) ''Orkney: A Historical Guide''.", "Edinburgh.", "Birlinn." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Canadian whisky" ], [ "Introduction", "A variety of Canadian whiskies'''Canadian whisky''' is a type of whisky produced in Canada.", "Most Canadian whiskies are blended multi-grain liquors containing a large percentage of corn spirits, and are typically lighter and smoother than other whisky styles.", "When Canadian distillers began adding small amounts of highly-flavourful rye grain to their mashes, people began demanding this new rye-flavoured whisky, referring to it simply as \"rye\".", "Today, as for the past two centuries, the terms \"rye whisky\" and \"Canadian whisky\" are used interchangeably in Canada and (as defined in Canadian law) refer to exactly the same product, which generally is made with only a small amount of rye grain." ], [ "Characteristics", "Historically, in Canada, corn-based whisky that had some rye grain added to the mash bill to give it more flavour came to be called \"rye\".The regulations under Canada's ''Food and Drugs Act'' stipulate the minimum conditions that must be met in order to label a product as \"Canadian Whisky\" or \"Canadian Rye Whisky\" (or \"Rye Whisky\")—these are also upheld internationally through geographical indication agreements.", "These regulations state that whisky must \"be mashed, distilled and aged in Canada\", \"be aged in small wood vessels for not less than three years\", \"contain not less than 40 per cent alcohol by volume\" and \"may contain caramel and flavouring\".", "Within these parameters Canadian whiskies can vary considerably, especially with the allowance of \"flavouring\"—though the additional requirement that they \"possess the aroma, taste and character generally attributed to Canadian whisky\" can act as a limiting factor.Canadian whiskies are most typically blends of whiskies made from a single grain, principally corn and rye, but also sometimes wheat or barley.", "Mash bills of multiple grains may also be used for some flavouring whiskies.", "The availability of inexpensive American corn, with its higher proportion of usable starches relative to other cereal grains, has led it to be most typically used to create base whiskies to which flavouring whiskies are blended in.", "Exceptions to this include the Highwood Distillery which specializes in using wheat and the Alberta Distillers which developed its own proprietary yeast strain that specializes in distilling rye.", "The flavouring whiskies are most typically rye whiskies, blended into the product to add most of its flavour and aroma.", "While Canadian whisky may be labelled as a \"rye whisky\" this blending technique only necessitates a small percentage (such as 10%) of rye to create the flavour, whereas much more rye would be required if it were added to a mash bill alongside the more readily distilled corn.The base whiskies are distilled to between 180 and 190 proof which results in few congener by-products (such as fusel alcohol, aldehydes, esters, etc.)", "and creates a lighter taste.", "By comparison, an American whisky distilled any higher than 160 proof is labelled as \"light whiskey\".", "The flavouring whiskies are distilled to a lower proof so that they retain more of the grain's flavour.", "The relative lightness created by the use of base whiskies makes Canadian whisky useful for mixing into cocktails and highballs.", "The minimum three year aging in small wood barrels applies to all whiskies used in the blend.", "As the regulations do not limit the specific type of wood that must be used, a variety of flavours can be achieved by blending whiskies aged in different types of barrels.", "In addition to new wood barrels, charred or uncharred, flavour can be added by aging whiskies in previously used bourbon or fortified wine barrels for different lengths of time." ], [ "History", "In the 18th and early 19th centuries, gristmills distilled surplus grains to avoid spoilage.", "Most of these early whiskies would have been rough, mostly unaged wheat whiskey.", "Distilling methods and technologies were brought to Canada by American and European immigrants with experience in distilling wheat and rye.", "This early whisky from improvised stills, often with the grains closest to spoilage, was produced with various, uncontrolled proofs and was consumed, unaged, by the local market.", "While most distilling capacity was taken up producing rum, a result of Atlantic Canada's position in the British sugar trade, the first commercial scale production of whisky in Canada began in 1801 when John Molson purchased a copper pot still, previously used to produce rum, in Montreal.", "With his son Thomas Molson, and eventually partner James Morton, the Molsons operated a distillery in Montreal and Kingston and were the first in Canada to export whisky, benefiting from Napoleonic Wars' disruption in supplying French wine and brandies to England.", "The Gooderham and Worts buildings, c. 19th century.", "In the 1860s, the distillery became the world's largest producer of whisky.", "Gooderham and Worts began producing whisky in 1837 in Toronto as a side business to their wheat milling but surpassed Molson's production by the 1850s as it expanded their operations with a new distillery in what would become the Distillery District.", "Henry Corby started distilling whisky as a side business from his gristmill in 1859 in what became known as Corbyville and Joseph Seagram began working in his father-in-law's Waterloo flour mill and distillery in 1864, which he would eventually purchase in 1883.Meanwhile, Americans Hiram Walker and J.P. Wiser moved to Canada: Walker to Windsor in 1858 to open a flour mill and distillery and Wiser to Prescott in 1857 to work at his uncle's distillery where he introduced a rye whisky and was successful enough to buy the distillery five years later.", "The disruption of American Civil War created an export opportunity for Canadian-made whiskies and their quality, particularly those from Walker and Wiser who had already begun the practice of aging their whiskies, sustained that market even after post-war tariffs were introduced.", "In the 1880s, Canada's National Policy placed high tariffs on foreign alcoholic products as whisky began to be sold in bottles and the federal government instituted a bottled in bond program that provided certification of the time a whisky spent aging and allowed deferral of taxes for that period, which encouraged aging.", "In 1890 Canada became the first country to enact an aging law for whiskies, requiring them to be aged at least two years.", "The growing temperance movement culminated in prohibition in 1916 and distilleries had to either specialize in the export market or switch to alternative products, like industrial alcohols which were in demand in support of the war effort.Harry Hatch was a Canadian industrialist, who consolidated several Canadian distilleries in the early 20th century.With the deferred revenue and storage costs of the Aging Law acting as a barrier to new entrants and the reduced market due to prohibition, consolidation of Canadian whisky had begun.", "Henry Corby Jr. modernized and expanded upon his father's distillery and sold it, in 1905, to businessman Mortimer Davis who also purchased the Wiser distillery, in 1918, from the heirs of J.P. Wiser.", "Davis's salesman Harry Hatch spent time promoting the Corby and Wiser brands and developing a distribution network in the United States which held together as Canadian prohibition ended and American prohibition began.", "After Hatch's falling out with Davis, Hatch purchased the struggling Gooderham and Worts in 1923 and switched out Davis's whisky for his.", "Hatch was successful enough to be able to also purchase the Walker distillery, and the popular Canadian Club brand, from Hiram's grandsons in 1926.While American prohibition created risk and instability in the Canadian whisky industry, some benefited from purchasing unused American distillation equipment and from sales to exporters (nominally to foreign countries like Saint Pierre and Miquelon, though actually to bootleggers to the United States).", "Along with Hatch, the Bronfman family was able to profit from making whisky destined for United States during prohibition, though mostly in Western Canada and were able to open a distillery in LaSalle, Quebec and merge their company, in 1928, with Seagram's which had struggled with transitioning to the prohibition marketplace.", "Samuel Bronfman became president of the company and, with his dominant personality, began a strategy of increasing their capacity and aging whiskies in anticipation of the end of prohibition.", "When that did occur, in 1933, Seagram's was in a position to quickly expand; they purchased The British Columbia Distilling Company from the Riefel family in 1935, as well as several American distilleries and introduced new brands, one of them being Crown Royal, in 1939, which would eventually become one of the best-selling Canadian whiskies.While some capacity was switched to producing industrial alcohols in support of the country's World War II efforts, the industry expanded again after the war until the 1980s.", "In 1945, Schenley Industries purchased one of those industrial alcohol distilleries in Valleyfield, Quebec, and repurposed several defunct American whiskey brands, like Golden Wedding, Old Fine Copper, and starting in 1972, Gibson's Finest.", "Seeking to secure their supply of Canadian whisky, Barton Brands also built a new distillery in Collingwood, Ontario, in 1967, where they would produce Canadian Mist, though they sold the distillery and brand only four years later to Brown–Forman.", "As proximity to the shipping routes (by rail and boat) to the US became less important, large distilleries were established in Alberta and Manitoba.", "Five years after starting to experiment with whiskies in their Toronto gin distillery, W. & A. Gilbey Ltd. created the Black Velvet blend in 1951 which was so successful a new distillery in Lethbridge, Alberta was constructed in 1973 to produce it.", "Gimli, Manitoba.", "The distillery was built in 1969 for use by Seagram.Also in the west, a Calgary-based business group recruited the Riefels from British Columbia to oversee their Alberta Distillers operations in 1948.The company became an innovator in the practice of bulk shipping whiskies to the United States for bottling and the success of their Windsor Canadian brand (produced in Alberta but bottled in the United States) led National Distillers Limited to purchase Alberta Distillers, in 1964, to secure their supply chain.", "More Alberta investors founded the Highwood Distillery in 1974 in High River, Alberta, which specialized in wheat-based whiskies.", "Seagram's opened a large, new plant in Gimli, Manitoba, in 1969, which would eventually replace their Waterloo and LaSalle distilleries.", "In British Columbia, Ernie Potter who had been producing fruit liqueurs from alcohols distilled at Alberta Distillers built his own whisky distillery in Langley in 1958 and produced the Potter's and Century brands of whisky.", "Hiram Walker's built the Okanagan Distillery in Winfield, British Columbia, in 1970 with the intention of producing Canadian Club but was redirected to fulfill contracts to produce whiskies for Suntory before being closed in 1995.After decades of expansion, a shift in consumer preferences towards white spirits (such as vodka) in the American market resulted in an excess supply of Canadian whiskies.", "While this allowed the whiskies to be aged longer, the unexpected storage costs and deferred revenue strained individual companies.", "With the distillers seeking investors and multinational corporations seeking value brands, a series of acquisitions and mergers occurred.", "Alberta Distillers was bought in 1987 by Fortune Brands which would go on to become part of Beam Suntory.", "Hiram Walker was sold in 1987 to Allied Lyons which Pernod Ricard took over in 2006, with Fortune Brands acquiring the Canadian Club brand.", "Grand Metropolitan had purchased Black Velvet in 1972 but sold the brand in 1999 to Constellation Brands who in turn sold it to Heaven Hill in 2019.Schenley was acquired in 1990 by United Distillers which would go on to become part of Diageo, though Gibson's Finest was sold to William Grant & Sons in 2001.Seagram's was sold in 2000 to Vivendi, which in turn sold its various brands and distilleries to Pernod Ricard and Diageo.", "Highwood would purchase Potter's in 2006.Despite the consolidation, the Kittling Ridge Distillery in Grimsby, Ontario, began to produce the Forty Creek brand, though it was sold to the Campari Group in 2014.Later, the Sazerac Company would purchase the brands Seagram's VO, Canadian 83 and Five Star from Diageo in 2018.===Illicit export to the United States===Windsor, Ontario, c. 1905–1915.Distilleries near the Canada–United States border served bootleggers during prohibition in the U.S. Canadian whisky featured prominently in rum-running into the U.S. during Prohibition.", "Hiram Walker's distillery in Windsor, Ontario, directly across the Detroit River and the international boundary between Canada and the United States, easily served bootleggers using small, fast smuggling boats." ], [ "Distilleries and brands", "The following is a listing of distilleries presently producing Canadian whiskys:===Alberta===Black Velvet is a whisky produced at Black Velvet Distillery in LethbridgeThere are several distilleries based in Alberta, including the Alberta Distillers, established in 1946 in Calgary, Alberta.", "The distillery was purchased in 1987 by Fortune Brands which became Beam Suntory in 2011.The distillery uses a specific strain of yeast which they developed that specializes in fermenting rye.", "While the distillery exports much of its whisky for bottling in other countries, they also produce the brands Alberta Premium, Alberta Springs, Windsor Canadian, Tangle Ridge, and Canadian Club Chairman's Select.Black Velvet Distillery (formerly the Palliser Distillery) was established in 1973 in Lethbridge, Alberta it has been owned by Heaven Hill since 2019.They produce the Black Velvet brand which is mostly shipped in bulk for bottling in the American market, with some bottled onsite for the Canadian market.", "The distillery also produces Danfield's and the Schenley's Golden Wedding and OFC labels.Highwood Distillery (formerly the Sunnyvale Distillery) was established in 1974 in High River, Alberta, the Highwood Distillery specializes in using wheat in their base whiskies.", "This distillery also produces vodka, rum, gin and liqueurs.", "Brands of Canadian whisky produced at the Highwood Distillery include Centennial, Century, Ninety, and Potter's.", "They also produce White Owl whisky which is charcoal-filtered to remove the colouring introduced by aging in wood barrels.===Manitoba===Gimli Distillery was established in 1968 in Gimli, Manitoba, to produce Seagram brands, the distillery was acquired by Diageo in 2001.The Gimli Distillery is responsible for producing Crown Royal, the best-selling Canadian whisky in the world with 7 million cases shipped in 2017.They also supply some of the whisky used in Seagram's VO and other blends.===Ontario===Distilleries were established in Ontario during the mid-19th century, with Gooderham and Worts's beginning operations in Toronto's Distillery District in the 1830s.", "Distilleries continued to operate from the Distillery District until 1990, when the area was reoriented towards commercial and residential development.", "Other former distilleries in the province includes one in Corbyville, which hosted a distillery operated by Corby Spirit and Wine.", "A distillery in Waterloo was operated by Seagram to produce Crown Royal until 1992; although the company still maintains a blending and bottling plant in Amherstburg.Windsor, Ontario.", "Established in 1858, it is the oldest functioning distillery in the province.Presently, there are several major distilleries based in Ontario.", "The oldest functioning distillery in Ontario is the Hiram Walker Distillery, established in 1858 in Windsor, Ontario, but modernized and expanded upon several times since.", "The distillery is owned by Pernod Ricard and operated by Corby Spirit and Wine, of which Pernod has a controlling share.", "Brands produced at the Walker Distillery include Lot 40, Pike Creek, Gooderham and Worts, Hiram Walker's Special Old, Corby's Royal Reserve, and J.P. Wiser's brands.", "Most of its capacity is used for contract production of the Beam Suntory brand (and former Hiram Walker brand) Canadian Club, in addition to generic Canadian whisky that is exported in bulk and bottled under various labels in other countries.Canadian Mist Distillery was established in 1967 in Collingwood, Ontario, the distillery is owned by the Sazerac Company and primarily produces the Canadian Mist brand for export.", "The distillery also produces whiskies used in the Collingwood brand, introduced 2011, and the Bearface brand, introduced 2018.Kittling Ridge Distillery was established in 1992 with an associated winery in Grimsby, Ontario, its first whiskies came to market in 2002.The distillery was purchased in 2014 by Campari Group.", "The distillery produces the Forty Creek brand.===Quebec===Old Montreal Distillery was established in 1929 as a Corby Spirit and Wine distillery, it was acquired by Sazerac Company in 2011 and modernized in 2018.It produces Sazerac brands and has taken over bottling of Caribou Crossing.Valleyfield Distillery (formerly the Schenley Distillery) was established in 1945 in a former brewery in Salaberry-de-Valleyfield, Quebec, near Montreal, the distillery has been owned by Diageo in 2008.Seagram's VO is bottled here with flavouring whisky from the Gimli Distillery.", "Otherwise, the Valleyfield Distillery specializes in producing base whiskies distilled from corn for other Diageo products." ], [ "See also", "* Canadian beer* Canadian wine* Outline of whisky" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Collective noun" ], [ "Introduction", "In linguistics, a '''collective noun''' is a word referring to a collection of things taken as a whole.", "Most collective nouns in everyday speech are not specific to one kind of thing.", "For example, the collective noun \"group\" can be applied to people (\"a group of people\"), or dogs (\"a group of dogs\"), or objects (\"a group of stones\").Some collective nouns are specific to one kind of thing, especially terms of venery, which identify groups of specific animals.", "For example, \"pride\" as a term of venery always refers to lions, never to dogs or cows.", "Other examples come from popular culture such as a group of owls, which is called a \"parliament\".Different forms of English handle verb agreement with collective count nouns differently.", "For example, users of British English generally accept that collective nouns take either singular or plural verb forms depending on context and the metonymic shift that it implies." ], [ "Derivation", "Morphological derivation accounts for many collective words and various languages have commonaffixes for denoting collective nouns.", "Because derivation is a slower and less productive word formation process than the more overtly syntactical morphological methods, there are fewer collectives formed this way.", "As with all derived words, derivational collectives often differ semantically from the original words, acquiring new connotations and even new denotations." ], [ "Affixes", "=== Proto-Indo-European ===Early Proto-Indo-European used the suffix *eh₂ to form collective nouns, which evolved into the Latin neuter plural ending -a, as in \"datum/data\".", "Late Proto-Indo-European used the ending *t, which evolved into the English ending -th, as in \"young/youth\".=== English ===The English endings ''-age'' and ''-ade'' often signify a collective.", "Sometimes, the relationship is easily recognizable: ''baggage, drainage, blockade''.", "Though the etymology is plain to see, the derived words take on a distinct meaning.", "This is a productive ending, as evidenced in the recent coin, \"signage\".=== German ===German uses the prefix ''ge-'' to create collectives.", "The root word often undergoes umlaut and suffixation as well as receiving the ''ge-'' prefix.", "Nearly all nouns created in that way are of neuter gender:* '''', \"group of hills, mountain range\" '''', \"mountain\" or \"hill\"* '''', \"luggage, baggage\" '''' 'mountain range'* '''' 'bone' > '''' 'skeleton'* '''' 'bird' > '''' 'poultry'* '''' 'leaf' > '''' 'foliage'=== Swedish ===The following Swedish example has different words in the collective form and in the individual form:* An individual mosquito is a '''' (plural: ''''), but mosquitos as a collective is ''''.=== Esperanto ===Esperanto uses the collective infix -''ar''- to produce a large number of derived words:* ''monto'' 'mountain' > ''montaro'' 'mountain range'* ''birdo'' 'bird' > ''birdaro'' 'flock'* ''arbo'' 'tree' > ''arbaro'' 'forest'* ''ŝipo'' 'ship' > ''ŝiparo'' 'fleet'* ''manĝilo'' 'eating utensil' > ''manĝilaro'' 'silverware', 'cutlery'" ], [ "Metonymic merging of grammatical number", "Two examples of collective nouns are \"team\" and \"government\", which are both words referring to groups of (usually) people.", "Both \"team\" and \"government\" are ''countable'' nouns (consider: \"one team\", \"two teams\", \"most teams\"; \"one government\", \"two governments\", \"many governments\").=== Agreement in different forms of English ===Confusion often stems from the way that different forms of English handle agreement with collective nouns—specifically, whether or not to use the '''collective singular''': the singular verb form with a collective noun.", "The plural verb forms are often used in British English with the singular forms of these countable nouns (e.g., \"The team ''have'' finished the project.\").", "Conversely, in the English language as a whole, singular verb forms can often be used with nouns ending in \"-s\" that were once considered plural (e.g., \"Physics ''is'' my favorite academic subject\").", "This apparent \"number mismatch\" is a natural and logical feature of human language, and its mechanism is a subtle metonymic shift in the concepts underlying the words.In British English, it is generally accepted that collective nouns can take either singular or plural verb forms depending on the context and the metonymic shift that it implies.", "For example, \"the team ''is'' in the dressing room\" (''formal agreement'') refers to ''the team'' as an ensemble, while \"the team ''are'' fighting among themselves\" (''notional agreement'') refers to ''the team'' as individuals.", "That is also the British English practice with names of countries and cities in sports contexts (e.g., \"Newcastle ''have'' won the competition.", "\").In American English, collective nouns almost always take singular verb forms (formal agreement).", "In cases that a metonymic shift would be revealed nearby, the whole sentence should be recast to avoid the metonymy.", "(For example, \"The team are fighting among themselves\" may become \"the team ''members'' are fighting among themselves\" or simply \"The team is infighting.\")", "Collective proper nouns are usually taken as singular (\"Apple is expected to release a new phone this year\"), unless the plural is explicit in the proper noun itself, in which case it is taken as plural (\"The Green Bay Packers are scheduled to play the Minnesota Vikings this weekend\").", "More explicit examples of collective proper nouns include \"General Motors is once again the world's largest producer of vehicles\", and \"Texas Instruments is a large producer of electronics here\", and \"British Airways is an airline company in Europe\".", "Furthermore, \"American Telephone & Telegraph is a telecommunications company in North America\".", "Such phrases might look plural, but they are not.=== Examples of metonymic shift ===A good example of such a metonymic shift in the singular-to-plural direction (which exclusively takes place in British English) is the following sentence: \"The team have finished the project.\"", "In that sentence, the underlying thought is of the individual members of the team working together to finish the project.", "Their accomplishment is collective, and the emphasis is not on their individual identities, but they are still discrete individuals; the word choice \"team have\" manages to convey both their collective and discrete identities simultaneously.", "Collective nouns that have a singular form but take a plural verb form are called '''collective plurals'''.", "An example of such a metonymic shift in the plural-to-singular direction is the following sentence: \"Mathematics is my favorite academic subject\".", "The word \"mathematics\" may have originally been plural in concept, referring to mathematic endeavors, but metonymic shift (the shift in concept from \"the endeavors\" to \"the whole set of endeavors\") produced the usage of \"mathematics\" as a singular entity taking singular verb forms.", "(A true mass-noun sense of \"mathematics\" followed naturally.", ")Nominally singular pronouns can be collective nouns taking plural verb forms, according to the same rules that apply to other collective nouns.", "For example, it is correct usage in both British English and American English usage to say: \"None are so fallible as those who are sure they're right.\"", "In that case, the plural verb is used because the context for \"none\" suggests more than one thing or person.", "This also applies to the use of an adjective as a collective noun: \"The British are coming!", "\"; \"The poor will always be with you.", "\"Other examples include:* \"Creedence Clearwater Revival ''was'' founded in El Cerrito, California\" (but in British English, \"Creedence Clearwater Revival ''were'' founded ...\")* \"Arsenal ''have'' won the match\" (but in American English, \"Arsenal ''has'' won the game\")* \"Nintendo ''is'' a video game company headquartered in Japan\".This does not, however, affect the tense later in the sentence:* \"Cream ''is'' a psychedelic rock band who ''were'' primarily popular in the 1960s.Abbreviations provide other \"exceptions\" in American usage concerning plurals:* \"Runs Batted In\" becomes \"RBIs\".", "\"Smith had 10 RBIs in the last three games.", "\"* \"Revised Statutes Annotated\" or RSAs.", "\"The RSAs contain our laws.", "\"When only the name is plural but not the object, place, or person:* \"The bends ''is'' a deadly disease mostly affecting SCUBA divers.", "\"* \"''Hot Rocks'' ''is'' a greatest hits compilation by The Rolling Stones\"" ], [ "Terms of venery", "The tradition of using \"terms of venery\" or \"nouns of assembly\", collective nouns that are specific to certain kinds of animals, stems from an English hunting tradition of the Late Middle Ages.", "The fashion of a consciously developed hunting language came to England from France.", "It was marked by an extensive proliferation of specialist vocabulary, applying different names to the same feature in different animals.", "The elements can be shown to have already been part of French and English hunting terminology by the beginning of the 14th century.", "In the course of the 14th century, it became a courtly fashion to extend the vocabulary, and by the 15th century, the tendency had reached exaggerated and even satirical proportions.", "Other synonyms for \"terms of venery\" include \"company nouns,\" \"gatherations,\" and \"agminals.", "\"''The Treatise'', written by Walter of Bibbesworth in the mid-1200s, is the earliest source for collective nouns of animals in any European vernacular (and also the earliest source for animal noises).", "The ''Venerie'' of Twiti (early 14th century) distinguished three types of droppings of animals, and three different terms for herds of animals.", "Gaston Phoebus (14th century) had five terms for droppings of animals, which were extended to seven in the ''Master of the Game'' (early 15th century).", "The focus on collective terms for groups of animals emerged in the later 15th century.", "Thus, a list of collective nouns in Egerton MS 1995, dated to under the heading of \"termis of venery &c.\", extends to 70 items, and the list in the ''Book of Saint Albans'' (1486) runs to 164 items, many of which, even though introduced by \"the compaynys of beestys and fowlys\", relate not to venery but to human groups and professions and are clearly humorous, such as \"a Doctryne of doctoris\"'', \"''a Sentence of Juges\"'', \"''a Fightyng of beggers\"'', \"''an uncredibilite of Cocoldis\"'', \"''a Melody of harpers\"'', \"''a Gagle of women\"'', \"''a Disworship of Scottis\", etc.The ''Book of Saint Albans'' became very popular during the 16th century and was reprinted frequently.", "Gervase Markham edited and commented on the list in his ''The Gentleman's Academie'', in 1595.The book's popularity had the effect of perpetuating many of these terms as part of the Standard English lexicon even if they were originally meant to be humorous and have long ceased to have any practical application.Even in their original context of medieval venery, the terms were of the nature of kennings, intended as a mark of erudition of the gentlemen able to use them correctly rather than for practical communication.", "The popularity of the terms in the modern period has resulted in the addition of numerous lighthearted, humorous or facetious collective nouns." ], [ "See also", "* Grammatical number* List of animal names, including names for groups* Mass noun* Measure words* Plural* Plurale tantum* Synesis" ], [ "Further reading", "* Fanous, Samuel (2014).", "''A Conspiracy of Ravens: a compendium of collective nouns for birds''.", "Oxford: Bodleian Library.", ".", "* Fanous, Samuel (2015).", "''A Barrel of Monkeys: a compendium of collective nouns for animals''.", "Oxford: Bodleian Library.", ".", "* George, Patrick (2009).", "''A drove of bullocks''.", "Patrick George.", ".", "* George, Patrick (2009).", "''A filth of starlings''.", "Patrick George.", ".", "* Hodgkin, John (1909).", "\"Proper Terms: An attempt at a rational explanation of the meanings of the Collection of Phrases in 'The Book of St Albans', 1486, entitled 'The Compaynys of besties and fowls and similar lists\", ''Transactions of the Philological Society 1907–1910'', Part III, pp.", "1–187, Kegan, Paul, Trench & Trübner & Co, Ltd, London.", "* Lipton, James.", "''An Exaltation of Larks, or The \"Veneral\" Game''.", "Penguin.", "(First published Grossman Publishers 1968.)", "(Penguin first reprint 1977 ); in 1993 it was republished in Penguin with ''The Ultimate Edition'' as part of the title with the (paperback), (hardcover)* Shulman, Alon (2009).", "''A Mess of Iguanas... A Whoop of Gorillas: An Amazement of Animal Facts''.", "Penguin.", "." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Collective Nouns* \"The companyes of bestys & foules\" (section from the ''Book of St Albans'')" ] ]
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[ [ "Carat (mass)" ], [ "Introduction", "Diamond-weighing kit, with weights labelled in grams and caratsThe '''carat''' ('''ct''') is a unit of mass equal to , which is used for measuring gemstones and pearls.The current definition, sometimes known as the '''metric carat''', was adopted in 1907 at the Fourth General Conference on Weights and Measures, and soon afterwards in many countries around the world.", "The carat is divisible into 100 ''points'' of 2 mg. Other subdivisions, and slightly different mass values, have been used in the past in different locations.In terms of diamonds, a paragon is a flawless stone of at least 100 carats (20 g).The ANSI X.12 EDI standard abbreviation for the carat is '''CD'''." ], [ "Etymology", "First attested in English in the mid-15th century, the word ''carat'' comes from Italian ''carato'', which comes from Arabic (''qīrāṭ''; قيراط), in turn borrowed from Greek ''kerátion'' κεράτιον 'carob seed', a diminutive of ''keras'' 'horn'.", "It was a unit of weight, equal to 1/1728 (1/12) of a pound (see Mina (unit))." ], [ "History", "Carob seeds have been used throughout history to measure jewelry, because it was believed that there was little variance in their mass distribution.", "However, this was a factual inaccuracy, as their mass varies about as much as seeds of other species.In the past, each country had its own carat.", "It was often used for weighing gold.", "Beginning in the 1570s, it was used to measure weights of diamonds.===Standardization===An 'international carat' of 205 milligrams was proposed in 1871 by the Syndical Chamber of Jewellers, etc., in Paris, and accepted in 1877 by the Syndical Chamber of Diamond Merchants in Paris.", "A metric carat of 200 milligrams – exactly one-fifth of a gram – had often been suggested in various countries, and was finally proposed by the International Committee of Weights and Measures, and unanimously accepted at the fourth sexennial General Conference of the Metric Convention held in Paris in October 1907.It was soon made compulsory by law in France, but uptake of the new carat was slower in England, where its use was allowed by the Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act of 1897." ], [ "Historical definitions", "+ Carat before 1907 Location mg Cyprus\t\t 187 ''unknown''\t\t 188.6 Brazil\t\t 192.2 Egypt\t\t 195 Ambonia 197 Florence\t\t 197.2 International carat  Batavia, Borneo, Leipzig 205 South Africa (1)\t 205.304 London-New York (1)\t 205.303 Spain\t\t 205.393 London-New York (2)\t 205.409 Berlin\t\t 205.44 Paris, East India 205.5 South Africa (2)\t 205.649 Amsterdam\t\t 205.7 Lisbon\t\t 205.75 Frankfurt (on Main) 205.77 Vienna\t\t 206.13 Venice\t\t 207 Madras\t 207.353 ''unknown''\t\t 213 Bucharest\t\t 215 Livorno\t\t 215.99=== UK Board of Trade ===In the United Kingdom the original '''Board of Trade carat''' was exactly grains (~3.170 grains = ~205 mg); in 1888, the Board of Trade carat was changed to exactly grains (~3.168 grains = ~205 mg).", "Despite it being a non-metric unit, a number of metric countries have used this unit for its limited range of application.The Board of Trade carat was divisible into four ''diamond grains'', but measurements were typically made in multiples of carat.=== Refiners' carats ===There were also two varieties of ''refiners' carats'' once used in the United Kingdom—the '''pound carat''' and the '''ounce carat'''.", "The pound troy was divisible into 24 ''pound carats'' of 240 grains troy each; the pound carat was divisible into four ''pound grains'' of 60 grains troy each; and the pound grain was divisible into four ''pound quarters'' of 15 grains troy each.", "Likewise, the ounce troy was divisible into 24 ''ounce carats'' of 20 grains troy each; the ounce carat was divisible into four ''ounce grains'' of 5 grains troy each; and the ounce grain was divisible into four ''ounce quarters'' of grains troy each.=== Greco-Roman ===The ''solidus'' was also a Roman weight unit.", "There is literary evidence that the weight of 72 coins of the type called ''solidus'' was exactly 1 Roman pound, and that the weight of 1 ''solidus'' was 24 ''siliquae''.", "The weight of a Roman pound is generally believed to have been 327.45 g or possibly up to 5 g less.", "Therefore, the metric equivalent of 1 ''siliqua'' was approximately 189 mg.", "The Greeks had a similar unit of the same value.Gold fineness in carats comes from carats and grains of gold in a solidus of coin.", "The conversion rates 1 solidus = 24 carats, 1 carat = 4 grains still stand.", "Woolhouse's ''Measures, Weights and Moneys of All Nations'' gives gold fineness in carats of 4 grains, and silver in troy pounds of 12 troy ounces of 20 pennyweight each.== Notes==" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations''' ('''CEPT''') was established on June 26, 1959, by nineteen European states in Montreux, Switzerland, as a coordinating body for European state telecommunications and postal organizations.", "The acronym comes from the French version of its name ''Conférence européenne des administrations des postes et des télécommunications''.CEPT was responsible for the creation of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in 1988." ], [ "Organization", "CEPT is organised into three main components:* Electronic Communications Committee (ECC) - responsible for radiocommunications and telecommunications matters and formed by the merger of ECTRA (European Committee for Telecommunications Regulatory Affairs) and ERC (European Radiocommunications Committee) in September 2001**The permanent secretariat of the ECC is the European Communications Office (ECO)* European Committee for Postal Regulation (CERP, after the French ''\"Comité européen des régulateurs postaux\"'') - responsible for postal matters* The committee for ITU Policy (Com-ITU) is responsible for organising the co-ordination of CEPT actions for the preparation for and during the course of the ITU activities meetings of the council, Plenipotentiary Conferences, World Telecommunication Development Conferences, World Telecommunication Standardisation Assemblies" ], [ "Member countries", "''As of March 2022: 46 countries.''", "Albania, Andorra, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Vatican City.", "The Russian Federation and Belarus memberships were suspended indefinitely on March 17, 2022." ], [ "See also", "* Europa postage stamp* CEPT Recommendation T/CD 06-01 (standard for videotex)* E-carrier (standard for multiplexed telephone circuits)* International Telecommunication Union* LPD433* PMR446* SRD860* Universal Postal Union* WiMAX* African Telecommunications Union (ATU)* Asia-Pacific Telecommunity (APT)* Caribbean Postal Union (CPU)* Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU)* Inter-American Telecommunication Commission (CITEL)* Postal Union of the Americas, Spain and Portugal* List of members of the Universal Postal Union" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "** ECC website* ECO website* CERP website* Com-ITU website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Tramlink" ], [ "Introduction", "'''London Trams''', previously '''Tramlink''' and '''Croydon Tramlink''', is a light rail tram system serving Croydon and surrounding areas in South London, England.", "It began operation in 2000, the first tram system in the London region since 1952.It is managed by London Trams, a public body part of Transport for London (TfL), and has been operated by FirstGroup since 2017.Tramlink is one of two light rail networks in Greater London, the other being the Docklands Light Railway.The network consists of 39 stops along of track, on a mixture of street track shared with other traffic, dedicated track in public roads, and off-street track consisting of new rights-of-way, former railway lines, and one right-of-way where the Tramlink track runs parallel to a third rail-electrified Network Rail line.The network's lines coincide in central Croydon, with eastern termini at Beckenham Junction, Elmers End and New Addington, and a western terminus at Wimbledon, where there is an interchange for London Underground.", "Tramlink is the fourth-busiest light rail network in the UK behind the Docklands Light Railway, Manchester Metrolink and Tyne and Wear Metro." ], [ "History", "===Inception===In the first half of the 20th century, Croydon had many tramlines.", "The first to close was the Addiscombe – East Croydon station route through George Street to Cherry Orchard Road in 1927 and the last was the Purley - Embankment and Croydon (Coombe Road) - Thornton Heath routes closed April 1951.However, in the Spring of 1950, the Highways Committee were presented by the Mayor with the concept of running trams between East Croydon station and the new estate being constructed at New Addington.", "This was based on the fact that the Feltham cars used in Croydon were going to Leeds to serve their new estates on reserved tracks.", "In 1962, a private study with assistance from BR engineers, showed how easy it was to convert the West Croydon - Wimbledon train service to tram operation and successfully prevent conflict between trams and trains.These two concepts became joined in joint LRTL/TLRS concept of New Addington to Wimbledon every 15 minutes via East and West Croydon and Mitcham plus New Addington to Tattenham Corner every 15 minutes via East and West Croydon, Sutton and Epsom Downs.", "A branch into Forestdale to give an overlap service from Sutton was also included.", "During the 1970s, several BR directors and up-and-coming managers were aware of the advantages.", "Chris Green, upon becoming managing director, Network South East, published his plans in 1987 expanding the concept to take in the Tattenham Corner and Caterham branches and provide a service from Croydon to Lewisham via Addiscombe and Hayes.", "Following on from the opening of the DLR a small group working under Tony Ridley, then managing director, London Transport, investigated the potential for further light rail in London.", "The report 'Light Rail for London', written by engineer David Catling and Transport Planner Jon Willis, looked at a number of possible schemes including conversion of the East London Line.", "However a light rail network focussed on Croydon, with the conversion of existing heavy rail routes, was the most promising.", "The London Borough of Croydon wanted to improve access to the town centre without further road building and also improve access to the LCC built New Addington estate.", "The project was developed by a small team in LT, headed by Scott McIntosh and in Croydon by Jill Lucas.The scheme was accepted in principle in February 1990 by Croydon Council who worked with what was then London Regional Transport (LRT) to propose Tramlink to Parliament.", "The Croydon Tramlink Act 1994 resulted, which gave LRT the power to build and run Tramlink.Part of its track is the original route of the Surrey Iron Railway that opened in 1803.===Construction===In 1995 four consortia were shortlisted to build, operate and maintain Tramlink:* Altram: John Laing, Ansaldo, Serco* Croydon Connect: Tarmac, AEG, Transdev* CT Light Rail Group: GEC Alsthom, Mowlem, Welsh Water* Tramtrack Croydon: CentreWest, Royal Bank of Scotland, Sir Robert McAlpine, Amey, Bombardier TransportationIn 1996 Tramtrack Croydon (TC) won a 99-year Private Finance Initiative (PFI) contract to design, build, operate and maintain Tramlink.", "The equity partners in TC were Amey (50%), Royal Bank of Scotland (20%), 3i (20%) and Sir Robert McAlpine with Bombardier Transportation contracted to build and maintain the trams and FirstGroup operate the service.", "TC retained the revenue generated by Tramlink and LRT had to pay compensation to TC for any changes to the fares and ticketing policy introduced later.Construction work started in January 1997, with an expected opening in November 1999.The first tram was delivered in October 1998 to the new Depot at Therapia Lane and testing on the sections of the Wimbledon line began shortly afterwards.===Opening===The official opening of Tramlink took place on 10 May 2000 when route 3 from Croydon to New Addington opened to the public.", "Route 2 from Croydon to Beckenham Junction followed on 23 May 2000, and route 1 from Elmers End to Wimbledon opened a week later on 30 May 2000.===Buyout by Transport for London===In March 2008, TfL announced that it had reached agreement to buy TC for £98 million.", "The purchase was finalised on 28 June 2008.The background to this purchase relates to the requirement that TfL (who took over from London Regional Transport in 2000) compensates TC for the consequences of any changes to the fares and ticketing policy introduced since 1996.In 2007 that payment was £4m, with an annual increase in rate.", "FirstGroup continues to operate the service.In October 2008 TfL introduced a new livery, using the blue, white and green of the routes on TfL maps, to distinguish the trams from buses operating in the area.", "The colour of the cars was changed to green, and the brand name was changed from Croydon Tramlink to simply Tramlink.", "These refurbishments were completed in early 2009.===Additional stop and trams===Centrale tram stop, in Tamworth Road on the one-way central loop, opened on 10 December 2005, increasing journey times slightly.", "As turnround times were already quite tight, this raised the issue of buying an extra tram to maintain punctuality.", "Partly for this reason but also to take into account the planned restructuring of services (subsequently introduced in July 2006), TfL issued tenders for a new tram.", "However, nothing resulted from this.In January 2011, Tramtrack Croydon opened a tender for the supply of 10 new or second-hand trams from the end of summer 2011, for use between Therapia Lane and Elmers End.", "On 18 August 2011, TfL announced that Stadler Rail had won a $19.75 million contract to supply six Variobahn trams similar to those used by Bybanen in Bergen, Norway.", "They entered service in 2012.In August 2013, TfL ordered an additional four Variobahns for delivery in 2015, for use on the Wimbledon to Croydon link, an order later increased to six.", "This brought the total Variobahn fleet up to ten in 2015, and twelve in 2016 when the final two trams were delivered." ], [ "Current network", "===Stops===Elmers End service in 2007There are 39 stops, with 38 opened in the initial phase, and Centrale tram stop added on 10 December 2005.Most stops are long.", "They are virtually level with the doors and are all wider than .", "This allows wheelchairs, prams, pushchairs and the elderly to board the tram easily with no steps.", "In street sections, the stop is integrated with the pavement.The tram stops have low platforms, above rail level.", "They are unstaffed and had automated ticket machines that are no longer in use due to TfL making trams cashless.", "In general, access between the platforms involves crossing the tracks by pedestrian level crossing.Tramlink uses some former main-line stations on the Wimbledon–West Croydon and Elmers End–Coombe Lane stretches of line.", "The railway platforms have been demolished and rebuilt to Tramlink specifications, except at Elmers End and Wimbledon where the track level was raised to meet the higher main-line platforms to enable cross-platform interchange.All stops have disabled access, raised paving, CCTV, a Passenger Help Point, a Passenger Information Display (PID), litter bins, a ticket machine, a noticeboard and lamp-posts, and most also have seats and a shelter.The PIDs display the destinations and expected arrival times of the next two trams.", "They can also display any message the controllers want to display, such as information on delays or even safety instructions for vandals to stop putting rubbish or other objects onto the track.===Routes===Tram 2545 in original livery at Beckenham Junction in 2001.Morden Road, heading towards Wimbledon in 2006.A tram leaving Croydon towards Wimbledon, going past Reeves Corner in 2009.East Croydon in 2013.Tramlink has been shown on the principal tube map since 1 June 2016, having previously appeared only on the \"London Connections\" map.When Tramlink first opened it had three routes: Line 1 (yellow) from Wimbledon to Elmers End, Line 2 (red) from Croydon to Beckenham Junction, and Line 3 (green) from Croydon to New Addington.", "On 23 July 2006 the network was restructured, with Route 1 from Elmers End to Croydon, Route 2 from Beckenham Junction to Croydon and Route 3 from New Addington to Wimbledon.", "On 25 June 2012 Route 4 from Therapia Lane to Elmers End was introduced.", "On Monday 4 April 2016, Route 4 was extended from Therapia Lane to Wimbledon.On 25 February 2018, the network and timetables were restructured again for more even and reliable services.", "As part of this change, trams would no longer display route numbers on their dot matrix destination screens.", "This resulted in three routes:* New Addington to West Croydon, returning to New Addington every 7–8 minutes (every 10 minutes on Sunday shopping hours and every 15 minutes at late evenings).", "* Wimbledon to Beckenham Junction every 10 minutes (every 15 minutes on Sundays and late evening)* Wimbledon to Elmers End every 10 minutes (every 15 minutes on Sundays and terminates at Croydon in late evening every 15 minutes)Additionally, the first two trams from New Addington will run to Wimbledon.", "Overall, this would result in a decrease in 2tph leaving Elmers End, resulting in a 25% decrease in capacity here, and 14% in the Addiscombe area.", "However, this would also regulate waiting times in this area and on the Wimbledon branch to every 5 minutes, from every 2–7 minutes.Wimbledon to Elmers End* ''Terminus:'' Elmers End * Arena* Woodside* Blackhorse Lane* Addiscombe* Sandilands* Lebanon Road* East Croydon Trains to Gatwick and Luton* George Street* Church Street* Wandle Park* Waddon Marsh ''(for Purley Way retail parks)''* Ampere Way ''(for Valley Park retail park)''* Therapia Lane* Beddington Lane* Mitcham Junction * Mitcham* Belgrave Walk* Phipps Bridge* Morden Road* Merton Park* Dundonald Road* Wimbledon ''Then back to Wandle Park''* Reeves Corner* Centrale* West Croydon * Wellesley Road''Then to East Croydon and back to Elmers End ''Wimbledon to Beckenham Junction* ''Terminus:'' Beckenham Junction * Beckenham Road* Avenue Road* Birkbeck * Harrington Road* Arena* Woodside* Blackhorse Lane* Addiscombe* Sandilands* Lebanon Road* East Croydon Trains to Gatwick and Luton* George Street* Church Street* Wandle Park* Waddon Marsh ''(for Purley Way retail parks)''* Ampere Way ''(for Valley Park retail park)''* Therapia Lane* Beddington Lane* Mitcham Junction * Mitcham* Belgrave Walk* Phipps Bridge* Morden Road* Merton Park* Dundonald Road* Wimbledon ''Then back to Wandle Park''* Reeves Corner* Centrale* West Croydon * Wellesley Road''Then to East Croydon and back to Beckenham Junction ''New Addington to West Croydon* ''Terminus:'' New Addington* King Henry's Drive* Fieldway* Addington Village* Gravel Hill* Coombe Lane* Lloyd Park* Sandilands* Lebanon Road* East Croydon Trains to Gatwick and Luton* George Street* Church Street* Centrale* West Croydon * Wellesley Road''Then to East Croydon and back to New Addington ''===Former lines reused===Interlaced track near MitchamTramlink makes use of a number of National Rail lines, running parallel to franchised services, or in some cases, runs on previously abandoned railway corridors.", "Between Birkbeck and Beckenham Junction, Tramlink uses the Crystal Palace line, running on a single track alongside the track carrying Southern rail services.", "The National Rail track had been singled some years earlier.From Elmers End to Woodside, Tramlink follows the former Addiscombe Line.", "At Woodside, the old station buildings stand disused, and the original platforms have been replaced by accessible low platforms.", "Tramlink then follows the former Woodside and South Croydon Railway (W&SCR) to reach the current Addiscombe tram stop, adjacent to the site of the demolished Bingham Road railway station.", "It continues along the former railway route to near Sandilands, where Tramlink curves sharply towards Sandilands tram stop.", "Another route from Sandilands tram stop curves sharply on to the W&SCR before passing through Park Hill (or Sandilands) tunnels and to the site of Coombe Road station after which it curves away across Lloyd Park.Between Wimbledon station and Wandle Park, Tramlink follows the former West Croydon to Wimbledon Line, which was first opened in 1855 and closed on 31 May 1997 to allow for conversion into Tramlink.", "Within this section, from near Phipps Bridge to near Reeves Corner, Tramlink follows the Surrey Iron Railway, giving Tramlink a claim to one of the world's oldest railway alignments.", "Beyond Wandle Park, a Victorian footbridge beside Waddon New Road was dismantled to make way for the flyover over the West Croydon to Sutton railway line.", "The footbridge has been re-erected at Corfe Castle station on the Swanage Railway (although some evidence suggests that this was a similar footbridge removed from the site of Merton Park railway station).===Feeder buses===Bus routes T31, T32 and T33 used to connect with Tramlink at the New Addington, Fieldway and Addington Village stops.", "T31 and T32 no longer run, and T33 has been renumbered as 433.===Onboard announcements===The onboard announcements are by BBC News reader (and tram enthusiast) Nicholas Owen.", "The announcement pattern is as follows: e.g.", "''This tram is for Wimbledon; the next stop will be Merton Park''." ], [ "Rolling stock", "===Current fleet===Tramlink currently uses 35 trams.", "In summary:ClassImageType Top speed Lengthmetres Capacity InserviceOrdersFleetnumbersRoutesoperatedBuiltYearsoperated mph  km/h StdSdgTotalBombardier CR400090pxTram508030.17013820823—2530-25502552-2553All lines1998–19992000–presentCroydon Variobahn90px32721342066—2554-25592011–20122012–present62560-25652014–20162015–presentTotal35—====Bombardier CR4000====A Variobahn ''(right)'' and a CR4000 at Sandilands tram stop in July 2019The original fleet comprised 24 articulated low floor Bombardier Flexity Swift CR4000 trams built in Vienna numbered beginning at 2530, continuing from the highest-numbered tram 2529 on London's former tram network, which closed in 1952.The original livery was red and white.", "One (2550) was painted in FirstGroup white, blue and pink livery.", "In 2006, the CR4000 fleet was refreshed, with the bus-style destination roller blinds being replaced with a digital dot-matrix display.", "In 2008/09 the fleet was repainted externally in the new green livery and the interiors were refurbished with new flooring, seat covers retrimmed in a new moquette and stanchions repainted from yellow to green.", "One (2551) has not returned to service after the fatal accident on 9 November 2016.In 2007, tram 2535 was named after Steven Parascandolo, a well known tram enthusiast.====Croydon Variobahn====In January 2011, Tramtrack Croydon invited tenders for the supply of then new or second-hand trams, and on 18 August 2011, TfL announced that Stadler Rail had won a $19.75million contract to supply six Variobahn trams similar to those used by Bybanen in Bergen, Norway.", "They entered service in 2012.In August 2013, TfL ordered an additional four Variobahn trams for delivery in 2015, an order which was later increased to six.", "This brought the total Variobahn fleet up to ten in 2015, and 12 in 2016 when the final two trams were delivered.===Ancillary vehicles===Engineers' vehicles used in Tramlink construction were hired for that purpose.In November 2006 Tramlink purchased five second-hand engineering vehicles from Deutsche Bahn.", "These were two engineers' trams (numbered 058 and 059 in Tramlink service), and three 4-wheel wagons (numbered 060, 061, and 062).", "Service tram 058 and trailer 061 were both sold to the National Tramway Museum in 2010.===Future fleet===On January 3rd, 2024, Tramtrack Croydon invited tenders for a base order of 24 new trams with an option for 16 more and a 30-year technical support contract, costed at £385 million.", "The application window will close on February 27th, 2024 and invitations to tender are expected to be announced on June 27, 2024.The new fleet is intended to replace the CR4000s, which are reaching the end of their design life." ], [ "Fares and ticketing", "A Tramlink Ticket MachineTfL Bus & Tram Passes are valid on Tramlink, as are Travelcards that include any of zones 3, 4, 5 and 6.Pay-as-you-go Oyster Card fares are the same as on London Buses, although special fares may apply when using Tramlink feeder buses.When using Oyster cards, passengers must touch in on the platform before boarding the tram.", "Special arrangements apply at Wimbledon station, where the Tramlink stop is within the National Rail and London Underground station.", "Tramlink passengers must therefore touch in at the station entry barriers then again at the Tramlink platform to inform the system that no mainline/LUL rail journey has been made.EMV contactless payment cards can also be used to pay for fares in the same manner as Oyster cards.Ticket machines were withdrawn on 16 July 2018." ], [ "Corporate affairs", "===Ownership and structure===The service was created as a result of the Croydon Tramlink Act 1994 that received Royal Assent on 21 July 1994, a Private Bill jointly promoted by London Regional Transport (the predecessor of Transport for London (TfL)) and Croydon London Borough Council.", "Following a competitive tender, a consortium company Tramtrack Croydon Limited (incorporated in 1995) was awarded a 99-year concession to build and run the system.", "Since 28 June 2008, the company has been a subsidiary of TfL.Tramlink is currently operated by Tram Operations Ltd (TOL), a subsidiary of FirstGroup, who have a contract to operate the service until 2030.TOL provides the drivers and management to operate the service; the infrastructure and trams are owned and maintained by a TfL subsidiary.===Business trends===A Tramlink tram on George Street, Croydon in 2013The key available trends in recent years for Tramlink are (years ending 31 March): 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Passenger revenue (£M)23.524.422.825.524.123.522.711.5 'Profit' (\"Financial assistance given\") (£M) Number of passengers (M) 31.2 30.7 27.0 29.5 29.1 28.7 27.2 11.6 Customer satisfaction (score) 89 89 90 87 91 90 TBC TBC Number of trams (at year end) 30 30 34 36 35 35 35 35 ''Notes/sources'' Activities in the financial year 2020/21 were severely reduced by the impact of the coronavirus pandemic.===Passenger numbers===Detailed passenger journeys since Tramlink commenced operations in May 2000 were:+ Estimated passenger journeys made on Tramlink per financial year Year Passengerjourneys Year Passengerjourneys Year PassengerjourneysYearPassengerjourneys 200001 15.0M 200708 27.2M 201415 30.7M2021-2219.1M 200102 18.2M 20080927.2M 201516 27.0M2022-2320.9M 200203 18.7M 200910 25.8M 201617 29.5M2023-24TBC 200304 19.8M 201011 27.9M 201718 29.1M 200405 22.0M 201112 28.6M 201819 28.7M 200506 22.5M 201213 30.1M 201920 27.2M 200607 24.6M 201314 31.2M 20202111.6MEstimates from the Department for Transport" ], [ "Previous Proposals for Extensions", "Numerous extensions to the network have been discussed or proposed over the years, involving varying degrees of support and investigative effort.In 2002, as part of The Mayor's Transport Strategy for London, a number of proposed extensions were identified, including to Sutton from Wimbledon or Mitcham; to Crystal Palace; to Colliers Wood/Tooting; and along the A23.The Strategy said that \"extensions to the network could, in principle, be developed at relatively modest cost where there is potential demand...\" and sought initial views on the viability of a number of extensions by summer 2002.In 2006, in a TfL consultation on an extension to Crystal Palace, three options were presented: on-street, off-street and a mixture of the two.", "After the consultation, the off-street option was favoured, to include Crystal Palace Station and Crystal Palace Parade.", "TfL stated in 2008 that due to lack of funding the plans for this extension would not be taken forward.", "They were revived shortly after Boris Johnson's re-election as Mayor in May 2012, but six months later they were cancelled again.In November 2014, a 15-year plan, Trams 2030, called for upgrades to increase capacity on the network in line with an expected increase in ridership to 60 million passengers by 2031 (although the passenger numbers at the time (2013/14: 31.2 million) have not been exceeded since (as at 2019)).The upgrades were to improve reliability, support regeneration in the Croydon metropolitan centre, and future-proof the network for Crossrail 2, a potential Bakerloo line extension, and extensions to the tram network itself to a wide variety of destinations.", "The plans involve dual-tracking across the network and introducing diverting loops on either side of Croydon, allowing for a higher frequency of trams on all four branches without increasing congestion in central Croydon.", "The £737m investment was to be funded by the Croydon Growth Zone, TfL Business Plan, housing levies, and the respective boroughs, and by the affected developers.All the various developments, if implemented, could theoretically require an increase in the fleet from 30 to up to 80 trams (depending on whether longer trams or coupled trams are used).", "As such, an increase in depot and stabling capacity would also be required; enlargement of the current Therapia Lane site, as well as sites near the Elmers End and Harrington Road tram stops, were shortlisted.===Sutton Link===In July 2013, then Mayor Boris Johnson had affirmed that there was a reasonable business case for Tramlink to cover the Wimbledon – Sutton corridor, which might also include a loop via St Helier Hospital and an extension to The Royal Marsden Hospital.", "In 2014, a proposed £320m scheme for a new line to connect Wimbledon to Sutton via Morden was made and brought to consultation jointly by the London Boroughs of Merton and Sutton.", "Although £100m from TfL was initially secured in the draft 2016/17 budget, this was subsequently reallocated.In 2018, TfL opened a consultation on proposals for a connection to Sutton, with three route options: from South Wimbledon, from Colliers Wood (both having an option of a bus rapid transit route or a tram line) or from Wimbledon (only as a tram line).", "In February 2020, following the consultation, TfL announced their preference for a north–south tramway between Colliers Wood and Sutton town centre, with a projected cost of £425m, on the condition of securing additional funding.", "Work on the project stopped in July 2020, as Transport for London could not find sufficient funding for it to continue.On Friday, 24 July 2020 the project was temporarily put on hold due to the Covid-19 Pandemic.", "TFL said they were pausing development work on the scheme \"as the transport case is poor and there remains a significant funding gap\".", "Andy Byford, London’s Transport Commissioner, said that this involves making 'difficult choices' about which projects can be funded.In 2023, Sutton’s council leader Ruth Dombey advocated for the project and urged TfL and the mayor’s office to provide fair and adequate funding, especially in light of the ULEZ charge.", "However, London Mayor Sadiq Khan dismissed the project as inadequate and pointed out the £440 million funding shortfall.", "London Mayor Sadiq Khan faced criticism from Sutton MP Paul Scully on 21 April 2023, for the delayed Sutton tram extension project and implementing the Ultra Low Emission Zone charge without sufficient public transport alternatives, while defending the delay citing a £440 million funding gap.", "In December 2023 TFL said that further progress will depend on funding agreements with other stakeholders such as local councils, the Department for Transport, as well as Government.", "They continue to state that the Sutton Link is currently the only extension being considered." ], [ "Accidents and incidents", "Sandilands, November 2016.", "* On 7 September 2008, a bus on route 468 travelled through a red traffic signal and collided with tram 2534 in George Street, Croydon, causing a fatality.", "The driver of the bus was convicted of causing death by dangerous driving a year later in December 2009 and was sentenced to four years in prison.", "* On 13 September 2008, tram 2530 collided with a cyclist at Morden Hall Park footpath crossing between the Morden Road and Phipps Bridge tram stops.", "The cyclist sustained serious injuries and later died.", "The immediate cause of the accident was found to be that the cyclist rode onto the crossing without looking at the approaching tram; among the causal factors were that the cyclist may have been wearing headphones, which prevented him hearing the audible warnings.", "* On 5 April 2011, a woman tripped over and was dragged under a moving tram.", "She was taken to hospital in a serious condition.", "She is believed to have been running to catch the tram outside East Croydon station when she tripped and fell.", "* On 17 February 2012, a tram derailed after passing over facing points as it approached the platform at East Croydon station.", "* On 7 February 2016, 5 people were injured when a car collided with tram 2535, which was going round a bend near Wellesley Road.", "It resulted in the tram being derailed.", "* On 9 November 2016, tram 2551 derailed on a sharp curved junction east from the Sandilands tram stop, killing 7 people and injuring at least 50 more.", "The British Transport Police arrested the driver on suspicion of manslaughter.", "Driver error was found to be the cause of the accident, with suspicions that the driver had a microsleep episode approaching the bend.", "Later, the driver was found not guilty and the blame was put on a faulty tram." ], [ "See also", "* East London Transit (proposed for tram conversion)* List of modern tramway and light rail systems in the United Kingdom* List of town tramway systems in the United Kingdom" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Catenary" ], [ "Introduction", "A chain hanging from points forms a catenary.Freely-hanging overhead power lines also form a catenary (most prominently visible with high-voltage lines, and with some imperfection near to the insulators).The silk on a spider's web forming multiple elastic catenaries.In physics and geometry, a '''catenary''' ( , ) is the curve that an idealized hanging chain or cable assumes under its own weight when supported only at its ends in a uniform gravitational field.The catenary curve has a U-like shape, superficially similar in appearance to a parabola, which it is not.The curve appears in the design of certain types of arches and as a cross section of the catenoid—the shape assumed by a soap film bounded by two parallel circular rings.The catenary is also called the '''alysoid''', '''chainette''', or, particularly in the materials sciences, an example of a funicular.", "'''Rope statics''' describes catenaries in a classic statics problem involving a hanging rope.Mathematically, the catenary curve is the graph of the hyperbolic cosine function.", "The surface of revolution of the catenary curve, the catenoid, is a minimal surface, specifically a minimal surface of revolution.", "A hanging chain will assume a shape of least potential energy which is a catenary.", "Galileo Galilei in 1638 discussed the catenary in the book ''Two New Sciences'' recognizing that it was different from a parabola.", "The mathematical properties of the catenary curve were studied by Robert Hooke in the 1670s, and its equation was derived by Leibniz, Huygens and Johann Bernoulli in 1691.Catenaries and related curves are used in architecture and engineering (e.g., in the design of bridges and arches so that forces do not result in bending moments).", "In the offshore oil and gas industry, \"catenary\" refers to a steel catenary riser, a pipeline suspended between a production platform and the seabed that adopts an approximate catenary shape.", "In the rail industry it refers to the overhead wiring that transfers power to trains.", "(This often supports a contact wire, in which case it does not follow a true catenary curve.", ")In optics and electromagnetics, the hyperbolic cosine and sine functions are basic solutions to Maxwell's equations.", "The symmetric modes consisting of two evanescent waves would form a catenary shape." ], [ "History", "Antoni Gaudí's catenary model at Casa MilàThe word \"catenary\" is derived from the Latin word ''catēna'', which means \"chain\".", "The English word \"catenary\" is usually attributed to Thomas Jefferson,who wrote in a letter to Thomas Paine on the construction of an arch for a bridge:It is often said that Galileo thought the curve of a hanging chain was parabolic.", "However, in his ''Two New Sciences'' (1638), Galileo wrote that a hanging cord is only an approximate parabola, correctly observing that this approximation improves in accuracy as the curvature gets smaller and is almost exact when the elevation is less than 45°.", "The fact that the curve followed by a chain is not a parabola was proven by Joachim Jungius (1587–1657); this result was published posthumously in 1669.The application of the catenary to the construction of arches is attributed to Robert Hooke, whose \"true mathematical and mechanical form\" in the context of the rebuilding of St Paul's Cathedral alluded to a catenary.", "Some much older arches approximate catenaries, an example of which is the Arch of Taq-i Kisra in Ctesiphon.Analogy between an arch and a hanging chain and comparison to the dome of Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome (Giovanni Poleni, 1748)In 1671, Hooke announced to the Royal Society that he had solved the problem of the optimal shape of an arch, and in 1675 published an encrypted solution as a Latin anagram in an appendix to his ''Description of Helioscopes,'' where he wrote that he had found \"a true mathematical and mechanical form of all manner of Arches for Building.\"", "He did not publish the solution to this anagram in his lifetime, but in 1705 his executor provided it as ''ut pendet continuum flexile, sic stabit contiguum rigidum inversum'', meaning \"As hangs a flexible cable so, inverted, stand the touching pieces of an arch.", "\"In 1691, Gottfried Leibniz, Christiaan Huygens, and Johann Bernoulli derived the equation in response to a challenge by Jakob Bernoulli; their solutions were published in the ''Acta Eruditorum'' for June 1691.David Gregory wrote a treatise on the catenary in 1697 in which he provided an incorrect derivation of the correct differential equation.Euler proved in 1744 that the catenary is the curve which, when rotated about the -axis, gives the surface of minimum surface area (the catenoid) for the given bounding circles.", "Nicolas Fuss gave equations describing the equilibrium of a chain under any force in 1796.==Inverted catenary arch==Catenary arches are often used in the construction of kilns.", "To create the desired curve, the shape of a hanging chain of the desired dimensions is transferred to a form which is then used as a guide for the placement of bricks or other building material.The Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, United States is sometimes said to be an (inverted) catenary, but this is incorrect.", "It is close to a more general curve called a flattened catenary, with equation , which is a catenary if .", "While a catenary is the ideal shape for a freestanding arch of constant thickness, the Gateway Arch is narrower near the top.", "According to the U.S. National Historic Landmark nomination for the arch, it is a \"weighted catenary\" instead.", "Its shape corresponds to the shape that a weighted chain, having lighter links in the middle, would form.", "File:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|Catenary arches under the roof of Gaudí's ''Casa Milà'', Barcelona, Spain.File:Sheffield Winter Garden.jpg|The Sheffield Winter Garden is enclosed by a series of catenary arches.File:Gateway Arch.jpg|The Gateway Arch (St. Louis, Missouri) is a flattened catenary.File:CatenaryKilnConstruction06025.JPG|Catenary arch kiln under construction over temporary form" ], [ "Catenary bridges", "Simple suspension bridges are essentially thickened cables, and follow a catenary curve.Stressed ribbon bridges, like the Leonel Viera Bridge in Maldonado, Uruguay, also follow a catenary curve, with cables embedded in a rigid deck.In free-hanging chains, the force exerted is uniform with respect to length of the chain, and so the chain follows the catenary curve.", "The same is true of a simple suspension bridge or \"catenary bridge,\" where the roadway follows the cable.A stressed ribbon bridge is a more sophisticated structure with the same catenary shape.However, in a suspension bridge with a suspended roadway, the chains or cables support the weight of the bridge, and so do not hang freely.", "In most cases the roadway is flat, so when the weight of the cable is negligible compared with the weight being supported, the force exerted is uniform with respect to horizontal distance, and the result is a parabola, as discussed below (although the term \"catenary\" is often still used, in an informal sense).", "If the cable is heavy then the resulting curve is between a catenary and a parabola.Comparison of a catenary arch (black dotted curve) and a parabolic arch (red solid curve) with the same span and sag.", "The catenary represents the profile of a simple suspension bridge, or the cable of a suspended-deck suspension bridge on which its deck and hangers have negligible mass compared to its cable.", "The parabola represents the profile of the cable of a suspended-deck suspension bridge on which its cable and hangers have negligible mass compared to its deck.", "The profile of the cable of a real suspension bridge with the same span and sag lies between the two curves.", "The catenary and parabola equations are respectively, and" ], [ "Anchoring of marine objects", "A heavy anchor chain forms a catenary, with a low angle of pull on the anchor.The catenary produced by gravity provides an advantage to heavy anchor rodes.", "An anchor rode (or anchor line) usually consists of chain or cable or both.", "Anchor rodes are used by ships, oil rigs, docks, floating wind turbines, and other marine equipment which must be anchored to the seabed.When the rope is slack, the catenary curve presents a lower angle of pull on the anchor or mooring device than would be the case if it were nearly straight.", "This enhances the performance of the anchor and raises the level of force it will resist before dragging.", "To maintain the catenary shape in the presence of wind, a heavy chain is needed, so that only larger ships in deeper water can rely on this effect.", "Smaller boats also rely on catenary to maintain maximum holding power.Cable ferries and chain boats present a special case of marine vehicles moving although moored by the two catenaries each of one or more cables (wire ropes or chains) passing through the vehicle and moved along by motorized sheaves.", "The catenaries can be evaluated graphically." ], [ "Mathematical description", "===Equation===Catenaries for different values of The equation of a catenary in Cartesian coordinates has the formwhere is the hyperbolic cosine function, and where is the distance of the lowest point above the x axis.", "All catenary curves are similar to each other, since changing the parameter is equivalent to a uniform scaling of the curve.The Whewell equation for the catenary iswhere is the tangential angle and the arc length.Differentiating givesand eliminating gives the Cesàro equationwhere is the curvature.The radius of curvature is thenwhich is the length of the normal between the curve and the -axis.===Relation to other curves===When a parabola is rolled along a straight line, the roulette curve traced by its focus is a catenary.", "The envelope of the directrix of the parabola is also a catenary.", "The involute from the vertex, that is the roulette traced by a point starting at the vertex when a line is rolled on a catenary, is the tractrix.Another roulette, formed by rolling a line on a catenary, is another line.", "This implies that square wheels can roll perfectly smoothly on a road made of a series of bumps in the shape of an inverted catenary curve.", "The wheels can be any regular polygon except a triangle, but the catenary must have parameters corresponding to the shape and dimensions of the wheels.===Geometrical properties===Over any horizontal interval, the ratio of the area under the catenary to its length equals , independent of the interval selected.", "The catenary is the only plane curve other than a horizontal line with this property.", "Also, the geometric centroid of the area under a stretch of catenary is the midpoint of the perpendicular segment connecting the centroid of the curve itself and the -axis.===Science===A moving charge in a uniform electric field travels along a catenary (which tends to a parabola if the charge velocity is much less than the speed of light ).The surface of revolution with fixed radii at either end that has minimum surface area is a catenary revolved about the -axis." ], [ "Analysis", "===Model of chains and arches===In the mathematical model the chain (or cord, cable, rope, string, etc.)", "is idealized by assuming that it is so thin that it can be regarded as a curve and that it is so flexible any force of tension exerted by the chain is parallel to the chain.", "The analysis of the curve for an optimal arch is similar except that the forces of tension become forces of compression and everything is inverted.An underlying principle is that the chain may be considered a rigid body once it has attained equilibrium.", "Equations which define the shape of the curve and the tension of the chain at each point may be derived by a careful inspection of the various forces acting on a segment using the fact that these forces must be in balance if the chain is in static equilibrium.Let the path followed by the chain be given parametrically by where represents arc length and is the position vector.", "This is the natural parameterization and has the property thatwhere is a unit tangent vector.Diagram of forces acting on a segment of a catenary from to .", "The forces are the tension at , the tension at , and the weight of the chain .", "Since the chain is at rest the sum of these forces must be zero.A differential equation for the curve may be derived as follows.", "Let be the lowest point on the chain, called the vertex of the catenary.", "The slope of the curve is zero at since it is a minimum point.", "Assume is to the right of since the other case is implied by symmetry.", "The forces acting on the section of the chain from to are the tension of the chain at , the tension of the chain at , and the weight of the chain.", "The tension at is tangent to the curve at and is therefore horizontal without any vertical component and it pulls the section to the left so it may be written where is the magnitude of the force.", "The tension at is parallel to the curve at and pulls the section to the right.", "The tension at can be split into two components so it may be written , where is the magnitude of the force and is the angle between the curve at and the -axis (see tangential angle).", "Finally, the weight of the chain is represented by where is the mass per unit length, is the gravitational field strength and is the length of the segment of chain between and .The chain is in equilibrium so the sum of three forces is , thereforeandand dividing these givesIt is convenient to writewhich is the length of chain whose weight is equal in magnitude to the tension at .", "Thenis an equation defining the curve.The horizontal component of the tension, is constant and the vertical component of the tension, is proportional to the length of chain between and the vertex.After deriving the equations of the curve (in the next section) , one can plug the equation back to obtain the simple equation .===Derivation of equations for the curve===The differential equation given above can be solved to produce equations for the curve.Fromthe formula for arc length givesThenandThe second of these equations can be integrated to giveand by shifting the position of the -axis, can be taken to be 0.ThenThe -axis thus chosen is called the ''directrix'' of the catenary.It follows that the magnitude of the tension at a point is , which is proportional to the distance between the point and the directrix.This tension may also be expressed as .The integral of the expression for can be found using standard techniques, givingand, again, by shifting the position of the -axis, can be taken to be 0.ThenThe -axis thus chosen passes through the vertex and is called the axis of the catenary.These results can be used to eliminate giving===Alternative derivation===The differential equation can be solved using a different approach.", "Fromit follows thatandIntegrating gives,andAs before, the and -axes can be shifted so and can be taken to be 0.Thenand taking the reciprocal of both sidesAdding and subtracting the last two equations then gives the solutionand===Determining parameters===Three catenaries through the same two points, depending on the horizontal force .In general the parameter is the position of the axis.", "The equation can be determined in this case as follows:Relabel if necessary so that is to the left of and let be the horizontal and be the vertical distance from to .", "Translate the axes so that the vertex of the catenary lies on the -axis and its height is adjusted so the catenary satisfies the standard equation of the curve and let the coordinates of and be and respectively.", "The curve passes through these points, so the difference of height isand the length of the curve from to isWhen is expanded using these expressions the result issoThis is a transcendental equation in and must be solved numerically.", "Since is strictly monotonic on , there is at most one solution with and so there is at most one position of equilibrium.However, if both ends of the curve ( and ) are at the same level (), it can be shown thatwhere L is the total length of the curve between and and is the sag (vertical distance between , and the vertex of the curve).It can also be shown thatandwhere H is the horizontal distance between and which are located at the same level ().The horizontal traction force at and is , where is the mass per unit length of the chain or cable." ], [ "Variational formulation", "Consider a chain of length suspended from two points of equal height and at distance .", "The curve has to minimize its potential energyand is subject to the constraint The modified Lagrangian is therefore where is the Lagrange multiplier to be determined.", "As the independent variable does not appear in the Lagrangian, we can use the Beltrami identity where is an integration constant, in order to obtain a first integralThis is an ordinary first order differential equation that can be solved by the method of separation of variables.", "Its solution is the usual hyperbolic cosine where the parameters are obtained from the constraints." ], [ "Generalizations with vertical force", "===Nonuniform chains===If the density of the chain is variable then the analysis above can be adapted to produce equations for the curve given the density, or given the curve to find the density.Let denote the weight per unit length of the chain, then the weight of the chain has magnitudewhere the limits of integration are and .", "Balancing forces as in the uniform chain producesandand thereforeDifferentiation then givesIn terms of and the radius of curvature this becomes===Suspension bridge curve===Golden Gate Bridge.", "Most suspension bridge cables follow a parabolic, not a catenary curve, because the roadway is much heavier than the cable.A similar analysis can be done to find the curve followed by the cable supporting a suspension bridge with a horizontal roadway.", "If the weight of the roadway per unit length is and the weight of the cable and the wire supporting the bridge is negligible in comparison, then the weight on the cable (see the figure in Catenary#Model of chains and arches) from to is where is the horizontal distance between and .", "Proceeding as before gives the differential equationThis is solved by simple integration to getand so the cable follows a parabola.", "If the weight of the cable and supporting wires is not negligible then the analysis is more complex.===Catenary of equal strength===In a catenary of equal strength, the cable is strengthened according to the magnitude of the tension at each point, so its resistance to breaking is constant along its length.", "Assuming that the strength of the cable is proportional to its density per unit length, the weight, , per unit length of the chain can be written , where is constant, and the analysis for nonuniform chains can be applied.In this case the equations for tension areCombining givesand by differentiationwhere is the radius of curvature.The solution to this isIn this case, the curve has vertical asymptotes and this limits the span to .", "Other relations areThe curve was studied 1826 by Davies Gilbert and, apparently independently, by Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis in 1836.Recently, it was shown that this type of catenary could act as a building block of electromagnetic metasurface and was known as \"catenary of equal phase gradient\".===Elastic catenary===In an elastic catenary, the chain is replaced by a spring which can stretch in response to tension.", "The spring is assumed to stretch in accordance with Hooke's Law.", "Specifically, if is the natural length of a section of spring, then the length of the spring with tension applied has lengthwhere is a constant equal to , where is the stiffness of the spring.", "In the catenary the value of is variable, but ratio remains valid at a local level, soThe curve followed by an elastic spring can now be derived following a similar method as for the inelastic spring.The equations for tension of the spring areandfrom whichwhere is the natural length of the segment from to and is the mass per unit length of the spring with no tension and is the gravitational field strength.", "WritesoThen from whichIntegrating gives the parametric equationsAgain, the and -axes can be shifted so and can be taken to be 0.Soare parametric equations for the curve.", "At the rigid limit where is large, the shape of the curve reduces to that of a non-elastic chain." ], [ "Other generalizations", "===Chain under a general force===With no assumptions being made regarding the force acting on the chain, the following analysis can be made.First, let be the force of tension as a function of .", "The chain is flexible so it can only exert a force parallel to itself.", "Since tension is defined as the force that the chain exerts on itself, must be parallel to the chain.", "In other words,where is the magnitude of and is the unit tangent vector.Second, let be the external force per unit length acting on a small segment of a chain as a function of .", "The forces acting on the segment of the chain between and are the force of tension at one end of the segment, the nearly opposite force at the other end, and the external force acting on the segment which is approximately .", "These forces must balance soDivide by and take the limit as to obtainThese equations can be used as the starting point in the analysis of a flexible chain acting under any external force.", "In the case of the standard catenary, where the chain has mass per unit length and is the gravitational field strength." ], [ "See also", "* Catenary arch* Chain fountain or self-siphoning beads* Overhead catenary – power lines suspended over rail or tram vehicles* Roulette (curve) – an elliptic/hyperbolic catenary* Troposkein – the shape of a spun rope* Weighted catenary" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Catenary curve calculator* Catenary at The Geometry Center* \"Catenary\" at Visual Dictionary of Special Plane Curves* The Catenary - Chains, Arches, and Soap Films.", "* Cable Sag Error Calculator – Calculates the deviation from a straight line of a catenary curve and provides derivation of the calculator and references.", "* Dynamic as well as static cetenary curve equations derived – The equations governing the shape (static case) as well as dynamics (dynamic case) of a centenary is derived.", "Solution to the equations discussed.", "* The straight line, the catenary, the brachistochrone, the circle, and Fermat Unified approach to some geodesics.", "* Ira Freeman \"A General Form of the Suspension Bridge Catenary\" ''Bulletin of the AMS''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Color temperature" ], [ "Introduction", "The CIE 1931 ''x,y'' chromaticity space, also showing the chromaticities of black-body light sources of various temperatures (Planckian locus), and lines of constant correlated color temperature.", "'''Color temperature''' is a parameter describing the color of a visible light source by comparing it to the color of light emitted by an idealized opaque, non-reflective body.", "The temperature of the ideal emitter that matches the color most closely is defined as the color temperature of the original visible light source.", "Color temperature is usually measured in kelvins.", "The color temperature scale describes only the color of light emitted by a light source, which may actually be at a different (and often much lower) temperature.Color temperature has applications in lighting, photography, videography, publishing, manufacturing, astrophysics and other fields.", "In practice, color temperature is most meaningful for light sources that correspond somewhat closely to the color of some black body, i.e., light in a range going from red to orange to yellow to white to bluish white.", "Although the concept of correlated color temperature extends the definition to any visible light, the color temperature of a green or a purple light rarely is useful information.", "Color temperature is conventionally expressed in kelvins, using the symbol K, a unit for absolute temperature.Color temperatures over 5000 K are called \"cool colors\" (bluish), while lower color temperatures (2700–3000 K) are called \"warm colors\" (yellowish).", "\"Warm\" in this context is with respect to a traditional categorization of colors, not a reference to black body temperature.", "The hue-heat hypothesis states that low color temperatures will feel warmer while higher color temperatures will feel cooler.", "The spectral peak of warm-colored light is closer to infrared, and most natural warm-colored light sources emit significant infrared radiation.", "The fact that \"warm\" lighting in this sense actually has a \"cooler\" color temperature often leads to confusion." ], [ "Categorizing different lighting", "The black-body radiance (B) vs. wavelength (λ) curves for the visible spectrum.", "The vertical axes of Planck's law plots building this animation were proportionally transformed to keep equal areas between functions and horizontal axis for wavelengths 380–780 nm.", "K indicates the color temperature in kelvins, and M indicates the color temperature in micro reciprocal degrees.|rightThe color temperature of the electromagnetic radiation emitted from an ideal black body is defined as its surface temperature in kelvins, or alternatively in micro reciprocal degrees (mired).", "This permits the definition of a standard by which light sources are compared.To the extent that a hot surface emits thermal radiation but is not an ideal black-body radiator, the color temperature of the light is not the actual temperature of the surface.", "An incandescent lamp's light is thermal radiation, and the bulb approximates an ideal black-body radiator, so its color temperature is essentially the temperature of the filament.", "Thus a relatively low temperature emits a dull red and a high temperature emits the almost white of the traditional incandescent light bulb.", "Metal workers are able to judge the temperature of hot metals by their color, from dark red to orange-white and then white (see red heat).Many other light sources, such as fluorescent lamps, or light emitting diodes (LEDs) emit light primarily by processes other than thermal radiation.", "This means that the emitted radiation does not follow the form of a black-body spectrum.", "These sources are assigned what is known as a correlated color temperature (CCT).", "CCT is the color temperature of a black-body radiator which to human color perception most closely matches the light from the lamp.", "Because such an approximation is not required for incandescent light, the CCT for an incandescent light is simply its unadjusted temperature, derived from comparison to a black-body radiator.===The Sun===The Sun closely approximates a black-body radiator.", "The effective temperature, defined by the total radiative power per square unit, is 5772 K. The color temperature of sunlight above the atmosphere is about 5900 K.The Sun may appear red, orange, yellow, or white from Earth, depending on its position in the sky.", "The changing color of the Sun over the course of the day is mainly a result of the scattering of sunlight and is not due to changes in black-body radiation.", "Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by Earth's atmosphere causes the blue color of the sky, which tends to scatter blue light more than red light.Some daylight in the early morning and late afternoon (the golden hours) has a lower (\"warmer\") color temperature due to increased scattering of shorter-wavelength sunlight by atmospheric particulates – an optical phenomenon called the Tyndall effect.Daylight has a spectrum similar to that of a black body with a correlated color temperature of 6500 K (D65 viewing standard) or 5500 K (daylight-balanced photographic film standard).Approximation of the hues of the Planckian locus as a function of the kelvin temperature, rendered with a white point near 6500 K, not accounting for chromatic adaptationFor colors based on black-body theory, blue occurs at higher temperatures, whereas red occurs at lower temperatures.", "This is the opposite of the cultural associations attributed to colors, in which \"red\" is \"hot\", and \"blue\" is \"cold\"." ], [ "Applications", "===Lighting===Color temperature comparison of common electric lampsFor lighting building interiors, it is often important to take into account the color temperature of illumination.", "A warmer (i.e., a lower color temperature) light is often used in public areas to promote relaxation, while a cooler (higher color temperature) light is used to enhance concentration, for example in schools and offices.CCT dimming for LED technology is regarded as a difficult task, since binning, age and temperature drift effects of LEDs change the actual color value output.", "Here feedback loop systems are used, for example with color sensors, to actively monitor and control the color output of multiple color mixing LEDs.===Aquaculture===In fishkeeping, color temperature has different functions and foci in the various branches.", "* In freshwater aquaria, color temperature is generally of concern only for producing a more attractive display.", "Lights tend to be designed to produce an attractive spectrum, sometimes with secondary attention paid to keeping the plants in the aquaria alive.", "* In a saltwater/reef aquarium, color temperature is an essential part of tank health.", "Within about 400 to 3000 nanometers, light of shorter wavelength can penetrate deeper into water than longer wavelengths, providing essential energy sources to the algae hosted in (and sustaining) coral.", "This is equivalent to an increase of color temperature with water depth in this spectral range.", "Because coral typically live in shallow water and receive intense, direct tropical sunlight, the focus was once on simulating this situation with 6500 K lights.===Digital photography===In digital photography, the term color temperature sometimes refers to remapping of color values to simulate variations in ambient color temperature.", "Most digital cameras and raw image software provide presets simulating specific ambient values (e.g., sunny, cloudy, tungsten, etc.)", "while others allow explicit entry of white balance values in kelvins.", "These settings vary color values along the blue–yellow axis, while some software includes additional controls (sometimes labeled \"tint\") adding the magenta–green axis, and are to some extent arbitrary and a matter of artistic interpretation.===Photographic film===Photographic emulsion film does not respond to lighting color identically to the human retina or visual perception.", "An object that appears to the observer to be white may turn out to be very blue or orange in a photograph.", "The color balance may need to be corrected during printing to achieve a neutral color print.", "The extent of this correction is limited since color film normally has three layers sensitive to different colors and when used under the \"wrong\" light source, every layer may not respond proportionally, giving odd color casts in the shadows, although the mid-tones may have been correctly white-balanced under the enlarger.", "Light sources with discontinuous spectra, such as fluorescent tubes, cannot be fully corrected in printing either, since one of the layers may barely have recorded an image at all.Photographic film is made for specific light sources (most commonly daylight film and tungsten film), and, used properly, will create a neutral color print.", "Matching the sensitivity of the film to the color temperature of the light source is one way to balance color.", "If tungsten film is used indoors with incandescent lamps, the yellowish-orange light of the tungsten incandescent lamps will appear as white (3200 K) in the photograph.", "Color negative film is almost always daylight-balanced, since it is assumed that color can be adjusted in printing (with limitations, see above).", "Color transparency film, being the final artefact in the process, has to be matched to the light source or filters must be used to correct color.Filters on a camera lens, or color gels over the light source(s) may be used to correct color balance.", "When shooting with a bluish light (high color temperature) source such as on an overcast day, in the shade, in window light, or if using tungsten film with white or blue light, a yellowish-orange filter will correct this.", "For shooting with daylight film (calibrated to 5600 K) under warmer (low color temperature) light sources such as sunsets, candlelight or tungsten lighting, a bluish (e.g.", "#80A) filter may be used.", "More-subtle filters are needed to correct for the difference between, say 3200 K and 3400 K tungsten lamps or to correct for the slightly blue cast of some flash tubes, which may be 6000 K.If there is more than one light source with varied color temperatures, one way to balance the color is to use daylight film and place color-correcting gel filters over each light source.Photographers sometimes use color temperature meters.", "These are usually designed to read only two regions along the visible spectrum (red and blue); more expensive ones read three regions (red, green, and blue).", "However, they are ineffective with sources such as fluorescent or discharge lamps, whose light varies in color and may be harder to correct for.", "Because this light is often greenish, a magenta filter may correct it.", "More sophisticated colorimetry tools can be used if such meters are lacking.===Desktop publishing===In the desktop publishing industry, it is important to know a monitor's color temperature.", "Color matching software, such as Apple's ColorSync Utility for MacOS, measures a monitor's color temperature and then adjusts its settings accordingly.", "This enables on-screen color to more closely match printed color.", "Common monitor color temperatures, along with matching standard illuminants in parentheses, are as follows:*5000 K (CIE D50)*5500 K (CIE D55)*6500 K (D65)*7500 K (CIE D75)*9300 KD50 is scientific shorthand for a standard illuminant: the daylight spectrum at a correlated color temperature of 5000 K. Similar definitions exist for D55, D65 and D75.Designations such as ''D50'' are used to help classify color temperatures of light tables and viewing booths.", "When viewing a color slide at a light table, it is important that the light be balanced properly so that the colors are not shifted towards the red or blue.Digital cameras, web graphics, DVDs, etc., are normally designed for a 6500 K color temperature.", "The sRGB standard commonly used for images on the Internet stipulates a 6500 K display white point.===TV, video, and digital still cameras===The NTSC and PAL TV norms call for a compliant TV screen to display an electrically black and white signal (minimal color saturation) at a color temperature of 6500 K. On many consumer-grade televisions, there is a very noticeable deviation from this requirement.", "However, higher-end consumer-grade televisions can have their color temperatures adjusted to 6500 K by using a preprogrammed setting or a custom calibration.", "Current versions of ATSC explicitly call for the color temperature data to be included in the data stream, but old versions of ATSC allowed this data to be omitted.", "In this case, current versions of ATSC cite default colorimetry standards depending on the format.", "Both of the cited standards specify a 6500 K color temperature.Most video and digital still cameras can adjust for color temperature by zooming into a white or neutral colored object and setting the manual \"white balance\" (telling the camera that \"this object is white\"); the camera then shows true white as white and adjusts all the other colors accordingly.", "White-balancing is necessary especially when indoors under fluorescent lighting and when moving the camera from one lighting situation to another.", "Most cameras also have an automatic white balance function that attempts to determine the color of the light and correct accordingly.", "While these settings were once unreliable, they are much improved in today's digital cameras and produce an accurate white balance in a wide variety of lighting situations.===Artistic application via control of color temperature===The house above appears a light cream during midday, but seems to be bluish white here in the dim light before full sunrise.", "Note the color temperature of the sunrise in the background.Video camera operators can white-balance objects that are not white, downplaying the color of the object used for white-balancing.", "For instance, they can bring more warmth into a picture by white-balancing off something that is light blue, such as faded blue denim; in this way white-balancing can replace a filter or lighting gel when those are not available.Cinematographers do not \"white balance\" in the same way as video camera operators; they use techniques such as filters, choice of film stock, pre-flashing, and, after shooting, color grading, both by exposure at the labs and also digitally.", "Cinematographers also work closely with set designers and lighting crews to achieve the desired color effects.For artists, most pigments and papers have a cool or warm cast, as the human eye can detect even a minute amount of saturation.", "Gray mixed with yellow, orange, or red is a \"warm gray\".", "Green, blue, or purple create \"cool grays\".", "Note that this sense of temperature is the reverse of that of real temperature; bluer is described as \"cooler\" even though it corresponds to a higher-temperature black body.240px'''\"Warm\" gray''''''\"Cool\" gray'''Mixed with 6% yellow.Mixed with 6% blue.Lighting designers sometimes select filters by color temperature, commonly to match light that is theoretically white.", "Since fixtures using discharge type lamps produce a light of a considerably higher color temperature than do tungsten lamps, using the two in conjunction could potentially produce a stark contrast, so sometimes fixtures with HID lamps, commonly producing light of 6000–7000 K, are fitted with 3200 K filters to emulate tungsten light.", "Fixtures with color mixing features or with multiple colors (if including 3200 K), are also capable of producing tungsten-like light.", "Color temperature may also be a factor when selecting lamps, since each is likely to have a different color temperature." ], [ "Correlated color temperature {{anchor|Correlated}}" ], [ "Color rendering index", "The CIE color rendering index (CRI) is a method to determine how well a light source's illumination of eight sample patches compares to the illumination provided by a reference source.", "Cited together, the CRI and CCT give a numerical estimate of what reference (ideal) light source best approximates a particular artificial light, and what the difference is." ], [ "Spectral power distribution", "incandescent lamp (left) and a fluorescent lamp (right).", "The horizontal axes are wavelengths in nanometers, and the vertical axes show relative intensity in arbitrary units.Light sources and illuminants may be characterized by their spectral power distribution (SPD).", "The relative SPD curves provided by many manufacturers may have been produced using 10 nm increments or more on their spectroradiometer.", "The result is what would seem to be a smoother (\"fuller spectrum\") power distribution than the lamp actually has.", "Owing to their spiky distribution, much finer increments are advisable for taking measurements of fluorescent lights, and this requires more expensive equipment." ], [ "Color temperature in astronomy", "Characteristic spectral power distribution of an A0V star (''T''eff = 9500 K, cf.", "Vega) compared to black-body spectra.", "The 15000 K black-body spectrum (dashed line) matches the visible part of the stellar SPD much better than the black body of 9500 K. All spectra are normalized to intersect at 555 nanometers.In astronomy, the color temperature is defined by the local slope of the SPD at a given wavelength, or, in practice, a wavelength range.", "Given, for example, the color magnitudes ''B'' and ''V'' which are calibrated to be equal for an A0V star (e.g.", "Vega), the stellar color temperature is given by the temperature for which the color index of a black-body radiator fits the stellar one.", "Besides the , other color indices can be used as well.", "The color temperature (as well as the correlated color temperature defined above) may differ largely from the effective temperature given by the radiative flux of the stellar surface.", "For example, the color temperature of an A0V star is about 15000 K compared to an effective temperature of about 9500 K.For most applications in astronomy (e.g., to place a star on the HR diagram or to determine the temperature of a model flux fitting an observed spectrum) the effective temperature is the quantity of interest.", "Various color-effective temperature relations exist in the literature.", "There relations also have smaller dependencies on other stellar parameters, such as the stellar metallicity and surface gravity" ], [ "See also", "* Brightness temperature* Color balance* Effective temperature* Kruithof curve* Luminous efficacy* Color metamerism* Colored fire* Overillumination* Whiteness" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Kelvin to RGB calculator from Academo.org* Boyd, Andrew.", "Kelvin temperature in photography at The Discerning Photographer.", "* Charity, Mitchell.", "What color is a black body?", "sRGB values corresponding to blackbodies of varying temperature.", "* Lindbloom, Bruce.", "ANSI C implementation of Robertson's method to calculate the correlated color temperature of a color in XYZ.", "* Konica Minolta Sensing.", "The Language of Light." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cartoon" ], [ "Introduction", "Example of a modern cartoon.", "The text was excerpted by cartoonist Greg Williams from the Wikipedia article on alt=A cartoon shows a bearded man with a red bow tie holding numerous items.", "He holds the hat from Dr. Seuss's \"The Cat in the Hat\" and balances a fishbowl on his left index finger.A '''cartoon''' is a type of visual art that is typically drawn, frequently animated, in an unrealistic or semi-realistic style.", "The specific meaning has evolved, but the modern usage usually refers to either: an image or series of images intended for satire, caricature, or humor; or a motion picture that relies on a sequence of illustrations for its animation.", "Someone who creates cartoons in the first sense is called a ''cartoonist'', and in the second sense they are usually called an ''animator''.The concept originated in the Middle Ages, and first described a preparatory drawing for a piece of art, such as a painting, fresco, tapestry, or stained glass window.", "In the 19th century, beginning in ''Punch'' magazine in 1843, cartoon came to refer – ironically at first – to humorous artworks in magazines and newspapers.", "Then it also was used for political cartoons and comic strips.", "When the medium developed, in the early 20th century, it began to refer to animated films that resembled print cartoons." ], [ "Fine art", "''Christ's Charge to Peter'', one of the Raphael Cartoons, c. 1516, a full-size cartoon design for a tapestryA cartoon (from and —words describing strong, heavy paper or pasteboard) is a full-size drawing made on sturdy paper as a design or ''modello'' for a painting, stained glass, or tapestry.", "Cartoons were typically used in the production of frescoes, to accurately link the component parts of the composition when painted on damp plaster over a series of days (''giornate'').", "In media such as stained tapestry or stained glass, the cartoon was handed over by the artist to the skilled craftsmen who produced the final work.", "Such cartoons often have pinpricks along the outlines of the design so that a bag of soot patted or \"pounced\" over a cartoon, held against the wall, would leave black dots on the plaster (\"pouncing\").", "Cartoons by painters, such as the Raphael Cartoons in London, and examples by Leonardo da Vinci, are highly prized in their own right.", "Tapestry cartoons, usually colored, could be placed behind the loom, where the weaver would replicate the design.", "As tapestries are worked from behind, a mirror could be placed behind the loom to allow the weaver to see their work; in such cases the cartoon was placed behind the weaver." ], [ "Mass media", "John Leech, ''Substance and Shadow'' (1843), published as ''Cartoon, No.", "1'' in ''Punch'', the first use of the word cartoon to refer to a satirical drawingIn print media, a cartoon is a drawing or series of drawings, usually humorous in intent.", "This usage dates from 1843, when ''Punch'' magazine applied the term to satirical drawings in its pages, particularly sketches by John Leech.", "The first of these parodied the preparatory cartoons for grand historical frescoes in the then-new Palace of Westminster in London.", "''Davy Jones' Locker'', 1892 ''Punch'' cartoon by Sir John TennielSir John Tenniel—illustrator of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''—joined ''Punch'' in 1850, and over 50 years contributed over two thousand cartoons.Cartoons can be divided into gag cartoons, which include editorial cartoons, and comic strips.Modern single-panel gag cartoons, found in magazines, generally consist of a single drawing with a typeset caption positioned beneath, or, less often, a speech balloon.", "Newspaper syndicates have also distributed single-panel gag cartoons by Mel Calman, Bill Holman, Gary Larson, George Lichty, Fred Neher and others.", "Many consider ''New Yorker'' cartoonist Peter Arno the father of the modern gag cartoon (as did Arno himself).", "The roster of magazine gag cartoonists includes Charles Addams, Charles Barsotti, and Chon Day.Bill Hoest, Jerry Marcus, and Virgil Partch began as magazine gag cartoonists and moved to syndicated comic strips.", "Richard Thompson illustrated numerous feature articles in ''The Washington Post'' before creating his ''Cul de Sac'' comic strip.", "The sports section of newspapers usually featured cartoons, sometimes including syndicated features such as Chester \"Chet\" Brown's ''All in Sport''.", "''Editorial cartoons'' are found almost exclusively in news publications and news websites.", "Although they also employ humor, they are more serious in tone, commonly using irony or satire.", "The art usually acts as a visual metaphor to illustrate a point of view on current social or political topics.", "Editorial cartoons often include speech balloons and sometimes use multiple panels.", "Editorial cartoonists of note include Herblock, David Low, Jeff MacNelly, Mike Peters, and Gerald Scarfe.", "''Comic strips'', also known as ''cartoon strips'' in the United Kingdom, are found daily in newspapers worldwide, and are usually a short series of cartoon illustrations in sequence.", "In the United States, they are not commonly called \"cartoons\" themselves, but rather \"comics\" or \"funnies\".", "Nonetheless, the creators of comic strips—as well as comic books and graphic novels—are usually referred to as \"cartoonists\".", "Although humor is the most prevalent subject matter, adventure and drama are also represented in this medium.", "Some noteworthy cartoonists of humorous comic strips are Scott Adams, Charles Schulz, E. C. Segar, Mort Walker and Bill Watterson.===Political===Political cartoons are like illustrated editorials that serve visual commentaries on political events.", "They offer subtle criticism which are cleverly quoted with humour and satire to the extent that the criticized does not get embittered.The pictorial satire of William Hogarth is regarded as a precursor to the development of political cartoons in 18th century England.", "George Townshend produced some of the first overtly political cartoons and caricatures in the 1750s.", "The medium began to develop in the latter part of the 18th century under the direction of its great exponents, James Gillray and Thomas Rowlandson, both from London.", "Gillray explored the use of the medium for lampooning and caricature, and has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon.", "By calling the king, prime ministers and generals to account for their behaviour, many of Gillray's satires were directed against George III, depicting him as a pretentious buffoon, while the bulk of his work was dedicated to ridiculing the ambitions of revolutionary France and Napoleon.", "George Cruikshank became the leading cartoonist in the period following Gillray, from 1815 until the 1840s.", "His career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications.Nast depicts the alt=A cartoon showing a circle of men pointing their fingers at the man to their right with grimaces on their faces.By the mid 19th century, major political newspapers in many other countries featured cartoons commenting on the politics of the day.", "Thomas Nast, in New York City, showed how realistic German drawing techniques could redefine American cartooning.", "His 160 cartoons relentlessly pursued the criminal characteristic of the Tweed machine in New York City, and helped bring it down.", "Indeed, Tweed was arrested in Spain when police identified him from Nast's cartoons.", "In Britain, Sir John Tenniel was the toast of London.", "In France under the July Monarchy, Honoré Daumier took up the new genre of political and social caricature, most famously lampooning the rotund King Louis Philippe.Political cartoons can be humorous or satirical, sometimes with piercing effect.", "The target of the humor may complain, but can seldom fight back.", "Lawsuits have been very rare; the first successful lawsuit against a cartoonist in over a century in Britain came in 1921, when J. H. Thomas, the leader of the National Union of Railwaymen (NUR), initiated libel proceedings against the magazine of the British Communist Party.", "Thomas claimed defamation in the form of cartoons and words depicting the events of \"Black Friday\", when he allegedly betrayed the locked-out Miners' Federation.", "To Thomas, the framing of his image by the far left threatened to grievously degrade his character in the popular imagination.", "Soviet-inspired communism was a new element in European politics, and cartoonists unrestrained by tradition tested the boundaries of libel law.", "Thomas won the lawsuit and restored his reputation.===Scientific===Cartoons such as ''xkcd'' have also found their place in the world of science, mathematics, and technology.", "For example, the cartoon ''Wonderlab'' looked at daily life in the chemistry lab.", "In the U.S., one well-known cartoonist for these fields is Sidney Harris.", "Many of Gary Larson's cartoons have a scientific flavor.===Comic books=== Books with cartoons are usually magazine-format \"comic books\", or occasionally reprints of newspaper cartoons.In Britain in the 1930s adventure magazines became quite popular, especially those published by DC Thomson; the publisher sent observers around the country to talk to boys and learn what they wanted to read about.", "The story line in magazines, comic books and cinema that most appealed to boys was the glamorous heroism of British soldiers fighting wars that were exciting and just.", "DC Thomson issued the first ''The Dandy Comic'' in December 1937.It had a revolutionary design that broke away from the usual children's comics that were published broadsheet in size and not very colourful.", "Thomson capitalized on its success with a similar product ''The Beano'' in 1938.On some occasions, new gag cartoons have been created for book publication, as was the case with ''Think Small'', a 1967 promotional book distributed as a giveaway by Volkswagen dealers.", "Bill Hoest and other cartoonists of that decade drew cartoons showing Volkswagens, and these were published along with humorous automotive essays by such humorists as H. Allen Smith, Roger Price and Jean Shepherd.", "The book's design juxtaposed each cartoon alongside a photograph of the cartoon's creator." ], [ "Animation", "An animated cartoon horse, drawn by rotoscoping from Eadweard Muybridge's 19th-century photos|alt=a running horse (animated)Because of the stylistic similarities between comic strips and early animated films, ''cartoon'' came to refer to animation, and the word ''cartoon'' is currently used in reference to both animated cartoons and gag cartoons.", "While ''animation'' designates any style of illustrated images seen in rapid succession to give the impression of movement, the word \"cartoon\" is most often used as a descriptor for television programs and short films aimed at children, possibly featuring anthropomorphized animals, superheroes, the adventures of child protagonists or related themes.In the 1980s, ''cartoon'' was shortened to ''toon'', referring to characters in animated productions.", "This term was popularized in 1988 by the combined live-action/animated film ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'', followed in 1990 by the animated TV series ''Tiny Toon Adventures''." ], [ "See also", "*Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum*Caricature*Comics*Comics studies*''Histoire de M. Vieux Bois''*List of comic strips*List of cartoonists*List of editorial cartoonists*Teen humor comics*The Rat Swallower, 19th-century cartoon" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Dan Becker, History of Cartoons (archived 14 March 2019)* Marchand collection – cartoons and photos (archived 25 February 2011)* Stamp Act 1765 with British and American cartoons (archived 19 May 2011)* \"Graphic Witness\" political caricatures in history* Keppler cartoons* current editorial cartoons* Index of cartoonists in the Fred Waring Collection (archived 10 December 2009)* International Society for Humor Studies (archived 17 May 2008)* ''Harper's Weekly'' – 150 cartoons on elections 1860–1912; Reconstruction topics; Chinese exclusion; plus American Political Prints from the Library of Congress, 1766–1876 (archived 31 July 2010)**" ] ]
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[ [ "Chief Minister of the Northern Territory" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''chief minister of the Northern Territory''' is the head of government of the Northern Territory.", "The office is the equivalent of a state premier.", "When the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly was created in 1974, the head of government was officially known as '''majority leader'''.", "This title was used in the first parliament (1974–1977) and the first eighteen months of the second.", "When self-government was granted the Northern Territory in 1978, the title of the head of government became chief minister.The chief minister is formally appointed by the administrator, who in normal circumstances will appoint the head of whichever party holds the majority of seats in the unicameral Legislative Assembly.", "In times of constitutional crisis, the administrator can appoint someone else as chief minister, though this has never occurred.Since 21 December 2023, following the resignation of Natasha Fyles, the chief minister is Eva Lawler of the Labor Party.", "She is the third female chief minister of the Northern Territory." ], [ "History", "The Country Liberal Party won the first Northern Territory election on 19 October 1974 and elected Goff Letts majority leader.", "He headed an Executive that carried out most of the functions of a ministry at the state level.", "At the 1977 election Letts lost his seat and party leadership.", "He was succeeded on 13 August 1977 by Paul Everingham (CLP) as Majority Leader.", "When the Territory attained self-government on 1 July 1978, Everingham became chief minister with greatly expanded powers.In 2001, Clare Martin became the first Labor and female chief minister of the Northern Territory.", "Until 2004 the conduct of elections and drawing of electoral boundaries was performed by the Northern Territory Electoral Office, a unit of the Department of the chief minister.", "In March 2004 the independent Northern Territory Electoral Commission was established.In 2013, Mills was replaced as chief minister and CLP leader by Adam Giles at the 2013 CLP leadership ballot on 13 March to become the first indigenous Australian to lead a state or territory government in Australia.Following the 2016 election landslide outcome, Labor's Michael Gunner became chief minister; he was the first Chief Minister who was born in the Northern Territory.", "On 10 May 2022, Gunner announced his intention to resign.", "On 13 May 2022, Natasha Fyles was elected to the position by the Labor caucus.", "On 19 December 2023, Fyles resigned following controversy over undeclared shares in mining company South32.On21 December 2023, Eva Lawler replaced Fyles by a unanimous decision of the Labor caucus." ], [ "List of chief ministers of the Northern Territory", "From the foundation of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly in 1974 until the granting of self-government in 1978, the head of government was known as the '''majority leader''':PortraitMajority LeaderElectionTerm of officePolitical partyExecutive Took office Left office Term in office'''1''' 145x145pxGoff Letts1974Country LiberalLetts Executive'''2''' 131x131pxPaul Everingham1977Country LiberalEveringham ExecutiveFrom 1978, the position was known as the '''chief minister''':PortraitChief MinisterElectionTerm of officePolitical partyMinistry Took office Left office Time in office'''1''' 132x132px Paul Everingham19801983 Country Liberal Everingham Ministry'''2''' 122x122px Ian Tuxworth— Country Liberal Tuxworth Ministry'''3''' 155x155px Stephen Hatton1987 Country Liberal Hatton Ministry'''4''' 147x147px Marshall Perron19901994 Country Liberal Perron Ministry'''5''' 148x148px Shane Stone1997 Country Liberal Stone Ministry'''6''' 148x148px Denis Burke— Country Liberal Burke Ministry'''7''' 151x151px Clare Martin20012005 Labor Martin Ministry'''8''' 148x148px Paul Henderson2008 Labor Henderson Ministry'''9''' 135x135px Terry Mills2012 Country Liberal Mills Ministry'''10''' 137x137px Adam Giles— Country Liberal Giles Ministry'''11''' 135x135px Michael Gunner20162020 Labor Gunner Ministry'''12''' 135x135px Natasha Fyles— Labor Fyles Ministry'''13''' Eva Lawler— ''Incumbent'' Labor Lawler Ministry" ], [ "See also", "* List of chief ministers of the Northern Territory by time in office* Territory rig" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory 1974–2012 – Office Holders" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chemotherapy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chemotherapy''' (often abbreviated to '''chemo''' and sometimes '''CTX''' or '''CTx''') is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (chemotherapeutic agents or alkylating agents) as part of a standardized chemotherapy regimen.", "Chemotherapy may be given with a curative intent (which almost always involves combinations of drugs) or it may aim to prolong life or to reduce symptoms (palliative chemotherapy).", "Chemotherapy is one of the major categories of the medical discipline specifically devoted to pharmacotherapy for cancer, which is called ''medical oncology''.The term ''chemotherapy'' has come to connote non-specific usage of intracellular poisons to inhibit mitosis (cell division) or induce DNA damage, which is why inhibition of DNA repair can augment chemotherapy.", "The connotation of the word chemotherapy excludes more selective agents that block extracellular signals (signal transduction).", "The development of therapies with specific molecular or genetic targets, which inhibit growth-promoting signals from classic endocrine hormones (primarily estrogens for breast cancer and androgens for prostate cancer) are now called hormonal therapies.", "By contrast, other inhibitions of growth-signals like those associated with receptor tyrosine kinases are referred to as targeted therapy.Importantly, the use of drugs (whether chemotherapy, hormonal therapy or targeted therapy) constitutes ''systemic therapy'' for cancer in that they are introduced into the blood stream and are therefore in principle able to address cancer at any anatomic location in the body.", "Systemic therapy is often used in conjunction with other modalities that constitute ''local therapy'' (i.e., treatments whose efficacy is confined to the anatomic area where they are applied) for cancer such as radiation therapy, surgery or hyperthermia therapy.Traditional chemotherapeutic agents are cytotoxic by means of interfering with cell division (mitosis) but cancer cells vary widely in their susceptibility to these agents.", "To a large extent, chemotherapy can be thought of as a way to damage or stress cells, which may then lead to cell death if apoptosis is initiated.", "Many of the side effects of chemotherapy can be traced to damage to normal cells that divide rapidly and are thus sensitive to anti-mitotic drugs: cells in the bone marrow, digestive tract and hair follicles.", "This results in the most common side-effects of chemotherapy: myelosuppression (decreased production of blood cells, hence also immunosuppression), mucositis (inflammation of the lining of the digestive tract), and alopecia (hair loss).", "Because of the effect on immune cells (especially lymphocytes), chemotherapy drugs often find use in a host of diseases that result from harmful overactivity of the immune system against self (so-called autoimmunity).", "These include rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, vasculitis and many others." ], [ "Treatment strategies", "+ Common combination chemotherapy regimens Cancer type Drugs AcronymBreast cancer Cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil, vinorelbine CMF Doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide ACHodgkin's lymphoma Docetaxel, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamideTACDoxorubicin, bleomycin, vinblastine, dacarbazineABVDMustine, vincristine, procarbazine, prednisoloneMOPP Non-Hodgkin's lymphomaCyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisolone CHOP, R-CVP Germ cell tumorBleomycin, etoposide, cisplatin BEPStomach cancer Epirubicin, cisplatin, 5-fluorouracil ECFEpirubicin, cisplatin, capecitabine ECX Bladder cancer Methotrexate, vincristine, doxorubicin, cisplatin MVAC Lung cancer Cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, vinorelbine CAV Colorectal cancer 5-fluorouracil, folinic acid, oxaliplatin FOLFOX Pancreatic cancer Gemcitabine, 5-fluorouracil FOLFOXBone cancerDoxorubicin, cisplatin, methotrexate, ifosfamide, etoposideMAP/MAPIEThere are a number of strategies in the administration of chemotherapeutic drugs used today.", "Chemotherapy may be given with a curative intent or it may aim to prolong life or to palliate symptoms.", "* Induction chemotherapy is the first line treatment of cancer with a chemotherapeutic drug.", "This type of chemotherapy is used for curative intent.", "* Combined modality chemotherapy is the use of drugs with other cancer treatments, such as surgery, radiation therapy, or hyperthermia therapy.", "* Consolidation chemotherapy is given after remission in order to prolong the overall disease-free time and improve overall survival.", "The drug that is administered is the same as the drug that achieved remission.", "* Intensification chemotherapy is identical to consolidation chemotherapy but a different drug than the induction chemotherapy is used.", "* Combination chemotherapy involves treating a person with a number of different drugs simultaneously.", "The drugs differ in their mechanism and side-effects.", "The biggest advantage is minimising the chances of resistance developing to any one agent.", "Also, the drugs can often be used at lower doses, reducing toxicity.", "* Neoadjuvant chemotherapy is given prior to a local treatment such as surgery, and is designed to shrink the primary tumor.", "It is also given for cancers with a high risk of micrometastatic disease.", "* Adjuvant chemotherapy is given after a local treatment (radiotherapy or surgery).", "It can be used when there is little evidence of cancer present, but there is risk of recurrence.", "It is also useful in killing any cancerous cells that have spread to other parts of the body.", "These micrometastases can be treated with adjuvant chemotherapy and can reduce relapse rates caused by these disseminated cells.", "* Maintenance chemotherapy is a repeated low-dose treatment to prolong remission.", "* Salvage chemotherapy or palliative chemotherapy is given without curative intent, but simply to decrease tumor load and increase life expectancy.", "For these regimens, in general, a better toxicity profile is expected.All chemotherapy regimens require that the recipient be capable of undergoing the treatment.", "Performance status is often used as a measure to determine whether a person can receive chemotherapy, or whether dose reduction is required.", "Because only a fraction of the cells in a tumor die with each treatment (fractional kill), repeated doses must be administered to continue to reduce the size of the tumor.", "Current chemotherapy regimens apply drug treatment in cycles, with the frequency and duration of treatments limited by toxicity.=== Effectiveness ===The effectiveness of chemotherapy depends on the type of cancer and the stage.", "The overall effectiveness ranges from being curative for some cancers, such as some leukemias, to being ineffective, such as in some brain tumors, to being needless in others, like most non-melanoma skin cancers.=== Dosage ===Dose response relationship of cell killing by chemotherapeutic drugs on normal and cancer cells.", "At high doses the percentage of normal and cancer cells killed is very similar.", "For this reason, doses are chosen where anti-tumour activity exceeds normal cell death.Dosage of chemotherapy can be difficult: If the dose is too low, it will be ineffective against the tumor, whereas, at excessive doses, the toxicity (side-effects) will be intolerable to the person receiving it.", "The standard method of determining chemotherapy dosage is based on calculated body surface area (BSA).", "The BSA is usually calculated with a mathematical formula or a nomogram, using the recipient's weight and height, rather than by direct measurement of body area.", "This formula was originally derived in a 1916 study and attempted to translate medicinal doses established with laboratory animals to equivalent doses for humans.", "The study only included nine human subjects.", "When chemotherapy was introduced in the 1950s, the BSA formula was adopted as the official standard for chemotherapy dosing for lack of a better option.The validity of this method in calculating uniform doses has been questioned because the formula only takes into account the individual's weight and height.", "Drug absorption and clearance are influenced by multiple factors, including age, sex, metabolism, disease state, organ function, drug-to-drug interactions, genetics, and obesity, which have major impacts on the actual concentration of the drug in the person's bloodstream.", "As a result, there is high variability in the systemic chemotherapy drug concentration in people dosed by BSA, and this variability has been demonstrated to be more than ten-fold for many drugs.", "In other words, if two people receive the same dose of a given drug based on BSA, the concentration of that drug in the bloodstream of one person may be 10 times higher or lower compared to that of the other person.", "This variability is typical with many chemotherapy drugs dosed by BSA, and, as shown below, was demonstrated in a study of 14 common chemotherapy drugs.5-FU dose management results in significantly better response and survival rates versus BSA dosing.The result of this pharmacokinetic variability among people is that many people do not receive the right dose to achieve optimal treatment effectiveness with minimized toxic side effects.", "Some people are overdosed while others are underdosed.", "For example, in a randomized clinical trial, investigators found 85% of metastatic colorectal cancer patients treated with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) did not receive the optimal therapeutic dose when dosed by the BSA standard—68% were underdosed and 17% were overdosed.There has been controversy over the use of BSA to calculate chemotherapy doses for people who are obese.", "Because of their higher BSA, clinicians often arbitrarily reduce the dose prescribed by the BSA formula for fear of overdosing.", "In many cases, this can result in sub-optimal treatment.Several clinical studies have demonstrated that when chemotherapy dosing is individualized to achieve optimal systemic drug exposure, treatment outcomes are improved and toxic side effects are reduced.", "In the 5-FU clinical study cited above, people whose dose was adjusted to achieve a pre-determined target exposure realized an 84% improvement in treatment response rate and a six-month improvement in overall survival (OS) compared with those dosed by BSA.5-FU dose management avoids serious side effects experienced with BSA dosing.In the same study, investigators compared the incidence of common 5-FU-associated grade 3/4 toxicities between the dose-adjusted people and people dosed per BSA.", "The incidence of debilitating grades of diarrhea was reduced from 18% in the BSA-dosed group to 4% in the dose-adjusted group and serious hematologic side effects were eliminated.", "Because of the reduced toxicity, dose-adjusted patients were able to be treated for longer periods of time.", "BSA-dosed people were treated for a total of 680 months while people in the dose-adjusted group were treated for a total of 791 months.", "Completing the course of treatment is an important factor in achieving better treatment outcomes.Similar results were found in a study involving people with colorectal cancer who have been treated with the popular FOLFOX regimen.", "The incidence of serious diarrhea was reduced from 12% in the BSA-dosed group of patients to 1.7% in the dose-adjusted group, and the incidence of severe mucositis was reduced from 15% to 0.8%.The FOLFOX study also demonstrated an improvement in treatment outcomes.", "Positive response increased from 46% in the BSA-dosed group to 70% in the dose-adjusted group.", "Median progression free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) both improved by six months in the dose adjusted group.One approach that can help clinicians individualize chemotherapy dosing is to measure the drug levels in blood plasma over time and adjust dose according to a formula or algorithm to achieve optimal exposure.", "With an established target exposure for optimized treatment effectiveness with minimized toxicities, dosing can be personalized to achieve target exposure and optimal results for each person.", "Such an algorithm was used in the clinical trials cited above and resulted in significantly improved treatment outcomes.Oncologists are already individualizing dosing of some cancer drugs based on exposure.", "Carboplatin and busulfan dosing rely upon results from blood tests to calculate the optimal dose for each person.", "Simple blood tests are also available for dose optimization of methotrexate, 5-FU, paclitaxel, and docetaxel.The serum albumin level immediately prior to chemotherapy administration is an independent prognostic predictor of survival in various cancer types.=== Types === Two DNA bases that are cross-linked by a nitrogen mustard.", "Different nitrogen mustards will have different chemical groups (R).", "The nitrogen mustards most commonly alkylate the N7 nitrogen of guanine (as shown here) but other atoms can be alkylated.==== Alkylating agents ====Alkylating agents are the oldest group of chemotherapeutics in use today.", "Originally derived from mustard gas used in World War I, there are now many types of alkylating agents in use.", "They are so named because of their ability to alkylate many molecules, including proteins, RNA and DNA.", "This ability to bind covalently to DNA via their alkyl group is the primary cause for their anti-cancer effects.", "DNA is made of two strands and the molecules may either bind twice to one strand of DNA (intrastrand crosslink) or may bind once to both strands (interstrand crosslink).", "If the cell tries to replicate crosslinked DNA during cell division, or tries to repair it, the DNA strands can break.", "This leads to a form of programmed cell death called apoptosis.", "Alkylating agents will work at any point in the cell cycle and thus are known as cell cycle-independent drugs.", "For this reason, the effect on the cell is dose dependent; the fraction of cells that die is directly proportional to the dose of drug.The subtypes of alkylating agents are the nitrogen mustards, nitrosoureas, tetrazines, aziridines, cisplatins and derivatives, and non-classical alkylating agents.", "Nitrogen mustards include mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamide, melphalan, chlorambucil, ifosfamide and busulfan.", "Nitrosoureas include N-Nitroso-N-methylurea (MNU), carmustine (BCNU), lomustine (CCNU) and semustine (MeCCNU), fotemustine and streptozotocin.", "Tetrazines include dacarbazine, mitozolomide and temozolomide.", "Aziridines include thiotepa, mytomycin and diaziquone (AZQ).", "Cisplatin and derivatives include cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin.", "They impair cell function by forming covalent bonds with the amino, carboxyl, sulfhydryl, and phosphate groups in biologically important molecules.", "Non-classical alkylating agents include procarbazine and hexamethylmelamine.==== Antimetabolites ====Deoxycytidine (left) and two anti-metabolite drugs (center and right), gemcitabine and decitabine.", "The drugs are very similar but they have subtle differences in their chemical structure.Anti-metabolites are a group of molecules that impede DNA and RNA synthesis.", "Many of them have a similar structure to the building blocks of DNA and RNA.", "The building blocks are nucleotides; a molecule comprising a nucleobase, a sugar and a phosphate group.", "The nucleobases are divided into purines (guanine and adenine) and pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine and uracil).", "Anti-metabolites resemble either nucleobases or nucleosides (a nucleotide without the phosphate group), but have altered chemical groups.", "These drugs exert their effect by either blocking the enzymes required for DNA synthesis or becoming incorporated into DNA or RNA.", "By inhibiting the enzymes involved in DNA synthesis, they prevent mitosis because the DNA cannot duplicate itself.", "Also, after misincorporation of the molecules into DNA, DNA damage can occur and programmed cell death (apoptosis) is induced.", "Unlike alkylating agents, anti-metabolites are cell cycle dependent.", "This means that they only work during a specific part of the cell cycle, in this case S-phase (the DNA synthesis phase).", "For this reason, at a certain dose, the effect plateaus and proportionally no more cell death occurs with increased doses.", "Subtypes of the anti-metabolites are the anti-folates, fluoropyrimidines, deoxynucleoside analogues and thiopurines.The anti-folates include methotrexate and pemetrexed.", "Methotrexate inhibits dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), an enzyme that regenerates tetrahydrofolate from dihydrofolate.", "When the enzyme is inhibited by methotrexate, the cellular levels of folate coenzymes diminish.", "These are required for thymidylate and purine production, which are both essential for DNA synthesis and cell division.", "Pemetrexed is another anti-metabolite that affects purine and pyrimidine production, and therefore also inhibits DNA synthesis.", "It primarily inhibits the enzyme thymidylate synthase, but also has effects on DHFR, aminoimidazole carboxamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase and glycinamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase.", "The fluoropyrimidines include fluorouracil and capecitabine.", "Fluorouracil is a nucleobase analogue that is metabolised in cells to form at least two active products; 5-fluourouridine monophosphate (FUMP) and 5-fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine 5'-phosphate (fdUMP).", "FUMP becomes incorporated into RNA and fdUMP inhibits the enzyme thymidylate synthase; both of which lead to cell death.", "Capecitabine is a prodrug of 5-fluorouracil that is broken down in cells to produce the active drug.", "The deoxynucleoside analogues include cytarabine, gemcitabine, decitabine, azacitidine, fludarabine, nelarabine, cladribine, clofarabine, and pentostatin.", "The thiopurines include thioguanine and mercaptopurine.==== Anti-microtubule agents ====''Vinca'' alkaloids prevent the assembly of microtubules, whereas taxanes prevent their disassembly.", "Both mechanisms cause defective mitosis.Anti-microtubule agents are plant-derived chemicals that block cell division by preventing microtubule function.", "Microtubules are an important cellular structure composed of two proteins, α-tubulin and β-tubulin.", "They are hollow, rod-shaped structures that are required for cell division, among other cellular functions.", "Microtubules are dynamic structures, which means that they are permanently in a state of assembly and disassembly.", "''Vinca'' alkaloids and taxanes are the two main groups of anti-microtubule agents, and although both of these groups of drugs cause microtubule dysfunction, their mechanisms of action are completely opposite: ''Vinca'' alkaloids prevent the assembly of microtubules, whereas taxanes prevent their disassembly.", "By doing so, they can induce mitotic catastrophe in the cancer cells.", "Following this, cell cycle arrest occurs, which induces programmed cell death (apoptosis).", "These drugs can also affect blood vessel growth, an essential process that tumours utilise in order to grow and metastasise.", "''Vinca'' alkaloids are derived from the Madagascar periwinkle, ''Catharanthus roseus'', formerly known as ''Vinca rosea''.", "They bind to specific sites on tubulin, inhibiting the assembly of tubulin into microtubules.", "The original ''vinca'' alkaloids are natural products that include vincristine and vinblastine.", "Following the success of these drugs, semi-synthetic ''vinca'' alkaloids were produced: vinorelbine (used in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer), vindesine, and vinflunine.", "These drugs are cell cycle-specific.", "They bind to the tubulin molecules in S-phase and prevent proper microtubule formation required for M-phase.Taxanes are natural and semi-synthetic drugs.", "The first drug of their class, paclitaxel, was originally extracted from ''Taxus brevifolia'', the Pacific yew.", "Now this drug and another in this class, docetaxel, are produced semi-synthetically from a chemical found in the bark of another yew tree, ''Taxus baccata''.Podophyllotoxin is an antineoplastic lignan obtained primarily from the American mayapple (''Podophyllum peltatum'') and Himalayan mayapple (''Sinopodophyllum hexandrum'').", "It has anti-microtubule activity, and its mechanism is similar to that of ''vinca'' alkaloids in that they bind to tubulin, inhibiting microtubule formation.", "Podophyllotoxin is used to produce two other drugs with different mechanisms of action: etoposide and teniposide.==== Topoisomerase inhibitors ====Topoisomerase I and II InhibitorsTopoisomerase inhibitors are drugs that affect the activity of two enzymes: topoisomerase I and topoisomerase II.", "When the DNA double-strand helix is unwound, during DNA replication or transcription, for example, the adjacent unopened DNA winds tighter (supercoils), like opening the middle of a twisted rope.", "The stress caused by this effect is in part aided by the topoisomerase enzymes.", "They produce single- or double-strand breaks into DNA, reducing the tension in the DNA strand.", "This allows the normal unwinding of DNA to occur during replication or transcription.", "Inhibition of topoisomerase I or II interferes with both of these processes.Two topoisomerase I inhibitors, irinotecan and topotecan, are semi-synthetically derived from camptothecin, which is obtained from the Chinese ornamental tree ''Camptotheca acuminata''.", "Drugs that target topoisomerase II can be divided into two groups.", "The topoisomerase II poisons cause increased levels enzymes bound to DNA.", "This prevents DNA replication and transcription, causes DNA strand breaks, and leads to programmed cell death (apoptosis).", "These agents include etoposide, doxorubicin, mitoxantrone and teniposide.", "The second group, catalytic inhibitors, are drugs that block the activity of topoisomerase II, and therefore prevent DNA synthesis and translation because the DNA cannot unwind properly.", "This group includes novobiocin, merbarone, and aclarubicin, which also have other significant mechanisms of action.==== Cytotoxic antibiotics ====The cytotoxic antibiotics are a varied group of drugs that have various mechanisms of action.", "The common theme that they share in their chemotherapy indication is that they interrupt cell division.", "The most important subgroup is the anthracyclines and the bleomycins; other prominent examples include mitomycin C and actinomycin.Among the anthracyclines, doxorubicin and daunorubicin were the first, and were obtained from the bacterium ''Streptomyces peucetius''.", "Derivatives of these compounds include epirubicin and idarubicin.", "Other clinically used drugs in the anthracycline group are pirarubicin, aclarubicin, and mitoxantrone.", "The mechanisms of anthracyclines include DNA intercalation (molecules insert between the two strands of DNA), generation of highly reactive free radicals that damage intercellular molecules and topoisomerase inhibition.Actinomycin is a complex molecule that intercalates DNA and prevents RNA synthesis.Bleomycin, a glycopeptide isolated from ''Streptomyces verticillus'', also intercalates DNA, but produces free radicals that damage DNA.", "This occurs when bleomycin binds to a metal ion, becomes chemically reduced and reacts with oxygen.Mitomycin is a cytotoxic antibiotic with the ability to alkylate DNA.=== Delivery ===Two girls with acute lymphoblastic leukemia receiving chemotherapy.", "The girl on the left has a central venous catheter inserted in her neck.", "The girl on the right has a peripheral venous catheter.", "The arm board stabilizes the arm during needle insertion.", "Anti-cancer IV drip is seen at top right.Most chemotherapy is delivered intravenously, although a number of agents can be administered orally (e.g., melphalan, busulfan, capecitabine).", "According to a recent (2016) systematic review, oral therapies present additional challenges for patients and care teams to maintain and support adherence to treatment plans.There are many intravenous methods of drug delivery, known as vascular access devices.", "These include the winged infusion device, peripheral venous catheter, midline catheter, peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC), central venous catheter and implantable port.", "The devices have different applications regarding duration of chemotherapy treatment, method of delivery and types of chemotherapeutic agent.Depending on the person, the cancer, the stage of cancer, the type of chemotherapy, and the dosage, intravenous chemotherapy may be given on either an inpatient or an outpatient basis.", "For continuous, frequent or prolonged intravenous chemotherapy administration, various systems may be surgically inserted into the vasculature to maintain access.", "Commonly used systems are the Hickman line, the Port-a-Cath, and the PICC line.", "These have a lower infection risk, are much less prone to phlebitis or extravasation, and eliminate the need for repeated insertion of peripheral cannulae.Isolated limb perfusion (often used in melanoma), or isolated infusion of chemotherapy into the liver or the lung have been used to treat some tumors.", "The main purpose of these approaches is to deliver a very high dose of chemotherapy to tumor sites without causing overwhelming systemic damage.", "These approaches can help control solitary or limited metastases, but they are by definition not systemic, and, therefore, do not treat distributed metastases or micrometastases.Topical chemotherapies, such as 5-fluorouracil, are used to treat some cases of non-melanoma skin cancer.If the cancer has central nervous system involvement, or with meningeal disease, intrathecal chemotherapy may be administered." ], [ "Adverse effects", "Chemotherapeutic techniques have a range of side effects that depend on the type of medications used.", "The most common medications affect mainly the fast-dividing cells of the body, such as blood cells and the cells lining the mouth, stomach, and intestines.", "Chemotherapy-related toxicities can occur acutely after administration, within hours or days, or chronically, from weeks to years.=== Immunosuppression and myelosuppression ===Virtually all chemotherapeutic regimens can cause depression of the immune system, often by paralysing the bone marrow and leading to a decrease of white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.Anemia and thrombocytopenia may require blood transfusion.", "Neutropenia (a decrease of the neutrophil granulocyte count below 0.5 x 109/litre) can be improved with synthetic G-CSF (granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor, e.g., filgrastim, lenograstim, efbemalenograstim alfa).In very severe myelosuppression, which occurs in some regimens, almost all the bone marrow stem cells (cells that produce white and red blood cells) are destroyed, meaning ''allogenic'' or ''autologous'' bone marrow cell transplants are necessary.", "(In autologous BMTs, cells are removed from the person before the treatment, multiplied and then re-injected afterward; in ''allogenic'' BMTs, the source is a donor.)", "However, some people still develop diseases because of this interference with bone marrow.Although people receiving chemotherapy are encouraged to wash their hands, avoid sick people, and take other infection-reducing steps, about 85% of infections are due to naturally occurring microorganisms in the person's own gastrointestinal tract (including oral cavity) and skin.", "This may manifest as systemic infections, such as sepsis, or as localized outbreaks, such as Herpes simplex, shingles, or other members of the Herpesviridea.", "The risk of illness and death can be reduced by taking common antibiotics such as quinolones or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole before any fever or sign of infection appears.", "Quinolones show effective prophylaxis mainly with hematological cancer.", "However, in general, for every five people who are immunosuppressed following chemotherapy who take an antibiotic, one fever can be prevented; for every 34 who take an antibiotic, one death can be prevented.", "Sometimes, chemotherapy treatments are postponed because the immune system is suppressed to a critically low level.In Japan, the government has approved the use of some medicinal mushrooms like ''Trametes versicolor'', to counteract depression of the immune system in people undergoing chemotherapy.Trilaciclib is an inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinase 4/6 approved for the prevention of myelosuppression caused by chemotherapy.", "The drug is given before chemotherapy to protect bone marrow function.=== Neutropenic enterocolitis ===Due to immune system suppression, neutropenic enterocolitis (typhlitis) is a \"life-threatening gastrointestinal complication of chemotherapy.\"", "Typhlitis is an intestinal infection which may manifest itself through symptoms including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, a distended abdomen, fever, chills, or abdominal pain and tenderness.Typhlitis is a medical emergency.", "It has a very poor prognosis and is often fatal unless promptly recognized and aggressively treated.", "Successful treatment hinges on early diagnosis provided by a high index of suspicion and the use of CT scanning, nonoperative treatment for uncomplicated cases, and sometimes elective right hemicolectomy to prevent recurrence.=== Gastrointestinal distress ===Nausea, vomiting, anorexia, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and constipation are common side-effects of chemotherapeutic medications that kill fast-dividing cells.", "Malnutrition and dehydration can result when the recipient does not eat or drink enough, or when the person vomits frequently, because of gastrointestinal damage.", "This can result in rapid weight loss, or occasionally in weight gain, if the person eats too much in an effort to allay nausea or heartburn.", "Weight gain can also be caused by some steroid medications.", "These side-effects can frequently be reduced or eliminated with antiemetic drugs.", "Low-certainty evidence also suggests that probiotics may have a preventative and treatment effect of diarrhoea related to chemotherapy alone and with radiotherapy.", "However, a high index of suspicion is appropriate, since diarrhoea and bloating are also symptoms of typhlitis, a very serious and potentially life-threatening medical emergency that requires immediate treatment.=== Anemia ===Anemia can be a combined outcome caused by myelosuppressive chemotherapy, and possible cancer-related causes such as bleeding, blood cell destruction (hemolysis), hereditary disease, kidney dysfunction, nutritional deficiencies or anemia of chronic disease.", "Treatments to mitigate anemia include hormones to boost blood production (erythropoietin), iron supplements, and blood transfusions.", "Myelosuppressive therapy can cause a tendency to bleed easily, leading to anemia.", "Medications that kill rapidly dividing cells or blood cells can reduce the number of platelets in the blood, which can result in bruises and bleeding.", "Extremely low platelet counts may be temporarily boosted through platelet transfusions and new drugs to increase platelet counts during chemotherapy are being developed.", "Sometimes, chemotherapy treatments are postponed to allow platelet counts to recover.Fatigue may be a consequence of the cancer or its treatment, and can last for months to years after treatment.", "One physiological cause of fatigue is anemia, which can be caused by chemotherapy, surgery, radiotherapy, primary and metastatic disease or nutritional depletion.", "Aerobic exercise has been found to be beneficial in reducing fatigue in people with solid tumours.=== Nausea and vomiting ===Nausea and vomiting are two of the most feared cancer treatment-related side-effects for people with cancer and their families.", "In 1983, Coates et al.", "found that people receiving chemotherapy ranked nausea and vomiting as the first and second most severe side-effects, respectively.", "Up to 20% of people receiving highly emetogenic agents in this era postponed, or even refused potentially curative treatments.", "Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) are common with many treatments and some forms of cancer.", "Since the 1990s, several novel classes of antiemetics have been developed and commercialized, becoming a nearly universal standard in chemotherapy regimens, and helping to successfully manage these symptoms in many people.", "Effective mediation of these unpleasant and sometimes debilitating symptoms results in increased quality of life for the recipient and more efficient treatment cycles, due to less stoppage of treatment due to better tolerance and better overall health.=== Hair loss ===Hair matting after few sessions of chemotherapyHair loss (alopecia) can be caused by chemotherapy that kills rapidly dividing cells; other medications may cause hair to thin.", "These are most often temporary effects: hair usually starts to regrow a few weeks after the last treatment, but sometimes with a change in color, texture, thickness or style.", "Sometimes hair has a tendency to curl after regrowth, resulting in \"chemo curls.\"", "Severe hair loss occurs most often with drugs such as doxorubicin, daunorubicin, paclitaxel, docetaxel, cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide and etoposide.", "Permanent thinning or hair loss can result from some standard chemotherapy regimens.Chemotherapy induced hair loss occurs by a non-androgenic mechanism, and can manifest as alopecia totalis, telogen effluvium, or less often alopecia areata.", "It is usually associated with systemic treatment due to the high mitotic rate of hair follicles, and more reversible than androgenic hair loss, although permanent cases can occur.", "Chemotherapy induces hair loss in women more often than men.Scalp cooling offers a means of preventing both permanent and temporary hair loss; however, concerns about this method have been raised.=== Secondary neoplasm ===Development of secondary neoplasia after successful chemotherapy or radiotherapy treatment can occur.", "The most common secondary neoplasm is secondary acute myeloid leukemia, which develops primarily after treatment with alkylating agents or topoisomerase inhibitors.", "Survivors of childhood cancer are more than 13 times as likely to get a secondary neoplasm during the 30 years after treatment than the general population.", "Not all of this increase can be attributed to chemotherapy.=== Infertility ===Some types of chemotherapy are gonadotoxic and may cause infertility.", "Chemotherapies with high risk include procarbazine and other alkylating drugs such as cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, busulfan, melphalan, chlorambucil, and chlormethine.", "Drugs with medium risk include doxorubicin and platinum analogs such as cisplatin and carboplatin.", "On the other hand, therapies with low risk of gonadotoxicity include plant derivatives such as vincristine and vinblastine, antibiotics such as bleomycin and dactinomycin, and antimetabolites such as methotrexate, mercaptopurine, and 5-fluorouracil.Female infertility by chemotherapy appears to be secondary to premature ovarian failure by loss of primordial follicles.", "This loss is not necessarily a direct effect of the chemotherapeutic agents, but could be due to an increased rate of growth initiation to replace damaged developing follicles.People may choose between several methods of fertility preservation prior to chemotherapy, including cryopreservation of semen, ovarian tissue, oocytes, or embryos.", "As more than half of cancer patients are elderly, this adverse effect is only relevant for a minority of patients.", "A study in France between 1999 and 2011 came to the result that embryo freezing before administration of gonadotoxic agents to females caused a delay of treatment in 34% of cases, and a live birth in 27% of surviving cases who wanted to become pregnant, with the follow-up time varying between 1 and 13 years.Potential protective or attenuating agents include GnRH analogs, where several studies have shown a protective effect ''in vivo'' in humans, but some studies show no such effect.", "Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) has shown similar effect, but its mechanism of inhibiting the sphingomyelin apoptotic pathway may also interfere with the apoptosis action of chemotherapy drugs.In chemotherapy as a conditioning regimen in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, a study of people conditioned with cyclophosphamide alone for severe aplastic anemia came to the result that ovarian recovery occurred in all women younger than 26 years at time of transplantation, but only in five of 16 women older than 26 years.In turn citing: === Teratogenicity ===Chemotherapy is teratogenic during pregnancy, especially during the first trimester, to the extent that abortion usually is recommended if pregnancy in this period is found during chemotherapy.", "Second- and third-trimester exposure does not usually increase the teratogenic risk and adverse effects on cognitive development, but it may increase the risk of various complications of pregnancy and fetal myelosuppression.In males previously having undergone chemotherapy or radiotherapy, there appears to be no increase in genetic defects or congenital malformations in their children conceived after therapy.", "The use of assisted reproductive technologies and micromanipulation techniques might increase this risk.", "In females previously having undergone chemotherapy, miscarriage and congenital malformations are not increased in subsequent conceptions.", "However, when in vitro fertilization and embryo cryopreservation is practised between or shortly after treatment, possible genetic risks to the growing oocytes exist, and hence it has been recommended that the babies be screened.=== Peripheral neuropathy ===Between 30 and 40 percent of people undergoing chemotherapy experience chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN), a progressive, enduring, and often irreversible condition, causing pain, tingling, numbness and sensitivity to cold, beginning in the hands and feet and sometimes progressing to the arms and legs.", "Chemotherapy drugs associated with CIPN include thalidomide, epothilones, ''vinca'' alkaloids, taxanes, proteasome inhibitors, and the platinum-based drugs.", "Whether CIPN arises, and to what degree, is determined by the choice of drug, duration of use, the total amount consumed and whether the person already has peripheral neuropathy.", "Though the symptoms are mainly sensory, in some cases motor nerves and the autonomic nervous system are affected.", "CIPN often follows the first chemotherapy dose and increases in severity as treatment continues, but this progression usually levels off at completion of treatment.", "The platinum-based drugs are the exception; with these drugs, sensation may continue to deteriorate for several months after the end of treatment.", "Some CIPN appears to be irreversible.", "Pain can often be managed with drug or other treatment but the numbness is usually resistant to treatment.=== Cognitive impairment ===Some people receiving chemotherapy report fatigue or non-specific neurocognitive problems, such as an inability to concentrate; this is sometimes called post-chemotherapy cognitive impairment, referred to as \"chemo brain\" in popular and social media.=== Tumor lysis syndrome ===In particularly large tumors and cancers with high white cell counts, such as lymphomas, teratomas, and some leukemias, some people develop tumor lysis syndrome.", "The rapid breakdown of cancer cells causes the release of chemicals from the inside of the cells.", "Following this, high levels of uric acid, potassium and phosphate are found in the blood.", "High levels of phosphate induce secondary hypoparathyroidism, resulting in low levels of calcium in the blood.", "This causes kidney damage and the high levels of potassium can cause cardiac arrhythmia.", "Although prophylaxis is available and is often initiated in people with large tumors, this is a dangerous side-effect that can lead to death if left untreated.=== Organ damage ===Cardiotoxicity (heart damage) is especially prominent with the use of anthracycline drugs (doxorubicin, epirubicin, idarubicin, and liposomal doxorubicin).", "The cause of this is most likely due to the production of free radicals in the cell and subsequent DNA damage.", "Other chemotherapeutic agents that cause cardiotoxicity, but at a lower incidence, are cyclophosphamide, docetaxel and clofarabine.Hepatotoxicity (liver damage) can be caused by many cytotoxic drugs.", "The susceptibility of an individual to liver damage can be altered by other factors such as the cancer itself, viral hepatitis, immunosuppression and nutritional deficiency.", "The liver damage can consist of damage to liver cells, hepatic sinusoidal syndrome (obstruction of the veins in the liver), cholestasis (where bile does not flow from the liver to the intestine) and liver fibrosis.Nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) can be caused by tumor lysis syndrome and also due direct effects of drug clearance by the kidneys.", "Different drugs will affect different parts of the kidney and the toxicity may be asymptomatic (only seen on blood or urine tests) or may cause acute kidney injury.Ototoxicity (damage to the inner ear) is a common side effect of platinum based drugs that can produce symptoms such as dizziness and vertigo.", "Children treated with platinum analogues have been found to be at risk for developing hearing loss.=== Other side-effects ===Less common side-effects include red skin (erythema), dry skin, damaged fingernails, a dry mouth (xerostomia), water retention, and sexual impotence.", "Some medications can trigger allergic or pseudoallergic reactions.Specific chemotherapeutic agents are associated with organ-specific toxicities, including cardiovascular disease (e.g., doxorubicin), interstitial lung disease (e.g., bleomycin) and occasionally secondary neoplasm (e.g., MOPP therapy for Hodgkin's disease).Hand-foot syndrome is another side effect to cytotoxic chemotherapy.Nutritional problems are also frequently seen in cancer patients at diagnosis and through chemotherapy treatment.", "Research suggests that in children and young people undergoing cancer treatment, parenteral nutrition may help with this leading to weight gain and increased calorie and protein intake, when compared to enteral nutrition." ], [ "Limitations", "Chemotherapy does not always work, and even when it is useful, it may not completely destroy the cancer.", "People frequently fail to understand its limitations.", "In one study of people who had been newly diagnosed with incurable, stage 4 cancer, more than two-thirds of people with lung cancer and more than four-fifths of people with colorectal cancer still believed that chemotherapy was likely to cure their cancer.The blood–brain barrier poses an obstacle to delivery of chemotherapy to the brain.", "This is because the brain has an extensive system in place to protect it from harmful chemicals.", "Drug transporters can pump out drugs from the brain and brain's blood vessel cells into the cerebrospinal fluid and blood circulation.", "These transporters pump out most chemotherapy drugs, which reduces their efficacy for treatment of brain tumors.", "Only small lipophilic alkylating agents such as lomustine or temozolomide are able to cross this blood–brain barrier.Blood vessels in tumors are very different from those seen in normal tissues.", "As a tumor grows, tumor cells furthest away from the blood vessels become low in oxygen (hypoxic).", "To counteract this they then signal for new blood vessels to grow.", "The newly formed tumor vasculature is poorly formed and does not deliver an adequate blood supply to all areas of the tumor.", "This leads to issues with drug delivery because many drugs will be delivered to the tumor by the circulatory system." ], [ "Resistance", "Resistance is a major cause of treatment failure in chemotherapeutic drugs.", "There are a few possible causes of resistance in cancer, one of which is the presence of small pumps on the surface of cancer cells that actively move chemotherapy from inside the cell to the outside.", "Cancer cells produce high amounts of these pumps, known as p-glycoprotein, in order to protect themselves from chemotherapeutics.", "Research on p-glycoprotein and other such chemotherapy efflux pumps is currently ongoing.", "Medications to inhibit the function of p-glycoprotein are undergoing investigation, but due to toxicities and interactions with anti-cancer drugs their development has been difficult.", "Another mechanism of resistance is gene amplification, a process in which multiple copies of a gene are produced by cancer cells.", "This overcomes the effect of drugs that reduce the expression of genes involved in replication.", "With more copies of the gene, the drug can not prevent all expression of the gene and therefore the cell can restore its proliferative ability.", "Cancer cells can also cause defects in the cellular pathways of apoptosis (programmed cell death).", "As most chemotherapy drugs kill cancer cells in this manner, defective apoptosis allows survival of these cells, making them resistant.", "Many chemotherapy drugs also cause DNA damage, which can be repaired by enzymes in the cell that carry out DNA repair.", "Upregulation of these genes can overcome the DNA damage and prevent the induction of apoptosis.", "Mutations in genes that produce drug target proteins, such as tubulin, can occur which prevent the drugs from binding to the protein, leading to resistance to these types of drugs.", "Drugs used in chemotherapy can induce cell stress, which can kill a cancer cell; however, under certain conditions, cells stress can induce changes in gene expression that enables resistance to several types of drugs.", "In lung cancer, the transcription factor NFκB is thought to play a role in resistance to chemotherapy, via inflammatory pathways." ], [ "Cytotoxics and targeted therapies", "Targeted therapies are a relatively new class of cancer drugs that can overcome many of the issues seen with the use of cytotoxics.", "They are divided into two groups: small molecule and antibodies.", "The massive toxicity seen with the use of cytotoxics is due to the lack of cell specificity of the drugs.", "They will kill any rapidly dividing cell, tumor or normal.", "Targeted therapies are designed to affect cellular proteins or processes that are utilised by the cancer cells.", "This allows a high dose to cancer tissues with a relatively low dose to other tissues.", "Although the side effects are often less severe than that seen of cytotoxic chemotherapeutics, life-threatening effects can occur.", "Initially, the targeted therapeutics were supposed to be solely selective for one protein.", "Now it is clear that there is often a range of protein targets that the drug can bind.", "An example target for targeted therapy is the BCR-ABL1 protein produced from the Philadelphia chromosome, a genetic lesion found commonly in chronic myelogenous leukemia and in some patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia.", "This fusion protein has enzyme activity that can be inhibited by imatinib, a small molecule drug." ], [ "Mechanism of action", "The four phases of the cell cycle.", "G1 – the initial growth phase.", "S – the phase in which DNA is synthesised.", "G2 – the second growth phase in preparation for cell division.", "M – mitosis; where the cell divides to produce two daughter cells that continue the cell cycle.Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of cells coupled with malignant behaviour: invasion and metastasis (among other features).", "It is caused by the interaction between genetic susceptibility and environmental factors.", "These factors lead to accumulations of genetic mutations in oncogenes (genes that control the growth rate of cells) and tumor suppressor genes (genes that help to prevent cancer), which gives cancer cells their malignant characteristics, such as uncontrolled growth.In the broad sense, most chemotherapeutic drugs work by impairing mitosis (cell division), effectively targeting fast-dividing cells.", "As these drugs cause damage to cells, they are termed ''cytotoxic''.", "They prevent mitosis by various mechanisms including damaging DNA and inhibition of the cellular machinery involved in cell division.", "One theory as to why these drugs kill cancer cells is that they induce a programmed form of cell death known as apoptosis.As chemotherapy affects cell division, tumors with high growth rates (such as acute myelogenous leukemia and the aggressive lymphomas, including Hodgkin's disease) are more sensitive to chemotherapy, as a larger proportion of the targeted cells are undergoing cell division at any time.", "Malignancies with slower growth rates, such as indolent lymphomas, tend to respond to chemotherapy much more modestly.", "Heterogeneic tumours may also display varying sensitivities to chemotherapy agents, depending on the subclonal populations within the tumor.Cells from the immune system also make crucial contributions to the antitumor effects of chemotherapy.", "For example, the chemotherapeutic drugs oxaliplatin and cyclophosphamide can cause tumor cells to die in a way that is detectable by the immune system (called immunogenic cell death), which mobilizes immune cells with antitumor functions.", "Chemotherapeutic drugs that cause cancer immunogenic tumor cell death can make unresponsive tumors sensitive to immune checkpoint therapy." ], [ "Other uses", "Some chemotherapy drugs are used in diseases other than cancer, such as in autoimmune disorders, and noncancerous plasma cell dyscrasia.", "In some cases they are often used at lower doses, which means that the side effects are minimized, while in other cases doses similar to ones used to treat cancer are used.", "Methotrexate is used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriasis, ankylosing spondylitis and multiple sclerosis.", "The anti-inflammatory response seen in RA is thought to be due to increases in adenosine, which causes immunosuppression; effects on immuno-regulatory cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme pathways; reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokines; and anti-proliferative properties.", "Although methotrexate is used to treat both multiple sclerosis and ankylosing spondylitis, its efficacy in these diseases is still uncertain.", "Cyclophosphamide is sometimes used to treat lupus nephritis, a common symptom of systemic lupus erythematosus.", "Dexamethasone along with either bortezomib or melphalan is commonly used as a treatment for AL amyloidosis.", "Recently, bortezomid in combination with cyclophosphamide and dexamethasone has also shown promise as a treatment for AL amyloidosis.", "Other drugs used to treat myeloma such as lenalidomide have shown promise in treating AL amyloidosis.Chemotherapy drugs are also used in conditioning regimens prior to bone marrow transplant (hematopoietic stem cell transplant).", "Conditioning regimens are used to suppress the recipient's immune system in order to allow a transplant to engraft.", "Cyclophosphamide is a common cytotoxic drug used in this manner and is often used in conjunction with total body irradiation.", "Chemotherapeutic drugs may be used at high doses to permanently remove the recipient's bone marrow cells (myeloablative conditioning) or at lower doses that will prevent permanent bone marrow loss (non-myeloablative and reduced intensity conditioning).", "When used in non-cancer setting, the treatment is still called \"chemotherapy\", and is often done in the same treatment centers used for people with cancer." ], [ "Occupational exposure and safe handling", "In the 1970s, antineoplastic (chemotherapy) drugs were identified as hazardous, and the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP) has since then introduced the concept of hazardous drugs after publishing a recommendation in 1983 regarding handling hazardous drugs.", "The adaptation of federal regulations came when the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) first released its guidelines in 1986 and then updated them in 1996, 1999, and, most recently, 2006.The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has been conducting an assessment in the workplace since then regarding these drugs.", "Occupational exposure to antineoplastic drugs has been linked to multiple health effects, including infertility and possible carcinogenic effects.", "A few cases have been reported by the NIOSH alert report, such as one in which a female pharmacist was diagnosed with papillary transitional cell carcinoma.", "Twelve years before the pharmacist was diagnosed with the condition, she had worked for 20 months in a hospital where she was responsible for preparing multiple antineoplastic drugs.", "The pharmacist did not have any other risk factor for cancer, and therefore, her cancer was attributed to the exposure to the antineoplastic drugs, although a cause-and-effect relationship has not been established in the literature.", "Another case happened when a malfunction in biosafety cabinetry is believed to have exposed nursing personnel to antineoplastic drugs.", "Investigations revealed evidence of genotoxic biomarkers two and nine months after that exposure.=== Routes of exposure ===Antineoplastic drugs are usually given through intravenous, intramuscular, intrathecal, or subcutaneous administration.", "In most cases, before the medication is administered to the patient, it needs to be prepared and handled by several workers.", "Any worker who is involved in handling, preparing, or administering the drugs, or with cleaning objects that have come into contact with antineoplastic drugs, is potentially exposed to hazardous drugs.", "Health care workers are exposed to drugs in different circumstances, such as when pharmacists and pharmacy technicians prepare and handle antineoplastic drugs and when nurses and physicians administer the drugs to patients.", "Additionally, those who are responsible for disposing antineoplastic drugs in health care facilities are also at risk of exposure.Dermal exposure is thought to be the main route of exposure due to the fact that significant amounts of the antineoplastic agents have been found in the gloves worn by healthcare workers who prepare, handle, and administer the agents.", "Another noteworthy route of exposure is inhalation of the drugs' vapors.", "Multiple studies have investigated inhalation as a route of exposure, and although air sampling has not shown any dangerous levels, it is still a potential route of exposure.", "Ingestion by hand to mouth is a route of exposure that is less likely compared to others because of the enforced hygienic standard in the health institutions.", "However, it is still a potential route, especially in the workplace, outside of a health institute.", "One can also be exposed to these hazardous drugs through injection by needle sticks.", "Research conducted in this area has established that occupational exposure occurs by examining evidence in multiple urine samples from health care workers.=== Hazards ===Hazardous drugs expose health care workers to serious health risks.", "Many studies show that antineoplastic drugs could have many side effects on the reproductive system, such as fetal loss, congenital malformation, and infertility.", "Health care workers who are exposed to antineoplastic drugs on many occasions have adverse reproductive outcomes such as spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, and congenital malformations.", "Moreover, studies have shown that exposure to these drugs leads to menstrual cycle irregularities.", "Antineoplastic drugs may also increase the risk of learning disabilities among children of health care workers who are exposed to these hazardous substances.Moreover, these drugs have carcinogenic effects.", "In the past five decades, multiple studies have shown the carcinogenic effects of exposure to antineoplastic drugs.", "Similarly, there have been research studies that linked alkylating agents with humans developing leukemias.", "Studies have reported elevated risk of breast cancer, nonmelanoma skin cancer, and cancer of the rectum among nurses who are exposed to these drugs.", "Other investigations revealed that there is a potential genotoxic effect from anti-neoplastic drugs to workers in health care settings.=== Safe handling in health care settings ===As of 2018, there were no occupational exposure limits set for antineoplastic drugs, i.e., OSHA or the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) have not set workplace safety guidelines.==== Preparation ====NIOSH recommends using a ventilated cabinet that is designed to decrease worker exposure.", "Additionally, it recommends training of all staff, the use of cabinets, implementing an initial evaluation of the technique of the safety program, and wearing protective gloves and gowns when opening drug packaging, handling vials, or labeling.", "When wearing personal protective equipment, one should inspect gloves for physical defects before use and always wear double gloves and protective gowns.", "Health care workers are also required to wash their hands with water and soap before and after working with antineoplastic drugs, change gloves every 30 minutes or whenever punctured, and discard them immediately in a chemotherapy waste container.The gowns used should be disposable gowns made of polyethylene-coated polypropylene.", "When wearing gowns, individuals should make sure that the gowns are closed and have long sleeves.", "When preparation is done, the final product should be completely sealed in a plastic bag.The health care worker should also wipe all waste containers inside the ventilated cabinet before removing them from the cabinet.", "Finally, workers should remove all protective wear and put them in a bag for their disposal inside the ventilated cabinet.==== Administration ====Drugs should only be administered using protective medical devices such as needle lists and closed systems and techniques such as priming of IV tubing by pharmacy personnel inside a ventilated cabinet.", "Workers should always wear personal protective equipment such as double gloves, goggles, and protective gowns when opening the outer bag and assembling the delivery system to deliver the drug to the patient, and when disposing of all material used in the administration of the drugs.Hospital workers should never remove tubing from an IV bag that contains an antineoplastic drug, and when disconnecting the tubing in the system, they should make sure the tubing has been thoroughly flushed.", "After removing the IV bag, the workers should place it together with other disposable items directly in the yellow chemotherapy waste container with the lid closed.", "Protective equipment should be removed and put into a disposable chemotherapy waste container.", "After this has been done, one should double bag the chemotherapy waste before or after removing one's inner gloves.", "Moreover, one must always wash one's hands with soap and water before leaving the drug administration site.==== Employee training ====All employees whose jobs in health care facilities expose them to hazardous drugs must receive training.", "Training should include shipping and receiving personnel, housekeepers, pharmacists, assistants, and all individuals involved in the transportation and storage of antineoplastic drugs.", "These individuals should receive information and training to inform them of the hazards of the drugs present in their areas of work.", "They should be informed and trained on operations and procedures in their work areas where they can encounter hazards, different methods used to detect the presence of hazardous drugs and how the hazards are released, and the physical and health hazards of the drugs, including their reproductive and carcinogenic hazard potential.", "Additionally, they should be informed and trained on the measures they should take to avoid and protect themselves from these hazards.", "This information ought to be provided when health care workers come into contact with the drugs, that is, perform the initial assignment in a work area with hazardous drugs.", "Moreover, training should also be provided when new hazards emerge as well as when new drugs, procedures, or equipment are introduced.==== Housekeeping and waste disposal ====When performing cleaning and decontaminating the work area where antineoplastic drugs are used, one should make sure that there is sufficient ventilation to prevent the buildup of airborne drug concentrations.", "When cleaning the work surface, hospital workers should use deactivation and cleaning agents before and after each activity as well as at the end of their shifts.", "Cleaning should always be done using double protective gloves and disposable gowns.", "After employees finish up cleaning, they should dispose of the items used in the activity in a yellow chemotherapy waste container while still wearing protective gloves.", "After removing the gloves, they should thoroughly wash their hands with soap and water.", "Anything that comes into contact or has a trace of the antineoplastic drugs, such as needles, empty vials, syringes, gowns, and gloves, should be put in the chemotherapy waste container.==== Spill control ====A written policy needs to be in place in case of a spill of antineoplastic products.", "The policy should address the possibility of various sizes of spills as well as the procedure and personal protective equipment required for each size.", "A trained worker should handle a large spill and always dispose of all cleanup materials in the chemical waste container according to EPA regulations, not in a yellow chemotherapy waste container.=== Occupational monitoring ===A medical surveillance program must be established.", "In case of exposure, occupational health professionals need to ask for a detailed history and do a thorough physical exam.", "They should test the urine of the potentially exposed worker by doing a urine dipstick or microscopic examination, mainly looking for blood, as several antineoplastic drugs are known to cause bladder damage.Urinary mutagenicity is a marker of exposure to antineoplastic drugs that was first used by Falck and colleagues in 1979 and uses bacterial mutagenicity assays.", "Apart from being nonspecific, the test can be influenced by extraneous factors such as dietary intake and smoking and is, therefore, used sparingly.", "However, the test played a significant role in changing the use of horizontal flow cabinets to vertical flow biological safety cabinets during the preparation of antineoplastic drugs because the former exposed health care workers to high levels of drugs.", "This changed the handling of drugs and effectively reduced workers' exposure to antineoplastic drugs.Biomarkers of exposure to antineoplastic drugs commonly include urinary platinum, methotrexate, urinary cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide, and urinary metabolite of 5-fluorouracil.", "In addition to this, there are other drugs used to measure the drugs directly in the urine, although they are rarely used.", "A measurement of these drugs directly in one's urine is a sign of high exposure levels and that an uptake of the drugs is happening either through inhalation or dermally." ], [ "Available agents", "There is an extensive list of antineoplastic agents.", "Several classification schemes have been used to subdivide the medicines used for cancer into several different types." ], [ "History", "Sidney Farber did pioneering work in chemotherapy.Jane C. Wright pioneered the use of the drug methotrexate to treat breast cancer and skin cancerThe first use of small-molecule drugs to treat cancer was in the early 20th century, although the specific chemicals first used were not originally intended for that purpose.", "Mustard gas was used as a chemical warfare agent during World War I and was discovered to be a potent suppressor of hematopoiesis (blood production).", "A similar family of compounds known as nitrogen mustards were studied further during World War II at the Yale School of Medicine.", "It was reasoned that an agent that damaged the rapidly growing white blood cells might have a similar effect on cancer.", "Therefore, in December 1942, several people with advanced lymphomas (cancers of the lymphatic system and lymph nodes) were given the drug by vein, rather than by breathing the irritating gas.", "Their improvement, although temporary, was remarkable.", "Concurrently, during a military operation in World War II, following a German air raid on the Italian harbour of Bari, several hundred people were accidentally exposed to mustard gas, which had been transported there by the Allied forces to prepare for possible retaliation in the event of German use of chemical warfare.", "The survivors were later found to have very low white blood cell counts.", "After WWII was over and the reports declassified, the experiences converged and led researchers to look for other substances that might have similar effects against cancer.", "The first chemotherapy drug to be developed from this line of research was mustine.", "Since then, many other drugs have been developed to treat cancer, and drug development has exploded into a multibillion-dollar industry, although the principles and limitations of chemotherapy discovered by the early researchers still apply.=== The term ''chemotherapy'' ===The word ''chemotherapy'' without a modifier usually refers to cancer treatment, but its historical meaning was broader.", "The term was coined in the early 1900s by Paul Ehrlich as meaning any use of chemicals to treat any disease (''chemo-'' + ''-therapy''), such as the use of antibiotics (''antibacterial chemotherapy'').", "Ehrlich was not optimistic that effective chemotherapy drugs would be found for the treatment of cancer.", "The first modern chemotherapeutic agent was arsphenamine, an arsenic compound discovered in 1907 and used to treat syphilis.", "This was later followed by sulfonamides (sulfa drugs) and penicillin.", "In today's usage, the sense \"any treatment of disease with drugs\" is often expressed with the word ''pharmacotherapy''.", "In terms of metaphorical language, 'chemotherapy' can be paralleled with the idea of a 'storm', as both can cause distress but afterwards may have a healing/cleaning effect." ], [ "Research", "Scanning electron micrograph of mesoporous silica, a type of nanoparticle used in the delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs=== Targeted delivery vehicles ===Specially targeted delivery vehicles aim to increase effective levels of chemotherapy for tumor cells while reducing effective levels for other cells.", "This should result in an increased tumor kill or reduced toxicity or both.==== Antibody-drug conjugates ====Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) comprise an antibody, drug and a linker between them.", "The antibody will be targeted at a preferentially expressed protein in the tumour cells (known as a tumor antigen) or on cells that the tumor can utilise, such as blood vessel endothelial cells.", "They bind to the tumor antigen and are internalised, where the linker releases the drug into the cell.", "These specially targeted delivery vehicles vary in their stability, selectivity, and choice of target, but, in essence, they all aim to increase the maximum effective dose that can be delivered to the tumor cells.", "Reduced systemic toxicity means that they can also be used in people who are sicker and that they can carry new chemotherapeutic agents that would have been far too toxic to deliver via traditional systemic approaches.The first approved drug of this type was gemtuzumab ozogamicin (Mylotarg), released by Wyeth (now Pfizer).", "The drug was approved to treat acute myeloid leukemia.", "Two other drugs, trastuzumab emtansine and brentuximab vedotin, are both in late clinical trials, and the latter has been granted accelerated approval for the treatment of refractory Hodgkin's lymphoma and systemic anaplastic large cell lymphoma.==== Nanoparticles ====Nanoparticles are 1–1000 nanometer (nm) sized particles that can promote tumor selectivity and aid in delivering low-solubility drugs.", "Nanoparticles can be targeted passively or actively.", "Passive targeting exploits the difference between tumor blood vessels and normal blood vessels.", "Blood vessels in tumors are \"leaky\" because they have gaps from 200 to 2000 nm, which allow nanoparticles to escape into the tumor.", "Active targeting uses biological molecules (antibodies, proteins, DNA and receptor ligands) to preferentially target the nanoparticles to the tumor cells.", "There are many types of nanoparticle delivery systems, such as silica, polymers, liposomes and magnetic particles.", "Nanoparticles made of magnetic material can also be used to concentrate agents at tumor sites using an externally applied magnetic field.", "They have emerged as a useful vehicle in magnetic drug delivery for poorly soluble agents such as paclitaxel.=== Electrochemotherapy ===Electrochemotherapy is the combined treatment in which injection of a chemotherapeutic drug is followed by application of high-voltage electric pulses locally to the tumor.", "The treatment enables the chemotherapeutic drugs, which otherwise cannot or hardly go through the membrane of cells (such as bleomycin and cisplatin), to enter the cancer cells.", "Hence, greater effectiveness of antitumor treatment is achieved.Clinical electrochemotherapy has been successfully used for treatment of cutaneous and subcutaneous tumors irrespective of their histological origin.", "The method has been reported as safe, simple and highly effective in all reports on clinical use of electrochemotherapy.", "According to the ESOPE project (European Standard Operating Procedures of Electrochemotherapy), the Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for electrochemotherapy were prepared, based on the experience of the leading European cancer centres on electrochemotherapy.", "Recently, new electrochemotherapy modalities have been developed for treatment of internal tumors using surgical procedures, endoscopic routes or percutaneous approaches to gain access to the treatment area.=== Hyperthermia therapy ===Hyperthermia therapy is heat treatment for cancer that can be a powerful tool when used in combination with chemotherapy (thermochemotherapy) or radiation for the control of a variety of cancers.", "The heat can be applied locally to the tumor site, which will dilate blood vessels to the tumor, allowing more chemotherapeutic medication to enter the tumor.", "Additionally, the tumor cell membrane will become more porous, further allowing more of the chemotherapeutic medicine to enter the tumor cell.Hyperthermia has also been shown to help prevent or reverse \"chemo-resistance.\"", "Chemotherapy resistance sometimes develops over time as the tumors adapt and can overcome the toxicity of the chemo medication.", "\"Overcoming chemoresistance has been extensively studied within the past, especially using CDDP-resistant cells.", "In regard to the potential benefit that drug-resistant cells can be recruited for effective therapy by combining chemotherapy with hyperthermia, it was important to show that chemoresistance against several anticancer drugs (e.g.", "mitomycin C, anthracyclines, BCNU, melphalan) including CDDP could be reversed at least partially by the addition of heat." ], [ "Other animals", "Chemotherapy is used in veterinary medicine similar to how it is used in human medicine." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Chemotherapy, American Cancer Society* Hazardous Drug Exposures in Health Care, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health* NIOSH List of Antineoplastic and Other Hazardous Drugs in Healthcare Settings, 2016, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chinese historiography" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chinese historiography''' is the study of the techniques and sources used by historians to develop the recorded history of China." ], [ "Overview of Chinese history", "The recording of events in Chinese history dates back to the Shang dynasty ( 1600–1046 BC).", "Many written examples survive of ceremonial inscriptions, divinations and records of family names, which were carved or painted onto tortoise shell or bones.", "The uniformly religious context of Shang written records makes avoidance of preservation bias important when interpreting Shang history.", "The first conscious attempt to record history in China may have been the inscription on the Zhou dynasty bronze Shi Qiang ''pan''.", "This and thousands of other Chinese bronze inscriptions form our primary sources for the period in which they were interred in elite burials.The oldest surviving history texts of China were compiled in the ''Book of Documents (Shujing)''.", "The ''Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu)'', the official chronicle of the State of Lu, cover the period from 722 to 481 BC and are among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts to be arranged as annals.", "The compilations of both of these works are traditionally ascribed to Confucius.", "The ''Zuo zhuan'', attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BC, is the earliest Chinese work of narrative history and covers the period from 722 to 468 BC.", "The anonymous ''Zhan Guo Ce'' was a renowned ancient Chinese historical work composed of sporadic materials on the Warring States period between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC.The first systematic Chinese historical text, the ''Records of the Grand Historian'' (''Shiji''), was written by Sima Qian (145 or 135–86BC) based on work by his father, Sima Tan, during the Han Dynasty.", "It covers the period from the time of the Yellow Emperor until the author's own lifetime.", "Two instances of systematic book-burning and a palace fire in the preceding centuries narrowed the sources available for this work.", "Because of this highly praised and frequently copied work, Sima Qian is often regarded as the father of Chinese historiography.", "The ''Twenty-Four Histories'', the official histories of the dynasties considered legitimate by imperial Chinese historians, all copied Sima Qian's format.", "Typically, rulers initiating a new dynasty would employ scholars to compile a final history from the records of the previous one, using a broad variety of sources.Around the turn of the millennium, father–son imperial librarians Liu Xiang and Liu Xin edited and catalogued a large number of early texts, including each individual text listed by name above.", "Much transmitted literature surviving today is known to be ultimately the version they edited down from a larger volume of material available at the time.", "In 190, the imperial capital was again destroyed by arson, causing the loss of significant amounts of historical material.The ''Shitong'' was the first Chinese work about historiography.", "It was compiled by Liu Zhiji between 708 and 710 AD.", "The book describes the general pattern of the official dynastic histories with regard to the structure, method, arrangement, sequence, caption, and commentary, dating back to the Warring States period.The ''Zizhi Tongjian'' was a pioneering reference work of Chinese historiography.", "Emperor Yingzong of Song ordered Sima Guang and other scholars to begin compiling this universal history of China in 1065, and they presented it to his successor Shenzong in 1084.It contains 294 volumes and about three million characters, and it narrates the history of China from 403 BC to the beginning of the Song dynasty in 959.This style broke the nearly thousand-year tradition of Sima Qian, which employed annals for imperial reigns but biographies or treatises for other topics.", "The more consistent style of the ''Zizhi Tongjian'' was not followed by later official histories.", "In the mid 13th century, Ouyang Xiu was heavily influenced by the work of Xue Juzheng.", "This led to the creation of the ''New History of the Five Dynasties'', which covered five dynasties in over 70 chapters.Toward the end of the Qing dynasty in the early 20th century, scholars looked to Japan and the West for models.", "In the late 1890s, although deeply learned in the traditional forms, Liang Qichao began to publish extensive and influential studies and polemics that converted young readers to a new type of historiography that Liang regarded as more scientific.", "Liu Yizheng published several specialized history works including ''History of Chinese Culture''.", "This next generation became professional historians, training and teaching in universities.", "They included Chang Chi-yun, Gu Jiegang, Fu Sinian, and Tsiang Tingfu, who were PhDs from Columbia University; and Chen Yinke, who conducted his investigations into medieval Chinese history in both Europe and the United States.", "Other historians, such as Qian Mu, who was trained largely through independent study, were more conservative but remained innovative in their response to world trends.", "In the 1920s, wide-ranging scholars, such as Guo Moruo, adapted Marxism in order to portray China as a nation among nations, rather than having an exotic and isolated history.", "The ensuing years saw historians such as Wu Han master both Western theories, including Marxism, and Chinese learning." ], [ "Key organizing concepts", "===Dynastic cycle===Like the three ages of the Greek poet Hesiod, the oldest Chinese historiography viewed mankind as living in a fallen age of depravity, cut off from the virtues of the past, as Confucius and his disciples revered the sage kings Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun.Unlike Hesiod's system, however, the Duke of Zhou's idea of the Mandate of Heaven as a rationale for dethroning the supposedly divine Zi clan led subsequent historians to see man's fall as a cyclical pattern.", "In this view, a new dynasty is founded by a morally upright founder, but his successors cannot help but become increasingly corrupt and dissolute.", "This immorality removes the dynasty's divine favor and is manifested by natural disasters (particularly floods), rebellions, and foreign invasions.", "Eventually, the dynasty becomes weak enough to be replaced by a new one, whose founder is able to rectify many of society's problems and begin the cycle anew.", "Over time, many people felt a full correction was not possible, and that the golden age of Yao and Shun could not be attained.This teleological theory implies that there can be only one rightful sovereign under heaven at a time.", "Thus, despite the fact that Chinese history has had many lengthy and contentious periods of disunity, a great effort was made by official historians to establish a legitimate precursor whose fall allowed a new dynasty to acquire its mandate.", "Similarly, regardless of the particular merits of individual emperors, founders would be portrayed in more laudatory terms, and the last ruler of a dynasty would always be castigated as depraved and unworthy – even when that was not the case.", "Such a narrative was employed after the fall of the empire by those compiling the history of the Qing, and by those who justified the attempted restorations of the imperial system by Yuan Shikai and Zhang Xun.===Multi-ethnic history===Traditional Chinese historiography includes states of other peoples (Mongols, Manchus, Tibetans etc.)", "in the dynastic history of China proper, ignoring their own historical traditions and considering them parts of China.", "Two historiographic traditions: of unity in East Asia as a historical norm for this region, and of dynasties successively reigning on the Son of Heaven's throne allowed Chinese elites describing historical process in China in simplified categories providing the basis for the concept of modern \"unitary China\" within the borders of the former Qing Empire, which was also ruled by Chinese emperors.", "However, deeper analysis reveals that, in fact, there was not a succession of dynasties ruled the same unitary China, but there were different states in certain regions of East Asia, some of which have been termed by later historiographers as the Empire ruled by the Son of the Heaven.As early as the 1930s, the American scholar Owen Lattimore argued that China was the product of the interaction of farming and pastoral societies, rather than simply the expansion of the Han people.", "Lattimore did not accept the more extreme Sino-Babylonian theories that the essential elements of early Chinese technology and religion had come from Western Asia, but he was among the scholars to argue against the assumption they had all been indigenous.Both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China hold the view that Chinese history should include all the ethnic groups of the lands held by the Qing dynasty during its territorial peak, with these ethnicities forming part of the ''Zhonghua minzu'' (Chinese nation).", "This view is in contrast with Han chauvinism promoted by the Qing-era Tongmenghui.", "This expanded view encompasses internal and external tributary lands, as well as conquest dynasties in the history of a China seen as a coherent multi-ethnic nation since time immemorial, incorporating and accepting the contributions and cultures of non-Han ethnicities.The acceptance of this view by ethnic minorities sometimes depends on their views on present-day issues.", "The 14th Dalai Lama, long insistent on Tibet's history being separate from that of China, conceded in 2005 that Tibet \"is a part of\" China's \"5,000-year history\" as part of a new proposal for Tibetan autonomy.", "Korean nationalists have virulently reacted against China's application to UNESCO for recognition of the Goguryeo tombs in Chinese territory.", "The absolute independence of Goguryeo is a central aspect of Korean identity, because, according to Korean legend, Goguryeo was independent of China and Japan, compared to subordinate states such as the Joseon dynasty and the Korean Empire.", "The legacy of Genghis Khan has been contested between China, Mongolia, and Russia, all three states having significant numbers of ethnic Mongols within their borders and holding territory that was conquered by the Khan.The Jin dynasty tradition of a new dynasty composing the official history for its preceding dynasty/dynasties has been seen to foster an ethnically inclusive interpretation of Chinese history.", "The compilation of official histories usually involved monumental intellectual labor.", "The Yuan and Qing dynasties, ruled by the Mongols and Manchus, faithfully carried out this practice, composing the official Chinese-language histories of the Han-ruled Song and Ming dynasties, respectively.Recent Western scholars have reacted against the ethnically inclusive narrative in Communist-sponsored history, by writing revisionist histories of China such as the New Qing History that feature, according to James A. Millward, \"a degree of 'partisanship' for the indigenous underdogs of frontier history\".", "Scholarly interest in writing about Chinese minorities from non-Chinese perspectives is growing.", "So too is the rejection of a unified cultural narrative in early China.", "Historians engaging with archaeological progress find increasingly demonstrated a rich amalgam of diverse cultures in regions the received literature positions as homogeneous.===Marxism===Most Chinese history that is published in the People's Republic of China is based on a Marxist interpretation of history.", "These theories were first applied in the 1920s by Chinese scholars such as Guo Moruo, and became orthodoxy in academic study after 1949.The Marxist view of history is that history is governed by universal laws and that according to these laws, a society moves through a series of stages, with the transition between stages being driven by class struggle.", "These stages are:* Slave society* Feudal society* Capitalist society* Socialist society* The world communist societyThe official historical view within the People's Republic of China associates each of these stages with a particular era in Chinese history.", "* Slave society – Xia to Zhou* Feudal society (decentralized) – Qin to Sui* Feudal society (bureaucratic) – Tang to the First Opium War* Feudal society (semi-colonial) – First Opium War to end of Qing dynasty* Semi-feudal and Semi-capitalist society – Republican era* Socialist society – PRC 1949 to presentBecause of the strength of the Chinese Communist Party and the importance of the Marxist interpretation of history in legitimizing its rule, it was for many years difficult for historians within the PRC to actively argue in favor of non-Marxist and anti-Marxist interpretations of history.", "However, this political restriction is less confining than it may first appear in that the Marxist historical framework is surprisingly flexible, and it is a rather simple matter to modify an alternative historical theory to use language that at least does not challenge the Marxist interpretation of history.Partly because of the interest of Mao Zedong, historians in the 1950s took a special interest in the role of peasant rebellions in Chinese history and compiled documentary histories to examine them.There are several problems associated with imposing Marx's European-based framework on Chinese history.", "First, slavery existed throughout China's history but never as the primary form of labor.", "While the Zhou and earlier dynasties may be labeled as feudal, later dynasties were much more centralized than how Marx analyzed their European counterparts as being.", "To account for the discrepancy, Chinese Marxists invented the term \"bureaucratic feudalism\".", "The placement of the Tang as the beginning of the bureaucratic phase rests largely on the replacement of patronage networks with the imperial examination.", "Some world-systems analysts, such as Janet Abu-Lughod, claim that analysis of Kondratiev waves shows that capitalism first arose in Song dynasty China, although widespread trade was subsequently disrupted and then curtailed.The Japanese scholar Tanigawa Michio, writing in the 1970s and 1980s, set out to revise the generally Marxist views of China prevalent in post-war Japan.", "Tanigawa writes that historians in Japan fell into two schools.", "One held that China followed the set European pattern which Marxists thought to be universal; that is, from ancient slavery to medieval feudalism to modern capitalism; while another group argued that \"Chinese society was extraordinarily saturated with stagnancy, as compared to the West\" and assumed that China existed in a \"qualitatively different historical world from Western society\".", "That is, there is an argument between those who see \"unilinear, monistic world history\" and those who conceive of a \"two-tracked or multi-tracked world history\".", "Tanigawa reviewed the applications of these theories in Japanese writings about Chinese history and then tested them by analyzing the Six Dynasties 220–589 CE period, which Marxist historians saw as feudal.", "His conclusion was that China did not have feudalism in the sense that Marxists use, that Chinese military governments did not lead to a European-style military aristocracy.", "The period established social and political patterns which shaped China's history from that point on.There was a gradual relaxation of Marxist interpretation after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, which was accelerated after the Tian'anmen Square protest and other revolutions in 1989, which damaged Marxism's ideological legitimacy in the eyes of Chinese academics.===Modernization===This view of Chinese history sees Chinese society as a traditional society needing to become modern, usually with the implicit assumption of Western society as the model.", "Such a view was common amongst European and American historians during the 19th and early 20th centuries, but is now criticized for being a Eurocentric viewpoint, since such a view permits an implicit justification for breaking the society from its static past and bringing it into the modern world under European direction.By the mid-20th century, it was increasingly clear to historians that the notion of \"changeless China\" was untenable.", "A new concept, popularized by John Fairbank, was the notion of \"change within tradition\", which argued that China did change in the pre-modern period but that this change existed within certain cultural traditions.", "This notion has also been subject to the criticism that to say \"China has not changed fundamentally\" is tautological, since it requires that one look for things that have not changed and then arbitrarily define those as fundamental.Nonetheless, studies seeing China's interaction with Europe as the driving force behind its recent history are still common.", "Such studies may consider the First Opium War as the starting point for China's modern period.", "Examples include the works of H.B.", "Morse, who wrote chronicles of China's international relations such as ''Trade and Relations of the Chinese Empire''.", "The Chinese convention is to use the word ''jindai'' (\"modern\") to refer to a timeframe for modernity which begins with the Opium wars and continues through the May Fourth period.In the 1950s, several of Fairbank's students argued that Confucianism was incompatible with modernity.", "Joseph Levenson and Mary C. Wright, and Albert Feuerwerker argued in effect that traditional Chinese values were a barrier to modernity and would have to be abandoned before China could make progress.", "Wright concluded, \"The failure of the Tongzhi Restoration|T'ung-chih ''Tongzhi'' Restoration demonstrated with a rare clarity that even in the most favorable circumstances there is no way in which an effective modern state can be grafted onto a Confucian society.", "Yet in the decades that followed, the political ideas that had been tested and, for all their grandeur, found wanting, were never given a decent burial.", "\"In a different view of modernization, the Japanese historian Naito Torajiro argued that China reached modernity during its mid-Imperial period, centuries before Europe.", "He believed that the reform of the civil service into a meritocratic system and the disappearance of the ancient Chinese nobility from the bureaucracy constituted a modern society.", "The problem associated with this approach is the subjective meaning of modernity.", "The Chinese nobility had been in decline since the Qin dynasty, and while the exams were largely meritocratic, performance required time and resources that meant examinees were still typically from the gentry.", "Moreover, expertise in the Confucian classics did not guarantee competent bureaucrats when it came to managing public works or preparing a budget.", "Confucian hostility to commerce placed merchants at the bottom of the four occupations, itself an archaism maintained by devotion to classic texts.", "The social goal continued to be to invest in land and enter the gentry, ideas more like those of the physiocrats than those of Adam Smith.===Hydraulic despotism===With ideas derived from Marx and Max Weber, Karl August Wittfogel argued that bureaucracy arose to manage irrigation systems.", "Despotism was needed to force the people into building canals, dikes, and waterways to increase agriculture.", "Yu the Great, one of China's legendary founders, is known for his control of the floods of the Yellow River.", "The hydraulic empire produces wealth from its stability; while dynasties may change, the structure remains intact until destroyed by modern powers.", "In Europe abundant rainfall meant less dependence on irrigation.", "In the Orient natural conditions were such that the bulk of the land could not be cultivated without large-scale irrigation works.", "As only a centralized administration could organize the building and maintenance of large-scale systems of irrigation, the need for such systems made bureaucratic despotism inevitable in Oriental lands.When Wittfogel published his ''Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power'', critics pointed out that water management was given the high status China accorded to officials concerned with taxes, rituals, or fighting off bandits.", "The theory also has a strong orientalist bent, regarding all Asian states as generally the same while finding reasons for European polities not fitting the pattern.While Wittfogel's theories were not popular among Marxist historians in China, the economist Chi Ch'ao-ting used them in his influential 1936 book, ''Key Economic Areas in Chinese History, as Revealed in the Development of Public Works for Water-Control''.", "The book identified key areas of grain production which, when controlled by a strong political power, permitted that power to dominate the rest of the country and enforce periods of stability.===Convergence===Convergence theory, including Hu Shih and Ray Huang's involution theory, holds that the past 150 years have been a period in which Chinese and Western civilization have been in the process of converging into a world civilization.", "Such a view is heavily influenced by modernization theory but, in China's case, it is also strongly influenced by indigenous sources such as the notion of ''Shijie Datong'' or \"Great Unity\".", "It has tended to be less popular among more recent historians, as postmodern Western historians discount overarching narratives, and nationalist Chinese historians feel similar about narratives failing to account for some special or unique characteristics of Chinese culture.===Anti-imperialism===Closely related are colonial and anti-imperialist narratives.", "These often merge or are part of Marxist critiques from within China or the former Soviet Union, or are postmodern critiques such as Edward Said's ''Orientalism'', which fault traditional scholarship for trying to fit West, South, and East Asia's histories into European categories unsuited to them.", "With regard to China particularly, T.F.", "Tsiang and John Fairbank used newly opened archives in the 1930s to write modern history from a Chinese point of view.", "Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yu then edited the influential volume ''China's Response to the West'' (1953).", "This approach was attacked for ascribing the change in China to outside forces.", "In the 1980s, Paul Cohen, a student of Fairbank's, issued a call for a more \"China-Centered history of China\".===Republican===The schools of thought on the 1911 Revolution have evolved from the early years of the Republic.", "The Marxist view saw the events of 1911 as a bourgeois revolution.", "In the 1920s, the Nationalist Party issued a theory of three political stages based on Sun Yatsen's writings:* Military unification – 1923 to 1928 (Northern Expedition)* Political tutelage – 1928 to 1947* Constitutional democracy – 1947 onwardThe most obvious criticism is the near-identical nature of \"political tutelage\" and of a \"constitutional democracy\" consisting only of the one-party rule until the 1990s.", "Against this, Chen Shui-bian proposed his own four-stage theory.===Postmodernism===Postmodern interpretations of Chinese history tend to reject narrative history and instead focus on a small subset of Chinese history, particularly the daily lives of ordinary people in particular locations or settings.===Long-term political economy===Zooming out from the dynastic cycle but maintaining focus on power dynamics, the following general periodization, based on the most powerful groups and the ways that power is used, has been proposed for Chinese history:* The aristocratic settlement state (to 550 BCE)* Centralization of power with military revolution ( 550 BCE – 25 CE)* Landowning families competing for central power and integrating the South ( 25 – 755)* Imperial examination scholar-officials and commercialization ( 755 – 1550)* Commercial interests with global convergence (since 1550)" ], [ "Recent trends", "From the beginning of Communist rule in 1949 until the 1980s, Chinese historical scholarship focused largely on the officially sanctioned Marxist theory of class struggle.", "From the time of Deng Xiaoping (1978–1992) on, there has been a drift towards a Marxist-inspired Chinese nationalist perspective, and consideration of China's contemporary international status has become of paramount importance in historical studies.", "The current focus tends to be on specifics of civilization in ancient China, and the general paradigm of how China has responded to the dual challenges of interactions with the outside world and modernization in the post-1700 era.", "Long abandoned as a research focus among most Western scholars due to postmodernism's influence, this remains the primary interest for most historians inside China.The late 20th century and early 21st century have seen numerous studies of Chinese history that challenge traditional paradigms.", "The field is rapidly evolving, with much new scholarship, often based on the realization that there is much about Chinese history that is unknown or controversial.", "For example, an active topic concerns whether the typical Chinese peasant in 1900 was seeing his life improve.", "In addition to the realization that there are major gaps in our knowledge of Chinese history is the equal realization that there are tremendous quantities of primary source material that have not yet been analyzed.", "Scholars are using previously overlooked documentary evidence, such as masses of government and family archives, and economic records such as census tax rolls, price records, and land surveys.", "In addition, artifacts such as vernacular novels, how-to manuals, and children's books are analyzed for clues about day-to-day life.Recent Western scholarship of China has been heavily influenced by postmodernism, and has questioned modernist narratives of China's backwardness and lack of development.", "The desire to challenge the preconception that 19th-century China was weak, for instance, has led to a scholarly interest in Qing expansion into Central Asia.", "Postmodern scholarship largely rejects grand narratives altogether, preferring to publish empirical studies on the socioeconomics, and political or cultural dynamics, of smaller communities within China.As of at least 2023, there has been a surge of historical writing about key leaders of the Nationalist period.", "A significant amount of new writing includes texts written for a general (as opposed to only academic) audience.", "There has been an increasingly nuanced portrayal of Chiang Kai-shek, particularly in more favorably evaluating his leadership during the War of Resistance against Japan and highlighting his position as one of the Big Four allied leaders.", "Recently released archival sources on the Nationalist era, including the Chiang Kai-shek diaries at Stanford University's Hoover Institution, have contributed to a surge in academic publishing on the period.===Nationalism===In China, historical scholarship remains largely nationalist and modernist or even traditionalist.", "The legacies of the modernist school (such as Lo Hsiang-lin) and the traditionalist school (such as Qian Mu (Chien Mu)) remain strong in Chinese circles.", "The more modernist works focus on imperial systems in China and employ the scientific method to analyze epochs of Chinese dynasties from geographical, genealogical, and cultural artifacts.", "For example, using Carbon-14 dating and geographical records to correlate climates with cycles of calm and calamity in Chinese history.", "The traditionalist school of scholarship resorts to official imperial records and colloquial historical works, and analyzes the rise and fall of dynasties using Confucian philosophy, albeit modified by an institutional administration perspective.After 1911, writers, historians and scholars in China and abroad generally deprecated the late imperial system and its failures.", "However, in the 21st century, a highly favorable revisionism has emerged in the popular culture, in both the media and social media.", "Florian Schneider argues that nationalism in China in the early twenty-first century is largely a product of the digital revolution and that a large fraction of the population participates as readers and commentators who relate ideas to their friends over the internet." ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources and further reading===* Beasley, W. G. and Edwin G. Pulleyblank, eds.", "''Historians of China and Japan''.", "(Oxford UP, 1962).", "Essays on the historiographical traditions in pre-modern times.", "* Chan, Shelly.", "\"The case for diaspora: A temporal approach to the Chinese experience.\"", "''Journal of Asian Studies'' (2015): 107–128.online* Cohen, Paul A.", "''Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past''.", "Columbia University Press, 984.", "* Cohen, Paul.", "\"Reflections on a Watershed Date: The 1949 Divide in Chinese History,\" in Jeffrey Wasserstrom, ed., ''Twentieth-Century China: New Approaches'' (Routledge, 2003), 29–36.", "* Cohen, Paul.", "''Rethinking China's History: Alternative Perspectives on the Chinese Past'' (New York London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003).", "Reprints of Cohen's influential reviews and essays.", "* * Crossley, Pamela Kyle.", "\"The Historiography of Modern China,\" in Michael Bentley, ed., ''Companion to Historiography'' (Taylor & Francis, 1997), 641–658.", "* Arif Dirlik.", "''Revolution and History: The Origins of Marxist Historiography in China, 1919–1937''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978..* Duara, Prasenjit.", "''Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China''.", "(U of Chicago Press, 1995).", "* Evans, Paul M. ''John Fairbank and the American Understanding of Modern China'' (1988)* Feuerwerker, Albert.", "''History in Communist China''.", "Cambridge: M.I.T.", "Press, 1968.Essays on the post-1949 treatment of particular aspects of Chinese history.", "* Critique of orthodox historiography.", "* Fogel, Joshua A.", "''Politics and Sinology: The Case of Naito Konan (1866–1934)''.", "(Harvard University Press, Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1984.. Naito Konan developed the influential thesis that China developed an early modern society from the 8th to the 12th century.", "* Critiques the assumptions and methodology Chang Jung and John Halliday's ''Mao: The Unknown Story''.", "* The life and historiographical place of Kenneth Scott Latourette at Yale.", "* Li, Huaiyin.", "''Reinventing Modern China: Imagination and Authenticity in Chinese Historical Writing'' (U of Hawaii Press, 2012),* Rowe, William.", "\"Approaches to Modern Chinese Social History,\" in Olivier Zunz, ed., ''Reliving the Past: The Worlds of Social History'' (University of North Carolina Press 1985), pp. 236–296.", "* Rozman, Gilbert.", "''Soviet Studies of Premodern China: Assessments of Recent Scholarship''.", "(Center For Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1984).", ".", "* Shambaugh, David L. ''American Studies of Contemporary China'' (M.E.", "Sharpe, 1993)* Schneider, Florian.", "\"Mediated Massacre: Digital Nationalism and History Discourse on China's Web.\"", "''Journal of Asian Studies'' 77.2 (2018): 429–452.online* Schneider, Laurence A.", "''Ku Chieh-Kang and China's New History: Nationalism and the Quest for Alternative Traditions''.", "(U of California Press, 1971).", ".", "The first generation of Chinese historians to use Western concepts to write the history of China.", "* Tanaka, Stefan.", "''Japan's Orient: Rendering Pasts into History''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993..* See especially Pt One, \" Chinese Society And Feudalism: An Investigation Of The Past Literature,\" a review of Japanese historiography.", "* * Wilkinson, Endymion.", "''Chinese History: A New Manual.''", "(Harvard University Asia Center, Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series New Edition, 2012).", ".", "* * Wang, Q. Edward, NG, On-cho ''The Writing and Use of History in Imperial China''* * Zurndorfer, Harriet.", "\"A Guide to the 'New' Chinese History: Recent Publications Concerning Chinese Social and Economic Development before 1800,\" ''International Review of Social History'' 33: 148–201.===Primary sources===* * Fairbank, John K. ''Chinabound: A Fifty Year Memoir'' (1982)" ], [ "See also", "* History of China* History of Chinese archaeology* Timeline of Chinese history* Dynasties in Chinese history* Official communications of the Chinese Empire* Chinese industrialization* Population history of China* Sinology* Monarchy of China" ], [ "External links", "* Chinese Academy of Social Sciences*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chinese Communist Party" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Chinese Communist Party''' ('''CCP'''), officially the '''Communist Party of China''' ('''CPC'''), is the founding and sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC).", "Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the CCP emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil War against the Kuomintang.", "In 1949, Mao proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China.", "Since then, the CCP has governed China and has had sole control over the People's Liberation Army (PLA).", "Successive leaders of the CCP have added their own theories to the party's constitution, which outlines the party's ideology, collectively referred to as socialism with Chinese characteristics.", ", the CCP has more than 98 million members, making it the second largest political party by membership in the world after India's Bharatiya Janata Party.In 1921, Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao led the founding of the CCP with the help of the Far Eastern Bureau of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Far Eastern Bureau of the Communist International.", "For the first six years of its history, the CCP aligned itself with the Kuomintang (KMT) as the organized left wing of the larger nationalist movement.", "However, when the right wing of the KMT, led by Chiang Kai-shek, turned on the CCP and massacred tens of thousands of the party's members, the two parties split and began a prolonged civil war.", "During the next ten years of guerrilla warfare, Mao Zedong rose to become the most influential figure in the CCP, and the party established a strong base among the rural peasantry with its land reform policies.", "Support for the CCP continued to grow throughout the Second Sino-Japanese War, and after the Japanese surrender in 1945, the CCP emerged triumphant in the communist revolution against the Nationalist government.", "After the KMT's retreat to Taiwan, the CCP established the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949.Mao Zedong continued to be the most influential member of the CCP until his death in 1976, although he periodically withdrew from public leadership as his health deteriorated.", "Under Mao, the party completed its land reform program, launched a series of five-year plans, and eventually split with the Soviet Union.", "Although Mao attempted to purge the party of capitalist and reactionary elements during the Cultural Revolution, after his death, these policies were only briefly continued by the Gang of Four before a less radical faction seized control.", "During the 1980s, Deng Xiaoping directed the CCP away from Maoist orthodoxy and towards a policy of economic liberalization.", "The official explanation for these reforms was that China was still in the primary stage of socialism, a developmental stage similar to the capitalist mode of production.", "Since the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the CCP has focused on maintaining its relations with the ruling parties of the remaining socialist states and continues to participate in the International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties each year.", "The CCP has also established relations with several non-communist parties, including dominant nationalist parties of many developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, as well as social democratic parties in Europe.The Chinese Communist Party is organized based on democratic centralism, a principle that entails open policy discussion on the condition of unity among party members in upholding the agreed-upon decision.", "The highest body of the CCP is the National Congress, convened every fifth year.", "When the National Congress is not in session, the Central Committee is the highest body, but since that body usually only meets once a year, most duties and responsibilities are vested in the Politburo and its Standing Committee.", "Members of the latter are seen as the top leadership of the party and the state.", "Today the party's leader holds the offices of general secretary (responsible for civilian party duties), Chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC) (responsible for military affairs), and State President (a largely ceremonial position).", "Because of these posts, the party leader is seen as the country's paramount leader.", "The current leader is Xi Jinping, who was elected at the 1st Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee held on 15 November 2012 and has been reelected twice, on 25 October 2017 by the 19th Central Committee and on 10 October 2022 by the 20th Central Committee." ], [ "History", "=== Founding and early history ===The CCP traces its origins to the May Fourth Movement of 1919, during which radical Western ideologies like Marxism and anarchism gained traction among Chinese intellectuals.", "Other influences stemming from the October Revolution and Marxist theory inspired the CCP.", "Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao were among the first to publicly support Leninism and world revolution.", "Both regarded the October Revolution in Russia as groundbreaking, believing it to herald a new era for oppressed countries everywhere.", "Study circles were, according to Cai Hesen, \"the rudiments of our party\".", "Several study circles were established during the New Culture Movement, but by 1920 many grew skeptical about their ability to bring about reforms.Site of the first CCP Congress, in the former Shanghai French ConcessionThe CCP was founded on 1 July 1921 with the help of the Far Eastern Bureau of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Far Eastern Secretariat of the Communist International, according to the party's official account of its history.", "However, party documents suggest that the party's actual founding date was 23 July 1921, the first day of the 1st National Congress of the CCP.", "The founding National Congress of the CCP was held 23–31 July 1921.With only 50 members in the beginning of 1921, among them Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao and Mao Zedong, the CCP organization and authorities grew tremendously.", "While it was originally held in a house in the Shanghai French Concession, French police interrupted the meeting on 30 July and the congress was moved to a tourist boat on South Lake in Jiaxing, Zhejiang province.", "A dozen delegates attended the congress, with neither Li nor Chen being able to attend, the latter sending a personal representative in his stead.", "The resolutions of the congress called for the establishment of a communist party as a branch of the Communist International (Comintern) and elected Chen as its leader.", "Chen then served as the first general secretary of the CCP and was referred to as \"China's Lenin\".The Soviets hoped to foster pro-Soviet forces in East Asia to fight against anti-communist countries, particularly Japan.", "They attempted to contact the warlord Wu Peifu but failed.", "The Soviets then contacted the Kuomintang (KMT), which was leading the Guangzhou government parallel to the Beiyang government.", "On 6 October 1923, the Comintern sent Mikhail Borodin to Guangzhou, and the Soviets established friendly relations with the KMT.", "The Central Committee of the CCP, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, and the Comintern all hoped that the CCP would eventually control the KMT and called their opponents \"rightists\".", "KMT leader Sun Yat-sen eased the conflict between the communists and their opponents.", "CCP membership grew tremendously after the 4th congress in 1925, from 900 to 2,428.The CCP still treats Sun Yat-sen as one of the founders of their movement and claim descent from him as he is viewed as a proto-communist and the economic element of Sun's ideology was socialism.", "Sun stated, \"Our Principle of Livelihood is a form of communism\".The communists dominated the left wing of the KMT and struggled for power with the party's right-wing factions.", "When Sun Yat-sen died in March 1925, he was succeeded by a rightist, Chiang Kai-shek, who initiated moves to marginalize the position of the communists.", "Chiang, Sun's former assistant, was not actively anti-communist at that time, even though he hated the theory of class struggle and the CCP's seizure of power.", "The communists proposed removing Chiang's power.", "When Chiang gradually gained the support of Western countries, the conflict between him and the communists became more and more intense.", "Chiang asked the Kuomintang to join the Comintern to rule out the secret expansion of communists within the KMT, while Chen Duxiu hoped that the communists would completely withdraw from the KMT.In April 1927, both Chiang and the CCP were preparing for conflict.", "Fresh from the success of the Northern Expedition to overthrow the warlords, Chiang Kai-shek turned on the communists, who by now numbered in the tens of thousands across China.", "Ignoring the orders of the Wuhan-based KMT government, he marched on Shanghai, a city controlled by communist militias.", "Although the communists welcomed Chiang's arrival, he turned on them, massacring 5,000 with the aid of the Green Gang.", "Chiang's army then marched on Wuhan but was prevented from taking the city by CCP General Ye Ting and his troops.", "Chiang's allies also attacked communists; for example, in Beijing, Li Dazhao and 19 other leading communists were executed by Zhang Zuolin.", "Angered by these events, the peasant movement supported by the CCP became more violent.", "Ye Dehui, a famous scholar, was killed by communists in Changsha, and in revenge, KMT general He Jian and his troops gunned down hundreds of peasant militiamen.", "That May, tens of thousands of communists and their sympathizers were killed by KMT troops, with the CCP losing approximately of its members.=== Chinese Civil War and Second Sino-Japanese War ===Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red ArmyThe CCP continued supporting the Wuhan KMT government, but on 15 July 1927 the Wuhan government expelled all communists from the KMT.", "The CCP reacted by founding the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army of China, better known as the \"Red Army\", to battle the KMT.", "A battalion led by General Zhu De was ordered to take the city of Nanchang on 1 August 1927 in what became known as the Nanchang uprising.", "Initially successful, Zhu and his troops were forced to retreat after five days, marching south to Shantou, and from there being driven into the wilderness of Fujian.", "Mao Zedong was appointed commander-in-chief of the Red Army, and led four regiments against Changsha in the Autumn Harvest Uprising, hoping to spark peasant uprisings across Hunan.", "His plan was to attack the KMT-held city from three directions on 9 September, but the Fourth Regiment deserted to the KMT cause, attacking the Third Regiment.", "Mao's army made it to Changsha but could not take it; by 15 September, he accepted defeat, with 1,000 survivors marching east to the Jinggang Mountains of Jiangxi.The near destruction of the CCP's urban organizational apparatus led to institutional changes within the party.", "The party adopted democratic centralism, a way to organize revolutionary parties, and established a politburo to function as the standing committee of the central committee.", "The result was increased centralization of power within the party.", "At every level of the party this was duplicated, with standing committees now in effective control.", "After being expelled from the party, Chen Duxiu went on to lead China's Trotskyist movement.", "Li Lisan was able to assume ''de facto'' control of the party organization by 1929–1930.Li's leadership was a failure, leaving the CCP on the brink of destruction.", "The Comintern became involved, and by late 1930, his powers had been taken away.", "By 1935 Mao had become a member of Politburo Standing Committee of the CCP and the party's informal military leader, with Zhou Enlai and Zhang Wentian, the formal head of the party, serving as his informal deputies.", "The conflict with the KMT led to the reorganization of the Red Army, with power now centralized in the leadership through the creation of CCP political departments charged with supervising the army.The Xi'an Incident of December 1936 paused the conflict between the CCP and the KMT.", "Under pressure from Marshal Zhang Xueliang and the CCP, Chiang Kai-shek finally agreed to a Second United Front focused on repelling the Japanese invaders.", "While the front formally existed until 1945, all collaboration between the two parties had effectively ended by 1940.Despite their formal alliance, the CCP used the opportunity to expand and carve out independent bases of operations to prepare for the coming war with the KMT.", "In 1939 the KMT began to restrict CCP expansion within China.", "This led to frequent clashes between CCP and KMT forces which subsided rapidly on the realisation on both sides that civil war amidst a foreign invasion was not an option.", "By 1943, the CCP was again actively expanding its territory at the expense of the KMT.Liaoshen, Huaihai, and Pingjin Campaigns that decisively turned the war in favor of the CCP.Mao Zedong became the Chairman of the CCP in 1945.After the Japanese surrender in 1945, the war between the CCP and the KMT began again in earnest.", "The 1945–49 period had four stages; the first was from August 1945 (when the Japanese surrendered) to June 1946 (when the peace talks between the CCP and the KMT ended).", "By 1945, the KMT had three times more soldiers under its command than the CCP and initially appeared to be prevailing.", "With the cooperation of the U.S. and Japan, the KMT was able to retake major parts of the country.", "However, KMT rule over the reconquered territories proved unpopular because of its endemic political corruption.", "Notwithstanding its numerical superiority, the KMT failed to reconquer the rural territories which made up the CCP's stronghold.", "Around the same time, the CCP launched an invasion of Manchuria, where they were assisted by the Soviet Union.", "The second stage, lasting from July 1946 to June 1947, saw the KMT extend its control over major cities such as Yan'an, the CCP headquarters, for much of the war.", "The KMT's successes were hollow; the CCP had tactically withdrawn from the cities, and instead undermined KMT rule there by instigating protests amongst students and intellectuals.", "The KMT responded to these demonstrations with heavy-handed repression.", "In the meantime, the KMT was struggling with factional infighting and Chiang Kai-shek's autocratic control over the party, which weakened its ability to respond to attacks.", "The third stage, lasting from July 1947 to August 1948, saw a limited counteroffensive by the CCP.", "The objective was clearing \"Central China, strengthening North China, and recovering Northeast China.\"", "This operation, coupled with military desertions from the KMT, resulted in the KMT losing 2 million of its 3 million troops by the spring of 1948, and saw a significant decline in support for KMT rule.", "The CCP was consequently able to cut off KMT garrisons in Manchuria and retake several territories.", "The last stage, lasting from September 1948 to December 1949, saw the communists go on the offensive and the collapse of KMT rule in mainland China as a whole.", "Mao's proclamation of the founding of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949 marked the end of the second phase of the Chinese Civil War (or the Chinese Communist Revolution, as it is called by the CCP).=== Proclamation of the PRC and the 1950s ===Mao proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) before a massive crowd at Tiananmen Square on 1 October 1949.The CCP headed the Central People's Government.", "From this time through the 1980s, top leaders of the CCP (such as Mao Zedong, Lin Biao, Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping) were largely the same military leaders prior to the PRC's founding.", "As a result, informal personal ties between political and military leaders dominated civil-military relations.Chinese communists celebrate Joseph Stalin's birthday, 1949.Stalin proposed a one-party constitution when Liu Shaoqi visited the Soviet Union in 1952.The constitution of the PRC in 1954 subsequently abolished the previous coalition government and established the CCP's one-party system.", "In 1957, the CCP launched the Anti-Rightist Campaign against political dissidents and prominent figures from minor parties, which resulted in the political persecution of at least 550,000 people.", "The campaign significantly damaged the limited pluralistic nature in the socialist republic and solidified the country's status as a ''de facto'' one-party state.The Anti-Rightist Campaign led to the catastrophic results of the Second Five Year Plan from 1958 to 1962, known as the Great Leap Forward.", "In an effort to transform the country from an agrarian economy into an industrialized one, the CCP collectivized farmland, formed people's communes, and diverted labor to factories.", "General mismanagement and exaggerations of harvests by CCP officials led to the Great Chinese Famine, which resulted in an estimated 15 to 45 million deaths, making it the largest famine in recorded history.=== Sino-Soviet split and Cultural Revolution ===During the 1960s and 1970s, the CCP experienced a significant ideological separation from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union which was going through a period of \"de-Stalinization\" under Nikita Khrushchev.", "By that time, Mao had begun saying that the \"continued revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat\" stipulated that class enemies continued to exist even though the socialist revolution seemed to be complete, leading to the Cultural Revolution in which millions were persecuted and killed.", "During the Cultural Revolution, party leaders such as Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping, Peng Dehuai, and He Long were purged or exiled, and the Gang of Four, led by Mao's wife Jiang Qing, emerged to fill in the power vacuum left behind.=== Reforms under Deng Xiaoping ===Following Mao's death in 1976, a power struggle between CCP chairman Hua Guofeng and vice-chairman Deng Xiaoping erupted.", "Deng won the struggle, and became China's paramount leader in 1978.Deng, alongside Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang, spearheaded the \"reform and opening-up\" policies, and introduced the ideological concept of socialism with Chinese characteristics, opening China to the world's markets.", "In reversing some of Mao's \"leftist\" policies, Deng argued that a socialist state could use the market economy without itself being capitalist.", "While asserting the political power of the CCP, the change in policy generated significant economic growth.", "This was justified on the basis that \"Practice is the Sole Criterion for the Truth\", a principle reinforced through a 1978 article that aimed to combat dogmatism and criticized the \"Two Whatevers\" policy.", "The new ideology, however, was contested on both sides of the spectrum, by Maoists to the left of the CCP's leadership, as well as by those supporting political liberalization.", "With other social factors, the conflicts culminated in the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre.", "The protests having been crushed and the reformist party general secretary Zhao Ziyang under house arrest, Deng's economic policies resumed and by the early 1990s the concept of a socialist market economy had been introduced.", "In 1997, Deng's beliefs (officially called \"Deng Xiaoping Theory\") were embedded into the CCP's constitution.=== Further reforms under Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao ===CCP general secretary Jiang Zemin succeeded Deng as paramount leader in the 1990s and continued most of his policies.", "In the 1990s, the CCP transformed from a veteran revolutionary leadership that was both leading militarily and politically, to a political elite increasingly renewed according to institutionalized norms in the civil bureaucracy.", "Leadership was largely selected based on rules and norms on promotion and retirement, educational background, and managerial and technical expertise.", "There is a largely separate group of professionalized military officers, serving under top CCP leadership largely through formal relationships within institutional channels.As part of Jiang Zemin's nominal legacy, the CCP ratified the \"Three Represents\" for the 2003 revision of the party's constitution, as a \"guiding ideology\" to encourage the party to represent \"advanced productive forces, the progressive course of China's culture, and the fundamental interests of the people.\"", "The theory legitimized the entry of private business owners and bourgeois elements into the party.", "Hu Jintao, Jiang Zemin's successor as general secretary, took office in 2002.Unlike Mao, Deng and Jiang Zemin, Hu laid emphasis on collective leadership and opposed one-man dominance of the political system.", "The insistence on focusing on economic growth led to a wide range of serious social problems.", "To address these, Hu introduced two main ideological concepts: the \"Scientific Outlook on Development\" and \"Harmonious Society\".", "Hu resigned from his post as CCP general secretary and Chairman of the CMC at the 18th National Congress held in 2012, and was succeeded in both posts by Xi Jinping.=== Leadership of Xi Jinping ===Since taking power, Xi has initiated a wide-reaching anti-corruption campaign, while centralizing powers in the office of CCP general secretary at the expense of the collective leadership of prior decades.", "Commentators have described the campaign as a defining part of Xi's leadership as well as \"the principal reason why he has been able to consolidate his power so quickly and effectively.\"", "Xi's leadership has also overseen an increase in the Party's role in China.", "Xi has added his ideology, named after himself, into the CCP constitution in 2017.Xi's term as general secretary was renewed in 2022.Since 2014, the CCP has led efforts in Xinjiang that involve the detention of more than 1 million Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities in internment camps, as well as other repressive measures.", "This has been described as a genocide by academics and some governments.", "On the other hand, a greater number of countries signed a letter penned to the Human Rights Council supporting the policies as an effort to combat terrorism in the region.A temporary monument displayed in Changsha, Hunan Province, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the CCP's foundingCelebrations of the 100th anniversary of the CCP's founding, one of the Two Centenaries, took place on 1 July 2021.In the sixth plenary session of the 19th Central Committee in November 2021, CCP adopted a resolution on the Party's history.", "This was the third of its kind after ones adopted by Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping, and the document for the first time credited Xi as being the \"main innovator\" of Xi Jinping Thought while also declaring Xi's leadership as being \"the key to the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation\".", "In comparison with the other historical resolutions, Xi's one did not herald a major change in how the CCP evaluated its history.On July 6, 2021, Xi chaired the Communist Party of China and World Political Parties Summit, which involved representatives from 500 political parties across 160 countries.", "Xi urged the participants to oppose \"technology blockades,\" and \"developmental decoupling\" in order to work towards \"building a community with a shared future for mankind.\"" ], [ "Ideology", "=== Formal ideology ===A monument dedicated to Karl Marx (left) and Friedrich Engels (right) in ShanghaiThe core ideology of the party has evolved with each distinct generation of Chinese leadership.", "As both the CCP and the People's Liberation Army promote their members according to seniority, it is possible to discern distinct generations of Chinese leadership.", "In official discourse, each group of leadership is identified with a distinct extension of the ideology of the party.", "Historians have studied various periods in the development of the government of the People's Republic of China by reference to these \"generations\".Marxism–Leninism was the first official ideology of the CCP.", "According to the CCP, \"Marxism–Leninism reveals the universal laws governing the development of history of human society.\"", "To the CCP, Marxism–Leninism provides a \"vision of the contradictions in capitalist society and of the inevitability of a future socialist and communist societies\".", "According to the ''People's Daily'', Mao Zedong Thought \"is Marxism–Leninism applied and developed in China\".", "Mao Zedong Thought was conceived not only by Mao Zedong, but by leading party officials.Deng Xiaoping Theory was added to the party constitution at the 14th National Congress in 1992.The concepts of \"socialism with Chinese characteristics\" and \"the primary stage of socialism\" were credited to the theory.", "Deng Xiaoping Theory can be defined as a belief that state socialism and state planning is not by definition communist, and that market mechanisms are class neutral.", "In addition, the party needs to react to the changing situation dynamically; to know if a certain policy is obsolete or not, the party had to \"seek truth from facts\" and follow the slogan \"practice is the sole criterion for the truth\".", "At the 14th National Congress, Jiang reiterated Deng's mantra that it was unnecessary to ask if something was socialist or capitalist, since the important factor was whether it worked.The \"Three Represents\", Jiang Zemin's contribution to the party's ideology, was adopted by the party at the 16th National Congress.", "The Three Represents defines the role of the CCP, and stresses that the Party must always represent the requirements for developing China's advanced productive forces, the orientation of China's advanced culture and the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the Chinese people.\"", "Certain segments within the CCP criticized the Three Represents as being un-Marxist and a betrayal of basic Marxist values.", "Supporters viewed it as a further development of socialism with Chinese characteristics.", "Jiang disagreed, and had concluded that attaining the communist mode of production, as formulated by earlier communists, was more complex than had been realized, and that it was useless to try to force a change in the mode of production, as it had to develop naturally, by following the \"economic laws of history.\"", "The theory is most notable for allowing capitalists, officially referred to as the \"new social strata\", to join the party on the grounds that they engaged in \"honest labor and work\" and through their labour contributed \"to building socialism with Chinese characteristics.", "\"In 2003 the 3rd Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee conceived and formulated the ideology of the Scientific Outlook on Development (SOD).", "It is considered to be Hu Jintao's contribution to the official ideological discourse.", "The SOD incorporates scientific socialism, sustainable development, social welfare, a humanistic society, increased democracy, and, ultimately, the creation of a Socialist Harmonious Society.", "According to official statements by the CCP, the concept integrates \"Marxism with the reality of contemporary China and with the underlying features of our times, and it fully embodies the Marxist worldview on and methodology for development.", "\"A billboard advertising Xi Jinping Thought in Shenzhen, GuangdongXi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, commonly known as Xi Jinping Thought, was added to the party constitution in the 19th National Congress in 2017.The theory's main elements are summarized in the ten affirmations, the fourteen commitments, and the thirteen areas of achievements.The party combines elements of both socialist patriotism and Chinese nationalism.=== Economics ===Deng did not believe that the fundamental difference between the capitalist mode of production and the socialist mode of production was central planning versus free markets.", "He said, \"A planned economy is not the definition of socialism, because there is planning under capitalism; the market economy happens under socialism, too.", "Planning and market forces are both ways of controlling economic activity\".", "Jiang Zemin supported Deng's thinking, and stated in a party gathering that it did not matter if a certain mechanism was capitalist or socialist, because the only thing that mattered was whether it worked.", "It was at this gathering that Jiang Zemin introduced the term socialist market economy, which replaced Chen Yun's \"planned socialist market economy\".", "In his report to the 14th National Congress Jiang Zemin told the delegates that the socialist state would \"let market forces play a basic role in resource allocation.\"", "At the 15th National Congress, the party line was changed to \"make market forces further play their role in resource allocation\"; this line continued until the of the 18th Central Committee, when it was amended to \"let market forces play a ''decisive'' role in resource allocation.\"", "Despite this, the 3rd Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee upheld the creed \"Maintain the dominance of the public sector and strengthen the economic vitality of the state-owned economy.", "\"The CCP views the world as organized into two opposing camps; socialist and capitalist.", "They insist that socialism, on the basis of historical materialism, will eventually triumph over capitalism.", "In recent years, when the party has been asked to explain the capitalist globalization occurring, the party has returned to the writings of Karl Marx.", "Despite admitting that globalization developed through the capitalist system, the party's leaders and theorists argue that globalization is not intrinsically capitalist.", "The reason being that if globalization was purely capitalist, it would exclude an alternative socialist form of modernity.", "Globalization, as with the market economy, therefore does not have one specific class character (neither socialist nor capitalist) according to the party.", "The insistence that globalization is not fixed in nature comes from Deng's insistence that China can pursue socialist modernization by incorporating elements of capitalism.", "Because of this there is considerable optimism within the CCP that despite the current capitalist dominance of globalization, globalization can be turned into a vehicle supporting socialism.=== Analysis and criticism ===While foreign analysts generally agree that the CCP has rejected orthodox Marxism–Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought (or at least basic thoughts within orthodox thinking), the CCP itself disagrees.", "Critics of the CCP argue that Jiang Zemin ended the party's formal commitment to Marxism–Leninism with the introduction of the ideological theory, the Three Represents.", "However, party theorist Leng Rong disagrees, claiming that \"President Jiang rid the Party of the ideological obstacles to different kinds of ownership...", "He did not give up Marxism or socialism.", "He strengthened the Party by providing a modern understanding of Marxism and socialism—which is why we talk about a 'socialist market economy' with Chinese characteristics.\"", "The attainment of true \"communism\" is still described as the CCP's and China's \"ultimate goal\".", "While the CCP claims that China is in the primary stage of socialism, party theorists argue that the current development stage \"looks a lot like capitalism\".", "Alternatively, certain party theorists argue that \"capitalism is the early or first stage of communism.\"", "Some have dismissed the concept of a primary stage of socialism as intellectual cynicism.", "For example, Robert Lawrence Kuhn, a former foreign adviser to the Chinese government, stated: \"When I first heard this rationale, I thought it more comic than clever—a wry caricature of hack propagandists leaked by intellectual cynics.", "But the 100-year horizon comes from serious political theorists.", "\"American political scientist and sinologist David Shambaugh argues that before the \"Practice Is the Sole Criterion for the Truth\" campaign, the relationship between ideology and decision making was a deductive one, meaning that policy-making was derived from ideological knowledge.", "However, under Deng's leadership this relationship was turned upside down, with decision making justifying ideology.", "Chinese policy-makers have described the Soviet Union's state ideology as \"rigid, unimaginative, ossified, and disconnected from reality\", believing that this was one of the reasons for the dissolution of the Soviet Union.", "Therefore, Shambaugh argues, Chinese policy-makers believe that their party ideology must be dynamic to safeguard the party's rule.British sinologist Kerry Brown argues that the CCP does not have an ideology, and that the party organization is pragmatic and interested only in what works.", "The party itself argues against this assertion.", "Hu Jintao stated in 2012 that the Western world is \"threatening to divide us\" and that \"the international culture of the West is strong while we are weak ... Ideological and cultural fields are our main targets\".", "As such, the CCP puts a great deal of effort into the party schools and into crafting its ideological message." ], [ "Governance", "=== Collective leadership ===Collective leadership, the idea that decisions will be taken through consensus, is the ideal in the CCP.", "The concept has its origins back to Lenin and the Russian Bolshevik Party.", "At the level of the central party leadership this means that, for instance, all members of the Politburo Standing Committee are of equal standing (each member having only one vote).", "A member of the Politburo Standing Committee often represents a sector; during Mao's reign, he controlled the People's Liberation Army, Kang Sheng, the security apparatus, and Zhou Enlai, the State Council and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.", "This counts as informal power.", "Despite this, in a paradoxical relation, members of a body are ranked hierarchically (despite the fact that members are in theory equal to one another).", "Informally, the collective leadership is headed by a \"leadership core\"; that is, the paramount leader, the person who holds the offices of CCP general secretary, CMC chairman and PRC president.", "Before Jiang Zemin's tenure as paramount leader, the party core and collective leadership were indistinguishable.", "In practice, the core was not responsible to the collective leadership.", "However, by the time of Jiang, the party had begun propagating a responsibility system, referring to it in official pronouncements as the \"core of the collective leadership\".=== Democratic centralism ===The CCP's organizational principle is democratic centralism, a principle that entails open discussion of policy on the condition of unity among party members in upholding the agreed-upon decision.", "It is based on two principles: democracy (synonymous in official discourse with \"socialist democracy\" and \"inner-party democracy\") and centralism.", "This has been the guiding organizational principle of the party since the 5th National Congress, held in 1927.In the words of the party constitution, \"The Party is an integral body organized under its program and constitution and on the basis of democratic centralism\".", "Mao once quipped that democratic centralism was \"at once democratic and centralized, with the two seeming opposites of democracy and centralization united in a definite form.\"", "Mao claimed that the superiority of democratic centralism lay in its internal contradictions, between democracy and centralism, and freedom and discipline.", "Currently, the CCP is claiming that \"democracy is the lifeline of the Party, the lifeline of socialism\".", "But for democracy to be implemented, and functioning properly, there needs to be centralization.", "Democracy in any form, the CCP claims, needs centralism, since without centralism there will be no order.=== ''Shuanggui'' ===''Shuanggui'' is an intra-party disciplinary process conducted by the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (CCDI), which conducts ''shuanggui'' on members accused of \"disciplinary violations\", a charge which generally refers to political corruption.", "The process, which literally translates to \"double regulation\", aims to extract confessions from members accused of violating party rules.", "According to the Dui Hua Foundation, tactics such as cigarette burns, beatings and simulated drowning are among those used to extract confessions.", "Other reported techniques include the use of induced hallucinations, with one subject of this method reporting that \"In the end I was so exhausted, I agreed to all the accusations against me even though they were false.", "\"===United front===The CCP employs a political strategy that it terms \"united front work\" that involves groups and key individuals that are influenced or controlled by the CCP and used to advance its interests.", "United front work is managed primarily but not exclusively by the United Front Work Department (UFWD).", "The united front has historically been a popular front that has included eight legally-permitted political parties alongside other people's organizations which have nominal representation in the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC).", "However, the CPPCC is a body without real power.", "While consultation does take place, it is supervised and directed by the CCP.", "Under Xi Jinping, the united front and its targets of influence have expanded in size and scope." ], [ "Organization", "=== Central organization ===18th National Congress, convened in November 2012The National Congress is the party's highest body, and, since the 9th National Congress in 1969, has been convened every five years (prior to the 9th Congress they were convened on an irregular basis).", "According to the party's constitution, a congress may not be postponed except \"under extraordinary circumstances.\"", "The party constitution gives the National Congress six responsibilities:# Electing the Central Committee;# Electing the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (CCDI);# Examining the report of the outgoing Central Committee;# Examining the report of the outgoing CCDI;# Discussing and enacting party policies; and,# Revising the party's constitution.In practice, the delegates rarely discuss issues at length at the National Congresses.", "Most substantive discussion takes place before the congress, in the preparation period, among a group of top party leaders.", "In between National Congresses, the Central Committee is the highest decision-making institution.", "The CCDI is responsible for supervising party's internal anti-corruption and ethics system.", "In between congresses the CCDI is under the authority of the Central Committee.Front cover of the Constitution of the Chinese Communist PartyThe Central Committee, as the party's highest decision-making institution between national congresses, elects several bodies to carry out its work.", "The first plenary session of a newly elected central committee elects the general secretary of the Central Committee, the party's leader; the Central Military Commission (CMC); the Politburo; the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC).", "The first plenum also endorses the composition of the Secretariat and the leadership of the CCDI.", "According to the party constitution, the general secretary must be a member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC), and is responsible for convening meetings of the PSC and the Politburo, while also presiding over the work of the Secretariat.", "The Politburo \"exercises the functions and powers of the Central Committee when a plenum is not in session\".", "The PSC is the party's highest decision-making institution when the Politburo, the Central Committee and the National Congress are not in session.", "It convenes at least once a week.", "It was established at the 8th National Congress, in 1958, to take over the policy-making role formerly assumed by the Secretariat.", "The Secretariat is the top implementation body of the Central Committee, and can make decisions within the policy framework established by the Politburo; it is also responsible for supervising the work of organizations that report directly into the Central Committee, for example departments, commissions, publications, and so on.", "The CMC is the highest decision-making institution on military affairs within the party, and controls the operations of the People's Liberation Army.", "The general secretary has, since Jiang Zemin, also served as Chairman of the CMC.", "Unlike the collective leadership ideal of other party organs, the CMC chairman acts as commander-in-chief with full authority to appoint or dismiss top military officers at will.A first plenum of the Central Committee also elects heads of departments, bureaus, central leading groups and other institutions to pursue its work during a term (a \"term\" being the period elapsing between national congresses, usually five years).", "The General Office is the party's \"nerve centre\", in charge of day-to-day administrative work, including communications, protocol, and setting agendas for meetings.", "The CCP currently has six main central departments: the Organization Department, responsible for overseeing provincial appointments and vetting cadres for future appointments, the Publicity Department (formerly \"Propaganda Department\"), which oversees the media and formulates the party line to the media, the United Front Work Department, which oversees the country's eight minor parties, people's organizations, and influence groups inside and outside of the country, the International Department, functioning as the party's \"foreign affairs ministry\" with other parties, the Social Work Department, which handles work related to civic groups, chambers of commerce and industry groups and mixed-ownership and non-public enterprises, and the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission, which oversees the country's legal enforcement authorities.", "The CC also has direct control over the Central Policy Research Office, which is responsible for researching issues of significant interest to the party leadership, the Central Party School, which provides political training and ideological indoctrination in communist thought for high-ranking and rising cadres, the Institution for Party History and Literature Research, which sets priorities for scholarly research in state-run universities and the Central Party School and studies and translates the classical works of Marxism.", "The party's newspaper, the ''People's Daily'', is under the direct control of the Central Committee and is published with the objectives \"to tell good stories about China and the (Party)\" and to promote its party leader.", "The theoretical magazines ''Qiushi'' and ''Study Times'' are published by the Central Party School.", "The China Media Group, which oversees China Central Television (CCTV), China National Radio (CNR) and China Radio International (CRI), is under the direct control of the Publicity Department.", "The various offices of the \"Central Leading Groups\", such as the Hong Kong and Macau Work Office, the Taiwan Affairs Office, and the Central Finance Office, also report to the central committee during a plenary session.", "Additionally, CCP has sole control over the People's Liberation Army (PLA) through its Central Military Commission.===Lower-level organizations===After seizing political power, the CCP extended the dual party-state command system to all government institutions, social organizations, and economic entities.", "The State Council and the Supreme Court each has a party group, established since November 1949.Party committees permeate in every state administrative organ as well as the People's Consultation Conferences and mass organizations at all levels.", "According to scholar Rush Doshi, \"the Party sits above the state, runs parallel to the state, and is enmeshed in every level of the state.\"", "Modelled after the Soviet Nomenklatura system, the party committee's organization department at each level has the power to recruit, train, monitor, appoint, and relocate these officials.Party committees exist at the level of provinces, cities, counties, and neighborhoods.", "These committees play a key role in directing local policy by selecting local leaders and assigning critical tasks.", "The Party secretary at each level is more senior than that of the leader of the government, with the CCP standing committee being the main source of power.", "Party committee members in each level are selected by the leadership in the level above, with provincial leaders selected by the central Organizational Department, and not removable by the local party secretary.", "Neighborhood committees are generally composed of older volunteers.CCP committees exist inside of companies, both private and state-owned.", "A business that has more than three party members is legally required to establish a committee or branch.", ", more than half of China's private firms have such organizations.", "These branches provide places for new member socialization and host morale boosting events for existing members.", "They also provide mechanisms that help private firm interface with government bodies and learn about policies which relate to their fields.", "On average, the profitability of private firms with a CCP branch is 12.6 percent higher than the profitability of private firms.Within state-owned enterprises, these branches are governing bodies that make important decisions and inculcate CCP ideology in employees.", "Party committees or branches within companies also provide various benefits to employees.", "These may include bonuses, interest-free loans, mentorship programs, and free medical and other services for those in need.", "Enterprises that have party branches generally provide more expansive benefits for employees in the areas of retirement, medical care, unemployment, injury, and birth and fertility.", "Increasingly, the CCP is requiring private companies to revise their charters to include the role of the party.=== Funding ===The funding of all CCP organizations mainly comes from state fiscal revenue.", "Data for the proportion of total CCP organizations’ expenditures in total China fiscal revenue is unavailable.=== Members ===The CCP reached 98.04 million members at the end of 2022, a net increase of 1.3 million over the previous year.", "It is the second largest political party in the world after India's Bharatiya Janata Party.To join the CCP, an applicant must go through an approval process.", "Adults can file applications for membership with their local party branch.", "A prescreening process, akin to a background check, follows.", "Next, established party members at the local branch vet applicants' behavior and political attitudes and may make a formal inquiry to a party branch near the applicants' parents residence to vet family loyalty to communism and the party.", "In 2014, only 2 million applications were accepted out of some 22 million applicants.", "Admitted members then spend a year as a probationary member.", "Probationary members are typically accepted into the party.In contrast to the past, when emphasis was placed on the applicants' ideological criteria, the current CCP stresses technical and educational qualifications.", "To become a probationary member, the applicant must take an admission oath before the party flag.", "The relevant CCP organization is responsible for observing and educating probationary members.", "Probationary members have duties similar to those of full members, with the exception that they may not vote in party elections nor stand for election.", "Many join the CCP through the Communist Youth League.", "Under Jiang Zemin, private entrepreneurs were allowed to become party members.==== Membership demographics ====Badge worn by party members, individuals who identify as farmers, herdsmen and fishermen make up 26 million members; members identifying as workers totalled 6.7 million.", "Another group, the \"Managing, professional and technical staff in enterprises and public institutions\", made up 15.9 million, 11.3 million identified as working in administrative staff and 7.8 million described themselves as party cadres.", "The CCP systematically recruits white-collar workers over other social groups.", "By 2022, CCP membership had become more educated, younger, and less blue-collar than previously, with 54.7% of party members having a college degree or above.", ", around 30 to 35 percent of Chinese entrepreneurs are or have been a party member.", "At the end of 2022, the CCP stated that it has approximately 7.46 million ethnic minority members or 7.6% of the party.==== Status of women ====, 29.30 million women are CCP members, representing 29.9% of the party.", "Women in China have low participation rates as political leaders.", "Women's disadvantage is most evident in their severe underrepresentation in the more powerful political positions.", "At the top level of decision making, no woman has ever been among the members of the Politburo Standing Committee, while the broader Politburo currently does not have any female members.", "Just 3 of 27 government ministers are women, and importantly, since 1997, China has fallen to 53rd place from 16th in the world in terms of female representation in the National People's Congress, according to the Inter-Parliamentary Union.", "CCP leaders such as Zhao Ziyang have vigorously opposed the participation of women in the political process.", "Within the party women face a glass ceiling.==== Economic effects of membership ====A 2019 Binghamton University study found that CCP members gain a 20% wage premium in the market over non-members.", "A subsequent academic study found that the economic benefit of CCP membership is strongest on those in lower wealth brackets.===Communist Youth League===The Communist Youth League (CYL) is the CCP's youth wing, and the largest mass organization for youth in China.", "To join, an applicant has to be between the ages of 14 and 28.It controls and supervises Young Pioneers, a youth organization for children below the age of 14.The organizational structure of CYL is an exact copy of the CCP's; the highest body is the National Congress, followed by the , Politburo and the Politburo Standing Committee.", "However, the Central Committee (and all central organs) of the CYL work under the guidance of the CCP central leadership.", "2021 estimates put the number of CYL members at over 81 million." ], [ "Symbols", "At the beginning of its history, the CCP did not have a single official standard for the flag, but instead allowed individual party committees to copy the flag of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.", "The Central Politburo decreed the establishment of a sole official flag on 28 April 1942: \"The flag of the CPC has the length-to-width proportion of 3:2 with a hammer and sickle in the upper-left corner, and with no five-pointed star.", "The Political Bureau authorizes the General Office to custom-make a number of standard flags and distribute them to all major organs\".According to ''People's Daily'', \"The red color symbolizes revolution; the hammer-and-sickle are tools of workers and peasants, meaning that the Communist Party of China represents the interests of the masses and the people; the yellow color signifies brightness.\"" ], [ "Party-to-party relations", "The International Department of the Chinese Communist Party is responsible for dialogue with global political parties.=== Communist parties ===The CCP continues to have relations with non-ruling communist and workers' parties and attends international communist conferences, most notably the International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties.", "While the CCP retains contact with major parties such as the Communist Party of Portugal, the Communist Party of France, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia, the Communist Party of Brazil, the Communist Party of Greece, the Communist Party of Nepal and the Communist Party of Spain, the party also retains relations with minor communist and workers' parties, such as the Communist Party of Australia, the Workers Party of Bangladesh, the Communist Party of Bangladesh (Marxist–Leninist) (Barua), the Communist Party of Sri Lanka, the Workers' Party of Belgium, the Hungarian Workers' Party, the Dominican Workers' Party, the Nepal Workers Peasants Party, and the Party for the Transformation of Honduras, for instance.", "In recent years, noting the self-reform of the European social democratic movement in the 1980s and 1990s, the CCP \"has noted the increased marginalization of West European communist parties.", "\"==== Ruling parties of socialist states ====The CCP has retained close relations with the ruling parties of socialist states still espousing communism: Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam.", "It spends a fair amount of time analysing the situation in the remaining socialist states, trying to reach conclusions as to why these states survived when so many did not, following the collapse of the Eastern European socialist states in 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.In general, the analyses of the remaining socialist states and their chances of survival have been positive, and the CCP believes that the socialist movement will be revitalized sometime in the future.The ruling party which the CCP is most interested in is the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV).", "In general the CPV is considered a model example of socialist development in the post-Soviet era.", "Chinese analysts on Vietnam believe that the introduction of the Đổi Mới reform policy at the 6th CPV National Congress is the key reason for Vietnam's current success.While the CCP is probably the organization with most access to North Korea, writing about North Korea is tightly circumscribed.", "The few reports accessible to the general public are those about North Korean economic reforms.", "While Chinese analysts of North Korea tend to speak positively of North Korea in public, in official discussions they show much disdain for North Korea's economic system, the cult of personality which pervades society, the Kim family, the idea of hereditary succession in a socialist state, the security state, the use of scarce resources on the Korean People's Army and the general impoverishment of the North Korean people.", "Circa 2008, there are those analysts who compare the current situation of North Korea with that of China during the Cultural Revolution.", "Over the years, the CCP has tried to persuade the Workers' Party of Korea (or WPK, North Korea's ruling party) to introduce economic reforms by showing them key economic infrastructure in China.", "For instance, in 2006 the CCP invited then-WPK general secretary Kim Jong Il to Guangdong to showcase the success economic reforms had brought China.", "In general, the CCP considers the WPK and North Korea to be negative examples of a ruling communist party and socialist state.There is a considerable degree of interest in Cuba within the CCP.", "Fidel Castro, the former First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC), is greatly admired, and books have been written focusing on the successes of the Cuban Revolution.", "Communication between the CCP and the PCC has increased since the 1990s.", "At the 4th Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee, which discussed the possibility of the CCP learning from other ruling parties, praise was heaped on the PCC.", "When Wu Guanzheng, a Central Politburo member, met with Fidel Castro in 2007, he gave him a personal letter written by Hu Jintao: \"Facts have shown that China and Cuba are trustworthy good friends, good comrades, and good brothers who treat each other with sincerity.", "The two countries' friendship has withstood the test of a changeable international situation, and the friendship has been further strengthened and consolidated.", "\"=== Non-communist parties ===Since the decline and fall of communism in Eastern Europe, the CCP has begun establishing party-to-party relations with non-communist parties.", "These relations are sought so that the CCP can learn from them.", "For instance, the CCP has been eager to understand how the People's Action Party of Singapore (PAP) maintains its total domination over Singaporean politics through its \"low-key presence, but total control.\"", "According to the CCP's own analysis of Singapore, the PAP's dominance can be explained by its \"well-developed social network, which controls constituencies effectively by extending its tentacles deeply into society through branches of government and party-controlled groups.\"", "While the CCP accepts that Singapore is a liberal democracy, they view it as a guided democracy led by the PAP.", "Other differences are, according to the CCP, \"that it is not a political party based on the working class—instead it is a political party of the elite....", "It is also a political party of the parliamentary system, not a revolutionary party.\"", "Other parties which the CCP studies and maintains strong party-to-party relations with are the United Malays National Organization, which has ruled Malaysia (1957–2018, 2020–2022), and the Liberal Democratic Party in Japan, which dominated Japanese politics since 1955.Since Jiang Zemin's time, the CCP has made friendly overtures to its erstwhile foe, the Kuomintang.", "The CCP emphasizes strong party-to-party relations with the KMT so as to strengthen the probability of the reunification of Taiwan with mainland China.", "However, several studies have been written on the KMT's loss of power in 2000 after having ruled Taiwan since 1949 (the KMT officially ruled mainland China from 1928 to 1949).", "In general, one-party states or dominant-party states are of special interest to the party and party-to-party relations are formed so that the CCP can study them.", "The longevity of the Syrian Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party is attributed to the personalization of power in the al-Assad family, the strong presidential system, the inheritance of power, which passed from Hafez al-Assad to his son Bashar al-Assad, and the role given to the Syrian military in politics.Xi Jinping (second from left) with Enrique Peña Nieto (second from right), the former President of Mexico and a leading member of the Institutional Revolutionary PartyCirca 2008, the CCP has been especially interested in Latin America, as shown by the increasing number of delegates sent to and received from these countries.", "Of special fascination for the CCP is the 71-year-long rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in Mexico.", "While the CCP attributed the PRI's long reign in power to the strong presidential system, tapping into the machismo culture of the country, its nationalist posture, its close identification with the rural populace and the implementation of nationalization alongside the marketization of the economy, the CCP concluded that the PRI failed because of the lack of inner-party democracy, its pursuit of social democracy, its rigid party structures that could not be reformed, its political corruption, the pressure of globalization, and American interference in Mexican politics.", "While the CCP was slow to recognize the pink tide in Latin America, it has strengthened party-to-party relations with several socialist and anti-American political parties over the years.", "The CCP has occasionally expressed some irritation over Hugo Chávez's anti-capitalist and anti-American rhetoric.", "Despite this, the CCP reached an agreement in 2013 with the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), which was founded by Chávez, for the CCP to educate PSUV cadres in political and social fields.", "By 2008, the CCP claimed to have established relations with 99 political parties in 29 Latin American countries.Social democratic movements in Europe have been of great interest to the CCP since the early 1980s.", "With the exception of a short period in which the CCP forged party-to-party relations with far-right parties during the 1970s in an effort to halt \"Soviet expansionism\", the CCP's relations with European social democratic parties were its first serious efforts to establish cordial party-to-party relations with non-communist parties.", "The CCP credits the European social democrats with creating a \"capitalism with a human face\".", "Before the 1980s, the CCP had a highly negative and dismissive view of social democracy, a view dating back to the Second International and the Marxist–Leninist view on the social democratic movement.", "By the 1980s, that view had changed and the CCP concluded that it could actually learn something from the social democratic movement.", "CCP delegates were sent all over Europe to observe.", "By the 1980s, most European social democratic parties were facing electoral decline and in a period of self-reform.", "The CCP followed this with great interest, laying most weight on reform efforts within the British Labour Party and the Social Democratic Party of Germany.", "The CCP concluded that both parties were re-elected because they modernized, replacing traditional state socialist tenets with new ones supporting privatization, shedding the belief in big government, conceiving a new view of the welfare state, changing their negative views of the market and moving from their traditional support base of trade unions to entrepreneurs, the young and students." ], [ "Electoral history", "=== National People's Congress elections === Election General Secretary Seats +/– Position 1982–1983 Hu Yaobang 1st 1987–1988 Zhao Ziyang 125 1st 1993–1994 Jiang Zemin 51 1st 1997–1998 93 1st 2002–2003 Hu Jintao 48 1st 2007–2008 79 1st 2012–2013 Xi Jinping 58 1st 2017–2018 38 1st" ], [ "See also", "* Politics of China* Succession of power in China" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ======= Books ====* * * * * * * * * * * Dittmer, Lowell, et al.", "(eds.)", "''Informal politics in East Asia,'' (2000), * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Pye, Lucian, '''The Dynamics of Chinese politics,''' (1987) * Saich, Tony.", "''From Rebel to Ruler: One Hundred Years of the Chinese Communist Party'' (2021)* Saich, Tony.", "''Finding Allies and Making Revolution The Early Years of the Chinese Communist Party'' (2020)* Saich, Tony.", "''Governance and Politics of China '' (2015)* * * * * Snow, Edgar, Red Star Over China 1937 * * * * * * * * * Whitson, William W., ''The Chinese high command : a history of Communist military politics, 1927–71,'' (1973)* * * * ==== Journal articles ====* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cryogenics" ], [ "Introduction", "Nitrogen is a liquid under This is a diagram of an infrared space telescope, that needs a cold mirror and instruments.", "One instrument needs to be even colder, and it has a cryocooler.", "The instrument is in region 1 and its cryocooler is in region 3 in a warmer region of the spacecraft (see MIRI (Mid-Infrared Instrument) or James Webb Space Telescope).A medium-sized dewar is being filled with liquid nitrogen by a larger cryogenic storage tank.In physics, '''cryogenics''' is the production and behaviour of materials at very low temperatures.The 13th International Institute of Refrigeration's (IIR) International Congress of Refrigeration (held in Washington DC in 1971) endorsed a universal definition of \"cryogenics\" and \"cryogenic\" by accepting a threshold of to distinguish these terms from the conventional refrigeration.", "This is a logical dividing line, since the normal boiling points of the so-called permanent gases (such as helium, hydrogen, neon, nitrogen, oxygen, and normal air) lie below 120 K, while the Freon refrigerants, hydrocarbons, and other common refrigerants have boiling points above 120 K.Discovery of superconducting materials with critical temperatures significantly above the boiling point of nitrogen has provided new interest in reliable, low cost methods of producing high temperature cryogenic refrigeration.", "The term \"high temperature cryogenic\" describes temperatures ranging from above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen, , up to .", "The discovery of superconductive properties is first attributed to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on July 10, 1908.The discovery came after the ability to reach a temperature of 2 K. These first superconductive properties were observed in mercury at a temperature of 4.2 K.Cryogenicists use the Kelvin or Rankine temperature scale, both of which measure from absolute zero, rather than more usual scales such as Celsius which measures from the freezing point of water at sea level or Fahrenheit which measures from the freezing point of a particular brine solution at sea level." ], [ "Definitions and distinctions", "; Cryogenics: The branches of engineering that involve the study of very low temperatures (ultra low temperature i.e.", "below 123 K), how to produce them, and how materials behave at those temperatures.", "; Cryobiology: The branch of biology involving the study of the effects of low temperatures on organisms (most often for the purpose of achieving cryopreservation).", "Other applications include Lyophilization (freeze-drying) of pharmaceutical components and medicine.", "; Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources: The conservation of genetic material with the intention of conserving a breed.", "The conservation of genetic material is not limited to non-humans.", "Many services provide genetic storage or the preservation of stem cells at birth.", "They may be used to study the generation of cell lines or for stem-cell therapy.", "; Cryosurgery: The branch of surgery applying cryogenic temperatures to destroy and kill tissue, e.g.", "cancer cells.", "Commonly referred to as Cryoablation.", "; Cryoelectronics: The study of electronic phenomena at cryogenic temperatures.", "Examples include superconductivity and variable-range hopping.", "; Cryonics: Cryopreserving humans and animals with the intention of future revival.", "\"Cryogenics\" is sometimes erroneously used to mean \"Cryonics\" in popular culture and the press." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''cryogenics'' stems from Greek ''κρύος (cryos)'' – \"cold\" + ''γενής (genis)'' – \"generating\"." ], [ "Cryogenic fluids", "Cryogenic fluids with their boiling point in Kelvin and degree Celsius.", "Fluid Boiling point (K) Boiling point (°C) Helium-3 3.19 -269.96 Helium-4 4.214 -268.936 Hydrogen 20.27 -252.88 Neon 27.09 -246.06 Nitrogen 77.09 -196.06 Air 78.8 -194.35 Fluorine 85.24 -187.91 Argon 87.24 -185.91 Oxygen 90.18 -182.97 Methane 111.7 -161.45" ], [ "Industrial applications", "Liquefied gases, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many cryogenic applications.", "Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics and is legally purchasable around the world.", "Liquid helium is also commonly used and allows for the lowest attainable temperatures to be reached.These liquids may be stored in Dewar flasks, which are double-walled containers with a high vacuum between the walls to reduce heat transfer into the liquid.", "Typical laboratory Dewar flasks are spherical, made of glass and protected in a metal outer container.", "Dewar flasks for extremely cold liquids such as liquid helium have another double-walled container filled with liquid nitrogen.", "Dewar flasks are named after their inventor, James Dewar, the man who first liquefied hydrogen.", "Thermos bottles are smaller vacuum flasks fitted in a protective casing.Cryogenic barcode labels are used to mark Dewar flasks containing these liquids, and will not frost over down to −195 degrees Celsius.Cryogenic transfer pumps are the pumps used on LNG piers to transfer liquefied natural gas from LNG carriers to LNG storage tanks, as are cryogenic valves.=== Cryogenic processing ===The field of cryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found that metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear.", "Based on this theory of cryogenic hardening, the commercial cryogenic processing industry was founded in 1966 by Bill and Ed Busch.", "With a background in the heat treating industry, the Busch brothers founded a company in Detroit called CryoTech in 1966.Busch originally experimented with the possibility of increasing the life of metal tools to anywhere between 200% and 400% of the original life expectancy using cryogenic tempering instead of heat treating.", "This evolved in the late 1990s into the treatment of other parts.Cryogens, such as liquid nitrogen, are further used for specialty chilling and freezing applications.", "Some chemical reactions, like those used to produce the active ingredients for the popular statin drugs, must occur at low temperatures of approximately .", "Special cryogenic chemical reactors are used to remove reaction heat and provide a low temperature environment.", "The freezing of foods and biotechnology products, like vaccines, requires nitrogen in blast freezing or immersion freezing systems.", "Certain soft or elastic materials become hard and brittle at very low temperatures, which makes cryogenic milling (cryomilling) an option for some materials that cannot easily be milled at higher temperatures.Cryogenic processing is not a substitute for heat treatment, but rather an extension of the heating–quenching–tempering cycle.", "Normally, when an item is quenched, the final temperature is ambient.", "The only reason for this is that most heat treaters do not have cooling equipment.", "There is nothing metallurgically significant about ambient temperature.", "The cryogenic process continues this action from ambient temperature down to .In most instances the cryogenic cycle is followed by a heat tempering procedure.", "As all alloys do not have the same chemical constituents, the tempering procedure varies according to the material's chemical composition, thermal history and/or a tool's particular service application.The entire process takes 3–4 days.=== Fuels ===Another use of cryogenics is cryogenic fuels for rockets with liquid hydrogen as the most widely used example.", "Liquid oxygen (LOX) is even more widely used but as an oxidizer, not a fuel.", "NASA's workhorse Space Shuttle used cryogenic hydrogen/oxygen propellant as its primary means of getting into orbit.", "LOX is also widely used with RP-1 kerosene, a non-cryogenic hydrocarbon, such as in the rockets built for the Soviet space program by Sergei Korolev.Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolev developed a version of its popular design Tu-154 with a cryogenic fuel system, known as the Tu-155.The plane uses a fuel referred to as liquefied natural gas or LNG, and made its first flight in 1989." ], [ "Other applications", "Astronomical instruments on the Very Large Telescope are equipped with continuous-flow cooling systems.Some applications of cryogenics:* Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is one of the most common methods to determine the physical and chemical properties of atoms by detecting the radio frequency absorbed and subsequent relaxation of nuclei in a magnetic field.", "This is one of the most commonly used characterization techniques and has applications in numerous fields.", "Primarily, the strong magnetic fields are generated by supercooling electromagnets, although there are spectrometers that do not require cryogens.", "In traditional superconducting solenoids, liquid helium is used to cool the inner coils because it has a boiling point of around 4 K at ambient pressure.", "Cheap metallic superconductors can be used for the coil wiring.", "So-called high-temperature superconducting compounds can be made to super conduct with the use of liquid nitrogen, which boils at around 77 K.* Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a complex application of NMR where the geometry of the resonances is deconvoluted and used to image objects by detecting the relaxation of protons that have been perturbed by a radio-frequency pulse in the strong magnetic field.", "This is most commonly used in health applications.", "* In large cities, it is difficult to transmit power by overhead cables, so underground cables are used.", "But underground cables get heated and the resistance of the wire increases, leading to waste of power.", "Superconductors could be used to increase power throughput, although they would require cryogenic liquids such as nitrogen or helium to cool special alloy-containing cables to increase power transmission.", "Several feasibility studies have been performed and the field is the subject of an agreement within the International Energy Agency.Cryogenic gases delivery truck at a supermarket, Ypsilanti, Michigan* Cryogenic gases are used in transportation and storage of large masses of frozen food.", "When very large quantities of food must be transported to regions like war zones, earthquake hit regions, etc., they must be stored for a long time, so cryogenic food freezing is used.", "Cryogenic food freezing is also helpful for large scale food processing industries.", "*Many infrared (forward looking infrared) cameras require their detectors to be cryogenically cooled.", "* Certain rare blood groups are stored at low temperatures, such as −165 °C, at blood banks.", "* Cryogenics technology using liquid nitrogen and CO2 has been built into nightclub effect systems to create a chilling effect and white fog that can be illuminated with colored lights.", "* Cryogenic cooling is used to cool the tool tip at the time of machining in manufacturing process.", "It increases the tool life.", "Oxygen is used to perform several important functions in the steel manufacturing process.", "* Many rockets use cryogenic gases as propellants.", "These include liquid oxygen, liquid hydrogen, and liquid methane.", "* By freezing the automobile or truck tire in liquid nitrogen, the rubber is made brittle and can be crushed into small particles.", "These particles can be used again for other items.", "* Experimental research on certain physics phenomena, such as spintronics and magnetotransport properties, requires cryogenic temperatures for the effects to be observed.", "* Certain vaccines must be stored at cryogenic temperatures.", "For example, the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine must be stored at temperatures of .", "(See cold chain.)" ], [ "Production", "Cryogenic cooling of devices and material is usually achieved via the use of liquid nitrogen, liquid helium, or a mechanical cryocooler (which uses high-pressure helium lines).", "Gifford-McMahon cryocoolers, pulse tube cryocoolers and Stirling cryocoolers are in wide use with selection based on required base temperature and cooling capacity.", "The most recent development in cryogenics is the use of magnets as regenerators as well as refrigerators.", "These devices work on the principle known as the magnetocaloric effect." ], [ "Detectors", "There are various cryogenic detectors which are used to detect particles.For cryogenic temperature measurement down to 30 K, Pt100 sensors, a resistance temperature detector (RTD), are used.", "For temperatures lower than 30 K, it is necessary to use a silicon diode for accuracy." ], [ "See also", "* Absolute zero* Lowest temperature recorded on Earth* Cryogenic grinding" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Haselden, G. G. (1971), ''Cryogenic fundamentals'', Academic Press, New York, ." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cary Elwes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ivan Simon Cary Elwes''' (; born 26 October 1962) is an English actor.", "He is known for his leading film roles as Westley in ''The Princess Bride'' (1987), Robin Hood in ''Robin Hood: Men in Tights'' (1993), and Dr. Lawrence Gordon in the ''Saw'' film series.", "Elwes' other performances in films include ''Glory'' (1989), ''Hot Shots!''", "(1991), ''Days of Thunder'' (1990), ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' (1992), ''Twister'' (1996), ''Kiss the Girls'' (1997), ''Liar Liar'' (1997), ''Shadow of the Vampire'' (2000), ''The Cat's Meow'' (2001), ''Ella Enchanted'' (2004), ''No Strings Attached'' (2011), ''BlackBerry'' (2023), and ''Mission: Impossible – Dead Reckoning Part One'' (2023).He has appeared on television in a number of series including ''The X-Files'', ''Seinfeld'', ''From the Earth to the Moon'', ''Psych'', and ''Life in Pieces''.", "In 2019, he appeared in the Netflix drama series ''Stranger Things'' and the Amazon Prime comedy series ''The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel''.", "Elwes has written a memoir of his time working on ''The Princess Bride'' called ''As You Wish'', which was published in 2014." ], [ "Early life and education", "Ivan Simon Cary Elwes was born on 26 October 1962 in Westminster, London.", "He is the youngest of three sons of portrait painter Dominic Elwes and interior designer and socialite Tessa Kennedy.", "Elwes is the brother of artist Damian Elwes and film producers Cassian Elwes and Milica Kastner.", "His stepfather, Elliott Kastner, was an American film producer and the first American to set up independent film production in the United Kingdom.", "His paternal grandfather was the portrait painter Simon Elwes, whose own father was the diplomat and tenor Gervase Elwes (1866–1921).", "One of Elwes's great-grandfathers was the 1st Baron Rennell, while one of his great-great-grandfathers was the 8th Earl of Denbigh.", "Elwes has English, Irish, Scottish, Croatian-Jewish, and Serbian ancestry, the latter two from his maternal grandmother, Daška McLean, whose second husband, Billy McLean, was an operative for the Special Operations Executive (SOE) during the Second World War.One of Elwes's relatives is the British miser John Elwes, who was the inspiration for Ebenezer Scrooge in ''A Christmas Carol'' (1843), having been referenced by Charles Dickens himself in chapter six of his last completed novel, ''Our Mutual Friend''.", "Elwes himself played five roles in the 2009 film adaptation of ''A Christmas Carol''.", "Through his maternal grandfather, Elwes is also related to Sir Alexander William \"Blackie\" Kennedy, one of the first photographers to document the archaeological site of Petra following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.Elwes was brought up as a Catholic and was an altar boy at Westminster Cathedral.", "His paternal relatives include such clerics as Dudley Charles Cary-Elwes (1868–1932), the Bishop of Northampton, and Abbot Columba Cary-Elwes (Ampleforth Abbey, Saint Louis Abbey).", "He discussed this in an interview while he was filming the 2005 CBS television film ''Pope John Paul II'', in which he played the young priest Karol Wojtyła.Elwes's parents divorced when he was four years old.", "In 1975, when Elwes was 13, his father died by suicide.", "He was educated at Harrow School, and the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art.", "In 1981, he moved to the United States to study acting at Sarah Lawrence College in Bronxville, New York.", "While living there, Elwes studied acting at both the Actors Studio and the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute under the tutelage of Al Pacino's mentor, Charlie Laughton (not to be confused with English actor Charles Laughton).", "As a teenager, he also worked as a production assistant on the films ''Absolution'', ''Octopussy'', and ''Superman'', where he was assigned to Marlon Brando.", "When Elwes introduced himself to the actor, Brando insisted on calling him \"Rocky\" after Rocky Marciano." ], [ "Career", "=== 1984–1999 ===The Princess Bride'' (1987)Elwes made his acting debut in 1984 with Marek Kanievska's film ''Another Country'', which was loosely based on the English boarding school exploits of British spies Burgess, Philby and MacLean.", "He played James Harcourt, a gay student.", "He went on to play Guilford Dudley in the British historical drama film ''Lady Jane'', opposite Helena Bonham Carter.", "He was then cast as stable-boy-turned-swashbuckler Westley in Rob Reiner's fantasy-comedy ''The Princess Bride'' (1987), which was based on the novel of the same name by William Goldman.", "It was a modest box office success, but received critical acclaim.", "As a result of years of reviews, it earned a score of 97% on the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes.", "Since being released on home video and television, the film has become a cult classic.Elwes continued to work steadily, varying between dramatic roles, such as in the Oscar-winning ''Glory'' (1989), and comedic roles, as in ''Hot Shots!''", "(1991).", "He played a rival driver to Tom Cruise in ''Days of Thunder'' (1990).", "In 1993, he starred as Robin Hood in Mel Brooks's comedy ''Robin Hood: Men in Tights''.", "Elwes then appeared in supporting roles in such films as Francis Ford Coppola's adaptation of ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' (1992), ''The Crush'' (1993), ''The Jungle Book'' (1994), ''Twister'' (1996), ''Liar Liar'' (1997), and ''Kiss the Girls''.", "In 1999, he portrayed famed theatre and film producer John Houseman for Tim Robbins in his ensemble film based on Orson Welles's musical, ''Cradle Will Rock''.", "Following that, he travelled to Luxembourg to work with John Malkovich and Willem Dafoe in ''Shadow of the Vampire''.", "Elwes made his first television appearance in 1996 as David Lookner on ''Seinfeld''.", "Two years later he played astronaut Michael Collins in the Golden Globe Award-winning HBO miniseries ''From the Earth To the Moon''.", "The following year Elwes was nominated for a Golden Satellite Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television for his portrayal of Colonel James Burton in ''The Pentagon Wars'' directed by Richard Benjamin.", "In 1999, he guest starred as Dr. John York in an episode of the television series ''The Outer Limits''.=== 2000–2009 ===Elwes in 2010In 2001, he co-starred in Peter Bogdanovich's ensemble film ''The Cat's Meow'' portraying film mogul Thomas Ince, who died mysteriously while vacationing with William Randolph Hearst on his yacht.", "Shortly afterward he received another Golden Satellite Award nomination for his work on the ensemble NBC Television film ''Uprising'' opposite Jon Voight directed by Jon Avnet.", "Elwes had a recurring role in the final season (from 2001 to 2002) of Chris Carter's hit series ''The X-Files'' as FBI Assistant Director Brad Follmer.", "In 2003 Elwes portrayed Kerry Max Cook in the off-Broadway play ''The Exonerated'' in New York, directed by Bob Balaban (18–23 March 2003).In 2004, Elwes starred in the horror–thriller ''Saw'' which, at a budget of a little over $1 million, grossed over $100 million worldwide.", "The same year he appeared in ''Ella Enchanted'', this time as the villain, not the hero.", "Also in 2004, he portrayed serial killer Ted Bundy in the A&E Network film ''The Riverman'', which became one of the highest rated original films in the network's history and garnered a prestigious BANFF Rockie Award nomination.", "The following year, Elwes played the young Karol Wojtyła in the CBS television film ''Pope John Paul II''.", "The TV film was highly successful not only in North America but also in Europe, where it broke box office records in the late Pope's native Poland and became the first film ever to break $1 million in three days.", "He made an uncredited appearance as Sam Green, the man who introduced Andy Warhol to Edie Sedgwick, in the 2006 film ''Factory Girl''.", "In 2007, he appeared in Garry Marshall's ''Georgia Rule'' opposite Jane Fonda.In 2007, he made a guest appearance on the ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' episode \"Dependent\" as a Mafia lawyer.", "In 2009, he played the role of Pierre Despereaux, an international art thief, in the fourth-season premiere of ''Psych''.", "Also in 2009 Elwes joined the cast of Robert Zemeckis's motion capture adaptation of Charles Dickens' ''A Christmas Carol'' portraying five roles.", "That same year he was chosen by Steven Spielberg to appear in his motion capture adaptation of Belgian artist Hergé's popular comic strip ''The Adventures of Tintin: The Secret of the Unicorn''.Elwes's voice-over work includes the narrator in James Patterson's audiobook ''The Jester'', as well as characters in film and television animations such as ''Quest for Camelot'', ''Pinky and The Brain'', ''Batman Beyond'', and the English versions of the Studio Ghibli films, ''Porco Rosso'', ''Whisper of the Heart'' and ''The Cat Returns''.", "For the 2004 video game ''The Bard's Tale'', he served as screenwriter, improviser, and voice actor of the main character The Bard.", "In 2009, Elwes reunited with Jason Alexander for the Indian film, ''Delhi Safari''.", "The following year Elwes portrayed the part of Gremlin Gus in Disney's video game, ''Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two''.", "In 2014, he appeared in ''Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey'' as the voice of scientists Edmond Halley and Robert Hooke.=== 2010–present === Elwes at Comic-Con in 2013In 2010, he returned to the ''Saw'' franchise in ''Saw 3D'' (2010), the seventh film in the series, as Dr. Lawrence Gordon.", "In 2010, he returned to ''Psych'', reprising his role in the second half of the fifth season, again in the show's sixth season, and again in the show's eighth season premiere.", "In 2014, Elwes played Hugh Ashmeade, Director of the CIA, in the second season of the BYUtv series ''Granite Flats''.", "In 2011, he was selected by Ivan Reitman to star alongside Natalie Portman in ''No Strings Attached''.", "That same year, Elwes and Garry Marshall teamed up again in the ensemble romantic comedy ''New Year's Eve'' opposite Robert de Niro and Halle Berry.In 2012, Elwes starred in the independent drama ''The Citizen''.", "and the following year Elwes joined Selena Gomez for the comedy ensemble, ''Behaving Badly'' directed by Tim Garrick.", "In 2015, he completed ''Sugar Mountain'' directed by Richard Gray; the drama ''We Don't Belong Here'', opposite Anton Yelchin and Catherine Keener directed by Peer Pedersen, and ''Being Charlie'' which reunited Elwes with director Rob Reiner after 28 years and premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival.", "In 2016, Elwes starred opposite Penelope Cruz in Fernando Trueba's Spanish-language period pic ''The Queen of Spain'', a sequel to Trueba's 1998 drama ''The Girl of Your Dreams''.", "This also re-united Elwes with his ''Princess Bride'' co-star, Mandy Patinkin.Elwes at the Phoenix Comicon in 2014In October 2014 Touchstone (Simon & Schuster) published Elwes's memoir of the making of ''The Princess Bride'', entitled ''As You Wish: Inconceivable Tales from the Making of The Princess Bride'', which he co-wrote with Joe Layden.", "The book featured never-before-told stories, exclusive behind-the-scenes photographs, and interviews with co-stars Robin Wright, Wallace Shawn, Billy Crystal, Christopher Guest, Fred Savage and Mandy Patinkin, as well as screenwriter William Goldman, producer Norman Lear, and director Rob Reiner.", "The book debuted on ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list.In 2014, Elwes co-wrote the screenplay for a film entitled ''Elvis & Nixon'', about the pair's famous meeting at the White House in 1970.The film, which starred Michael Shannon and Kevin Spacey, was bought by Amazon as their first theatrical feature and was released on 22 April 2016.In May 2015, Elwes was cast as Arthur Davenport, a shrewd and eccentric world-class collector of illegal art and antiquities in Crackle's first streaming network series drama, ''The Art of More'', which explored the cutthroat world of premium auction houses.", "The series debuted on 19 November and was picked up for a second season.", "In April 2018 Elwes portrayed Larry Kline, Mayor of Hawkins, for the third season of the Netflix series ''Stranger Things'', which premiered in July 2019.He was nominated along with the cast for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series.", "In May 2019, he joined the third season of the Amazon series ''The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel'' as Gavin Hawk." ], [ "Personal life", "Elwes met photographer Lisa Marie Kurbikoff in 1991 at a chili cook-off in Malibu, California, and they became engaged in 1997.They married in 2000 and have one daughter together.In March 2021, Elwes posted on his social media accounts that his younger half-sister Milica had died after battling Stage 4 cancer for more than a year.", "Elwes is known for his feud with Republican Texas Senator and ''Princess Bride'' fan Ted Cruz.", "According to the ''Hollywood Reporter'', Elwes initiated the 2020 fundraiser that re-united many ''Princess Bride'' cast members to support Joe Biden in the battleground state of Wisconsin.", "The ''Princess Bride'' Reunion raised more than $4 million for Wisconsin Democrats.=== Lawsuit ===In August 2005, Elwes filed a lawsuit against Evolution Entertainment, his management firm and producer of ''Saw''.", "Elwes said he was promised a minimum of one per cent of the producers' net profits of the film and did not receive the full amount.", "The case was settled out of court.", "Elwes would not return to the series until 2010, where he reprised his role in ''Saw 3D''." ], [ "Filmography", "+Key Denotes projects that have not yet been released=== Film ===+List of film and roles Year Title Role Notes 1979 ''Yesterday's Hero'' Disco Dancer 1984 ''Another Country'' James Harcourt ''Oxford Blues'' Lionel 1985 ''The Bride'' Capt.", "Josef Schoden 1986 ''Lady Jane'' Guilford Dudley 1987 ''Maschenka'' Lev Glebovich Ganin ''The Princess Bride'' Westley / Dread Pirate Roberts / The Man in Black 1989 ''Never on Tuesday'' Tow Truck Driver Uncredited ''Glory'' Maj. Cabot Forbes 1990 ''Days of Thunder'' Russ Wheeler 1991 ''Hot Shots!''", "Lt. Kent Gregory 1992 ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' Lord Arthur Holmwood ''Leather Jackets'' Dobbs Also associate producer 1993 ''Robin Hood: Men in Tights'' Robin Hood ''The Crush'' Nick Eliot 1994 ''The Jungle Book'' Capt.", "William Boone ''The Chase'' Steve Horsegroovy 1996 ''Twister'' Dr. Jonas Miller 1997 ''Kiss the Girls'' Det.", "Nick Ruskin ''The Informant'' Lt. David Ferris ''Liar Liar'' Jerry 1998 ''Quest for Camelot'' Garrett Voice 1998 ''The Pentagon Wars'' Col. James G. Burton 1999 ''Cradle Will Rock'' John Houseman 2000 ''Shadow of the Vampire'' Fritz Arno \"Fritzy\" Wagner 2001 ''The Cat's Meow'' Thomas H. Ince 2002 ''Wish You Were Dead'' Mac \"Macbeth\" Wilson ''Comic Book Villains'' Carter Also co-producer 2003 ''Porco Rosso'' Donald Curtis Voice; English dub 2004 ''Saw'' Dr. Lawrence Gordon ''Ella Enchanted'' Sir Edgar ''The Riverman'' Ted Bundy ''American Crime'' Albert Bodine 2005 ''Edison Force'' District Attorney Jack Reigert ''Neo Ned'' Dr. Magnuson ''National Lampoon's Pucked'' Norman ''The Cat Returns'' Baron Humbert von Gikkingen Voice; English dub 2006 ''Factory Girl'' Sam Green Uncredited ''Whisper of the Heart'' Baron Humbert von Gikkingen Voice; English dub2007 ''Walk the Talk'' Erik Also executive producer ''Georgia Rule'' Arnold 2008 '''' Capt.", "Kenneth Shine 2009 ''A Christmas Carol'' Portly Gentleman, Guest #2, Businessman #1 Voice and motion-capture 2010 ''Psych 9'' Dr. Clement ''Flying Lessons'' Steven Jennings ''As Good as Dead'' Ethan Belfrage ''Little Murder'' Barry Fitzgerald ''Saw 3D'' Dr. Lawrence Gordon 2011 ''No Strings Attached'' Dr. Steven Metzner ''Delhi Safari'' Bee Commander / Sultan Voice ''The Adventures of Tintin'' Seaplane Pilot Voice and motion-capture ''New Year's Eve'' Stan's Doctor ''The Story of Luke'' Uncle Paul ''Camilla Dickinson'' Rafferty Dickinson ''Hellgate'' Jeff Mathews 2012 ''The Oogieloves in the Big Balloon Adventure'' Bobby Wobbly ''The Citizen'' Earl Miller 2013 ''Hansel & Gretel Get Baked'' Meter Man ''Behaving Badly'' Joseph Stevens ''Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox'' Aquaman Voice ''Armed Response'' Joshua 2014 ''A Bit of Bad Luck'' Brooks ''Reach Me'' Kersey 2015 ''A Mouse Tale'' Sir Thaddeus Voice ''H8RZ'' Principal Donato ''Being Charlie'' David Mills ''A Haunting in Cawdor'' Lawrence O'Neil 2016 ''Lost & Found''John Broman ''Sugar Mountain'' Jim Huxley ''Elvis & Nixon'' Writer and producer ''Indiscretion'' Jake ''The Elephant Kingdom'' Rock Voice''Beyond Beyond''Jonah's FatherVoice ''The Queen of Spain'' Gary Jones 2017 ''We Don't Belong Here'' Frank Harper ''Don't Sleep'' Dr. Richard Sommers 2018 ''Billionaire Boys Club'' Andy Warhol ''Ghost Light'' Alex Pankhurst 2019 ''Black Christmas'' Professor Gelson 2021 ''Best Sellers'' Halpren Nolan ''The Unholy'' Bishop Gyles ''Last Train to Christmas'' Roger Towers ''A Castle for Christmas'' Myles, the Duke of Dunbar ''Burning at Both Ends''Jacques ChristoffersenEntitled ''Resistance: 1942'' in some territories 2022 ''The Hyperions'' Professor Ruckus Mandulbaum 2023 ''Operation Fortune: Ruse de Guerre'' Nathan Jasmine ''BlackBerry'' Carl Yankowski ''Sweetwater'' Ned Irish ''Mission: Impossible – Dead Reckoning Part One'' Denlinger ''Rebel Moon''The King 2024 ''Rebel Moon – Part Two: The Scargiver'' Post-production ''The Ministry of Ungentlemanly Warfare'' Post-production=== Television ===+List of television appearances and roles Year Title Role Notes 1996 ''Seinfeld'' David Lookner Episode: \"The Wait Out\" 1998 ''The Pentagon Wars'' Lt. Col. James Burton Television film ''From the Earth to the Moon'' Michael Collins 3 episodes ''Pinky and the Brain'' Director, Hamlet Voice, 2 episodes ''Hercules'' Paris of Troy Voice, episode: \"Hercules and the Trojan War\" 1999 ''The Outer Limits'' Dr. John York Episode: \"Ripper\" ''Batman Beyond'' Paxton Powers Voice, episode: \"Ascension\" 2000 ''Race Against Time'' Burke Television film 2001 ''Night Visions'' Gerald Episode: \"Quiet Please\" ''Uprising'' Fritz Hippler Television film 2001–2002 ''The X-Files'' FBI Assistant Director Brad Follmer 6 episodes 2004 ''The Riverman'' Ted Bundy Television film 2005 ''Pope John Paul II'' Young Karol Wojtyla Television film 2006 ''Haskett's Chance'' Mark Haskett / Chris Dalness Television film 2007 ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' Sidney Truex Episode: \"Dependent\" 2009–2014 ''Psych'' Pierre Despereaux 4 episodes 2011 ''Wonder Woman'' Henry Detmer Unsold pilot 2012 ''Leverage'' Scott Roemer Episode: \"The (Very) Big Bird Job\" ''Perception'' British Intelligence Officer Episode: \"Cipher\" 2013 ''The Anna Nicole Story'' E. Pierce Marshall Television film 2014 ''Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey'' Edmond Halley, Robert Hooke Voice, episode: \"When Knowledge Conquered Fear\" ''Granite Flats'' Hugh Ashmead 4 episodes 2014–2016 ''Family Guy'' Himself, Dr. Watson, additional voices 6 episodes 2015–2016 ''The Art of More'' Arthur Davenport 20 episodes ''Sofia the First'' Prince Roderick, Basil Voice, 2 episodes 2016–2017 ''Life in Pieces'' Professor Sinclair Wilde 4 episodes 2017 ''Workaholics'' Fox Episode: \"The Most Dangerless Game\" 2018 ''Youth & Consequences'' Joel Cutney 3 episodes ''André the Giant'' Himself HBO documentary ''The Adventures of Puss in Boots''Guy FoxVoice, episode: \"Like a Fox\" 2019 ''Stranger Things'' Mayor Larry Kline 5 episodes ''The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel'' Gavin Hawk 4 episodes 2020 ''Katy Keene'' Leo Lacy Episode: \"Chapter Thirteen: Come Together\" ''Home Movie: The Princess Bride'' Westley, Humperdinck Episode: \"Chapter Ten: To the Pain!\"", "2024 ''Knuckles'' Pete Whipple === Video games ===+List of video game voice roles Year Title Role Notes Publisher2004''The Bard's Tale''The BardVoiceinXile Entertainment2007''Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End''Black BartVoiceDisney Interactive Studios2012''Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two''Gremlin GusVoiceDisney Interactive Studios" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Association Category Project Result Ref.1997 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards Best Supporting Actor ''Kiss the Girls'' 2004 MTV Movie Award Best Frightened Performance ''Saw'' 2019 Screen Actors Guild Award Outstanding Ensemble in a Drama Series ''Stranger Things''" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chris Sarandon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Christopher Sarandon''' (; born July 24, 1942) is an American actor.", "He is well known for playing a variety of iconic characters, including Jerry Dandrige in ''Fright Night'' (1985), Prince Humperdinck in ''The Princess Bride'' (1987), Detective Mike Norris in ''Child's Play'' (1988), and Jack Skellington in ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'' (1993).", "He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance as Leon Shermer in ''Dog Day Afternoon'' (1975)." ], [ "Early life", "Chris Sarandon was born and raised in Beckley, West Virginia, the son of Greek-American restaurateurs Chris and Cliffie (née Cardullias) Sarandon.", "His father, whose surname was originally \"Sarondonethes\", was born to Greek parents in Istanbul, Turkey.Sarandon graduated from Woodrow Wilson High School in Beckley.", "He earned a degree in speech at West Virginia University.", "He earned his master's degree in theater from The Catholic University of America (CUA) in Washington, D.C." ], [ "Career", "Sarandon at a convention panel, November 2008.After graduation, he toured with numerous improvisational companies and became much involved with regional theatre, making his professional debut in the play ''The Rose Tattoo'' during 1965.In the summer of 1968 he and his then-wife, Susan Sarandon, worked as actors at the Wayside Theatre in Middletown, Virginia.", "Later that year Sarandon moved to New York City, where he obtained his first television role as Dr. Tom Halverson for the series ''The Guiding Light'' (1973–1974).", "He appeared in the primetime television movies ''The Satan Murders'' (1974) and ''Thursday's Game'' before obtaining the role in ''Dog Day Afternoon'' (1975), a performance which earned him nominations for Best New Male Star of the Year at the Golden Globes and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.Sarandon appeared in the Broadway play ''The Rothschilds'' and ''The Two Gentlemen of Verona'', as well making regular appearances at numerous Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw festivals in the United States and Canada.", "He also had a series of television roles, some of which (such as ''A Tale of Two Cities'' in 1980) corresponded to his affinity for the classics.", "He also had roles in the thriller movie ''Lipstick'' (1976) and as a demon in the movie ''The Sentinel'' (1977).To avoid being typecast in villainous roles, Sarandon accepted various roles of other types during the years to come, portraying the title role of Christ in the made-for-television movie ''The Day Christ Died'' (1980).", "He received accolades for his portrayal of Sydney Carton in a TV-movie version of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' (1980), co-starred with Dennis Hopper in the 1983 movie ''The Osterman Weekend'', which was based on the Robert Ludlum novel of the same name, and co-starred with Goldie Hawn in the movie ''Protocol'' (1984).", "These were followed by another mainstream success as the vampire-next-door in the horror movie ''Fright Night'' (1985).", "He starred in the 1986 TV movie ''Liberty'', which addressed the making of New York City's Statue of Liberty.Sarandon in 2012.One of his most endearing roles onscreen, is that of Prince Humperdinck in Rob Reiner's 1987 movie ''The Princess Bride'', though he also has had supporting parts in many other successful films, including his lead turn in the original horror classic ''Child's Play'' (1988).", "In 1992, he played Joseph Curwen/Charles Dexter Ward in ''The Resurrected''.", "He also played Jack Skellington, the main character of Tim Burton's animated Disney movie ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'' (1993), and has since reprised the role in other productions, including the Disney/Square video games ''Kingdom Hearts'' and ''Kingdom Hearts II'' and the Capcom sequel to the original movie, ''Oogie's Revenge''.", "Sarandon also reprised his role as Jack Skellington for several Disneyland Halloween events and attractions including; ''Halloween Screams'', the ''Frightfully Fun Parade,'' and the Haunted Mansion Holiday, a three-month overlay of the Haunted Mansion, where Jack and his friends take control of a mansion in an attempt to introduce Christmas, much as his character did in the movie.Sarandon appeared in TV again with a recurring role as Dr. Burke on NBC's long-running medical drama ''ER''.In 1991 he performed on Broadway in the short-lived musical ''Nick & Nora'' (based on the movie ''The Thin Man'') with Joanna Gleason, the daughter of Monty Hall.", "Sarandon married Gleason in 1994.They have appeared together in a number of movies, including ''Edie & Pen'' (1996), ''American Perfekt'' (1997), and ''Let the Devil Wear Black'' (1999).", "During the 2000s he made guest appearances in several TV series, notably as the Necromancer demon, Armand, in ''Charmed'', and as superior court judge Barry Krumble for six episodes of ''Judging Amy''.In 2006 he played Signor Naccarelli in the six-time Tony award-winning Broadway musical play ''The Light in the Piazza'' at Lincoln Center.", "Most recently he appeared in ''Cyrano de Bergerac'' as Antoine de Guiche, with Kevin Kline, Jennifer Garner, and Daniel Sunjata.In 2016 he performed in the Off-Broadway production of the Dave Malloy musical ''Preludes'' as Anton Chekhov, Tchaikovsky, Alexander Glazunov, Leo Tolstoy, Tsar Nicholas II, and The Master.He is on the advisory board for the Greenbrier Valley Theatre in Lewisburg, West Virginia." ], [ "Personal life", "Sarandon has been married three times: he married actress Susan Sarandon in 1967.The two met while attending The Catholic University of America together in Washington, D.C.", "The marriage lasted for twelve years; the pair divorced in 1979.After divorcing from Susan, he married his second wife, fashion model Lisa Ann Cooper, in 1980.The couple had two daughters and one son: Stephanie (born 1982), Alexis (born 1984), and Michael (born 1988).", "After nine years, the marriage ended in divorce in 1989.In 1994, he married his third wife, actress and singer Joanna Gleason.", "The couple met while performing in Broadway's short-lived 1991 musical ''Nick & Nora''; they returned to the stage together in 1998's ''Thorn and Bloom''.", "They also collaborated in several films together, such as ''Road Ends'', ''Edie & Pen'', ''Let the Devil Wear Black'', and ''American Perfekt''.Sarandon is a member of the Greek Orthodox Church." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film === Year Title Role Notes/Awards 1974 ''Thursday's Game'' Counsellor 1975 ''Dog Day Afternoon'' Leon Shermer Nominated—Academy Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated—Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – ActorNominated—New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor 1976 ''Lipstick'' Gordon Stuart 1977 ''The Sentinel'' Michael Lerman 1979 ''Cuba'' Juan Pulido ''You Can't Go Home Again'' George Webber 1980 ''The Day Christ Died'' Jesus Christ ''A Tale of Two Cities'' Sydney CartonCharles Darnay 1981 ''Broken Promise'' Bud Griggs 1983 ''The Osterman Weekend'' Joseph Cardone 1984 ''Protocol'' Michael Ransome 1985 ''This Child Is Mine'' Craig Wilkerson ''Fright Night'' Jerry Dandridge Nominated—Saturn Award for Best Actor 1986 ''Liberty'' Jacque Marchant 1987 ''The Princess Bride'' Prince Humperdinck ''Mayflower Madam'' Matt Whittington 1988 ''Child's Play'' Detective Mike Norris ''Goodbye, Miss Fourth Of July'' George Janus 1989 ''Collision Course'' Philip Mandras ''Slaves of New York'' Victor Okrent ''Tailspin: Behind the Korean Airliner Tragedy'' John Lenczowski ''Forced March'' Ben Kline 1990 ''The Stranger Within'' Dan ''Whispers'' Tony 1991 ''The Resurrected'' Joseph CurwenCharles Dexter Ward 1993 ''Dark Tide'' Tim ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'' Jack Skellington (voice) Speaking voice 1994 ''David's Mother'' Philip 1995 ''Just Cause'' Lyle Morgan ''When the Dark Man Calls'' Lloyd Carson 1996 ''Terminal Justice'' Reginald Matthews ''No Greater Love'' Sam Horowitz ''Edie & Pen'' Max ''Bordello of Blood'' Rev.", "J.C. Current 1997 ''American Perfekt'' Deputy Sammy ''Road Ends'' Esteban Maceda 1998 ''Little Men'' Fritz Bhaer 1999 ''Let the Devil Wear Black'' Mr. Lyne 2000 ''Race Against Time'' Dr.Anton Stofeles ''Reaper'' Luke Sinclair 2001 ''Perfume'' Gary Packer 2005 ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'' Kurotowa (voice) English dub by Walt Disney Pictures; originally released in Japanese in 1984 ''Loggerheads'' Rev.", "Robert Austin 2007 ''The Chosen One'' Zebulon 'Zeb' Kirk (voice) 2008 ''My Sassy Girl'' Dr. Roark 2010 ''Multiple Sarcasms'' Larry 2011 ''Fright Night'' \"Jay Dee\" Cameo appearance 2012 ''Safe'' Mayor Danny Tremello 2013''Curse of Chucky''Detective Mike NorrisArchive footage 2013 ''Frank the Bastard'' Tristan Pace 2014 ''Big Stone Gap'' Mario Barbari 2015 ''I Smile Back'' Roger === Television === Year Title Role Notes 1969–1973 ''Guiding Light'' Dr. Tom Halverson 1978 ''You Can't Go Home Again'' George Webber CBS TV movie based on the novel by Thomas Wolfe 1980 ''A Tale of Two Cities'' Sydney CartonCharles Darnay TV movie1993''Picket Fences''ColeEpisode: \"The Dancing Bandit\" 1994 ''Star Trek: Deep Space Nine'' Martus Mazur Episode: \"Rivals\" 1995 ''The Outer Limits'' Dr. Pallas Episode: \"Corner of the Eye\" 1998 ''The Practice'' Dr Jeffrey Winslow Episodes: \"The Trial\", \"Cloudy with a Chance of Membranes\" ''Chicago Hope'' Dr. Gordon Mays Episodes: \"Austin, We Have a Problem\", \"Wag the Doc\", \"Austin Space\" 1999 ''Felicity'' Dr. Peter McGrath Episodes: \"Todd Mulcahy: Part 1\", \"Todd Mulcahy: Part 2\", \"Docuventary\", \"Connections\", \"The Force\", \"Felicity Was Here\" 1999–2000 ''Stark Raving Mad'' Caesar Radford Episodes: \"Fish Out of Water\" and \"The Big Finish\" 2000–2002 ''ER'' Dr. Burke Episodes: \"The Greatest of Gifts\", \"Piece of Mind\", \"It's All in Your Head\" 2002, 2004 ''Law & Order'' Howard Pincham Episode: \"Gov Love\" and \"The Wheel\"2002 ''The Court'' Justice Vorhees 3 episodes 2003 ''The Wild Thornberrys'' Myka (voice) Episode: \"Look Who's Squawking\"''Skin''Mayor CoolidgeEpisode: \"Endorsement\" ''Charmed'' NecromancerArmand Episode: \"Necromancing the Stone\" 2004 ''Cold Case'' Adam Clarke Episode: \"Volunteers\" 2005 ''Danny Phantom'' Matt (voice) Episode: \"Pirate Radio\" 2006 ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' Wesley Masoner Episode: \"Choreographed\" 2010 ''Psych'' Ashton Bonaventure Episode: \"Think Tank\" ''The Good Wife'' Judge Howard Matchick Episode: \"Taking Control\" 2016 ''Orange Is The New Black'' Kip Carnigan Episode: \"We'll always have Baltimore\" 2017 ''Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles'' Count Dracula (voice) 3 episodes 2020 ''Prop Culture'' Himself Episode: \"Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas\"=== Video games === Year Title Role Notes 2002 ''Kingdom Hearts'' Jack Skellington (voice) 2005 ''The Nightmare Before Christmas: Oogie's Revenge'' 2006 ''Kingdom Hearts II'' 2013 ''Disney Infinity'' 2013 ''Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix'' 2014 ''Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix'' 2015 ''Disney Infinity 3.0'' 2023 ''Disney Dreamlight Valley'' === Theme parks and live attractions ===* ''Haunted Mansion Holiday'' – Jack Skellington* ''Halloween Screams'' – Jack Skellington* ''Frightfully Fun Parade'' – Jack Skellington* ''Disney on Ice'' – Jack Skellington=== Music videos ===* ''Hands Clean'' — Alanis Morissette" ], [ "Theatre", "YearTitleRoleNotes 1965 ''The Rose Tattoo'' Jack Hunter Broadway 1970 ''The Rothschilds'' Jacob Rothschilds 1971 ''Two Gentlemen of Verona'' Proteus 1977 ''Marco Polo Sings a Solo'' Tom Wintermouth Off-Broadway 1978 ''Broadway'' Performer Broadway 1979 ''The Woods'' Nick Off-Broadway 1980 ''Censored Scenes From King Kong'' Benchgelter Broadway 1985 ''The Voice of the Turtle'' Bill Page Off-Broadway 1991 ''Nick & Nora'' Performer Broadway 2005 ''The Light in the Piazza'' Signor Naccarelli Broadway 2007 ''Cyrano de Bergerac'' Comte de Guiche Broadway Revival 2011 ''Through a Glass, Darkly'' Performer Off-Broadway 2012 ''The Exonerated'' Karry Max Cook Broadway 2015 ''Preludes'' Chekhov, Tchaikovsky, Tolstoy, Glazunov, Tsar Nicholas II, The Master Off-Broadway" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "+Awards and nominations Year Award Category Title Result 1975 NYFCC Award Best Supporting Actor ''Dog Day Afternoon'' Golden Globe New Star of the Year – Actor 1976 Academy Award Best Actor in a Supporting Role 1986 Saturn Award Best Actor ''Fright Night'' 1992 Chainsaw Award Best Supporting Actor ''The Resurrected''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Chris Sarandon – ''Downstage Center'' interview at American Theatre Wing.org* The West Virginia & Regional History Center at West Virginia University houses the papers of Chris Sarandon as a part of the Distinguished West Virginians Archive" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Christopher Guest" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Christopher Haden-Guest, 5th Baron Haden-Guest''' (born 5 February 1948), known professionally as '''Christopher Guest''', is an American-British actor, comedian, screenwriter and director.", "Guest has written, directed, and starred in his series of comedy films shot in mockumentary style.", "The series of films began with ''This Is Spinal Tap'' (which he did not direct) and continued with ''Waiting for Guffman'', ''Best in Show'', ''A Mighty Wind'', ''For Your Consideration'', and ''Mascots''.Guest holds a hereditary British peerage as the 5th Baron Haden-Guest, and has publicly expressed a desire to see the House of Lords reformed as a democratically elected chamber.", "Though he was initially active in the Lords, his career there was cut short by the House of Lords Act 1999, which removed the right of most hereditary peers to a seat in the parliament.", "When using his title, he is normally styled as '''Lord Haden-Guest'''.", "Guest is married to the actress Jamie Lee Curtis." ], [ "Early life", "Guest was born in New York City, the son of Peter Haden-Guest, a British United Nations diplomat who later became the 4th Baron Haden-Guest, and his second wife, the former Jean Pauline Hindes, an American former vice president of casting at CBS.", "Guest's paternal grandfather, Leslie, Baron Haden-Guest, was a Labour Party politician, who was a convert to Judaism.", "Guest's paternal grandmother, a descendant of the Dutch Jewish Goldsmid family, was the daughter of Colonel Albert Goldsmid, a British officer who founded the Jewish Lads' and Girls' Brigade and the Maccabaeans.", "Guest's maternal grandparents were Jewish emigrants from Russia.", "Both of Guest's parents had become atheists, and Guest himself had no religious upbringing.", "In 1938, his uncle, David Guest, a lecturer and Communist Party member, was killed in the Spanish Civil War, fighting in the International Brigades.Guest spent parts of his childhood in his father's native United Kingdom.", "He attended the High School of Music & Art (New York City), studying classical music (clarinet) at the Stockbridge School in the village of Interlaken in Stockbridge, Massachusetts.", "He later took up the mandolin, became interested in country music, and played guitar with Arlo Guthrie, a fellow student at Stockbridge School.", "Guest later began performing with bluegrass bands until he took up rock and roll.", "Guest went to Bard College for a year and then studied acting at New York University's Graduate Acting Program at the Tisch School of the Arts, graduating in 1971." ], [ "Career", "=== 1970s ===Guest began his career in theatre during the early 1970s with one of his earliest professional performances being the role of Norman in Michael Weller's ''Moonchildren'' for the play's American premiere at the Arena Stage in Washington, DC, in November 1971.Guest continued with the production when it moved to Broadway in 1972.The following year, he began making contributions to ''The National Lampoon Radio Hour'' for a variety of National Lampoon audio recordings.", "He both performed comic characters (Flash Bazbo—Space Explorer, Mr. Rogers, music critic Roger de Swans, and sleazy record company rep Ron Fields) and wrote, arranged, and performed numerous musical parodies (of Bob Dylan, James Taylor, and others).", "He was featured alongside Chevy Chase and John Belushi in the off-Broadway revue ''National Lampoon's Lemmings''.", "Two of his earliest film roles were small parts as uniformed police officers in the 1972 film ''The Hot Rock'' and 1974's ''Death Wish''.Guest played a small role in the 1977 ''All in the Family'' episode \"Mike and Gloria Meet\", where in a flashback sequence Mike and Gloria recall their first blind date, set up by Michael's college buddy Jim (Guest), who dated Gloria's girlfriend Debbie (Priscilla Lopez).Guest also had a small but important role in ''it Happened One Christmas'', the 1977 gender-reversed TV remake of the Frank Capra classic ''it's a Wonderful Life,'' starring Marlo Thomas as Mary Bailey (the Jimmy Stewart role), with Cloris Leachman as Mary's guardian angel and Orson Welles as the villainous Mr. Potter.", "Guest played Mary's brother Harry, who returned from the Army in the final scene, speaking one of the last lines of the film: \"A toast!", "To my big sister Mary, the richest person in town!", "\"=== 1980s ===Guest's biggest role of the first two decades of his career is likely that of Nigel Tufnel in the 1984 Rob Reiner film ''This Is Spinal Tap''.", "Guest made his first appearance as Tufnel on the 1978 sketch comedy program ''The TV Show''.Along with Martin Short, Billy Crystal, and Harry Shearer, Guest was hired as a one-year-only cast member for the 1984–85 season on NBC's ''Saturday Night Live''.", "Recurring characters on SNL played by Guest include Frankie, of Willie and Frankie (coworkers who recount in detail physically painful situations in which they have found themselves, remarking laconically \"I hate when that happens\"); Herb Minkman, a shady novelty toymaker with a brother named Al (played by Crystal); Rajeev Vindaloo, an eccentric foreign man in the same vein as Andy Kaufman's Latka character from ''Taxi''; and Señor Cosa, a Spanish ventriloquist often seen on the recurring spoof of ''The Joe Franklin Show''.", "He also experimented behind the camera with pre-filmed sketches, notably directing a documentary-style short starring Shearer and Short as synchronized swimmers.", "In another short film from SNL, Guest and Crystal appear in blackface as retired Negro league baseball players, \"The Rooster and the King\".He appeared as Count Rugen (the \"six-fingered man\") in ''The Princess Bride''.", "He had a cameo role as the first customer, a pedestrian, in the 1986 musical remake of ''The Little Shop of Horrors'', which also featured Steve Martin.", "As a co-writer and director, Guest made the Hollywood satire ''The Big Picture''.Upon his father succeeding to the family peerage in 1987, he was known as \"the Hon.", "Christopher Haden-Guest\".", "This was his official style and name until he inherited the barony in 1996.=== 1990–present ===The experience of making ''This is Spinal Tap'' directly informed the second phase of his career.", "Starting in 1996, Guest began writing, directing, and acting in his own series of substantially improvised films.", "Many of them are considered definitive examples of what came to be known as \"mockumentaries\"—not a term Guest appreciates.Together, Guest, his frequent writing partner Eugene Levy, and a small band of actors have formed a loose repertory group, which appears in several films.", "These include Catherine O'Hara, Michael McKean, Parker Posey, Bob Balaban, Jane Lynch, John Michael Higgins, Harry Shearer, Jennifer Coolidge, Ed Begley, Jr., Jim Piddock and Fred Willard.", "Guest and Levy write backgrounds for each of the characters and notecards for each specific scene, outlining the plot, and then leave it up to the actors to improvise the dialogue, which is supposed to result in a much more natural conversation than scripted dialogue would.", "Typically, everyone who appears in these movies receives the same fee and the same portion of profits.", "Among the films performed in this manner, which have been written and directed by Guest, include ''Waiting for Guffman'' (1996), about a community theatre group, ''Best in Show'' (2000), about the dog show circuit, ''A Mighty Wind'' (2003), about folk singers, ''For Your Consideration'' (2006), about the hype surrounding Oscar season, and ''Mascots'' (2016), about a sports team mascot competition.Guest had a guest voice-over role in the animated comedy series ''SpongeBob SquarePants'' as SpongeBob's cousin, Stanley.Guest again collaborated with Reiner in ''A Few Good Men'' (1992), appearing as Dr. Stone.", "In the 2000s, Guest appeared in the 2005 biographical musical ''Mrs Henderson Presents'' and in the 2009 comedy ''The Invention of Lying''.He is also currently a member of the musical group The Beyman Bros, which he formed with childhood friend David Nichtern and Spinal Tap's current keyboardist C. J. Vanston.", "Their debut album ''Memories of Summer as a Child'' was released on January 20, 2009.In 2010, the United States Census Bureau paid $2.5 million to have a television commercial directed by Guest shown during television coverage of Super Bowl XLIV.Guest holds an honorary doctorate from and is a member of the board of trustees for Berklee College of Music in Boston.In 2013, Guest was the co-writer and producer of the HBO series ''Family Tree,'' in collaboration with Jim Piddock, a lighthearted story in the style he made famous in ''This is Spinal Tap'', in which the main character, Tom Chadwick, inherits a box of curios from his great aunt, spurring interest in his ancestry.On August 11, 2015, Netflix announced that ''Mascots'', a film directed by Guest and co-written with Jim Piddock, about the competition for the World Mascot Association championship's Gold Fluffy Award, would debut in 2016.Guest replayed his role as Count Tyrone Rugen in the ''Princess Bride'' Reunion on September 13, 2020." ], [ "Family", "Coat of arms – Baron Haden-Guest, of Saling in the County of EssexGuest became the 5th Baron Haden-Guest, of Great Saling, in the County of Essex, when his father died in 1996.He succeeded upon the ineligibility of his older half-brother, Anthony Haden-Guest, who was born before his parents married.", "According to an article in ''The Guardian'', Guest attended the House of Lords regularly until the House of Lords Act 1999 barred most hereditary peers from their seats.", "In the article Guest remarked:Guest married actress Jamie Lee Curtis in 1984 at the home of their mutual friend Rob Reiner.", "They have two daughters, through adoption.", "Guest was played by Seth Green in the film ''A Futile and Stupid Gesture.''" ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film === Year Title Actor Screenwriter Director Producer Role Notes 1971 ''The Hospital'' Resident Uncredited 1972 ''The Hot Rock'' Policeman 1973 ''National Lampoon Lemmings'' Musical arranger 1974 ''Death Wish'' Patrolman Jackson Reilly 1975 ''The Fortune'' Boy Lover ''Tarzoon: Shame of the Jungle'' Chief M'Bulu / Short / Nurse Voice only 1978 ''Girlfriends'' Eric 1979 ''The Last Word'' Roger1980 ''The Long Riders'' Charley Ford ''The Missing Link'' No Lobes English version; voice 1981 ''Heartbeeps'' Calvin ''Likely Stories, Vol.", "1'' All roles (segment \"Dead Ringer\") 1983 ''Likely Stories, Vol.", "3'' Frankie (segment \"Split Decision\") 1984 ''This Is Spinal Tap'' Nigel Tufnel Composer, musician 1985 ''Martin Short: Concert for theNorth Americas'' Rajiv Vindaloo 1986 ''Little Shop of Horrors'' The First Customer 1987 ''Beyond Therapy'' Bob ''The Princess Bride'' Count Tyrone Rugen,the six-fingered man 1988 ''Sticky Fingers'' Sam 1989 ''The Big Picture'' 1992 ''A Few Good Men'' Dr. Stone 1994 ''The Return of Spinal Tap'' Nigel Tufnel 1996 ''Waiting for Guffman'' Corky St. Clair 1998 ''Almost Heroes'' ''Small Soldiers'' Slamfist/Scratch-It Voices 2000 ''Best in Show'' Harlan Pepper 2003 ''A Mighty Wind'' Alan Barrows 2005 ''Mrs Henderson Presents'' Lord Cromer 2006 ''For Your Consideration'' Jay Berman 2009 ''Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian'' Ivan the Terrible ''The Invention of Lying'' Nathan Goldfrappe 2012 ''Her Master's Voice'' 2016 ''Mascots'' Corky St. Clair Netflix film=== Television === Year Title Actor Screenwriter Director Producer Role Notes 1975 ''Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell'' Variety series ''The Lily Tomlin Special'' TV special 1976 ''The Billion Dollar Bubble'' Al Green TV film ''TVTV Looks at the Oscars'' TV special ''TVTV: Super Bowl'' TV special ''The TVTV Show'' Various TV special 1977 ''It Happened One Christmas'' Harry Bailey TV film ''The Andros Targets'' Gordon Hamilton Episode: \"A Currency for Murder\" ''All in the Family'' Jim Episode: \"Mike and Gloria Meet\"1978 ''Laverne & Shirley'' Greg Harris Episode: \"Bus Stop\" ''Peeping Times'' Television special 1979 ''Blind Ambition'' Jeb Stuart Magruder Miniseries ''The Chevy Chase National Humor Test'' Various Television special 1980 ''Haywire'' The T.V.", "Director Television film 1982 ''Million Dollar Infield'' Bucky Frische Television film ''A Piano for Mrs. Cimino'' Philip Ryan Television film ''St.", "Elsewhere'' H.J.", "Cummings 2 episodes 1984–85 ''Saturday Night Live'' Various 19 episodes 1986 ''Shelley Duvall's Tall Tales & Legends'' Episode: \"Johnny Appleseed\" 1989 ''Trying Times'' Episode: \"The Sad Professor\" ''Billy Crystal: Midnight Train toMoscow'' The Voice Stand-up special ''I, Martin Short, Goes Hollywood'' Antoninus DiMentabella 1991 ''Morton & Hayes'' El Supremo / Crooner /Dr.", "Von Astor Directed 5 episodes;acted 3 episodes;composed theme music ''Amnesty International's Big 3-0'' Nigel Tufnel Television special 1992 ''The Simpsons'' Nigel Tufnel Episode: \"The Otto Show\"Voice 1993 ''Animaniacs'' Umlatt Episode: \"King Yakko\"Voice ''Attack of the 50 Ft. Woman'' Television film; composer 1999 ''Dilbert'' The Dupey Episode: \"The Dupey\"Voice 2003 ''MADtv'' Nigel Tufnel Episode: season 8, episode 21 2007, 2021 ''SpongeBob SquarePants'' Stanley S. SquarePants / Clem Clam 2 episodes: \"Stanley S. SquarePants\", \"Goofy Scoopers\"Voice 2009 ''Stonehenge: 'Tis a Magic Place'' Nigel Tufnel 3 episodes 2012 ''84th Academy Awards'' Focus Group Member Directed focus group segment 2013 ''Family Tree'' Dave Chadwick /Phineas Chadwick 8 episodes; also co-creatorcomposed credits theme===Recurring cast members===Guest has worked multiple times with certain actors, notably with frequent writing partner Eugene Levy, who has appeared in five of his projects.", "Other repeat collaborators of Guest include Fred Willard (7 projects); Michael McKean, Bob Balaban, and Ed Begley, Jr. (6 projects each); Parker Posey, Jim Piddock, Michael Hitchcock and Harry Shearer (5 projects each); Catherine O'Hara, Larry Miller, John Michael Higgins, Jane Lynch, and Jennifer Coolidge (4 projects each).", "''This Is Spinal Tap'' ''The Big Picture'' ''Waiting for Guffman'' ''Almost Heroes'' ''Best in Show'' ''A Mighty Wind'' ''For Your Consideration'' ''Family Tree'' ''Mascots'' Bob Balaban Ed Begley, Jr. Jennifer Coolidge John Michael Higgins Michael Hitchcock Eugene Levy Jane Lynch Michael McKean Larry Miller Catherine O'Hara Jim Piddock Parker Posey Harry Shearer Fred Willard" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Award Category Film Result 1976 Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Writing in a Comedy-Variety or Music Special Ann ElderShared with Earl Pomerantz, Jim Rusk, Lily Tomlin, Rod Warren, George Yanok ''The Lily Tomlin Special'' 1995 International Fantasy Film Award Best Film ''Attack of the 50 Ft. Woman'' 1998 Independent Spirit Award Best Male Lead ''Waiting for Guffman'' Best ScreenplayShared with Eugene Levy Lone Star Film & Television Award Best Director 2001 DVD Exclusive Award Best DVD Audio Commentary ''This Is Spinal Tap'' American Comedy Award Funniest Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture ''Best in Show'' Golden Satellite Award Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture, Comedy or Musical Independent Spirit Award Best Director Writers Guild of America Award Best Screenplay Written Directly for the ScreenShared with Eugene Levy 2003 Seattle Film Critics Award Best MusicShared with John Michael Higgins, Eugene Levy, Michael McKean, Catherine O'Hara, Annette O'Toole, Harry Shearer, Jeffrey C. J. Vanston ''A Mighty Wind'' 2004 Grammy Award Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual MediaShared with Eugene Levy, Michael McKean ''A Mighty Wind''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * \"Nowt so queer as folk\".", "''The Guardian'' (UK).", "January 10, 2004.Richard Grant.", "Interview for release of ''A Mighty Wind''.", "* category:1948 births" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Carol Kane" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Carolyn Laurie Kane''' (born June 18, 1952) is an American actress.", "She gained recognition for her role in ''Hester Street'' (1975), for which she received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress.", "She became known in the 1970s and 1980s in films such as ''Dog Day Afternoon'' (1975), ''Annie Hall'' (1977), ''The Princess Bride'' (1987), and ''Scrooged'' (1988).Kane appeared on the television series ''Taxi'' in the early 1980s, as Simka Gravas, the wife of Latka, the character played by Andy Kaufman, winning two Emmy Awards for her work.", "She has played the character of Madame Morrible in the musical ''Wicked'', both in touring productions and on Broadway from 2005 to 2014.From 2015 to 2020, she was a main cast member on the Netflix series ''Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt'', in which she played Lillian Kaushtupper.", "She currently plays the recurring role of Pelia in ''Star Trek: Strange New Worlds'' (2023present)." ], [ "Early life", "Kane was born on June 18, 1952, in Cleveland, Ohio, the daughter of Joy, a jazz singer, teacher, dancer, and pianist, and architect Michael Kane.", "Her family is Jewish, and her grandparents emigrated from Russia, Austria, and Poland.", "Due to her father's occupation, Kane moved frequently as a child; she briefly lived in Paris at age 8, where she began learning to speak French.", "Additionally, she resided in Haiti at age 10.Her parents divorced when she was 12 years old.She attended the Cherry Lawn School, a boarding school in Darien, Connecticut, until 1965.She studied theater at HB Studio and also went to the Professional Children's School in New York City.", "She became a member of both the Screen Actors Guild and the Actors' Equity Association at age 14.Kane made her professional theater debut in a 1966 production of ''The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie'' starring Tammy Grimes, her first job as a member of Actors' Equity." ], [ "Career", "=== 1971–1979: Career beginnings and early recognition ===Kane's on-screen career began while she was still a teenager, when she appeared in minor roles in films such as ''Desperate Characters'' and Mike Nichols's ''Carnal Knowledge'' in 1971, the latter of which led her to befriend lead actor Jack Nicholson.", "In 1972, she was cast in her first leading role in the Canadian production ''Wedding in White'', where she played a teenage rape victim who is forced into marriage by her father.", "She also appeared as a sex worker in Hal Ashby's 1973 film ''The Last Detail'', where she collaborated with Nicholson yet again.Hester Street'' (1975)In 1975, Kane was cast in Joan Micklin Silver's feature-length debut ''Hester Street'', in which she played a Russian-Jewish immigrant who struggles with her husband to assimilate in late 19th-century New York.", "For her performance in the film, Kane garnered her sole Academy Award nomination for Best Actress at the 48th Academy Awards, and it remains her favorite of all her roles.", "Additionally, 1975 saw her appear as a bank teller in Sidney Lumet's crime drama ''Dog Day Afternoon'', which received numerous Academy Award nominations in other categories that same year.", "This also marked her first on-screen collaboration with Al Pacino, whom she had known prior to the film thanks to their shared background in theater.Despite this recognition, however, Kane has recounted waiting for approximately a year before being cast in her next role, which she has attributed to the trend of actors being typecast after receiving awards attention.", "Her return to the screen would come with Gene Wilder's 1977 comedy ''The World's Greatest Lover,'' which she has credited for identifying the comedic talents that would become her staple in later years.", "During the same year, she was cast in Woody Allen's romantic comedy ''Annie Hall'', where she played Allison Portchnik, the first wife of Allen's character Alvy Singer.", "She also appeared in Ken Russell's film ''Valentino'', which, like ''The World's Greatest Lover'', takes inspiration from the silent film era, as it is a biographical drama loosely inspired by the life of Rudolph Valentino.Kane and Gene Wilder in a publicity photo for ''The World's Greatest Lover'', 1977After this, Kane appeared in the horror films ''The Mafu Cage'' (1978) and ''When a Stranger Calls'' (1979); ironically, Kane herself is largely averse to horror, and she admits to being unable to watch the latter.", "In 1979, she also appeared in a cameo role in ''The Muppet Movie''.=== 1980–1990: ''Taxi'' and transition into comedy ===From 1980 to 1983, Kane portrayed Simka Dahblitz-Gravas, the wife of Andy Kaufman's character Latka Gravas, on the American television series ''Taxi''.", "Kane has attributed the on-screen rapport she shared with Kaufman to their different work ethics: where she was trained in the theater and enjoyed rehearsal time, Kaufman was rooted more in stand-up comedy and did not care for rehearsals, a contrast that she believes enhanced their believability as a married couple.", "However, she maintains that she and Kaufman had a loving relationship on set, and she has spoken fondly of him in retrospective interviews.", "Kane received two Emmy Awards for her work on ''Taxi''.", "Her role on the series has largely been credited as the beginning of her pivot towards more comedic roles, as she began to regularly appear in sitcoms and comedy films after the series ended.In 1984, Kane appeared in episode 12, season 3 of ''Cheers'' as Amanda, an acquaintance of Diane Chambers from her time spent in a mental institution.", "She was also a regular on the 1986 series ''All Is Forgiven.", "''In 1987, Kane appeared in ''Ishtar'', Elaine May's notorious box-office flop turned cult classic, playing the frustrated girlfriend of Dustin Hoffman's character.", "That year also saw her make one of her most recognizable film appearances in Rob Reiner's fantasy romance ''The Princess Bride'', where she played a witch opposite Billy Crystal.", "In 1988, Kane appeared in the Cinemax Comedy Experiment ''Rap Master Ronnie: A Report Card'' alongside Jon Cryer and the Smothers Brothers.", "During the same year, she was also featured in the Bill Murray vehicle ''Scrooged'', where she portrayed a contemporary version of the Ghost of Christmas Present, depicted in the film as a fairy.", "For this performance, ''Variety'' called her \"unquestionably the pic's comic highlight\".", "Additionally, she played a potential love interest for Steve Martin's character in the 1990 film ''My Blue Heaven''.=== 1990–2004: Television and film regularity ===Kane became a regular on the NBC series ''American Dreamer'', which ran from 1990 to 1991''.''", "In 1993, she appeared in ''Addams Family Values'' where she replaced Judith Malina as Grandmama Addams; this role saw her reunite with her ''Taxi'' castmate Christopher Lloyd.", "She also guest starred on a 1994 episode of ''Seinfeld'', as well as a 1996 episode of ''Ellen.''", "In 1996, she was given a supporting role in the short-lived sitcom ''Pearl''.", "From there, she continued to appear in a number of film roles throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, including ''The Pallbearer'' (1996), ''Office Killer'' (1997), ''Jawbreaker'' (1999), and ''My First Mister'' (2001).", "In 1998, she voiced Mother Duck in the American version of the animated television film ''The First Snow of Winter''.In 1999, she made a cameo in the Andy Kaufman biopic ''Man on the Moon'' as her ''Taxi'' character.=== 2005–2014: ''Wicked'' and career expansion ===Kane is also known for her portrayal of the evil headmistress Madame Morrible in the Broadway musical ''Wicked'', whom she played in various productions from 2005 to 2014.Kane made her ''Wicked'' debut on the 1st National Tour, playing the role from March 9 through December 19, 2005.She then reprised the role in the Broadway production from January 10 through November 12, 2006.She again played the role for the Los Angeles production which began performances on February 7, 2007.She left the production on December 30, 2007, and later returned on August 26, 2008, until the production closed on January 11, 2009.In January 2009, she guest starred in the television series ''Two and a Half Men'' as the mother of Alan Harper's receptionist.She then transferred with the Los Angeles company of ''Wicked'' to reprise her role once again, this time in the San Francisco production, which began performances January 27, 2009.She ended her limited engagement on March 22, 2009.In March 2010, Kane appeared in the ABC series ''Ugly Betty'' as Justin Suarez's acting teacher.Kane starred in the off-Broadway play ''Love, Loss, and What I Wore'' in February 2010.She made her West End debut in January 2011 in a major revival of Lillian Hellman's drama ''The Children's Hour'' at London's Comedy Theatre, where she starred alongside Keira Knightley, Elisabeth Moss and Ellen Burstyn.", "In May 2012, Kane appeared on Broadway as Betty Chumley in a revival of the play ''Harvey''.Kane returned to the Broadway company of ''Wicked'' from July 1, 2013, through February 22, 2014, a period that included the show's 10th anniversary.In 2014, she was cast in a recurring role on the television series ''Gotham'' as Gertrude Kapelput, the mother of Oswald Cobblepot, also known as Penguin.=== 2015–present: ''Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt'' and legacy roles ===In 2015, Kane was cast in the recurring role of Lillian Kaushtupper, the landlord to the title character of the Netflix series ''Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt''.", "Kane joined the cast due in part to her admiration of showrunner Tina Fey, with whom she had previously wanted to collaborate on the NBC series ''30 Rock''.", "She was promoted to a series regular for the show's second season.", "''Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt'' ran for four seasons, making it one of Kane's longest television roles to date.", "She reprised the role in the \"interactive\" television special ''Kimmy vs the Reverend''.In 2018, Kane was cast in Jacques Audiard's Western film ''The Sisters Brothers''.", "In 2019, she appeared in Jim Jarmusch's horror comedy ''The Dead Don't Die,'' marking another collaboration with Bill Murray.", "That same year, she was featured in the recurring role of Bianca Nova in season one of the HBO series ''Los Espookys'', where she reunited with her ''Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt'' castmate Fred Armisen.In 2020, Kane was featured in the ensemble cast of the Amazon series ''Hunters,'' which also includes her longtime acquaintance Al Pacino.", "Additionally, during the same year, she participated in two cast reunion fundraisers, one with the cast of ''Taxi'' for the Actors Fund, the other with the cast of ''The Princess Bride'' for the Democratic Party of Wisconsin.It was announced on ''Star Trek'' Day 2022 that Kane would join the cast of ''Star Trek: Strange New Worlds'' for season two as Chief Engineer Pelia.", "Prior to her casting, Kane had never seen an episode of the original ''Star Trek'' series, though she has said the show's writers thought this oversight improved her performance.In 2023, Kane was announced as one of the leads in Nathan Silver's upcoming comedy film ''Between the Temples''." ], [ "Personal life", "Kane was in a relationship with actor Woody Harrelson from 1986 to 1988.The two have remained friends since their break-up, and Harrelson was seen attending Kane's 60th birthday party in 2012.She has never been married, nor has she had any children.", "Regarding the latter decision, she has said, \"I never felt that I would be calm and stable enough to be the kind of mother I'd like to be.", "I don't think everyone randomly is mother material.", "\"Kane is often noted for her high, breathy, slow voice, though her vocal timbre has grown raspier with age.", "Kane, who has often altered her voice to suit various roles, has confessed to disliking it, telling ''People'' magazine in 2020 that she wishes her voice was \"deep and beautiful and sexy\"." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film === Year Title Role Notes 1971 ''Desperate Characters'' Young Girl ''Carnal Knowledge'' Jennifer 1972 ''Wedding in White'' Jeannie Dougall ''...and Hope to Die'' (aka. )", "Scenes cut from finished film 1973 ''The Last Detail'' Young Whore 1975 ''Hester Street'' Gitl Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actress ''Dog Day Afternoon'' Jenny 1976 ''Harry and Walter Go to New York'' Florence 1977 ''Annie Hall'' Allison Portchnik ''Valentino'' Starlet ''The World's Greatest Lover'' Annie Hickman 1978 ''The Mafu Cage'' Cissy 1979 ''The Muppet Movie'' Myth ''When a Stranger Calls'' Jill Johnson ''La Sabina'' Daisy 1981 ''The Games of Countess Dolingen'' Louise Haines-Pearson ''Strong Medicine'' 1982 ''Pandemonium'' Candy ''Norman Loves Rose'' Rose Nominated — AACTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role 1983 ''Can She Bake a Cherry Pie?''", "Customer at Cafe 1984 ''Over the Brooklyn Bridge'' Cheryl ''Racing with the Moon'' Annie the Hooker ''The Secret Diary of Sigmund Freud'' Martha Bernays ''Terror in the Aisles'' Jill Johnson (archival footage) Documentary film 1985 ''Transylvania 6-5000'' Lupi 1986 ''Jumpin' Jack Flash'' Cynthia 1987 ''Ishtar'' Carol ''The Princess Bride'' Valerie 1988 ''Sticky Fingers'' Kitty ''License to Drive'' Mrs. Anderson ''Scrooged'' Ghost of Christmas Present 1990 ''The Lemon Sisters'' Franki D'Angelo ''Flashback'' Maggie ''Joe Versus the Volcano'' Hairdresser cameo ''My Blue Heaven'' Shaldeen 1991 ''Ted & Venus'' Colette 1992 ''In the Soup'' Barbara ''Baby on Board'' Maria ''The Real Story of Here Comes the Bride'' Margaret Mouse (voice) 1993 ''Even Cowgirls Get the Blues'' Carla ''Addams Family Values'' Grandmama 1994 ''The Crazysitter'' Treva Van Arsdale 1995 ''Theodore Rex'' Molly Rex (voice) Direct-to-video film 1996 ''Big Bully'' Faith ''American Strays'' Helen ''Sunset Park'' Mona ''The Pallbearer'' Mrs. Thompson ''Trees Lounge'' Connie 1997 ''Gone Fishin''' Donna Waters ''Office Killer'' Dorine Douglas 1998 ''The Tic Code'' Miss Gimpole 1999 ''Jawbreaker'' Principal Sherwood ''Man on the Moon'' Herself/Simka Dahblitz ''The Wacky Adventures of Ronald McDonald'' Org's mother (voice) Short film 2000 ''The Office Party'' Linda Short film 2001 ''D.C.", "Smalls'' Mother Short film ''My First Mister'' Mrs. Benson ''The Shrink Is In'' Dr. Louise Rosenberg ''Tomorrow by Midnight'' Officer Garfield 2002 ''Love in the Time of Money'' Joey 2003 ''Cosmopolitan'' Mrs. Shaw 2004 ''Confessions of a Teenage Drama Queen'' Miss Baggoli 2005 ''The Pacifier'' Helga ''The Civilization of Maxwell Bright'' Temple ''The Happy Elf'' Gilda (voice) 2008 ''Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Furious Five'' Sheep (voice) ''Four Christmases'' Aunt Sarah (uncredited) 2010 ''The Bounty Hunter'' Dawn ''My Girlfriend's Boyfriend'' Barbara ''Pete Smalls Is Dead'' Landlady 2011 ''The Key Man'' Marsha 2012 ''Sleepwalk with Me'' Linda Pandamiglio ''Should've Been Romeo'' Ruth ''Thanks for Sharing'' Roberta 2013 ''Clutter'' Linda Bradford 2014 ''Emoticon ;)'' Hannah Song 2015 ''Ava's Possessions'' Talia 2018 ''The Sisters Brothers'' Mrs. Sisters ''Ghost Light'' Madeline Styne 2019 ''The Dead Don't Die'' Mallory O'Brien 2022 ''iMordecai'' Fela 2023 ''Migration'' Erin (voice)2024''Between the Temples''TBAPost-production; also executive producer=== Television === Year Title Role Notes 1974 ''We, the Woman'' Susannah White Television film 1978 ''Visions'' Episode: \"Fans of the Kosko Show\" 1978–1981 ''Great Performances'' Eliza Southgate; Frances Loomis Episodes: \"Out of Our Father's House\"; \"The Girls in Their Summer Dresses and Other Stories\" 1980 ''The Greatest Man in the World'' April Television film 1980–1983 ''Taxi'' Simka Dahblitz-Gravas 17 episodes Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (1982) Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy, Variety or Music Series (1983) Medallion Award (2007) Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries or Television Film (1983)Nominated — TV Land Award for Most Wonderful Wedding (2006) 1982 ''Laverne & Shirley'' Olga Episode: \"Jinxed\" 1983 ''An Invasion of Privacy'' Ilene Cohen Television film ''American Playhouse'' Lavinia Episode: \"Keeping On\" ''Faerie Tale Theatre'' The \"Good\" Fairy Episode: \"Sleeping Beauty\" 1984 ''Burning Rage'' Mary Harwood Television film ''Cheers'' Amanda Boyer Episode: \"A Ditch in Time\" 1985 ''Tales from the Darkside'' Anne MacColl Episode: \"Snip, Snip\" ''Crazy Like a Fox'' Episode: \"Bum Tip\" 1986 ''Tall Tales & Legends'' Barbara Episode: \"Casey at the Bat\" ''All Is Forgiven'' Nicolette Bingham 9 episodes 1987 ''Paul Reiser Out on a Whim'' Fortune Teller Television film 1988 ''Drop-Out Mother'' Maxine Television film ''Rap Master Ronnie: A Report Card'' Television film 1989–1994 ''Sesame Street'' Nina the Nice Episode 2648: \"Bob accompanies Oscar to Grouchytown\"; archival footage 1990 ''Tales from the Crypt'' Judy Episode: \"Judy, You're Not Yourself Today\" ''Tiny Toon Adventures'' Ollie (voice) Episode: \"A Quack in the Quarks\" 1990–1991 ''American Dreamer'' Lillian Abernathy 17 episodes 1991–1992 ''Brooklyn Bridge'' Aunt Sylvia 5 episodes 1992 ''Sibs'' Sally Episodes: \"The Crash: Part 1\", \"The Crash: Part 2\" ''The Ray Bradbury Theater'' Polly Episode: \"Tomorrow's Child\" 1993 ''When a Stranger Calls Back'' Jill Johnson Television film ''TriBeCa'' Amanda Episode: \"Stepping Back\" ''Eligible Dentist'' Television film 1994 ''Seinfeld'' Corinne Episode: \"The Marine Biologist\" ''Aladdin'' Brawnhilda (voice) Episodes: \"Stinkerbelle\", \"Smells Like Trouble\" ''Empty Nest'' Shelby Episode: \"The Courtship of Carol's Father\" 1995 ''A.J.", "'s Time Travelers'' Emily Roebling Episode: \"Brooklyn Bridge\" ''Dad, the Angel & Me'' The Angel Television film ''Napoleon'' Spider (voice) English version ''Freaky Friday'' Leanne Futterman Television film 1996 ''Chicago Hope'' Marguerite Birch Episode: \"Stand\"Nominated – Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (1996) ''Ellen'' Lily Penney Episode: \"A Penney Saved\" 1996–1997 ''Pearl'' Annie Caraldo 22 episodes 1997 ''Hey Arnold!''", "Emily Dickinson Trophy (voice) Episode: \"Freeze Frame/Phoebe Cheats\" ''The Tony Danza Show'' Simka Gravaas Episode: \"The Milk Run\" ''Homicide: Life on the Street'' Gwen Munch Episode: \"All Is Bright\" ''Merry Christmas, George Bailey'' Cousin Tilly/Mrs.", "Hatch Television film 1998 ''The First Seven Years'' Mrs. Feld Television short ''Adventures from the Book of Virtues'' The Beetle (voice) Episode: \"Patience\" ''Noddy'' Tooth Fairy Episode: \"The Tooth Fairy\" 1999 ''Noah's Ark'' Sarah Television film ''Blue's Clues'' Little Miss Muffet (voice) Episode: \"Blue's Big Treasure Hunt\" 1999–2000 ''Beggars and Choosers'' Lydia Luddin 3 episodes 2000 ''As Told by Ginger'' Maude Episodes: \"I Spy a Witch\"; \"Carl and Maude\" 2001 ''Family Guy'' Carol (voice) Episode: \"Emission Impossible\" 2002 ''That's Life'' Gloria Episode: \"Baum's Thesis\" ''The Grubbs'' Sophie Grubb Episode: \"Pilot\" 2003 ''Audrey's Rain'' Missy Flanders Television film 2004 ''Hope & Faith'' Cornelia Rackett Episode: \"Faith Scare-Field\" 2005 ''The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy'' Mrs. Claus Episode: \"Billy and Mandy Save Christmas\" 2006 ''The Year Without a Santa Claus'' Mother Nature Television film; cameo 2009 ''Two and a Half Men'' Shelly Episodes: \"Thank God for Scoliosis\"; \"David Copperfield Slipped Me a Roofie\" ''Monk'' Joy Episode: \"Mr. Monk Is the Best Man\" 2009, 2013 ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' Gwen Munch Episodes: \"Zebras\", \"Wonderland Story\" 2010 ''Ugly Betty'' Lena Korvinka Episode: \"All the World's a Stage\" 2011 ''Dora the Explorer'' Grandma Troll (voice) Episode: \"The Grumpy Old Troll Gets Married\" 2011–2012 ''Jake and the Never Land Pirates'' Sea Witch (voice) 2 episodes 2011–2014 ''Phineas and Ferb'' Nana Shapiro (voice) 2 episodes 2013 ''Girls'' Cloris Episode: \"It's Back\" ''Anger Management'' Carol Episode: \"Charlie and His New Friend with Benefits\" 2014–2016 ''Gotham'' Gertrud Kapelput Recurring guest; 10 episodes 2015–2020 ''Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt'' Lillian Kaushtupper Main role; 42 episodes (seasons 1-4 and ''Kimmy vs the Reverend'') 2016 ''Crowded'' Linda Episode: \"Given to Fly\" 2017 ''Halt and Catch Fire'' Denise Episode: \"Ten of Swords\" ''Star vs. the Forces of Evil'' Dr. Jelly Goodwell (voice) Episode: \"Princess Turdina/Starfari\" 2017–2019 ''OK K.O.!", "Let's Be Heroes'' Ginger (voice) 2 episodes 2018 ''Pinkalicious & Peterrific'' Edna (voice) 3 episodes ''Animals'' Chompy (voice) 2 episodes 2018–2021 ''F Is for Family'' Marilyn Chilson (voice) 5 episodes ''Vampirina'' Madame Spook (voice) 2 episodes 2018–2019 ''Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure'' Madam Canardist (voice) 3 episodes 2019 ''Los Espookys'' Bianca Nova 4 episodes ''Bubble Guppies'' The Sea Witch (voice) Episode: \"The New Guppy!\"", "''Big Mouth'' The Menopause Banshee (voice) Episode: \"Florida\" ''Summer Camp Island'' Barb Junior (voice) Episode: \"The Great Elf Invention Convention\" 2020–2023 ''Hunters'' Mindy Markowitz 18 episodes 2022 ''Naked Mole Rat Gets Dressed: The Underground Rock Experience'' Grand-Mah (voice) Television film ''The Simpsons'' Blythe (voice) Episode: \"Step Brother from the Same Planet\" 2023 ''Star Trek: Strange New Worlds'' Pelia Recurring 2024 ''Moon Girl and Devil Dinosaur'' Bube Bina (voice) Episode: \"Ride or Die\"=== Stage ===YearTitleRoleVenueNotes1972''Ring Around the Bathtub''Esme TrainBroadway; Martin Beck Theatre1978''The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds''TillieBroadway; Biltmore Theatre1987''A Woman of Mystery''Un Named WomanLos Angeles; Court TheatreDirected by John Cassavetes2003''The Exonerated''Sunny JacobsTouringReplacement2004''Sly Fox''Miss FancyBroadway; Ethel Barrymore TheatreReplacement2005; 2007;2008; 2009''Wicked''Madame MorribleTouring2006; 2013Broadway; Gershwin TheatreReplacement2012''Harvey''Betty ChumleyBroadway; Studio 54=== Music videos ===YearTitleArtist(s)1985\"This Is My Night\"Chaka Khan" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "YearAwardCategoryWorkResult1976Academy AwardsBest Actress''Hester Street''1978Drama Desk AwardOutstanding Featured Actress in a Play''The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds''1982AACTA AwardsBest Actress in a Leading Role''Norman Loves Rose''Primetime Emmy AwardsOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series''Taxi''1983Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy, Variety or Music SeriesGolden Globe AwardsBest Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries or Television Film 1996Primetime Emmy AwardsOutstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series''Chicago Hope''2006TV Land AwardMost Wonderful Wedding''Taxi''2007Medallion Award" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* **" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "C*-algebra" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, specifically in functional analysis, a '''C∗-algebra''' (pronounced \"C-star\") is a Banach algebra together with an involution satisfying the properties of the adjoint.", "A particular case is that of a complex algebra ''A'' of continuous linear operators on a complex Hilbert space with two additional properties:* ''A'' is a topologically closed set in the norm topology of operators.", "* ''A'' is closed under the operation of taking adjoints of operators.Another important class of non-Hilbert C*-algebras includes the algebra of complex-valued continuous functions on ''X'' that vanish at infinity, where ''X'' is a locally compact Hausdorff space.C*-algebras were first considered primarily for their use in quantum mechanics to model algebras of physical observables.", "This line of research began with Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and in a more mathematically developed form with Pascual Jordan around 1933.Subsequently, John von Neumann attempted to establish a general framework for these algebras, which culminated in a series of papers on rings of operators.", "These papers considered a special class of C*-algebras that are now known as von Neumann algebras.Around 1943, the work of Israel Gelfand and Mark Naimark yielded an abstract characterisation of C*-algebras making no reference to operators on a Hilbert space.C*-algebras are now an important tool in the theory of unitary representations of locally compact groups, and are also used in algebraic formulations of quantum mechanics.", "Another active area of research is the program to obtain classification, or to determine the extent of which classification is possible, for separable simple nuclear C*-algebras." ], [ "Abstract characterization", "We begin with the abstract characterization of C*-algebras given in the 1943 paper by Gelfand and Naimark.A C*-algebra, ''A'', is a Banach algebra over the field of complex numbers, together with a map for with the following properties:* It is an involution, for every ''x'' in ''A'':::* For all ''x'', ''y'' in ''A'':::::* For every complex number and every ''x'' in ''A'':::* For all ''x'' in ''A'':::'''Remark.'''", "The first four identities say that ''A'' is a *-algebra.", "The last identity is called the '''C* identity''' and is equivalent to:which is sometimes called the B*-identity.", "For history behind the names C*- and B*-algebras, see the history section below.The C*-identity is a very strong requirement.", "For instance, together with the spectral radius formula, it implies that the C*-norm is uniquely determined by the algebraic structure:::A bounded linear map, ''π'' : ''A'' → ''B'', between C*-algebras ''A'' and ''B'' is called a '''*-homomorphism''' if* For ''x'' and ''y'' in ''A''::* For ''x'' in ''A''::In the case of C*-algebras, any *-homomorphism ''π'' between C*-algebras is contractive, i.e.", "bounded with norm ≤ 1.Furthermore, an injective *-homomorphism between C*-algebras is isometric.", "These are consequences of the C*-identity.A bijective *-homomorphism ''π'' is called a '''C*-isomorphism''', in which case ''A'' and ''B'' are said to be '''isomorphic'''." ], [ "Some history: B*-algebras and C*-algebras", "The term B*-algebra was introduced by C. E. Rickart in 1946 to describe Banach *-algebras that satisfy the condition:* for all ''x'' in the given B*-algebra.", "(B*-condition)This condition automatically implies that the *-involution is isometric, that is, .", "Hence, , and therefore, a B*-algebra is also a C*-algebra.", "Conversely, the C*-condition implies the B*-condition.", "This is nontrivial, and can be proved without using the condition .", "For these reasons, the term B*-algebra is rarely used in current terminology, and has been replaced by the term 'C*-algebra'.The term C*-algebra was introduced by I. E. Segal in 1947 to describe norm-closed subalgebras of ''B''(''H''), namely, the space of bounded operators on some Hilbert space ''H''.", "'C' stood for 'closed'.", "In his paper Segal defines a C*-algebra as a \"uniformly closed, self-adjoint algebra of bounded operators on a Hilbert space\"." ], [ "Structure of C*-algebras", "C*-algebras have a large number of properties that are technically convenient.", "Some of these properties can be established by using the continuous functional calculus or by reduction to commutative C*-algebras.", "In the latter case, we can use the fact that the structure of these is completely determined by the Gelfand isomorphism.=== Self-adjoint elements ===Self-adjoint elements are those of the form .", "The set of elements of a C*-algebra ''A'' of the form forms a closed convex cone.", "This cone is identical to the elements of the form .", "Elements of this cone are called ''non-negative'' (or sometimes ''positive'', even though this terminology conflicts with its use for elements of ℝ)The set of self-adjoint elements of a C*-algebra ''A'' naturally has the structure of a partially ordered vector space; the ordering is usually denoted .", "In this ordering, a self-adjoint element satisfies if and only if the spectrum of is non-negative, if and only if for some .", "Two self-adjoint elements and of ''A'' satisfy if .This partially ordered subspace allows the definition of a positive linear functional on a C*-algebra, which in turn is used to define the states of a C*-algebra, which in turn can be used to construct the spectrum of a C*-algebra using the GNS construction.=== Quotients and approximate identities ===Any C*-algebra ''A'' has an approximate identity.", "In fact, there is a directed family {''e''λ}λ∈I of self-adjoint elements of ''A'' such that:: :: : In case ''A'' is separable, ''A'' has a sequential approximate identity.", "More generally, ''A'' will have a sequential approximate identity if and only if ''A'' contains a '''strictly positive element''', i.e.", "a positive element ''h'' such that ''hAh'' is dense in ''A''.Using approximate identities, one can show that the algebraic quotient of a C*-algebra by a closed proper two-sided ideal, with the natural norm, is a C*-algebra.Similarly, a closed two-sided ideal of a C*-algebra is itself a C*-algebra." ], [ "Examples", "=== Finite-dimensional C*-algebras ===The algebra M(''n'', '''C''') of ''n'' × ''n'' matrices over '''C''' becomes a C*-algebra if we consider matrices as operators on the Euclidean space, '''C'''''n'', and use the operator norm · on matrices.", "The involution is given by the conjugate transpose.", "More generally, one can consider finite direct sums of matrix algebras.", "In fact, all C*-algebras that are finite dimensional as vector spaces are of this form, up to isomorphism.", "The self-adjoint requirement means finite-dimensional C*-algebras are semisimple, from which fact one can deduce the following theorem of Artin–Wedderburn type:'''Theorem.'''", "A finite-dimensional C*-algebra, ''A'', is canonically isomorphic to a finite direct sum:where min ''A'' is the set of minimal nonzero self-adjoint central projections of ''A''.Each C*-algebra, ''Ae'', is isomorphic (in a noncanonical way) to the full matrix algebra M(dim(''e''), '''C''').", "The finite family indexed on min ''A'' given by {dim(''e'')}''e'' is called the ''dimension vector'' of ''A''.", "This vector uniquely determines the isomorphism class of a finite-dimensional C*-algebra.", "In the language of K-theory, this vector is the positive cone of the ''K''0 group of ''A''.A '''†-algebra''' (or, more explicitly, a ''†-closed algebra'') is the name occasionally used in physics for a finite-dimensional C*-algebra.", "The dagger, †, is used in the name because physicists typically use the symbol to denote a Hermitian adjoint, and are often not worried about the subtleties associated with an infinite number of dimensions.", "(Mathematicians usually use the asterisk, *, to denote the Hermitian adjoint.)", "†-algebras feature prominently in quantum mechanics, and especially quantum information science.An immediate generalization of finite dimensional C*-algebras are the approximately finite dimensional C*-algebras.=== C*-algebras of operators ===The prototypical example of a C*-algebra is the algebra ''B(H)'' of bounded (equivalently continuous) linear operators defined on a complex Hilbert space ''H''; here ''x*'' denotes the adjoint operator of the operator ''x'' : ''H'' → ''H''.", "In fact, every C*-algebra, ''A'', is *-isomorphic to a norm-closed adjoint closed subalgebra of ''B''(''H'') for a suitable Hilbert space, ''H''; this is the content of the Gelfand–Naimark theorem.=== C*-algebras of compact operators ===Let ''H'' be a separable infinite-dimensional Hilbert space.", "The algebra ''K''(''H'') of compact operators on ''H'' is a norm closed subalgebra of ''B''(''H'').", "It is also closed under involution; hence it is a C*-algebra.Concrete C*-algebras of compact operators admit a characterization similar to Wedderburn's theorem for finite dimensional C*-algebras:'''Theorem.'''", "If ''A'' is a C*-subalgebra of ''K''(''H''), then there exists Hilbert spaces {''Hi''}''i''∈''I'' such that:where the (C*-)direct sum consists of elements (''Ti'') of the Cartesian product Π ''K''(''Hi'') with ''Ti'' → 0.Though ''K''(''H'') does not have an identity element, a sequential approximate identity for ''K''(''H'') can be developed.", "To be specific, ''H'' is isomorphic to the space of square summable sequences ''l''2; we may assume that ''H'' = ''l''2.For each natural number ''n'' let ''Hn'' be the subspace of sequences of ''l''2 which vanish for indices ''k'' ≥ ''n'' and let ''en'' be the orthogonal projection onto ''Hn''.", "The sequence {''en''}''n'' is an approximate identity for ''K''(''H'').", "''K''(''H'') is a two-sided closed ideal of ''B''(''H'').", "For separable Hilbert spaces, it is the unique ideal.", "The quotient of ''B''(''H'') by ''K''(''H'') is the Calkin algebra.=== Commutative C*-algebras ===Let ''X'' be a locally compact Hausdorff space.", "The space of complex-valued continuous functions on ''X'' that ''vanish at infinity'' (defined in the article on local compactness) form a commutative C*-algebra under pointwise multiplication and addition.", "The involution is pointwise conjugation.", "has a multiplicative unit element if and only if is compact.", "As does any C*-algebra, has an approximate identity.", "In the case of this is immediate: consider the directed set of compact subsets of , and for each compact let be a function of compact support which is identically 1 on .", "Such functions exist by the Tietze extension theorem, which applies to locally compact Hausdorff spaces.", "Any such sequence of functions is an approximate identity.The Gelfand representation states that every commutative C*-algebra is *-isomorphic to the algebra , where is the space of characters equipped with the weak* topology.", "Furthermore, if is isomorphic to as C*-algebras, it follows that and are homeomorphic.", "This characterization is one of the motivations for the noncommutative topology and noncommutative geometry programs.=== C*-enveloping algebra ===Given a Banach *-algebra ''A'' with an approximate identity, there is a unique (up to C*-isomorphism) C*-algebra '''E'''(''A'') and *-morphism π from ''A'' into '''E'''(''A'') that is universal, that is, every other continuous *-morphism factors uniquely through π.", "The algebra '''E'''(''A'') is called the '''C*-enveloping algebra''' of the Banach *-algebra ''A''.Of particular importance is the C*-algebra of a locally compact group ''G''.", "This is defined as the enveloping C*-algebra of the group algebra of ''G''.", "The C*-algebra of ''G'' provides context for general harmonic analysis of ''G'' in the case ''G'' is non-abelian.", "In particular, the dual of a locally compact group is defined to be the primitive ideal space of the group C*-algebra.", "See spectrum of a C*-algebra.=== Von Neumann algebras ===Von Neumann algebras, known as W* algebras before the 1960s, are a special kind of C*-algebra.", "They are required to be closed in the weak operator topology, which is weaker than the norm topology.The Sherman–Takeda theorem implies that any C*-algebra has a universal enveloping W*-algebra, such that any homomorphism to a W*-algebra factors through it." ], [ "Type for C*-algebras", "A C*-algebra ''A'' is of type I if and only if for all non-degenerate representations π of ''A'' the von Neumann algebra π(''A'')′′ (that is, the bicommutant of π(''A'')) is a type I von Neumann algebra.", "In fact it is sufficient to consider only factor representations, i.e.", "representations π for which π(''A'')′′ is a factor.A locally compact group is said to be of type I if and only if its group C*-algebra is type I.However, if a C*-algebra has non-type I representations, then by results of James Glimm it also has representations of type II and type III.", "Thus for C*-algebras and locally compact groups, it is only meaningful to speak of type I and non type I properties." ], [ "C*-algebras and quantum field theory", "In quantum mechanics, one typically describes a physical system with a C*-algebra ''A'' with unit element; the self-adjoint elements of ''A'' (elements ''x'' with ''x*'' = ''x'') are thought of as the ''observables'', the measurable quantities, of the system.", "A ''state'' of the system is defined as a positive functional on ''A'' (a '''C'''-linear map φ : ''A'' → '''C''' with φ(''u*u'') ≥ 0 for all ''u'' ∈ ''A'') such that φ(1) = 1.The expected value of the observable ''x'', if the system is in state φ, is then φ(''x'').This C*-algebra approach is used in the Haag–Kastler axiomatization of local quantum field theory, where every open set of Minkowski spacetime is associated with a C*-algebra." ], [ "See also", "* Banach algebra* Banach *-algebra* *-algebra* Hilbert C*-module* Operator K-theory* Operator system, a unital subspace of a C*-algebra that is *-closed.", "* Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction*Jordan operator algebra" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* .", "An excellent introduction to the subject, accessible for those with a knowledge of basic functional analysis.", "* .", "This book is widely regarded as a source of new research material, providing much supporting intuition, but it is difficult.", "* .", "This is a somewhat dated reference, but is still considered as a high-quality technical exposition.", "It is available in English from North Holland press.", "* .", "* .", "Mathematically rigorous reference which provides extensive physics background.", "** .", "*." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "London Borough of Croydon" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''London Borough of Croydon''' () is a London borough in south London, part of Outer London.", "It covers an area of .", "It is the southernmost borough of London.", "At its centre is the historic town of Croydon from which the borough takes its name; while other urban centres include Coulsdon, Purley, South Norwood, Norbury, New Addington, Selsdon and Thornton Heath.", "Croydon is mentioned in Domesday Book, and from a small market town has expanded into one of the most populous areas on the fringe of London.", "The borough is now one of London's leading business, financial and cultural centres, and its influence in entertainment and the arts contribute to its status as a major metropolitan centre.", "Its population is 390,719, making it the largest London borough and sixteenth largest English district.The borough was formed in 1965 from the merger of the County Borough of Croydon with Coulsdon and Purley Urban District, both of which had been within Surrey.", "The local authority, Croydon London Borough Council, is now part of London Councils, the local government association for Greater London.", "The economic strength of Croydon dates back mainly to Croydon Airport which was a major factor in the development of Croydon as a business centre.", "Once London's main airport for all international flights to and from the capital, it was closed on 30 September 1959 due to the lack of expansion space needed for an airport to serve the growing city.", "It is now a Grade II listed building and tourist attraction.", "Croydon Council and its predecessor Croydon Corporation unsuccessfully applied for city status in 1954, 2000, 2002 and 2012.The area is currently going through a large regeneration project called Croydon Vision 2020 which is predicted to attract more businesses and tourists to the area as well as backing Croydon's bid to become \"London's Third City\" (after the City of London and Westminster).", "Croydon is mostly urban, though there are large suburban and rural uplands towards the south of the borough.", "Since 2003, Croydon has been certified as a Fairtrade borough by the Fairtrade Foundation.", "It was the first London borough to have Fairtrade status which is awarded on certain criteria.The area is one of the hearts of culture in London and the South East of England.", "Institutions such as the major arts and entertainment centre Fairfield Halls add to the vibrancy of the borough.", "However, its famous fringe theatre, the Warehouse Theatre, went into administration in 2012 when the council withdrew funding, and the building itself was demolished in 2013.The Croydon Clocktower was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994 as an arts venue featuring a library, the independent David Lean Cinema (closed by the council in 2011 after sixteen years of operating, but now partially reopened on a part-time and volunteer basis) and museum.", "From 2000 to 2010, Croydon staged an annual summer festival celebrating the area's black and Indian cultural diversity, with audiences reaching over 50,000 people.Premier League football club Crystal Palace F.C.", "play at Selhurst Park in Selhurst, a stadium they have been based in since 1924.Other landmarks in the borough include what remains of Croydon Palace, an important residence of the Archbishops of Canterbury since around the ninth century CE, and known as 'The Old Palace' during its time as a school.", "It served as the Manor House of the manor of Croydon since it had been held as a manor by the Archbishops since the Anglo-Saxon period.", "It's local successor is Addington Palace, an eighteenth-century mansion which became the official second residence of six Archbishops of Canterbury, Shirley Windmill, one of the few surviving large windmills in Greater London built in the 1850s, and the BRIT School, a creative arts institute run by the BRIT Trust which has produced artists such as Adele, Amy Winehouse and Leona Lewis." ], [ "History", ": '' For the history of the original town see History of Croydon''The London Borough of Croydon was formed in 1965 from the Coulsdon and Purley Urban District and the County Borough of Croydon.", "The name Croydon comes from Crogdene or Croindone, named by the Saxons in the 8th century when they settled here, although the area had been inhabited since prehistoric times.", "It is thought to derive from the Anglo-Saxon ''croeas deanas'', meaning \"the valley of the crocuses\", indicating that, like Saffron Walden in Essex, it was a centre for the collection of saffron.By the time of the Norman invasion Croydon had a church, a mill and around 365 inhabitants as recorded in the Domesday Book.", "The Archbishop of Canterbury, Archbishop Lanfranc lived at Croydon Palace which still stands.", "Visitors included Thomas Becket (another Archbishop), and royal figures such as Henry VIII of England and Elizabeth I.", "The royal charter for Surrey Street Market dates back to 1276,Croydon carried on through the ages as a prosperous market town, they produced charcoal, tanned leather, and ventured into brewing.", "Croydon was served by the Surrey Iron Railway, the first public railway (horse drawn) in the world, in 1803, and by the London to Brighton rail link in the mid-19th century, helping it to become the largest town in what was then Surrey.In the 20th century Croydon became known for industries such as metal working, car manufacture and its aerodrome, Croydon Airport.", "Starting out during World War I as an airfield for protection against Zeppelins, an adjacent airfield was combined, and the new aerodrome opened on 29 March 1920.It became the largest in London, and was the main terminal for international air freight into the capital.", "It developed into one of the great airports of the world during the 1920s and 1930s, and welcomed the world's pioneer aviators in its heyday.", "British Airways Ltd used the airport for a short period after redirecting from Northolt Aerodrome, and Croydon was the operating base for Imperial Airways.", "It was partly due to the airport that Croydon suffered heavy bomb damage during World War II.", "As aviation technology progressed, however, and aircraft became larger and more numerous, it was recognised in 1952 that the airport would be too small to cope with the ever-increasing volume of air traffic.", "The last scheduled flight departed on 30 September 1959.It was superseded as the main airport by both London Heathrow and London Gatwick Airport (see below).", "The air terminal, now known as Airport House, has been restored, and has a hotel and museum in it.In the late 1950s and through the 1960s the council commercialised the centre of Croydon with massive development of office blocks and the Whitgift Centre which was formerly the biggest in-town shopping centre in Europe.", "The centre was officially opened in October 1970 by the Duchess of Kent.", "The original Whitgift School there had moved to Haling Park, South Croydon in the 1930s; the replacement school on the site, Whitgift Middle School, now the Trinity School of John Whitgift, moved to Shirley Park in the 1960s, when the buildings were demolished.The borough council unsuccessfully applied for city status in 1965, 2000 and again in 2002.If it had been successful, it would have been the third local authority in Greater London to hold that status, along with the City of London and the City of Westminster.", "At present the London Borough of Croydon is the second most populous local government district of England without city status, Kirklees being the first.", "Croydon's applications were refused as it was felt not to have an identity separate from the rest of Greater London.", "In 1965 it was described as \"...now just part of the London conurbation and almost indistinguishable from many of the other Greater London boroughs\" and in 2000 as having \"no particular identity of its own\".Croydon, in common with many other areas, was hit by extensive rioting in August 2011.Reeves, an historic furniture store established in 1867, that gave its name to a junction and tram stop in the town centre, was destroyed by arson.Croydon is currently going through a vigorous regeneration plan, called Croydon Vision 2020.This will change the urban planning of central Croydon completely.", "Its main aims are to make Croydon ''London's Third City'' and the hub of retail, business, culture and living in south London and South East England.", "The plan was showcased in a series of events called Croydon Expo.", "It was aimed at business and residents in the London Borough of Croydon, to demonstrate the £3.5bn development projects the Council wishes to see in Croydon in the next ten years.There have also been exhibitions for regional districts of Croydon, including Waddon, South Norwood and Woodside, Purley, New Addington and Coulsdon.", "Examples of upcoming architecture featured in the expo can easily be found to the centre of the borough, in the form of the Croydon Gateway site and the Cherry Orchard Road Towers." ], [ "Governance", "===Croydon Council representation===The 24 electoral wards of the London Borough of Croydon (2002–2018), and the surrounding districtsCroydon North, Croydon Central and Croydon SouthCroydon London Borough Council has seventy councillors elected in 28 wards.From the borough's creation in 1965 until 1994 the council saw continuous control under first Conservatives and Residents' Ratepayers councillors up to 1986 and then Conservatives.", "From 1994 to 2006 Labour Party councillors controlled the council.", "After a further eight-year period of Conservative control the Labour group secured a ten-seat majority in the local council elections on 22 May 2014.Councillor Tony Newman returned to lead the council for Labour.", "Labour remained in power until the 2022 election where no party had overall control.", "However, the party holding the executive Mayor, and as a result executive power, is the Conservative Party.", "Since the 2022 Croydon London Borough Council election the composition of the council is as follows:PartyCouncillors Conservative33 plus Mayor Labour34 Greens2 Liberal Democrat1===Elected mayor===A campaign group supporting an elected mayor for Croydon called DEMOC started a petition in February 2020, which they submitted to the council in September 2020.The mayoral system would replace the leader-and-cabinet system, whereby the leader of the council is chosen by the majority party or coalition of parties.", "The referendum was held in October 2021, resulting in a majority in favour of the mayoral system, with more than 80% of valid votes being cast in favour of the change.The first elected mayor is the Conservative, Jason Perry.", "elected on 9 May 2022.The Deputy Mayor is Cllr.", "Lynne Hale.", "The Chief Executive since 14 September 2020 has been Katherine Kerswell.===Westminster representation===The borough is covered by three parliamentary constituencies: these are Croydon North, Croydon Central and Croydon South.===Civic history===For much of its history, Croydon Council was controlled by the Conservative Party or independents.", "Former Croydon councillors include former MPs Andrew Pelling, Vivian Bendall, David Congdon, Geraint Davies and Reg Prentice, London Assembly member Valerie Shawcross, Lord Bowness, John Donaldson, Baron Donaldson of Lymington (Master of the Rolls) and H.T.", "Muggeridge, MP and father of Malcolm Muggeridge.", "The first Mayor of the newly created county borough was Jabez Balfour, later a disgraced Member of Parliament.", "Former Conservative Director of Campaigning, Gavin Barwell, was a Croydon councillor between 1998 and 2010 and was the MP for Croydon Central from 2010 until 2017.Sarah Jones (politician) won the Croydon Central seat for Labour in 2017.Croydon North has a Labour MP, Steve Reed (politician), and Croydon South has a Conservative MP, Chris Philp.", "Some 10,000 people work directly or indirectly for the council, at its main offices at Bernard Weatherill House or in its schools, care homes, housing offices or work depots.===Government buildings===Croydon Town HallCroydon Town Hall on Katharine Street in Central Croydon houses the committee rooms, the mayor's and other councillors' offices, electoral services and the arts and heritage services.The present Town Hall is Croydon's third.", "The first town hall is thought to have been built in either 1566 or 1609.The second was built in 1808 to serve the growing town but was demolished after the present town hall was erected in 1895.The 1808 building cost £8,000, which was regarded as an enormous sum for those days and was perhaps as controversial as the administrative building Bernard Weatherill House opened for occupation in 2013 and reputed to have cost £220,000,000.The early 19th century building was known initially as \"Courthouse\" as, like its predecessor and successor, the local court met there.", "The building stood on the western side of the High Street near to the junction with Surrey Street, the location of the town's market.", "The building became inadequate for the growing local administrative responsibilities and stood at a narrow point of a High Street in need of widening.The present town hall was designed by local architect Charles Henman and was officially opened by the Prince and Princess of Wales on 19 May 1896.It was constructed in red brick, sourced from Wrotham in Kent, with Portland stone dressings and green Westmoreland slates for the roof.", "It also housed the court and most central council employees.The Borough's incorporation in 1883 and a desire to improve central Croydon with improvements to traffic flows and the removal of social deprivation in Middle Row prompted the move to a new configuration of town hall provision.", "The second closure of the Central Railway Station provided the corporation with the opportunity to buy the station land from the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway Company for £11,500 to provide the site for the new town hall.", "Indeed, the council hoped to be able to sell on some of the land purchased with enough for municipal needs and still \"leave a considerable margin of land which might be disposed of\".", "The purchase of the failed railway station came despite local leaders having successfully urged the re-opening of the poorly patronised railway station.", "The railway station re-opening had failed to be a success so freeing up the land for alternative use.Parts, including the former court rooms, have been converted into the Museum of Croydon and exhibition galleries.", "The original public library was converted into the David Lean Cinema, part of the Croydon Clocktower.", "The Braithwaite Hall is used for events and performances.", "The town hall was renovated in the mid-1990s and the imposing central staircase, long closed to the public and kept for councillors only, was re-opened in 1994.The civic complex, meanwhile, was substantially added to, with buildings across Mint Walk and the 19-floor Taberner House to house the rapidly expanding corporation's employees.Croydon Council's offices were in Taberner House until September 2013Ruskin House is the headquarters of Croydon's Labour, Trade Union and Co-operative movements and is itself a co-operative with shareholders from organisations across the three movements.", "In the 19th century, Croydon was a bustling commercial centre of London.", "It was said that, at the turn of the 20th century, approximately £10,000 was spent in Croydon's taverns and inns every week.", "For the early labour movement, then, it was natural to meet in the town's public houses, in this environment.", "However, the temperance movement was equally strong, and Georgina King Lewis, a keen member of the Croydon United Temperance Council, took it upon herself to establish a dry centre for the labour movement.", "The first Ruskin House was highly successful, and there has been two more since.", "The current house was officially opened in 1967 by the then Labour Prime Minister, Harold Wilson.", "Today, Ruskin House continues to serve as the headquarters of the Trade Union, Labour and Co-operative movements in Croydon, hosting a range of meetings and being the base for several labour movement groups.", "Office tenants include the headquarters of the Communist Party of Britain and Croydon Labour Party.", "Geraint Davies, the MP for Croydon Central, had offices in the building, until he was defeated by Andrew Pelling and is now the Labour representative standing for Swansea West in Wales.Bernard Weatherill House, home to Croydon Council from September 2013Taberner House was built between 1964 and 1967, designed by architect H. Thornley, with Allan Holt and Hugh Lea as borough engineers.", "Although the council had needed extra space since the 1920s, it was only with the imminent creation of the London Borough of Croydon that action was taken.", "The building, being demolished in 2014, was in classic 1960s style, praised at the time but subsequently much derided.", "It has its elegant upper slab block narrowing towards both ends, a formal device which has been compared to the famous Pirelli Tower in Milan.", "It was named after Ernest Taberner OBE, Town Clerk from 1937 to 1963.Until September 2013, Taberner House housed most of the council's central employees and was the main location for the public to access information and services, particularly with respect to housing.In September 2013, Council staff moved into Bernard Weatherill House in Fell Road, (named after the former Speaker of the House and Member of Parliament for Croydon North-East).", "Staff from the Met Police, NHS, Jobcentre Plus, Croydon Credit Union, Citizens Advice Bureau as well as 75 services from the council all moved to the new building.===Greater London representation===For elections to the Greater London Council, the borough formed the Croydon electoral division, electing four members.", "In 1973 it was divided into the single-member Croydon Central, Croydon North East, Croydon North West and Croydon South electoral divisions.", "The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986.Since 2000, for elections to the London Assembly, the borough forms part of the Croydon and Sutton constituency.===Reputation===''Private Eye'' magazine has named Croydon the most rotten borough in Britain six years in a row (2017–2022)." ], [ "Geography and climate", "The borough is in the far south of London, with the M25 orbital motorway stretching to the south of it, between Croydon and Tandridge.", "To the north and east, the borough mainly borders the London Borough of Bromley, and in the north west the boroughs of Lambeth and Southwark.", "The boroughs of Sutton and Merton are located directly to the west.", "It is at the head of the River Wandle, just to the north of a significant gap in the North Downs.", "It lies south of Central London, and the earliest settlement may have been a Roman staging post on the London-Portslade road, although conclusive evidence has not yet been found.", "The main town centre houses a great variety of well-known stores on North End and two shopping centres.", "It was pedestrianised in 1989 to attract people back to the town centre.", "Another shopping centre called Park Place was due to open in 2012 but has since been scrapped.===Townscape description===North End shopping street photographed in 2005, after pedestrianisationThe CR postcode area covers most of the south and centre of the borough while the SE and SW postcodes cover the northern parts, including Crystal Palace, Upper Norwood, South Norwood, Selhurst (part), Thornton Heath (part), Norbury and Pollards Hill (part).Districts in the London Borough of Croydon include Addington, a village to the east of Croydon which until 2000 was poorly linked to the rest of the borough as it was without any railway or light rail stations, with only a few patchy bus services.", "Addiscombe is a district just northeast of the centre of Croydon, and is popular with commuters to central London as it is close to the busy East Croydon station.", "Ashburton, to the northeast of Croydon, is mostly home to residential houses and flats, being named after Ashburton House, one of the three big houses in the Addiscombe area.", "Broad Green is a small district, centred on a large green with many homes and local shops in West Croydon.", "Coombe is an area, just east of Croydon, which has barely been urbanised and has retained its collection of large houses fairly intact.", "Coulsdon, south west of Central Croydon, which has retained a good mix of traditional high street shops as well as a large number of restaurants for its size.", "Croydon is the principal area of the borough, Crystal Palace is an area north of Croydon, which is shared with the London Boroughs of Lambeth, Southwark, Lewisham and Bromley.", "Fairfield, just northeast of Croydon, holds the Fairfield Halls and the village of Forestdale, to the east of Croydon's main area, commenced work in the late 1960s and completed in the mid-70s to create a larger town on what was previously open ground.", "Hamsey Green is a place on the plateau of the North Downs, south of Croydon.", "Kenley, again south of the centre, lie within the London Green Belt and features a landscape dominated by green space.", "New Addington, to the east, is a large local council estate surrounded by open countryside and golf courses.", "Norbury, to the northwest, is a suburb with a large ethnic population.", "Norwood New Town is a part of the Norwood triangle, to the north of Croydon.", "Monks Orchard is a small district made up of large houses and open space in the northeast of the borough.", "Pollards Hill is a residential district with houses on roads, which are lined with pollarded lime trees, stretching to Norbury.", "Purley, to the south, is a main town whose name derives from \"pirlea\", which means 'Peartree lea'.", "Sanderstead, to the south, is a village mainly on high ground at the edge of suburban development in Greater London.", "Selhurst is a town, to the north of Croydon, which holds the nationally known school, The BRIT School.", "Selsdon is a suburb which was developed during the inter-war period in the 1920s and 1930s, and is remarkable for its many Art Deco houses, to the southeast of Croydon Centre.", "Shirley, is to the east of Croydon, and holds Shirley Windmill.", "South Croydon, to the south of Croydon, is a locality which holds local landmarks such as The Swan and Sugarloaf public house and independent Whitgift School part of the Whitgift Foundation.", "South Norwood, to the north, is in common with West Norwood and Upper Norwood, named after a contraction of Great North Wood and has a population of around 14,590.Thornton Heath is a town, to the northwest of Croydon, which holds Croydon's principal hospital Mayday.", "Upper Norwood is north of Croydon, on a mainly elevated area of the borough.", "Waddon is a residential area, mainly based on the Purley Way retail area, to the west of the borough.", "Woodside is located to the northeast of the borough, with streets based on Woodside Green, a small sized area of green land.", "And finally Whyteleafe is a town, right to the edge of Croydon with some areas in the Surrey district of Tandridge.Croydon is a gateway to the south from central London, with some major roads running through it.", "Purley Way, part of the A23, was built to by-pass Croydon town centre.", "It is one of the busiest roads in the borough, and is the site of several major retail developments including one of only 18 IKEA stores in the country, built on the site of the former power station.", "The A23 continues southward as Brighton Road, which is the main route running towards the south from Croydon to Purley.", "The centre of Croydon is very congested, and the urban planning has since become out of date and quite inadequate, due to the expansion of Croydon's main shopping area and office blocks.", "Wellesley Road is a north–south dual carriageway that cuts through the centre of the town, and makes it hard to walk between the town centre's two railway stations.", "Croydon Vision 2020 includes a plan for a more pedestrian-friendly replacement.", "It has also been named as one of the worst roads for cyclists in the area.", "Construction of the Croydon Underpass beneath the junction of George Street and Wellesley Road/Park Lane started in the early 1960s, mainly to alleviate traffic congestion on Park Lane, above the underpass.", "The Croydon Flyover is also near the underpass, and next to Taberner House.", "It mainly leads traffic on to Duppas Hill, towards Purley Way with links to Sutton and Kingston upon Thames.", "The major junction on the flyover is for Old Town, which is also a large three-lane road.===Topography and climate===Croydon covers an area of 86.52 km2.Croydon's physical features consist of many hills and rivers that are spread out across the borough and into the North Downs, Surrey and the rest of south London.", "Addington Hills is a major hilly area to the south of London and is recognised as a significant obstacle to the growth of London from its origins as a port on the north side of the river, to a large circular city.", "The Great North Wood is a former natural oak forest that covered the Sydenham Ridge and the southern reaches of the River Effra and its tributaries.The most notable tree, called Vicar's Oak, marked the boundary of four ancient parishes; Lambeth, Camberwell, Croydon and Bromley.", "John Aubrey referred to this \"ancient remarkable tree\" in the past tense as early as 1718, but according to JB Wilson, the Vicar's Oak survived until 1825.The River Wandle, a chalk stream, is also a major tributary of the River Thames, where it stretches to Wandsworth and Putney for from its main source in Waddon.Croydon has a temperate climate in common with most areas of Great Britain: its Köppen climate classification is ''Cfb''.", "Its mean annual temperature of 9.6 °C is similar to that experienced throughout the Weald, and slightly cooler than nearby areas such as the Sussex coast and central London.", "Rainfall is considerably below England's average (1971–2000) level of 838 mm, and every month is drier overall than the England average.The nearest weather station is at Gatwick Airport.Temperature and rainfall: 1961–1990 averages.", "Pressure averages: 1971–1988 averages.Derived from the Global Historical Climatology Network (version 1).", "See Climate of Croydon and Gatwick for more.===Architecture===The skyline of Croydon has significantly changed over the past 50 years.", "High rise buildings, mainly office blocks, now dominate the skyline.", "The most notable of these buildings include Croydon Council's headquarters Taberner House, which has been compared to the famous Pirelli Tower of Milan, and the Nestlé Tower, the former UK headquarters of Nestlé.In recent years, the development of tall buildings, such as the approved Croydon Vocational Tower and Wellesley Square, has been encouraged in the London Plan, and will lead to the erection of new skyscrapers in the coming years as part of London's high-rise boom.No.", "1 Croydon, formerly the NLA Tower, Britain's 88th tallest tower, close to East Croydon station, is an example of 1970s architecture.", "The tower was originally nicknamed the ''Threepenny bit building'', as it resembles a stack of pre-decimalisation Threepence coins, which were 12-sided.", "It is now most commonly called The Octagon, being 8-sided.Lunar House is another high-rise building.", "Like other government office buildings on Wellesley Road, such as '''Apollo House''', the name of the building was inspired by the US Moon landings (In the Croydon suburb of New Addington there is a public house, built during the same period, called ''The Man '''on''' the Moon'').", "Lunar House houses the Home Office building for Visas and Immigration.", "Apollo House houses The Border Patrol Agency.A new generation of buildings are being considered by the council as part of Croydon Vision 2020, so that the borough doesn't lose its title of having the \"largest office space in the south east\", excluding central London.", "Projects such as Wellesley Square, which will be a mix of residential and retail with an eye-catching colour design and 100 George Street a proposed modern office block are incorporated in this vision.Notable events that have happened to Croydon's skyline include the Millennium project to create the largest single urban lighting project ever.", "It was created for the buildings of Croydon to illuminate them for the third millennium.", "The project provided new lighting for the buildings, and provided an opportunity to project images and words onto them, mixing art and poetry with coloured light, and also displaying public information after dark.", "Apart from increasing night time activity in Croydon and thereby reducing the fear of crime, it helped to promote the sustainable use of older buildings by displaying them in a more positive way.===Landmarks===There are a large number of attractions and places of interest all across the borough of Croydon, ranging from historic sites in the north and south to modern towers in the centre.Shirley WindmillCroydon Airport was once London's main airport, but closed on 30 September 1959 due to the expansion of London and because it didn't have room to grow; so Heathrow International Airport took over as London's main airport.", "It has now been mostly converted to offices, although some important elements of the airport remain.", "It is a tourist attraction.The Croydon Clocktower arts venue was opened by Elizabeth II in 1994.It includes the Braithwaite Hall (the former reference library - named after the Rev.", "Braithwaite who donated it to the town) for live events, David Lean Cinema (built in memory of David Lean), the Museum of Croydon and Croydon Central Library.", "The Museum of Croydon (formerly known as Croydon Lifetimes Museum) highlights Croydon in the past and the present and currently features high-profile exhibitions including the Riesco Collection, The Art of Dr Seuss and the Whatever the Weather gallery.", "Shirley Windmill is a working windmill and one of the few surviving large windmills in Surrey, built in 1854.It is Grade II listed and received a £218,100 grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund.", "Addington Palace is an 18th-century mansion in Addington which was originally built as Addington Place in the 16th century.", "The palace became the official second residence of six archbishops, five of whom are buried in St Mary's Church and churchyard nearby.North End is the main pedestrianised shopping road in Croydon, having Centrale to one side and the Whitgift Centre to the other.", "The Warehouse Theatre is a popular theatre for mostly young performers and is due to get a face-lift on the Croydon Gateway site.The Nestlé Tower was the UK headquarters of Nestlé and is one of the tallest towers in England, which is due to be re-fitted during the Park Place development.", "The Fairfield Halls is a well known concert hall and exhibition centre, opened in 1962.It is frequently used for BBC recordings and was formerly the home of ITV's World of Sport.", "It includes the Ashcroft Theatre and the Arnhem Gallery.Croydon Palace was the summer residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury for over 500 years and included regular visitors such as Henry III and Queen Elizabeth I.", "It is thought to have been built around 960.Croydon Cemetery is a large cemetery and crematorium west of Croydon and is most famous for the gravestone of Derek Bentley, who was wrongly hanged in 1953.Mitcham Common is an area of common land partly shared with the boroughs of Sutton and Merton.", "Almost 500,000 years ago, Mitcham Common formed part of the river bed of the River Thames.The BRIT School is a performing Arts & Technology school, owned by the BRIT Trust (known for the BRIT Awards Music Ceremony).", "Famous former students include Kellie Shirley, Amy Winehouse, Leona Lewis, Adele, Kate Nash, Dane Bowers, Katie Melua and Lyndon David-Hall.", "Grants is an entertainment venue in the centre of Croydon which includes a Vue cinema.Surrey Street Market has roots in the 13th century, or earlier, and was chartered by the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1276.The market is regularly used as a location for TV, film and advertising.", "Croydon Minster, formerly the parish church, was established in the Anglo-Saxon period, and parts of the surviving building (notably the tower) date from the 14th and 15th centuries.", "However, the church was largely destroyed by fire in 1867, so the present structure is a rebuild of 1867–69 to the designs of George Gilbert Scott.", "It is the burial place of six archbishops, and contains monuments to Archbishops Sheldon and Whitgift." ], [ "Demography", "Population pyramid of the Borough of Croydon===Population change===The table shows population change since 1801, including the percentage change since previous census.", "Although the London Borough of Croydon has existed only since 1965, earlier figures have been generated by combining data from the towns, villages, and civil parishes that would later be absorbed into the authority.===Ethnicity===Ethnic GroupYear1981 estimations1991200120112021Number%Number%Number%Number%Number%White: Total273,98488%258,39682.4%231,94570.2%200,19555.1%188,98548.4% White: British–––– 210,573 63.7% 171,740 47.3%146,26837.4% White: Irish–––– 7,130 2.2% 5,369 1.5%4,9351.3% White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller–––– – – 234 0.1%2120.1%White: Roma––––––––1,1200.3% White: Other–––– 14,242 4.3% 22,852 6.3%36,4509.3% Black or Black British: Total ––23,7127.5% 44,076 13.3% 73,256 20.2%88,44122.6% Black or Black British: African––4984 14,627 4.4% 28,981 8.0%40,21910.3% Black or Black British: Caribbean––15326 26,065 7.9% 31,320 8.6%36,1089.2% Black or Black British: Other Black––3402 3,384 1.0% 12,955 3.6%12,1143.1% Asian or Asian British: Total ––25,3558% 37,380 11.3% 59,627 16.4%68,48717.5% Asian or Asian British: Indian––14685 4.7% 21,246 6.4% 24,660 6.8%29,5637.6% Asian or Asian British: Pakistani––3407 1.1% 7,429 2.2% 10,865 3.0%15,3453.9% Asian or Asian British: Bangladeshi––788 0.3% 1,765 0.5% 2,570 0.7%3,5490.9% Asian or Asian British: Chinese––1724 0.5% 2,212 0.7% 3,925 1.1%3,9501.0% Asian or Asian British: Other Asian ––4751 1.5% 6,940 2.1% 17,607 4.8%16,0804.1% Mixed or British Mixed: Total –––– 12,296 3.7% 23,895 6.6%29,7457.6% Mixed: White and Black Caribbean –––– 4,721 1.4% 9,650 2.7%10,3802.7% Mixed: White and Black African –––– 1,352 0.4% 3,279 0.9%4,4531.1% Mixed: White and Asian –––– 3,480 1.1% 5,140 1.4%5,7401.5% Mixed: Other Mixed –––– 2,743 0.8% 5,826 1.6%9,1722.3% Other: Total ––60471.9% 2,678 0.8% 6,405 1.8%15,0663.9% Other: Arab –––– – – 1,701 0.5%2,2590.6% Other: Any other ethnic group ––60471.9% 2,678 0.8% 4,704 1.3%12,8073.3% Ethnic minority: Total 37,52012%55,11417.4% 98,642 29.8% 163,183 44.9%201,73951.6% Total 311,504 100%313,510100% 330,587 100.00% 363,378 100.00%390,724100%According to the 2011 census, Croydon had a population of 363,378, making Croydon the most populated borough in Greater London.", "The estimated population in 2017 was around 384,800.186,900 were males, with 197,900 females.", "The density was 4,448 inhabitants per km2.248,200 residents of Croydon were between the age of 16 and 64.In 2011, white was the majority ethnicity with 55.1%.", "Black was the second-largest ethnicity with 20.2%; 16.4% were Asian and 8.3% stated to be something other.The most common householder type were owner occupied with only a small percentage rented.", "Many new housing schemes and developments are currently taking place in Croydon, such as The Exchange and Bridge House, IYLO, Wellesley Square (now known as Saffron Square) and Altitude 25.In 2006, The Metropolitan Police recorded a 10% fall in the number of crimes committed in Croydon, better than the rate which crime in London as a whole is falling.", "Croydon has had the highest fall in the number of cases of violence against the person in south London, and is one of the top 10 safest local authorities in London.", "According to ''Your Croydon'' (a local community magazine) this is due to a stronger partnership struck between Croydon Council and the police.", "In 2007, overall crime figures across the borough saw decrease of 5%, with the number of incidents decreasing from 32,506 in 2006 to 30,862 in 2007.However, in the year ending April 2012, The Metropolitan Police recorded the highest rates for murder and rape throughout London in Croydon, accounting for almost 10% of all murders, and 7% of all rapes.", "Croydon has five police stations.", "Croydon police station is on Park Lane in the centre of the town near the Fairfield Halls; South Norwood police station is a newly refurbished building just off the High Street; Norbury police station is on London Road; Kenley station is on Godstone Road; and New Addington police station is on Addington Village road.===Religion=== 2021 Census Croydon'''London'''No Religion101,119'''2,380,404'''Buddhist2,371'''77,425'''Christian190,880'''3,577,681'''Hindu23,145'''453,034'''Muslim40,717'''1,318,754'''Sikh1,654'''144,543'''Other Religions3,798'''232,225'''The predominant religion of the borough is Christianity.", "According to the 2021 United Kingdom census, the borough has over 190,880 Christians, mainly Protestants.", "This is the largest religious following in the borough followed by Islam with 40,717 Muslims resident.101,119 Croydon residents stated that they are atheist or non-religious in the 2021 Census.Croydon Minster is the most notable of the borough's 35 churches.", "This church was founded in Saxon times, since there is a record of \"a priest of Croydon\" in 960, although the first record of a church building is in the Domesday Book (1086).", "In its final medieval form, the church was mainly a Perpendicular-style structure, but this was severely damaged by fire in 1867, following which only the tower, south porch and outer walls remained.", "Under the direction of Sir George Gilbert Scott the church was rebuilt, incorporating the remains and essentially following the design of the medieval building, and was reconsecrated in 1870.It still contains several important monuments and fittings saved from the old church.The Area Bishop of Croydon is a position as a suffragan Bishop in the Anglican Diocese of Southwark.", "The present bishop is the Right Reverend Jonathan Clark." ], [ "Economy", "Labour Profile'''2007''''''2008'''Total employee jobs128,800130,000''Full-time''''91,100''''89,500''''Part-time''''37,000''''41,000'''''Manufacturing''''''6,300''''''4,200''''''Construction''''''6,300''''''6,400''''''Services''''''117,000''''''119,700'''Distribution, hotels & restaurants30,50029,200Transport & communications6,9007,200Finance, IT, other business activities33,80037,300Public admin, education & health38,90039,000Other services6,9007,000'''Tourism-related''''''9,100''''''8,500'''The main employment sectors of the Borough is retail and enterprise which is mainly based in Central Croydon.", "Major employers are well-known companies, who hold stores or offices in the town.", "Purley Way is a major employer of people, looking for jobs as sales assistants, sales consultants and store managerial jobs.", "IKEA Croydon, when it was built in 1992, brought many non-skilled jobs to Croydon.", "The store, which is a total size of 23,000 m2, took over the former site of Croydon Power station, which had led to the unemployment of many skilled workers.", "In May 2006, the extension of the IKEA made it the fifth biggest employer in Croydon, and includes the extension of the showroom, market hall and self-serve areas.Other big employers around Purley include the large Tesco Extra store in the town centre, along with other stores in Purley Way including Sainsbury's, B&Q and Vue.", "Croydon town centre is also a major retail centre, and home to many high street and department stores as well as designer boutiques.", "The main town centre shopping areas are on the North End precinct, in the Whitgift Centre, Centrale and St George's Walk.", "Department stores in Croydon town centre include House of Fraser, Marks and Spencer, Allders, Debenhams and T.K.", "Maxx.", "Croydon's main market is Surrey Street Market, which has a royal charter dating back to 1276.Shopping areas outside the town centre include the Valley Park retail complex, Croydon Colonnades, Croydon Fiveways, and the Waddon Goods Park.In research from 2010 on retail footprint, Croydon came out as 29th in terms of retail expenditure at £770 million.", "This puts it 6th in the Greater London area, falling behind Kingston upon Thames and Westfield London.", "In 2005, Croydon came 21st, second in London behind the West End, with £909 million, whilst Kingston was 24th with £864 million.", "In a 2004 survey on the top retail destinations, Croydon was 27th.In 2007, Croydon leapt up the annual business growth league table, with a 14% rise in new firms trading in the borough after 125 new companies started up, increasing the number from 900 to 1,025, enabling the town, which has also won the Enterprising Britain Award and \"the most enterprising borough in London\" award, to jump from 31 to 14 in the table.Tramlink created many jobs when it opened in 2000, not only drivers but engineers as well.", "Many of the people involved came from Croydon, which was the original hub of the system.", "Retail stores inside both Centrale and the Whitgift Centre as well as on North End employee people regularly and create many jobs, especially at Christmas.", "As well as the new building of Park Place, which will create yet more jobs, so will the regeneration of Croydon, called Croydon Vision 2020, highlighted in the Croydon Expo which includes the Croydon Gateway, Wellesley Square, Central One plus much more.Croydon is a major office area in the south east of England, being the largest outside of central London.", "Many powerful companies based in Europe and worldwide have European or British headquarters in the town.", "American International Group (AIG) have offices in No.", "1 Croydon, formerly the NLA Tower, shared with Liberata, Pegasus and the Institute of Public Finance.", "AIG is the sixth-largest company in the world according to the 2007 Forbes Global 2000 list.", "The Swiss company Nestlé has its UK headquarters in the Nestlé Tower, on the site of the formerly proposed Park Place shopping centre.", "Real Digital International has developed a purpose built factory on Purley Way equipped with \"the most sophisticated production equipment and technical solutions\".", "ntl:Telewest, now Virgin Media, have offices at Communications House, from the Telewest side when it was known as Croydon Cable.The Home Office UK Visas and Immigration department has its headquarters in Lunar House in Central Croydon.", "In 1981, Superdrug opened a distribution centre and office complex at Beddington Lane.", "The head office of international engineering and management consultant Mott MacDonald is located in Mott MacDonald House on Sydenham Road, one of four offices they occupy in the town centre.", "BT has large offices in Prospect East in Central Croydon.", "The Royal Bank of Scotland also has large offices in Purley, south of Croydon.", "Direct Line also has an office opposite Taberner House.", "Other companies with offices in Croydon include Lloyds TSB, Merrill Lynch and Balfour Beatty.", "Ann Summers used to have its headquarters in the borough but has moved to the Wapses Lodge Roundabout in Tandridge.The Council declared bankruptcy via a section 114 notice in December 2020." ], [ "Transport", "===Rail===East Croydon railway stationEast Croydon and West Croydon are the main stations in the borough.South Croydon railway station is also a railway station in Croydon, but it is lesser known.East Croydon is served by Govia Thameslink Railway, operating under the Southern and Thameslink brands.", "Services travel via the Brighton Main Line north to London Victoria, London Bridge, London St Pancras, Luton Airport, Bedford, Cambridge and Peterborough and south to Gatwick Airport, Ore, Brighton, Littlehampton, Bognor Regis, Southampton and Portsmouth.", "East Croydon is the largest and busiest station in Croydon and the third busiest in London, excluding Travelcard Zone 1.East Croydon was served by long distance Arriva CrossCountry services to Birmingham and the North of England until they were withdrawn in December 2008.West Croydon is served by London Overground and Southern services north to Highbury & Islington, London Bridge and London Victoria, and south to Sutton and Epsom Downs.South Croydon is mainly served by Network Rail services operated by Southern for suburban lines to and from London Bridge, London Victoria and the eastern part of Surrey.Croydon is one of only five London Boroughs not to have at least one London Underground station within its boundaries, with the closest tube station being Morden.===Bus===The now demolished West Croydon bus station in June 2007A sizeable bus infrastructure which is part of the London Buses network operates from a hub at West Croydon bus station.", "The original bus station opened in May 1985, closing in October 2014.A new bus station opened in October 2016.Addington Village Interchange is a regional bus terminal in Addington Village which has an interchange between Tramlink and bus services in the remote area.", "Services are operated under contract by Abellio London, Arriva London, London Central, Metrobus, Quality Line and Selkent.===Tram===A tram at Wellesley Road tram stopThe Tramlink light rail system opened in 2000, serving the borough and surrounding areas.", "Its network consists of three lines, from Elmers End to West Croydon, from Beckenham to West Croydon, and from New Addington to Wimbledon, with all three lines running via the Croydon loop on which it is centred.", "It is also the only tram system in London but there is another light rail system, the Docklands Light Railway.", "It serves Mitcham, Woodside, Addiscombe and the Purley Way retail and industrial area amongst others.===Road===Croydon is linked into the national motorway network via the M23 and M25 orbital motorway.", "The M25 skirts the south of the borough, linking Croydon with other parts of London and the surrounding counties; the M23 branches from the M25 close to Coulsdon, linking the town with the south coast, Crawley, Reigate, and Gatwick Airport.", "The A23 connects the borough with the motorways.", "The A23 is the major trunk road through Croydon, linking it with central London, East Sussex, Horsham, and Littlehaven.", "The old London to Brighton road, passes through the west of the borough on Purley Way, bypassing the commercial centre of Croydon which it once did.The A22 and A23 are the major trunk roads through Croydon.", "These both run north–south, connecting to each other in Purley.", "The A22 connects Croydon, its starting point, to East Grinstead, Tunbridge Wells, Uckfield, and Eastbourne.", "Other major roads generally radiate spoke-like from the town centre.", "The A23 road, cuts right through Croydon, and it starts from London and links to Brighton and Gatwick Airport .Wellesley Road is an urban dual carriageway which cuts through the middle of the central business district.", "It was constructed in the 1960s as part of a planned ring road for Croydon and includes an underpass, which allows traffic to avoid going into the town centre.===Air===The closest international airport to Croydon is Gatwick Airport, which is located from the town centre.", "Gatwick Airport opened in August 1930 as an aerodrome and is a major international operational base for British Airways, EasyJet and Virgin Atlantic.", "It currently handles around 35 million passengers a year, making it London's second largest airport, and the second busiest airport in the United Kingdom after Heathrow.", "Heathrow, London City and Luton airports all lie within a two hours' drive of Croydon.", "Gatwick and Luton Airports are connected to Croydon by frequent direct trains, while Heathrow is accessible by the route SL7 bus.===Cycling===Although hilly, Croydon is compact and has few major trunk roads running through it.", "It is on one of the Connect2 schemes which are part of the National Cycle Network route running around Croydon.", "The North Downs, an area of outstanding natural beauty popular with both on- and off-road cyclists, is so close to Croydon that part of the park lies within the borough boundary, and there are routes into the park almost from the civic centre.===Travel to work===In March 2011, the main forms of transport that residents used to travel to work were: driving a car or van, 20.2% of all residents aged 16–74; train, 59.5%; bus, minibus or coach, 7.5%; on foot, 5.1%; underground, metro, light rail, tram, 4.3%; work mainly at or from home, 2.9%; passenger in a car or van, 1.5%." ], [ "Public services", "Cane HillHome Office policing in Croydon is provided by the Metropolitan Police.", "The force's Croydon arm have their head offices for policing on Park Lane next to the Fairfield Halls and Croydon College in central Croydon.", "Public transport is co-ordinated by Transport for London.", "Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the London Fire Brigade, which has five stations in Croydon.===Health services===NHS South West London Clinical Commissioning Group (A merger of the previous NHS Croydon CCG and others in South West London) is the body responsible for public health and for planning and funding health services in the borough.", "Croydon has 227 GPs in 64 practices, 156 dentists in 51 practices, 166 pharmacists and 70 optometrists in 28 practices.Croydon University Hospital, formerly known as Mayday Hospital, built on a site in Thornton Heath at the west of Croydon's boundaries with Merton, is a large NHS hospital administered by Croydon Health Services NHS Trust.", "Former names of the hospital include the Croydon Union Infirmary from 1885 to 1923 and the Mayday Road Hospital from 1923 to around 1930.It is a District General Hospital with a 24-hour accident and emergency department.", "NHS Direct has a regional centre based at the hospital.", "The NHS Trust also provides services at Purley War Memorial Hospital, in Purley.", "Croydon General Hospital was on London Road but services transferred to Mayday, as the size of this hospital was insufficient to cope with the growing population of the borough.", "Sickle Cell and Thalassaemia Centre and the Emergency Minor Treatment Centre are other smaller hospitals operated by the Mayday in the borough.", "Cane Hill was a psychiatric hospital in Coulsdon.===Waste management===Waste management is co-ordinated by the local authority.", "Unlike other waste disposal authorities in Greater London, Croydon's rubbish is collected independently and isn't part of a waste authority unit.", "Locally produced inert waste for disposal is sent to landfill in the south of Croydon.", "There have recently been calls by the ODPM to bring waste management powers to the Greater London Authority, giving it a waste function.", "The Mayor of London has made repeated attempts to bring the different waste authorities together, to form a single waste authority in London.", "This has faced significant opposition from existing authorities.", "However, it has had significant support from all other sectors and the surrounding regions managing most of London's waste.", "Croydon has the joint best recycling rate in London, at 36%, but the refuse collectors have been criticised for their rushed performance lacking quality.", "Croydon's distribution network operator for electricity is EDF Energy Networks; there are no power stations in the borough.", "Thames Water manages Croydon's drinking and waste water; water supplies being sourced from several local reservoirs, including Beckton and King George VI.", "Before 1971, Croydon Corporation was responsible for water treatment in the borough.===London Fire Brigade===The borough of Croydon is 86.52 kmsq, populating approximately 340,000 people.", "There are five fire stations within the borough; Addington (two pumping appliances), Croydon (two pumping appliances, incident response unit, fire rescue unit and a USAR appliance), Norbury (two pumping appliances), Purley (one pumping appliance) and Woodside (one pumping appliance).", "Purley has the largest station ground, but dealt with the fewest incidents during 2006/07.The fire stations, as part of the Community Fire Safety scheme, visited 49 schools in 2006/2007.===Education===Croydon College's main buildings in Central CroydonThe borough compared with the other London boroughs has the highest number of schools in it, with 26% of its population under 20 years old.", "They include primary schools (95), secondary schools (21) and four further education establishments.", "Croydon College has its main building in Central Croydon, it is a high rise building.", "John Ruskin College is one of the other colleges in the borough, located in Addington and Coulsdon College in Coulsdon.", "South Norwood has been the home of Spurgeon's College, a world-famous Baptist theological college, since 1923; Spurgeon's is located on South Norwood Hill and currently has some 1000 students.", "The London Borough of Croydon is the local education authority for the borough.Overall, Croydon was ranked 77th out of all the local education authorities in the UK, up from 92nd in 2007.In 2007, the Croydon LEA was ranked 81st out of 149 in the country – and 21st in Greater London – based on the percentage of pupils attaining at least 5 A*–C grades at GCSE including maths and English (37.8% compared with the national average of 46.7%).", "The most successful public sector schools in 2010 were Harris City Academy Crystal Palace and Coloma Convent Girls' School.", "The percentage of pupils achieving 5 A*-C GCSEs including maths and English was above the national average in 2010.===Libraries===The borough of Croydon has 14 libraries, a joint library and a mobile library.", "Many of the libraries were built a long time ago and therefore have become outdated, so the council started updating a few including Ashburton Library which moved from its former spot into the state-of-the-art Ashburton Learning Village complex which is on the former site of the old 'A Block' of Ashburton Community School which is now situated inside the centre.", "The library is now on one floor.", "This format was planned to be rolled out across all of the council's libraries but what was seen as costing too much.South Norwood Library, New Addington Library, Shirley Library, Selsdon Library, Sanderstead Library, Broad Green, Purley Library, Coulsdon Library and Bradmore Green Library are examples of older council libraries.", "The main library is Croydon Central Library which holds many references, newspaper archives and a tourist information point (one of three in southeast London).", "Upper Norwood Library is a joint library with the London Borough of Lambeth.", "This means that both councils fund the library and its resources, but even though Lambeth have nearly doubled their funding for the library in the past several years Croydon has kept it the same, doubting the future of the library." ], [ "Sport and leisure", "The borough has been criticised in the past for not having enough leisure facilities, maintaining the position of Croydon as a three star borough.", "Thornton Heath's ageing sports centre has been demolished and replaced by a newer more modern leisure centre.", "South Norwood Leisure Centre was closed down in 2006 so that it could be demolished and re-designed from scratch like Thornton Heath, at an estimated cost of around £10 million.South Norwood Country ParkIn May 2006 the Conservative Party took control of Croydon Council and decided a refurbishment would be more economical than rebuilding, this decision caused some controversy.Sport Croydon, is the commercial arm for leisure in the borough.", "Fusion currently provides leisure services for the council, a contract previously held by Parkwood Leisure.Football teams include Crystal Palace F.C., which play at Selhurst Park, and in the Premier League.", "AFC Croydon Athletic, whose nickname is The Rams, is a football club who play at Croydon Sports Arena along with Croydon F.C., both in the Combined Counties League and Holmesdale, who were founded in South Norwood but currently playing on Oakley Road in Bromley, currently in the Southern Counties East Football League.Non-football teams that play in Croydon are Streatham-Croydon RFC, a rugby union club in Thornton Heath who play at Frant Road, as well as South London Storm Rugby League Club, based at Streatham's ground, who compete in the Rugby League Conference.", "Another rugby union club that play in Croydon is Croydon RFC, who play at Addington Road.", "The London Olympians are an American Football team that play in Division 1 South in the British American Football League.", "The Croydon Pirates are one of the most successful teams in the British Baseball Federation, though their ground is actually just located outside the borough in Sutton.Croydon Amphibians SC plays in the Division 2 British Water Polo League.", "The team won the National League Division 2 in 2008.Croydon has over 120 parks and open spaces, ranging from the Selsdon Wood Nature Reserve to many recreation grounds and sports fields scattered throughout the Borough.", "This provides many places for rambling.", "The Wandle Trail links central London to Croydon and then The Vanguard Way links East Croydon to the South Coast and bysecting The London Loop, the North Downs Way and the Pilgrims' Way." ], [ "Culture", "rightCroydon has cut funding to the Warehouse Theatre.In 2005, Croydon Council drew up a ''Public Art Strategy'', with a vision intended to be accessible and to enhance people's enjoyment of their surroundings.", "The public art strategy delivered a new event called ''Croydon's Summer Festival'' hosted in Lloyd Park.", "The festival consists of two days of events.", "The first is called ''Croydon's World Party'' which is a free one-day event with three stages featuring world, jazz and dance music from the UK and internationally.", "The final days event is the ''Croydon Mela'', a day of music with a mix of traditional Asian culture and east-meets-western club beats across four stages as well as dozens of food stalls and a funfair.", "It has attracted crowds of over 50,000 people.", "The strategy also created a creative industries hub in Old Town, ensured that public art is included in developments such as College Green and Ruskin Square and investigated the possibility of gallery space in the Cultural Quarter.Fairfield Halls, Arnhem Gallery and the Ashcroft Theatre show productions that are held throughout the year such as drama, ballet, opera and pantomimes and can be converted to show films.", "It also contains the Arnhem Gallery civic hall and an art gallery.", "Other cultural activities, including shopping and exhibitions, are Surrey Street Market which is mainly a meat and vegetables market near the main shopping environment of Croydon.", "The market has a Royal Charter dating back to 1276.Airport House is a newly refurbished conference and exhibition centre inside part of Croydon Airport.", "The Whitgift Centre is the current main shopping centre in the borough.", "Centrale is a new shopping centre that houses many more familiar names, as well as Croydon's House of Fraser." ], [ "Media", "There are three local newspapers which operate within the borough.", "The Croydon Advertiser began life in 1869, and was in 2005 the third-best selling paid-for weekly newspaper in London.", "The Advertiser is Croydon's major paid-for weekly paper and is on sale every Friday in five geographical editions: Croydon; Sutton & Epsom; Coulsdon & Purley; New Addington; and Caterham.", "The paper converted from a broadsheet to a compact (tabloid) format on 31 March 2006.It was bought by Northcliffe Media which is part of the Daily Mail and General Trust group on 6 July 2007.The Croydon Post is a free newspaper available across the borough and is operated by the Advertiser group.", "The circulation of the newspaper was in 2008 more than the main title published by the Advertiser Group.The Croydon Guardian is another local weekly paper, which is paid for at newsagents but free at Croydon Council libraries and via deliveries.", "It is one of the best circulated local newspapers in London and once had the highest circulation in Croydon with around one thousand more copies distributed than The Post.The borough is served by the London regional versions of BBC and ITV coverage, from either the Crystal Palace or Croydon transmitters.Croydon Television is owned by Croydon broadcasting corporation.", "Broadcasting from studios in Croydon, the CBC is fully independent.", "It does not receive any government or local council grants or funding and is supported by donations, sponsorship and by commercial advertising.Capital Radio and Gold serve the borough.", "Local BBC radio is provided by BBC London 94.9.Other stations include Kiss 100, Absolute Radio and Magic 105.4 FM from Bauer Radio and Capital Xtra, Heart 106.2 and Smooth Radio from Global Radio.", "In 2012, Croydon Radio, an online and FM radio station, and the first official FM radio station for the London Borough of Croydon, began serving the area.", "The borough is also home to its own local TV station, ''Croydon TV''." ], [ "Twinning", "The London Borough of Croydon is twinned with the municipality of Arnhem which is located in the east of the Netherlands.", "The city of Arnhem is one of the 20 largest cities in the Netherlands.", "They have been twinned since 1946 after both towns had suffered extensive bomb damage during the recently ended war.", "There is also a Guyanese link supported by the council." ], [ "Investment in the tobacco industry", "In September 2009 it was revealed that Croydon Council had around £20m of its pension fund for employees invested in shares in Imperial Tobacco and British American Tobacco.", "Members of the opposition Labour group on the council, who had banned such shareholdings when in control, described this as \"dealing in death\" and inconsistent with the council's tobacco control strategy." ], [ "Freedom of the Borough", "The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Borough of Croydon.", "===Individuals===* Michael Owuo Jr.: 19 May 2023.", "* Merah Louise Smith: 19 May 2023.===Military units===* 41 (Princess Louise's Kensington) Signal Squadron Royal Corps of Signals (Volunteers): 1993.", "* 151 Regiment RLC (Volunteers): 1993.", "* 2 Company 10th Battalion The Parachute Regiment (Volunteers): 1993.", "* \"C\" Squadron Kent and Sharpshooters Yeomanry The Royal Yeomanry: 1993.", "* 2nd Battalion The Rifles: 2010." ], [ "See also", "* List of people from Croydon* UK postcodes – a note of why and how postcodes CR0 and CR9 differ from the others" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* London Borough of Croydon* Croydon Television * Visit Croydon* map of croydon districts superimposed on google" ] ]
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[ [ "Carme (moon)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Carme''' is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter.", "It was discovered by Seth Barnes Nicholson at Mount Wilson Observatory in California in July 1938.It is named after the mythological Carme, mother by Zeus of Britomartis, a Cretan goddess." ], [ "History", "Carme observed by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) spacecraft in 2014Carme did not receive its present name until 1975; before then, it was simply known as ''''''.", "It was sometimes called \"Pan\" between 1955 and 1975 (Pan is now the name of a satellite of Saturn).It gives its name to the Carme group, made up of irregular retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23 and 24 Gm and at an inclination of about 165°.", "Its orbital elements are as of January 2000.They are continuously changing due to solar and planetary perturbations." ], [ "Properties", "With a diameter of , it is the largest member of the Carme group and the fourth largest irregular moon of Jupiter.", "It is light red in color (B−V=0.76, V−R=0.47), similar to D-type asteroids and consistent with Taygete, but not Kalyke." ], [ "See also", "*Irregular satellites*Jupiter's moons in fiction" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Carme Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration* David Jewitt pages* Jupiter's Known Satellites (by Scott S. Sheppard)" ] ]
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[ [ "Commutator" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, the '''commutator''' gives an indication of the extent to which a certain binary operation fails to be commutative.", "There are different definitions used in group theory and ring theory." ], [ "Group theory", "The '''commutator''' of two elements, and , of a group , is the element: .This element is equal to the group's identity if and only if and commute (from the definition , being equal to the identity if and only if ).The set of all commutators of a group is not in general closed under the group operation, but the subgroup of ''G'' generated by all commutators is closed and is called the ''derived group'' or the ''commutator subgroup'' of ''G''.", "Commutators are used to define nilpotent and solvable groups and the largest abelian quotient group.The definition of the commutator above is used throughout this article, but many other group theorists define the commutator as:.=== Identities (group theory) ===Commutator identities are an important tool in group theory.", "The expression denotes the conjugate of by , defined as .# # # and # and # and Identity (5) is also known as the ''Hall–Witt identity'', after Philip Hall and Ernst Witt.", "It is a group-theoretic analogue of the Jacobi identity for the ring-theoretic commutator (see next section).N.B., the above definition of the conjugate of by is used by some group theorists.", "Many other group theorists define the conjugate of by as .", "This is often written .", "Similar identities hold for these conventions.Many identities are used that are true modulo certain subgroups.", "These can be particularly useful in the study of solvable groups and nilpotent groups.", "For instance, in any group, second powers behave well::If the derived subgroup is central, then:== Ring theory ==Rings often do not support division.", "Thus, the '''commutator''' of two elements ''a'' and ''b'' of a ring (or any associative algebra) is defined differently by: The commutator is zero if and only if ''a'' and ''b'' commute.", "In linear algebra, if two endomorphisms of a space are represented by commuting matrices in terms of one basis, then they are so represented in terms of every basis.", "By using the commutator as a Lie bracket, every associative algebra can be turned into a Lie algebra.The '''anticommutator''' of two elements and of a ring or associative algebra is defined by: Sometimes is used to denote anticommutator, while is then used for commutator.", "The anticommutator is used less often, but can be used to define Clifford algebras and Jordan algebras and in the derivation of the Dirac equation in particle physics.The commutator of two operators acting on a Hilbert space is a central concept in quantum mechanics, since it quantifies how well the two observables described by these operators can be measured simultaneously.", "The uncertainty principle is ultimately a theorem about such commutators, by virtue of the Robertson–Schrödinger relation.", "In phase space, equivalent commutators of function star-products are called Moyal brackets and are completely isomorphic to the Hilbert space commutator structures mentioned.=== Identities (ring theory) ===The commutator has the following properties:====Lie-algebra identities====# # # # Relation (3) is called anticommutativity, while (4) is the Jacobi identity.====Additional identities====# # # # # # # # # # If is a fixed element of a ring ''R'', identity (1) can be interpreted as a Leibniz rule for the map given by .", "In other words, the map ad''A'' defines a derivation on the ring ''R''.", "Identities (2), (3) represent Leibniz rules for more than two factors, and are valid for any derivation.", "Identities (4)–(6) can also be interpreted as Leibniz rules.", "Identities (7), (8) express '''Z'''-bilinearity.From identity (9), one finds that the commutator of integer powers of ring elements is:Some of the above identities can be extended to the anticommutator using the above ± subscript notation.For example:######==== Exponential identities ====Consider a ring or algebra in which the exponential can be meaningfully defined, such as a Banach algebra or a ring of formal power series.In such a ring, Hadamard's lemma applied to nested commutators gives: (For the last expression, see ''Adjoint derivation'' below.)", "This formula underlies the Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff expansion of log(exp(''A'') exp(''B'')).A similar expansion expresses the group commutator of expressions (analogous to elements of a Lie group) in terms of a series of nested commutators (Lie brackets)," ], [ "Graded rings and algebras", "When dealing with graded algebras, the commutator is usually replaced by the '''graded commutator''', defined in homogeneous components as :" ], [ "Adjoint derivation", "Especially if one deals with multiple commutators in a ring ''R'', another notation turns out to be useful.", "For an element , we define the adjoint mapping by::This mapping is a derivation on the ring ''R'': :By the Jacobi identity, it is also a derivation over the commutation operation: :Composing such mappings, we get for example and We may consider itself as a mapping, , where is the ring of mappings from ''R'' to itself with composition as the multiplication operation.", "Then is a Lie algebra homomorphism, preserving the commutator::By contrast, it is '''not''' always a ring homomorphism: usually .=== General Leibniz rule ===The general Leibniz rule, expanding repeated derivatives of a product, can be written abstractly using the adjoint representation::Replacing by the differentiation operator , and by the multiplication operator , we get , and applying both sides to a function ''g'', the identity becomes the usual Leibniz rule for the ''n''-th derivative ." ], [ "See also", "* Anticommutativity* Associator* Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff formula* Canonical commutation relation* Centralizer a.k.a.", "commutant* Derivation (abstract algebra)* Moyal bracket* Pincherle derivative* Poisson bracket* Ternary commutator* Three subgroups lemma" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* ******" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Cairn" ], [ "Introduction", "A cairn marking a mountain summit in Graubünden, Switzerland.The biggest cairn in Ireland, Maeve's Cairn on Knocknarea.A '''cairn''' is a human-made pile (or stack) of stones raised for a purpose, usually as a marker or as a burial mound.", "The word ''cairn'' comes from the (plural ).Cairns have been and are used for a broad variety of purposes.", "In prehistory, they were raised as markers, as memorials and as burial monuments (some of which contained chambers).", "In the modern era, cairns are often raised as landmarks, especially to mark the summits of mountains.", "Cairns are also used as trail markers.", "They vary in size from small stone markers to entire artificial hills, and in complexity from loose conical rock piles to elaborate megalithic structures.", "Cairns may be painted or otherwise decorated, whether for increased visibility or for religious reasons.A variant is the inuksuk (plural inuksuit), used by the Inuit and other peoples of the Arctic region of North America." ], [ "History", "===Europe===One of the cairns at Carrowkeel Megalithic Cemetery in Ireland, which covers a passage tomb.The building of cairns for various purposes goes back into prehistory in Eurasia, ranging in size from small rock sculptures to substantial human-made hills of stone (some built on top of larger, natural hills).", "The latter are often relatively massive Bronze Age or earlier structures which, like kistvaens and dolmens, frequently contain burials; they are comparable to tumuli (kurgans), but of stone construction instead of earthworks.", "''Cairn'' originally could more broadly refer to various types of hills and natural stone piles, but today is used exclusively of artificial ones.Cairn of the Neolithic-era passage tomb on Gavrinis island, Brittany==== Ireland and Britain ====The word ''cairn'' derives from Scots (with the same meaning), in turn from Scottish Gaelic , which is essentially the same as the corresponding words in other native Celtic languages of Britain, Ireland and Brittany, including Welsh (and ), Breton , Irish , and Cornish or .", "Cornwall () itself may actually be named after the cairns that dot its landscape, such as Cornwall's highest point, Brown Willy Summit Cairn, a 5 m (16 ft) high and 24 m (79 ft) diameter mound atop Brown Willy hill in Bodmin Moor, an area with many ancient cairns.", "Burial cairns and other megaliths are the subject of a variety of legends and folklore throughout Britain and Ireland.", "In Scotland, it is traditional to carry a stone up from the bottom of a hill to place on a cairn at its top.", "In such a fashion, cairns would grow ever larger.", "An old Scottish Gaelic blessing is , \"I'll put a stone on your cairn\".", "In Highland folklore it is recounted that before Highland clans fought in a battle, each man would place a stone in a pile.", "Those who survived the battle returned and removed a stone from the pile.", "The stones that remained were built into a cairn to honour the dead.", "Cairns in the region were also put to vital practical use.", "For example, Dún Aonghasa, an all-stone Iron Age Irish hill fort on Inishmore in the Aran Islands, is still surrounded by small cairns and strategically placed jutting rocks, used collectively as an alternative to defensive earthworks because of the karst landscape's lack of soil.", "In February 2020, ancient cairns dated back to 4,500 year-old used to bury the leaders or chieftains of neolithic tribes people were revealed in the Cwmcelyn in Blaenau Gwent by the Aberystruth Archaeological Society.==== Scandinavia and Iceland ====In Scandinavia, cairns have been used for centuries as trail and sea marks, among other purposes, the most notable being the Three-Country Cairn.", "In Iceland, cairns were often used as markers along the numerous single-file roads or paths that crisscrossed the island; many of these ancient cairns are still standing, although the paths have disappeared.", "In Norse Greenland, cairns were used as a hunting implement, a game-driving \"lane\", used to direct reindeer towards a game jump.==== Greece and the Balkans ====In the mythology of ancient Greece, cairns were associated with Hermes, the god of overland travel.", "According to one legend, Hermes was put on trial by Hera for slaying her favorite servant, the monster Argus.", "All of the other gods acted as a jury, and as a way of declaring their verdict they were given pebbles, and told to throw them at whichever person they deemed to be in the right, Hermes or Hera.", "Hermes argued so skillfully that he ended up buried under a heap of pebbles, and this was the first cairn.In Croatia, in areas of ancient Dalmatia, such as Herzegovina and the Krajina, they are known as ''gromila''.==== Portugal ====In Portugal, a cairn is called a .", "In a legend the moledros are enchanted soldiers, and if one stone is taken from the pile and put under a pillow, in the morning a soldier will appear for a brief moment, then will change back to a stone and magically return to the pile.", "The cairns that mark the place where someone died or cover the graves alongside the roads where in the past people were buried are called .", "The same name given to the stones was given to the dead whose identity was unknown.===North and northeast Africa===Ancient cairns in Qa'ableh, SomalilandCairns (''taalo'') are a common feature at El Ayo, Haylan, Qa'ableh, Qombo'ul, Heis, Salweyn and Gelweita, among other places.", "Somaliland in general is home to a lot of such historical settlements and archaeological sites wherein are found numerous ancient ruins and buildings, many of obscure origins.", "However, many of these old structures have yet to be properly explored, a process which would help shed further light on local history and facilitate their preservation for posterity.Since Neolithic times, the climate of North Africa has become drier.", "A reminder of the desertification of the area is provided by megalithic remains, which occur in a great variety of forms and in vast numbers in presently arid and uninhabitable wastelands: cairns (''kerkour''), dolmens and circles like Stonehenge, underground cells excavated in rock, barrows topped with huge slabs, and step pyramid-like mounds.===Middle East===Cairn in the Judean mountainsThe Biblical place name Gilead (Genesis 31 etc.)", "means literally \"heap of testimony/evidence\" as does its Aramaic translation (ibid.)", "''Yegar Sahaduta''.", "In modern Hebrew, ''gal-'ed'' (גל-עד) is the actual word for \"cairn\".", "In Genesis 31 the cairn of Gilead was set up as a border demarcation between Jacob and his father-in-law Laban at their last meeting.===Asia and the Pacific===A Mongolian ceremonial cairn (''ovoo'')Starting in the Bronze Age, burial cists were sometimes interred into cairns, which would be situated in conspicuous positions, often on the skyline above the village of the deceased.", "Though most often found in the British Isles, evidence of Bronze Age cists have been found in Mongolia.", "The stones may have been thought to deter grave robbers and scavengers.", "Another explanation is that they were to stop the dead from rising.", "There remains a Jewish tradition of placing small stones on a person's grave as a token of respect, known as visitation stones, though this is generally to relate the longevity of stone to the eternal nature of the soul and is not usually done in a cairn fashion.", "Stupas in India and Tibet probably started out in a similar fashion, although they now generally contain the ashes of a Buddhist saint or lama.A traditional and often decorated, heap-formed cairn called an ''ovoo'' is made in Mongolia.", "It primarily serves religious purposes, and finds use in both Tengriist and Buddhist ceremonies.", "Ovoos were also often used as landmarks and meeting points in traditional nomadic Mongolian culture.", "Traditional ceremonies still take place at ovoos today, and in a survey conducted, 75 participants out of 144 participants stated that they believe in ovoo ceremonies.", "However, mining and other industrial operations today threaten the ovoosIn Hawaii, cairns, called by the Hawaiian word , are still being built today.", "Though in other cultures, the cairns were typically used as trail markers and sometimes funerary sites, the ancient Hawaiians also used them as altars or security tower.", "The Hawaiian people are still building these cairns today, using them as the focal points for ceremonies honoring their ancestors and spirituality.In South Korea, cairns are quite prevalent, often found along roadsides and trails, up on mountain peaks, and adjacent to Buddhist temples.", "Hikers frequently add stones to existing cairns trying to get just one more on top of the pile, to bring good luck.", "This tradition has its roots in the worship of San-shin, or Mountain Spirit, so often still revered in Korean culture.===The Americas===Throughout what today are the continental United States and Canada, some Indigenous peoples of the Americas have built structures similar to cairns.", "In some cases, these are general trail markers, and in other cases they mark game-driving \"lanes\", such as those leading to buffalo jumps.Peoples from some of the Indigenous cultures of arctic North America (i.e.", "northern Canada, Alaska and Greenland) have built carefully constructed stone sculptures called and , which serve as landmarks and directional markers.", "The oldest of these structures are very old and pre-date contact with Europeans.", "They are iconic of the region (an even features on the flag of the Canadian far-northeastern territory, Nunavut).Cairns have been used throughout what is now Latin America, since pre-Columbian times, to mark trails.", "Even today, in the Andes of South America, the Quechuan peoples build cairns as part of their spiritual and religious traditions." ], [ "Modern cairns", "Modern cairn at the boundary of Counties Durham and Northumberland, EnglandCairn can be used to mark hiking trails, especially in mountain regions at or above the tree line.", "Examples can be seen in the lava fields of Volcanoes National Park to mark several hikes.", "Placed at regular intervals, a series of cairns can be used to indicate a path across stony or barren terrain, even across glaciers.", "In Acadia National Park, in Maine, the trails are marked by a special type of cairn instituted in the 1890s by Waldron Bates and dubbed Bates cairns.===Sea cairns===Sea mark in Finnish coastal watersCoastal cairns called sea marks are also common in the northern latitudes, especially in the island-strewn waters of Scandinavia and eastern Canada.", "They are placed along shores and on islands and islets.", "Usually painted white for improved offshore visibility, they serve as navigation aids.", "In Sweden, they are called , in Finland , in Norway , and are indicated in navigation charts and maintained as part of the nautical marking system." ], [ "Other types", "* Chambered cairn* Clava cairn* Clearance cairn* Court cairn* Pyramid* Ring cairn* Stupa* Tumulus* Unchambered long cairn" ], [ "See also", "* Boundary marker* Crossroads (mythology)* Dry stone* * * Inuksuk* Kerb (archaeology)* * Rock balancing* * * Stele" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Notes on Building a Cairn (PDF), by Dave Goulder for the DSWA, Dry Stone Walling Association of Great Britain.", "Practical notes to help those embarking on a cairn-building project." ] ]
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[ [ "Characteristic subgroup" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, particularly in the area of abstract algebra known as group theory, a '''characteristic subgroup''' is a subgroup that is mapped to itself by every automorphism of the parent group.", "Because every conjugation map is an inner automorphism, every characteristic subgroup is normal; though the converse is not guaranteed.", "Examples of characteristic subgroups include the commutator subgroup and the center of a group." ], [ "Definition", "A subgroup of a group is called a '''characteristic subgroup''' if for every automorphism of , one has ; then write ''''''.It would be equivalent to require the stronger condition = for every automorphism of , because implies the reverse inclusion ." ], [ "Basic properties", "Given , every automorphism of induces an automorphism of the quotient group , which yields a homomorphism .If has a unique subgroup of a given index, then is characteristic in ." ], [ "Related concepts", "=== Normal subgroup ===A subgroup of that is invariant under all inner automorphisms is called normal; also, an invariant subgroup.", ":Since and a characteristic subgroup is invariant under all automorphisms, every characteristic subgroup is normal.", "However, not every normal subgroup is characteristic.", "Here are several examples:* Let be a nontrivial group, and let be the direct product, .", "Then the subgroups, and" ], [ "Transitivity", "The property of being characteristic or fully characteristic is transitive; if is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of , and is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of , then is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of .", ":.Moreover, while normality is not transitive, it is true that every characteristic subgroup of a normal subgroup is normal.", ":Similarly, while being strictly characteristic (distinguished) is not transitive, it is true that every fully characteristic subgroup of a strictly characteristic subgroup is strictly characteristic.However, unlike normality, if and is a subgroup of containing , then in general is not necessarily characteristic in .", ":" ], [ "Containments", "Every subgroup that is fully characteristic is certainly strictly characteristic and characteristic; but a characteristic or even strictly characteristic subgroup need not be fully characteristic.The center of a group is always a strictly characteristic subgroup, but it is not always fully characteristic.", "For example, the finite group of order 12, , has a homomorphism taking to , which takes the center, , into a subgroup of , which meets the center only in the identity.The relationship amongst these subgroup properties can be expressed as::Subgroup ⇐ Normal subgroup ⇐ '''Characteristic subgroup''' ⇐ Strictly characteristic subgroup ⇐ Fully characteristic subgroup ⇐ Verbal subgroup" ], [ "Examples", "=== Finite example ===Consider the group (the group of order 12 that is the direct product of the symmetric group of order 6 and a cyclic group of order 2).", "The center of is isomorphic to its second factor .", "Note that the first factor, , contains subgroups isomorphic to , for instance ; let be the morphism mapping onto the indicated subgroup.", "Then the composition of the projection of onto its second factor , followed by , followed by the inclusion of into as its first factor, provides an endomorphism of under which the image of the center, , is not contained in the center, so here the center is not a fully characteristic subgroup of .=== Cyclic groups ===Every subgroup of a cyclic group is characteristic.=== Subgroup functors ===The derived subgroup (or commutator subgroup) of a group is a verbal subgroup.", "The torsion subgroup of an abelian group is a fully invariant subgroup.=== Topological groups ===The identity component of a topological group is always a characteristic subgroup." ], [ "See also", "* Characteristically simple group" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of cat breeds" ], [ "Introduction", "The following '''list of cat breeds''' includes only domestic cat breeds and domestic and wild hybrids.", "The list includes established breeds recognized by various cat registries, new and experimental breeds, landraces being established as standardized breeds, distinct domestic populations not being actively developed and lapsed (extinct) breeds.As of 2023, The International Cat Association (TICA) recognizes 73 standardized breeds, the Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) recognizes 45, the Fédération Internationale Féline (FIFe) recognizes 50, the Governing Council of the Cat Fancy (GCCF) recognizes 45, and the World Cat Federation (WCF) recognizes 69.Inconsistency in a breed's classification and naming among registries means that an individual animal may be considered different breeds by different registries (though not necessarily eligible for registry in them all, depending on its exact ancestry).", "For example, TICA's Himalayan is considered a colorpoint variety of the Persian by the CFA, while the Javanese (or Colorpoint Longhair) is a color variation of the Balinese in both the TICA and the CFA; both breeds are merged (along with the Colorpoint Shorthair) into a single \"mega-breed\", the Colourpoint, by the World Cat Federation (WCF), who have repurposed the name \"Javanese\" for the Oriental Longhair.", "Also, \"Colourpoint Longhair\" refers to different breeds in other registries.", "There are many examples of nomenclatural overlap and differences of this sort.", "Furthermore, many geographical and cultural names for cat breeds are fanciful selections made by Western breeders to be exotic sounding and bear no relationship to the actual origin of the breeds; the Balinese, Javanese, and Himalayan are all examples of this trend.The domestic short-haired and domestic long-haired cat types are not breeds, but terms used (with various spellings) in the cat fancy to describe \"mongrel\" or \"bicolor\" cats by coat length, ones that do not belong to a particular breed.", "Some registries such as the Cat Fanciers' Association allow for domestic short hairs and domestic long hairs to be registered for the purpose of outcrossing.", "They should not be confused with standardized breeds with similar names, such as the British Shorthair and Oriental Longhair." ], [ "Breeds", " Breed Location of origin Type Body type '''Coat type and length''' Coat patternImageAbyssinianUnspecified, but somewhere in Afro-Asia, likely EthiopiaNaturalSemi-foreignShortTicked tabby143x143pxAegeanGreeceNaturalModerateSemi-longMulti-color154x154pxAmerican BobtailUnited StatesMutation of shortened tailCobbySemi-longAll125x125pxAmerican CurlUnited StatesMutationSemi-foreignSemi-longAll135x135pxAmerican RingtailUnited StatesMutationForeignSemi-long All 100x100pxAmerican ShorthairUnited StatesNaturalCobbyShortAll 103x103pxAmerican WirehairUnited StatesMutationNormalRexAll100x100pxAphrodite GiantCyprusNaturalLean and muscularAllAll100x100pxArabian MauArabian PeninsulaNaturalModerate and muscularShortAll150x150pxAsianUnited KingdomCrossbreed between the Burmese and Chinchilla PersiansModerateShortAll without white and without siamese pointing133x133pxAsian Semi-longhairUnited KingdomCrossbreed between the Burmese and Chinchilla PersiansModerateSemi-longAll without white and without siamese pointing121x121pxAustralian MistAustraliaCrossbreed between the Abyssinian, Burmese, and Australian short-haired catsModerateShortSpotted or marbled102x102pxBalineseDeveloped in United States;foundation stock from ThailandMutation of the SiameseSemi-foreignLongColorpoint100x100pxBambinoUnited StatesCrossbreed between the Munchkin and SphynxDwarfShortBlack + white hairlessBengalHybrid of the Abyssinian and Egyptian Mau × leopard cat (''Prionailurus bengalensis'')LargeShortSpotted, marbled, or rosetted128x128pxBirmanDeveloped in France;foundation stock from Burma (Myanmar)The original Birman was crossed with the Siamese and the Persian to create the Birman of today.CobbySemi-longMitted colorpoint100x100pxBombayUnited States and Burma (Myanmar)Crossbreed between the Black American Shorthair and Sable BurmeseCobbyShortSolid black125x125pxBrazilian ShorthairBrazilNaturalNormalShortAll133x133pxBritish LonghairUnited Kingdom (England)NaturalCobbySemi-longAll133x133pxBritish ShorthairUnited Kingdom (England)NaturalCobbyShortAll106x106pxBurmeseBurma (Myanmar)NaturalSemi-foreign or semi-cobby ShortSolid and Tortoiseshell100x100pxBurmillaUnited Kingdom (England)Crossbreed between the Burmese and the Chinchilla PersianSemi-cobbyShortSolid with Shaded Silver and Silver Tipped patterns100x100pxCalifornia SpangledUnited StatesCrossbreed between the Abyssinian, American Shorthair and British Shorthair ModerateShortSpotted tabby100x100pxChantilly-TiffanyUnited StatesNaturalCobbyLongSolid, classic tabby, spotted tabby and ticked tabby100x100pxChartreuxFranceNaturalMuscular; cobby ShortVarying shades of blue150x150pxChausieUnited StatesHybrid of the Abyssinian × jungle cat (''Felis chaus'')NormalShortSolid black, black grizzled tabby and black ticked tabby100x100pxColorpoint ShorthairUnited Kingdom (England)Crossbreed between the Abyssinian, Siamese and short-haired cats ForeignShortColorpoint99x99pxCornish RexCornwall, England, United KingdomMutationForeignRexAll122x122pxCymric, Manx Longhair or Long-haired ManxIsle of Man, United States, and Canada Mutation of the Manx (shortened tail)Semi-cobbyLongAll105x105pxCyprusCyprusNaturalLean and muscularAll100x100pxDevon RexBuckfastleigh, Devon, England, United KingdomMutationSemi-foreignRexAll100x100pxDonskoy orDon SphynxRussiaMutationSemi-foreignHairlessSolid108x108pxDragon Li orChinese Li HuaChinaNaturalNormalShortTicked tabby100x100pxDwelfUnited StatesCrossbreed between the American Curl, Munchkin and SphynxDwarfHairlessAllEgyptian MauEgyptNaturalModerate and muscularShortSpotted tabby118x118pxEuropean ShorthairContinental EuropeNaturalModerateShortAll130x130pxExotic ShorthairUnited StatesCrossbreed between the American Shorthair and PersianCobbyShortAll99x99pxFoldex''''''CanadaCrossbreed between the Exotic Shorthair and Scottish FoldCobbyShortAll107x107pxGerman RexGermanyMutationSemi-foreignRexAll100x100pxHavana BrownUnited Kingdom (England);foundation stock from ThailandCrossbreed between the Siamese and black short-haired catsSemi-foreignShort103x103pxHighlanderUnited StatesCrossbreed between the Desert Lynx and Jungle CurlModerateShort/longAll100x100pxHimalayan orColorpoint PersianUnited States and United KingdomCrossbreed between the Persian and SiameseCobbyLongColorpoint151x151pxJapanese BobtailJapanMutation of shortened tailModerateShort/longAll100x100pxJavanese orColorpoint LonghairDeveloped in United States and Canada;foundation stock from Southeast AsiaCrossbreed between the Balinese (with some Colorpoint Shorthair), Oriental Longhair and SiameseOrientalLongColorpoint133x133pxKanaaniIsraelHybrid of short-haired cats ×  African wildcat (''Felis lybica'') Semi-foreignShortSolid black, chocolate spotted tabby or cinnamon spotted tabbyKhao ManeeThailandNaturalModerateShortSolid white158x158pxKinkalowUnited StatesCrossbreed between the Munchkin and American CurlDwarfShortAll150x150pxKoratThailandNaturalSemi-foreign or semi-cobby and muscularShortSolid blue116x116pxKorean BobtailKoreaNatural, mutation of shortened tailModerateShort/longAll100x100pxKorn Ja or KonjaThailandNaturalSmallShortSolid blackKurilian Bobtail orKuril Islands BobtailKuril Islands, North PacificNatural, mutation of shortened tailSemi-cobbyShort/longAll100x100pxLambkinUnited StatesCrossbreed between the Munchkin and Selkirk RexDwarfRexAllLaPermUnited StatesMutationModerateRexAll119x119pxLykoiUnited StatesMutationModerateSparse hairedBlack roan132x132pxMaine CoonUnited StatesNatural, crossbreedLargeSemi-long/longAll excluding chocolate and colourpoint100x100pxManxIsle of ManMutation of shortened tail ModerateShort/longAll100x100pxMekong BobtailDeveloped in Russia;foundation stock ultimately from Southeast AsiaMutation of shortened tailModerateShortColorpoint100x100pxMinskinUnited StatesCrossbreed between the Munchkin, Burmese, Devon Rex, and SphynxDwarfHairless100x100pxMinuetUnited StatesCrossbreed between the Persian and MunchkinDwarfShort/longAll100x100pxMunchkinUnited StatesMutation of dwarf catDwarfShort/longAll122x122pxNebelungUnited States Natural, mutationForeignSemi-longSolid blue100x100pxNeva Masquerade (colorpoint Siberian)RussiaCrossbreed between the Siberian and a colorpoint catCobbyLongColorpoint100x100pxNorwegian Forest CatNorwayNaturalCobbyLongChocolate or orange and white bicolor100x100pxOcicatUnited StatesCrossbreed between the Abyssinian, American Shorthair and SiameseLargeShortSpotted tabby100x100pxOjos Azules(extinct)United StatesCrossbreedModerateShortAll135x135pxOriental BicolorDeveloped in United States and United Kingdom, later in Continental Europe;foundation stock ultimately from ThailandColor variety of the Oriental ShorthairOrientalShortBicolor163x163pxOriental Longhair Developed in United States and United Kingdom;foundation stock ultimately from ThailandCrossbreed between the Oriental Shorthair and long-haired catsOrientalSemi-longAll; if colorpoint is considered to be a separate breed, it is called the Javanese201x201pxOriental ShorthairDeveloped in United States and United Kingdom;foundation stock ultimately from ThailandCrossbreed between the European Shorthair and SiameseOrientalShortAll127x127pxPersian (modern)Developed in United States and Europe;foundation stock from Greater IranMutation of the Traditional PersianCobbyLongAll but colorpoint140x140pxPersian (traditional)Greater IranNatural, but some crossbreeding with the Turkish AngoraCobbyLongAll but colorpoint133x133pxPeterbaldRussiaCrossbreed between the Donskoy, Oriental Shorthair and Siamese;before this, it was between the Balinese and JavaneseOrientalHairless, velour, brush, or straight coatAll100x100pxPixie-bobUnited StatesMutation (falsely claimed to be a hybrid of the domestic cat and the bobcat (''Lynx rufus'') early on)MediumShortSpotted tabby100x100pxRagamuffin orLiebling (obsolete)United StatesCrossbreed between the Ragdoll with limited out-crossing to the Himalayan, the Persian, and other long-haired catsCobbyLongAll119x119pxRagdollUnited StatesBehavioral mutation in a crossbreed, presumed to be between the Persian or Turkish Angora and the Birman or BurmeseCobbyLongColorpoint, mitted, or bicolor100x100pxRaasRaas Island, IndonesiaNatural ModerateShort Solid blue, solid cinnamon, or cinnamon colorpoint100x100pxRussian BlueRussiaNaturalModerate, Oriental ShortSolid blue144x144pxRussian White, Russian Black and Russian TabbyDeveloped in Australia;foundation stock from RussiaCrossbreeds between the Russian Blue and short-haired cats from Siberia, RussiaModerateShortSolid white, solid black and tabbySam Sawet ThailandColor variety of the ThaiModerateShortSolidSavannahUnited StatesHybrid of the domestic cat x serval (''Leptailurus serval'')LargeShortSpotted150x150pxScottish FoldUnited Kingdom (Scotland)Mutation of the bones and cartilage of the earsCobbyShort/longAll118x118pxSelkirk RexUnited States in 1988Mutation/crossbreed between the American Shorthair, Persian, Himalayan, Exotic Shorthair and British ShorthairLarge and cobbyShort/long (longhair, sometimes in early generations, can appear to be semi-long)All100x100pxSerengetiUnited States Crossbreed/hybrid between the Bengal and Oriental ShorthairOrientalShortSpotted100x100pxSiamese (modern))Developed in United States and Europe;foundation stock from ThailandMutation of the ThaiOrientalShortColorpoint125x125pxSiberian orSiberian Forest Cat)Russia, UkraineNaturalCobbyLongAll; except chocolate, lilac, cinnamon, and fawn150x150pxSingapuraDeveloped in United States;foundation stock from SingaporePossibly a mutation of a crossbreed (excluding the Munchkin), solving why they are so smallSmallShortTicked tabby126x126pxSnowshoeUnited StatesCrossbreed between the American Shorthair and SiameseShortMitted colorpoint150x150pxSokokeKenyaNaturalModerateShortTicked tabby103x103pxSomaliUnited States, CanadaMutation CobbyLongTicked tabby140x140pxSphynxCanada, EuropeMutationOrientalHairlessAll145x145pxSuphalakThailandNaturalModerateShortSolid reddish-brown150x150pxThai orTraditional, Classic, or Old-style Siamese;Wichien MaatDeveloped in Europe;foundation stock from ThailandNaturalModerateShortColorpoint100x100pxThai Lilac, Thai Blue Point and Thai Lilac PointThailandColor varieties of the KoratModerateShortSolid lilac and colorpoint (blue point and lilac point only)118x118pxTonkineseCanada, United StatesCrossbreed between the Burmese and SiameseOrientalShortColorpoint, mink, or solid100x100pxToybobRussiaMutationDwarfShortAllToygerUnited StatesCrossbreed/hybrid between the Bengal and short-haired catsModerateShortMackerel tabby100x100pxTurkish AngoraTurkeyNaturalSemi-cobbySemi-longAll150x150pxTurkish VanDeveloped in United Kingdom;foundation stock from TurkeyNaturalSemi-cobbySemi-longVan pattern100x100pxTurkish Vankedisi(white variety of Turkish Van)Developed in United Kingdom;foundation stock from TurkeyNaturalSvelteLongSolid white100x100pxUkrainian LevkoyUkraineCrossbreed between the Donskoy and Scottish FoldModerateHairlessSolid gray100x100pxYork ChocolateNew York, United StatesNaturalModerateLongSolid chocolate, solid lilac and solid taupe or any of these colors with white150x150px" ], [ "See also", "* Animal show* Animals in sport* Felidae – the entire cat family* Felinae – the subfamily of all smaller cat species* Lists of breeds* List of experimental cat breeds* List of cat registries* List of individual cats* Selective breeding* Wildcat – the ancestor of the domestic cat" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Class action" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''class action lawsuit''', also known as a '''class suit,''' '''class-action''', '''representative action''', or '''representative action''', is a type of lawsuit where one of the parties is a group of people who are represented collectively by a member or members of that group.", "The class action originated in the United States and is still predominantly an American phenomenon, but Canada, as well as several European countries with civil law, have made changes in recent years to allow consumer organizations to bring claims on behalf of consumers." ], [ "Description", "In a typical class action, a plaintiff sues a defendant or a number of defendants on behalf of a group, or class, of absent parties.", "This differs from a traditional lawsuit, where one party sues another party, and all of the parties are present in court.", "Although standards differ between states and countries, class actions are most common where the allegations usually involve at least 40 people who the same defendant has injured in the same way.", "Instead of each damaged person bringing one's own lawsuit, the class action allows all the claims of all class members—whether they know they have been damaged or not—to be resolved in a single proceeding through the efforts of the representative plaintiff(s) and appointed class counsel." ], [ "History", "===England and the United Kingdom===The antecedent of the class action was what modern observers call \"group litigation,\" which appears to have been quite common in medieval England from about 1200 onward.", "These lawsuits involved groups of people either suing or being sued in actions at common law.", "These groups were usually based on existing societal structures like villages, towns, parishes, and guilds.", "Unlike modern courts, the medieval English courts did not question the right of the actual plaintiffs to sue on behalf of a group or a few representatives to defend an entire group.Engraving of the Star Chamber, published in \"Old and new London\" in 1873, taken from a drawing made in 1836From 1400 to 1700, group litigation gradually switched from being the norm in England to the exception.", "The development of the concept of the corporation led to the wealthy supporters of the corporate form becoming suspicious of all unincorporated legal entities, which in turn led to the modern concept of the unincorporated or voluntary association.", "The tumultuous history of the Wars of the Roses and then the Star Chamber resulted in periods during which the common law courts were frequently paralyzed, and out of the confusion the Court of Chancery emerged with exclusive jurisdiction over group litigation.By 1850, Parliament had enacted several statutes on a case-by-case basis to deal with issues regularly faced by certain types of organizations, like joint-stock companies, and with the impetus for most types of group litigation removed, it went into a steep decline in English jurisprudence from which it never recovered.", "It was further weakened by the fact that equity pleading, in general, was falling into disfavor, which culminated in the Judicature Acts of 1874 and 1875.Group litigation was essentially dead in the United Kingdom after 1850.===United States===Associate Justice Joseph StoryClass actions survived in the United States thanks to the influence of Supreme Court Associate Justice Joseph Story, who imported it into US law through summary discussions in his two equity treatises as well as his opinion in ''West v. Randall'' (1820).", "However, Story did not necessarily endorse class actions, because he \"could not conceive of a modern function or a coherent theory for representative litigation.", "\"The oldest predecessor to the class-action rule in the United States was in the Federal Equity Rules, specifically Equity Rule 48, promulgated in 1842.Where the parties on either side are very numerous, and cannot, without manifest inconvenience and oppressive delays in the suit, be all brought before it, the court in its discretion may dispense with making all of them parties, and may proceed in the suit, having sufficient parties before it to represent all the adverse interests of the plaintiffs and the defendants in the suit properly before it.", "But in such cases, the decree shall be without prejudice to the rights and claims of all the absent parties.This allowed for representative suits in situations where there were too many individual parties (which now forms the first requirement for class-action litigation – numerosity).", "However, this rule did not allow such suits to bind similarly situated absent parties, which rendered the rule ineffective.", "Within ten years, the Supreme Court interpreted Rule 48 in such a way so that it could apply to absent parties under certain circumstances, but only by ignoring the plain meaning of the rule.", "In the rules published in 1912, Equity Rule 48 was replaced with Equity Rule 38 as part of a major restructuring of the Equity Rules, and when federal courts merged their legal and equitable procedural systems in 1938, Equity Rule 38 became Rule 23 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.====Modern developments====A major revision of the FRCP in 1966 radically transformed Rule 23, made the opt-out class action the standard option, and gave birth to the modern class action.", "Entire treatises have been written since to summarize the huge mass of law that sprang up from the 1966 revision of Rule 23.Just as medieval group litigation bound all members of the group regardless of whether they all actually appeared in court, the modern class action binds ''all'' members of the class, except for those who choose to opt out (if the rules permit them to do so).The Advisory Committee that drafted the new Rule 23 in the mid-1960s was influenced by two major developments.", "First was the suggestion of Harry Kalven Jr. and Maurice Rosenfield in 1941 that class-action litigation by individual shareholders on behalf of all shareholders of a company could effectively supplement direct government regulation of securities markets and other similar markets.", "The second development was the rise of the civil rights movement, environmentalism and consumerism.", "The groups behind these movements, as well as many others in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, all turned to class actions as a means for achieving their goals.", "For example, a 1978 environmental law treatise reprinted the ''entire'' text of Rule 23 and mentioned \"class actions\" 14 times in its index.Businesses targeted by class actions for inflicting massive aggregate harm have sought ways to avoid class actions altogether.", "In the 1990s, the US Supreme Court issued several decisions that strengthened the \"federal policy favoring arbitration\".", "In response, lawyers have added provisions to consumer contracts of adhesion called \"collective action waivers\", which prohibit those signing the contracts from bringing class-action suits.", "In 2011, the US Supreme Court ruled in a 5–4 decision in ''AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion'' that the Federal Arbitration Act of 1925 preempts state laws that prohibit contracts from disallowing class-action lawsuits, which will make it more difficult for consumers to file class-action lawsuits.", "The dissent pointed to a saving clause in the federal act which allowed states to determine how a contract or its clauses may be revoked.In two major 21st-century cases, the Supreme Court ruled 5–4 against certification of class actions due to differences in each individual members' circumstances: first in ''Wal-Mart v. Dukes'' (2011) and later in ''Comcast Corp. v. Behrend'' (2013).Companies may insert the phrase \"may elect to resolve any claim by individual arbitration\" into their consumer and employment contracts to use arbitration and prevent class-action lawsuits.Rejecting arguments that they violated employees' rights to collective bargaining, and that modestly-valued consumer claims would be more efficiently litigated within the parameters of one lawsuit, the U.S. Supreme Court, in ''Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis'' (2018), allowed the use of so-called \"class action waivers\".", "Citing its deference to freedom to contract principles, the Epic Systems opinion opened the door dramatically to the use of these waivers as a condition of employment, consumer purchases and the like.", "Some commentators in opposition to the ruling see it as a \"death knell\" to many employment and consumer class actions, and have increasingly pushed for legislation to circumvent it in hopes of reviving otherwise-underrepresented parties' ability to litigate on a group basis.", "Supporters (mostly pro-business) of the high court's ruling argue its holding is consistent with private contract principles.", "Many of those supporters had long-since argued that class action procedures were generally inconsistent with due process mandates and unnecessarily promoted litigation of otherwise small claims—thus heralding the ruling's anti-litigation effect.In 2017, the US Supreme Court issued its opinion in Bristol-Meyer Squibb Co. v. Superior Court of California, 137 S. Ct. 1773 (2017), holding that over five hundred plaintiffs from other states cannot bring a consolidated mass action against the pharmaceutical giant in the State of California.", "This opinion may arguably render nationwide mass action and class action impossible in any single state besides the defendant's home state.In 2020, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals found incentive awards are impermissible.", "Incentive awards are a relatively modest payment made to class representatives as part of a class settlement.", "The ruling was a response to an objector who claimed Rule 23 required that the fee petition be filed ''before'' the time frame for class member objections to be filed; and payments to the class representative violates doctrine from two US Supreme Court cases from the 1800s.=== Statistics ===As of 2010, there was no publicly maintained list of nonsecurities class-action settlements, although a securities class-action database exists in the Stanford Law School Securities Class Action Clearinghouse and several for-profit companies maintain lists of the securities settlements.", "One study of federal settlements required the researcher to manually search databases of lawsuits for the relevant records, although state class actions were not included due to the difficulty in gathering the information.", "Another source of data is US Bureau of Justice Statistics ''Civil Justice Survey of State Courts'', which offers statistics for the year 2005." ], [ "Advantages", "Proponents of class actions state that they offer a number of advantages because they aggregate many individualized claims into one representational lawsuit.First, aggregation can increase the efficiency of the legal process, and lower the costs of litigation.", "In cases with common questions of law and fact, aggregation of claims into a class action may avoid the necessity of repeating \"days of the same witnesses, exhibits and issues from trial to trial\".", "''Jenkins v. Raymark Indus.", "Inc.'', 782 F.2d 468, 473 (5th Cir.", "1986) (granting certification of a class action involving asbestos).Second, a class action may overcome \"the problem that small recoveries do not provide the incentive for any individual to bring a solo action prosecuting his or her rights\".", "''Amchem Prods., Inc. v. Windsor'', 521 U.S. 591, 617 (1997) (quoting ''Mace v. Van Ru Credit Corp.'', 109 F.3d 388, 344 (7th Cir.", "1997)).", "\"A class action solves this problem by aggregating the relatively paltry potential recoveries into something worth someone's (usually an attorney's) labor.\"", "''Amchem Prods., Inc.'', 521 U.S. at 617 (quoting ''Mace'', 109 F.3d at 344).", "In other words, a class action ensures that a defendant who engages in widespread harmbut does so minimally against each individual plaintiffmust compensate those individuals for their injuries.", "For example, thousands of shareholders of a public company may have losses too small to justify separate lawsuits, but a class action can be brought efficiently on behalf of all shareholders.", "Perhaps even more important than compensation is that class treatment of claims may be the only way to impose the costs of wrongdoing on the wrongdoer, thus deterring future wrongdoing.Third, class-action cases may be brought to purposely change behavior of a class of which the defendant is a member.", "''Landeros v. Flood'' (1976) was a landmark case decided by the California Supreme Court that aimed at purposefully changing the behavior of doctors, encouraging them to report suspected child abuse.", "Otherwise, they would face the threat of civil action for damages in tort proximately flowing from the failure to report the suspected injuries.", "Previously, many physicians had remained reluctant to report cases of apparent child abuse, despite existing law that required it.Fourth, in \"limited fund\" cases, a class action ensures that all plaintiffs receive relief and that early-filing plaintiffs do not raid the fund (i.e., the defendant) of all its assets before other plaintiffs may be compensated.", "See ''Ortiz v. Fibreboard Corp.'', 527 U.S. 815 (1999).", "A class action in such a situation centralizes all claims into one venue where a court can equitably divide the assets amongst all the plaintiffs if they win the case.Finally, a class action avoids the situation where different court rulings could create \"incompatible standards\" of conduct for the defendant to follow.", "See Fed.", "R. Civ.", "P. 23(b)(1)(A).", "For example, a court might certify a case for class treatment where a number of individual bond-holders sue to determine whether they may convert their bonds to common stock.", "Refusing to litigate the case in one trial could result in different outcomes and inconsistent standards of conduct for the defendant corporation.", "Thus, courts will generally allow a class action in such a situation.", "See, e.g., ''Van Gemert v. Boeing Co.'', 259 F. Supp.", "125 (S.D.N.Y.", "1966).Whether a class action is superior to individual litigation depends on the case and is determined by the judge's ruling on a motion for class certification.", "The Advisory Committee Note to Rule 23, for example, states that mass torts are ordinarily \"not appropriate\" for class treatment.", "Class treatment may not improve the efficiency of a mass tort because the claims frequently involve individualized issues of law and fact that will have to be re-tried on an individual basis.", "See ''Castano v. Am.", "Tobacco Co.'', 84 F.3d 734 (5th Cir.", "1996) (rejecting nationwide class action against tobacco companies).", "Mass torts also involve high individual damage awards; thus, the absence of class treatment will not impede the ability of individual claimants to seek justice.", "Other cases, however, may be more conducive to class treatment.The preamble to the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005, passed by the United States Congress, found:Class-action lawsuits are an important and valuable part of the legal system when they permit the fair and efficient resolution of legitimate claims of numerous parties by allowing the claims to be aggregated into a single action against a defendant that has allegedly caused harm." ], [ "Criticisms", "There are several criticisms of class actions.", "The preamble to the Class Action Fairness Act stated that some abusive class actions harmed class members with legitimate claims and defendants that have acted responsibly, adversely affected interstate commerce, and undermined public respect for the country's judicial system.Class members often receive little or no benefit from class actions.", "Examples cited for this include large fees for the attorneys, while leaving class members with coupons or other awards of little or no value; unjustified awards are made to certain plaintiffs at the expense of other class members; and confusing notices are published that prevent class members from being able to fully understand and effectively exercise their rights.For example, in the United States, class lawsuits sometimes bind all class members with a low settlement.", "These \"coupon settlements\" (which usually allow the plaintiffs to receive a small benefit such as a small check or a coupon for future services or products with the defendant company) are a way for a defendant to forestall major liability by precluding many people from litigating their claims separately, to recover reasonable compensation for the damages.", "However, existing law requires judicial approval of all class-action settlements, and in most cases, class members are given a chance to opt out of class settlement, though class members, despite opt-out notices, may be unaware of their right to opt-out because they did not receive the notice, did not read it or did not understand it.The Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 addresses these concerns.", "An independent expert may scrutinize coupon settlements before judicial approval in order to ensure that the settlement will be of value to the class members (28 U.S.C.A.", "1712(d)).", "Further, if the action provides for settlement in coupons, \"the portion of any attorney's fee award to class counsel that is attributable to the award of the coupons shall be based on the value to class members of the coupons that are redeemed\".", "28 U.S.C.A.", "1712(a)." ], [ "Ethics", "Class action cases present significant ethical challenges.", "Defendants can hold reverse auctions and any of several parties can engage in collusive settlement discussions.", "Subclasses may have interests that diverge greatly from the class but may be treated the same.", "Proposed settlements could offer some groups (such as former customers) much greater benefits than others.", "In one paper presented at an ABA conference on class actions in 2007, authors commented that \"competing cases can also provide opportunities for collusive settlement discussions and reverse auctions by defendants anxious to resolve their new exposure at the most economic cost\"." ], [ "Defendant class action", "Although normally plaintiffs are the class, defendant class actions are also possible.", "For example, in 2005, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Portland in Oregon was sued as part of the Catholic priest sex-abuse scandal.", "All parishioners of the Archdiocese's churches were cited as a defendant class.", "This was done to include their assets (local churches) in any settlement.", "Where both the plaintiffs and the defendants have been organized into court-approved classes, the action is called a bilateral class action." ], [ "Mass actions", "In a class action, the plaintiff seeks court approval to litigate on behalf of a group of similarly situated persons.", "Not every plaintiff looks for or could obtain such approval.", "As a procedural alternative, plaintiff's counsel may attempt to sign up every similarly situated person that counsel can find as a client.", "Plaintiff's counsel can then join the claims of all of these persons in one complaint, a so-called \"mass action\", hoping to have the same efficiencies and economic leverage as if a class had been certified.Because mass actions operate outside the detailed procedures laid out for class actions, they can pose special difficulties for both plaintiffs, defendants, and the court.", "For example, settlement of class actions follows a predictable path of negotiation with class counsel and representatives, court scrutiny, and notice.", "There may not be a way to uniformly settle all of the many claims brought via a mass action.", "Some states permit plaintiff's counsel to settle for all the mass action plaintiffs according to a majority vote, for example.", "Other states, such as New Jersey, require each plaintiff to approve the settlement of that plaintiff's own individual claims." ], [ "Class action legislation", "===Argentina===Class actions were recognized in \"Halabi\" leading case (Supreme Court, 2009).=== Australia and New Zealand ===Class actions became part of the Australian legal landscape only when the Federal Parliament amended the Federal Court of Australia Act in 1992 to introduce \"representative proceedings\", the equivalent of the American \"class actions\".Likewise, class actions appeared slowly in the New Zealand legal system.", "However, a group can bring litigation through the action of a representative under the High Court Rules which provide that one or a multitude of persons may sue on behalf of, or for the benefit of, all persons \"with the same interest in the subject matter of a proceeding\".", "The presence and expansion of litigation funders have been playing a significant role in the emergence of class actions in New Zealand.", "For example, the \"Fair Play on Fees\" proceedings in relation to penalty fees charged by banks were funded by Litigation Lending Services (LLS), a company specializing in the funding and management of litigation in Australia and New Zealand.", "It was the biggest class-action suit in New Zealand history.===Austria===The Austrian Code of Civil Procedure (''Zivilprozessordnung'' – ZPO) does not provide for a special proceeding for complex class-action litigation.", "However, Austrian consumer organizations (''Verein für Konsumenteninformation'' (VKI) and the Federal Chamber of Labour / ''Bundesarbeitskammer'') have brought claims on behalf of hundreds or even thousands of consumers.", "In these cases, the individual consumers assigned their claims to one entity, who has then brought an ordinary (two-party) lawsuit over the assigned claims.", "The monetary benefits were redistributed among the class.", "This technique, labeled as \"class action Austrian style,\" allows for a significant reduction of overall costs.", "The Austrian Supreme Court, in a judgment, confirmed the legal admissibility of these lawsuits under the condition that all claims are essentially based on the same grounds.The Austrian Parliament unanimously requested the Austrian Federal Minister for Justice to examine the possibility of new legislation providing for a cost-effective and appropriate way to deal with mass claims.", "Together with the Austrian Ministry for Social Security, Generations and Consumer Protection, the Justice Ministry opened the discussion with a conference held in Vienna in June 2005.With the aid of a group of experts from many fields, the Justice Ministry began drafting the new law in September 2005.With the individual positions varying greatly, a political consensus could not be reached.===Canada===Provincial laws in Canada allow class actions.", "All provinces permit plaintiff classes and some permit defendant classes.", "Quebec was the first province to enact class proceedings legislation, in 1978.Ontario was next, with the Class Proceedings Act, 1992.As of 2008, 9 of 10 provinces had enacted comprehensive class actions legislation.", "In Prince Edward Island, where no comprehensive legislation exists, following the decision of the Supreme Court of Canada in ''Western Canadian Shopping Centres Inc. v. Dutton'', 2001 2 S.C.R.", "534, class actions may be advanced under a local rule of court.", "The Federal Court of Canada permits class actions under Part V.1 of the Federal Courts Rules.Legislation in Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and Nova Scotia expressly or by judicial opinion has been read to allow for what are informally known as national \"opt-out\" class actions, whereby residents of other provinces may be included in the class definition and potentially be bound by the court's judgment on common issues unless they opt-out in a prescribed manner and time.", "Court rulings have determined that this permits a court in one province to include residents of other provinces in the class action on an \"opt-out\" basis.Judicial opinions have indicated that provincial legislative national opt-out powers should not be exercised to interfere with the ability of another province to certify a parallel class action for residents of other provinces.", "The first court to certify will generally exclude residents of provinces whose courts have certified a parallel class action.", "However, in the Vioxx litigation, two provincial courts certified overlapping class actions whereby Canadian residents were class members in two class actions in two provinces.", "Both decisions are under appeal.Other legislation may provide for representative actions on behalf of a large number of plaintiffs, independent of class action procedures.", "For instance, under Ontario's Condominium Act, a condominium's governing corporation may launch a lawsuit on behalf of the owners for damage to the condominium's common elements, even though the corporation does not own the common elements.The largest class action suit in Canada was settled in 2005 after Nora Bernard initiated efforts that led to an estimated 79,000 survivors of Canada's residential school system suing the Canadian government.", "The settlement amounted to upwards of $5 billion.=== Chile ===Chile approved class actions in 2004.The Chilean model is technically an opt-out issue class action, followed by a compensatory stage which can be collective or individual.", "This means that the class action is designed to declare the defendant generally liable with ''erga omnes'' effects if and only if the defendant is found liable, and the declaratory judgment can be used then to pursue damages in the same procedure or in individual ones in different jurisdictions.", "If the latter is the case, the liability cannot be discussed, but only the damages.", "There under the Chilean procedural rules, one particular case works as an opt-out class action for damages.", "This is the case when defendants can identify and compensate consumers directly, i.e.", "because it is their banking institution.", "In such cases, the judge can skip the compensatory stage and order redress directly.", "Since 2005 more than 100 cases have been filed, mostly by ''Servicio Nacional del Consumidor'' SERNAC, the Chilean consumer protection agency.", "Salient cases have been ''Condecus v. BancoEstado'' and ''SERNAC v. La Polar''.===France===Under French law, an association can represent the collective interests of consumers; however, each claimant must be individually named in the lawsuit.", "On January 4, 2005, President Chirac urged changes that would provide greater consumer protection.", "A draft bill was proposed in April 2006 but did not pass.Following the change of majority in France in 2012, the new government proposed introducing class actions into French law.", "The project of \"loi Hamon\" of May 2013 aimed to limit the class action to consumer and competition disputes.", "The law was passed on March 1, 2014.=== Germany ===Class actions are generally not permitted in Germany, as German law does not recognize the concept of a targeted class being affected by certain actions.", "This requires each plaintiff to individually prove that they were affected by an action, and present their individual damages, and prove the causality between both parties.Joint litigation (Streitgenossenschaft) is a legal act that may permit plaintiffs that are in the same legal community with respect to the dispute, or are entitled by the same factual or legal reason.", "These are not typically regarded as class action suits, as each individual plaintiff is entitled to compensation for their individual, incurred damages and not as a result of being a member of a class.The combination of court cases (Prozessverbindung) is another method that permits a judge to combine multiple separate court cases into a single trial with a single verdict.", "According to § 147 ZPO, this is only permissible if all cases are regarding the same factual and legal event and basis.==== Mediation Procedure ====A genuine extension of the legal effect of a court decision beyond the parties involved in the proceedings is offered under corporate law.", "This procedure applies to the review of stock payoffs under ''Stock Corporation Act'' (''Aktiengesetz''.", "Pursuant to Sec.", "13 Sentence 2 ''Mediation Procedure Act'' (''Spruchverfahrensgesetz'' §), the court decision concerning the dismissal or direction of a binding arrangement of an adequate compensation is effective for and against all shareholders, including those who have already agreed to a previous settlement in this matter.==== Investor Model Case Proceedings ====The ''Capital Investor Model Case Act'' (''Kapitalanleger-Musterverfahrensgesetz'') is an attempt to enable model cases to be brought by a large number of potentially affected parties in the event of disputes, limited to the investment market.", "In contrast to the US class actions, each affected party must file a lawsuit in its own name in order to participate in the model proceedings.==== Model Declaratory Action ====Effective on November 1, 2018, the Code of Civil Procedure (Zivilprozessordnung) introduced the Model Declaratory Action (§ 606 ZPO) that created the ability to bundle similar claims by many affected parties efficiently into one proceeding.Registered Consumer Protection Associations can file – if they represent at least 10 individuals – for a (general) judicial finding whether the factual and legal requirements for of claims or legal relationships are met or not.", "These individuals have to register in order to inhibit their claims.", "Since these Adjudications are more of a general nature, each individual must assert their claims in their own court proceedings.", "The competent court is bound by the Model Declaratory Action decision.==== Associate Action ====German law also recognizes the ''Associative Action'' (''Verbandsklage''), which is comparable to the class action and is predominantly used in environmental law.", "In civil law, the ''Associative Action'' is represented by a foreign body in the matter of asserting and enforcing individual claims and the claimant can no longer control the proceedings.==== Class Action With Relation to the United States ====Class actions can be brought by Germans in the US for events in Germany if the facts of the case relate to the US.", "For example, in the case of the Eschede train disaster, the lawsuit was allowed because several aggrieved parties came from the US and had purchased rail tickets there.===India===Decisions of the Indian Supreme Court in the 1980s loosened strict ''locus standi'' requirements to permit the filing of suits on behalf of rights of deprived sections of society by public-minded individuals or bodies.", "Although not strictly \"class action litigation\" as it is understood in American law, Public Interest Litigation arose out of the wide powers of judicial review granted to the Supreme Court of India and the various High Courts under Article 32 and Article 226 of the Constitution of India.", "The sort of remedies sought from courts in Public Interest Litigation go beyond mere award of damages to all affected groups, and have sometimes (controversially) gone on to include Court monitoring of the implementation of legislation and even the framing of guidelines in the absence of Parliamentary legislation.However, this innovative jurisprudence did not help the victims of the Bhopal gas tragedy, who were unable to fully prosecute a class-action litigation (as understood in the American sense) against Union Carbide due to procedural rules that would make such litigation impossible to conclude and unwieldy to carry out.", "Instead, the Government of India exercised its right of ''parens patriae'' to appropriate all the claims of the victims and proceeded to litigate on their behalf, first in the New York courts and later, in the Indian courts.", "Ultimately, the matter was settled between the Union of India and Union Carbide (in a settlement overseen by the Supreme Court of India) for a sum of as a complete settlement of all claims of all victims for all time to come.Public interest litigation has now broadened in scope to cover larger and larger groups of citizens who may be affected by government inaction.", "Examples of this trend include the conversion of all public transport in the city of Delhi from diesel engines to compressed natural gas engines on the basis of the orders of the Delhi High Court; the monitoring of forest use by the High Courts and the Supreme Court to ensure that there is no unjustified loss of forest cover; and the directions mandating the disclosure of assets of electoral candidates for the Houses of Parliament and State Assembly.The Supreme Court has observed that the PIL has tended to become a means to gain publicity or obtain relief contrary to constitutionally valid legislation and policy.", "Observers point out that many High Courts and certain Supreme Court judges are reluctant to entertain PILs filed by non-governmental organizations and activists, citing concerns of separation of powers and parliamentary sovereignty.===Ireland===In Irish law, there is no such thing as a \"class action\" per se.", "Third-party litigation funding is prohibited under Irish law.", "Instead, there is the 'representative action' () or 'test case' (''cás samplach'').", "A representative action is \"where one claimant or defendant, with the same interest as a group of claimants or defendants in an action, institutes or defends proceedings on behalf of that group of claimants or defendants.", "\"Some test cases in Ireland have included:*the CervicalCheck cancer scandal*financial product misselling*Damages claims brought by Irish hauliers against price-fixing by European truck makers===Italy===Italy has class action legislation.", "Consumer associations can file claims on behalf of groups of consumers to obtain judicial orders against corporations that cause injury or damage to consumers.", "These types of claims are increasing, and Italian courts have allowed them against banks that continue to apply compound interest on retail clients' current account overdrafts.", "The introduction of class actions is on the government's agenda.", "On November 19, 2007, the Senato della Repubblica passed a class-action law in Finanziaria 2008, a financial document for the economy management of the government.", "From 10 December 2007, in order of Italian legislation system, the law is before the House and has to be passed also by the Camera dei Deputati, the second house of Italian Parliament, to become an effective law.", "In 2004, the Italian parliament considered the introduction of a type of class action, specifically in the area of consumer law.", "No such law has been enacted, but scholars demonstrated that class actions (''azioni rappresentative'') do not contrast with Italian principles of civil procedure.", "Class action is regulated by art.", "140 bis of the Italian consumers' code and has been in force since 1 July 2009.On May 19, 2021, the reform of the Italian legal framework on class actions finally entered into force.", "The new rules, designed by Law n. 31 and published on April 18, 2019, (Law n. 31/2019), were initially intended to become effective on April 19, 2020, but had been delayed twice.", "The new rules on class actions are now included in the Italian Civil Procedure Code (ICPC).", "Overall, the new class action appears to be a viable instrument which, through a system of economic incentives, could overcome the rational apathy of small-claims holders and ensure redress.===Netherlands===Dutch law allows associations (''verenigingen'') and foundations (''stichtingen'') to bring a so-called collective action on behalf of other persons, provided they can represent the interests of such persons according to their by-laws (''statuten'') (section 3:305a Dutch Civil Code).", "All types of actions are permitted.", "This includes a claim for monetary damages, provided the event occurred after 15 November 2016 (pursuant to new legislation which entered into force 1 January 2020).", "Most class actions over the past decade have been in the field of securities fraud and financial services.", "The acting association or foundation may come to a collective settlement with the defendant.", "The settlement may also include – and usually primarily consists of – monetary compensation of damages.", "Such settlement can be declared binding for all injured parties by the Amsterdam Court of Appeal (section 7:907 Dutch Civil Code).", "The injured parties have an opt-out right during the opt-out period set by the Court, usually 3 to 6 months.", "Settlements involving injured parties from outside The Netherlands can also be declared binding by the Court.", "Since US courts are reluctant to take up class actions brought on behalf of injured parties not residing in the US who have suffered damages due to acts or omissions committed outside the US, combinations of US class actions and Dutch collective actions may come to a settlement that covers plaintiffs worldwide.", "An example of this is the Royal Dutch Shell Oil Reserves Settlement that was declared binding upon both US and non-US plaintiffs.===Poland===\"Pozew zbiorowy\" or class action has been allowed under Polish law since July 19, 2010.A minimum of 10 persons, suing based on the same law, is required.===Russia===Collective litigation has been allowed under Russian law since 2002.Basic criteria are, like in the US, numerosity, commonality, and typicality.===Spain===Spanish law allows nominated consumer associations to take action to protect the interests of consumers.", "A number of groups already have the power to bring collective or class actions: certain consumer associations, bodies legally constituted to defend the \"collective interest\" and groups of injured parties.Recent changes to Spanish civil procedure rules include the introduction of a quasi-class action right for certain consumer associations to claim damages on behalf of unidentified classes of consumers.", "The rules require consumer associations to represent an adequate number of affected parties who have suffered the same harm.", "Also, any judgment made by the Spanish court will list the individual beneficiaries or, if that is not possible, conditions that need to be fulfilled for a party to benefit from a judgment.===Switzerland===Swiss law does not allow for any form of class action.", "When the government proposed a new federal code of civil procedure in 2006, replacing the cantonal codes of civil procedure, it rejected the introduction of class actions, arguing that===United Kingdom======= England and Wales ====The Civil Procedure Rules of the courts of England and Wales came into force in 1999 and have provided for group litigation orders in limited circumstances (under Part 19.6).", "These have not been much used, with only two reported cases at the court of first instance in the first ten years after the Civil Procedure Rules took effect.", "However, a sectoral mechanism was adopted by the Consumer Rights Act 2015, taking effect on October 1, 2015.Under the provisions therein, opt-in or opt-out collective procedures may be certified for breaches of competition law.", "This is currently the closest mechanism to a class action in England and Wales.===United States=== In the United States, the '''class representative''', also called a '''lead plaintiff''', '''named plaintiff''', or '''representative plaintiff''' is the named party in a class-action lawsuit.", "Although the class representative is named as a party to the litigation, the court must approve the class representative when it certifies the lawsuit as a class action.The class representative must be able to represent the interests of all the members of the class, by being typical of the class members and not having conflicts with them.", "He or she is responsible for hiring the attorney, filing the lawsuit, consulting on the case, and agreeing to any settlement.", "In exchange, the class representative may be entitled to compensation (at the court's discretion) out of the recovery amount.====Standing====In securities class actions that allege violations of Section 11 of the Securities Act of 1933, \"officers and directors are liable together with the corporation for material misrepresentations in the registration statement.", "\"To have \"standing\" to sue under Section 11 of the 1933 Act in a class action, a plaintiff must be able to prove that he can \"trace\" his shares to the registration statement in question, as to which there is alleged a material misstatement or omission.", "In the absence of an ability to actually trace his shares, such as when securities issued at multiple times are held by the Depository Trust Company in a fungible bulk and physical tracing of particular shares may be impossible, the plaintiff may be barred from pursuing his claim for lack of standing.====Federal courts====In federal courts, class actions are governed by Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Rule and 28 U.S.C.A.", "§ 1332(d).", "Cases in federal courts are only allowed to proceed as class actions if the court has jurisdiction to hear the case, and if the case meets the criteria set out in Rule 23.In the vast majority of federal class actions, the class is acting as the plaintiff.", "However, Rule 23 also provides for defendant class actions.Typically, federal courts are thought to be more favorable for defendants, and state courts more favorable for plaintiffs.", "Many class actions are filed initially in state court.", "The defendant will frequently try to remove the case to federal court.", "The Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 increases defendants' ability to remove state cases to federal court by giving federal courts original jurisdiction for all class actions with damages exceeding $5,000,000 exclusive of interest and costs.", "The Class Action Fairness Act contains carve-outs for, among other things, shareholder class actions covered by the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 and those concerning internal corporate governance issues (the latter typically being brought as shareholder derivative actions in the state courts of Delaware, the state of incorporation of most large corporations).=====Jurisdiction=====Class actions may be brought in federal court if the claim arises under federal law or if the claim falls under 28 U.S.C.", "§ 1332(d).", "Under § 1332(d)(2) the federal district courts have original jurisdiction over any civil action where the amount in controversy exceeds $5,000,000 and* any member of a class of plaintiffs is a citizen of a State different from any defendant; or* any member of a class of plaintiffs is a foreign state or a citizen or subject of a foreign state and any defendant is a citizen of a State; or* any member of a class of plaintiffs is a citizen of a State and any defendant is a foreign state or a citizen or subject of a foreign state.Nationwide plaintiff classes are possible, but such suits must have a commonality of issues across state lines.", "This may be difficult if the civil law in the various states lack significant commonalities.", "Large class actions brought in federal court frequently are consolidated for pre-trial purposes through the device of multidistrict litigation (MDL).", "It is also possible to bring class actions under state law, and in some cases the court may extend its jurisdiction to all the members of the class, including out of state (or even internationally) as the key element is the jurisdiction that the court has over the defendant.=====Class certification under Rule 23=====For the case to proceed as a class action and bind absent class members, the court must certify the class under Rule 23 on a motion from the party wishing to proceed on a class basis.", "For a class to be certified, the moving party must meet all of the criteria listed under Rule 23(a), and at least one of the criteria listed under Rule 23(b).The 23(a) criteria are referred to as '''numerosity''', '''commonality''', '''typicality''', and '''adequacy'''.", "'''Numerosity''' refers to the number of people in the class.", "To be certified, the class has to have enough members that simply adding each of them as a named party to the lawsuit would be impractical.", "There is no bright-line rule to determine numerosity, but classes with hundreds of members are generally deemed to be sufficiently numerous.", "To satisfy '''commonality''', there must be a common question of law and fact such that \"determination of its truth or falsity will resolve an issue that is central to the validity of each one of the claims in one stroke\".", "The '''typicality''' requirement ensures that the claims or defenses of the named plaintiff are typical of those of everyone else in the class.", "Finally, '''adequacy''' requirement states that the named plaintiff must fairly and adequately represent the interests of the absent class members.Rule 23(b)(3) allows class certification if \"questions of law or fact common to class members ''predominate'' over any questions affecting only individual members, and that a class action is ''superior'' to other available methods for fairly and efficiently adjudicating the controversy.", "\"=====Notice and settlement=====Due process requires in most cases that notice describing the class action be sent, published, or broadcast to class members.", "As part of this notice procedure, there may have to be several notices, first a notice allowing class members to opt out of the class, i.e.", "if individuals wish to proceed with their own litigation they are entitled to do so, only to the extent that they give timely notice to the class counsel or the court that they are opting out.", "Second, if there is a settlement proposal, the court will usually direct the class counsel to send a settlement notice to all the members of the certified class, informing them of the details of the proposed settlement.====State courts====Since 1938, many states have adopted rules similar to the FRCP.", "However, some states, like California, have civil procedure systems, which deviate significantly from the federal rules; the California Codes provide for four separate types of class actions.", "As a result, there are two separate treatises devoted solely to the complex topic of California class actions.", "Some states, such as Virginia, do not provide for any class actions, while others, such as New York, limit the types of claims that may be brought as class actions." ], [ "In fiction", "John Grisham's 2003 novel ''The King of Torts'' is a fable of the rights and wrongs of class actions.==See also==*Arbitration clause, a contract clause that attempts to prevent lawsuits by requiring arbitration in a private forum*Bill of Peace, an English predecessor to class actions*''Class Action'', 1991 American legal drama film *Collective redress, a similar legal framework under development in the European Union*''Dukes v. Wal-Mart'' (2011), the largest civil rights class-action lawsuit to date*List of class action lawsuits*Public Interest Litigation, a similar system adopted in India*Securities Class Action" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "===United States===* ''Manual for Complex Litigation, Fourth''* ''Stanford Securities Class Action Clearinghouse''* Class Action Lawsuits: A Legal Overview for the 115th Congress Congressional Research Service* Class Actions Seven Years After the Class Action Fairness Act: Hearing before the Subcommittee on the Constitution of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, Second Session, June 1, 2012===Europe===* Collective Redress in Europe" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Contempt of court" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Contempt of court''', often referred to simply as \"'''contempt'''\", is the crime of being disobedient to or disrespectful toward a court of law and its officers in the form of behavior that opposes or defies the authority, justice, and dignity of the court.", "A similar attitude toward a legislative body is termed contempt of Parliament or contempt of Congress.", "The verb for \"to commit contempt\" is '''contemn''' (as in \"to contemn a court order\") and a person guilty of this is a '''contemnor''' or '''contemner'''.There are broadly two categories of contempt: being disrespectful to legal authorities in the courtroom, or willfully failing to obey a court order.", "Contempt proceedings are especially used to enforce equitable remedies, such as injunctions.", "In some jurisdictions, the refusal to respond to subpoena, to testify, to fulfill the obligations of a juror, or to provide certain information can constitute contempt of the court.When a court decides that an action constitutes contempt of court, it can issue an order in the context of a court trial or hearing that declares a person or organization to have disobeyed or been disrespectful of the court's authority, called \"found\" or \"held\" in contempt.", "That is the judge's strongest power to impose sanctions for acts that disrupt the court's normal process.A finding of being in contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material or non-disclosure of material, which in doing so is deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial.", "A judge may impose sanctions such as a fine, jail or social service for someone found guilty of contempt of court, which makes contempt of court a process crime.", "Judges in common law systems usually have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in civil law systems." ], [ "In use today", "Contempt of court is essentially seen as a form of disturbance that may impede the functioning of the court.", "The judge may impose fines and/or jail time upon any person committing contempt of court.", "The person is usually let out upon an agreement to fulfill the wishes of the court.", "Civil contempt can involve acts of omission.", "The judge will make use of warnings in most situations that may lead to a person being charged with contempt if the warnings are ignored.", "It is relatively rare that a person is charged for contempt without first receiving at least one warning from the judge.", "Constructive contempt, also called ''consequential contempt'', is when a person fails to fulfill the will of the court as it applies to outside obligations of the person.", "In most cases, constructive contempt is considered to be in the realm of civil contempt due to its passive nature.Indirect contempt is something that is associated with civil and constructive contempt and involves a failure to follow court orders.", "Criminal contempt includes anything that could be considered a disturbance, such as repeatedly talking out of turn, bringing forth previously banned evidence, or harassment of any other party in the courtroom, including committing an assault against the defendant in a criminal case.", "There have been instances during murder trials that grieving family members of murder victims have attacked the defendants in courtrooms in plain view of judges, bailiffs, and jurors, leading to said family members to be charged with contempt.", "Direct contempt is an unacceptable act in the presence of the judge (''in facie curiae''), and generally begins with a warning; it may be accompanied by the immediate imposition of a punishment.===Australia===In Australia, a judge may impose a fine or jail for contempt of court.===Belgium===A Belgian correctional or civil judge may immediately try the person for insulting the court.===Canada=======Common law offense====In Canada, contempt of court is an exception to the general principle that all criminal offences are set out in the federal Criminal Code.", "Contempt of court and contempt of Parliament are the only remaining common law offences in Canada.Contempt of court includes the following behaviors:* Failing to maintain a respectful attitude, failing to remain silent or failing to refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding* Refusing or neglecting to obey a subpoena* Willfully disobeying a process or order of the court* Interfering with the orderly administration of justice or impairing the authority or dignity of the court* Failing to perform duties as an officer of the court* A sheriff or bailiff not executing a writ of the court forthwith or not making a return thereof====Canadian Federal courts====''This section applies only to the Federal Court of Appeal and Federal Court.", "''Under Federal Court Rules, Rules 466, and Rule 467 a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges.", "Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved.If it is a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately.", "Punishment can range from the person being imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order or fine.====Tax Court of Canada====Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of ''Tax Court of Canada Act'', a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined.", "Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court.====Provincial courts====Different procedures exist for different provincial courts.", "For example, in British Columbia, a justice of the peace can only issue a summons to an offender for contempt, which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done in the face of the justice.===Hong Kong===Judges from the Court of Final Appeal, High Court, District Court along with members from the various tribunals and Coroner's Court all have the power to impose immediate punishments for contempt in the face of the court, derived from legislation or through common law:* Insult a judge or justice, witness or officers of the court* Interrupts the proceedings of the court* Interfere with the course of justice* Misbehaves in court (e.g., use of mobile phone or recording devices without permission)* Juror who leaves without permission of the court during proceedings* Disobeying a judgment or court order* Breach of undertaking* Breach of a duty imposed upon a solicitor by rules of courtThe use of insulting or threatening language in the magistrates' courts or against a magistrate is in breach of section 99 of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227) which states the magistrate can 'summarily sentence the offender to a fine at level 3 and to imprisonment for 6 months.", "'In addition, certain appeal boards are given the statutory authority for contempt by them (e.g., Residential Care Home, Hotel and Guesthouse Accommodation, Air Pollution Control, etc.).", "For contempt in front of these boards, the chairperson will certify the act of contempt to the Court of First Instance who will then proceed with a hearing and determine the punishment.===England and Wales===In England and Wales (a common law jurisdiction), the law on contempt is partly set out in case law (common law), and partly codified by the Contempt of Court Act 1981.Contempt may be classified as ''criminal'' or ''civil''.", "The maximum penalty for criminal contempt under the 1981 Act is committal to prison for two years.Disorderly, contemptuous or insolent behaviour toward the judge or magistrates while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as \"direct\" contempt.", "The term \"direct\" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behaviour observed on the record.", "Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.There are limits to the powers of contempt created by rulings of European Court of Human Rights.", "Reporting on contempt of court, the Law Commission commented that \"punishment of an advocate for what he or she says in court, whether a criticism of the judge or a prosecutor, amounts to an interference with his or her rights under article 10 of the ECHR\" and that such limits must be \"prescribed by law\" and be \"necessary in a democratic society\", citing Nikula v Finland.====Criminal contempt====The Crown Court is a superior court according to the Senior Courts Act 1981, and Crown Courts have the power to punish contempt.", "The Divisional Court as part of the High Court has ruled that this power can apply in these three circumstances:# Contempt \"in the face of the court\" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);# Disobedience of a court order; and# Breaches of undertakings to the court.Where it is necessary to act quickly, a judge may act to impose committal (to prison) for contempt.Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the Attorney General can intervene and the Crown Prosecution Service will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before a Divisional Court of the King's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales.", "In January 2012, for example, a juror who had researched information on the internet was jailed for contempt of court.", "Theodora Dallas, initially searching for the meaning of the term \"grievous bodily harm\", added search criteria which localised her search and brought to light another charge against the defendant.", "Because she then shared this information with the other jurors, the judge stated that she had compromised the defendant's right to a fair trial and the prosecution was abandoned.Magistrates' courts also have powers under the 1981 Act to order to detain any person who \"insults the court\" or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting.", "Upon contempt being admitted or proved the (invariably) District Judge (sitting as a magistrate) may order committal to prison for a maximum of one month, impose a fine of up to £2,500, or both.It will be contempt to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.It will not be contempt according to section 10 of the Act for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is \"necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime\".====Strict liability contempt====Under the Contempt of Court Act it is criminal contempt to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired.", "It only applies where proceedings are active, and the Attorney General has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance.", "The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial or linked trials are over and the juries have given their verdicts.Section 2 of the Act defines and limits the previous common law definition of contempt (which was previously based upon a presumption that any conduct could be treated as contempt, regardless of intent), to only instances where there can be proved an intent to cause a substantial risk of serious prejudice to the administration of justice (i.e./e.g., the conduct of a trial).====Civil contempt====In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:# Failure to attend at court despite a summons requiring attendance.", "In respect of the High Court, historically a writ of latitat would have been issued, but now a bench warrant is issued, authorizing the tipstaff to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit.", "In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally \"backed for bail\"—i.e., bail will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.# Failure to comply with a court order.", "A copy of the order, with a \"penal notice\"—i.e., notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment—is served on the person concerned.", "If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison.", "In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claimant of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.===India===In India, contempt of court is of two types:===Pakistan======Singapore======United States===In United States jurisprudence, acts of contempt are generally divided into direct or indirect, and civil or criminal.", "Direct contempt occurs in the presence of a judge; civil contempt is \"coercive and remedial\" as opposed to punitive.", "In the United States, relevant statutes include and Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 42.# Direct contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae'') and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice.", "After giving the person the opportunity to respond, the judge may impose the sanction immediately.# Indirect contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order.", "Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered.", "A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt and, since there is no written procedure, may or may not be allowed to present evidence in rebuttal.Contempt of court in a civil suit is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order.", "However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court.Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil.", "If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt, but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a fine or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally.", "The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the sheriff or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted.", "The imposed party is said to \"hold the keys\" to their own cell, thus conventional due process is not required.", "In federal and most state courts, the burden of proof for civil contempt is clear and convincing evidence, a lower standard than in criminal cases.In civil contempt cases there is no principle of proportionality.", "In ''Chadwick v. Janecka'' (3d Cir.", "2002), a U.S. court of appeals held that H. Beatty Chadwick could be held indefinitely for his failure to produce $2.5 million as a state court ordered in a civil trial.", "Chadwick had been imprisoned for nine years at that time and continued to be held in prison until 2009, when a state court set him free after 14 years, making his imprisonment the longest on a contempt charge to date.Civil contempt is only appropriate when the imposed party has the power to comply with the underlying order.", "Controversial contempt rulings have periodically arisen from cases involving asset protection trusts, where the court has ordered a settlor of an asset protection trust to repatriate assets so that the assets may be made available to a creditor.", "A court cannot maintain an order of contempt where the imposed party does not have the ability to comply with the underlying order.", "This claim when made by the imposed party is known as the \"impossibility defense\".Contempt of court is considered a prerogative of the court, and \"the requirement of a jury does not apply to 'contempts committed in disobedience of any lawful writ, process, order, rule, decree, or command entered in any suit or action brought or prosecuted in the name of, or on behalf of, the United States.'\"", "This stance is not universally agreed with by other areas of the legal world, and there have been many calls to have contempt cases to be tried by jury, rather than by judge, as a potential conflict of interest rising from a judge both accusing and sentencing the defendant.", "At least one Supreme Court justice has made calls for jury trials to replace judge trials on contempt cases.The United States Marshals Service is the agency component that first holds all federal prisoners.", "It uses the Prisoner Population Management System /Prisoner Tracking System.", "The only types of records that are disclosed as being in the system are those of \"federal prisoners who are in custody pending criminal proceedings.\"", "The records of \"alleged civil contempors\" are not listed in the Federal Register as being in the system leading to a potential claim for damages under The Privacy Act, .====News media in the United States====In the United States, because of the broad protections granted by the First Amendment, with extremely limited exceptions, unless the media outlet is a party to the case, a media outlet cannot be found in contempt of court for reporting about a case because a court cannot order the media in general not to report on a case or forbid it from reporting facts discovered publicly.", "Newspapers cannot be closed because of their content.====Criticism====There have been criticisms over the practice of trying contempt from the bench.", "In particular, Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black wrote in a dissent, \"It is high time, in my judgment, to wipe out root and branch the judge-invented and judge-maintained notion that judges can try criminal contempt cases without a jury.\"" ], [ "See also", "*Contempt of cop*Contumacy*Judicial discretion*Lèse-majesté*Perjury*Perverting the course of justice*Obstruction of justice*Offence of scandalizing the court in Singapore" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Scarce, Rik.", "\"Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars\" (2005) ()." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Corroborating evidence" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Corroborating evidence''', also referred to as '''corroboration''', is a type of evidence in law." ], [ "Types and uses", "Corroborating evidence tends to support a proposition that is already supported by some initial evidence, therefore confirming the proposition.", "For example, W, a witness, testifies that she saw X drive his automobile into a green car.", "Meanwhile, Y, another witness, ''corroborates'' the proposition by testifying that when he examined X's car, later that day, he noticed green paint on its fender.", "There can also be corroborating evidence related to a certain source, such as what makes an author think a certain way due to the evidence that was supplied by witnesses or objects.Another type of corroborating evidence comes from using the Baconian method, i.e., the method of agreement, method of difference, and method of concomitant variations.These methods are followed in experimental design.", "They were codified by Francis Bacon, and developed further by John Stuart Mill and consist of controlling several variables, in turn, to establish which variables are causally connected.", "These principles are widely used intuitively in various kinds of proofs, demonstrations, and investigations, in addition to being fundamental to experimental design.In law, corroboration refers to the requirement in some jurisdictions, such as in Scots law, that any evidence adduced be backed up by at least one other source (see Corroboration in Scots law)." ], [ "An example of corroboration", "Defendant says, \"It was like what he/she (a witness) said but...\".", "This is Corroborative evidence from the defendant that the evidence the witness gave is true and correct.Corroboration is not needed in certain instances.", "For example, there are certain statutory exceptions.", "In the Education (Scotland) Act, it is only necessary to produce a register as proof of lack of attendance.", "No further evidence is needed." ], [ "England and Wales", "'''Perjury'''See section 13 of the Perjury Act 1911.", "'''Speeding offences'''See section 89(2) of the Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984.", "'''Sexual offences'''See section 32 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.", "'''Confessions by mentally handicapped persons'''See section 77 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984.", "'''Evidence of children'''See section 34 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988.", "'''Evidence of accomplices'''See section 32 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994." ], [ "See also", "* Karl Popper" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Plutchik, Robert (1983), ''Foundations of Experimental Research'', Harper's Experimental Psychology Series." ] ]
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[ [ "Cross-examination" ], [ "Introduction", "Chief prosecutor James M. McHaney examines defendant Gerhard Rose at the Doctors' Trial.In law, '''cross-examination''' is the interrogation of a witness by one's opponent.", "It is preceded by direct examination (known as examination-in-chief in Ireland, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, South Africa, India and Pakistan) and may be followed by a redirect (known as re-examination in the aforementioned countries).", "A redirect examination, performed by the attorney or pro se individual who performed the direct examination, clarifies the witness' testimony provided during cross-examination including any subject matter raised during cross-examination but not discussed during direct examination.", "Recross examination addresses the witness' testimony discussed in redirect by the opponent.", "Depending on the judge's discretion, opponents are allowed multiple opportunities to redirect and recross examine witnesses (this may vary by jurisdiction)." ], [ "Variations by jurisdiction", "In the United States federal courts, a cross-examining attorney is generally limited by Rule 611 of the Federal Rules of Evidence to the \"subject matter of the direct examination and matters affecting the witness's credibility\".", "The rule also permits the trial court, in its discretion, to \"allow inquiry into additional matters as if on direct examination\".", "Many state courts do permit a lawyer to cross-examine a witness on matters not raised during direct examination, though California restricts cross-examination to \"any matter within the scope of the direct examination\".", "Similarly, courts in England, South Africa, Australia, and Canada allow a cross-examiner to exceed the scope of direct examination.Since a witness called by the opposing party is presumed to be hostile, leading questions are allowed on cross-examination.", "A witness called by a direct examiner, on the other hand, may only be treated as hostile by that examiner after being permitted to do so by the judge, at the request of that examiner and as a result of the witness being openly antagonistic and/or prejudiced against the party that called them." ], [ "Affecting the outcome of jury trials", "Cross-examination is a key component of a trial and the topic is given substantial attention during courses on trial advocacy.", "The opinions of a jury or judge are often changed if cross examination casts doubt on the witness.", "On the other hand, a credible witness may reinforce the substance of their original statements and enhance the judge's or jury's belief.", "Though the closing argument is often considered the deciding moment of a trial, effective cross-examination wins trials.Attorneys anticipate hostile witnesses' responses during pretrial planning, and often attempt to shape the witnesses' perception of the questions to draw out information helpful to the attorney's case.", "Typically during an attorney's closing argument, they will repeat any admissions made by witnesses that favor their case.", "In the United States, cross-examination is seen as a core part of the entire adversarial system of justice, in that it \"is the principal means by which the believability of a witness and the truth of his testimony are tested.\"", "Another key component affecting a trial outcome is jury selection, in which attorneys will attempt to include jurors from whom they feel they can get a favorable response or at the least an unbiased fair decision.", "So while there are many factors affecting the outcome of a trial, the cross-examination of a witness will often influence an open-minded unbiased jury searching for the certainty of facts upon which to base their decision." ], [ "See also", "* * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "********" ] ]
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[ [ "Christiania" ], [ "Introduction", "__NOTOC__'''Christiania''' may refer to:" ], [ "Businesses and organizations", "* Christiania Bank, a former Norwegian bank* Christiania Theatre in Oslo, Norway* Christiania Spigerverk, a steel company which was founded in Oslo, Norway, in 1853* Christiania Norwegian Theatre, founded in 1852 under the name of Norwegian Dramatic School* ''Christiania Avertissements-Blad'', a former Norwegian newspaper, issued in Oslo, 1861–1971" ], [ "Places", "* Christiania or Kristiania, official names of Oslo (1624–1924), nickname (from 1925) for the part of Oslo that was founded by King Christian IV* Christiania Islands, a group of islands in the Palmer Archipelago* Christiania Township, Minnesota, a township in Jackson County, U.S.* Freetown Christiania (or ''Christiania''), a self-proclaimed autonomous neighborhood in Copenhagen, Denmark" ], [ "Sports", "* Christiania SK, a Norwegian Nordic skiing club, based in Oslo, Norway" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Christiania'' (brachiopod), a genus of Strophomenid brachiopods found in the Arenig geological group* Christiania Burgher School, a private middle school in Christiania, Norway" ], [ "See also", "* Cristian (disambiguation)* Christiana (disambiguation)* Christiania Township (disambiguation)*" ] ]
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[ [ "Charles d'Abancourt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Charles Xavier Joseph de Franque Ville d'Abancourt''' (4 July 17589 September 1792) was a French statesman, minister to Louis XVI." ], [ "Biography", "D'Abancourt was born in Douai, and was the nephew of Charles Alexandre de Calonne.", "He was Louis XVI's last minister of war (July 1792), and organised the defence of the Tuileries Palace during the 10 August attack.", "Commanded by the Legislative Assembly to send away the Swiss Guards, he refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation and sent to Orléans to be tried.At the end of August the Assembly ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orléans to be transferred to Paris with an escort commanded by Claude Fournier, nicknamed ''l'Americain''.", "At Versailles they learned of the massacres at Paris.", "Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners were murdered in cold blood during the 9 September massacres (9 September 1792) at Versailles.", "Fournier was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Curtiss P-40 Warhawk" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Curtiss P-40 Warhawk''' is an American single-engined, single-seat, all-metal fighter-bomber that first flew in 1938.The P-40 design was a modification of the previous Curtiss P-36 Hawk which reduced development time and enabled a rapid entry into production and operational service.", "The Warhawk was used by most Allied powers during World War II, and remained in frontline service until the end of the war.", "It was the third most-produced American fighter of World War II, after the North American P-51 Mustang and Republic P-47 Thunderbolt; by November 1944, when production of the P-40 ceased, 13,738 had been built, all at Curtiss-Wright Corporation's main production facilities in Buffalo, New York.P-40 Warhawk was the name the United States Army Air Corps gave the plane, and after June 1941, the USAAFadopted the name for all models, making it the official name in the U.S. for all P-40s.", "The British Commonwealth and Soviet air forces used the name '''Tomahawk''' for models equivalent to the original P-40, P-40B, and P-40C, and the name '''Kittyhawk''' for models equivalent to the P-40D and all later variants.", "P-40s first saw combat with the British Commonwealth squadrons of the Desert Air Force in the Middle East and North African campaigns, during June 1941.No.", "112 Squadron Royal Air Force, was among the first to operate Tomahawks in North Africa and the unit was the first Allied military aviation unit to feature the \"shark mouth\" logo, copying similar markings on some Luftwaffe Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin-engine fighters.", "The lack of a two-speed supercharge for the P-40's Allison V-1710 engine's made it inferior to Luftwaffe fighters such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109 or the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 in high-altitude combat and it was rarely used in operations in Northwest Europe.", "However, between 1941 and 1944, the P-40 played a critical role with Allied air forces in three major theaters: North Africa, the Southwest Pacific, and China.", "It also had a significant role in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, Alaska and Italy.", "The P-40's performance at high altitudes was not as important in those theaters, where it served as an air superiority fighter, bomber escort and fighter-bomber.Although it gained a postwar reputation as a mediocre design, suitable only for close air support, more recent research including scrutiny of the records of Allied squadrons indicates that this was not the case; the P-40 performed surprisingly well as an air superiority fighter, at times suffering severe losses, but also inflicting a very heavy toll on enemy aircraft.", "Based on war-time victory claims, over 200 Allied fighter pilots – from the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, the US and the Soviet Union – became aces flying the P-40.These included at least 20 double aces, mostly over North Africa, China, Burma and India, the South West Pacific and Eastern Europe.", "The P-40 offered the additional advantages of low cost and durability, which kept it in production as a ground-attack aircraft long after it was obsolescent as a fighter." ], [ "Design and development", "===Origins===Materiel Division of the U.S. Army Air CorpsOn 14 October 1938, Curtiss test pilot Edward Elliott flew the prototype XP-40 on its first flight in Buffalo.", "The XP-40 was the 10th production Curtiss P-36 Hawk, with its Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp 14-cylinder air-cooled radial engine replaced at the direction of Chief Engineer Don R. Berlin by a liquid-cooled, supercharged Allison V-1710 V-12 engine.", "The first prototype placed the glycol coolant radiator in an underbelly position on the fighter, just aft of the wing's trailing edge.", "USAAC Fighter Projects Officer Lieutenant Benjamin S. Kelsey flew this prototype some 300 miles in 57 minutes, approximately .", "Hiding his disappointment, he told reporters that future versions would likely go faster.", "Kelsey was interested in the Allison engine because it was sturdy and dependable, and it had a smooth, predictable power curve.", "The V-12 engine offered as much power as a radial engine but had a smaller frontal area and allowed a more streamlined cowl than an aircraft with a radial engine, promising a theoretical 5% increase in top speed.Curtiss engineers worked to improve the XP-40's speed by moving the radiator forward in steps.", "Seeing little gain, Kelsey ordered the aircraft to be evaluated in a NACA wind tunnel to identify solutions for better aerodynamic qualities.", "From 28 March to 11 April 1939, the prototype was studied by NACA.", "Based on the data obtained, Curtiss moved the glycol coolant radiator forward to the chin; its new air scoop also accommodated the oil cooler air intake.", "Other improvements to the landing gear doors and the exhaust manifold combined to give performance that was satisfactory to the USAAC.", "Without beneficial tail winds, Kelsey flew the XP-40 from Wright Field back to Curtiss's plant in Buffalo at an average speed of .", "Further tests in December 1939 proved the fighter could reach .An unusual production feature was a special truck rig to speed delivery at the main Curtiss plant in Buffalo, New York.", "The rig moved the newly built P-40s in two main components, the main wing and the fuselage, the eight miles from the plant to the airport where the two units were mated for flight and delivery.===Performance characteristics===Luke Field, Arizona.The P-40 was conceived as a pursuit aircraft and was agile at low and medium altitudes but suffered from a lack of power at higher altitudes.", "At medium and high speeds it was one of the tightest-turning early monoplane designs of the war, and it could out turn most opponents it faced in North Africa and the Russian Front.", "In the Pacific Theater it was out-turned at lower speeds by the lightweight fighters Mitsubishi A6M Zero and Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa (known to Allies as \"Oscar\").", "The American Volunteer Group Commander Claire Chennault advised against prolonged dog-fighting with the Japanese fighters due to speed reduction favoring the Japanese.Allison's V-1710 engines produced at sea level and .", "This was not powerful compared with contemporary fighters, and the early P-40 variants' top speeds were only average.", "The single-stage, single-speed supercharger meant that the P-40 was a poor high-altitude fighter.", "Later versions, with Allisons or more powerful 1,400 hp Packard Merlin engines were more capable.", "Climb performance was fair to poor, depending on the subtype.", "Dive acceleration was good and dive speed was excellent.", "The highest-scoring P-40 ace, Clive Caldwell (RAAF), who claimed 22 of his 28½ kills in the type, said that the P-40 had \"almost no vices\", although \"it was a little difficult to control in terminal velocity\".", "The P-40 had one of the fastest maximum dive speeds of any fighter of the early war period, and good high-speed handling.F/O T. R. Jacklin (''pictured'') flew this No.", "75 Squadron RAAF P-40N-5 more than after the loss of the port aileron and 25% of its wing area, due to a mid-air collision with another P-40N-5.The P-40 tolerated harsh conditions and a variety of climates.", "Its semi-modular design was easy to maintain in the field.", "It lacked innovations such as boosted ailerons or automatic leading edge slats, but its strong structure included a five-spar wing, which enabled P-40s to pull high-G turns and survive some midair collisions.", "Intentional ramming attacks against enemy aircraft were occasionally recorded as victories by the Desert Air Force and Soviet Air Forces.", "Caldwell said P-40s \"would take a tremendous amount of punishment, violent aerobatics as well as enemy action\".", "Operational range was good by early war standards and was almost double that of the Supermarine Spitfire or Messerschmitt Bf 109, although inferior to the Mitsubishi A6M Zero, Nakajima Ki-43 and Lockheed P-38 Lightning.Caldwell found the P-40C Tomahawk's armament of two Browning AN/M2 \"light-barrel\" dorsal nose-mount synchronized machine guns and two Browning machine guns in each wing to be inadequate.", "This was improved with the P-40D (Kittyhawk I) which abandoned the synchronized gun mounts and instead had two guns in each wing, although Caldwell still preferred the earlier Tomahawk in other respects.", "The D had armor around the engine and the cockpit, which enabled it to withstand considerable damage.", "This allowed Allied pilots in Asia and the Pacific to attack Japanese fighters head on, rather than try to out-turn and out-climb their opponents.", "Late-model P-40s were well armored.", "Visibility was adequate, although hampered by a complex windscreen frame, and completely blocked to the rear in early models by a raised turtledeck.", "Poor ground visibility and relatively narrow landing gear track caused many losses on the ground.Curtiss tested a follow-on design, the Curtiss XP-46, but it offered little improvement over newer P-40 models and was cancelled." ], [ "Operational history", "In April 1939, the U.S. Army Air Corps, having witnessed the new, sleek, high-speed, in-line-engined fighters of the European air forces, placed the largest fighter order it had ever made for 524 P-40s.===French Air Force===An early order came from the French ''Armée de l'Air'', which was already operating P-36s.", "The ''Armée de l'Air'' ordered 100 (later the order was increased to 230) as the '''Hawk 81A-1''' but the French were defeated before the aircraft had left the factory and the aircraft were diverted to British and Commonwealth service (as the Tomahawk I), in some cases complete with metric flight instruments.In late 1942, as French forces in North Africa split from the Vichy government to side with the Allies, U.S. forces transferred P-40Fs from 33rd FG to ''GC II/5'', a squadron that was historically associated with the Lafayette Escadrille.", "GC II/5 used its P-40Fs and Ls in combat in Tunisia and later for patrol duty off the Mediterranean coast until mid-1944, when they were replaced by Republic P-47D Thunderbolts.===British Commonwealth=======Deployment====Armourers working on a Tomahawk Mk.II from No.", "3 Squadron RAAF in North Africa, 23 December 1941In all, 18 Royal Air Force (RAF) squadrons, four Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), three South African Air Force (SAAF) and two Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) squadrons serving with RAF formations, used P-40s.", "The first units to convert were Hawker Hurricane squadrons of the Desert Air Force (DAF), in early 1941.The first Tomahawks delivered came without armor, bulletproof windscreens or self-sealing fuel tanks, which were installed in subsequent shipments.", "Pilots used to British fighters sometimes found it difficult to adapt to the P-40's rear-folding landing gear, which was more prone to collapse than the lateral-folding landing gear of the Hurricane or Supermarine Spitfire.", "In contrast to the \"three-point landing\" commonly employed with British types, P-40 pilots were obliged to use a \"wheels landing\": a longer, low angle approach that touched down on the main wheels first.Testing showed the aircraft did not have the performance needed for use in Northwest Europe at high-altitude, due to the service ceiling limitation.", "Spitfires used in the theater operated at heights around , while the P-40's Allison engine, with its single-stage, low altitude rated supercharger, worked best at or lower.", "When the Tomahawk was used by Allied units based in the UK from February 1941, this limitation relegated the Tomahawk to low-level reconnaissance with RAF Army Cooperation Commandand only No.", "403 Squadron RCAF was used in the fighter role for a mere 29 sorties, before being replaced by Spitfires.", "Air Ministry deemed the P-40 unsuitable for the theater.", "UK P-40 squadrons A Kittyhawk Mk III of No.", "112 Squadron RAF, taxiing at Medenine, Tunisia, in 1943.The ground crewman on the wing is directing the pilot, whose forward view is hindered by the aircraft's nose.The Tomahawk was superseded in North Africa by the more powerful Kittyhawk (\"D\"-mark onwards) types from early 1942, though some Tomahawks remained in service until 1943.Kittyhawks included many improvements and were the DAF's air superiority fighter for the critical first few months of 1942, until \"tropicalised\" Supermarine Spitfires were available.", "DAF units received nearly 330 Packard V-1650 Merlin-powered P-40Fs, called Kittyhawk IIs, most of which went to the USAAF and the majority of the 700 \"lightweight\" L models, also powered by the Packard Merlin, in which the armament was reduced to four .50 in (12.7 mm) Brownings (Kittyhawk IIA).", "The DAF also received some 21 of the later P-40K and the majority of the 600 P-40Ms built; these were known as Kittyhawk IIIs.", "The \"lightweight\" P-40Ns (Kittyhawk IV) arrived from early 1943 and were used mostly as fighter-bombers.", "From July 1942 until mid-1943, elements of the U.S. 57th Fighter Group (57th FG) were attached to DAF P-40 units.", "The British government also donated 23 P-40s to the Soviet Union.====Combat performance====Tomahawks and Kittyhawks bore the brunt of ''Luftwaffe'' and ''Regia Aeronautica'' fighter attacks during the North African campaign.", "The P-40s were considered superior to the Hurricane, which they replaced as the primary fighter of the Desert Air Force.", "The P-40 initially proved quite effective against Axis aircraft and contributed to a slight shift of advantage in the Allies' favor.", "The gradual replacement of Hurricanes by the Tomahawks and Kittyhawks led to the ''Luftwaffe'' accelerating retirement of the Bf 109E and introducing the newer Bf 109F; these were to be flown by the veteran pilots of elite ''Luftwaffe'' units, such as ''Jagdgeschwader'' 27 (JG27), in North Africa.", "The P-40 was generally considered roughly equal or slightly superior to the Bf 109 at low altitude but inferior at high altitude, particularly against the Bf 109F.", "Most air combat in North Africa took place well below , negating much of the Bf 109's superiority.", "The P-40 usually had an advantage over the Bf 109 in turning, dive speed and structural strength, was roughly equal in firepower but was slightly inferior in speed and outclassed in rate of climb and operational ceiling.The P-40 was generally superior to early Italian fighter types, such as the Fiat G.50 Freccia and the Macchi C.200.Its performance against the Macchi C.202 ''Folgore'' elicited varying opinions.", "Some observers consider the Macchi C.202 superior.", "Caldwell, who scored victories against them in his P-40, felt that the ''Folgore'' was superior to the P-40 and the Bf 109 except that its armament of only two or four machine guns was inadequate.", "Other observers considered the two equally matched or favored the ''Folgore'' in aerobatic performance, such as turning radius.", "The aviation historian Walter J. Boyne wrote that over Africa, the P-40 and the ''Folgore'' were \"equivalent\".", "Against its lack of high-altitude performance, the P-40 was considered to be a stable gun platform and its rugged construction meant that it was able to operate from rough front line airstrips with a good rate of serviceability.The earliest victory claims by P-40 pilots include Vichy French aircraft, during the 1941 Syria-Lebanon campaign, against Dewoitine D.520s, a type often considered to be the best French fighter of the war.", "The P-40 was deadly against Axis bombers in the theater, as well as against the Bf 110 twin-engine fighter.", "In June 1941, Caldwell, of 250 Squadron in Egypt, flying as flying Officer (F/O) Jack Hamlyn's wingman, recorded in his log book that he was involved in the first air combat victory for the P-40.This was a CANT Z.1007 bomber on 6 June.", "The claim was not officially recognized, as the crash of the CANT was not witnessed.", "The first official victory occurred on 8 June, when Hamlyn and Flight Sergeant (Flt Sgt) Tom Paxton destroyed a CANT Z.1007 from ''211a Squadriglia'' of the ''Regia Aeronautica'', over Alexandria.", "Several days later, the Tomahawk was in action over Syria with No.", "3 Squadron RAAF, which claimed 19 aerial victories over Vichy French aircraft during June and July 1941, for the loss of one P-40 (and one lost to ground fire).North Africa, .", "A P-40 \"Kittybomber\" of No.", "450 Squadron RAAF, loaded with six bombs.Some DAF units initially failed to use the P-40's strengths or used outdated defensive tactics such as the Lufbery circle.", "The superior climb rate of the Bf 109 enabled fast, swooping attacks, neutralizing the advantages offered by conventional defensive tactics.", "Various new formations were tried by Tomahawk units from 1941 to 1942, including \"fluid pairs\" (similar to the German ''rotte''); the Thach Weave (one or two \"weavers\") at the back of a squadron in formation and whole squadrons bobbing and weaving in loose formations.", "Werner Schröer, who was credited with destroying 114 Allied aircraft in only 197 combat missions, referred to the latter formation as \"bunches of grapes\", because he found them so easy to pick off.", "The leading German ''expert'' in North Africa, Hans-Joachim Marseille, claimed as many as 101 P-40s during his career.From 26 May 1942, Kittyhawk units operated primarily as fighter-bomber units, giving rise to the nickname \"Kittybomber\".", "As a result of this change in role and because DAF P-40 squadrons were frequently used in bomber escort and close air support missions, they suffered relatively high losses; many Desert Air Force P-40 pilots were caught flying low and slow by marauding Bf 109s.+Victory claims and losses for three Tomahawk/Kittyhawk squadrons of the Desert Air Force, June 1941 – May 1943.Unit 3 Sqn RAAF 112 Sqn RAF 450 Sqn RAAF* Claims with Tomahawks 41 36 – Claims with Kittyhawks 74.5 82.5 49 Total P-40 claims 115.5 118.5 49 P-40 losses (total) 34 38 28 Began conversion to P-40s in December 1941; operational in February 1942.Caldwell believed that Operational Training Units did not properly prepare pilots for air combat in the P-40 and as a commander, stressed the importance of training novice pilots properly.Competent pilots who took advantage of the P-40's strengths were effective against the best of the ''Luftwaffe'' and ''Regia Aeronautica''.", "In August 1941, Caldwell was attacked by two Bf 109s, one of them piloted by German ace Werner Schröer.", "Although Caldwell was wounded three times and his Tomahawk was hit by more than 100 bullets and five 20 mm cannon shells, Caldwell shot down Schröer's wingman and returned to base.", "Some sources also claim that in December 1941, Caldwell killed a prominent German ''Experte'', Erbo von Kageneck (69 kills), while flying a P-40.Caldwell's victories in North Africa included 10 Bf 109s and two Macchi C.202s.", "Billy Drake of 112 Squadron was the leading British P-40 ace with 13 victories.", "James \"Stocky\" Edwards (RCAF), who achieved 12 kills in the P-40 in North Africa, shot down German ace Otto Schulz (51 kills) while flying a Kittyhawk with No.", "260 Squadron RAF.", "Caldwell, Drake, Edwards and Nicky Barr were among at least a dozen pilots who achieved ace status twice over while flying the P-40.A total of 46 British Commonwealth pilots became aces in P-40s, including seven double aces.===Chinese Air Force=======Flying Tigers (American Volunteer Group)====3rd Squadron Hell's Angels, Flying Tigers over China, photographed in 1942 by AVG pilot Robert T. Smith.", "The Flying Tigers, known officially as the 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG), were a unit of the Chinese Air Force, recruited from amongst U.S. Navy, Marine Corps and Army aviators and ground crew.AVG leader Claire Chennault received crated Model Bs which his airmen assembled in Burma at the end of 1941, adding self-sealing fuel tanks and a second pair of wing guns, such that the aircraft became a hybrid of B and C models.", "These were not well-liked by their pilots: they lacked drop tanks for extra range, and there were no bomb racks on the wings.", "Chennault considered the liquid-cooled engine vulnerable in combat because a single bullet through the coolant system would cause the engine to overheat in minutes.", "The Tomahawks also had no radios, so the AVG improvised by installing a fragile radio transceiver, the RCA-7-H, which had been built for a Piper Cub.", "Because the plane had a single-stage low-altitude supercharger, its effective ceiling was about .", "The most critical problem was the lack of spare parts; the only source was from damaged aircraft.", "The planes were viewed as cast-offs that no one else wanted, dangerous and difficult to fly.", "But the pilots did appreciate some of the planes' features.", "There were two heavy sheets of steel behind the pilot's head and back that offered solid protection, and overall the planes were ruggedly constructed.Compared to opposing Japanese fighters, the P-40B's strengths were that it was sturdy, well armed, faster in a dive and possessed an excellent rate of roll.", "While the P-40s could not match the maneuverability of the Japanese Army air arm's Nakajima Ki-27s and Ki-43s, nor the much more famous Zero naval fighter in slow, turning dogfights, at higher speeds the P-40s were more than a match.", "Chennault trained his pilots to use the P-40's particular performance advantages.", "The P-40 had a higher dive speed than any Japanese fighter aircraft of the early war years, for example, and could exploit so-called \"boom-and-zoom\" tactics.", "The AVG was highly successful, and its feats were widely publicized by an active cadre of international journalists to boost sagging public morale at home.", "According to its official records, in just months, the Flying Tigers destroyed 297 enemy aircraft for the loss of just four of its own in air-to-air combat.In the spring of 1942, the AVG received a small number of Model E's.", "Each came equipped with a radio, six .50-caliber machine guns, and auxiliary bomb racks that could hold 35-lb fragmentation bombs.", "Chennault's armorer added bomb racks for 570-lb Russian bombs, which the Chinese had in abundance.", "These planes were used in the battle of the Salween River Gorge in late May 1942, which kept the Japanese from entering China from Burma and threatening Kunming.", "Spare parts, however, remained in short supply.", "\"Scores of new planes...were now in India, and there they stayed—in case the Japanese decided to invade... the AVG was lucky to get a few tires and spark plugs with which to carry on its daily war.", "\"====4th Air Group====China received 27 P-40E models in early 1943.These were assigned to squadrons of the 4th Air Group.===United States Army Air Forces===P-40K 42–10256 in Aleutian \"Tiger\" markings.Pearl Harbor attack.Junichi Sasai and a captured P-40B in the Dutch East Indies, 1942A total of 15 USAAF pursuit/fighter groups (FG), along with other pursuit/fighter squadrons and a few tactical reconnaissance (TR) units, operated the P-40 during 1941–45.As was also the case with the Bell P-39 Airacobra, many USAAF officers considered the P-40 exceptional but it was gradually replaced by the Lockheed P-38 Lightning, the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and the North American P-51 Mustang.", "The bulk of the fighter operations by the USAAF in 1942–43 were borne by the P-40 and the P-39.In the Pacific, these two fighters, along with the U.S. Navy Grumman F4F Wildcat, contributed more than any other U.S. types to breaking Japanese air power during this critical period.====Pacific theaters====Jack Bade, 44th FS, at the time part of AirSols, on GuadalcanalThe P-40 was the main USAAF fighter aircraft in the South West Pacific and Pacific Ocean theaters during 1941–42.At Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines, USAAF P-40 squadrons suffered crippling losses on the ground and in the air to Japanese fighters such as the A6M Zero and Ki-43 Hayabusa respectively.", "During the attack on Pearl Harbor, most of the USAAF fighters were P-40Bs, the majority of which were destroyed.", "However, a few P-40s managed to get in the air and shoot down several Japanese aircraft, most notably by George Welch and Kenneth Taylor.In the Dutch East Indies campaign, the 17th Pursuit Squadron (Provisional), formed from USAAF pilots evacuated from the Philippines, claimed 49 Japanese aircraft destroyed, for the loss of 17 P-40s The seaplane tender USS ''Langley'' was sunk by Japanese airplanes while delivering P-40s to Tjilatjap, Java.", "In the Solomon Islands and New Guinea Campaigns and the air defence of Australia, improved tactics and training allowed the USAAF to better use the strengths of the P-40.Due to aircraft fatigue, scarcity of spare parts and replacement problems, the US Fifth Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force created a joint P-40 management and replacement pool on 30 July 1942 and many P-40s went back and forth between the air forces.The 49th Fighter Group was in action in the Pacific from the beginning of the war.", "Robert M. DeHaven scored 10 kills (of 14 overall) in the P-40 with the 49th FG.", "He compared the P-40 favorably with the P-38::\"If you flew wisely, the P-40 was a very capable aircraft.", "It could outturn a P-38, a fact that some pilots didn't realize when they made the transition between the two aircraft.", "...", "The real problem with it was lack of range.", "As we pushed the Japanese back, P-40 pilots were slowly left out of the war.", "So when I moved to P-38s, an excellent aircraft, I did not believe that the P-40 was an inferior fighter, but because I knew the P-38 would allow us to reach the enemy.", "I was a fighter pilot and that was what I was supposed to do.", "\"The 8th, 15th, 18th, 24th, 49th, 343rd and 347th PGs/FGs, flew P-40s in the Pacific theaters between 1941 and 1945, with most units converting to P-38s from 1943 to 1944.In 1945, the 71st Reconnaissance Group employed them as armed forward air controllers during ground operations in the Philippines, until it received delivery of P-51s.", "They claimed 655 aerial victories.Contrary to conventional wisdom, with sufficient altitude, the P-40 could turn with the A6M and other Japanese fighters, using a combination of a nose-down vertical turn with a bank turn, a technique known as a low yo-yo.", "Robert DeHaven describes how this tactic was used in the 49th Fighter group::You could fight a Jap on even terms, but you had to make him fight your way.", "He could outturn you at slow speed.", "You could outturn him at high speed.", "When you got into a turning fight with him, you dropped your nose down so you kept your airspeed up, you could outturn him.", "At low speed he could outroll you because of those big ailerons ... on the Zero.", "If your speed was up over 275, you could outroll a Zero.", "His big ailerons didn't have the strength to make high speed rolls... You could push things, too.", "Because ... if you decided to go home, you could go home.", "He couldn't because you could outrun him.", "... That left you in control of the fight.====China Burma India Theater====USAAF and Chinese P-40 pilots performed well in this theater against many Japanese types such as the Ki-43, Nakajima Ki-44 \"Tojo\" and the Zero.", "The P-40 remained in use in the China Burma India Theater (CBI) until 1944 and was reportedly preferred over the P-51 Mustang by some US pilots flying in China.", "The American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers) was integrated into the USAAF as the 23rd Fighter Group in June 1942.The unit continued to fly newer model P-40s until 1944, achieving a high kill-to-loss ratio.In the Battle of the Salween River Gorge of May 1942 the AVG used the P-40E model equipped with wing racks that could carry six 35-pound fragmentation bombs and Chennault's armorer developed belly racks to carry Russian 570-pound bombs, which the Chinese had in large quantity.Units arriving in the CBI after the AVG in the 10th and 14th Air Forces continued to perform well with the P-40, claiming 973 kills in the theater, or 64.8 percent of all enemy aircraft shot down.", "Aviation historian Carl Molesworth stated that \"...the P-40 simply dominated the skies over Burma and China.", "They were able to establish air superiority over free China, northern Burma and the Assam valley of India in 1942, and they never relinquished it.\"", "The 3rd, 5th, 51st and 80th FGs, along with the 10th TRS, operated the P-40 in the CBI.", "CBI P-40 pilots used the aircraft very effectively as a fighter-bomber.", "The 80th Fighter Group in particular used its so-called ''B-40'' (P-40s carrying 1,000-pound high-explosive bombs) to destroy bridges and kill bridge repair crews, sometimes demolishing their target with one bomb.", "At least 40 U.S. pilots reached ace status while flying the P-40 in the CBI.====Europe and Mediterranean theaters====Top to bottom: P-40L, P-40F, and P-40K WarhawkOn 14 August 1942, the first confirmed victory by a USAAF unit over a German aircraft in World War II was initiated by a P-40C pilot.", "2nd Lt Joseph D. Shaffer, of the 33rd Fighter Squadron, intercepted a Focke-Wulf Fw 200C-3 maritime patrol aircraft that overflew his base at Reykjavík, Iceland.", "Shaffer damaged the Fw 200, which was finished off by a P-38F.", "Warhawks were used extensively in the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II by USAAF units, including the 33rd, 57th, 58th, 79th, 324th and 325th Fighter Groups.", "While the P-40 suffered heavy losses in the MTO, many USAAF P-40 units achieved high kill-to-loss ratios against Axis aircraft; the 324th FG scored better than a 2:1 ratio in the MTO.", "In all, 23 U.S. pilots became aces in the MTO on the P-40, most of them during the first half of 1943.P-40 pilots from the 57th FG were the first USAAF fliers to see action in the MTO, while attached to Desert Air Force Kittyhawk squadrons, from July 1942.The 57th was also the main unit involved in the \"Palm Sunday Massacre\", on 18 April 1943.Decoded Ultra signals revealed a plan for a large formation of Junkers Ju 52 transports to cross the Mediterranean, escorted by German and Italian fighters.", "Between 1630 and 1830 hours, all wings of the group were engaged in an intensive effort against the enemy air transports.", "Of the four Kittyhawk wings, three had left the patrol area before a convoy of a 100+ enemy transports were sighted by 57th FG, which tallied 74 aircraft destroyed.", "The group was last in the area, and intercepted the Ju 52s escorted by large numbers of Bf 109s, Bf 110s and Macchi C.202s.", "The group claimed 58 Ju 52s, 14 Bf 109s and two Bf 110s destroyed, with several probables and damaged.", "Between 20 and 40 of the Axis aircraft landed on the beaches around Cap Bon to avoid being shot down; six Allied fighters were lost, five of them P-40s.On 22 April, in Operation Flax, a similar force of P-40s attacked a formation of 14 Messerschmitt Me 323 ''Gigant'' (\"Giant\") six-engine transports, covered by seven Bf 109s from II./JG 27.All the transports were shot down, for a loss of three P-40s.", "The 57th FG was equipped with the Curtiss fighter until early 1944, during which time they were credited with at least 140 air-to-air kills.", "On 23 February 1943, during Operation Torch, the pilots of the 58th FG flew 75 P-40Ls off the aircraft carrier to the newly captured Vichy French airfield, Cazas, near Casablanca, in French Morocco.", "The aircraft supplied the 33rd FG and the pilots were reassigned.The 325th FG (known as the \"Checkertail Clan\") flew P-40s in the MTO and was credited with at least 133 air-to-air kills from April–October 1943, of which 95 were Bf 109s and 26 were Macchi C.202s, for the loss of 17 P-40s in combat.", "The 325th FG historian Carol Cathcart wrote:Cathcart wrote that Lt. Robert Sederberg assisted a comrade being attacked by five Bf 109s, destroyed at least one German aircraft, and may have shot down as many as five.", "Sederberg was shot down and became a prisoner of war.A famous African-American unit, the 99th FS, better known as the \"Tuskegee Airmen\" or \"Redtails\", flew P-40s in stateside training and for their initial eight months in the MTO.", "On 9 June 1943, they became the first African-American fighter pilots to engage enemy aircraft, over Pantelleria, Italy.", "A single Focke-Wulf Fw 190 was reported damaged by Lieutenant Willie Ashley Jr. On 2 July the squadron claimed its first verified kill; a Fw 190 destroyed by Captain Charles Hall.", "The 99th continued to score with P-40s until February 1944, when they were assigned P-39s and P-51 Mustangs.The much-lightened P-40L was most heavily used in the MTO, primarily by U.S. pilots.", "Many US pilots stripped down their P-40s even further to improve performance, often removing two or more of the wing guns to improve the roll rate.===Royal Australian Air Force===Keith \"Bluey\" Truscott, commander of No.", "76 Squadron RAAF, taxis along Marston Matting at Milne Bay, New Guinea in September 1942P-40N-15 \"Black Magic\", No.", "78 Squadron RAAF F/L Denis Baker scored the RAAF's last aerial victory over New Guinea in this fighter on 10 June 1944.It was later flown by W/O Len Waters.", "Note the dark blue tip on the tailfin used to identify 78 Squadron.The Kittyhawk was the main fighter used by the RAAF in World War II, in greater numbers than the Spitfire.", "Two RAAF squadrons serving with the Desert Air Force, No.", "3 and No.", "450 Squadrons, were the first Australian units to be assigned P-40s.", "Other RAAF pilots served with RAF or SAAF P-40 squadrons in the theater.Many RAAF pilots achieved high scores in the P-40.At least five reached \"double ace\" status: Clive Caldwell, Nicky Barr, John Waddy, Bob Whittle (11 kills each) and Bobby Gibbes (10 kills) in the Middle East, North African and/or New Guinea campaigns.", "In all, 18 RAAF pilots became aces while flying P-40s.Nicky Barr, like many Australian pilots, considered the P-40 a reliable mount: \"The Kittyhawk became, to me, a friend.", "It was quite capable of getting you out of trouble more often than not.", "It was a real warhorse.", "\"At the same time as the heaviest fighting in North Africa, the Pacific War was also in its early stages, and RAAF units in Australia were completely lacking in suitable fighter aircraft.", "Spitfire production was being absorbed by the war in Europe; P-38s were trialled, but were difficult to obtain; Mustangs had not yet reached squadrons anywhere, and Australia's tiny and inexperienced aircraft industry was geared towards larger aircraft.", "USAAF P-40s and their pilots originally intended for the U.S. Far East Air Force in the Philippines, but diverted to Australia as a result of Japanese naval activity were the first suitable fighter aircraft to arrive in substantial numbers.", "By mid-1942, the RAAF was able to obtain some USAAF replacement shipments.RAAF Kittyhawks played a crucial role in the South West Pacific theater.", "They fought on the front line as fighters during the critical early years of the Pacific War, and the durability and bomb-carrying abilities (1,000 lb/454 kg) of the P-40 also made it ideal for the ground attack role.", "During the Battle of Port Moresby RAAF 75 destroyed or damaged some 33 Japanese aircraft of various types.", "With another 30 probables.", "General Henry H. Arnold said of No 75 squadron: \"Victory in the entire air war against Japan can be traced back to the actions which took place from that dusty strip at Port Moresby in early 1942.\"", "For example, 75, and 76 Squadrons played a critical role during the Battle of Milne Bay, fending off Japanese aircraft and providing effective close air support for the Australian infantry, negating the initial Japanese advantage in light tanks and sea power.", "The Kittyhawks fired \"nearly 200,000 rounds of half-inch ammunition\" during the course of the battle.The RAAF units that most used Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific were 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82, 84 and 86 Squadrons.", "These squadrons saw action mostly in the New Guinea and Borneo campaigns.Late in 1945, RAAF fighter squadrons in the South West Pacific began converting to P-51Ds.", "However, Kittyhawks were in use with the RAAF until the end of the war, in Borneo.", "In all, the RAAF acquired 841 Kittyhawks (not counting the British-ordered examples used in North Africa), including 163 P-40E, 42 P-40K, 90 P-40 M and 553 P-40N models.", "In addition, the RAAF ordered 67 Kittyhawks for use by No.", "120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron (a joint Australian-Dutch unit in the South West Pacific).", "The P-40 was retired by the RAAF in 1947.===Royal Canadian Air Force===Sea Island in 1943.A total of 13 Royal Canadian Air Force units operated the P-40 in the North West European or Alaskan theaters.In mid-May 1940, Canadian and US officers watched comparative tests of a XP-40 and a Spitfire, at RCAF Uplands, Ottawa.", "While the Spitfire was considered to have performed better, it was not available for use in Canada and the P-40 was ordered to meet home air defense requirements.", "In all, eight Home War Establishment Squadrons were equipped with the Kittyhawk: 72 Kittyhawk I, 12 Kittyhawk Ia, 15 Kittyhawk III and 35 Kittyhawk IV aircraft, for a total of 134 aircraft.", "These aircraft were mostly diverted from RAF Lend-Lease orders for service in Canada.", "The P-40 Kittyhawks were obtained in lieu of 144 P-39 Airacobras originally allocated to Canada but reassigned to the RAF.However, before any home units received the P-40, three RCAF Article XV squadrons operated Tomahawk aircraft from bases in the United Kingdom.", "No.", "403 Squadron RCAF, a fighter unit, used the Tomahawk Mk II briefly before converting to Spitfires.", "Two Army Co-operation (close air support) squadrons: 400 and 414 Sqns trained with Tomahawks, before converting to Mustang Mk.", "I aircraft and a fighter/reconnaissance role.", "Of these, only No.", "400 Squadron used Tomahawks operationally, conducting a number of armed sweeps over France in the late 1941.RCAF pilots also flew Tomahawks or Kittyhawks with other British Commonwealth units based in North Africa, the Mediterranean, South East Asia and (in at least one case) the South West Pacific.In 1942, the Imperial Japanese Navy occupied two islands, Attu and Kiska, in the Aleutians, off Alaska.", "RCAF home defense P-40 squadrons saw combat over the Aleutians, assisting the USAAF.", "The RCAF initially sent 111 Squadron, flying the Kittyhawk I, to the US base on Adak island.", "During the drawn-out campaign, 12 Canadian Kittyhawks operated on a rotational basis from a new, more advanced base on Amchitka, southeast of Kiska.", "14 and 111 Sqns took \"turn-about\" at the base.", "During a major attack on Japanese positions at Kiska on 25 September 1942, Squadron Leader Ken Boomer shot down a Nakajima A6M2-N (\"Rufe\") seaplane.", "The RCAF also purchased 12 P-40Ks directly from the USAAF while in the Aleutians.", "After the Japanese threat diminished, these two RCAF squadrons returned to Canada and eventually transferred to England without their Kittyhawks.In January 1943, a further Article XV unit, 430 Squadron was formed at RAF Hartford Bridge, England and trained on obsolete Tomahawk IIA.", "The squadron converted to the Mustang I before commencing operations in mid-1943.In early 1945 pilots from No.", "133 Squadron RCAF, operating the P-40N out of RCAF Patricia Bay, (Victoria, British Columbia), intercepted and destroyed two Japanese balloon-bombs, which were designed to cause wildfires on the North American mainland.", "On 21 February, Pilot Officer E. E. Maxwell shot down a balloon, which landed on Sumas Mountain in Washington State.", "On 10 March, Pilot Officer J.", "0.Patten destroyed a balloon near Saltspring Island, British Columbia.", "The last interception took place on 20 April 1945 when Pilot Officer P.V.", "Brodeur from 135 Squadron out of Abbotsford, British Columbia shot down a balloon over Vedder Mountain.The RCAF units that operated P-40s were, in order of conversion: *Article XV squadrons serving in the UK under direct command and control of the RAF, with RAF owned aircraft.", "**403 Squadron (Tomahawk IIA and IIB, March 1941) **400 Squadron (Tomahawk I, IIA and IIB, April 1941 – September 1942) **414 Squadron (Tomahawk I, IIA and IIB, August 1941 – September 1942)**430 Squadron (Tomahawk IIA and IIB, January 1943 – February 1943) * Operational Squadrons of the Home War Establishment (HWE) (Based in Canada)**111 Squadron (Kittyhawk I, IV, November 1941 – December 1943 and P-40K, September 1942 – July 1943), **118 Squadron (Kittyhawk I, November 1941 – October 1943), **14 Squadron (Kittyhawk I, January 1942 – September 1943), **132 Squadron (Kittyhawk IA & III, April 1942 – September 1944), **130 Squadron (Kittyhawk I, May 1942 – October 1942), **163 Squadron (Kittyhawk I & III, October 1943 – March 1944), **133 Squadron (Kittyhawk I, March 1944 – July 1945) and **135 Squadron (Kittyhawk IV, May 1944 – September 1945).===Royal New Zealand Air Force===Geoff Fisken in front of his P-40, ''Wairarapa Wildcat'' (''NZ3072/19'')Some Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) pilots and New Zealanders in other air forces flew British P-40s while serving with DAF squadrons in North Africa and Italy, including the ace Jerry Westenra.A total of 301 P-40s were allocated to the RNZAF under Lend-Lease, for use in the Pacific Theater, although four of these were lost in transit.", "The aircraft equipped 14 Squadron, 15 Squadron, 16 Squadron, 17 Squadron, 18 Squadron, 19 Squadron and 20 Squadron.RNZAF P-40 squadrons were successful in air combat against the Japanese between 1942 and 1944.Their pilots claimed 100 aerial victories in P-40s, whilst losing 20 aircraft in combat Geoff Fisken, the highest scoring British Commonwealth ace in the Pacific, flew P-40s with 15 Squadron, although half of his victories were claimed with the Brewster Buffalo.The overwhelming majority of RNZAF P-40 victories were scored against Japanese fighters, mostly Zeroes.", "Other victories included Aichi D3A \"Val\" dive bombers.", "The only confirmed twin engine claim, a Ki-21 \"Sally\" (misidentified as a G4M \"Betty\") fell to Fisken in July 1943.From late 1943 and 1944, RNZAF P-40s were increasingly used against ground targets, including the innovative use of naval depth charges as improvised high-capacity bombs.", "The last front line RNZAF P-40s were replaced by Vought F4U Corsairs in 1944.The P-40s were relegated to use as advanced pilot trainers.The remaining RNZAF P-40s, excluding the 20 shot down and 154 written off, were mostly scrapped at Rukuhia in 1948.===Soviet Union===Assembly of P-40s for Russia, somewhere in Iran, 1943The Soviet ''Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily'' (VVS; \"Military Air Forces\") and ''Morskaya Aviatsiya'' (MA; \"Naval Air Service\") also referred to P-40s as \"Tomahawks\" and \"Kittyhawks\".", "In fact, the Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk / Kittyhawk was the first Allied fighter supplied to the USSR under the Lend-Lease agreement.The USSR received 247 P-40B/Cs (equivalent to the Tomahawk IIA/B in RAF service) and 2,178 P-40E, -K, -L, and -N models between 1941 and 1944.The Tomahawks were shipped from Great Britain and directly from the US, many of them arriving incomplete, lacking machine guns and even the lower half of the engine cowling.", "In late September 1941, the first 48 P-40s were assembled and checked in the USSR.", "Test flights showed some manufacturing defects: generator and oil pump gears and generator shafts failed repeatedly, which led to emergency landings.", "The test report indicated that the Tomahawk was inferior to Soviet \"M-105P-powered production fighters in speed and rate of climb.", "However, it had good short field performance, horizontal maneuverability, range, and endurance.\"", "Nevertheless, Tomahawks and Kittyhawks were used against the Germans.", "The 126th Fighter Aviation Regiment (IAP), fighting on the Western and Kalinin Fronts, were the first unit to receive the P-40.The regiment entered action on 12 October 1941.By 15 November 1941, the regiment had shot down 17 German aircraft.", "However, Lt (SG) Smirnov noted that the P-40 armament was sufficient for strafing enemy lines but rather ineffective in aerial combat.", "Another pilot, Stephan Ridny (a Hero of the Soviet Union), remarked that he had to shoot half the ammunition at 50–100 meters (165–340 ft) to shoot down an enemy aircraft.Hawk 81A-3/Tomahawk IIb ''AK255'', at the U.S. National Museum of Naval Aviation, is shown in the colors of the Flying Tigers, but never actually served with them; it began life with the RAF and was later transferred to the Soviet UnionIn January 1942, some 198 aircraft sorties were flown (334 flying hours) and 11 aerial engagements were conducted, in which five Bf 109s, one Ju 88, and one He 111 were downed.", "These statistics reveal a surprising fact: it turns out that the Tomahawk was fully capable of successful air combat with a Bf 109.The reports of pilots about the circumstances of the engagements confirm this fact.", "On 18 January 1942, Lieutenants S. V. Levin and I. P. Levsha (in pair) fought an engagement with seven Bf 109s and shot down two of them without loss.", "On 22 January, a flight of three aircraft led by Lieutenant E. E. Lozov engaged 13 enemy aircraft and shot down two Bf 109Es, again without loss.", "Altogether, in January, two Tomahawks were lost; one downed by German anti-aircraft artillery and one lost to Messerschmitts.The Soviets stripped down their P-40s significantly for combat, in many cases removing the wing guns altogether in P-40B/C types, for example.", "Soviet Air Force reports state that they liked the range and fuel capacity of the P-40, which were superior to most of the Soviet fighters, though they still preferred the P-39.Soviet pilot Nikolai G. Golodnikov recalled: \"The cockpit was vast and high.", "At first it felt unpleasant to sit waist-high in glass, as the edge of the fuselage was almost at waist level.", "But the bullet-proof glass and armored seat were strong and visibility was good.", "The radio was also good.", "It was powerful, reliable, but only on HF (high frequency).", "The American radios did not have hand microphones but throat microphones.", "These were good throat mikes: small, light and comfortable.\"", "The biggest complaint of some Soviet airmen was its poor climb rate and problems with maintenance, especially with burning out the engines.", "VVS pilots usually flew the P-40 at War Emergency Power settings while in combat, which brought acceleration and speed performance closer to that of their German rivals, but could burn out engines in a matter of weeks.", "Tires and batteries also failed.", "The fluid in the engine's radiators often froze, cracking their cores, which made the Allison engine unsuitable for operations during harsh winter conditions.", "During the winter of 1941, the 126th Fighter Aviation Regiment suffered from cracked radiators on 38 occasions.", "Often, entire regiments were reduced to a single flyable aircraft because no replacement parts were available.", "They also had difficulty with the more demanding requirements for fuel and oil quality of the Allison engines.", "A fair number of burned-out P-40s were re-engined with Soviet Klimov M-105 engines, but these performed relatively poorly and were relegated to rear area use.The P-40 saw the most front line use in Soviet hands in 1942 and early 1943.Deliveries over the Alaska-Siberia ALSIB ferry route began in October 1942.It was used in the northern sectors and played a significant role in the defense of Leningrad.", "The most numerically important types were P-40B/C, P-40E and P-40K/M.", "By the time the better P-40F and N types became available, production of superior Soviet fighters had increased sufficiently so that the P-40 was replaced in most Soviet Air Force units by the Lavochkin La-5 and various later Yakovlev types.", "In spring 1943, Lt D.I.", "Koval of the 45th IAP gained ace status on the North Caucasian front, shooting down six German aircraft flying a P-40.Some Soviet P-40 squadrons had good combat records.", "Some Soviet pilots became aces on the P-40, though not as many as on the P-39 Airacobra, the most numerous Lend-Lease fighter used by the Soviet Union.", "However, Soviet commanders thought the Kittyhawk significantly outclassed the Hurricane, although it was \"not in the same league as the Yak-1\".===Japan===The Japanese Army captured some P-40s and later operated a number in Burma.", "The Japanese appear to have had as many as 10 flyable P-40Es.", "For a brief period in 1943, a few of them were used operationally by 2 ''Hiko Chutai'', 50 ''Hiko Sentai'' (2nd Air Squadron, 50th Air Regiment) in the defense of Rangoon.", "Testimony of this is given by Yasuhiko Kuroe, a member of the 64 ''Hiko Sentai''.", "In his memoirs, he says one Japanese-operated P-40 was shot down in error by a friendly Mitsubishi Ki-21 \"Sally\" over Rangoon.===Other nations===P-40 Warhawk at Campo Dos AfonsosThe P-40 was used by over two dozen countries during and after the war.", "The P-40 was used by Brazil, Egypt, Finland and Turkey.", "The last P-40s in military service, used by the Brazilian Air Force (FAB), were retired in 1954.In the air war over Finland, several Soviet P-40s were shot down or had to crash-land due to other reasons.", "The Finns, short of good aircraft, collected these and managed to repair one P-40M, P-40M-10-CU 43–5925, ''white 23'', which received Finnish Air Force serial number KH-51 (KH denoting \"Kittyhawk\", as the British designation of this type was Kittyhawk III).", "This aircraft was attached to an operational squadron HLeLv 32 of the Finnish Air Force, but lack of spares kept it on the ground, with the exception of a few evaluation flights.Several P-40Ns were used by the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force with No.", "120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF against the Japanese before being used during the fighting in Indonesia until February 1949." ], [ "Variants and development stages", "A USAAF Curtiss P-40K-10-CU, serial number 42-9985, ;XP-40:The original Curtiss XP-40, ordered July 1937, was converted from the 10th P-36A by replacing the radial engine with a new Allison V-1710-19 engine.", "It flew for the first time in October 1938.This new liquid-cooled engine fighter had a radiator mounted under the rear fuselagebut the prototype XP-40 was later modified and the radiator was moved forward under the engine.", ";P-40:The P-40 (Curtiss Model 81A-1) was the first production variant, 199 built.", ";P-40A:One P-40 was modified with a camera installation in the rear fuselage and re-designated P-40A.", "*Revised versions of the P-40 soon followed: the '''P-40B''' or '''Tomahawk IIA''' had extra .30 in (7.62 mm) U.S., or .303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns in the wings and a partially protected fuel system; the '''P-40C''' or '''Tomahawk IIB''' added underbelly drop tank and bomb shackles, self-sealing fuel tanks and other minor revisions, but the extra weight did have a negative impact on aircraft performance.", "(All versions of the P-40 had a relatively low power-to-weight ratio compared to contemporary fighters.", ")*Only a small number of '''P-40D''' or '''Kittyhawk Mk I'''s were made, fewer than 50.With a new, larger Allison engine, slightly narrower fuselage, redesigned canopy, and improved cockpit, the P-40D eliminated the nose-mounted .50 in (12.7 mm) guns and instead had a pair of .50 in (12.7 mm) guns in each wing.", "The distinctive chin airscoop grew larger so they could adequately cool the large Allison engine.", "*Retrospective designation for a single prototype.", "The '''P-40A''' was a single camera-carrying aircraft.", "*The '''P-40E''' or '''P-40E-1''' was similar in most respects to the P-40D, except for a slightly more powerful engine and an extra .50 in (12.7 mm) gun in each wing, bringing the total to six.", "Some aircraft also had small underwing bomb shackles.", "Supplied to the Commonwealth air forces as the '''Kittyhawk Mk IA'''.", "The P-40E was the variant that bore the brunt of air-to-air combat by the type in the key period of early to mid 1942, for example with the first US squadrons to replace the AVG in China (the AVG was already transitioning to this type from the P-40B/C), the type used by the Australians at Milne Bay, by the New Zealand squadrons during most of their air-to-air combat, and by the RAF/Commonwealth in North Africa as the Kittyhawk IA.The Fighter Collection's P-40F G-CGZP, showing Merlin 500 engineIn the vicinity of Moore Field, Texas.", "The lead ship in a formation of P-40s is peeling off for the \"attack\" in a practice flight at the US Army Air Forces advanced flying school.", "Selected aviation cadets were given transition training in these fighters before receiving their pilot's wings, 1943.", "*'''P-40F''' and '''P-40L''', which both featured Packard V-1650 Merlin engine in place of the normal Allison, and thus did not have the carburetor scoop on top of the nose.", "Performance for these models at higher altitudes was better than their Allison-engined cousins.", "The L in some cases also featured a fillet in front of the vertical stabilizer, or a stretched fuselage to compensate for the higher torque.", "The P-40L was sometimes nicknamed \"Gypsy Rose Lee\", after a famous stripper of the era, due to its stripped-down condition.", "Supplied to the Commonwealth air forces under the designation '''Kittyhawk Mk II''', a total of 330 Mk IIs were supplied to the RAF under Lend-Lease.", "The first 230 aircraft are sometimes known as the '''Kittyhawk Mk IIA'''.", "The P-40F/L was extensively used by U.S. fighter groups operating in the Mediterranean Theater.", "*'''P-40G''' : 43 P-40 aircraft fitted with the wings of the Tomahawk Mk IIA.", "A total of 16 aircraft were supplied to the Soviet Union, and the rest to the US Army Air Forces.", "It was later redesignated '''RP-40G'''.", "*'''P-40K''', an Allison-engined P-40L, with the nose-top scoop retained and the Allison-configured nose radiators scoop, cowl flaps and vertical-stabilizer-to-fuselage fillet.", "Supplied to the Commonwealth air forces as the '''Kittyhawk Mk III''', it was widely used by US units in the CBI.", "*'''P-40M''', version generally similar to the P-40K, with a stretched fuselage like the P-40L and powered by an Allison V-1710-81 engine giving better performance at altitude (compared to previous Allison versions).", "It had some detail improvements and it was characterized by two small air scoops just before the exhaust pipes.", "Most of them were supplied to Allied countries (mainly UK and USSR), while some others remained in the US for advanced training.", "It was also supplied to the Commonwealth air forces as the '''Kittyhawk Mk.", "III'''.", "*'''P-40N''' (manufactured 1943–44), the final production model.", "The P-40N featured a stretched rear fuselage to counter the torque of the more powerful, late-war Allison engine, and the rear deck of the cockpit behind the pilot was cut down at a moderate slant to improve rearward visibility.", "A great deal of work was also done to try and eliminate excess weight to improve the Warhawk's climb rate.", "Early N production blocks dropped a .50 in (12.7 mm) gun from each wing, bringing the total back to four; later production blocks reintroduced it after complaints from units in the field.", "Supplied to Commonwealth air forces as the '''Kittyhawk Mk IV'''.", "A total of 553 P-40Ns were acquired by the Royal Australian Air Force, making it the variant most commonly used by the RAAF.", "Subvariants of the P-40N ranged widely in specialization from stripped down four-gun \"hot rods\" that could reach the highest top speeds of any production variant of the P-40 (up to 380 mph), to overweight types with all the extras intended for fighter-bombing or even training missions.", "The 15,000th P-40 was an N model decorated with the markings of 28 nations that had employed any of Curtiss-Wright's various aircraft products, not just P-40s.", "\"These spectacular markings gave rise to the erroneous belief that the P-40 series had been used by all 28 countries.\"", "Since the P-40N was by 1944 used mainly as a ground attack aircraft in Europe, it was nicknamed '''B-40''' by pilots.", "Survivors redesignated as ZF-40N in June 1948.Curtiss P-40N Warhawk \"Little Jeanne\" in flight*'''P-40P''' : The designation of 1,500 aircraft ordered with V-1650-1 engines, but actually built as the P-40N with V-1710-81 engines.", "*'''XP-40Q''' : Three P-40N modified with a 4-bladed prop, cut-down rear fuselage and bubble canopy, four guns, squared-off wingtips and tail surfaces, and improved engine with two-speed supercharger.", "Even with these changes, its performance was not enough of an improvement to merit production when compared to the contemporary late model '''P-47D'''s and '''P-51D'''s pouring off production lines.", "The XP-40Q was, however, the fastest of the P-40 series with a top speed of as a result of the introduction of a high-altitude supercharger gear.", "(No P-40 model with a single-speed supercharger could even approach )*'''P-40R''' : The designation of P-40F and P-40L aircraft, converted into training aircraft in 1944.", "*'''RP-40''' : Some American P-40s were converted into reconnaissance aircraft.", "*'''TP-40''' : Some P-40s were converted into two-seat trainers.", "*'''Twin P-40''' : A single photo exists of a P-40 mocked up with two Merlin engines, mounted atop the wings, over the main landing gear." ], [ "Operators", "Curtiss Kittyhawk Mk IA of 75 Squadron RAAF, which F/O Geoff Atherton flew over New Guinea in August 1942The only Finnish Warhawk in 1944.This aircraft was a former Soviet P-40M (known as Silver 23)A Soviet P-40B Warhawk in 1942;* Royal Australian Air Force;* Brazilian Air Force;* Royal Canadian Air Force;* Republic of China Air Force;* Royal Egyptian Air Force;* Finnish Air Force;* French Air Force;* Indonesian Air Force;*Japanese Army Air Force – Captured P-40s.", ";* Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force;: Royal New Zealand Air Force;* Polish Air Force;* South African Air Force;* Soviet Air Force* Soviet Naval Aviation;* Turkish Air Force;* Royal Air Force;* United States Army Air Corps* United States Army Air Forces" ], [ "Surviving aircraft", "A flyable Curtiss P-40N-5-CU Warhawk at Planes of Fame Air MuseumOn 11 May 2012, the remains of a crashed P-40 Kittyhawk (ET574) that had run out of fuel was found in the Egyptian Sahara desert.", "No trace of the pilot has been found to date.", "Due to the extreme arid conditions, little corrosion of the metal surfaces occurred.", "The conditions in which it was found are similar to those preferred for aircraft boneyards.", "An attempt has been made to bring back the Kittyhawk to Great Britain with the RAF Museum paying a salvage team with Supermarine Spitfire PK664 to recover the Kittyhawk.", "This turned out to be unsuccessful as the Kittyhawk is now being displayed outside at a military museum at El Alamein, having received a poor quality restoration, and PK664 being reported lost.Of the 13,738 P-40s built, only 28 remain airworthy, with three of them being converted to dual-controls/dual-seat configuration.", "Approximately 13 aircraft are on static display and another 36 airframes are under restoration for either display or flight." ], [ "Notable P-40 pilots", "Jackie Cochran in the cockpit of a P-40 fighter aircraft.", "She was head of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP).P-40N 44–7369*Nicky Barr: RAAF ace (11 victories); also a member of the Australia national rugby union team.", "*Gregory Boyington: AVG/US Marine Corps; later commanded USMC VMF-214, the \"Black Sheep Squadron\".", "*Clive Caldwell: RAAF, highest-scoring P-40 pilot from any air force (22 victories); highest-scoring Allied pilot in North Africa; Australia's highest-scoring ace in World War II (28.5 victories).", "*Levi R. Chase: USAAF; leading US P-40 ace in the Mediterranean theater, with 10 claims; CO 60th Fighter Squadron, 33rd Fighter Group; retired with the rank of Major General.", "*Claire Chennault: commander, 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG; better known as the \"Flying Tigers\"), Chinese Air Force.", "*Chikai Chou, the CO of the Chinese Air Force P-40E-equipped 23rd PS, 4th PG and ace who famously \"hijacked\" a USAAF P-66 at Liangshan Airbase as it was being raided by Imperial Japanese Army Air Service aircraft; he pursued the raiders shooting down two Kawasaki Ki-48 bombers, while 11 of his comrade's P-40Es were destroyed on the ground in that raid.", "*Daniel H. David: USAAF; later famous as the comedian and actor Dan Rowan; scored two victories and was wounded, while flying P-40s in the South West Pacific.", "*Billy Drake: RAF, the leading British P-40 ace, with 13 victories.", "*Neville Duke: RAF Leading Allied ace in the Mediterranean theater with 27 victories (including eight in P-40); post-war a test pilot and holder of the world air speed record.", "*James Francis Edwards: RCAF, 15.75 victories (12 on the P-40); also wrote two books about British Commonwealth Kittyhawk pilots.", "*Geoff Fisken: RNZAF, the highest scoring British Commonwealth ace in the Pacific theater (11 victories), including five victories in Kittyhawks.", "*Jack Frost: SAAF, the highest scoring air ace in a South African unit, with 15 victories (seven on the P-40); missing in action since 16 June 1942.", "*Herschel \"Herky\" Green: USAAF; 18 victory claims (including three in P-40s) while flying for the 325th Fighter Group in North Africa and Italy.", "*John Gorton: RAAF; Prime Minister of Australia, 1968–1971.Gorton survived a near-fatal crash in a Hurricane IIb at Singapore in 1942; later flew Kittyhawks with No.", "77 Squadron in New Guinea and became an instructor on the type.", "*John F. Hampshire: USAAF; equal top-scoring US P-40 pilot (13 victory claims), all over China with the 75th FS (23rd FG), 1942–1943; killed in action.", "*David Lee \"Tex\" Hill: AVG/USAAF, 2nd Squadron AVG and 23rd FG USAAF, 12¼ P-40 victories (18¼ total).", "*Bruce K. Holloway: AVG/USAAF, equal top-scoring US P-40 pilot (13 victories); later commander of USAF Strategic Air Command and retired with the rank of General (four star).", "*James H. Howard: AVG/USAAF, six victories in P-40s; later, the only fighter pilot to receive the Medal of Honor for service over Europe, while flying a P-51; retired with the rank of Brigadier-General in 1966.", "*Nikolai Fedorovitch Kuznetsov: VVS; the highest-scoring Soviet P-40 ace; credited with 22 victories while flying Hurricanes, P-40s and P-39s; twice awarded Hero of the Soviet Union (''GSS''); also awarded the British OBE.", "*Pyotr Pokryshev: (Pyotr Afanasyevich Pokryshev) AV-MF (Soviet Naval); twice awarded ''GSS''; 11 victory claims (out of a total of 22) made while flying P-40s, as commander of 154th IAP.", "*Boris Safonov: AV-MF (Soviet Naval Aviation); Soviet quadruple (25 victory) ace and twice awarded ''GSS''; shot down three Ju-88 bombers in one engagement while flying a P-40E, over the Baltic.", "*Robert Lee Scott, Jr.: USAAF, commander of the 23rd FG, China; more than 10 victories in P-40s.", "*Kenneth M. Taylor: USAAF; one of only two US pilots to get airborne (in a P-40) during the attack on Pearl Harbor (7 December 1941), during which he shot down two aircraft and was wounded in the arm.", "*Keith Truscott: RAAF; pre-war star of Australian football; became an ace flying Spitfires in the UK during 1941, before flying Kittyhawks over New Guinea and Australia; commanded 76 Sqn RAAF at the Battle of Milne Bay (1942); killed in an accident while flying a P-40 (1943).", "*Clinton D. \"Casey\" Vincent: USAAF; six victory claims while flying P-40s over China.", "* John Waddy: RAAF; 12½ victory claims while flying P-40s over North Africa.", "*Boyd Wagner: USAAF; while flying P-40s, Wagner became the first USAAF ace of the war, during the Philippines campaign (1941–1942).", "*Len Waters: RAAF, the only Aboriginal Australian fighter pilot of World War II.", "*George Welch: USAAF; one of only two US fighter pilots to get airborne during the first attack on Pearl Harbor, in a P-40; Welch claimed three Japanese aircraft that day." ], [ "Specifications (P-40E)", "P-40E" ], [ "Notable appearances in media" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Notes======Bibliography===* Angelucci, Enzo and Paolo Matricardi.", "''World Aircraft: World War II, Volume II'' (Sampson Low Guides).", "Maidenhead, UK: Sampson Low, 1978..* Arena, Nino.", "''Macchi 205 \"Veltro\" (in Italian)''.", "Modena: Stem Mucchi Editore, 1994.", "* Berliner, Don.", "''Surviving Fighter Aircraft of World War Two: Fighters''.", "London: Pen & Sword Aviation, 2011..* Boyne, Walter J.", "''Clash of Titans''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994..* Boyne, Walter J. and Michael Fopp.", "''Air Warfare: An International Encyclopedia''.", "Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2002..* Bowers, Peter M. ''Curtiss Aircraft, 1907–1947''.", "London: Putnam & Company Ltd., 1979..* Bowers, Peter M. and Enzo Angellucci.", "''The American Fighter''.", "New York: Orion Books, 1987..* Brown, Russell.", "''Desert Warriors: Australian P-40 Pilots at War in the Middle East and North Africa, 1941–1943''.", "Maryborough, Australia: Banner Books, 1983..* Coyle, Brendan.", "''War on Our Doorstep: The Unknown Campaign on North America's West Coast''.", "Victoria, BC: Heritage House Publishing Co. Ltd., 2002..* Crawford, Jerry L. ''Messerschmitt Bf 110 Zerstörer in action''.", "Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1977..* Donald, David, ed.", "\"Curtiss Model 81/87 (P-40 Warhawk)\"''Encyclopedia of World Aircraft''.", "Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada: Prospero, 1997..* Drabkin, Artem.", "''The Red Air Force at War: Barbarossa and the Retreat to Moscow – Recollections of Fighter Pilots on the Eastern Front''.", "Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Pen & Sword Military, 2007..* Ford, Daniel.", "''Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and His American Volunteers, 1941–1942''.", "Washington, D.C.: HarperCollins|Smithsonian Books, 2007..* Ethell, Jeffrey L. and Joe Christy.", "''P-40 Hawks at War''.", "Shepperton, UK: Ian Allan Ltd., 1979..* Ford, Daniel.", "''100 Hawks for China: The Story of the Shark-Nosed P-40 That Made the Flying Tigers Famous''.", "Warbird Books, 2014* Glancey, Jonathan.", "''Spitfire: The Illustrated Biography''.", "London: Atlantic Books, 2006..* Gordon, Yefim.", "''Soviet Air Power in World War 2''.", "Hinckley, Leicestershire, UK: Midland Ian Allan Publishing, 2008..* Green, William.", "''War Planes of the Second World War, Volume Four: Fighters''.", "London: MacDonald & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 1961 (Sixth impression 1969).", ".", "* Green, William and Gordon Swanborough.", "''WW2 Aircraft Fact Files: US Army Air Force Fighters, Part 1''.", "London: Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd., 1977..* Gunston, Bill.", "''Gli aerei della 2a Guerra Mondiale''.", "Milan: Alberto Peruzzo Editore, 1984.", "* Gunston, Bill, ed.", "''The Illustrated History of Fighters''.", "New York, New York: Exeter Books Division of Simon & Schuster, 1981..* Hardesty, Von.", "''Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power 1941–1945''.", "Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1982..* Higham, Robin.", "''Flying American Combat Aircraft of WW II''.", "Manhattan, Kansas: Sunflower University Press, 2004..* Horn, Alex.", "''Wings Over the Pacific: The RNZAF in the Pacific Air War''.", "Auckland, NZ: Random House New Zealand, 1992.", "* Johnsen, F.A.", "''P-40 Warhawk'' (Warbird History).", "St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1999.", "* King, John.", "''The Whole Nine Yards: The Story of an Anzac P-40''.", "Auckland, NZ: Reed Books, 2002.. (A P-40 with No.", "75 Squadron RAAF)* Kinzey, Bert.", "''Attack on Pearl Harbor: Japan Awakens a Sleeping Giant''.", "Blacksburg, Virginia: Military Aviation Archives, 2010..* ** Lavigne, J. P. A. Michel and James F. Edwards.", "''Kittyhawk Pilot''.", "Battleford, Saskatchewan, Canada: Turner-Warwick, 1983..*** Matricardi, Paolo.", "''Aerei Militari: Caccia e Ricognitori – Volume 1'' (in Italian).", "Milan: Electa Mondadori, 2006.", "* McDowell, Earnest R. ''Famous Aircraft: The P-40 Kittyhawk''.", "New York: ARCO Publishing Company, 1968.", "* Mellinger, George.", "''Soviet Lend-Lease Fighter Aces of World War 2'' (Aircraft of the Aces No.", "74).", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2006..* Merriam, Ray.", "''U.", "S. Warplanes of World War II''.", "Bennington, Virginia: Merriam Press, 2000..* Molesworth, Carl.", "''P-40 Warhawk Aces of the MTO'' (Aircraft of the Aces No.", "43).", "London: Osprey Publishing, 2002..* Molesworth, Carl.", "''P-40 Warhawk Aces of the Pacific'' (Aircraft of the Aces).", "London: Osprey Publishing, 2003..* Molesworth, Carl.", "''P-40 Warhawk Aces of the CBI'' (Aircraft of the Aces No.", "35).", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2000..* Molesworth, Carl.", "''P-40 Warhawk vs Ki-43 Oscar: China 1944–45''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2008..* Molesworth, Carl.", "''P-40 Soviet Lend-Lease Fighter Aces of World War 2'' (Aircraft of the Aces No.", "74).", "Oxford, UL: Osprey Publishing, 2006..* Müller, Rolf-Dieter.", "''Der Bombenkrieg 1939–1945'' (in German).", "Berlin: Links Verlag, 2004..* Murphy, Justin D. and Matthew A. McNiece.", "''Military aircraft, 1919–1945: An Illustrated History of their Impact''.", "Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2009..* Neulen, Hans Werner.", "''In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe, 1939–1945'' Ramsbury, Marlborough, UK: The Crowood Press, 2005..* Pentland, Geoffrey.", "''The P-40 Kittyhawk in Service''.", "Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: Kookaburra Technical Publications Pty.", "Ltd., 1974..* Snedden, Robert.", "''World War II Combat Aircraft''.", "Bristol, UK: Factfinders Parragon, 1997..* Rudge, Chris.", "''Air-To-Air: The Story Behind the Air-to-Air Combat Claims of the RNZAF''.", "Lyttelton, Canterbury, New Zealand: Adventure Air, 2003 .", "* Scott, Robert L. ''Damned to Glory''.", "New York: Scribner's, 1944.No ISBN.", "* Scutts, Jerry.", "''Bf 109 Aces of North Africa and the Mediterranean''.", "London: Osprey Publishing, 1994..* Shamburger, Page and Joe Christy.", "''The Curtiss Hawk Fighters''.", "New York: Sports Car Press Ltd., 1971..** Shores, Christopher and Hans Ring.", "''Fighters over the Desert''.", "London: Neville Spearman Limited, 1969..* Shores, Christopher and Clive Williams.", "''Aces High: A Further Tribute to the Most Notable Fighter Pilots of the British and Commonwealth Air Forces in WWII, v. 2''.", "London: Grub Street, 1994..* Thomas, Andrew.", "''Tomahawk and Kittyhawk Aces of the RAF and Commonwealth''.", "London: Osprey Books, 2002..* ''United States Air Force Museum Guidebook''.", "Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Air Force Museum Foundation, 1975.", "* Vader, John.", "''Pacific Hawk''.", "London: MacDonald & Co, 1970.", "* Weal, John.", "''Jagdgeschwader 27 'Afrika' ''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey, 2003.." ], [ "External links", "* * (1944) AN 01-25CN-2 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Model P-40N Series – British Model Kittyhawk IV Airplanes* Bu #41-13297 P-40B-CU detailed virtual view of a restoration.", "Pearl Harbor survivor" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Creed" ], [ "Introduction", "Icon depicting Emperor Constantine (center) and the Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea (325) as holding the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381A '''creed''', also known as a '''confession of faith''', a '''symbol''', or a '''statement of faith''', is a statement of the shared beliefs of a community (often a religious community) in a form which is structured by subjects which summarize its core tenets." ], [ "History", "The earliest known creed in Christianity, \"Jesus is Lord\", originated in the writings of Paul the Apostle.", "One of the most significant and widely used Christian creeds is the Nicene Creed, first formulated in AD 325 at the First Council of Nicaea to affirm the deity of Christ and revised at the First Council of Constantinople in AD 381 to affirm the trinity as a whole.", "The creed was further affirmed in 431 by the Chalcedonian Definition, which clarified the doctrine of Christ.", "Affirmation of this creed, which describes the Trinity, is often taken as a fundamental test of orthodoxy by many Christian denominations, and was historically purposed against Arianism.", "The Apostles Creed, another early creed which concisely details the trinity, virgin birth, crucifixion, and resurrection, is most popular within western Christianity, and is widely used in Christian church services.Some Christian denominations do not use any of those creeds.In Islamic theology, the term most closely corresponding to \"creed\" is ''ʿaqīdah'' ()." ], [ "Terminology", "The word ''creed'' is particularly used for a concise statement which is recited as part of liturgy.", "The term is anglicized from Latin ''credo'' \"I believe\", the incipit of the Latin texts of the Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed.", "A creed is sometimes referred to as a ''symbol'' in a specialized meaning of that word (which was first introduced to Late Middle English in this sense), after Latin ''symbolum'' \"creed\" (as in ''Symbolum Apostolorum'' = the \"Apostles' Creed\", a shorter version of the traditional Nicene Creed), after Greek ''symbolon'' \"token, watchword\".Some longer statements of faith in the Protestant tradition are instead called \"confessions of faith\", or simply \"confession\" (as in e.g.", "Helvetic Confession).", "Within Evangelical Protestantism, the terms \"doctrinal statement\" or \"doctrinal basis\" tend to be preferred.", "Doctrinal statements may include positions on lectionary and translations of the Bible, particularly in fundamentalist churches of the King James Only movement.The term ''creed'' is sometimes extended to comparable concepts in non-Christian theologies; thus the Islamic concept of ''ʿaqīdah'' (literally \"bond, tie\") is often rendered as \"creed\"." ], [ "Christianity", "The first confession of faith established within Christianity was the Nicene Creed by the Early Church in 325.It was established to summarize the foundations of the Christian faith and to protect believers from false doctrines.", "Various Christian denominations from Protestantism and Evangelical Christianity have published confession of faith as a basis for fellowship among churches of the same denomination.Many Christian denominations did not try to be too exhaustive in their confessions of faith and thus allow different opinions on some secondary topics.", "In addition, some churches are open to revising their confession of faith when necessary.", "Moreover, Baptist \"confessions of faith\" have often had a clause such as this from the First London Baptist Confession (Revised edition, 1646):=== Excommunication ===Excommunication is a practice of the Bible to exclude members who do not respect the Church's confession of faith and do not want to repent.", "It is practiced by all Christian denominations and is intended to protect against the consequences of heretics' teachings and apostasy.===Christians without creeds===Some Christian denominations do not profess a creed.", "This stance is often referred to as \"non-creedalism\".Anabaptism, with its origins in the 16th century Radical Reformation, spawned a number of sects and denominations that espouse \"No creed, but the Bible/New Testament\".", "This was a common reason for Anabaptist persecution from Catholic and Protestant believers.", "Anabaptist groups that exist today include the Amish, Hutterites, Mennonites, Schwarzenau Brethren (Church of the Brethren), River Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church.", "The Seventh-day Adventist Church also shares this sentiment.The Religious Society of Friends, the group known as the Quakers, was founded in the 17th century and is similarly non-creedal.", "They believe that such formal structures, “be they written words, steeple-houses or a clerical hierarchy,” cannot take the place of communal relationships and a shared connection with God.Similar reservations about the use of creeds can be found in the Restoration Movement and its descendants, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Churches of Christ, and the Christian churches and churches of Christ.", "Restorationists profess \"no creed but Christ\".Jehovah's Witnesses contrast \"memorizing or repeating creeds\" with acting to \"do what Jesus said\".===Christian creeds===Several creeds originated in Christianity.", "* 1 Corinthians 15:3–7 includes an early creed about Jesus' death and resurrection which was probably received by Paul.", "The antiquity of the creed has been located by most biblical scholars to no more than five years after Jesus' death, probably originating from the Jerusalem apostolic community.", "* The Old Roman Creed is an earlier and shorter version of the Apostles' Creed.", "It was based on the 2nd century Rules of Faith and the interrogatory declaration of faith for those receiving baptism, which by the 4th century was everywhere tripartite in structure, following Matthew 28:19.", "* The Apostles' Creed is used in Western Christianity for both liturgical and catechetical purposes.", "* The Nicene Creed reflects the concerns of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 which had as their chief purpose to establish what Christians believed.", "* The Chalcedonian Creed was adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 in Asia Minor.", "It defines that Christ is 'acknowledged in two natures', which 'come together into one person and hypostasis'.", "* The Athanasian Creed (''Quicunque vult'') is a Christian statement of belief focusing on Trinitarian doctrine and Christology.", "It is the first creed in which the equality of the three persons of the Trinity is explicitly stated and differs from the Nicene and Apostles' Creeds in the inclusion of anathemas, or condemnations of those who disagree with the Creed.", "* The Tridentine Creed was initially contained in the papal bull ''Iniunctum Nobis'', issued by Pope Pius IV on 13 November 1565.The creed was intended to summarise the teaching of the Council of Trent (1545–1563).", "* The Maasai Creed is a creed composed in 1960 by the Maasai people of East Africa in collaboration with missionaries from the Congregation of the Holy Ghost.", "The creed attempts to express the essentials of the Christian faith within the Maasai culture.", "* The Credo of the People of God is a confession of faith that Pope Paul VI published with the ''motu proprio'' ''Solemni hac liturgia'' of 30 June 1968.Pope Paul VI spoke of it as \"a creed which, without being strictly speaking a dogmatic definition, repeats in substance, with some developments called for by the spiritual condition of our time, the creed of Nicea, the creed of the immortal tradition of the holy Church of God.", "\"===Christian confessions of faith===Protestant denominations are usually associated with confessions of faith, which are similar to creeds but usually longer.", "* The ''Sixty-seven Articles'' of the Swiss reformers, drawn up by Zwingli in 1523;* The ''Schleitheim Confession'' of the Anabaptist Swiss Brethren in 1527; * The ''Augsburg Confession'' of 1530, the work of Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon, which marked the breach with Rome;* The ''Tetrapolitan Confession'' of the German Reformed Church, 1530;* The ''Smalcald Articles'' of Martin Luther, 1537* The ''Guanabara Confession of Faith'', 1558;* The ''Gallic Confession'', 1559;* The ''Scots Confession'', drawn up by John Knox in 1560;* The ''Belgic Confession'' drawn up by Guido de Bres in 1561;* The ''Thirty-nine Articles'' of the Church of England in 1562;* The ''Formula of Concord'' and its Epitome in 1577;* The ''Irish Articles'' in 1615;* The ''Remonstrant Confession'' in 1621;* The Baptist Confession of Faith in 1644 (upheld by Particular Baptists)* The ''Westminster Confession of Faith'' in 1647 was the work of the Westminster Assembly of Divines and has commended itself to the Presbyterian Churches of all English-speaking peoples, and also in other languages.", "* The ''Savoy Declaration'' of 1658 which was a modification of the Westminster Confession to suit Congregationalist polity;* The ''Standard Confession'' in 1660 (upheld by General Baptists);* The ''Orthodox Creed'' in 1678 (upheld by General Baptists);* The ''Baptist Confession'' in 1689 (upheld by Reformed Baptists);* The ''Confession of Faith of the Calvinistic Methodists (Presbyterians) of Wales'' of 1823;* The ''New Hampshire Confession'' in 1833 (upheld by Landmark Baptists);* The ''Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral'' of the Anglican Communion in 1870;* The Assemblies of God Statement of Fundamental Truths in 1916; and* The ''Confession of Faith'' of the United Methodist Church, adopted in 1968=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===Within the sects of the Latter Day Saint movement, the ''Articles of Faith'' are contained in a list which was composed by Joseph Smith as part of an 1842 letter which he sent to \"Long\" John Wentworth, editor of the ''Chicago Democrat''.", "It is canonized along with the King James Version of the Bible, the ''Book of Mormon'', the ''Doctrine & Covenants'' and the ''Pearl of Great Price'', as a part of the standard works of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.=== Controversies ===In the Swiss Reformed Churches, there was a quarrel about the Apostles' Creed in the mid-19th century.", "As a result, most cantonal reformed churches stopped prescribing any particular creed.In 2005, Bishop John Shelby Spong, retired Episcopal Bishop of Newark, has written that dogmas and creeds were merely \"a stage in our development\" and \"part of our religious childhood.\"", "In his book, ''Sins of the Scripture'', Spong wrote that \"Jesus seemed to understand that no one can finally fit the holy God into his or her creeds or doctrines.", "That is idolatry.\"" ], [ "Similar concepts in other religions", "===Islamic ''aqīdah''===In Islamic theology, the term most closely corresponding to \"creed\" is ''ʿaqīdah'' ().", "The first such creed was written as \"a short answer to the pressing heresies of the time\" is known as ''Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar'' and ascribed to Abū Ḥanīfa.", "Two well known creeds were the ''Fiqh Akbar II'' \"representative\" of the al-Ash'ari, and ''Fiqh Akbar III'', \"representative\" of the Ash-Shafi'i.", "''Iman'' () in Islamic theology denotes a believer's religious faith.", "Its most simple definition is the belief in the six articles of faith, known as ''arkān al-īmān''.#Belief in God#Belief in the Angels#Belief in Divine Books#Belief in the Prophets#Belief in the Day of Judgement#Belief in God's predestination===Jewish ''Shema Yisreal''===Rabbi Milton Steinberg wrote that \"By its nature Judaism is averse to formal creeds which of necessity limit and restrain thought\" and asserted in his book ''Basic Judaism'' (1947) that \"Judaism has never arrived at a creed.\"", "The 1976 Centenary Platform of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, an organization of Reform rabbis, agrees that \"Judaism emphasizes action rather than creed as the primary expression of a religious life.", "\"Still, the opening lines of the prayer Shema Yisrael can be read as a creedal statement of strict monotheism: \"Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One\" (; transliterated ''Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad'').A notable statement of Jewish principles of faith was drawn up by Maimonides as his 13 Principles of Faith." ], [ "Religions without creeds", "Following a debate that lasted more than twenty years, the National Conference of the American Unitarian Association passed a resolution in 1894 that established the denomination as non-creedal.", "The Unitarians later merged with the Universalist Church of America to form the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA).", "Instead of a creed, the UUA abides by a set of principles, such as “a free and responsible search for truth and meaning”.", "It cites diverse sources of inspiration, including Christianity, Judaism, Humanism, and Earth-centered traditions." ], [ "See also", "* Covenant* Credo* Mission statement* The American's Creed – a 1917 statement about Americans' belief in democracy* The Five Ks* Pesher" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Christian Confessions: a Historical Introduction'', by Ted A. Campbell.", "First ed.", "xxi, 336 p. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1996.", "* '' Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition''.", "Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss.", "Yale University Press 2003.", "* ''Creeds in the Making: a Short Introduction to the History of Christian Doctrine'', by Alan Richardson.", "Reissued.", "London: S.C.M.", "Press, 1979, cop.", "1935.128 p. * ''Ecumenical Creeds and Reformed Confessions''.", "Grand Rapids, Mich.: C.R.C.", "''i.e''.", "Christian Reformed Church Publications, 1987.148 p. * ''The Three Forms of Unity (Heidelberg Catechism, Belgic Confession, and the Canons of Dordrecht), and the Ecumenical Creeds (the Apostles' Creed, the Athanasian Creed, and the Creed of Chalcedon)''.", "Reprinted ed.. Mission Committee of the Protestant Reformed Churches in America, 1991.58 p. Without ISBN" ], [ "External links", "* The Creeds of Christendom – A website linking to many formal Christian declarations of faith.", "* Creeds and Canons – A Guide to Early Church Documents from Internet Christian Library* ICP Website International Creed for Peace" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Claudius Aelianus" ], [ "Introduction", "Imaginary likeness of Aelian from a 1610 edition of the ''Varia Historia'''''Claudius Aelianus''' (, Greek transliteration ''Kláudios Ailianós''; ), commonly '''Aelian''' (), born at Praeneste, was a Roman author and teacher of rhetoric who flourished under Septimius Severus and probably outlived Elagabalus, who died in 222.He spoke Greek so fluently that he was called \"honey-tongued\" ( ); Roman-born, he preferred Greek authors, and wrote in a slightly archaizing Greek himself.His two chief works are valuable for the numerous quotations from the works of earlier authors, which are otherwise lost, and for the surprising lore, which offers unexpected glimpses into the Greco-Roman world-view.", "It is also the only Greco-Roman work to mention Gilgamesh." ], [ "''De Natura Animalium''", "''On the Nature of Animals'' (alternatively \"On the Characteristics of Animals\"; , ''''; usually cited by its Latin title ''De Natura Animalium'') is a collection, in seventeen books, of brief stories of natural history.", "Some are included for the moral lessons they convey; others because they are astonishing.The Loeb Classical Library introduction characterizes the book as \"an appealing collection of facts and fables about the animal kingdom that invites the reader to ponder contrasts between human and animal behavior\".Aelian's anecdotes on animals rarely depend on direct observation: they are almost entirely taken from written sources, not only Pliny the Elder, Theopompus, and Lycus of Rhegium, but also other authors and works now lost, to whom he is thus a valuable witness.", "He is more attentive to marine life than might be expected, though, and this seems to reflect first-hand personal interest; he often quotes \"fishermen\".", "At times he strikes the modern reader as thoroughly credulous, but at others he specifically states that he is merely reporting what is told by others, and even that he does not believe them.", "Aelian's work is one of the sources of medieval natural history and of the bestiaries of the Middle Ages.The surviving portions of the text are badly mangled and garbled and replete with later interpolations.", "Conrad Gessner (or Gesner), the Swiss scientist and natural historian of the Renaissance, made a Latin translation of Aelian's work, to give it a wider European audience.", "An English translation by A. F. Scholfield has been published in the Loeb Classical Library, 3 vols.", "(1958-59)." ], [ "''Varia Historia''", "Title page of ''Varia Historia'', from the 1668 edition by Tanaquil Faber''Various History'' (, '''')—for the most part preserved only in an abridged form—is Aelian's other well-known work, a miscellany of anecdotes and biographical sketches, lists, pithy maxims, and descriptions of natural wonders and strange local customs, in 14 books, with many surprises for the cultural historian and the mythographer, anecdotes about the famous Greek philosophers, poets, historians, and playwrights and myths instructively retold.", "The emphasis is on ''various'' moralizing tales about heroes and rulers, athletes and wise men; reports about food and drink, different styles in dress or lovers, local habits in giving gifts or entertainments, or in religious beliefs and death customs; and comments on Greek painting.", "Aelian gives accounts of, among other things, fly fishing using lures of red wool and feathers, lacquerwork, and serpent worship.", "Essentially, the ''Various History'' is a classical \"magazine\" in the original sense of that word.", "He is not perfectly trustworthy in details, and his writing was heavily influenced by Stoic opinions, perhaps so that his readers will not feel guilty, but Jane Ellen Harrison found survivals of archaic rites mentioned by Aelian very illuminating in her ''Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion'' (1903, 1922).", "''Varia Historia'' was first printed in 1545.The standard modern text is that of Mervin R. Dilts (1974).Two English translations of the ''Various History,'' by Fleming (1576) and Stanley (1665) made Aelian's miscellany available to English readers, but after 1665 no English translation appeared, until three English translations appeared almost simultaneously: James G. DeVoto, ''Claudius Aelianus: Ποικίλης Ἱστορίας (''Varia Historia'')'' Chicago, 1995; Diane Ostrom Johnson, ''An English Translation of Claudius Aelianus' \"Varia Historia\"'', 1997; and N. G. Wilson, ''Aelian: Historical Miscellany'' in the Loeb Classical Library." ], [ "Other works", "Considerable fragments of two other works, ''On Providence'' and ''Divine Manifestations'', are preserved in the early medieval encyclopedia, the ''Suda.''", "Twenty \"letters from a farmer\" after the manner of Alciphron are also attributed to him.", "The letters are invented compositions to a fictitious correspondent, which are a device for vignettes of agricultural and rural life, set in Attica, though mellifluous Aelian once boasted that he had never been outside Italy, never been aboard a ship (which is at variance, though, with his own statement, ''de Natura Animalium'' XI.40, that he had seen the bull Serapis with his own eyes).", "Thus conclusions about actual agriculture in the ''Letters'' are as likely to evoke Latium as Attica.", "The fragments have been edited in 1998 by D. Domingo-Foraste, but are not available in English.", "The ''Letters'' are available in the Loeb Classical Library, translated by Allen Rogers Benner and Francis H. Fobes (1949)." ], [ "See also", "*''Historiae animalium'' by Gessner" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Aelian, ''On Animals''.", "3 volumes.", "Translated by A. F. Scholfield.", "1958–9.Loeb Classical Library.", ", , and *Aelian, ''Historical Miscellany''.", "Translated by Nigel G. Wilson.", "1997.Loeb Classical Library.", "*Alciphron, Aelian, and Philostratus, ''The Letters''.", "Translated by A. R. Benner, F. H. Fobes.", "1949.Loeb Classical Library.", "*Aelian, ''On the Nature of Animals''.", "Translated by Gregory McNamee.", "2011.Trinity University Press.", "*Ailianos, ''Vermischte Forschung''.", "Greek and German by Kai Brodersen.", "2018.Sammlung Tusculum.", "De Gruyter Berlin & Boston *Ailianos, ''Tierleben''.", "Greek and German by Kai Brodersen.", "2018.Sammlung Tusculum.", "De Gruyter Berlin & Boston 2018, *Claudius Aelianus, ''Vom Wesen der Tiere - De natura animalium''.", "German and Commentary by Paul-Gerhard Veh, Philipp Stahlhut.", "2020.Bibliothek der Griechischen Literaur.", "Anton Hiersemann Verlag Stuttgart 2020, ISBN" ], [ "External links", "* * * Ποικίλη ἱστορία – bibliotheca Augustana* Raw Greek OCR of Hercher's 1864 Teubner edition of Aelian's works at the Lace repository of Mount Allison University: vol.", "I, vol.", "2 * Various History at James Eason's site (excerpts in English translation)* English translation of Aelian's fragments at ''attalus.org''* Some quotes from Aelian's natural history (English)* Aelian from the fly-fisherman's point-of-view* The Evidence for Aelian's Katêgoria tou gunnidos regarding Aelian's presumed invective against Elagabalus===Aelian's ''Characteristics of Animals''===;Greek with English translation* Aelian on the Characteristics of Animals, Books I-V (Greek with English translation by A.F.", "Scholfield, 1950)* Aelian on the Characteristics of Animals, Books VI-XI (Greek with English translation by A.F.", "Scholfield, 1950)* Aelian on the Characteristics of Animals, Books XII-XVII (Greek with English translation by A.F.", "Scholfield, 1950)* HTML version of Scholfield's English translation at ''attalus.org'';Latin translation* ''De natura animalium'' at LacusCurtius (complete Latin translation);Greek* ''De natura animalium libri XVII, Varia historia, Epistolae fragmenta, ex recognitione Rudolphi Hercheri'', Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1864: vol.", "1, vol.", "2." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Callisto (mythology)" ], [ "Introduction", "Artemis (seated and wearing a radiate crown), the beautiful nymph Callisto (left), Eros and other nymphs.", "Antique fresco from Pompeii.In Greek mythology, '''Callisto''' (; ) was a nymph, or the daughter of King Lycaon; the myth varies in such details.", "She was believed to be one of the followers of Artemis (Diana for the Romans) who attracted Zeus.", "Many versions of Callisto's story survive.", "According to some writers, Zeus transformed himself into the figure of Artemis to pursue Callisto, and she slept with him believing Zeus to be Artemis.", "She became pregnant and when this was eventually discovered, she was expelled from Artemis's group, after which a furious Hera, the wife of Zeus, transformed her into a bear, although in some versions, Artemis is the one to give her an ursine form.", "Later, just as she was about to be killed by her son when he was hunting, she was set among the stars as Ursa Major (\"the Great Bear\") by Zeus.", "She was the bear-mother of the Arcadians, through her son Arcas by Zeus.The fourth Galilean moon of Jupiter and a main belt asteroid are named after Callisto." ], [ "Mythology", "Titian's ''Diana and Callisto'' (1559) portrays the moment when Callisto's pregnancy is discovered.As a follower of Artemis, Callisto, who Hesiod said was the daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, took a vow to remain a virgin, as did all the nymphs of Artemis.According to Hesiod, she was seduced by Zeus, and of the consequences that followed:Callisto chose to occupy herself with wild-beasts in the mountains together with Artemis, and, when she was seduced by Zeus, continued some time undetected by the goddess, but afterwards, when she was already with child, was seen by her bathing and so discovered.", "Upon this, the goddess was enraged and changed her into a beast.", "Thus she became a bear and gave birth to a son called Arcas.", "But while she was in the mountains, she was hunted by some goat-herds and given up with her babe to Lycaon.", "Some while after, she thought fit to go into the forbidden precinct of Zeus, not knowing the law, and being pursued by her own son and the Arcadians, was about to be killed because of the said law; but Zeus delivered her because of her connection with him and put her among the stars, giving her the name Bear because of the misfortune which had befallen her.", "''Jupiter in the Guise of Diana Seducing Callisto'', Jacob Adriaensz Backer, oil on canvasEratosthenes also mentions a variation in which the virginal companion of Artemis that was seduced by Zeus and eventually transformed into the constellation Ursa Minor was named Phoenice instead.According to Ovid, it was Jupiter who took the form of Diana so that he might evade his wife Juno's detection, forcing himself upon Callisto while she was separated from Diana and the other nymphs.", "Callisto recognized that something was wrong the moment Jupiter started giving her \"non-virginal kisses\", but by that point it was too late, and even though she fought him off, he overpowered her.", "The real Diana arrived in the scene soon after and called Callisto to her, only for the girl to run away in fear she was Jupiter, until she noticed the nymphs accompanying the goddess.", "Callisto's subsequent pregnancy was discovered several months later while she was bathing with Diana and her fellow nymphs.", "Diana became enraged when she saw that Callisto was pregnant and expelled her from the group.", "Callisto later gave birth to Arcas.", "Juno then took the opportunity to avenge her wounded pride and transformed the nymph into a bear.", "Sixteen years later Callisto, still a bear, encountered her son Arcas hunting in the forest.", "Just as Arcas was about to kill his own mother with his javelin, Jupiter averted the tragedy by placing mother and son amongst the stars as Ursa Major and Minor, respectively.", "Juno, enraged that her attempt at revenge had been frustrated, appealed to Tethys that the two might never meet her waters, thus providing a poetic explanation for the constellations' circumpolar positions in ancient times.Apulian Red-Figure Chous (Shape 3) with Kallisto Turning into a Bear, about 360 BCE, Terracotta, Attributed to Near the Black Fury Group (Greek (Apulian), active early 300s BCE), J. Paul Getty MuseumAccording to Hyginus, the origin of the transformation of Zeus, with its lesbian overtones, was from a rendition of the tale in a comedy in a lost work by the Attic comedian Amphis where Zeus embraced Callisto as Artemis and she, after being questioned by Artemis for her pregnancy, blamed the goddess, thinking she had impregnated her; Artemis then changed her into a bear.", "She was caught by some Aetolians and brought to Lycaon, her father.", "Still a bear, she rushed with her son Arcas into a temple of Zeus as the Arcadians followed to kill them; Zeus turned mother and son into constellations.", "Hyginus also records a version where Hera changed Callisto for sleeping with Zeus, and Artemis later slew her while hunting, not recognizing her.", "In another of the versions Hyginus records, it was Zeus who turned Callisto into a bear, to conceal her from Juno, who had noticed what her husband was doing.", "Juno then pointed Callisto to Diana, who proceeded to shoot her with her arrows.According to the mythographer Apollodorus, Zeus forced himself on Callisto when he disguised himself as Artemis or Apollo, in order to lure the sworn maiden into his embrace.", "Apollodorus is the only author to mention Apollo, but implies that it is not a rarity.", "Callisto was then turned into a bear by Zeus trying to hide her from Hera, but Hera asked Artemis to shoot the animal, and Artemis complied.", "Zeus then took the child, named it Arcas, and gave it to Maia to bring up in Arcadia; and Callisto he turned into a star and called it the Bear.", "Alternatively, Artemis killed Callisto for not protecting her virginity.", "Nonnus also writes that a \"female paramour entered a woman's bed.", "\"Either Artemis \"slew Kallisto with a shot of her silver bow,\" according to Homer, in order to please Juno (Hera) as Pausanias and Pseudo-Apollodorus write or later Arcas, the eponym of Arcadia, nearly killed his bear-mother, when she had wandered into the forbidden precinct of Zeus.", "In every case, Zeus placed them both in the sky as the constellations Ursa Major, called ''Arktos'' (), the Bear, by Greeks, and Ursa Minor.According to John Tzetzes, Charon of Lampsacus wrote that Callisto's son Arcas had been fathered not by Zeus but rather by Apollo.As a constellation, Ursa Major (who was also known as Helice, from an alternative origin story of the constellation) told Demeter, when the goddess asked the stars whether they knew anything about her daughter Persephone's abduction, to ask Helios the sun god, for he knew the deeds of the day well, while the night was blameless.+Comparative table of versions of Callisto's story Variations Name Sources''Hom.''''Hes.''''Amph.''''Ovid''''Hyginus''''Apoll.''''Paus.''''Stat.''''Lib.''''Serv.''''Non.", "''''Vatican Mythographers'' ''Fab.''", "''Astr.", "1.''", "''Astr.", "2.''", "''Astr.", "3.''", "''V.M.", "1'' ''V.M.", "2'' Zeus disguised?", "No mention✓✓✓✓✓✓✓ Yes, as Artemis✓✓✓✓✓✓✓ Yes, as Apollo✓ God who transformed Callisto Artemis✓✓✓ Hera✓✓✓✓✓✓✓ Zeus✓✓✓ Killer of Callisto Arcas and/or Arcadians✓✓✓✓ Artemis✓✓✓✓✓" ], [ "Origin of the myth", "Jupiter and Callisto'' by François Boucher, Zeus/Jupiter takes the form of Artemis/Diana (Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City)The name ''Kalliste'' (), \"most beautiful\", may be recognized as an epithet of the goddess herself, though none of the inscriptions at Athens that record priests of ''Artemis Kalliste'' (), date before the third century BCE.", "Artemis Kalliste was worshiped in Athens in a shrine which lay outside the Dipylon gate, by the side of the road to the Academy.", "W. S. Ferguson suggested that Artemis Soteira and Artemis Kalliste were joined in a common cult administered by a single priest.", "The bearlike character of Artemis herself was a feature of the Brauronia.", "It has been suggested that the myths of Artemis' nymphs breaking their vows were originally about Artemis herself, before her characterization shifted to that of a sworn virgin who fiercely defends her chastity.", "''Jupiter seduces Callisto'', Jean-Baptiste Marie Pierre, ca.", "1745-1749The myth in ''Catasterismi'' may be derived from the fact that a set of constellations appear close together in the sky, in and near the Zodiac sign of Libra, namely Ursa Minor, Ursa Major, Boötes, and Virgo.", "The constellation Boötes, was explicitly identified in the Hesiodic ''Astronomia'' () as Arcas, the \"Bear-warden\" (''Arktophylax''; ): He is Arkas the son of Kallisto and Zeus, and he lived in the country about Lykaion.", "After Zeus had seduced Kallisto, Lykaon, pretending not to know of the matter, entertained Zeus, as Hesiod says, and set before him on the table the babe Arkas which he had cut up.The stars of Ursa Major were all circumpolar in Athens of 400 BCE, and all but the stars in the Great Bear's left foot were circumpolar in Ovid's Rome, in the first century CE.", "Now, however, due to the precession of the equinoxes, the feet of the Great Bear constellation do sink below the horizon from Rome and especially from Athens; however, Ursa Minor (Arcas) does remain completely above the horizon, even from latitudes as far south as Honolulu and Hong Kong.According to Julien d'Huy, who used phylogenetic and statistical tools, the story could be a recent transformation of a Palaeolithic myth." ], [ "In art", "A. Duvivier after François Boucher, \"Jupiter and Callisto,\" 19th century, engraving and etchingCallisto's story was sometimes depicted in classical art, where the moment of transformation into a bear was the most popular.", "From the Renaissance on a series of major history paintings as well as many smaller cabinet paintings and book illustrations, usually called \"Diana and Callisto\", depicted the traumatic moment of discovery of the pregnancy, as the goddess and her nymphs bathed in a pool, following Ovid's account.", "The subject's attraction was undoubtedly mainly the opportunity it offered for a group of several females to be shown largely nude.", "''Jupiter and Callisto'' by Karel Philips Spierincks.", "In the background Jupiter's jealous wife Juno is dragging Callisto by the hair.Titian's ''Diana and Callisto'' (1556-1559), was the greatest (though not the first) of these, quickly disseminated by a print by Cornelius Cort.", "Here, as in most subsequent depictions, Diana points angrily, as Callisto is held by two nymphs, who may be pulling off what little clothing remains on her.", "Other versions include one by Rubens, and ''Diana Bathing with her Nymphs with Actaeon and Callisto'' by Rembrandt, which unusually combines the moment with the arrival of Actaeon.", "The basic composition is rather unusually consistent.", "Carlo Ridolfi said there was a version by Giorgione, who died in 1510, though his many attributions to Giorgione of paintings that are now lost are treated with suspicion by scholars.", "Other, less dramatic, treatments before Titian established his composition are by Palma Vecchio and Dosso Dossi.", "Annibale Carracci's ''The Loves of the Gods'' includes an image of Juno urging Diana to shoot Callisto in ursine form.Although Ovid places the discovery in the ninth month of Callisto's pregnancy, in paintings she is generally shown with a rather modest bump for late pregnancy.", "With the ''Visitation'' in religious art, this was the leading recurring subject in history painting that required showing pregnancy in art, which Early Modern painters still approached with some caution.", "In any case, the narrative required that the rest of the group had not previously noticed the pregnancy.Callisto being seduced by Zeus/Jupiter in disguise was also a popular subject, usually called \"Jupiter and Callisto\"; it was the clearest common subject with lesbian lovers from classical mythology.", "The two lovers are usually shown happily embracing in a bower.", "The violent rape described by Ovid as following Callisto's realization of what is going on is rarely shown.", "In versions before about 1700 Callisto may show some doubt about what is going on, as in the versions by Rubens.", "It was especially popular in the 18th century, when depictions were increasingly erotic; François Boucher painted several versions.During the Nazi occupation of France, resistance poet Robert Desnos wrote a collection of poems entitled ''Calixto suivi de contrée,'' where he used the myth of Callisto as a symbol for beauty imprisoned beneath ugliness: a metaphor for France under the German occupation.Aeschylus' tragedy ''Callisto'' is lost." ], [ "Genealogy", "Colour key: Male Female Deity" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Peter Paul Rubens - Diana and Callisto - WGA20326.jpg|''Diana and Callisto'' commissioned from the artist by Philip IV of SpainFile:Arcas Preparing to Kill His Mother - etching - 17.5 x 25.5 cm - Washington DC, NGA.jpg|''Arcas about to kill his mother'', engraving by Hendrik Goltzius, 16th-17th century.File:Ovide - Métamorphoses - I -Callisto chassée de la suite de Diane.jpg|Callisto discovered by Diana, engraving by Noël Le Mire.File:Illustration by Johan Teyler, digitally enhanced by rawpixel-com 95.jpg|Illustration of Zeus as Artemis with Callisto, ohan Teyler (1648-1709).File:Jacobus Kellner - Diana and Callisto - O 5460 - Slovak National Gallery.jpg|''Diana and Callisto'', relief by Jakob Kellner, 1763.File:Anthonie Blocklandt van Montfoort - Diana Discovering Callisto’s Pregnancy.jpg|''Diana and Callisto'', Anthonie Blocklandt van Montfoort, c. 1580.File:Jollain Diane et Callisto.jpg|''Diane et Callisto'', by Nicolas-René Jollain, 1770, oil on canvas.File:Amigoni, Jacopo (1675 - 1752), Giove e Callisto -ca.", "1740-1750-.jpg|''Giove e Callisto'', by Jacopo Amigoni, circa 1740–1750, oil on canvas.File:Diana and Callisto LACMA 60.67.1.jpg|Callisto's pregnancy discovered, engraving by Jan Pietersz, 1599.File:Diana and Callisto LACMA AC1992.225.3.jpg|Artemis, Callisto and the nymphs, ivory relief by Ignaz Elhafen, circa 1690–1695.File:Jean-Simon Berthélemy - Jupiter, in the Guise of Diana, and Callisto.jpg|Jupiter in the guise of Diana and Callisto, by Jean-Simon Berthélemy, nineteenth century, oil on canvas.File:Jupiter and Callisto (Charles-Joseph Natoire) - Nationalmuseum - 17861.tif|''Jupiter and Callisto'', by Charles-Joseph Natoire, 1745, in the National Museum of Stockholm.File:Parc de Versailles, Bosquet des Dômes, Nymphe de Diane, Anselme Flamen 01.jpg|''Callisto'', by Anselme Flamen, 1696, Versailles." ], [ "See also", "* Baucis and Philemon* Lilaeus* Rhodopis and Euthynicus* Syceus* Titanis" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Brigstocke, Hugh; Italian and Spanish Paintings in the National Gallery of Scotland, 2nd Edn, 1993, National Galleries of Scotland, *\"Gods\": Aghion I., Barbillon C., Lissarrague, F., \"Callisto\", in ''Gods and Heroes of Classical Antiquity'', Flammarion Iconographic Guides, pp.", "77–78, 1996, *Hall, James, \"Diana: 5\", in ''Hall's Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art'', pp.", "102–103, 1996 (2nd edn.", "), John Murray, * Maurus Servius Honoratus.", "''In Vergilii carmina comentarii.", "Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii; recensuerunt Georgius Thilo et Hermannus Hagen''.", "Georgius Thilo.", "Leipzig.", "B. G. Teubner.", "1881." ], [ "Further reading", "*Pseudo-Apollodorus.", "''Bibliotheke'' III.8.2.", "*Hyginus, attrib., ''Poeticon astronomicon'', II.1: the Great Bear." ], [ "External links", "* Hesiod, ''Astronomy'', quoted by the Pseudo-Eratosthenes, ''Catasterismi'': e-text (English)* Theoi Project – Kallisto* Richard Wilson's 'Landscape with Diana and Callisto' at the Lady Lever Art Gallery* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 220 images of Callisto)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cookie" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''cookie''' (American English) or '''biscuit''' (British English) is a baked snack or dessert that is typically small, flat, and sweet.", "It usually contains flour, sugar, egg, and some type of oil, fat, or butter.", "It may include other ingredients such as raisins, oats, chocolate chips, or nuts.Most English-speaking countries call crunchy cookies \"biscuits\", except for the United States and Canada, where \"biscuit\" refers to a type of quick bread.", "Chewier biscuits are sometimes called \"cookies\" even in the United Kingdom.", "Some cookies may also be named by their shape, such as date squares or bars.Biscuit or cookie variants include sandwich biscuits, such as custard creams, Jammie Dodgers, Bourbons and Oreos, with marshmallow or jam filling and sometimes dipped in chocolate or another sweet coating.", "Cookies are often served with beverages such as milk, coffee or tea and sometimes dunked, an approach which releases more flavour from confections by dissolving the sugars, while also softening their texture.", "Factory-made cookies are sold in grocery stores, convenience stores and vending machines.", "Fresh-baked cookies are sold at bakeries and coffeehouses." ], [ "Terminology", "Traditional American Christmas cookie trayIn many English-speaking countries outside North America, including the United Kingdom, the most common word for a crisp cookie is \"biscuit\".", "The term \"cookie\" is normally used to describe chewier ones.", "However, in many regions both terms are used.", "The container used to store cookies may be called a cookie jar.In Scotland, the term \"cookie\" is sometimes used to describe a plain bun.Cookies that are baked as a solid layer on a sheet pan and then cut, rather than being baked as individual pieces, are called '''bar cookies''' in American English or '''traybakes''' in British English ." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''cookie'' dates from at least 1701 in Scottish usage where the word meant \"plain bun\", rather than thin baked good, and so it is not certain whether it is the same word.", "From 1808, the word \"cookie\" is attested \"...in the sense of \"small, flat, sweet cake\" in American English.", "The American use is derived from Dutch \"little cake\", which is a diminutive of \"\" (\"cake\"), which came from the Middle Dutch word \"\".", "Another claim is that the American name derives from the Dutch word or more precisely its informal, dialect variant which means ''little cake,'' and arrived in American English with the Dutch settlement of New Netherland, in the early 1600s.According to the Scottish National Dictionary, its Scottish name may derive from the diminutive form (+ suffix ''-ie'') of the word ''cook'', giving the Middle Scots ''cookie'', ''cooky'' or ''cu(c)kie''.", "There was much trade and cultural contact across the North Sea between the Low Countries and Scotland during the Middle Ages, which can also be seen in the history of curling and, perhaps, golf." ], [ "Description", "A dish of assorted cookies, including sandwich cookies filled with jamCookies baking in an ovenCookies are most commonly baked until crisp or else for just long enough to ensure a soft interior.", "Other types of cookies are not baked at all, such as varieties of peanut butter cookies that use solidified chocolate rather than set eggs and wheat gluten as a binder.", "Cookies are produced in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts, or dried fruits.A general theory of cookies may be formulated in the following way.", "Despite its descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion.", "Water in cakes serves to make the batter as thin as possible, the better to allow bubbles—responsible for a cake's fluffiness—to form.", "In the cookie the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil.", "Oils, whether in the form of butter, vegetable oils, or lard, are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a far higher temperature.", "Thus a cake made with butter or eggs in place of water is much denser after removal from the oven.Rather than evaporating as water does in a baking cake, oils in cookies remain.", "These oils saturate the cavities created during baking by bubbles of escaping gases.", "These gases are primarily composed of steam vaporized from the egg whites and the carbon dioxide released by heating the baking powder.", "This saturation produces the most texturally attractive feature of the cookie, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated with a moisture (namely oil) that does not render soggy the food it has soaked into." ], [ "History", "Thumbprint cookiesCookie-like hard wafers have existed for as long as baking is documented, in part because they survive travel very well, but they were usually not sweet enough to be considered cookies by modern standards.Cookies appear to have their origins in 7th century AD Persia, shortly after the use of sugar became relatively common in the region.", "They spread to Europe through the Muslim conquest of Spain.", "By the 14th century, they were common in all levels of society throughout Europe, from royal cuisine to street vendors.", "The first documented instance of the figure-shaped gingerbread man was at the court of Elizabeth I of England in the 16th century.", "She had the gingerbread figures made and presented in the likeness of some of her important guests.With global travel becoming widespread at that time, cookies made a natural travel companion, a modernized equivalent of the travel cakes used throughout history.", "One of the most popular early cookies, which traveled especially well and became known on every continent by similar names, was the jumble, a relatively hard cookie made largely from nuts, sweetener, and water.Cookies came to America through the Dutch in New Amsterdam in the late 1620s.", "The Dutch word \"\" was Anglicized to \"cookie\" or cooky.", "The earliest reference to cookies in America is in 1703, when \"The Dutch in New York provided...'in 1703...at a funeral 800 cookies...The modern form of cookies, which is based on creaming butter and sugar together, did not appear commonly until the 18th century.", "The Industrial Revolution in Britain and the consumers it created saw cookies (biscuits) become products for the masses, and firms such as Huntley & Palmers (formed in 1822), McVitie's (formed in 1830) and Carr's (formed in 1831) were all established.", "The decorative biscuit tin, invented by Huntley & Palmers in 1831, saw British cookies exported around the world.", "In 1891, Cadbury filed a patent for a chocolate-coated cookie.Bakarkhani cookie is part of Mughlai cuisine of the Indian subcontinent." ], [ "Classification", "Cookie dough ready to be put in the ovenCookies are broadly classified according to how they are formed or made, including at least these categories:* ''Bar cookies'' consist of batter or other ingredients that are poured or pressed into a pan (sometimes in multiple layers) and cut into cookie-sized pieces after baking.", "In British English, bar cookies are known as \"tray bakes\".", "Examples include brownies, fruit squares, and bars such as date squares.", "* ''Drop cookies'' are made from a relatively soft dough that is dropped by spoonfuls onto the baking sheet.", "During baking, the mounds of dough spread and flatten.", "Chocolate chip cookies (Toll House cookies), oatmeal raisin (or other oatmeal-based) cookies, and rock cakes are popular examples of drop cookies.", "This may also include ''thumbprint cookies'', for which a small central depression is created with a thumb or small spoon before baking to contain a filling, such as jam or a chocolate chip.", "In the UK, the term \"cookie\" often refers only to this particular type of product.", "* ''Filled cookies'' are made from a rolled cookie dough filled with a fruit, jam or confectionery filling before baking.", "Hamantashen are a filled cookie.", "* ''Molded cookies'' are also made from a stiffer dough that is molded into balls or cookie shapes by hand before baking.", "Snickerdoodles and peanut butter cookies are examples of molded cookies.", "Some cookies, such as hermits or biscotti, are molded into large flattened loaves that are later cut into smaller cookies.", "* ''No-bake cookies'' are made by mixing a filler, such as cereal or nuts, into a melted confectionery binder, shaping into cookies or bars, and allowing to cool or harden.", "Oatmeal clusters and rum balls are no-bake cookies.", "* ''Pressed cookies'' are made from a soft dough that is extruded from a cookie press into various decorative shapes before baking.", "Spritzgebäck is an example of a pressed cookie.", "* ''Refrigerator cookies'' (also known as ''icebox cookies'') are made from a stiff dough that is refrigerated to make the raw dough even stiffer before cutting and baking.", "The dough is typically shaped into cylinders which are sliced into round cookies before baking.", "Pinwheel cookies and those made by Pillsbury are representative.", "* ''Rolled cookies'' are made from a stiffer dough that is rolled out and cut into shapes with a cookie cutter.", "Gingerbread men are an example.", "* ''Sandwich cookies'' are rolled or pressed cookies that are assembled as a sandwich with a sweet filling.", "Fillings include marshmallow, jam, and icing.", "The Oreo cookie, made of two chocolate cookies with a vanilla icing filling, is an example.Finnish ''Domino'' cookiesOther types of cookies are classified for other reasons, such as their ingredients, size, or intended time of serving:* ''Breakfast cookies'' are typically larger, lower-sugar cookies filled with \"heart-healthy nuts and fiber-rich oats\" that are eaten as a quick breakfast snack.", "* ''Low-fat cookies'' or ''diet cookies'' typically have lower fat than regular cookies.", "* ''Raw cookie dough'' is served in some restaurants, though the eggs may be omitted since the dough is eaten raw, which could pose a salmonella risk if eggs were used.", "Cookie Dough Confections in New York City is a restaurant that has a range of raw cookie dough flavors, which are scooped into cups for customers like ice cream.", "* ''Skillet cookies'' are big cookies that are cooked in a cast-iron skillet and served warm, while they are still soft and chewy.", "They are either eaten straight from the pan or cut into wedges, often with vanilla ice cream on top.", "* ''Supersized cookies'' are large cookies such as the Panera Kitchen Sink Cookie.", "These very large cookies are sold at grocery stores, restaurants and coffeeshops.", "* ''Vegan cookies'' can be made with flour, sugar, nondairy milk and nondairy margarine.", "Aquafaba icing can used to decorate the cookies.", "*''Cookie cakes'' are made in a larger circular shape usually with writing made of frosting." ], [ "Reception", "Leah Ettman from Nutrition Action has criticized the high calorie count and fat content of supersized cookies, which are extra large cookies; she cites the Panera Kitchen Sink Cookie, a supersized chocolate chip cookie, which measures 5 1/2 inches in diameter and has 800 calories.", "For busy people who eat breakfast cookies in the morning, Kate Bratskeir from the ''Huffington Post'' recommends lower-sugar cookies filled with \"heart-healthy nuts and fiber-rich oats\".", "A book on nutrition by Paul Insel et al.", "notes that \"low-fat\" or \"diet cookies\" may have the same number of calories as regular cookies, due to added sugar." ], [ "Popular culture", "There are a number of slang usages of the term \"cookie\".", "The slang use of \"cookie\" to mean a person, \"especially an attractive woman\" is attested to in print since 1920.The catchphrase \"that's the way the cookie crumbles\", which means \"that's just the way things happen\" is attested to in print in 1955.Other slang terms include \"smart cookie\" and \"tough cookie.\"", "According to ''The Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms'', a smart cookie is \"someone who is clever and good at dealing with difficult situations.\"", "The word \"cookie\" has been vulgar slang for \"vagina\" in the US since 1970.The word \"cookies\" is used to refer to the contents of the stomach, often in reference to vomiting (e.g., \"pop your cookies\", a 1960s expression, or \"toss your cookies\", a 1970s expression).", "The expression \"cookie cutter\", in addition to referring literally to a culinary device used to cut rolled cookie dough into shapes, is also used metaphorically to refer to items or things \"having the same configuration or look as many others\" (e.g., a \"cookie cutter tract house\") or to label something as \"stereotyped or formulaic\" (e.g., an action movie filled with \"generic cookie cutter characters\").", "\"Cookie duster\" is a whimsical expression for a mustache.Cookie Monster is a Muppet on the children's television show ''Sesame Street.''", "He is best known for his voracious appetite for cookies and his famous eating phrases, such as \"Me want cookie!", "\", \"Me eat cookie!\"", "(or simply \"COOKIE!", "\"), and \"Om nom nom nom\" (said through a mouth full of food).Cookie Clicker is a game where you click a cookie." ], [ "Notable varieties", "* Alfajor* Angel Wings (Chruściki)* Animal cracker* Anzac biscuit* Berger cookie* Berner Haselnusslebkuchen* Biscotti* Biscuit rose de Reims* Black and white cookie* Blondie* Bourbon biscuit* Brownie* Butter cookie* Chocolate chip cookie* Chocolate-coated marshmallow treat* Congo bar* Digestive biscuit* Fat rascal* Fattigmann* Flies graveyard* Florentine biscuit* Fortune cookie* Fruit squares and bars (date, fig, lemon, raspberry, etc.", ")* Ginger snap* Gingerbread house* Gingerbread man* Graham cracker* Hamentashen* Hobnob biscuit* Joe Frogger* Jumble* Kifli* Koulourakia* Krumkake* Linzer cookie* Macaroon* Meringue* Nice biscuit* Oatmeal raisin cookie* Pastelito* Peanut butter blossom cookie* Peanut butter cookie* Pepparkakor* Pfeffernüsse* Pizzelle* Polvorón* Qurabiya* Rainbow cookie* Ranger Cookie* Rich tea* Riposteria* Rosette* Rum ball* Rusk* Russian tea cake* Rock cake* Sablé* Sandbakelse* Şekerpare* Shortbread* Snickerdoodle* Speculoos* Springerle* Spritzgebäck (Spritz)* Stroopwafel* Sugar cookie* Tea biscuit* Toruń gingerbread* Tuile* Wafer* Windmill cookie" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Maple spice cookies and thumbprint cookies.jpg|A variety of Maple spice cookies and thumbprint cookiesFile:Cookie Cake.JPG|A cookie cake is a large cookie that can be decorated with icing or fondant like a cake.", "This is made by Mrs. Fields.File:Heart shaped cookies.jpg|Hearts shaped Valentine's Day cookies adorned with icingFile:McVitie's chocolate digestive biscuit.jpg|A McVitie's chocolate digestive, a popular biscuit to dunk in tea/coffee in the UKFile:Fortune cookie.png|A fortune cookieFile:Meringue cookies.jpg|Meringue cookiesFile:Oreo-Two-Cookies.jpg|Commercially sold Oreo cookiesFile:Cookie stack.jpg|Choc-chip cookiesFile:Cookies being sold.jpg|A cookie shop, filled with a wide range of cookiesFile:CookieCuttersAl.jpg|Cookie cuttersFile:Chef's Cookie Deep Dish - 27682832174.jpg|A cookie dessert, topped with ice creamFile:Chocolate chip cookies.jpg|A plate of chocolate chip cookiesFile:Algerian_cookies.jpg|Algerian cookiesFile:Little heart-shaped cookies in West Bengal, India.jpg|Little heart-shaped cookies from India" ], [ "Related pastries and confections", "* Acıbadem kurabiyesi* Animal crackers* Berliner (pastry)* Bun* Candy* Cake* Churro* Cracker (food)* Cupcake* Danish pastry* Doughnut* Funnel cake* Galette* Graham cracker* Hershey's Cookies 'n' Creme* Kit Kat* Halvah* Ladyfinger (biscuit)* Lebkuchen* Mille-feuille* Marzipan* Mille-feuille (Napoleon)* Moon pie* Pastry* Palmier* Petit four* Rum ball* S'more* Snack cake* Tartlet* Teacake* Teething biscuit* Whoopie pie" ], [ "Manufacturers", "* Arnott's Biscuits* Bahlsen* Burton's Foods* D.F.", "Stauffer Biscuit Company* DeBeukelaer * Famous Amos (division of Ferrero)* Fazer* Fox's Biscuits* Interbake Foods* Jules Destrooper* Keebler* Lance* Lotte Confectionery (division of Lotte)* Lotus Bakeries* McKee Foods* Meiji Seika Kaisha Ltd.* Mrs. Fields* Nabisco (division of Mondelēz International)* Nestlé* Northern Foods* Otis Spunkmeyer (division of Aryzta)* Pillsbury (division of General Mills)* Pinnacle Foods* Pepperidge Farm (division of Campbell Soup Company)* Royal Dansk (division of Kelsen Group)* Sunshine Biscuits (historical)* United Biscuits* Walkers Shortbread* Utz Brands" ], [ "Product lines and brands", "* Animal Crackers (Nabisco, Keebler, Cadbury, Bahlsen, others)* Anna's (Lotus)* Archway Cookies (Lance)* Barnum's Animals (Nabisco)* Betty Crocker (General Mills, cookie mixes)* Biscoff (Lotus)* Chips Ahoy!", "(Nabisco)* Chips Deluxe (Keebler)* Danish Butter Cookies (Royal Dansk)* Duncan Hines (Pinnacle, cookie mixes)* Famous Amos (Kellogg)* Fig Newton (Nabisco)* Fox's Biscuits (Northern)* Fudge Shoppe (Keebler)* Girl Scout cookie (Keebler, Interbake)* Hello Panda (Meiji)* Hit (Bahlsen)* Hydrox (Sunshine, discontinued by Keebler)* Jaffa Cakes (McVitie)* Jammie Dodgers (United)* Koala's March (Lotte)* Leibniz-Keks (Bahlsen)* Little Debbie (McKee)* Lorna Doone (Nabisco)* Maryland Cookies (Burton's)* McVitie's (United)* Milano (Pepperidge Farm)* Nilla Wafers (Nabisco)* Nutter Butter (Nabisco)* Oreo (Nabisco)* Pillsbury (General Mills, cookie mixes)* Pecan Sandies (Keebler)* Peek Freans (United)* Pirouline (DeBeukelaer)* Stauffer's (Meiji)* Stella D'Oro (Lance)* Sunshine (Keebler)* Teddy Grahams (Nabisco)* Toll House (Nestle)* Tim Tam (Arnott's)* Vienna Fingers (Keebler)" ], [ "Miscellaneous", "* Christmas cookie* Cookie cutter* Cookie dough* Cookie exchange* Cookie Clicker* Cookie Monster* Cookie sheet* Cookie table* Cookies and cream* Girl Scout cookie" ], [ "See also", "* Dunking (biscuit)* List of baked goods* List of cookies** List of shortbread biscuits and cookies* List of desserts* Cookie Clicker" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Common Gateway Interface" ], [ "Introduction", "In computing, '''Common Gateway Interface''' ('''CGI''') is an interface specification that enables web servers to execute an external program to process HTTP or HTTPS user requests.Such programs are often written in a scripting language and are commonly referred to as ''CGI scripts'', but they may include compiled programs.A typical use case occurs when a web user submits a web form on a web page that uses CGI.", "The form's data is sent to the web server within an HTTP request with a URL denoting a CGI script.", "The web server then launches the CGI script in a new computer process, passing the form data to it.", "The output of the CGI script, usually in the form of HTML, is returned by the script to the Web server, and the server relays it back to the browser as its response to the browser's request.Developed in the early 1990s, CGI was the earliest common method available that allowed a web page to be interactive.", "Due to a necessity to run CGI scripts in a separate process every time the request comes in from a client, various alternatives were developed." ], [ "History", "The official CGI logo from the spec announcementIn 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) team wrote the specification for calling command line executables on the www-talk mailing list.", "The other Web server developers adopted it, and it has been a standard for Web servers ever since.", "A work group chaired by Ken Coar started in November 1997 to get the NCSA definition of CGI more formally defined.", "This work resulted in RFC 3875, which specified CGI Version 1.1.Specifically mentioned in the RFC are the following contributors:* Rob McCool (author of the NCSA HTTPd Web server)* John Franks (author of the GN Web server)* Ari Luotonen (the developer of the CERN httpd Web server)* Tony Sanders (author of the Plexus Web server)* George Phillips (Web server maintainer at the University of British Columbia)Historically CGI programs were often written using the C programming language.", "RFC 3875 \"The Common Gateway Interface (CGI)\" partially defines CGI using C, in saying that environment variables \"are accessed by the C library routine getenv() or variable environ\".The name CGI comes from the early days of the Web, where ''webmasters'' wanted to connect legacy information systems such as databases to their Web servers.", "The CGI program was executed by the server and provided a common \"gateway\" between the Web server and the legacy information system." ], [ "Purpose", "Traditionally a Web server has a directory which is designated as a document collection, that is, a set of files that can be sent to Web browsers connected to the server.", "For example, if a web server has the fully-qualified domain name www.example.com, and its document collection is stored at /usr/local/apache/htdocs/ in the local file system (its ''document root''), then the web server will respond to a request for by sending to the browser a copy of the file /usr/local/apache/htdocs/index.html (if it exists).For pages constructed on the fly, the server software may defer requests to separate programs and relay the results to the requesting client (usually, a Web browser that displays the page to the end user).Such programs usually require some additional information to be specified with the request, such as query strings or cookies.", "Conversely, upon returning, the script must provide all the information required by HTTP for a response to the request: the HTTP status of the request, the document content (if available), the document type (e.g.", "HTML, PDF, or plain text), et cetera.Initially, there were no standardized methods for data exchange between a browser, the HTTP server with which it was communicating and the scripts on the server that were expected to process the data and ultimately return a result to the browser.", "As a result, mutual incompatibilities existed between different HTTP server variants that undermined script portability.Recognition of this problem led to the specification of how data exchange was to be carried out, resulting in the development of CGI.", "Web page-generating programs invoked by server software that adheres to the CGI specification are known as ''CGI scripts'', even though they may actually have been written in a non-scripting language, such as C.The CGI specification was quickly adopted and continues to be supported by all well-known HTTP server packages, such as Apache, Microsoft IIS, and (with an extension) node.js-based servers.An early use of CGI scripts was to process forms.", "In the beginning of HTML, HTML forms typically had an \"action\" attribute and a button designated as the \"submit\" button.", "When the submit button is pushed the URI specified in the \"action\" attribute would be sent to the server with the data from the form sent as a query string.", "If the \"action\" specifies a CGI script then the CGI script would be executed, the script in turn generating an HTML page." ], [ "Deployment", "A Web server that supports CGI can be configured to interpret a URL that it serves as a reference to a CGI script.", "A common convention is to have a cgi-bin/ directory at the base of the directory tree and treat all executable files within this directory (and no other, for security) as CGI scripts.", "When a Web browser requests a URL that points to a file within the CGI directory (e.g., ), then, instead of simply sending that file (/usr/local/apache/htdocs/cgi-bin/printenv.pl) to the Web browser, the HTTP server runs the specified script and passes the output of the script to the Web browser.", "That is, anything that the script sends to standard output is passed to the Web client instead of being shown in the terminal window that started the web server.", "Another popular convention is to use filename extensions; for instance, if CGI scripts are consistently given the extension .cgi, the Web server can be configured to interpret all such files as CGI scripts.", "While convenient, and required by many prepackaged scripts, it opens the server to attack if a remote user can upload executable code with the proper extension.The CGI specification defines how additional information passed with the request is passed to the script.", "The Web server creates a subset of the environment variables passed to it and adds details pertinent to the HTTP environment.", "For instance, if a slash and additional directory name(s) are appended to the URL immediately after the name of the script (in this example, /with/additional/path), then that path is stored in the PATH_INFO environment variable before the script is called.", "If parameters are sent to the script via an HTTP GET request (a question mark appended to the URL, followed by param=value pairs; in the example, ?and=a&query=string), then those parameters are stored in the QUERY_STRING environment variable before the script is called.", "Request HTTP message body, such as form parameters sent via an HTTP POST request, are passed to the script's standard input.", "The script can then read these environment variables or data from standard input and adapt to the Web browser's request." ], [ "Uses", "CGI is often used to process input information from the user and produce the appropriate output.", "An example of a CGI program is one implementing a wiki.", "If the user agent requests the name of an entry, the Web server executes the CGI program.", "The CGI program retrieves the source of that entry's page (if one exists), transforms it into HTML, and prints the result.", "The Web server receives the output from the CGI program and transmits it to the user agent.", "Then if the user agent clicks the \"Edit page\" button, the CGI program populates an HTML textarea or other editing control with the page's contents.", "Finally if the user agent clicks the \"Publish page\" button, the CGI program transforms the updated HTML into the source of that entry's page and saves it." ], [ "Security", "CGI programs run, by default, in the security context of the Web server.", "When first introduced a number of example scripts were provided with the reference distributions of the NCSA, Apache and CERN Web servers to show how shell scripts or C programs could be coded to make use of the new CGI.", "One such example script was a CGI program called PHF that implemented a simple phone book.In common with a number of other scripts at the time, this script made use of a function: escape_shell_cmd().", "The function was supposed to sanitize its argument, which came from user input and then pass the input to the Unix shell, to be run in the security context of the Web server.", "The script did not correctly sanitize all input and allowed new lines to be passed to the shell, which effectively allowed multiple commands to be run.", "The results of these commands were then displayed on the Web server.", "If the security context of the Web server allowed it, malicious commands could be executed by attackers.This was the first widespread example of a new type of Web based attack called code injection, where unsanitized data from Web users could lead to execution of code on a Web server.", "Because the example code was installed by default, attacks were widespread and led to a number of security advisories in early 1996." ], [ "Alternatives", "For each incoming HTTP request, a Web server creates a new CGI process for handling it and destroys the CGI process after the HTTP request has been handled.", "Creating and destroying a process can be expensive: consume CPU time and memory resources than the actual work of generating the output of the process, especially when the CGI program still needs to be interpreted by a virtual machine.", "For a high number of HTTP requests, the resulting workload can quickly overwhelm the Web server.The computational overhead involved in CGI process creation and destruction can be reduced by the following techniques:* CGI programs precompiled to machine code, e.g.", "precompiled from C or C++ programs, rather than CGI programs executed by an interpreter, e.g.", "Perl, PHP or Python programs.", "* Web server extensions such as Apache modules (e.g.", "mod_perl, mod_php and mod_python), NSAPI plugins, and ISAPI plugins which allow long-running application processes handling more than one request and hosted within the Web server.", "* FastCGI, SCGI, and AJP which allow long-running application processes handling more than one request to be hosted externally; i.e., separately from the Web server.", "Each application process listens on a socket; the Web server handles an HTTP request and sends it via another protocol (FastCGI, SCGI or AJP) to the socket only for dynamic content, while static content is usually handled directly by the Web server.", "This approach needs fewer application processes so consumes less memory than the Web server extension approach.", "And unlike converting an application program to a Web server extension, FastCGI, SCGI, and AJP application programs remain independent of the Web server.", "* Jakarta EE runs Jakarta Servlet applications in a Web container to serve dynamic content and optionally static content which replaces the overhead of creating and destroying processes with the much lower overhead of creating and destroying threads.", "It also exposes the programmer to the library that comes with Java SE on which the version of Jakarta EE in use is based.", "* Standalone HTTP Server* Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) is a modern approach written in the Python programming language.", "It is defined by PEP 3333 and implemented via various methods like mod_wsgi (Apache module), Gunicorn web server (in between of Nginx & Scripts/Frameworks like Django), UWSGI, etc.The optimal configuration for any Web application depends on application-specific details, amount of traffic, and complexity of the transaction; these trade-offs need to be analyzed to determine the best implementation for a given task and time budget.", "Web frameworks offer an alternative to using CGI scripts to interact with user agents." ], [ "See also", "* * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Invention of CGI* CGI Programming 101: Learn CGI Today!, a CGI tutorial" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Choctaw" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Choctaw''' () are a Native American people originally based in the Southeastern Woodlands, in what is now Alabama and Mississippi.", "Their Choctaw language is a Western Muskogean language.", "Today, Choctaw people are enrolled in three federally recognized tribes: the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, and Jena Band of Choctaw Indians in Louisiana.The Choctaw were first noted by Europeans in French written records of 1675.Their mother mound is Nanih Waiya, a great earthwork platform mound located in central-east Mississippi.", "Early Spanish explorers of the mid-16th century in the Southeast encountered ancestral Mississippian culture villages and chiefs.The Choctaw coalesced as a people in the 17th century and developed at least three distinct political and geographical divisions: eastern, western, and southern.", "These different groups sometimes created distinct, independent alliances with nearby European powers.", "These included the French, based on the Gulf Coast and in Louisiana; the English of the Southeast, and the Spanish of Florida and Louisiana during the colonial era.Most Choctaw allied with the Americans during the American Revolution, War of 1812, and the Red Stick War, most notably at the Battle of New Orleans.", "European Americans considered the Choctaw to be one of the \"Five Civilized Tribes\" of the Southeast.", "The Choctaw and the United States agreed to a total of nine treaties.", "By the last three, the US gained vast land cessions in the Southeast.", "As part of Indian Removal, despite not having waged war against the United States, the majority of Choctaw were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory from 1831 to 1833.The Choctaw government in Indian Territory had three districts, each with its own chief, who together with the town chiefs sat on their National Council.Those Choctaw who chose to stay in the state of Mississippi were considered state and U.S. citizens; they were one of the first major non-European ethnic groups to be granted citizenship.", "Article 14 in the 1830 treaty with the Choctaw stated Choctaws may wish to become citizens of the United States under the 14th Article of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek on all of the combined lands which were consolidated under Article I from all previous treaties between the United States and the Choctaw.During the American Civil War, the Choctaw in both Indian Territory and Mississippi mostly sided with the Confederate States of America.", "Under the late 19th-century Dawes Act and Curtis Acts, the US federal government broke up tribal land holdings and dissolved tribal governments in Indian Territory in order to extinguish Indian land claims before admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1907.From that period, for several decades the US Bureau of Indian Affairs appointed chiefs of the Choctaw and other tribes in the former Indian Territory.During World War I, Choctaw soldiers served in the US military as some of the first Native American codetalkers, using the Choctaw language.", "Since the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the Choctaw people in three areas have reconstituted their governments and gained federal recognition.", "The largest are the Choctaw Nation in Oklahoma.Since the 20th century, the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians were federally recognized in 1945, the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma in 1971, and the Jena Band of Choctaw Indians in 1995." ], [ "Etymology", "The Choctaw autonym is Chahta.", "''Choctaw'' is an anglization of ''Chahta'', whose meaning is unknown.", "The anthropologist John R. Swanton suggested that the Choctaw derived their name from an early leader.", "Henry Halbert, a historian, suggests that their name is derived from the Choctaw phrase ''Hacha hatak'' (river people)." ], [ "History" ], [ "Culture", "''Tullockchishko'' (Drinks the Juice of the Stones) was the greatest of Choctaw stickball players, 1834.The Choctaw people are believed to have coalesced in the 17th century, perhaps from peoples from Alabama and the Plaquemine culture.", "Their culture continued to evolve in the Southeast.", "The Choctaw practiced head flattening as a ritual adornment for its people, but the practice eventually fell out of favor.", "Some of their communities had extensive trade and interaction with Europeans, including people from Spain, France, and England greatly shaped it as well.", "After the United States was formed and its settlers began to move into the Southeast, the Choctaw were among the Five Civilized Tribes, who adopted some of their ways.", "They transitioned to yeoman farming methods, and accepted European Americans and African Americans into their society.", "In mid-summer the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians celebrate their traditional culture during the Choctaw Indian Fair with ball games, dancing, cooking and entertainment.===Clans===Within the Choctaws were two distinct moieties: ''Imoklashas'' (elders) and ''Inhulalatas'' (youth).", "Each moiety had several clans or ''Iksas''; it is estimated there were about 12 Iksas altogether.", "The people had a matrilineal kinship system, with children born into the clan or iksa of the mother and taking their social status from it.", "In this system, their maternal uncles had important roles.", "Identity was established first by moiety and iksa; so a Choctaw first identified as Imoklasha or Inhulata, and second as Choctaw.", "Children belonged to the Iksa of their mother.", "The following were some major districts:* Okla Hannalli (people of six towns)* Okla Tannap (people from the other side)* Okla Fayala (people who are widely dispersed)By the early 1930s, the anthropologist John Swanton wrote of the Choctaw: \"There are only the faintest traces of groups with truly totemic designations, the animal and plant names which occur seeming not to have had a totemic connotation.", "\"Swanton wrote, \"Adam Hodgson ... told ... that there were tribes or families among the Indians, somewhat similar to the Scottish clans; such as, the Panther family, the Bird family, Raccoon Family, the Wolf family.\"", "The following are possible totemic clan designations:* Wind* Bear* Deer* Wolf* Panther* Holly Leaf* Bird* Raccoon* Crawfish===Games===A Mississippian era engraved shell discovered at Eddyville, Kentucky Choctaw stickball, the oldest field sport in North America, was also known as the \"little brother of war\" because of its roughness and substitution for war.", "When disputes arose between Choctaw communities, stickball provided a civil way to settle issues.", "The stickball games would involve as few as twenty or as many as 300 players.", "The goal posts could be from a few hundred feet apart to a few miles.", "Goal posts were sometimes located within each opposing team's village.", "A Jesuit priest referenced stickball in 1729, and George Catlin painted the subject.", "The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians continue to practice the sport.Chunkey was a game using a disk-shaped stone that was about 1–2 inches in length.Players would throw the disk down a corridor so that it could roll past the players at great speed.", "As the disk rolled down the corridor, players would throw wooden shafts at it.", "The object of the game was to strike the disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it.Other games included using corn, cane, and moccasins.", "The corn game used five to seven kernels of corn.", "One side was blackened and the other side white.", "Players won points based on each color.", "One point was awarded for the black side and 5–7 points for the white side.", "There were usually only two players.===Language===Modern geographic distribution of the Choctaw language.The Choctaw language is a member of the Muskogean family and was well known among the frontiersmen, such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison, of the early 19th century.", "The language is closely related to Chickasaw, and some linguists consider the two as dialects of a single language.", "The Choctaw language is the essence of tribal culture, tradition, and identity.", "Many Choctaw adults learned to speak the language before speaking English.", "The language is a part of daily life on the Mississippi Choctaw reservation.", "The following table is an example of Choctaw text and its translation: '''Chahta Anumpa''': Hattak yuka keyu hokυtto yakohmit itibachυfat hieli kυt, nan isht imaiυlhpiesa atokmυt itilawashke; yohmi ha hattak nana hohkia, keyukmυt kanohmi hohkia okla moma nana isht aim aiυlhpiesa, micha isht aimaiυlhtoba he aima ka kanohmi bano hosh isht ik imaiυlhpieso kashke.", "Amba moma kυt nana isht imachukma chi ho tuksυli hokmakashke.", "'''English language''': That all free men, when they form a special compact, are equal in rights, and that no man or set of men are entitled to exclusive, separate public emolument or privileges from the community, but in consideration of public services.===Religion===The Choctaw believed in a good spirit and an evil spirit.", "They may have been sun, or ''Hvshtahli'', worshippers.", "The historian John Swanton wrote,The word ''nanpisa'' (the one who sees) expressed the reverence the Choctaw had for the sun.Choctaw prophets were known to have addressed the sun.", "John Swanton wrote, \"an old Choctaw informed Wright that before the arrival of the missionaries, they had no conception of prayer.", "He added, \"I have indeed heard it asserted by some, that anciently their hopaii, or prophets, on some occasions were accustomed to address the sun ...\"===Traditional clothing===Mississippi Choctaw group wearing traditional garb, c. 1908.The colorful dresses worn by today's Choctaw are made by hand.", "They are based on designs of their ancestors, who adapted 19th-century European-American styles to their needs.", "Today many Choctaw wear such traditional clothing mainly for special events.", "Choctaw elders, especially the women, dress in their traditional garb every day.", "Choctaw dresses are trimmed by full diamond, half diamond or circle, and crosses that represent stickball sticks.===Communal economy===Early Choctaw communities worked communally and shared their harvest.", "They had trouble understanding why English settlers allowed their poor to suffer from hunger.", "In Ireland, the generosity of the Choctaw nation during their Great Famine in the mid-nineteenth century is remembered to this day and recently marked by a sculpture, 'Kindred Spirits', in a park at Midleton, Cork." ], [ "Treaties", "Land was the most valuable asset, which the Native Americans held in collective stewardship.", "The United States systematically obtained Choctaw land for conventional European-American settlement through treaties, legislation, and threats of warfare.", "Although the Choctaw made treaties with Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Confederate States of America; the nation signed only nine treaties with the United States.", "Some treaties which the US made with other nations, such as the Treaty of San Lorenzo, indirectly affected the Choctaw." ], [ "Reservations", "Reservations can be found in Louisiana (Jena Band of Choctaw Indians), Mississippi (Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians), and Oklahoma (Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma).", "The Oklahoma reservation is defined by treaty.", "Other population centers can be found throughout the United States." ], [ "Influential leaders", "* Tuscaloosa (died October 1540) retaliated against Hernando de Soto at the Battle of Mabilia.", "The battle was the first major conflict in North America between Native Americans and Europeans.", "* Franchimastabe (died 19th century) was a transitional benefactor and a contemporary of Taboca.", "To some Americans he was the \"leading chief of the Choctaws.\"", "He led a war party with British forces against American rebels.", "Franchasmatabe attended the treaty talks of 1801 near Mobile, Alabama.", "* Taboca (died 19th century) was a traditional \"prophet-chief\" who led a delegation starting in October 1785 to Hopewell, South Carolina.", "* Apuckshunubbee (–1824) was chief of the Okla Falaya (Tall People) district in old Choctaw nation.", "He died in Kentucky on his way to Washington D.C. to conduct negotiations.", "* Pushmataha (Apushmataha) (1760s–December 24, 1824) was a chief in old Choctaw nation.", "He negotiated treaties with the United States and fought on the American's side in the War of 1812.He died in Washington D.C. and is buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington D.C.* Mosholatubbee (1770–1836) was a chief in the Choctaw nation before the removal and after.", "He went to Washington City to negotiate for the tribe in 1824 and was the only major leader to return.", "In the summer of 1830, he ran for a seat in the Congress of the United States to represent the state of Mississippi.", "* Greenwood LeFlore (June 3, 1800 – August 31, 1865) was a District Chief of the Choctaws in Mississippi.", "He was an influential state representative and senator in Mississippi.", "* George W. Harkins (1810–1890) was a district Choctaw chief in Indian Territory (1850–1857) prior to the Civil War and author of the \"Farewell Letter to the American People\".", "* Peter Pitchlynn (January 30, 1806 – January 17, 1881) was a highly influential leader during the removal era and long after.", "He represented the Choctaws in Washington D.C. for some years and is buried in the Congressional Cemetery.", "Charles Dickens described him \"as stately and complete a gentleman of nature's making as ever I beheld.", "\"* Wesley Johnson ( – 1925) was elected chief on May 10, 1913, in Meridian, Mississippi.", "He would lead the Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana Choctaw Council's delegation to Washington, D. C. in February 1914 where he met President Woodrow Wilson and many members of congress.", "There he expressed the dire situation of the Mississippi Choctaws.", "Wesley Johnson represented the Alabama Delegation from Southwest Alabama in Mobile and Washington Counties.", "Wesley Johnson was also known as Wesley Wakatubee.", "* Phillip Martin (March 13, 1926 – February 4, 2010) was the Chief of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians from 1979 to 2007 and worked in tribal government for over fifty years.", "He encouraged outside investment and reduced unemployment to nearly 0% on the reservation." ], [ "See also", "* William Bartram* Chato people* Choctaw culture* Choctaw mythology* Choctaw Trail of Tears* Cyrus Byington* Gideon Lincecum* Steven Charleston* List of Choctaw Treaties* List of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expedition* okay (\"okeh\", etymology)* Bulbancha=== References===" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Patricia Galloway and Clara Sue Kidwell.", "\"Choctaw in the East.\"", "In ''Handbook of North American Indians: Vol.", "14, Southeast.''", "Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor.", "Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004: 499–519.", "* * Akers, Donna L. ''Living in the Land of Death: The Choctaw Nation, 1830–1860'', Lansing: Michigan State University, 2004.", "* Barnett Jr., James F. ''Mississippi's American Indians.''", "Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 2012.", "* Bartram, William.", "''Travels Through...Country of the Chactaws...'', Florida: printed by James & Johnson, 1791.", "* * Bushnell, David I.", "''Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 48: The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana.''", "Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1909.", "* Byington, Cyrus.", "''Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 46: A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language.''", "Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1915.", "* Carson, James Taylor.", "''Searching for the Bright Path: The Mississippi Choctaws from Prehistory to Removal''.", "Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.", "* * * Haag, Marcia and Henry Willis.", "''Choctaw Language & Culture: Chahta Anumpa''.", "Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001.", "* Hurley, Patrick J.(1883).", "National Atty.", "for Choctaw Nation \"Choctaw Citizenship Litigation.", "* Jimmie, Randy and Jimmie, Leonard.", "''NANIH WAIYA Magazine, 1974, Vol I, Number 3''.", "* Kidwell, Clara Sue.", "''Choctaws and Missionaries in Mississippi, 1818–1918''.", "University of Oklahoma Press: Norman and London, 1995.", "* Kidwell, Clara Sue.", "''The Choctaws in Oklahoma: From Tribe to Nation, 1855–1970'' 2007.", "* Lambert, Valerie.", "''Choctaw Nation: A Story of American Indian Resurgence.''", "U. of Nebraska Press, 2007.", "* Lincecum, Gideon.", "''Pushmataha: A Choctaw Leader and His People''.", "Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004.", "* Lincecum, Gideon.", "''Traditional History of the Chahta Nation, Translated from the Chahta by Gideon Lincecum, 1861''.", "University of Texas Library, March 1932.", "* * * * O'Brien, Greg.", "''Choctaws in a Revolutionary Age, 1750–1830''.", "Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.", "* O'Brien, Greg, ed.", "''Pre-removal Choctaw History: Exploring New Paths''.", "Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008.", "* O'Brien, Greg. \"", "Mushulatubbee and Choctaw Removal: Chiefs Confront a Changing World.\"", "2001.", "* O'Brien, Greg. \"", "Pushmataha: Choctaw Warrior, Diplomat, and Chief.\"", "2001.", "* Pesantubbee, Michelene E. ''Choctaw Women in a Chaotic World: The Clash of Cultures in the Colonial Southeast.''", "Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico, 2005.", "* * * Wells, Samuel J., and Tubby, Roseanna (Editors).", "''After Removal, The Choctaw in Mississippi.''", "Jackson and London: University Press of Mississippi, 1986..* * Mississippi Choctaw Reservation and Off-Reservation Trust Land, Mississippi United States Census Bureau" ], [ "External links", "=== Choctaw governments ===* Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma (official site)* Jena Band of Choctaw Indians (official site)* Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians (official site)=== History and culture ===* Choctaw Indian Fair* \"Choctaws\" by Dr. D.L.", "Birchfield* * Choctaw, Oklahoma Historical Society* J. L. Hargett Collection of Choctaw Nation Papers.", "Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Calypso" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Calypso''', '''Calipso''' or '''Kalypso''' may refer to:" ], [ "Greek mythology", "* Calypso (mythology), a nymph who imprisoned Odysseus for seven years* Calypso (nymphs), various other nymphs" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "=== Books ===* \"Calypso\" (''Ulysses'' episode), an episode in James Joyce's novel ''Ulysses''* ''Calypso'' (book), a 2018 essay collection by David Sedaris* Calypso (comics), a Marvel Comics character* Calypso, a character in Rick Riordan's Camp Half-Blood Chronicles=== Music ===* Calypso music, a genre of Trinidadian folk music* ''Calypso'' (album), by Harry Belafonte* Banda Calypso, a Brazilian musical duo==== Songs ====* \"Calypso\" (John Denver song), written as a tribute to Jacques-Yves Cousteau and his research ship ''Calypso''* \"Calypso\" (Luis Fonsi and Stefflon Don song), 2018* \"Calypso\" (Spiderbait song), a 1997 single by Australian alt-rock band Spiderbait* \"Calypso\", a song by France Gall from ''Débranche!", "''* \"Calypso\", a song by Jean-Michel Jarre from ''Waiting for Cousteau''* \"Calypso\", a song by Suzanne Vega from ''Solitude Standing''* \"Calipso\" (song), a 2019 song by Charlie Charles and Dardust featuring Sfera Ebbasta, Mahmood and Fabri Fibra=== Television and film ===* \"Calypso\" (''Star Trek: Short Treks''), an episode of ''Star Trek: Short Treks''* ''Calypso'' (TV series), a Venezuelan telenovela* Calypso, a ''Pirates of the Caribbean'' movie character* \"Calypso\" (''Bluey''), an episode of the first season of the animated TV series ''Bluey''=== Video games ===* Calypso, a character from the ''Twisted Metal'' video game series* UNS ''Calypso'', a fictional starship commanded by the player in the 1994 science-fiction strategy game ''Alien Legacy''" ], [ "Business", "* Calypso (camera), an underwater camera — a precursor to the Nikonos camera* Calypso (electronic ticketing system), an electronic ticketing system for public transport* Calypso (email client), later called Courier* Calypso Park, a Canadian theme waterpark* Calypso Technology, an American financial services application software company* Ultracraft Calypso, a Belgian light aircraft design* Kalypso Media, a video game developer" ], [ "People", "* Calypso (painter), 3rd century BC Greek painter" ], [ "Places", "* Calypso Cliffs, rocky cliffs on the Antarctic Peninsula* Calypso Deep, the deepest point of the Mediterranean Sea* Calypso, North Carolina, a town in the United States" ], [ "Plants", "* ''Calypso'' (plant), an orchid genus containing a single species ''Calypso bulbosa''* Calypso bean, a kidney bean hybrid also known as the pickle bean, orca bean or yin yang bean" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Calypso (moon), a moon of Saturn* 53 Kalypso, an asteroid* ''Calypso'', a name given to the CST-100 Starliner spacecraft used for the 2019 Boeing Orbital Flight Test* CALIPSO, NASA's \"Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations\" satellite* Kalypso (software), an open source modelling software" ], [ "Ships", "* , various French Navy ships* HMS ''Calypso'', various British Royal Navy ships* USS ''Calypso'', various United States Navy ships* MS ''The Calypso'', a cruise ship* MV ''Calypsoland'', a ferry of E. Zammit & Sons Ltd and later the Gozo Channel Line between 1969 and 1984* RV ''Calypso'', an oceanographic research ship operated by Jacques-Yves Cousteau" ], [ "See also", "* Calypso's Cave, a cave in Gozo, Malta* Chalypso, a dance" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chemical affinity" ], [ "Introduction", "In chemical physics and physical chemistry, '''chemical affinity''' is the electronic property by which dissimilar chemical species are capable of forming chemical compounds.", "Chemical affinity can also refer to the tendency of an atom or compound to combine by chemical reaction with atoms or compounds of unlike composition." ], [ "History", "===Early theories===The idea of ''affinity'' is extremely old.", "Many attempts have been made at identifying its origins.", "The majority of such attempts, however, except in a general manner, end in futility since \"affinities\" lie at the basis of all magic, thereby pre-dating science.", "Physical chemistry, however, was one of the first branches of science to study and formulate a \"theory of affinity\".", "The name ''affinitas'' was first used in the sense of chemical relation by German philosopher Albertus Magnus near the year 1250.Later, those as Robert Boyle, John Mayow, Johann Glauber, Isaac Newton, and Georg Stahl put forward ideas on elective affinity in attempts to explain how heat is evolved during combustion reactions.The term ''affinity'' has been used figuratively since c. 1600 in discussions of structural relationships in chemistry, philology, etc., and reference to \"natural attraction\" is from 1616.", "\"Chemical affinity\", historically, has referred to the \"force\" that causes chemical reactions.", "as well as, more generally, and earlier, the ″tendency to combine″ of any pair of substances.", "The broad definition, used generally throughout history, is that chemical affinity is that whereby substances enter into or resist decomposition.", "The modern term chemical affinity is a somewhat modified variation of its eighteenth-century precursor \"elective affinity\" or elective attractions, a term that was used by the 18th century chemistry lecturer William Cullen.", "Whether Cullen coined the phrase is not clear, but his usage seems to predate most others, although it rapidly became widespread across Europe, and was used in particular by the Swedish chemist Torbern Olof Bergman throughout his book (1775).", "Affinity theories were used in one way or another by most chemists from around the middle of the 18th century into the 19th century to explain and organise the different combinations into which substances could enter and from which they could be retrieved.", "Antoine Lavoisier, in his famed 1789 ''Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elements of Chemistry)'', refers to Bergman's work and discusses the concept of elective affinities or attractions.According to chemistry historian Henry Leicester, the influential 1923 textbook ''Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Reactions'' by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall led to the replacement of the term \"affinity\" by the term \"free energy\" in much of the English-speaking world.According to Prigogine, the term was introduced and developed by Théophile de Donder.Goethe used the concept in his novel ''Elective Affinities'' (1809).=== Visual representations ===Geoffroy's ''Affinity Table'' (1718): At the head of the column is a substance with which all the substances below can combine, where each column below the header is ranked by degrees of \"affinity\"The affinity concept was very closely linked to the visual representation of substances on a table.", "The first-ever ''affinity table'', which was based on displacement reactions, was published in 1718 by the French chemist Étienne François Geoffroy.", "Geoffroy's name is best known in connection with these tables of \"affinities\" (''tables des rapports''), which were first presented to the French Academy of Sciences in 1718 and 1720.During the 18th century many versions of the table were proposed with leading chemists like Torbern Bergman in Sweden and Joseph Black in Scotland adapting it to accommodate new chemical discoveries.", "All the tables were essentially lists, prepared by collating observations on the actions of substances one upon another, showing the varying degrees of affinity exhibited by analogous bodies for different reagents.Crucially, the table was the central graphic tool used to teach chemistry to students and its visual arrangement was often combined with other kinds diagrams.", "Joseph Black, for example, used the table in combination with chiastic and circlet diagrams to visualise the core principles of chemical affinity.", "Affinity tables were used throughout Europe until the early 19th century when they were displaced by affinity concepts introduced by Claude Berthollet." ], [ "Modern conceptions", "In chemical physics and physical chemistry, chemical affinity is the electronic property by which dissimilar chemical species are capable of forming chemical compounds.", "Chemical affinity can also refer to the tendency of an atom or compound to combine by chemical reaction with atoms or compounds of unlike composition.In modern terms, we relate affinity to the phenomenon whereby certain atoms or molecules have the tendency to aggregate or bond.", "For example, in the 1919 book ''Chemistry of Human Life'' physician George W. Carey states that, \"Health depends on a proper amount of iron phosphate Fe3(PO4)2 in the blood, for the molecules of this salt have chemical affinity for oxygen and carry it to all parts of the organism.\"", "In this antiquated context, chemical affinity is sometimes found synonymous with the term \"magnetic attraction\".", "Many writings, up until about 1925, also refer to a \"law of chemical affinity\".Ilya Prigogine summarized the concept of affinity, saying, \"All chemical reactions drive the system to a state of equilibrium in which the ''affinities'' of the reactions vanish.\"" ], [ "Thermodynamics", "The present IUPAC definition is that affinity ''A'' is the negative partial derivative of Gibbs free energy ''G'' with respect to extent of reaction ''ξ'' at constant pressure and temperature.", "That is,:It follows that affinity is positive for spontaneous reactions.In 1923, the Belgian mathematician and physicist Théophile de Donder derived a relation between affinity and the Gibbs free energy of a chemical reaction.", "Through a series of derivations, de Donder showed that if we consider a mixture of chemical species with the possibility of chemical reaction, it can be proven that the following relation holds::With the writings of Théophile de Donder as precedent, Ilya Prigogine and Defay in ''Chemical Thermodynamics'' (1954) defined chemical affinity as the rate of change of the uncompensated heat of reaction ''Q''' as the reaction progress variable or reaction extent ''ξ'' grows infinitesimally::This definition is useful for quantifying the factors responsible both for the state of equilibrium systems (where ), and for changes of state of non-equilibrium systems (where ''A'' ≠ 0)." ], [ "See also", "*Chemistry*Chemical bond*Electronegativity*Electron affinity*Étienne François Geoffroy — Geoffroy's 1718 Affinity Table*Valency*Affinity chromatography*Affinity electrophoresis" ], [ "References" ], [ "Literature", "*" ], [ "External links", "* William Whewell.", "\"Establishment and Development of the Idea of Chemical Affinity\".", "''History of Scientific Ideas''.", "2:15ff.", "* Chemical Affinity and Absolute Zero - 1920 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Presentation Speech by Gerard De Geer" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Comet Hale–Bopp" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Comet Hale–Bopp''' (formally designated '''C/1995 O1''') is a comet that was one of the most widely observed of the 20th century and one of the brightest seen for many decades.Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp discovered Comet Hale–Bopp separately on July 23, 1995, before it became visible to the naked eye.", "It is difficult to predict the maximum brightness of new comets with any degree of certainty, but Hale–Bopp exceeded most predictions when it passed perihelion on April 1, 1997, reaching about magnitude −1.8.It was visible to the naked eye for a record 18 months, due to its massive nucleus size.", "This is twice as long as the Great Comet of 1811, the previous record holder.", "Accordingly, Hale–Bopp was dubbed the great comet of 1997." ], [ "Discovery", "The comet was discovered independently on July 23, 1995, by two observers, Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp, both in the United States.Hale had spent many hundreds of hours searching for comets without success, and was tracking known comets from his driveway in New Mexico when he chanced upon Hale–Bopp just after midnight.", "The comet had an apparent magnitude of 10.5 and lay near the globular cluster M70 in the constellation of Sagittarius.", "Hale first established that there was no other deep-sky object near M70, and then consulted a directory of known comets, finding that none were known to be in this area of the sky.", "Once he had established that the object was moving relative to the background stars, he emailed the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, the clearing house for astronomical discoveries.Bopp did not own a telescope.", "He was out with friends near Stanfield, Arizona, observing star clusters and galaxies when he chanced across the comet while at the eyepiece of his friend's telescope.", "He realized he might have spotted something new when, like Hale, he checked his star maps to determine if any other deep-sky objects were known to be near M70, and found that there were none.", "He alerted the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams through a Western Union telegram.", "Brian G. Marsden, who had run the bureau since 1968, laughed, \"Nobody sends telegrams anymore.", "I mean, by the time that telegram got here, Alan Hale had already e-mailed us three times with updated coordinates.", "\"The following morning, it was confirmed that this was a new comet, and it was given the designation C/1995 O1.The discovery was announced in International Astronomical Union circular 6187." ], [ "Early observation", "Hale–Bopp's orbital position was calculated as 7.2 astronomical units (au) from the Sun, placing it between Jupiter and Saturn and by far the greatest distance from Earth at which a comet had been discovered by amateurs.", "Most comets at this distance are extremely faint, and show no discernible activity, but Hale–Bopp already had an observable coma.", "A precovery image taken at the UK Schmidt Telescope in 1993 was found to show the then-unnoticed comet some 13 au from the Sun, a distance at which most comets are essentially unobservable.", "(Halley's Comet was more than 100 times fainter at the same distance from the Sun.)", "Analysis indicated later that its comet nucleus was 60±20 kilometres in diameter, approximately six times the size of Halley's Comet.Its great distance and surprising activity indicated that comet Hale–Bopp might become very bright when it reached perihelion in 1997.However, comet scientists were wary – comets can be extremely unpredictable, and many have large outbursts at great distance only to diminish in brightness later.", "Comet Kohoutek in 1973 had been touted as a 'comet of the century' and turned out to be unspectacular." ], [ "Perihelion", "The comet became a spectacular sight in early 1997.Star map of path with 14-day motion markedHale–Bopp became visible to the naked eye in May 1996, and although its rate of brightening slowed considerably during the latter half of that year, scientists were still cautiously optimistic that it would become very bright.", "It was too closely aligned with the Sun to be observable during December 1996, but when it reappeared in January 1997 it was already bright enough to be seen by anyone who looked for it, even from large cities with light-polluted skies.The Internet was a growing phenomenon at the time, and numerous websites that tracked the comet's progress and provided daily images from around the world became extremely popular.", "The Internet played a large role in encouraging the unprecedented public interest in comet Hale–Bopp.As the comet approached the Sun, it continued to brighten, shining at 2nd magnitude in February, and showing a growing pair of tails, the blue gas tail pointing straight away from the Sun and the yellowish dust tail curving away along its orbit.", "On March 9, a solar eclipse in China, Mongolia and eastern Siberia allowed observers there to see the comet in the daytime.", "Hale–Bopp had its closest approach to Earth on March 22, 1997, at a distance of 1.315 au.As it passed perihelion on April 1, 1997, the comet developed into a spectacular sight.", "It shone brighter than any star in the sky except Sirius, and its dust tail stretched 40–45 degrees across the sky.", "The comet was visible well before the sky got fully dark each night, and while many great comets are very close to the Sun as they pass perihelion, comet Hale–Bopp was visible all night to Northern Hemisphere observers." ], [ "After perihelion", "After its perihelion passage, the comet moved into the southern celestial hemisphere.", "The comet was much less impressive to southern hemisphere observers than it had been in the northern hemisphere, but southerners were able to see the comet gradually fade from view during the second half of 1997.The last naked-eye observations were reported in December 1997, which meant that the comet had remained visible without aid for 569 days, or about 18 and a half months.", "The previous record had been set by the Great Comet of 1811, which was visible to the naked eye for about 9 months.The comet continued to fade as it receded, but was still tracked by astronomers.", "In October 2007, 10 years after the perihelion and at a distance of 25.7 au from the Sun, the comet was still active as indicated by the detection of the CO-driven coma.", "Herschel Space Observatory images taken in 2010 suggest comet Hale–Bopp is covered in a fresh frost layer.", "Hale–Bopp was again detected in December 2010 when it was 30.7 au away from the Sun, and in 2012, at 33.2 au from the Sun.", "The James Webb Space Telescope observed Hale–Bopp in 2022, when it was 46.2 au from the Sun." ], [ "Orbital changes", "Hale–Bopp at perihelion on April 1, 1997The comet likely made its previous perihelion 4,200 years ago, in July 2215 BC.", "The estimated closest approach to Earth was 1.4 au, and it may have been observed in ancient Egypt during the 6th dynasty reign of the Pharaoh Pepi II (Reign: 2247 – c. 2216 BC).", "Pepi's pyramid at Saqqara contains a text referring to an \"nhh-star\" as a companion of the pharaoh in the heavens, where \"\" is the hieroglyph for long hair.Hale–Bopp may have had a near collision with Jupiter in early June 2215 BC, which probably caused a dramatic change in its orbit, and 2215 BC may have been its first passage through the inner Solar System from the Oort cloud.", "The comet's current orbit is almost perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, so further close approaches to planets will be rare.", "However, in April 1996 the comet passed within 0.77 au of Jupiter, close enough for its orbit to be measurably affected by the planet's gravity.", "The comet's orbit was shortened considerably to a period of roughly 2,399 years, and it will next return to the inner Solar System around the year 4385.Its greatest distance from the Sun (aphelion) will be about 354 au, reduced from about 525 au.The estimated probability of Hale-Bopp's striking Earth in future passages through the inner Solar System is remote, about 2.5×10−9 per orbit.", "However, given that the comet nucleus is around 60 km in diameter, the consequences of such an impact would be apocalyptic.", "Weissman conservatively estimates the diameter at 35 km; an estimated density of 0.6 g/cm3 then gives a cometary mass of 1.3×1019 g. At a probable impact velocity of 52.5 km/s, impact energy can be calculated as 1.9×1032 ergs, or 4.4×109 megatons, about 44 times the estimated energy of the K-T impact event.Over many orbits, the cumulative effect of gravitational perturbations on comets with high orbital inclinations and small perihelion distances is generally to reduce the perihelion distance to very small values.", "Hale–Bopp has about a 15% chance of eventually becoming a sungrazing comet through this process.", "If such is the case, it could undergo huge mass loss, or break up into smaller pieces like the Kreutz sungrazers.", "It would also be extremely bright, due to a combination of closeness to the Sun and nuclei size, potentially exceeding Halley’s Comet in 837 AD." ], [ "Scientific results", "Due to the massive size of its nucleus, Comet Hale–Bopp was observed intensively by astronomers during its perihelion passage, and several important advances in cometary science resulted from these observations.", "The dust production rate of the comet was very high (up to 2.0 kg/s), which may have made the inner coma optically thick.", "Based on the properties of the dust grains—high temperature, high albedo and strong 10 μm silicate emission feature—the astronomers concluded the dust grains are smaller than observed in any other comet.Hale–Bopp showed the highest ever linear polarization detected for any comet.", "Such polarization is the result of solar radiation getting scattered by the dust particles in the coma of the comet and depends on the nature of the grains.", "It further confirms that the dust grains in the coma of comet Hale–Bopp were smaller than inferred in any other comet.=== Sodium tail ===Comet Hale–Bopp's neutral sodium tail (the straight tail extending up to the left from the nucleus)One of the most remarkable discoveries was that the comet had a third type of tail.", "In addition to the well-known gas and dust tails, Hale–Bopp also exhibited a faint sodium tail, only visible with powerful instruments with dedicated filters.", "Sodium emission had been previously observed in other comets, but had not been shown to come from a tail.", "Hale–Bopp's sodium tail consisted of neutral atoms (not ions), and extended to some 50 million kilometres in length.The source of the sodium appeared to be the inner coma, although not necessarily the nucleus.", "There are several possible mechanisms for generating a source of sodium atoms, including collisions between dust grains surrounding the nucleus, and \"sputtering\" of sodium from dust grains by ultraviolet light.", "It is not yet established which mechanism is primarily responsible for creating Hale–Bopp's sodium tail, and the narrow and diffuse components of the tail may have different origins.While the comet's dust tail roughly followed the path of the comet's orbit and the gas tail pointed almost directly away from the Sun, the sodium tail appeared to lie between the two.", "This implies that the sodium atoms are driven away from the comet's head by radiation pressure.=== Deuterium abundance ===The abundance of deuterium in comet Hale–Bopp in the form of heavy water was found to be about twice that of Earth's oceans.", "If Hale–Bopp's deuterium abundance is typical of all comets, this implies that although cometary impacts are thought to be the source of a significant amount of the water on Earth, they cannot be the only source.Deuterium was also detected in many other hydrogen compounds in the comet.", "The ratio of deuterium to normal hydrogen was found to vary from compound to compound, which astronomers believe suggests that cometary ices were formed in interstellar clouds, rather than in the solar nebula.", "Theoretical modelling of ice formation in interstellar clouds suggests that comet Hale–Bopp formed at temperatures of around 25–45 kelvins.=== Organics ===Spectroscopic observations of Hale–Bopp revealed the presence of many organic chemicals, several of which had never been detected in comets before.", "These complex molecules may exist within the cometary nucleus, or might be synthesised by reactions in the comet.=== Detection of argon ===Hale–Bopp was the first comet where the noble gas argon was detected.", "Noble gases are chemically inert and vary from low to high volatility.", "Since different noble elements have different sublimation temperatures, and don't interact with other elements, they can be used for probing the temperature histories of the cometary ices.", "Krypton has a sublimation temperature of 16–20 K and was found to be depleted more than 25 times relative to the solar abundance, while argon with its higher sublimation temperature was enriched relative to the solar abundance.", "Together these observations indicate that the interior of Hale–Bopp has always been colder than 35–40 K, but has at some point been warmer than 20 K. Unless the solar nebula was much colder and richer in argon than generally believed, this suggests that the comet formed beyond Neptune in the Kuiper belt region and then migrated outward to the Oort cloud.=== Rotation ===Comet Hale–Bopp's activity and outgassing were not spread uniformly over its nucleus, but instead came from several specific jets.", "Observations of the material streaming away from these jets allowed astronomers to measure the rotation period of the comet, which was found to be about 11 hours 46 minutes.=== Binary nucleus question ===In 1997 a paper was published that hypothesised the existence of a binary nucleus to fully explain the observed pattern of comet Hale–Bopp's dust emission observed in October 1995.The paper was based on theoretical analysis, and did not claim an observational detection of the proposed satellite nucleus, but estimated that it would have a diameter of about 30 km, with the main nucleus being about 70 km across, and would orbit in about three days at a distance of about 180 km.", "This analysis was confirmed by observations in 1996 using Wide-Field Planetary Camera 2 of the Hubble Space Telescope which had taken images of the comet that revealed the satellite.Although observations using adaptive optics in late 1997 and early 1998 showed a double peak in the brightness of the nucleus, controversy still exists over whether such observations can only be explained by a binary nucleus.", "The discovery of the satellite was not confirmed by other observations.", "Also, while comets have been observed to break up before, no case had been found of a stable binary nucleus until the subsequent discovery of ." ], [ "UFO claims", "In November 1996, amateur astronomer Chuck Shramek of Houston, Texas took a CCD image of the comet which showed a fuzzy, slightly elongated object nearby.", "His computer sky-viewing program did not identify the star, so Shramek called the Art Bell radio program ''Coast to Coast AM'' to announce that he had discovered a \"Saturn-like object\" following Hale–Bopp.", "UFO enthusiasts, such as remote viewing proponent and Emory University political science professor Courtney Brown, soon concluded that there was an alien spacecraft following the comet.Several astronomers, including Alan Hale, stated that the object was simply the 8.5-magnitude star SAO141894.They noted that the star did not appear on Shramek's computer program because the user preferences were set incorrectly.", "Art Bell claimed to have obtained an image of the object from an anonymous astrophysicist who was about to confirm its discovery.", "However, astronomers Olivier Hainaut and David Tholen of the University of Hawaii stated that the alleged photo was an altered copy of one of their own comet images.Thirty-nine members of the Heaven's Gate cult committed mass suicide in March 1997 with the intention of teleporting to a spaceship which they believed was flying behind the comet.Nancy Lieder, who claims to receive messages from aliens through an implant in her brain, stated that Hale–Bopp was a fiction designed to distract the population from the coming arrival of \"Nibiru\" or \"Planet X\", a giant planet whose close passage would disrupt the Earth's rotation, causing global cataclysm.", "Her original date for the apocalypse was May 2003, which passed without incident, but various conspiracy websites continued to predict the coming of Nibiru, most of whom tied it to the 2012 phenomenon.", "Lieder and others' claims of the planet Nibiru have been repeatedly debunked by scientists." ], [ "Legacy", " Comet Hale–Bopp in 2001, at a distance of nearly two billion kilometres from the Sun.", "Credit: ESOIts lengthy period of visibility and extensive coverage in the media meant that Hale–Bopp was probably the most-observed comet in history, making a far greater impact on the general public than the return of Halley's Comet in 1986, and certainly seen by a greater number of people than witnessed any of Halley's previous appearances.", "For instance, 69% of Americans had seen Hale–Bopp by April 9, 1997.Hale–Bopp was a record-breaking comet—the farthest comet from the Sun discovered by amateurs, with the largest well-measured cometary nucleus known after 95P/Chiron, and it was visible to the naked eye for twice as long as the previous record-holder.", "It was also brighter than magnitude 0 for eight weeks, longer than any other recorded comet.Carolyn Shoemaker and her husband Gene, both famous for co-discovering comet Shoemaker–Levy 9, were involved in a car crash after photographing the comet.", "Gene died in the crash and his ashes were sent to the Moon aboard NASA's ''Lunar Prospector'' mission along with an image of Hale–Bopp, \"the last comet that the Shoemakers observed together\"." ], [ "See also", "* Comet Hyakutake* ''Hale Bopp'' (Waterhouse), a 1997 string orchestra composition * Lists of comets" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* CometBase: Comet Hale-Bopp* Cometography.com: Comet Hale-Bopp* NASA Hale-Bopp page* Shadow and Substance.com: Static orbital diagram* Comet Nucleus Animation* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Conspiracy" ], [ "Introduction", "Illustration of the conspirators in the Gunpowder Plot, a secret plan devised in 1605 to blow up the Parliament of EnglandA '''conspiracy''', also known as a '''plot''', is a secret plan or agreement between people (called '''conspirers''' or '''conspirators''') for an unlawful or harmful purpose, such as murder, treason, or corruption, especially with political motivation, while keeping their agreement secret from the public or from other people affected by it.", "In a political sense, conspiracy refers to a group of people united in the goal of usurping, altering or overthrowing an established political power.", "Depending on the circumstances, a conspiracy may also be a crime, or a civil wrong.", "The term generally connotes, or implies, wrongdoing or illegality on the part of the conspirators, as it is commonly believed that people would not need to conspire to engage in activities that were lawful and ethical, or to which no one would object.There are some coordinated activities that people engage in with secrecy that are not generally thought of as conspiracies.", "For example, intelligence agencies such as the American CIA and the British MI6 necessarily make plans in secret to spy on suspected enemies of their respective countries and the general populace of its home countries, but this kind of activity is generally not considered to be a conspiracy so long as their goal is to fulfill their official functions, and not something like improperly enriching themselves.", "Similarly, the coaches of competing sports teams routinely meet behind closed doors to plan game strategies and specific plays designed to defeat their opponents, but this activity is not considered a conspiracy because this is considered a legitimate part of the sport.", "Furthermore, a conspiracy must be engaged in knowingly.", "The continuation of social traditions that work to the advantage of certain groups and to the disadvantage of certain other groups, though possibly unethical, is not a conspiracy if participants in the practice are not carrying it forward for the purpose of perpetuating this advantage.On the other hand, if the intent of carrying out a conspiracy exists, then there is a conspiracy even if the details are never agreed to aloud by the participants.", "CIA covert operations, for instance, are by their very nature hard to prove definitively, but research into the agency's work, as well as revelations by former CIA employees, has suggested several cases where the agency tried to influence events.", "During the Cold War, the United States tried to covertly change other nations' governments 66 times, succeeding in 26 cases.A \"conspiracy theory\" is a belief that a conspiracy has actually been decisive in producing a political event of which the theorists strongly disapprove.", "Political scientist Michael Barkun has described conspiracy theories as relying on the view that the universe is governed by design, and embody three principles: nothing happens by accident, nothing is as it seems, and everything is connected.", "Another common feature is that conspiracy theories evolve to incorporate whatever evidence exists against them, so that they become, as Barkun writes, a closed system that is unfalsifiable, and therefore \"a matter of faith rather than proof.\"" ], [ "Etymology", "''Conspiracy'' comes from the Latin word ''conspiratio''.", "While ''conspiratio'' can mean \"plot\" or \"conspiracy\", it can also be translated as \"unity\" and \"agreement\", in the context of a group an example of this \"Kirri and Adele commenced the conspiracy at the secret thursday gin meeting\".", "''Conspiratio'' comes from ''conspiro'' which, while still meaning \"conspiracy\" in the modern sense, also means \"I sing in unison\", as ''con''- means \"with\" or \"together\", and ''spiro'' means \"I breathe\", literally meaning \"I breathe together with others\"." ], [ "Types of conspiracies", "* Conspiracy (civil), an agreement between people to deceive, mislead, or defraud others of their legal rights or to gain an unfair advantage.", "* Conspiracy (criminal), an agreement between people to break the law in the future, in some cases having committed an act to further that agreement.", "* Conspiracy (political), an agreement between people with the goal of gaining political power or meeting a political objective.", "* Hub-and-spoke conspiracy, a conspiracy in which one or more principal conspirators (the \"hub\") enter into several similar agreements with others (the \"spokes\") who know concerted action is contemplated, usually where the success of the concerted action depends on the participation of the other spokes." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Cholistan Desert" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Cholistan Desert''' (; Punjabi: ), also locally known as '''Rohi''' (), is a desert in the southern part of Punjab, Pakistan that forms part of the Greater Thar Desert, which extends to Sindh province and the Indian state of Rajasthan.", "It is one of two large deserts in Punjab, the other being the Thal Desert.", "The name is derived from the Turkic word ''chol'', meaning \"sands,\" and ''istan'', a Persian suffix meaning \"land of.", "\"Cholistan was a center for caravan trade, leading to the construction of numerous forts in the medieval period to protect trade routes - of which the Derawar Fort is the best-preserved example." ], [ "Geography", "Cholistan covers an area of in the Bahawalpur, Bahawalnagar, and Rahim Yar Khan districts of southern Punjab.", "The nearest major city is Bahawalpur city, from the edge of the desert.", "The desert stretches about 480 kilometres in length, with a width varying between 32 and 192 kilometres.", "It is located between 27°42΄00΄΄ to 29° 45΄00΄΄ north, and 69°57' 30'′ to 72° 52' 30'′ east.", "81% of the desert is sandy, while 19% is characterized by alluvial flats and small sandy dunes.", "The entire region is subject to desertification due to poor vegetation cover resulting in wind erosion.=== Climate ===Cholistan's climate is characterized as an arid and semi-arid Tropical desert, with very low annual humidity.", "The mean temperature in Cholistan is , with the hottest month being July with a mean temperature of .", "Summer temperatures can surpass , and sometimes rise over during periods of drought.", "Winter temperatures occasionally dip to .", "Average rainfall in Cholistan is up to 180mm, with July and August being the wettest months, although droughts are common.", "Water is collected seasonally in a system of natural pools called ''Toba,'' or manmade pools called ''Kund''.", "Subsoil water is found at a depth of 30–40 meters, but is typically brackish, and unsuitable for most plant growth.====2022 Cholistan water crisis====In May 2022, in the desert areas of Cholistan in Pakistan many cattle died due to extreme heat and water shortage.", "Shepherds, including cattle, have started migrating from water-scarce areas.", "Toba Salem Sar and Toba Nawa Kahu were the worst affected areas where 50 sheep died due to lack of water while more data is being collected from the affected areas." ], [ "Geology", "Cholistan was formed during the Pleistocene period.", "Geologically, Cholistan is divided into the Greater Cholistan and Lesser Cholistan, which are roughly divided by the dry bed of the ancient Hakra River.", "Greater Cholistan is a mostly sandy area in the south and west part of the desert up to the border with India, and covers an area of .", "Sand dunes in this area reach over 100 meters in height.", "Soil in the region is also highly saline.", "Lesser Cholistan is an arid and slightly less sandy region approximately in area which extends north and east from the old Hakra river bed, historically up to the banks of the Sutlej River.Soil quality is generally poor with little organic matter in the Greater Cholistan, and compacted alluvial clays in the Lesser Cholistan.", "A canal system built during the British era led to irrigation of the northern part of Lesser Cholistan." ], [ "History", "Though now an arid region, Cholistan once had a large river flowing through it that was formed by the waters of the Sutlej and Yamuna Rivers.", "The dry bed of the Hakra River runs through the area, along which many settlements of the Indus Valley civilization/Harappan culture have been discovered, including the large urban site of Ganweriwal.", "The river system supported settlements in the region between 4000 BCE and 600 BCE when the river changed course.", "The river carried significant amounts of water, and flowed until at least where Derawar Fort is now located.Over 400 Harappan sites had been listed in Cholistan in the 1970s, with a further 37 added in the 1990s.", "The high density of settlements in Cholistan suggest it may have been one of the most productive regions of the Indus Valley Civilization.", "In the post-Harappan period, Cholistan was part of the Cemetery H culture which grew as a surviving regional variant of the Harappan culture, which was then followed by the Painted Grey Ware culture.The region became a center for caravan trade, leading to the construction of a dense network of forts in the medieval period - of which the Derawar Fort is the best-preserved example.", "Other large forts in Cholistan include Meergarh, Jaangarh, Marotgarh, Maujgarh, Dingarh, Khangarh, Khairgarh, Bijnotgarh and Islamgarh - with the suffix ''\"garh\"'' denoting \"fort.\"", "These forts are part of the Tentative List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and run roughly parallel to the Indus and Sutlej Rivers 40 miles to the south.", "Smaller forts in the area include Bara, Bhagla, Duheinwala, Falji, Kandera, Liara, Murid, Machki, Nawankot, and Phulra forts." ], [ "Economy", "===Livestock===Camel grazers in CholistanThe backbone of Cholistan economy is animal rearing.", "Few other livelihood opportunities aside from livestock farming are available in the region.", "Agricultural farming away from the irrigated regions in Lower Cholistan is difficult due to the lack of steady water supply.Camels in particular are prized in Cholistan for their meat and milk, use as transportation, and for entertainment such as racing and camel dancing.", "Two types of camels are found in Cholistan: ''Marrecha,'' or ''Mahra,'' is used for transportation or racing/dancing.", "''Berella'' is used for milk production, and can produce 10–15 liters of milk per day per animal.C34B5457 Mother & ChildLivestock holds much importance for meeting the area's major needs for cottage industry as well as providing milk, meat and fat.", "Because of the nomadic way of life, the main wealth of the people are their cattle that are bred for sale, milked or shorn for their wool.", "Moreover, isolated as they were, they had to depend upon themselves for all their needs like food, clothing, and items of daily use.", "So all their crafts initially stemmed from necessity but later on they started exporting their goods to the other places as well.", "The estimated number of livestock in the desert areas is 1.6 million.===Cotton and wool products===alt=Cholistan produces a very superior type of carpet wool compared to that produced in other parts of Pakistan.", "From this wool they knit beautiful carpets, rugs, and other woolen items.", "This includes blankets, which is also a local necessity for the desert as it is not always dust and heat, but winter nights here are very cold too, usually below the freezing point.", "Khes and pattu are also manufactured with wool or cotton.", "Khes is a form of blanket with a field of black white and pattu has a white ground base.", "Cholistan is now selling the wool for it brings maximum profit.===Textiles===Cholistani textilesIt may be mentioned that cotton textiles have always been a hallmark craft of the Indus Valley civilization.", "Various kinds of khaddar-cloth are made for local consumption, and fine khaddar bedclothes and coarse lungies are woven here.", "A beautiful cloth called Sufi is also woven of silk and cotton, or with cotton wrap and silk wool.", "Gargas are made with numerous patterns and color, having complicated embroidery, mirror, and patchwork.", "Ajrak is another specialty of Cholistan.", "It is a special and delicate printing technique on both sides of the cloth in indigo blue and red patterns covering the base cloth.", "Cotton turbans and shawls are also made here.", "Chunri is another form of dopattas, having innumerable colors and patterns like dots, squares, and circles on it." ], [ "People", "As per the 1998 Census of Pakistan, a total of 128,019 people, with a 2015 estimate of 229,071, with 70% living in Lesser Cholistan.", "The average household size is 6.65.===Local crafts===As mentioned above, the Indus Valley has always been occupied by the wandering nomadic tribes who are fond of isolated areas, as such areas allow them to lead life free of foreign intrusion, enabling them to establish their own individual and unique cultures.", "Cholistan till the era of Mughal rule had also been isolated from outside influence.", "During the rule of Mughal Emperor Akbar, it became a proper productive unit.", "The entire area was ruled by a host of kings who securely guarded their frontiers.", "The rulers were the great patrons of art, and the various crafts underwent a simultaneous and parallel development, influencing each other.", "Masons, stone carvers, artisans, artists, and designers started rebuilding the old cities and new sites, and with that flourished new courts, paintings, weaving, and pottery.", "The fields of architecture, sculpture, terra cotta, and pottery developed greatly in this phase.====Camel products====Camels are highly valued by the desert dwellers.", "Camels are not only useful for transportation and loading purposes, but its skin and wool are also quite valuable.", "Camel wool is spun and woven into beautiful woolen blankets known as falsies and into stylish and durable rugs.", "The camel's leather is also utilized in making caps, goblets, and expensive lampshades.====Leather work====Cholistani musiciansLeather work is another important local cottage industry due to the large number of livestock here.", "Other than the products mentioned above, Khusa (shoes) is a specialty of this area.", "Cholistani khusas are very famous for the quality of workmanship, variety, and richness of designs especially when stitched and embroidered with golden or brightly-colored threads.==== Jewelry ====The people of Cholistan are fond of jewelry, especially gold jewelry.", "The chief ornaments made and worn by them are ''Nath'' (nosegay), ''Katmala'' (necklace) ''Kangan'' (bracelet), and ''Pazeb'' (anklets).", "Gold and silver bangles are also a product of Cholistan.", "The locals similarly work in enamel, producing enamel buttons, earrings, bangles, and rings." ], [ "Ecology", "=== Flora ===Subsoil water in Cholistan is typically brackish, and unsuitable for most plant growth.", "Native trees, shrubs, and grasses are drought tolerant.", "There are 131 plant species in Cholistan from 89 genera and 24 families.", "Most common of them are below;# Prosopis cineraria # Haloxylon salicornicum Cholistan Desert Rangelands | Forest, Wildlife & Fishries Department# Cenchrus ciliaris Cholistan Desert Rangelands | Forest, Wildlife & Fishries DepartmentA man-made forest called ''Dingarh'' was developed by the Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) on more than 100 ha.", "Dunes were fixed and stabilized by mechanical and vegetative means, and the area is now covered with trees with orchards of ''zizyphus,'' date palms, and grassland grown with collected rainwater and saline groundwater.===Fauna===The wildlife of Cholistan desert mostly consists of migratory birds, especially the Houbara bustard who migrates to this part during winter.", "This species of bird is most famous in the hunting season, even though they are endangered in Pakistan (vulnerable globally), according to the IUCN Red List.", "Their population has decreased from 4,746 in 2001 to just a few dozens in recent times.", "In December 2016, a Qatari prince had his hunting license rejected due to the species being endangered.", "Another prince, Dr. Fahad was fined with Rs.", "80,000 ($760) and all of the birds he caught were set free for hunting without permit and license.A few endangered species in this desert are the Chinkara Antelope, Great Indian Bustard, and Blue Bull, etc.", "Their population of Chinkara has decreased from 3,000 in 2007 to just a little above 1,000 in 2010 due to non-permit hunting of the species by influential political families." ], [ "Forts in Cholistan", "*Derawar Fort*Islamgarh Fort*Mirgarh Fort*Jamgarh Fort*Mojgarh Fort*Marot Fort*Phoolra Fort*Khangarh Fort*Khairgarh Fort*Nawankot Fort*Bijnot Fort" ], [ "Terracotta", "Derawar Fort, Cholistan DesertThe Indus civilization was one of the earliest centres of pottery, and thus the pottery of Cholistan has a long history.", "Local soil is very fine and suitable for making pottery.", "The fineness of the earth can be observed on the Kacha houses which are actually plastered with mud but look like they have been white washed.", "The chief Cholistani ceramic articles are their surahies, piyalas, and glasses, remarkable for their lightness and fine finishing.In earlier times, only the art of pottery and terracotta developed, but from the seventh century onwards, a large number of temples and images were also built on account of the intensified religious passions and the accumulation of wealth in cities." ], [ "See also", "* Khes" ], [ "References", "*Mughal, M.R.", "1997.Ancient Cholistan.", "Lahore: Feroz and Sons." ], [ "External links", "* About Cholistan, Pakistan" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Causantín mac Cináeda" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Causantín mac Cináeda''' (Modern Gaelic: ; died 877) was a king of the Picts.", "He is often known as '''Constantine I''' in reference to his place in modern lists of Scottish monarchs, but contemporary sources described only as a Pictish king.", "A son of (\"Kenneth MacAlpin\"), he succeeded his uncle as Pictish king following the latter's death on 13 April 862.It is likely that Causantín's reign witnessed increased activity by Vikings, based in Ireland, Northumbria and northern Britain.", "He died fighting one such invasion." ], [ "Sources", "A signboard in Fife, Scotland concerning Causantín.Very few records of ninth century events in northern Britain survive.", "The main local source from the period is the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'', a list of kings from Cináed mac Ailpín (died 858) to Cináed mac Maíl Coluim (died 995).", "The list survives in the Poppleton Manuscript, a thirteenth-century compilation.", "Originally simply a list of kings with reign lengths, the other details contained in the Poppleton Manuscript version were added from the tenth century onwards.", "In addition to this, later king lists survive.", "The earliest genealogical records of the descendants of Cináed mac Ailpín may date from the end of the tenth century, but their value lies more in their context, and the information they provide about the interests of those for whom they were compiled, than in the unreliable claims they contain.", "The Pictish king-lists originally ended with this Causantín, who was reckoned the seventieth and last king of the Picts.For narrative history the principal sources are the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' and the Irish annals.", "While Scandinavian sagas describe events in 9th century Britain, their value as sources of historical narrative, rather than documents of social history, is disputed.", "If the sources for north-eastern Britain, the lands of the kingdom of Northumbria and the former Pictland, are limited and late, those for the areas on the Irish Sea and Atlantic coasts—the modern regions of north-west England and all of northern and western Scotland—are non-existent, and archaeology and toponymy are of primary importance." ], [ "Languages and names", "The king's name in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, ''Constantin''us'' f''ilius'' Kinet''Writing a century before Causantín was born, Bede recorded five languages in Britain.", "Latin, the common language of the church; Old English, the language of the Angles and Saxons; Irish, spoken on the western coasts of Britain and in Ireland; Brythonic, ancestor of the Welsh language, spoken in large parts of western Britain; and Pictish, spoken in northern Britain.", "By the ninth century a sixth language, Old Norse, had arrived with the Vikings." ], [ "Amlaíb and Ímar", "Viking activity in northern Britain appears to have reached a peak during Causantín's reign.", "Viking armies were led by a small group of men who may have been kinsmen.", "Among those noted by the Irish annals, the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'' and the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' are Ívarr—Ímar in Irish sources—who was active from East Anglia to Ireland, Halfdán—Albdann in Irish, Healfdene in Old English— and Amlaíb or Óláfr.", "As well as these leaders, various others related to them appear in the surviving record.Viking activity in Britain increased in 865 when the Great Heathen Army, probably a part of the forces which had been active in Francia, landed in East Anglia.", "The following year, having obtained tribute from the East Anglian King Edmund, the Great Army moved north, seizing York, chief city of the Northumbrians.", "The Great Army defeated an attack on York by the two rivals for the Northumbrian throne, Osberht and Ælla, who had put aside their differences in the face of a common enemy.", "Both would-be kings were killed in the failed assault, probably on 21 March 867.Following this, the leaders of the Great Army are said to have installed one Ecgberht as king of the Northumbrians.", "Their next target was Mercia where King Burgred, aided by his brother-in-law King Æthelred of Wessex, drove them off.While the kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria were under attack, other Viking armies were active in the far north.", "Amlaíb and Auisle (Ásl or Auðgísl), said to be his brother, brought an army to Fortriu and obtained tribute and hostages in 866.Historians disagree as to whether the army returned to Ireland in 866, 867 or even in 869.Late sources of uncertain reliability state that Auisle was killed by Amlaíb in 867 in a dispute over Amlaíb's wife, the daughter of Cináed.", "It is unclear whether, if accurate, this woman should be identified as a daughter of Cináed mac Ailpín, and thus Causantín's sister, or as a daughter of Cináed mac Conaing, king of Brega.", "While Amlaíb and Auisle were in north Britain, the ''Annals of Ulster'' record that Áed Findliath, High King of Ireland, took advantage of their absence to destroy the longphorts along the northern coasts of Ireland.", "Áed Findliath was married to Causantín's sister Máel Muire.", "She later married Áed's successor Flann Sinna.", "Her death is recorded in 913.In 870, Amlaíb and Ívarr attacked Dumbarton Rock, where the River Leven meets the River Clyde, the chief place of the kingdom of Alt Clut, south-western neighbour of Pictland.", "The siege lasted four months before the fortress fell to the Vikings who returned to Ireland with many prisoners, \"Angles, Britons and Picts\", in 871.Archaeological evidence suggests that Dumbarton Rock was largely abandoned and that Govan replaced it as the chief place of the kingdom of Strathclyde, as Alt Clut was later known.", "King Artgal of Alt Clut did not long survive these events, being killed \"at the instigation\" of Causantín son of Cináed two years later.", "Artgal's son and successor Run was married to a sister of Causantín.Amlaíb disappears from Irish annals after his return to Ireland in 871.According to the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'' he was killed by Causantín either in 871 or 872 when he returned to Pictland to collect further tribute.", "His ally Ívarr died in 873." ], [ "Last days of the Pictish kingdom", "\"Constantine's Cave\" - also known as the ''Nigra Specus'' (\"Black Cave\") - at Balcomie near Crail in Fife, Scotland: the supposed death place of Causantín.In 875, the ''Chronicle'' and the ''Annals of Ulster'' again report a Viking army in Pictland; the ''Annals of Ulster'' say that \"a great slaughter of the Picts resulted\".", "No name is given to the battle in which the slaughter occurred, yet the Chronicle notes a battle fought between Danes and Scots near Dollar but notes a subsequent \"annihilation\" at Atholl.", "In 877, shortly after building a new church for the Culdees at St Andrews, Causantín was captured and executed (or perhaps killed in battle) after defending against Viking raiders.", "Although there is agreement on the time and general manner of his death, it is not clear where this happened.", "Some believe he was beheaded on a Fife beach, following a battle at Fife Ness, near Crail.", "William Forbes Skene reads the ''Chronicle'' as placing Causantín's death at Inverdovat (by Newport-on-Tay), which appears to match the Prophecy of Berchán.", "The account in the ''Chronicle of Melrose'' names the place as the \"Black Cave,\" and John of Fordun calls it the \"Black Den\".", "Causantín was buried on Iona." ], [ "Aftermath", "Causantín's son Domnall and his descendants represented the main line of the kings of Alba and later Scotland." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*********** * ** ******* *** *** ****" ], [ "External links", "* Constantine I at the official website of the British monarchy" ] ]
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[ [ "Constantine II (emperor)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Constantine II''' (; 316 – 340) was Roman emperor from 337 to 340.Son of Constantine the Great and co-emperor alongside his brothers, his attempt to exert his perceived rights of primogeniture led to his death in a failed invasion of Italy in 340." ], [ "Career", "The eldest son of Constantine the Great and Fausta, Constantine II was born in Arles in 316 and raised as a Christian.=== Caesar ===On 1 March 317, he was made caesar.", "In 323, at the age of seven, he took part in his father's campaign against the Sarmatians.", "At age ten, he became commander of Gaul, following the death of his half-brother Crispus.", "An inscription dating to 330 records the title of '''''Alamannicus''''', so it appears that his generals won a victory over the Alamanni.", "His military career continued when Constantine I made him field commander during the 332 winter campaign against the Goths.", "The military operation was successful and decisive, with 100,000 Goths reportedly slain and the surrender of the ruler Ariaric.", "He was married prior to 336, although his wife’s identity remains unknown.=== Augustus ===Following the death of his father in 337, Constantine II became emperor jointly with his brothers Constantius II and Constans.", "While Constantine I had intended for his sons to rule together with their cousins Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, soon after his death the army slaughtered almost all of their male relatives, including Dalmatius and Hannibalianus.", "Burgess observed from numismatic evidence that Constantine II and his brothers “not only seem not to have fully accepted the legitimacy of Dalmatius and viewed him as an interloper, but also appear to have communicated with one another on this point and agreed on a common response.”He was soon involved in the struggle between factions rupturing the unity of the Christian Church.", "The Western portion of the empire, under the influence of the Popes in Rome, favoured Nicene Christianity over Arianism, and through their intercession they convinced Constantine to free Athanasius, allowing him to return to Alexandria.", "This action aggravated Constantius II, who was a committed supporter of Arianism.The three brothers were not named as ''Augusti'' until 9 September 337, when they gathered together in Pannonia and divided the Roman territories among themselves.", "Constantine received Gaul, Britannia and Hispania.In what seemed to be an attempt to distance themselves from the massacre, the three brothers proceeded to print coins of Theodora, whom their murdered relatives had been descended from.", "The evidence indicates that Constantine II was the one responsible for designing and producing the coinage at the start, as well as convincing his brothers to do the same.", "Woods considered it to suggest that he was more sympathetic to Theodora’s memory than his brothers, possibly because his wife may have been a granddaughter of Theodora.It appears that Constantine was left unsatisfied with the results of their meeting, as he soon complained that he had not received the amount of territory that was his due as the eldest son.", "Annoyed that Constans had received Thrace and Macedonia after the death of Dalmatius, Constantine demanded that Constans hand over the African provinces, to which he agreed in order to maintain a fragile peace.", "Soon, however, they began quarreling over which parts of the African provinces belonged to Carthage, and thus Constantine, and which belonged to Italy, and therefore Constans.", "Even after campaigning against the Alamanni in 338, he continued to maintain his position.", "The Codex Theodosianus recorded Constantine’s legislative intervention in Constans’ territory through issuing an edict to the proconsul of Africa in 339.In 340 Constantine marched into Italy at the head of his troops to claim territory from Constans.", "Constans, at that time in Naissus, detached and sent a select and disciplined body of his Illyrian troops, stating that he would follow them in person with the remainder of his forces.", "Constantine was engaged in military operations and was killed by Constans's generals in an ambush outside Aquileia.", "Constans then took control of his deceased brother's realm.", "After his death, Constantine was subjected to damnatio memoriae, which his other brother Constantius II also followed." ], [ "Family tree", "Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti, names with a thicker border appear in both sections'''1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings''''''2: Constantine's children'''" ], [ "Gallery", "File:INC-2046-a_Ауреус._Константин_II._Ок._337—340_гг._(аверс).png | Coin of Constantine II as ''caesar'', marked: (\"''Our Lord Flavius Claudius Constantine, Noblest Caesar''\")File:Solidus_Constantine_II-heraclea_RIC_vII_101.jpg | ''Solidus'' of Constantine II as ''caesar'', marked: on the obverse (\"''Constantine Junior, Noblest Caesar''\") and (\"''the Victory of Our Caesars''\")File:Constantineii90010167.jpg | ''Aureus'' of Constantine II as ''caesar'', marked: (\"''Constantine Junior, Noblest Caesar''\") on the obverse and (\"''the Virtue of Our Caesar''\") on the reverseFile:Gold solidus of Constantine II.jpg | Coin of Constantine II as ''augustus''.File:Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png | Division of the Roman Empire among the Caesars appointed by Constantine I: from west to east, the territories of Constantine II, Constans, Dalmatius and Constantius II." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Primary sources===* Zosimus, ''Historia Nova'', Book 2 Historia Nova* Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus* Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita===Secondary sources===***** DiMaio, Michael, and Robert Frakes, \"Constantine II (337–340 A.D.)\", ''D.I.R.", "''** * ** Gibbon, Edward.", "''Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire'' (1888)* Lewis, William (2020), \"Constantine II and His Brothers: The Civil War of AD 340\", in Nicholas Baker-Brian and Shaun Tougher (eds.", "), ''The Sons of Constantine, AD 337–361: In the Shadows of Constantine and Julian''.", "Palgrave Macmillan.", "Cham.", "." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Constantine II of Scotland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Causantín mac Áeda''' (Modern Gaelic: , anglicised '''Constantine II'''; born no later than 879; died 952) was an early King of Scotland, known then by the Gaelic name ''Alba''.", "The Kingdom of Alba, a name which first appears in Constantine's lifetime, was situated in modern-day Northern Scotland.The core of the kingdom was formed by the lands around the River Tay.", "Its southern limit was the River Forth, northwards it extended towards the Moray Firth and perhaps to Caithness, while its western limits are uncertain.", "Constantine's grandfather Kenneth I of Scotland (Cináed mac Ailpín, died 858) was the first of the family recorded as a king, but as king of the Picts.", "This change of title, from king of the Picts to king of Alba, is part of a broader transformation of Pictland and the origins of the Kingdom of Alba are traced to Constantine's lifetime.His reign, like those of his predecessors, was dominated by the actions of Viking rulers in the British Isles, particularly the Uí Ímair ('Grandsons/Descenants of Ímar', or Ivar the Boneless).", "During Constantine's reign, the rulers of the southern kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia, later the Kingdom of England, extended their authority northwards into the disputed kingdoms of Northumbria.", "At first, the southern rulers allied with him against the Vikings, but in 934 Æthelstan, unprovoked, invaded Scotland both by sea and land with a huge retinue that included four Welsh kings.", "He ravaged southern Alba, but there is no record of any battles.", "He had withdrawn by September.", "Three years later, in 937, probably in retaliation for the invasion of Alba, King Constantine allied with Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin, and Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde, but they were defeated at the battle of Brunanburh.", "In 943, Constantine abdicated the throne and retired to the Céli Dé (Culdee) monastery of St Andrews where he died in 952.He was succeeded by his predecessor's son Malcolm I (Máel Coluim mac Domnaill).Constantine's reign of 43 years, exceeded in Scotland only by that of King William the Lion before the Union of the Crowns in 1603, is believed to have played a defining part in the Gaelicisation of Pictland, in which his patronage of the Irish Céli Dé monastic reformers was a significant factor.", "During his reign, the words \"Scots\" and \"Scotland\" () are first used to mean part of what is now Scotland.", "The earliest evidence for the ecclesiastical and administrative institutions which would last until the Davidian Revolution also appears at this time." ], [ "Sources", "Compared to neighbouring Ireland and Anglo-Saxon England, few records of 9th- and 10th-century events in Scotland survive.", "The main local source from the period is the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'', a list of kings from Kenneth MacAlpin (died 858) to Kenneth II (Cináed mac Maíl Coluim, died 995).", "The list survives in the Poppleton Manuscript, a 13th-century compilation.", "Originally simply a list of kings with reign lengths, the other details contained in the Poppleton Manuscript version were added in the 10th and 12th centuries.", "In addition to this, later king lists survive.", "The earliest genealogical records of the descendants of Kenneth MacAlpin may date from the end of the 10th century, but their value lies more in their context, and the information they provide about the interests of those for whom they were compiled, than in the unreliable claims they contain.For narrative history the principal sources are the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' and the Irish annals.", "The evidence from charters created in the Kingdom of England provides occasional insight into events in Scotland.", "While Scandinavian sagas describe events in 10th-century Britain, their value as sources of historical narrative, rather than documents of social history, is disputed.", "Mainland European sources rarely concern themselves with affairs in any part of the British Isles, and even less commonly with events in Scotland, but the life of Saint Cathróe of Metz, a work of hagiography written in Germany at the end of the 10th century, provides plausible details of the saint's early life in north Britain.While the sources for north-eastern Britain, the lands of the kingdom of Northumbria and the former Pictland, are limited and late, those for the areas on the Irish Sea and Atlantic coasts—the modern regions of north-west England and all of northern and western Scotland—are non-existent, and archaeology and toponymy are of primary importance." ], [ "Pictland from Constantín mac Fergusa to Constantine I", "Recorded relationships within the early House of AlpinThe dominant kingdom in eastern Scotland before the Viking Age was the northern Pictish kingdom of Fortriu on the shores of the Moray Firth.", "By the 9th century, the Gaels of Dál Riata (Dalriada) were subject to the kings of Fortriu of the family of Constantín mac Fergusa (Constantine son of Fergus).", "Constantín's family dominated Fortriu after 789 and perhaps, if Constantín was a kinsman of Óengus I of the Picts (Óengus son of Fergus), from around 730.The dominance of Fortriu came to an end in 839 with a defeat by Viking armies reported by the ''Annals of Ulster'' in which King Uen of Fortriu and his brother Bran, Constantín's nephews, together with the king of Dál Riata, Áed mac Boanta, \"and others almost innumerable\" were killed.", "These deaths led to a period of instability lasting a decade as several families attempted to establish their dominance in Pictland.", "By around 848 Kenneth MacAlpin had emerged as the winner.Later national myth made Kenneth MacAlpin the creator of the kingdom of Scotland, the founding of which was dated from 843, the year in which he was said to have destroyed the Picts and inaugurated a new era.", "The historical record for 9th-century Scotland is meagre, but the Irish annals and the 10th-century ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'' agree that Kenneth was a Pictish king, and call him \"king of the Picts\" at his death.", "The same style is used of Kenneth's brother Donald I (Domnall mac Ailpín) and sons Constantine I (Constantín mac Cináeda) and Áed (Áed mac Cináeda).The kingdom ruled by Kenneth's descendants—older works used the name House of Alpin to describe them but descent from Kenneth was the defining factor, Irish sources referring to ''Clann Cináeda meic Ailpín'' (\"the Clan of Kenneth MacAlpin\")—lay to the south of the previously dominant kingdom of Fortriu, centred in the lands around the River Tay.", "The extent of Kenneth's nameless kingdom is uncertain, but it certainly extended from the Firth of Forth in the south to the Mounth in the north.", "Whether it extended beyond the mountainous spine of north Britain—Druim Alban—is unclear.", "The core of the kingdom was similar to the old counties of Mearns, Forfar, Perth, Fife, and Kinross.", "Among the chief ecclesiastical centres named in the records are Dunkeld, probably seat of the bishop of the kingdom, and ''Cell Rígmonaid'' (modern St Andrews).Kenneth's son Constantine died in 876, probably killed fighting against a Viking army that had come north from Northumbria in 874.According to the king lists, he was counted as the 70th and last king of the Picts in later times." ], [ "Britain and Ireland at the end of the 9th century", "Some locations in northern Britain, late 9th and early 10th centuries.", "The dotted line marked A represents the southern boundary of the Kingdom of Alba, 890–950.The dotted line marked B represents the southern boundary of the Kingdom of Strathclyde, c. 925–945.In 899 Alfred the Great, king of Wessex, died leaving his son Edward the Elder as ruler of England south of the River Thames and his daughter Æthelflæd and son-in-law Æthelred ruling the western, English part of Mercia.", "The situation in the Danish kingdoms of eastern England is less clear.", "King Eohric was probably ruling in East Anglia, but no dates can reliably be assigned to the successors of Guthfrith of York in Northumbria.", "It is known that Guthfrith was succeeded by Sigurd and Cnut, although whether these men ruled jointly or one after the other is uncertain.", "Northumbria may have been divided by this time between the Viking kings in York and the local rulers, perhaps represented by Eadulf, based at Bamburgh who controlled the lands from the River Tyne or River Tees to the Forth in the north.In Ireland, Flann Sinna, married to Constantine's aunt Máel Muire, was dominant.", "The years around 900 represented a period of weakness among the Vikings and Norse-Gaels of Dublin.", "They are reported to have been divided between two rival leaders.", "In 894 one group left Dublin, perhaps settling on the Irish Sea coast of Britain between the River Mersey and the Firth of Clyde.", "The remaining Dubliners were expelled in 902 by Flann Sinna's son-in-law Cerball mac Muirecáin, and soon afterwards appeared in western and northern Britain.To the southwest of Constantine's lands lay the kingdom of Strathclyde.", "This extended north into the Lennox, east to the River Forth, and south into the Southern Uplands.", "In 900 it was probably ruled by King Dyfnwal.The situation of the Gaelic kingdoms of Dál Riata in western Scotland is uncertain.", "No kings are known by name after Áed mac Boanta.", "The Frankish ''Annales Bertiniani'' may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides, the seaward part of Dál Riata, by Northmen in 849.In addition to these, the arrival of new groups of Vikings from northern and western Europe was still commonplace.", "Whether there were Viking or Norse-Gael kingdoms in the Western Isles or the Northern Isles at this time is debated." ], [ "Early life", "Áed, Constantine's father, succeeded Constantine's uncle and namesake Constantine I in 876 but was killed in 878.Áed's short reign is glossed as being of no importance by most king lists.", "Although the date of his birth is nowhere recorded, Constantine II cannot have been born any later than the year after his father's death, ''i.e.", "'', 879.His name may suggest that he was born a few years earlier, during the reign of his uncle Constantine I.After Áed's death, there is a two-decade gap until the death of Donald II (Domnall mac Constantín) in 900 during which nothing is reported in the Irish annals.", "The entry for the reign between Áed and Donald II is corrupt in the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'', and in this case, the ''Chronicle'' is at variance with every other king list.", "According to the ''Chronicle'', Áed was followed by Eochaid, a grandson of Kenneth MacAlpin, who is somehow connected with Giric, but all other lists say that Giric ruled after Áed and make great claims for him.", "Giric is not known to have been a kinsman of Kenneth's, although it has been suggested that he was related to him by marriage.", "The major changes in Pictland which began at about this time have been associated by Alex Woolf and Archie Duncan with Giric's reign.Woolf suggests that Constantine and his younger brother Donald may have passed Giric's reign in exile in Ireland where their aunt Máel Muire was wife of two successive High Kings of Ireland, Áed Findliath and Flann Sinna.", "Giric died in 889.If he had been in exile, Constantine may have returned to Pictland where his cousin Donald II became king.", "Donald's reputation is suggested by the epithet ''dasachtach'', a word used of violent madmen and mad bulls, attached to him in the 11th-century writings of Flann Mainistrech, echoed by his description in the ''Prophecy of Berchan'' as \"the rough one who will think relics and psalms of little worth\".", "Wars with the Viking kings in Britain and Ireland continued during Donald's reign and he was probably killed fighting yet more Vikings at Dunnottar in the Mearns in 900.Constantine succeeded him as king." ], [ "Vikings and bishops", "The cult of Saint Columba and its relics were associated with victory in battle.", "The ''Cathbuaid'', Columba's crozier or staff, has been lost but the 8th-century ''Breccbennach'' or Monymusk Reliquary shown here, which held relics of Columba, is known to have been carried into battle from the reign of King William the Lion onwards.The earliest event recorded in the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'' in Constantine's reign is an attack by Vikings and the plundering of Dunkeld \"and all Albania\" in his third year.", "This is the first use of the word Albania, the Latin form of the Old Irish ''Alba'', in the ''Chronicle'' which until then describes the lands ruled by the descendants of Cináed as Pictavia.These Norsemen could have been some of those who were driven out of Dublin in 902, or were the same group who had defeated Domnall in 900.The ''Chronicle'' states that the Northmen were killed in ''Srath Erenn'', which is confirmed by the ''Annals of Ulster'' which records the death of Ímar grandson of Ímar and many others at the hands of the men of Fortriu in 904.This Ímar was the first of the Uí Ímair, the grandsons of Ímar, to be reported; three more grandsons of Ímar appear later in Constantín's reign.", "The ''Fragmentary Annals of Ireland'' contain an account of the battle, and this attributes the defeat of the Norsemen to the intercession of Saint Columba following fasting and prayer.", "An entry in the ''Chronicon Scotorum'' under the year 904 may possibly contain a corrupted reference to this battle.The next event reported by the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'' is dated to 906.This records that:King Constantine and Bishop Cellach met at the ''Hill of Belief'' near the royal city of Scone and pledged themselves that the laws and disciplines of the faith, and the laws of churches and gospels, should be kept ''pariter cum Scottis''.", "The meaning of this entry, and its significance, have been the subject of debate.The moot hill at Scone, perhaps the ''Hill of Belief'' of 906The phrase ''pariter cum Scottis'' in the Latin text of the ''Chronicle'' has been translated in several ways.", "William Forbes Skene and Alan Orr Anderson proposed that it should be read as \"in conformity with the customs of the Gaels\", relating it to the claims in the king lists that Giric liberated the church from secular oppression and adopted Irish customs.", "It has been read as \"together with the Gaels\", suggesting either public participation or the presence of Gaels from the western coasts as well as the people of the east coast.", "Finally, it is suggested that it was the ceremony that followed \"the custom of the Gaels\" and not the agreements.The idea that this gathering agreed to uphold Irish laws governing the church has suggested that it was an important step in the gaelicisation of the lands east of Druim Alban.", "Others have proposed that the ceremony in some way endorsed Constantine's kingship, prefiguring later royal inaugurations at Scone.", "Alternatively, if Bishop Cellach was appointed by Giric, it may be that the gathering was intended to heal a rift between king and church." ], [ "Return of the Uí Ímair", "Following the events at Scone, there is little of substance reported for a decade.", "A story in the ''Fragmentary Annals of Ireland'', perhaps referring to events sometime after 911, claims that Queen Æthelflæd, who ruled in Mercia, allied with the Irish and northern rulers against the Norsemen on the Irish sea coasts of Northumbria.", "The ''Annals of Ulster'' record the defeat of an Irish fleet from the kingdom of Ulaid by Vikings \"on the coast of England\" at about this time.In this period the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'' reports the death of Cormac mac Cuilennáin, king of Munster, in the eighth year of Constantine's reign.", "This is followed by an undated entry which was formerly read as \"In his time Domnall i.e.", "Dyfnwal, king of the Strathclyde Britons died, and Domnall son of Áed was elected\".", "This was thought to record the election of a brother of Constantine named Domnall to the kingship of the Britons of Strathclyde and was seen as early evidence of the domination of Strathclyde by the kings of Alba.", "The entry in question is now read as \"...Dyfnwal... and Domnall son Áed king of Ailech died\", this Domnall being a son of Áed Findliath who died on 915.Finally, the deaths of Flann Sinna and Niall Glúndub are recorded.There are more reports of Viking fleets in the Irish Sea from 914 onwards.", "By 916 fleets under Sihtric Cáech and Ragnall, said to be grandsons of Ímar (that is, they belonged to the same Uí Ímair kindred as the Ímar who was killed in 904), were very active in Ireland.", "Sihtric inflicted a heavy defeat on the armies of Leinster and retook Dublin in 917.The following year Ragnall appears to have returned across the Irish sea intent on establishing himself as king at York.", "The only precisely dated event in the summer of 918 is the death of Queen Æthelflæd on 918 at Tamworth, Staffordshire.", "Æthelflæd had been negotiating with the Northumbrians to obtain their submission, but her death put an end to this and her successor, her brother Edward the Elder, was occupied with securing control of Mercia.Dere Street; Corbridge is just south of Hadrian's Wall in the centre of the mapThe northern part of Northumbria, and perhaps the whole kingdom, had probably been ruled by Ealdred son of Eadulf since 913.Faced with Ragnall's invasion, Ealdred came north seeking assistance from Constantine.", "The two advanced south to face Ragnall, and this led to a battle somewhere on the banks of the River Tyne, probably at Corbridge where Dere Street crosses the river.", "The Battle of Corbridge appears to have been indecisive; the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'' is alone in giving Constantine the victory.The report of the battle in the ''Annals of Ulster'' says that none of the kings or mormaers among the men of Alba were killed.", "This is the first surviving use of the word mormaer; other than the knowledge that Constantine's kingdom had its own bishop or bishops and royal villas, this is the only hint to the institutions of the kingdom.After Corbridge, Ragnall enjoyed only a short respite.", "In the south, Alfred's son Edward had rapidly secured control of Mercia and had a burh constructed at Bakewell in the Peak District from which his armies could easily strike north.", "An army from Dublin led by Ragnall's kinsman Sihtric struck at north-western Mercia in 919, but in 920 or 921 Edward met with Ragnall and other kings.", "The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' states that these kings \"chose Edward as father and lord\".", "Among the other kings present were Constantine, Ealdred son of Eadwulf, and the king of Strathclyde, Owain ap Dyfnwal.", "Here, again, a new term appears in the record, the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' for the first time using the word ''scottas'', from which Scots derives, to describe the inhabitants of Constantine's kingdom in its report of these events.Edward died in 924.His realms appear to have been divided with the West Saxons recognising Ælfweard while the Mercians chose Æthelstan who had been raised at Æthelflæd's court.", "Ælfweard died within weeks of his father and Æthelstan was inaugurated as king of all of Edward's lands in 925." ], [ "Æthelstan", "By 926 Sihtric had evidently acknowledged Æthelstan as overlord, adopting Christianity and marrying a sister of Æthelstan at Tamworth.", "Within the year he appears to have forsaken his new faith and repudiated his wife, but before Æthelstan could respond, Sihtric died suddenly in 927.His kinsman, perhaps brother, Gofraid, who had remained as his deputy in Dublin, came from Ireland to take power in York, but failed.", "Æthelstan moved quickly, seizing much of Northumbria.", "In less than a decade, the kingdom of the English had become by far the greatest power in Britain and Ireland, perhaps stretching as far north as the Firth of Forth.John of Worcester's chronicle suggests that Æthelstan faced opposition from Constantine, Owain, and the Welsh kings.", "William of Malmesbury writes that Gofraid, together with Sihtric's young son Olaf Cuaran fled north and received refuge from Constantine, which led to war with Æthelstan.", "A meeting at Eamont Bridge on 927 was sealed by an agreement that Constantine, Owain, Hywel Dda, and Ealdred would \"renounce all idolatry\": that is, they would not ally with the Viking kings.", "William states that Æthelstan stood godfather to a son of Constantine, probably Indulf (Ildulb mac Constantín), during the conference.Æthelstan followed up his advances in the north by securing the recognition of the Welsh kings.", "For the next seven years, the record of events in the north is blank.", "Æthelstan's court was attended by the Welsh kings, but not by Constantine or Owain.", "This absence of record means that Æthelstan's reasons for marching north against Constantine in 934 are unclear.Æthelstan's invasion is reported in brief by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', and later chroniclers such as John of Worcester, William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon, and Symeon of Durham add detail to that bald account.", "Æthelstan's army began gathering at Winchester by 934, and travelled north to Nottingham by .", "He was accompanied by many leaders, including the Welsh kings Hywel Dda, Idwal Foel, and Morgan ab Owain.", "From Mercia the army continued to Chester-le-Street, before resuming the march accompanied by a fleet of ships.", "Owain was defeated and Symeon states that the army went as far north as Dunnottar and Fortriu, while the fleet is said to have raided Caithness, by which a much larger area, including Sutherland, is probably intended.", "It is unlikely that Constantine's personal authority extended so far north, so the attacks were probably directed at his allies, comprising simple looting expeditions.The ''Annals of Clonmacnoise'' state that \"the Scottish men compelled Æthelstan to return without any great victory\", while Henry of Huntingdon claims that the English faced no opposition.", "A negotiated settlement might have ended matters: according to John of Worcester, a son of Constantine was given as a hostage to Æthelstan and Constantine himself accompanied the English king on his return south.", "He witnessed a charter with Æthelstan at Buckingham on 934 in which he is described as ''subregulus'', ''i.e.", "'', a king acknowledging Æthelstan's overlordship, the only place there is any record of such a description.", "However, there is no record of Constantine having ever submitted to Æthelstan's overlordship or that he considered himself such.", "The following year, Constantine was again in England at Æthelstan's court, this time at Cirencester where he appears as a witness, as the first of several kings, followed by Owain and Hywel Dda, who subscribed to the diploma.", "At Christmas of 935, Owain was once more at Æthelstan's court along with the Welsh kings, but Constantine was not.", "His return to England less than two years later would be in very different circumstances." ], [ "Brunanburh and after", "Following his departure from Æthelstan's court after 935, there is no further report of Constantine until 937.In that year, together with Owain and Olaf Guthfrithson of Dublin, Constantine invaded England.", "The resulting battle of Brunanburh—''Dún Brunde''—is reported in the ''Annals of Ulster'' as follows:a great battle, lamentable and terrible was cruelly fought... in which fell uncounted thousands of the Northmen.", "...And on the other side, a multitude of Saxons fell; but Æthelstan, the king of the Saxons, obtained a great victory.", "The battle was remembered in England a generation later as \"the Great Battle\".", "When reporting the battle, the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' abandons its usual terse style in favour of a heroic poem vaunting the great victory.", "In this, the \"hoary\" Constantine, by now around 60 years of age, is said to have lost a son in the battle, a claim which the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'' confirms.", "The ''Annals of Clonmacnoise'' give his name as Cellach.", "For all its fame, the site of the battle is uncertain and several sites have been advanced, with Bromborough on the Wirral the most favoured location.Brunanburh, for all that it had been a famous and bloody battle, settled nothing.", "On 939 Æthelstan, the \"pillar of the dignity of the western world\" in the words of the ''Annals of Ulster'', died at Malmesbury.", "He was succeeded by his brother Edmund, then aged 18.Æthelstan's realm, seemingly made safe by the victory of Brunanburh, collapsed in little more than a year from his death when Amlaíb returned from Ireland and seized Northumbria and the Mercian Danelaw.", "Edmund spent the remainder of Constantín's reign rebuilding his kingdom.For Constantine's last years as king, there is only the meagre record of the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba''.", "The death of Æthelstan is reported, as are two others.", "The first of these, in 938, is that of Dubacan, mormaer of Angus or son of the mormaer.", "Unlike the report of 918, on this occasion, the title mormaer is attached to a geographical area, but it is unknown whether the Angus of 938 was in any way similar to the later mormaerdom or earldom.", "The second death, entered with that of Æthelstan, is that of Eochaid mac Ailpín, who might, from his name, have been a kinsman of Constantín." ], [ "Abdication and posterity", "By the early 940s Constantine was an old man in his late sixties or seventies.", "The kingdom of Alba was too new to be said to have a customary rule of succession, but Pictish and Irish precedents favoured an adult successor descended from Kenneth MacAlpin.", "Constantine's surviving son Indulf, probably baptised in 927, would have been too young to be a serious candidate for the kingship in the early 940s, and the obvious heir was Constantine's nephew, Malcolm I.", "As Malcolm was born no later than 901, by the 940s he was no longer a young man, and may have been impatient.", "Willingly or not—the 11th-century ''Prophecy of Berchán'', a verse history in the form of a supposed prophecy, states that it was not a voluntary decision—Constantine abdicated in 943 and entered a monastery, leaving the kingdom to Malcolm.Although his retirement might have been involuntary, the ''Life'' of Cathróe of Metz and the ''Prophecy of Berchán'' portray Constantine as a devout king.", "The monastery to which Constantine retired, and where he is said to have been abbot, was probably that of St Andrews.", "This had been refounded in his reign and given to the reforming Céli Dé (Culdee) movement.", "The Céli Dé were subsequently to be entrusted with many monasteries throughout the kingdom of Alba until replaced in the 12th century by new orders imported from France.Seven years later the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'' says:Malcolm I plundered the English as far as the river Tees, and he seized a multitude of people and many herds of cattle: and the Scots called this the raid of Albidosorum, that is, Nainndisi.", "But others say that Constantine made this raid, asking of the king, Malcolm, that the kingship should be given to him for a week's time so that he could visit the English.", "In fact, it was Malcolm who made the raid, but Constantine incited him, as I have said.", "Woolf suggests that the association of Constantine with the raid is a late addition, one derived from a now-lost saga or poem.Constantine's death in 952 is recorded by the Irish annals, who enter it among ecclesiastics.", "His son Indulf would become king on Malcolm's death.", "The last of Constantine's certain descendants to be king in Alba was a great-grandson, Constantine III (Constantín mac Cuiléin).", "Another son had died at Brunanburh, and, according to John of Worcester, Amlaíb mac Gofraid was married to a daughter of Constantine.", "It is possible that Constantine had other children, but like the name of his wife, or wives, this has not been recorded.The form of kingdom which appeared in Constantine's reign continued in much the same way until the Davidian Revolution in the 12th century.", "As with his ecclesiastical reforms, his political legacy was the creation of a new form of Scottish kingship that lasted for two centuries after his death." ], [ "Family", "The name of Constantine's wife is not known, however, they are known to have had at least 3 children:* Ildulb mac Causantín (Indulf or Indulph)(died 962), king of Alba 954–962.", "* Cellach, died in 937 in the Battle of Brunanburh.", "* A daughter, name not recorded, married Amlaíb mac Gofraid." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Constantine II at the official website of the British monarchy" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Constantine the Great" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Constantine I''' (27 February 22 May 337), also known as '''Constantine the Great''', was a Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity.", "He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, decriminalizing Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution in a period referred to as the Constantinian shift.", "Constantine is also the originator of the religiopolitical ideology known as Constantinism, which epitomizes the unity of church and state, as opposed to separation of church and state.Born in Naissus, Dacia Mediterranea (now Niš, Serbia), he was the son of Flavius Constantius, a Roman army officer of Illyrian origin who had been one of the four rulers of the Tetrarchy.", "His mother, Helena, was a Greek woman of low birth.", "Later canonised as a saint, she is traditionally credited for the conversion of her son.", "Constantine served with distinction under the Roman emperors Diocletian and Galerius.", "He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces (against the Persians) before being recalled in the west (in AD 305) to fight alongside his father in the province of Britannia.", "After his father's death in 306, Constantine was acclaimed as ''augustus'' (emperor) by his army at Eboracum (York, England).", "He eventually emerged victorious in the civil wars against emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324.Upon his ascension, Constantine enacted numerous reforms to strengthen the empire.", "He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities.", "To combat inflation, he introduced the solidus, a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years.", "The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units (), often around the Emperor, to serve on campaigns against external enemies or Roman rebels, and frontier-garrison troops () which were capable of countering barbarian raids, but less and less capable, over time, of countering full-scale barbarian invasions.", "Constantine pursued successful campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers—such as the Franks, the Alemanni, the Goths, and the Sarmatians—and resettled territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century with citizens of Roman culture.Although Constantine lived much of his life as a pagan and later as a catechumen, he began to favour Christianity beginning in 312, finally becoming a Christian and being baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop, although the Catholic Church and the Coptic Orthodox Church maintain that he was baptised by Pope Sylvester I.", "He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which declared tolerance for Christianity in the Roman Empire.", "He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325 which produced the statement of Christian belief known as the Nicene Creed.", "The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built on his orders at the purported site of Jesus' tomb in Jerusalem and was deemed the holiest place in all of Christendom.", "The papal claim to temporal power in the High Middle Ages was based on the fabricated Donation of Constantine.", "He has historically been referred to as the \"First Christian Emperor,\" but while he did favour the Christian Church, some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity.", "Nevertheless, he is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity, and he did much to push Christianity towards the mainstream of Roman culture.The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire and a pivotal moment in the transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages.", "He built a new imperial residence in the city of Byzantium and renamed it New Rome, later adopting the name Constantinople after himself, where it was located in modern Istanbul.", "It subsequently became the capital of the empire for more than a thousand years, the later Eastern Roman Empire often being referred to in English as the ''Byzantine Empire'', a term never used by the Empire, invented by German historian Hieronymus Wolf.", "His more immediate political legacy was that he replaced Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the ''de facto'' principle of dynastic succession by leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty.", "His reputation flourished during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign.", "The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a prototype, a point of reference, and the symbol of imperial legitimacy and identity.", "At the beginning of the Renaissance, there were more critical appraisals of his reign with the rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources.", "Trends in modern and recent scholarship have attempted to balance the extremes of previous scholarship." ], [ "Sources", "Constantine was a ruler of major importance and has always been a controversial figure.", "The fluctuations in his reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign.", "These are abundant and detailed, but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period and are often one-sided; no contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived.", "The nearest replacement is Eusebius's ''Vita Constantini''—a mixture of eulogy and hagiography written between 335 and circa 339—that extols Constantine's moral and religious virtues.", "The ''Vita'' creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability.", "The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous ''Origo Constantini'', a work of uncertain date which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters.Lactantius' ''De mortibus persecutorum'', a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life.", "The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign.", "Written during the reign of Theodosius II (r. 402–450), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastical historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation, and deliberate obscurity.", "The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm.The epitomes of Aurelius Victor (''De Caesaribus''), Eutropius (''Breviarium''), Festus (''Breviarium''), and the anonymous author of the ''Epitome de Caesaribus'' offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period.", "Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favourable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies.", "The ''Panegyrici Latini'', a collection of panegyrics from the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, provides valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine.", "Contemporary architecture—such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba—epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources." ], [ "Early life", "Remains of the luxurious residence palace of Mediana, erected by Constantine I near his birth town of NaissusConstantine was born in Naissus (today Niš, Serbia), part of the Dardania province of Moesia on 27 February, AD 272.His father was Flavius Constantius an Illyrian who was born in the same region (then called Dacia Ripensis) and a native of the province of Moesia.", "His original full name, as well as that of his father, is not known.", "His ''praenomen'' is variously given as Lucius, Marcus and Gaius.", "Whatever the case, ''praenomina'' had already disappeared from most public records by this time.", "He also adopted the name \"Valerius\", the ''nomen'' of emperor Diocletian, following his father's ascension as caesar.Constantine probably spent little time with his father who was an officer in the Roman army, part of Emperor Aurelian's imperial bodyguard.", "Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum, in 284 or 285.Constantine's mother was Helena, a Greek woman of low social standing from Helenopolis of Bithynia.", "It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine.", "His main language was Latin, and during his public speeches he needed Greek translators.In July 285, Diocletian declared Maximian, another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor.", "Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant.", "Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum (Milan, Italy) or Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey).", "The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called \"indivisible\" in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire.", "In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul.", "Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289.Diocletian divided the empire again in 293, appointing two caesars to rule over further subdivisions of East and West.", "Each would be subordinate to his respective augustus but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands.", "This system would later be called the Tetrarchy.", "Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius; his second was Galerius, a native of Felix Romuliana.", "According to Lactantius, Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man.", "Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian.", "On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar, and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus.", "In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position.", "Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive.=== In the East ===Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy.", "The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian.", "He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city.", "Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior.", "Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297, as well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia in 298–299.By late 305, he had become a tribune of the first order, a ''tribunus ordinis primi''.Porphyry bust of Emperor GaleriusConstantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's \"Great Persecution\", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history.", "In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians.", "Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned when Diocletian accepted his court's demands for universal persecution.", "On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia's new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized.", "In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned.", "It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution.", "In his later writings, he attempted to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's \"sanguinary edicts\" against the \"Worshippers of God\", but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time.", "Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life.On 1 May 305, Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–305, announced his resignation.", "In a parallel ceremony in Milan, Maximian did the same.", "Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession.", "According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors.", "It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to ''augusti'', while Severus and Maximinus, Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively.", "Constantine and Maxentius were ignored.Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication.", "They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars.", "Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet.", "It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted.=== In the West ===Constantine recognised the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage.", "His career depended on being rescued by his father in the West.", "Constantius was quick to intervene.", "In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain.", "After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request.", "Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind.", "He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake.", "By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught.", "Constantine joined his father in Gaul, at Bononia (Boulogne) before the summer of 305.Modern bronze statue of Constantine I in York, England, near the spot where he was proclaimed Augustus in 306From Bononia, they crossed the English Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum (York), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base.", "Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn.", "Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success.", "Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum.", "Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine to the rank of full augustus.", "The Alamannic king Chrocus, a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus.", "The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation.", "Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; Hispania, which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it.Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation.", "Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an augustus.", "The portrait was wreathed in bay.", "He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had \"forced it upon him\".", "Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire.", "His advisers calmed him and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war.", "Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title \"caesar\" rather than \"augustus\" (the latter office went to Severus instead).", "Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes.", "Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy." ], [ "Reign", "Aureus of Constantine; the inscription around the portrait is \"Constantinus Pius Felix Augustus\"Constantine's share of the empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier.", "He remained in Britain after his promotion to emperor, driving back the tribes of the Picts and securing his control in the northwestern dioceses.", "He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways.", "He then left for Augusta Treverorum (Trier) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire.", "The Franks learned of Constantine's acclamation and invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–307.He drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured kings Ascaric and Merogais; the kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier's amphitheatre in the ''adventus'' (arrival) celebrations which followed.Public baths (''thermae'') built in Trier by Constantine, more than wide by long and capable of serving several thousand at a time, built to rival those of RomeConstantine began a major expansion of Trier.", "He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city.", "To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse.", "He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum (Autun) and Arelate (Arles).", "According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian.", "He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution and a way to distinguish himself from the \"great persecutor\" Galerius.", "He decreed a formal end to persecution and returned to Christians all that they had lost during them.Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his.", "His military skill and building projects, however, soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favourably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a \"renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign\".", "Constantinian coinage, sculpture, and oratory also show a tendency for disdain towards the \"barbarians\" beyond the frontiers.", "He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, \"the Alemanni conquered\" beneath the phrase \"Romans' rejoicing\".", "There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, \"It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe.", "\"=== Maxentius' rebellion ===Dresden bust of Emperor Maxentius, who was defeated by Constantine at the Battle of the Milvian BridgeFollowing Galerius' recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary.", "Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness.", "Maxentius, envious of Constantine's authority, seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306.Galerius refused to recognize him but failed to unseat him.", "Galerius sent Severus against Maxentius, but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned.", "Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine in late 307.He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank.", "In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy.", "Constantine accepted and married Fausta in Trier in late summer 307.Constantine gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition.Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however.", "Over the spring and summer of 307, he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine.", "In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium (Cologne).", "In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks.", "When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts.", "His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West.", "Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 but soon fell out with his son.", "In early 308, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court.On 11 November 308, Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces.", "In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian.", "Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar.", "Licinius, one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus in the western regions.", "The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs.", "Maximinus was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and demanded that Galerius promote him.", "Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine \"sons of the augusti\", but neither accepted the new title.", "By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti.=== Maximian's rebellion ===solidus of \"Unconquered Constantine\" with the god Sol Invictus behind him, struck in AD 313.The use of Sol's image stressed Constantine's status as his father's successor, appealed to the educated citizens of Gaul, and was considered less offensive than the traditional pagan pantheon to the Christians.In 310, a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks.", "Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul.", "He announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple.", "In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave.", "When Constantine heard of the rebellion, he abandoned his campaign against the Franks and marched his army up the Rhine.", "At Cabillunum (Chalon-sur-Saône), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone.", "He disembarked at Lugdunum (Lyon).", "Maximian fled to Massilia (Marseille), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles.", "It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine.", "Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes.", "Constantine granted some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide.", "In July 310, Maximian hanged himself.In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death.", "He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death.", "Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy.", "By 311, however, he was spreading another version.", "According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep.", "Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed.", "Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted.", "Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a ''damnatio memoriae'' on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image.The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image.", "He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder Emperor Maximian and needed a new source of legitimacy.", "In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II, a 3rd-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire.", "Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasizes Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality.", "The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule.", "Indeed, the orator emphasizes ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: \"No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favour, made you emperor,\" the orator declares to Constantine.The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules.", "Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign.", "In the likeness of Apollo, Constantine recognised himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted \"rule of the whole world\", as the poet Virgil had once foretold.", "The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage.", "In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron.", "From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus, a god conventionally identified with Apollo.", "There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul.=== Civil wars ======= War against Maxentius ====By the middle of 310, Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics.", "His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration.Eusebius maintains \"divine providence … took action against the perpetrator of these crimes\" and gives a graphic account of Galerius' demise:\"Without warning suppurative inflammation broke out round the middle of his genitals, then a deep-seated fistula ulcer; these ate their way incurably into his innermost bowels.", "From them came a teeming indescribable mass of worms, and a sickening smell was given off, for the whole of his hulking body, thanks to over eating, had been transformed even before his illness into a huge lump of flabby fat, which then decomposed and presented those who came near it with a revolting and horrifying sight.", "\"Galerius died soon after the edict's proclamation, destroying what little remained of the Tetrarchy.", "Maximinus mobilised against Licinius and seized Asia Minor.", "A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus.", "While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war.", "He fortified northern Italy and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect Eusebius as bishop of Rome.A Roman fresco in Trier, Germany, possibly depicting Constantia.Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure.", "His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage; and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa.", "By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, even among Christian Italians.", "In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilised against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East.", "He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's \"murder\".", "To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage.", "Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority.", "In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support, which Maxentius accepted.", "According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere.", "There was \"not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day\".", "''Battle of Constantine and Maxentius'' (detail of part of a fresco by Giulio Romano in the Hall of Constantine in the Raphael Rooms in the Vatican), copy c. 1650 by Lazzaro Baldi, now at the University of EdinburghConstantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens.", "Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, ignored all these cautions.", "Early in the spring of 312, Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000.The first town his army encountered was Segusium (Susa, Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him.", "Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls.", "He took the town quickly.", "Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town and advanced into northern Italy.At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin, Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry.", "In the ensuing Battle of Turin Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs.", "Constantine's armies emerged victorious.", "Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead.", "Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory.", "He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing.", "Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia (Brescia).Brescia's army was easily dispersed, and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona where a large Maxentian force was camped.", "Ruricius Pompeianus, general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect, was in a strong defensive position since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige.", "Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed.", "Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force but was defeated.", "Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege.", "Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine.", "Constantine refused to let up on the siege and sent only a small force to oppose him.", "In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed.", "Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia, Mutina (Modena), and Ravenna.", "The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine.The Milvian Bridge (Ponte Milvio) over the River Tiber, north of Rome, where Constantine and Maxentius fought in the Battle of the Milvian BridgeMaxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he sat in Rome and prepared for a siege.", "He still controlled Rome's Praetorian Guard, was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls.", "He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge.", "Constantine progressed slowly along the ''Via Flaminia'', allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil.", "Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible.", "Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine.", "On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance.", "The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, \"the enemy of the Romans\" would die.", "Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle.==== Constantine adopts the Greek letters Chi Rho for Christ's initials ====Silver medallion of 315; Constantine with a chi-rho symbol as the crest of his helmetMaxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organised them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river.", "Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields.", "According to Lactantius \"Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle.", "He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ.", "Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms.\"", "Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which \"he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, ''In Hoc Signo Vinces''\" (\"In this sign thou shalt conquer\").", "In Eusebius's account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the ''labarum''.", "Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius.", "He describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word (Christos).", "A medallion was issued at Ticinum in 315 which shows Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the ''Chi Rho'', and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 repeat the image.", "The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s.", "It was not completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes in the 3rd century BC.", "Following Constantine, centuries of Christians invoked the miraculous or the supernatural when justifying or describing their warfare.Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line.", "He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry.", "He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned.", "The battle was brief, and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge.", "His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river.", "Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats (Ponte Milvio), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers.==== In Rome ====Head of a bronze colossus of Constantine, now in the Capitoline MuseumsConstantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 and staged a grand ''adventus'' in the city which was met with jubilation.", "Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets for all to see.", "After the ceremonies, the disembodied head was sent to Carthage, and Carthage offered no further resistance.", "Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter.", "However, he did visit the Senatorial Curia Julia, and he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government; there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters.", "In response, the Senate decreed him \"title of the first name\", which meant that his name would be listed first in all official documents, and they acclaimed him as \"the greatest augustus\".", "He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents.An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places.", "He was written up as a \"tyrant\" and set against an idealised image of Constantine the \"liberator\".", "Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda.", "Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated.", "Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape.", "All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius.", "At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian ''labarum'' in its hand.", "Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: \"By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant.", "\"Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements.", "For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia.", "Maxentius' strongest military supporters were neutralised when he disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard.", "The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and used in a basilica on the Via Labicana, and their former base was redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica on 9 November 312—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city.", "The Legio II Parthica was removed from Albano Laziale, and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine.==== Wars against Licinius ====Gold aureus of the Emperor LiciniusIn the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy.", "In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia.", "During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan, officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the empire.", "The document had special benefits for Christians, legalizing their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution.", "It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere—\"Divinity\" and \"Supreme Divinity\", ''summa divinitas''.", "The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory.", "Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire.", "Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar; Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed.", "In either 314 or 316, the two augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae, with Constantine being victorious.", "They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317 and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II, and Licinius' son Licinianus were made ''caesars''.", "After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium, whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod.In 320, Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan and began to oppress Christians anew, generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office-holders.", "Although this characterization of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine.", "Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general, as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen.This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324.Constantine's Christian eulogists present the war as a battle between Christianity and paganism; Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and ancient paganism, while Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the ''labarum''.", "Outnumbered but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople.", "Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian, his ''magister officiorum'', as nominal augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324.Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326.Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.=== Later rule ======= Foundation of Constantinople ====Coin struck by Constantine I to commemorate the founding of ConstantinopleDiocletian had chosen Nicomedia in the East as his capital during the Tetrarchy—not far from Byzantium, well situated to defend Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, all of which had required his military attention.", "Constantine had recognised the shift of the empire from the remote and depopulated West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.", "Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival centre of pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a centre of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire.", "Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present-day Sofia), as he was reported saying that \"''Serdica is my Rome''\".", "Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered.", "Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium, which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism during the preceding century by Septimius Severus and Caracalla, who had already acknowledged its strategic importance.", "The city was thus founded in 324, dedicated on 11 May 330 and renamed ''Constantinopolis'' (\"Constantine's City\" or Constantinople in English).", "Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honor the event.", "The new city was protected by the relics of the True Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city.", "The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism.", "Constantine built the new Church of the Holy Apostles on the site of a temple to Aphrodite.", "Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see led him on a circuit of the new walls.", "The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as ''Nova Roma Constantinopolitana'', the \"New Rome of Constantinople\".==== Religious policy ====Arian heretics ('Heretici Arriani'), from a 9th-century manuscript now in VercelliConstantine was the first emperor to stop the persecution of Christians and to legalize Christianity, along with all other religions/cults in the Roman Empire.", "In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression.", "This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously, and it returned confiscated Church property.", "The edict protected all religions from persecution, not only Christianity, allowing anyone to worship any deity that they chose.", "A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, which granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them.", "The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned, as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians.", "Some scholars think that Helena adopted Christianity as an adult, and according to Eusebius she was converted by Constantine, but other historians debate whether Constantine adopted his mother Helena's Christianity in his youth or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life.Pope Sylvester I and Emperor ConstantineConstantine possibly retained the title of ''pontifex maximus'' which emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion until Gratian renounced the title.", "According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes to the protection of the Christian High God alone.", "Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptised on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor.", "He supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the long period of persecution.", "His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old St. Peter's Basilica.", "In constructing the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Constantine went to great lengths to erect the basilica on top of St. Peter's resting place, so much so that it even affected the design of the basilica, including the challenge of erecting it on the hill where St. Peter rested, making its complete construction time over 30 years from the date Constantine ordered it to be built.Constantine might not have patronised Christianity alone.", "A triumphal arch was built in 315 to celebrate his victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge which was decorated with images of the goddess Victoria, and sacrifices were made to pagan gods at its dedication, including Apollo, Diana, and Hercules.", "Absent from the arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism.", "However, the arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt.In 321, he legislated that the ''venerable Sunday'' should be a day of rest for all citizens.", "In 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices.", "After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine's attributes, the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, as well on the coinage.", "The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils, most notably the dispute over Arianism.", "Constantine disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring to establish an orthodoxy.", "His influence over the Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; the Church's role was to determine proper worship, doctrines, and dogma.North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian from 313 to 316.The African bishops could not come to terms, and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute.", "Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa.", "In 317, Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile.", "More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed.", "He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating the Lord's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover, which marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition.", "From then on, the solar Julian calendar was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire.Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavourable towards Jews, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors.", "It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity.", "They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves.", "On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy.==== Administrative reforms ====solidus of Constantine the Great in the centre, AD 321, now in the British MuseumBeginning in the mid-3rd century, the emperors began to favour members of the equestrian order over senators, who had a monopoly on the most important offices of the state.", "Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships, as it was felt that they lacked the specialised military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs; such posts were given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues, following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors.", "The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels.", "Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement.In 326, Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy; at the same time, he elevated the rank of existing equestrian office-holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order in the process (at least as a bureaucratic rank).", "The title of ''perfectissimus'' was granted only to mid- or low-level officials by the end of the 4th century.By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator by being elected praetor or by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank.", "From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy.", "Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this, as the Senate was allowed to elect praetors and quaestors in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating magistrates (''adlectio'').", "An inscription in honor of city prefect Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate \"the ''auctoritas'' it had lost at Caesar's time\".The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalised as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats.", "Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianised imperial rule; however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu.", "Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed.Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration.", "The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century but remained outside the Senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children.==== Monetary reforms ====A nummus of ConstantineIn the 3rd century, the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses resulted in runaway inflation, and Diocletian tried unsuccessfully to re-establish trustworthy minting of silver coins, as well as silver-bronze \"billon\" coins (the term \"billon\" meaning an alloy of precious and base metals that is mostly base metal).", "Silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates.", "Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic \"pure\" silver ''argenteus'' soon after 305, while the \"billon\" currency continued to be used until the 360s.", "From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus, 72 of which made a pound of gold.", "New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this \"billon\" minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the ''centenionalis''.", "These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard.", "The author of ''De Rebus Bellicis'' held that the rift widened between classes because of this monetary policy; the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever-degrading bronze pieces.", "Later emperors such as Julian the Apostate insisted on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency.Constantine's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious policies; increased minting was associated with the confiscation of all gold, silver, and bronze statues from pagan temples between 331 and 336 which were declared to be imperial property.", "Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting the statues and melting them for immediate minting, with the exception of a number of bronze statues that were used as public monuments in Constantinople.==== Executions of Crispus and Fausta ====Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by \"cold poison\" at Pola (Pula, Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326.In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta (stepmother of Crispus) killed in an overheated bath.", "Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and their memory was condemned.", "Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of ''Historia Ecclesiastica'', and his ''Vita Constantini'' contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus.", "Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events, and the few that do are of later provenance and are generally unreliable.", "At the time of the executions, it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumors to that effect.", "A popular myth arose, modified to allude to the Hippolytus–Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities; the largely fictional ''Passion of Artemius'' explicitly makes this connection.", "The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's \"godly\" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected.Although Constantine created his apparent heirs \"caesars\", following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine's caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to empire and entirely subordinated to their augustus, as long as he was alive.", "Adrian Goldsworthy speculates an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was Constantine's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this—and Fausta's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother—being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in \"killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary\".==== Later campaigns ====Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence.", "He lived there for a good portion of his later life.", "In 328, construction was completed on Constantine's Bridge at ''Sucidava'', (today Celei in Romania) in hopes of reconquering Dacia, a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian.", "In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths.", "The weather and lack of food reportedly cost the Goths dearly before they submitted to Rome.", "In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe.", "He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate.", "Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts and conscripted the rest into the army.", "The new frontier in Dacia was along the Brazda lui Novac line supported by new ''castra''.", "Constantine took the title ''Dacicus maximus'' in 336.In the last years of his life, Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia.", "In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur, Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well.", "The letter is undatable.", "In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335.In 336, Prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne.", "Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia.", "He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere.", "Constantine planned to be baptised in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia.", "Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away.", "The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337.==== Illness and death ====''The Baptism of Constantine'', as imagined by students of RaphaelFrom his recent illness, Constantine knew death would soon come.", "Within the Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself.", "It came sooner than he had expected.", "Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill.", "He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis (Altınova), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit).", "There, in a church his mother built in honor of Lucian the Martyr, he prayed, and there he realised that he was dying.", "Seeking purification, he became a catechumen and attempted a return to Constantinople, making it only as far as a suburb of Nicomedia.", "He summoned the bishops and told them of his hope to be baptised in the River Jordan, where Christ was written to have been baptised.", "He requested the baptism right away, promising to live a more Christian life should he live through his illness.", "The bishops, Eusebius records, \"performed the sacred ceremonies according to custom\".", "He chose the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptizer.", "In postponing his baptism, he followed one custom at the time which postponed baptism until after infancy.", "It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did so as to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible.", "Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter), on 22 May 337.Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle.", "Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died \"in the middle of his preparations for war\".", "Similar accounts are given in the ''Origo Constantini'', an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia; the ''Historiae abbreviatae'' of Sextus Aurelius Victor, written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; and the ''Breviarium'' of Eutropius, a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens, which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia.", "From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's ''Vita'' was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign.Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the ''De Ceremoniis''.", "His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 but was destroyed at some point afterwards.", "Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans.", "His sons, along with his nephew Dalmatius, had already received one division of the empire each to administer as caesars; Constantine may have intended his successors to resume a structure akin to Diocletian's Tetrarchy.", "A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of caesar) and Hannibalianus, presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession.", "He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena, wife of Emperor Julian." ], [ "Assessment and legacy", "Constantine reunited the empire under one emperor, and he won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the Goths in 332, and the Sarmatians in 334.By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271.At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire.In the cultural sphere, Constantine revived the clean-shaven face fashion of earlier emperors, originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus (236–183 BC) and changed into the wearing of the beard by Hadrian (r. 117–138).", "This new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas (r. 602–610) in the 7th century.The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition.", "In the later Byzantine state, it became a great honor for an emperor to be hailed as a \"new Constantine\"; ten emperors carried the name, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire.", "Charlemagne used monumental Constantinian forms in his court to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal.", "Charlemagne, Henry VIII, Philip II of Spain, Godfrey of Bouillon, House of Capet, House of Habsburg, House of Stuart, Macedonian dynasty and Phokas family claimed descent from Constantine.", "Geoffrey of Monmouth embroidered a tale that the legendary king of Britain, King Arthur, was also a descendant of Constantine.", "Constantine acquired a mythic role as a hero and warrior against heathens.", "His reception as a saint seems to have spread within the Byzantine empire during wars against the Sasanian Persians and the Muslims in the late 6th and 7th century.", "The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors.", "The name \"Constantine\" enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the 11th and 12th centuries.The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is named in honor of him.", "A large cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled.", "In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honor.", "The ''Commemoration of the Edict of Milan'' was held in Niš in 2013.The Orthodox Church considers Constantine a saint (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος, Saint Constantine), having a feast day on 21 May, and calls him ''isapostolos'' (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles.=== Historiography ===Constantius appoints Constantine as his successor'' by Peter Paul Rubens, 1622During Constantine's lifetime, Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius, pagan authors, showered Constantine with praise, presenting him as a paragon of virtue.", "His nephew and son-in-law Julian the Apostate, however, wrote the satire ''Symposium, or the Saturnalia'' in 361, after the last of his sons died; it denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed.", "Following Julian, Eunapius began – and Zosimus continued – a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the empire through his indulgence to the Christians.During the Middle Ages, European and Near-East Byzantine writers presented Constantine as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured.", "The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of his career.", "German humanist Johannes Leunclavius discovered Zosimus' writings and published a Latin translation in 1576.In its preface, he argues that Zosimus' picture of Constantine offered a more balanced view than that of Eusebius and the Church historians.", "Cardinal Caesar Baronius criticised Zosimus, favouring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era.", "Baronius' ''Life of Constantine'' (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince.", "Edward Gibbon aimed to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship in his work ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' (1776–89) by contrasting the portraits presented by Eusebius and Zosimus.", "He presents a noble war hero who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age, \"degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch\".Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt's ''The Age of Constantine the Great'' (1853, rev.", "1880).", "Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power.", "Henri Grégoire followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine in the 1930s, suggesting that Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness.", "Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius' ''Vita'', and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work.", "Otto Seeck's ''Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt'' (1920–23) and André Piganiol's ''L'empereur Constantin'' (1932) go against this historiographic tradition.", "Seeck presents Constantine as a sincere war hero whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency.", "Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism.", "Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones (''Constantine and the Conversion of Europe'', 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen (''Constantine'', 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine.These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity.", "Norman H. Baynes began a historiographic tradition with ''Constantine the Great and the Christian Church'' (1929) which presents Constantine as a committed Christian, reinforced by Andreas Alföldi's ''The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome'' (1948), and Timothy Barnes's ''Constantine and Eusebius'' (1981) is the culmination of this trend.", "Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire.", "Charles Matson Odahl's ''Constantine and the Christian Empire'' (2004) takes much the same tack.", "In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion.", "Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T.G.", "Elliott's ''The Christianity of Constantine the Great'' (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood.", "Paul Veyne's 2007 work ''Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien'' holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant \"to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity\".=== Donation of Constantine ===Latin Christians considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptised only on his death bed by an unorthodox bishop, and a legend emerged by the early 4th century that Pope Sylvester I had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy.", "According to this legend, Constantine was baptised and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Basilica.", "The Donation of Constantine appeared in the 8th century, most likely during the pontificate of Pope Stephen II, in which the freshly converted Constantine gives \"the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions\" to Sylvester and his successors.", "In the High Middle Ages, this document was used and accepted as the basis for the pope's temporal power, though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri.", "Philologist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the document was indeed a forgery.=== Geoffrey of Monmouth's ''Historia'' ===During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd.", "While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as emperor in Britain, there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus's supposed wife Elen and her son, another Constantine .", "In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his ''Historia Anglorum'' that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester.", "Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalised , an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion.", "According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain.", "Afraid of the Romans, Cole submits to Roman law so long as he retains his kingship.", "However, he dies only a month later, and Constantius takes the throne himself, marrying Cole's daughter Helena.", "They have their son Constantine, who succeeds his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman emperor.Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable.", "Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain.", "Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess.", "Henry's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena." ], [ "Family tree", "Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti, names with a thicker border appear in both sections'''1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings''''''2: Constantine's children'''" ], [ "See also", "*Bronze colossus of Constantine*Colossus of Constantine*Life of Constantine*Fifty Bibles of Constantine*German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine*List of people known as the great" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources =======Ancient sources====*Athanasius of Alexandria.", "''Apologia contra Arianos'' (''Defence against the Arians'') .", "**Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans.", "''Apologia Contra Arianos''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "4.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Retrieved 14 August 2009.", "*Athanasius of Alexandria ''Epistola de Decretis Nicaenae Synodi'' (''Letter on the Decrees of the Council of Nicaea'') .", "**Newman, John Henry, trans.", "''De Decretis''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "4.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Retrieved 28 September 2009.", "*Athanasius of Alexandria ''Historia Arianorum'' (''History of the Arians'') .", "**Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans.", "''Historia Arianorum''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "4.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Retrieved 14 August 2009.", "*Sextus Aurelius Victor, ''Liber de Caesaribus'' (''Book on the Caesars'') .", "*''Codex Theodosianus'' (''Theodosian Code'') 439.", "**Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds.", "''Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes''2 (in Latin).", "Berlin: Weidmann, 1905 1954.Compiled by Nicholas Palmer, revised by Tony Honoré for Oxford Text Archive, 1984.Prepared for online use by R.W.B.", "Salway, 1999.Preface, books 1–8.Online at University College London and the University of Grenoble.", "Retrieved 25 August 2009.", "**Unknown edition (in Latin).", "Online at AncientRome.ru.", "Retrieved 15 August 2009.", "*''Codex Justinianeus'' (''Justinianic Code'' or ''Code of Justinian'').", "**Scott, Samuel P., trans.", "''The Code of Justinian'', in ''The Civil Law''.", "17 vols.", "1932.Online at the Constitution Society.", "Retrieved 14 August 2009.", "***''Epitome de Caesaribus'' (''Epitome on the Caesars'') .", "**Banchich, Thomas M., trans.", "''A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores''.", "''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 1.Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009.Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis.", "Retrieved 15 August 2009.", "* (''On Military Matters'') fourth/fifth century.", "*Eunapius, ''History from Dexippus'' first edition , second edition .", "Fragmentary*Eusebius of Caesarea.", "**''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''Church History'') first seven books , eighth and ninth book , tenth book , epilogue .", "***Williamson, G.A., trans.", "''Church History''.", "London: Penguin, 1989.", "***McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans.", "''Church History''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "1.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Retrieved 28 September 2009.", "**''Oratio de Laudibus Constantini'' (''Oration in Praise of Constantine'', sometimes the ''Tricennial Oration'') 336.", "***Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans.", "''Oration in Praise of Constantine''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "1.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Retrieved 16 August 2009.", "**''Vita Constantini'' (''The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine'') –339.", "***Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans.", "''Life of Constantine''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "1.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Retrieved 9 June 2009.", "*** ''Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine''.", "2009.Reprint of Bagster edition 1845.Evolution Publishing.", ".", "***Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. ''", "Life of Constantine''.", "1999.Oxford University Press.", ".", "*Eutropius, ''Breviarium ab Urbe Condita'' (''Abbreviated History from the City's Founding'') .", "**Watson, John Henry, trans.", "''Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius''.", "London: George Bell & Sons, 1886.Online at Tertullian.", "Retrieved 28 September 2009.", "*Rufus Festus, ''Breviarium Festi'' (''The Abbreviated History of Festus'') .", "**Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans.", "''Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People''.", "''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 2.Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2001.Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis.", "Retrieved 15 August 2009.", "*Jerome, ''Chronicon'' (''Chronicle'') .", "**Pearse, Roger, ''et al.", "''., trans.", "''The Chronicle of St. Jerome'', in ''Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts''.", "Tertullian, 2005.Online at Tertullian.", "Retrieved 14 August 2009.", "*Jordanes, ''De origine actibusque Getarum'' ''Getica'' (''The Origin and Deeds of the Goths'') .", "**Mierow, Charles C., trans.", "''The Origins and Deeds of the Goths''.", "Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915.", "***Online at the University of Calgary.", "Retrieved 28 September 2009.", "***''The Gothic History of Jordanes''.", "2006.Reprint of 1915 edition.", "Evolution Publishing.", ".", "The Christian Roman Empire series*Lactantius, ''De mortibus persecutorum'' (''On the Deaths of the Persecutors'') .", "**Fletcher, William, trans.", "''Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died''.", "From ''Ante-Nicene Fathers'', Vol.", "7.Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Retrieved 9 June 2009.", "*Libanius, '' Orationes'' (''Orations'') –365.", "*Optatus, ''Libri VII de Schismate Donatistarum'' (''Seven Books on the Schism of the Donatists'') first edition –367, second edition .", "**Vassall-Phillips, O.R., trans.", "''The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists''.", "London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917.Transcribed at tertullian.org by Roger Pearse, 2006.Online at Tertullian.", "Retrieved 9 June 2009.", "***''Origo Constantini Imperiatoris'' (''The Lineage of the Emperor Constantine'') –390.", "**Rolfe, J.C., trans.", "''Excerpta Valesiana'', in vol.", "3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' ''History''.", "Loeb ed.", "London: Heinemann, 1952.Online at LacusCurtius.", "Retrieved 16 August 2009.", "*Orosius, '' Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII'' (''Seven Books of History Against the Pagans'') .", "*''XII Panegyrici Latini'' (''Twelve Latin Panegyircs'') relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, 307, 310, 311, 313 and 321.", "*Philostorgius, ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''Church History'') .", "**Walford, Edward, trans.", "''Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople''.", "London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855.Online at Tertullian.", "Retrieved 15 August 2009.", "*Praxagoras of Athens, ''Historia'' (''History of Constantine the Great'') .", "Fragmentary*Socrates of Constantinople (Scholasticus), ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''Church History'') .", "**Zenos, A.C., trans.", "''Ecclesiastical History''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "2.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Retrieved 14 August 2009.", "*Sozomen, ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''Church History'') .", "**Hartranft, Chester D. ''Ecclesiastical History''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "2.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Retrieved 15 August 2009.", "*Theodoret, ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''Church History'') .", "**Jackson, Blomfield, trans.", "''Ecclesiastical History''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "3.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Retrieved 15 August 2009.", "*Zosimus, ''Historia Nova'' (''New History'') .", "**Unknown, trans.", "''The History of Count Zosimus''.", "London: Green and Champlin, 1814.Online at Tertullian.", "Retrieved 15 August 2009.====Modern sources====*Alföldi, Andrew.", "''The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome''.", "Translated by Harold Mattingly.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1948.", "************** Paperback ****************************Mattingly, David.", "''An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire''.", "London: Penguin, 2007.", "***Odahl, Charles Matson.", "''Constantine and the Christian Empire''.", "New York: Routledge, 2004.Hardcover Paperback *** Paperback *Pohlsander, Hans. \"", "Constantine I (306 – 337 A.D.).\"", "''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' (2004b).", "Retrieved 16 December 2007.", "* Paperback ***Scheidel, Walter.", "\"The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires\".", "In Scheidel, ed., ''Rome and China: Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, *****Udoh, Fabian E. \"Quand notre monde est devenu chretien\", review, ''Theological Studies'', June 2008*Veyne, Paul.", "''L'Empire Gréco-Romain'', Paris: Seuil, 2005.", "*Veyne, Paul.", "''Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien'', Paris: Albin Michel, 2007.", "*Warmington, Brian.", "\"Some Constantinian References in Ammianus.\"", "In ''The Late Roman World and its Historian: Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus'', edited by Jan Willem Drijvers and David Hunt, 166–177.London: Routledge, 1999.", "****Wienand, Johannes (ed.).", "''Contested Monarchy.", "Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015.", "*****" ], [ "Further reading", "*Arjava, Antii.", "''Women and Law in Late Antiquity''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.", "****Cowan, Ross (2016). ''", "Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith''.", "Oxford: Osprey Publishing.", "**Fourlas, Benjamin (2020).", "\"St Constantine and the Army of Heroic Men Raised by Tiberius II Constantine in 574/575.Some Thoughts on the Historical Significance of the Early Byzantine Silver Hoard at Karlsruhe\".", "''Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums'' 62, 2015 published 2020, 341–375.", "*Harries, Jill.", "''Law and Empire in Late Antiquity''.", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.Hardcover Paperback *Hartley, Elizabeth.", "''Constantine the Great: York's Roman Emperor''.", "York: Lund Humphries, 2004..*Heather, Peter J.", "\"''Foedera'' and ''Foederati'' of the Fourth Century.\"", "In ''From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms'', edited by Thomas F.X.", "Noble, 292–308.New York: Routledge, 2006.Hardcover Paperback *Leithart, Peter J.", "Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom.", "Downers Grove: IL, InterVarsity Press 2010*MacMullen, Ramsay.", "''Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400''.", "New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1984.", "*MacMullen, Ramsay.", "''Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries''.", "New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997.", "*Percival J.", "On the Question of Constantine's Conversion to Christianity , Clio History Journal, 2008**Velikov, Yuliyan (2013).", "''Imperator et Sacerdos''.", "Veliko Turnovo University Press.", "(in Bulgarian)" ], [ "External links", "* Complete chronological list of Constantine's extant writings (archived 19 February 2013)**Letters of Constantine: Book 1, Book 2, & Book 3* Encyclopædia Britannica, Constantine I*Henry Stuart Jones (1911).", "\"Constantine (emperors)\".", "In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).", "''Encyclopædia Britannica''.", "'''6.'''", "(11th ed.", "), Cambridge University Press.", "pp. 988–992.", "*Charles George Herbermann and Georg Grupp (1908).", "\"Constantine the Great\".", "In ''Catholic Encyclopedia''.", "'''4.'''", "New York: Robert Appleton Company.", "* BBC North Yorkshire's site on Constantine the Great* Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York'* Commemorations* Roman Legionary AD 284–337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great* Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Common Language Infrastructure" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Common Language Infrastructure''' ('''CLI''') is an open specification and technical standard originally developed by Microsoft and standardized by ISO/IEC ('''ISO/IEC 23271''') and Ecma International ('''ECMA 335''') that describes executable code and a runtime environment that allows multiple high-level languages to be used on different computer platforms without being rewritten for specific architectures.", "This implies it is platform agnostic.", "The .NET Framework, .NET and Mono are implementations of the CLI.The metadata format is also used to specify the API definitions exposed by the Windows Runtime." ], [ "Overview", "Visual overview of the Common Language Infrastructure (CLI)Among other things, the CLI specification describes the following five aspects:;The Common Type System (CTS):A set of data types and operations that are shared by all CTS-compliant programming languages.", ";The Metadata:Information about program structure is language-agnostic, so that it can be referenced between languages and tools, making it easy to work with code written in a language the developer is not using.", ";The Common Language Specification (CLS):The CLS, a subset of the CTS, are rules to which components developed with/for the supported languages must adhere.", ":They apply to consumers (developers who are programmatically accessing a component that is CLS-compliant), frameworks (developers who are using a language compiler to create CLS-compliant libraries), and extenders (developers who are creating a tool such as a language compiler or a code parser that creates CLS-compliant components).", ";The Virtual Execution System (VES):The VES loads and executes CLI-compatible programs, using the metadata to combine separately generated pieces of code at runtime.", ":All compatible languages compile to Common Intermediate Language (CIL), which is an intermediate language that is abstracted from the platform hardware.", "When the code is executed, the platform-specific VES will compile the CIL to the machine language according to the specific hardware and operating system.", ":In the CLI standard initially developed by Microsoft, the VES is implemented by the Common Language Runtime (CLR).", ";The Standard Libraries:A set of libraries providing many common functions, such as file reading and writing.", "Their core is the Base Class Library (BCL)." ], [ "Standardization and licensing", "In August 2000, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, Intel, and others worked to standardize CLI.", "By December 2001, it was ratified by the Ecma, with ISO/IEC standardization following in April 2003.Microsoft and its partners hold patents for CLI.", "Ecma and ISO/IEC require that all patents essential to implementation be made available under \"reasonable and non-discriminatory (RAND) terms.\"", "It is common for RAND licensing to require some royalty payment, which could be a cause for concern with Mono.", "As of January 2013, neither Microsoft nor its partners have identified any patents essential to CLI implementations subject to RAND terms.As of July 2009, Microsoft added C# and CLI to the list of specifications that the Microsoft Community Promise applies to, so anyone can safely implement specified editions of the standards without fearing a patent lawsuit from Microsoft.", "To implement the CLI standard requires conformance to one of the supported and defined profiles of the standard, the minimum of which is the kernel profile.", "The kernel profile is actually a very small set of types to support in comparison to the well known core library of default .NET installations.", "However, the conformance clause of the CLI allows for extending the supported profile by adding new methods and types to classes, as well as deriving from new namespaces.", "But it does not allow for adding new members to interfaces.", "This means that the features of the CLI can be used and extended, as long as the conforming profile implementation does not change the behavior of a program intended to run on that profile, while allowing for unspecified behavior from programs written specifically for that implementation.In 2012, Ecma and ISO/IEC published the new edition of the CLI standard." ], [ "Implementations", "*.NET Framework is Microsoft's original commercial implementation of the CLI.", "It only supports Windows.", "It was superseded by .NET in November 2020.", "*.NET, previously known as .NET Core, is the free and open-source multi-platform successor to .NET Framework, released under the MIT License*.NET Compact Framework is Microsoft's commercial implementation of the CLI for portable devices and Xbox 360.", "*.NET Micro Framework is an open source implementation of the CLI for resource-constrained devices.", "*Mono is an alternative open source implementation of CLI and accompanying technologies, mainly used for mobile and game development." ], [ "See also", "*Standard Libraries (CLI)*List of CLI languages*.NET Standard" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "****" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cricket World Cup" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Cricket World Cup''' (officially known as '''ICC Men's Cricket World Cup''') is the international championship of One Day International (ODI) cricket.", "The event is organised by the sport's governing body, the International Cricket Council (ICC), every four years, with preliminary qualification rounds leading up to a finals tournament.", "The tournament is one of the world's most viewed sporting events and considered as the \"flagship event of the international cricket calendar\" by the ICC.", "It is widely considered the pinnacle championship of the sport of cricket.The first World Cup was organised in England in June 1975, with the first ODI cricket match having been played only four years earlier.", "However, a separate Women's Cricket World Cup had been held two years before the first men's tournament, and a tournament involving multiple international teams had been held as early as 1912, when a triangular tournament of Test matches was played between Australia, England and South Africa.", "The first three World Cups were held in England.", "From the 1987 tournament onwards, hosting has been shared between countries under an unofficial rotation system, with fourteen ICC members having hosted at least one match in the tournament.The current format involves a qualification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years, to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase.", "In the tournament phase, 10 teams, including the automatically qualifying host nation, compete for the title at venues within the host nation over about a month.", "In the 2027 edition, the format will be changed to accommodate an expanded 14-team final competition.A total of twenty teams have competed in the 13 editions of the tournament, with ten teams competing in the recent 2023 tournament.", "Australia has won the tournament six times, India and West Indies twice each, while Pakistan, Sri Lanka and England have won it once each.", "The best performance by a non-full-member team came when Kenya made the semi-finals of the 2003 tournament.Australia are the current champions after winning the 2023 World Cup in India.", "The subsequent 2027 World Cup will be held jointly in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia." ], [ "History", "+ Cricket World Cups Year Champions 1975 1979   1983 1987 1992 1996 1999   2003   2007   2011   2015   2019 2023  The first international cricket match was played between Canada and the United States, on 24 and 25 September 1844.However, the first credited Test match was played in 1877 between Australia and England, and the two teams competed regularly for The Ashes in subsequent years.", "South Africa was admitted to Test status in 1889.Representative cricket teams were selected to tour each other, resulting in bilateral competition.", "Cricket was also included as an Olympic sport at the 1900 Paris Games, where Great Britain defeated France to win the gold medal.", "This was the only appearance of cricket at the Summer Olympics.The first multilateral competition at international level was the 1912 Triangular Tournament, a Test cricket tournament played in England between all three Test-playing nations at the time: England, Australia and South Africa.", "The event was not a success: the summer was exceptionally wet, making play difficult on damp uncovered pitches, and crowd attendances were poor, attributed to a \"surfeit of cricket\".", "Since then, international Test cricket has generally been organised as bilateral series: a multilateral Test tournament was not organised again until the triangular Asian Test Championship in 1999.The number of nations playing Test cricket increased gradually over time, with the addition of West Indies in 1928, New Zealand in 1930, India in 1932, and Pakistan in 1952.However, international cricket continued to be played as bilateral Test matches over three, four or five days.In the early 1960s, English county cricket teams began playing a shortened version of cricket which only lasted for one day.", "Starting in 1962 with a four-team knockout competition known as the Midlands Knock-Out Cup, and continuing with the inaugural Gillette Cup in 1963, one-day cricket grew in popularity in England.", "A national Sunday League was formed in 1969.The first One-Day International match was played on the fifth day of a rain-aborted Test match between England and Australia at Melbourne in 1971, to fill the time available and as compensation for the frustrated crowd.", "It was a forty over game with eight balls per over.", "The success and popularity of the domestic one-day competitions in England and other parts of the world, as well as the early One-Day Internationals, prompted the ICC to consider organizing a Cricket World Cup.===Prudential World Cups (1975–1983)===The Prudential Cup trophyThe inaugural Cricket World Cup was hosted in 1975 by England, the only nation able to put forward the resources to stage an event of such magnitude at the time.", "The first three tournaments were held in England and officially known as the Prudential Cup after the sponsors Prudential plc.", "The matches consisted of 60 six-ball overs per team, played during daytime in the traditional form, with the players wearing cricket whites and using red cricket balls.Eight teams participated in the first tournament: Australia, England, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, and the West Indies (the six Test nations at the time), together with Sri Lanka and a composite team from East Africa.", "One notable omission was South Africa, who were banned from international cricket due to apartheid.", "The tournament was won by the West Indies, who defeated Australia by 17 runs in the final at Lord's.", "Roy Fredricks of West Indies was the first batsmen who got hit-wicket in ODI during the 1975 World Cup final.The 1979 World Cup saw the introduction of the ICC Trophy competition to select non-Test playing teams for the World Cup, with Sri Lanka and Canada qualifying.", "The West Indies won a second consecutive World Cup tournament, defeating the hosts England by 92 runs in the final.", "At a meeting which followed the World Cup, the International Cricket Conference agreed to make the competition a quadrennial event.The 1983 event was hosted by England for a third consecutive time.", "By this stage, Sri Lanka had become a Test-playing nation, and Zimbabwe qualified through the ICC Trophy.", "A fielding circle was introduced, away from the stumps.", "Four fieldsmen needed to be inside it at all times.", "The teams faced each other twice, before moving into the knock-outs.", "India was crowned champions after upsetting the West Indies by 43 runs in the final.=== Different champions (1987–1996) ===India and Pakistan jointly hosted the 1987 tournament, the first time that the competition was held outside England.", "The games were reduced from 60 to 50 overs per innings, the current standard, because of the shorter daylight hours in the Indian subcontinent compared with England's summer.", "Australia won the championship by defeating England by 7 runs in the final, the closest margin in the World Cup final until the 2019 edition between England and New Zealand.The 1992 World Cup, held in Australia and New Zealand, introduced many changes to the game, such as coloured clothing, white balls, day/night matches, and a change to the fielding restriction rules.", "The South African cricket team participated in the event for the first time, following the fall of the apartheid regime and the end of the international sports boycott.", "Pakistan overcame a dismal start in the tournament to eventually defeat England by 22 runs in the final and emerge as winners.The 1996 championship was held in the Indian subcontinent for a second time, with the inclusion of Sri Lanka as host for some of its group stage matches.", "In the semi-final, Sri Lanka, heading towards a crushing victory over India at Eden Gardens after the hosts lost eight wickets while scoring 120 runs in pursuit of 252, were awarded victory by default after crowd unrest broke out in protest against the Indian performance.", "Sri Lanka went on to win their maiden championship by defeating Australia by seven wickets in the final at Lahore.===Australian treble (1999–2007)===In 1999, the event was hosted by England, with some matches also being held in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and the Netherlands.", "Twelve teams contested the World Cup.", "Australia qualified for the semi-finals after reaching their target in their Super 6 match against South Africa off the final over of the match.", "They then proceeded to the final with a tied match in the semi-final also against South Africa where a mix-up between South African batsmen Lance Klusener and Allan Donald saw Donald drop his bat and stranded mid-pitch to be run out.", "In the final, Australia dismissed Pakistan for 132 and then reached the target in less than 20 overs and with eight wickets in hand.hat-trick – Martin Place, Sydney.South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya hosted the 2003 World Cup.", "The number of teams participating in the event increased from twelve to fourteen.", "Kenya's victories over Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe, among others – and a forfeit by the New Zealand team, which refused to play in Kenya because of security concerns – enabled Kenya to reach the semi-finals, the best result by an associate.", "In the final, Australia made 359 runs for the loss of two wickets, the largest ever total in a final, defeating India by 125 runs.In 2007, the tournament was hosted by the West Indies and expanded to sixteen teams.", "Following Pakistan's upset loss to World Cup debutants Ireland in the group stage, Pakistani coach Bob Woolmer was found dead in his hotel room.", "Jamaican police had initially launched a murder investigation into Woolmer's death but later confirmed that he died of heart failure.", "Australia defeated Sri Lanka in the final by 53 runs (D/L) in farcical light conditions, and extended their undefeated run in the World Cup to 29 matches and winning three straight championships.=== Hosts triumph (2011–2019) ===Autographed bat of the World Cup winning captains till 2015 at the Blades of Glory Museum, Pune, IndiaIndia, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh together hosted the 2011 World Cup.", "Pakistan was stripped of its hosting rights following the terrorist attack on the Sri Lankan cricket team in 2009, with the games originally scheduled for Pakistan redistributed to the other host countries.", "The number of teams participating in the World Cup was reduced to fourteen.", "Australia lost their final group stage match against Pakistan on 19 March 2011, ending an unbeaten streak of 35 World Cup matches, which had begun on 23 May 1999.India won their second World Cup title by beating Sri Lanka by 6 wickets in the final at Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai, making India the first country to win the World Cup at home.", "This was also the first time that two Asian countries faced each other in a World Cup Final.Australia and New Zealand jointly hosted the 2015 World Cup.", "The number of participants remained at fourteen.", "Ireland was the most successful Associate nation with a total of three wins in the tournament.", "New Zealand beat South Africa in a thrilling first semi-final to qualify for their maiden World Cup final.", "Australia defeated New Zealand by seven wickets in the final at Melbourne to lift the World Cup for the fifth time.England perform a lap of honour around Lord's after their victory on 14 July 2019.The 2019 World Cup was hosted by England and Wales.", "The number of participants was reduced to 10.New Zealand defeated India in the first semi-final, which was pushed over to the reserve day due to rain.", "England defeated the defending champions, Australia, in the second semi-final.", "Neither finalist had previously won the World Cup.", "In the final, the scores were tied at 241 after 50 overs and the match went to a super over, after which the scores were again tied at 15.The World Cup was won by England, whose boundary count was greater than New Zealand's." ], [ "Format", "===Qualification===From the first World Cup in 1975 up to the 2019 World Cup, the majority of teams taking part qualified automatically.", "Until the 2015 World Cup this was mostly through having Full Membership of the ICC, and for the 2019 World Cup this was mostly through ranking position in the ICC ODI Championship.Since the second World Cup in 1979 up to the 2019 World Cup, the teams that qualified automatically were joined by a small number of others who qualified for the World Cup through the qualification process.", "The first qualifying tournament being the ICC Trophy; later the process expanding with pre-qualifying tournaments.", "For the 2011 World Cup, the ICC World Cricket League replaced the past pre-qualifying processes; and the name \"ICC Trophy\" was changed to \"ICC Men's Cricket World Cup Qualifier\".", "The World Cricket League was the qualification system provided to allow the Associate and Affiliate members of the ICC more opportunities to qualify.", "The number of teams qualifying varied throughout the years.From the 2023 World Cup onwards, only the host nation(s) will qualify automatically.", "All countries will participate in a series of leagues to determine qualification, with automatic promotion and relegation between divisions from one World Cup cycle to the next.===Tournament===Autographs of the winning teams of each edition of the tournament at the Blades of Glory Cricket Museum, Pune, India.The format of the Cricket World Cup has changed greatly over the course of its history.", "Each of the first four tournaments was played by eight teams, divided into two groups of four.", "The competition consisted of two stages, a group stage and a knock-out stage.", "The four teams in each group played each other in the round-robin group stage, with the top two teams in each group progressing to the semi-finals.", "The winners of the semi-finals played against each other in the final.", "With South Africa returning in the fifth tournament in 1992 as a result of the end of the apartheid boycott, nine teams played each other once in the group phase, and the top four teams progressed to the semi-finals.", "The tournament was further expanded in 1996, with two groups of six teams.", "The top four teams from each group progressed to quarter-finals and semi-finals.A distinct format was used for the 1999 and 2003 World Cups.", "The teams were split into two pools, with the top three teams in each pool advancing to the ''Super 6''.", "The ''Super 6'' teams played the three other teams that advanced from the other group.", "As they advanced, the teams carried their points forward from previous matches against other teams advancing alongside them, giving them an incentive to perform well in the group stages.", "The top four teams from the ''Super 6'' stage progressed to the semi-finals, with the winners playing in the final.The captains of the 2007 Cricket World Cup.The format used in the 2007 World Cup involved 16 teams allocated into four groups of four.", "Within each group, the teams played each other in a round-robin format.", "Teams earned points for wins and half-points for ties.", "The top two teams from each group moved forward to the ''Super 8'' round.", "The ''Super 8'' teams played the other six teams that progressed from the different groups.", "Teams earned points in the same way as the group stage, but carried their points forward from previous matches against the other teams who qualified from the same group to the ''Super 8'' stage.", "The top four teams from the ''Super 8'' round advanced to the semi-finals, and the winners of the semi-finals played in the final.The format used in the 2011 and 2015 World Cups featured two groups of seven teams, each playing in a round-robin format.", "The top four teams from each group proceeded to the knock out stage consisting of quarter-finals, semi-finals and ultimately the final.In the 2019 and 2023 editions of the tournament, the number of teams participating dropped to 10.Each team is scheduled to play against each other once in a round robin format, before entering the semifinals, a similar format to the 1992 World Cup.", "The 2027 and 2031 World Cups will have 14 teams, with the format same as the 2003 edition.Summary of tournament formats#YearHost(s)TeamsMatchesPreliminary stageFinal stage11975815 2 groups of 4 teams: 12 matches Knock-out of 4 teams (group winners and runners-up): 3 matches219793198327 2 groups of 4 teams: 24 matches4198751992 9 39 1 group of 9 teams: 36 matches Knock-out of 4 teams (top 4 in group): 3 matches61996 12 37 2 groups of 6 teams: 30 matches Knock-out of 8 teams (top 4 in each group): 7 matches71999 42 2 groups of 6 teams: 30 matches Super Sixes (top 3 in each group): 9 matchesKnock-out of 4 teams (top 4 in Super Sixes): 3 matches82003 14 54 2 groups of 7 teams: 42 matches92007 16 51 4 groups of 4 teams: 24 matches Super Eights (top 2 in each group): 24 matchesKnock-out of 4 teams (top 4 in Super Eights): 3 matches102011 14 49 2 groups of 7 teams: 42 matches Knock-out of 8 teams (top 4 in each group): 7 matches112015122019 10 48 1 group of 10 teams: 45 matches Knock-out of 4 teams (top 4 in group): 3 matches13202314''2027''''14''''54''''2 groups of 7 teams: 42 matches''''Super Sixes (top 3 in each group): 9 matchesKnock-out of 4 teams (top 4 in Super Sixes): 3 matches''15''2031''" ], [ "Trophy", "The Cricket World Cup Trophy.The ICC Cricket World Cup Trophy is presented to the winners of the World Cup.", "The current trophy was created for the 1999 championships, and was the first permanent prize in the tournament's history.", "Prior to this, different trophies were made for each World Cup.", "The trophy was designed and produced in London by a team of craftsmen from Garrard & Co over a period of two months.The current trophy is made from silver and gilt, and features a golden globe held up by three silver columns.", "The columns, shaped as stumps and bails, represent the three fundamental aspects of cricket: batting, bowling and fielding, while the globe characterises a cricket ball.", "The seam is tilted to symbolize the axial tilt of the Earth.", "It stands high and weighs approximately .", "The names of the previous winners are engraved on the base of the trophy, with space for a total of twenty inscriptions.", "The ICC keeps the original trophy.", "A replica differing only in the inscriptions is permanently awarded to the winning team." ], [ "Media coverage", "The tournament is one of the world's most-viewed sporting events, and successive tournaments have generated increasing media attention as One-Day International cricket has become more established.", "The 2011 Cricket World Cup was televised in over 200 countries to over 2.2 billion viewers.", "Television rights, mainly for the 2011 and 2015 World Cup, were sold for over US$1.1 billion, and sponsorship rights were sold for a further US$500 million.", "The ICC claimed a total of 1.6 billion viewers for the 2019 World Cup as well as 4.6 billion views of digital video of the tournament.", "The most-watched match of the tournament was the group game between India and Pakistan, which was watched by more than 300 million people live." ], [ "Attendance", " Year Hosts Total Attendance References 2003 South Africa, Zimbabwe, Kenya 626,845 2007 West Indies 672,000 2011 India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh 1,229,826 2015 Australia, New Zealand 1,106,420 2019 England & Wales 752,000 2023 India 1,250,307" ], [ "Selection of hosts", "The International Cricket Council's executive committee votes for the hosts of the tournament after examining the bids made by the nations keen to hold a Cricket World Cup.A civic centre lit up to mark the 2003 Cricket World Cup in South Africa England hosted the first three competitions.", "The ICC decided that England should host the first tournament because it was ready to devote the resources required to organising the inaugural event.", "India volunteered to host the third Cricket World Cup, but most ICC members preferred England as the longer period of daylight in England in June meant that a match could be completed in one day.", "The 1987 Cricket World Cup was held in India and Pakistan, the first hosted outside England.Many of the tournaments have been jointly hosted by nations from the same geographical region, such as South Asia in 1987, 1996 and 2011, Australasia (in Australia and New Zealand) in 1992 and 2015, Southern Africa in 2003 and West Indies in 2007.In November 2021, ICC published the name of the hosts for ICC events to be played between 2024 and 2031 cycle.", "The hosts for the 50-over World Cup along with T20 World Cup and Champions Trophy were selected through a competitive bidding process." ], [ "Results", "EditionYearHost(s) Final venue FinalTeamsWinnersResultRunner-up11975Lord's, London291/8 (60 overs)'''West Indies won by 17 runs''' (scorecard)274 all out (58.4 overs) 821979Lord's, London286/9 (60 overs)'''West Indies won by 92 runs''' (scorecard)194 all out (51 overs) 831983Lord's, London183 all out (54.4 overs)'''India won by 43 runs''' (scorecard)140 all out (52 overs) 841987Eden Gardens, Kolkata253/5 (50 overs)'''Australia won by 7 runs''' (scorecard)246/8 (50 overs) 851992Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne249/6 (50 overs)'''Pakistan won by 22 runs''' (scorecard)227 all out (49.2 overs)961996Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore245/3 (46.2 overs)'''Sri Lanka won by 7 wickets''' (scorecard)241/7 (50 overs)1271999Lord's, London133/2 (20.1 overs)'''Australia won by 8 wickets''' (scorecard)132 all out (39 overs)1282003Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg359/2 (50 overs)'''Australia won by 125 runs''' (scorecard)234 all out (39.2 overs)1492007Kensington Oval, Bridgetown281/4 (38 overs)'''Australia won by 53 runs (D/L)''' (scorecard)215/8 (36 overs)16102011Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai277/4 (48.2 overs)'''India won by 6 wickets''' (scorecard)274/6 (50 overs)14112015Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne186/3 (33.1 overs)'''Australia won by 7 wickets''' (scorecard)183 all out (45 overs)14122019Lord's, London241 all out (50 overs)15/0 (super over)24 fours, 2 sixes'''Match Tied (England won on boundaries countback)''' (scorecard)241/8 (50 overs)15/1 (super over)14 fours, 3 sixes10132023Narendra Modi Stadium, Ahmedabad241/4 (43 overs)'''Australia won by 6 wickets''' (scorecard)240 all out (50 overs)10;Notes" ], [ "Tournament summary", "Twenty nations have qualified for the Cricket World Cup at least once.", "Six teams have competed in every tournament, five of which have won the title.", "The West Indies won the first two tournaments, Australia has won six, India has won two, while Pakistan, Sri Lanka and England have each won once.", "The West Indies (1975 and 1979) and Australia (1999, 2003 and 2007) are the only teams to have won consecutive titles.", "Australia has played in eight of the thirteen finals (1975, 1987, 1996, 1999, 2003, 2007, 2015 and 2023).", "New Zealand has yet to win the World Cup, but has been runners-up two times (2015 and 2019).", "The best result by a non-Test playing nation is the semi-final appearance by Kenya in the 2003 tournament; while the best result by a non-Test playing team on their debut is the Super 8 (second round) by Ireland in 2007.Sri Lanka, as a co-host of the 1996 World Cup, was the first host to win the tournament, though the final was held in Pakistan.", "India won in 2011 as host and was the first team to win a final played in their own country.", "Australia and England repeated the feat in 2015 and 2019 respectively.", "Other than this, England made it to the final as a host in 1979.Other countries which have achieved or equalled their best World Cup results while co-hosting the tournament are New Zealand as finalists in 2015, Zimbabwe who reached the Super Six in 2003, and Kenya as semi-finalists in 2003.In 1987, co-hosts India and Pakistan both reached the semi-finals, but were eliminated by England and Australia respectively.", "Australia in 1992, England in 1999, South Africa in 2003, and Bangladesh in 2011 have been host teams that were eliminated in the first round.===Teams' performances===An overview of the teams' performances in every World Cup is given below.", "For each tournament, the number of teams in each finals tournament (in brackets) are shown.1975 1979 1983 1987 1992 1996 1999 2003 2007 2011 2015 2019 2023 GP10th6th 3'''RU'''GPGP'''W'''5th'''RU''''''W''''''W''''''W''''''QF''''''W''''''SF''''''W''' 13 GPGPGP'''QF''' 8th 7 GP 1 GP GPGP 4'''SF''''''RU''''''SF''''''RU''''''RU''''''QF'''GPGP 5th '''QF'''GP'''W''' 7th 13GPGP'''W''''''SF'''7th'''SF''' 6th'''RU'''GP'''W''''''SF''''''SF''''''RU''' 13 8th GPGP 3 GPGP'''SF'''GPGP 5 GP 1 GP GPGPGP 10th 5'''SF''''''SF'''GPGP'''SF''''''QF''''''SF''' 5th '''SF''''''SF''''''RU''''''RU''''''SF''' 13GP'''SF''''''SF''''''SF''''''W''''''QF''''''RU'''GPGP'''SF''''''QF'''5th5th 13 GP GP GP 3 '''SF''''''QF''''''SF'''GP'''SF''''''QF''''''SF'''7th'''SF''' 9GPGPGPGP8th'''W'''GP'''SF''''''RU''''''RU''''''QF'''6th 9th 13 GP GP 2'''W''''''W''''''RU'''GP6th'''SF'''GPGP 6th '''QF'''9th 12 GPGP9thGP 5th 6th GPGPGP 9Defunct teamsGP 1'''Legend'''* – Winner*– Runner up*– Semi-finals*– Super Six (1999–2003)*– Quarter-finals (1996, 2011–2015)*– Super Eight (2007)*GP – Group stage / First round*Q – Qualified, Still in Competition===Debutant teams===YearTeamsTotal1975, , , , , , , 819791198311987''none''0199211996, , 31999, 2200312007, 22011''none''0201512019''none''02023''none''0===Overview===The table below provides an overview of the performances of teams over past World Cups, as of the end of the 2019 tournament.", "Teams are sorted by best performance, then by appearances, total number of wins, total number of games, and alphabetical order respectively.StatisticsBest performanceTeamAppsWonLostTieNRWin%*1310779261175.48: 6 139563301166.31: 2 128043350255.12: 2 139352391157.14: 1 138849370256.97: 1 138940461246.55: 1 139959381160.71 97445262163.01 5297220024.13 95711421321.29 74916320133.33 3217131035.71 5294250013.79 4182160011.11 3245190020.83 314014000.00 211110009.09 1606000.00 1303000.00 Defunct teams1303000.00 ''Note:''* *" ], [ "Tournament records", "Sachin Tendulkar, the leading run-scorer in World Cup historyGlenn McGrath the leading wicket-taker in World Cup history World Cup records BattingMost runs Sachin Tendulkar2,278 (1992–2011)Highest average (min.", "10 inns.)", "Lance Klusener124.00 (1999–2003)Highest batting strike rate (min.", "500 balls faced) Glenn Maxwell160.32 (2015–2023)Highest score Martin Guptill v 237* (2015)Highest partnership Chris Gayle & Marlon Samuels (2nd wicket) v 372 (2015)Most runs in a single world cup Virat Kohli765 (2023)Most hundreds Rohit Sharma 7 (2015–2023) Most hundreds in a single world cup Rohit Sharma5 (2019) BowlingMost wickets Glenn McGrath71 (1996–2007)Lowest average (min.", "400 balls bowled) Mohammed Shami13.52 (2015–2023)Best strike rate (min.", "20 wickets) Mohammed Shami15.81 (2015–2023)Best economy rate (min.", "1000 balls bowled) Andy Roberts3.24 (1975–1983)Best bowling figures Glenn McGrath v 7/15 (2003)Most wickets in a tournament Mitchell Starc27 (2019) FieldingMost dismissals (wicket-keeper) Kumar Sangakkara54 (2003–2015)Most catches (fielder) Ricky Ponting28 (1996–2011) TeamHighest score v 428/5 (2023)Lowest score v 36 (2003)Highest win % Australia75.48% (Played 105, Won 78)Most consecutive wins Australia27 (20 Jun 1999 – 19 Mar 2011, one N/R excluded)Most consecutive tournament wins Australia3 (1999–2007)===By tournament=== Year Winning Captain Player of the final Player of the tournament Most runs Most wickets 1975 Clive Lloyd Clive Lloyd Not Awarded Glenn Turner (333) Gary Gilmour (11)1979 Clive Lloyd Viv Richards Not Awarded Gordon Greenidge (253) Mike Hendrick (10) 1983 Kapil Dev Mohinder Amarnath Not Awarded David Gower (384) Roger Binny (18) 1987 Allan Border David Boon Not Awarded Graham Gooch (471) Craig McDermott (18) 1992 Imran Khan Wasim Akram Martin Crowe Martin Crowe (456) Wasim Akram (18) 1996 Arjuna Ranatunga Aravinda de Silva Sanath Jayasuriya Sachin Tendulkar (523) Anil Kumble (15) 1999 Steve Waugh Shane Warne Lance Klusener Rahul Dravid (461) Geoff Allott / Shane Warne (20)2003 Ricky Ponting Ricky Ponting Sachin Tendulkar Sachin Tendulkar (673) Chaminda Vaas (23) 2007 Ricky Ponting Adam Gilchrist Glenn McGrath Matthew Hayden (659) Glenn McGrath (26) 2011 Mahendra Singh Dhoni Mahendra Singh Dhoni Yuvraj Singh Tillakaratne Dilshan (500) Shahid Afridi / Zaheer Khan (21) 2015 Michael Clarke James Faulkner Mitchell Starc Martin Guptill (547) Mitchell Starc / Trent Boult (22) 2019 Eoin Morgan Ben Stokes Kane Williamson Rohit Sharma (648) Mitchell Starc (27) 2023 Pat Cummins Travis Head Virat Kohli Virat Kohli (765) Mohammed Shami (24)" ], [ "See also", "*ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup*ICC T20 World Cup*ICC Champions Trophy*ICC World Test Championship*2023 Cricket World Cup*Women's Cricket World Cup*Asia Cup*World Cup*List of world cups" ], [ "References", "===Sources===*" ], [ "External links", "* of the ICC Cricket World Cup* of ICC" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting ''' ('''CHOGM'''; or) is a biennial summit meeting of the governmental leaders from all Commonwealth nations.", "Despite the name, the head of state may be present in the meeting instead of the head of government, especially among semi-presidential states.", "Every two years the meeting is held in a different member state and is chaired by that nation's respective prime minister or president, who becomes the Commonwealth Chair-in-Office until the next meeting.", "Queen Elizabeth II, who was the Head of the Commonwealth, attended every CHOGM beginning with Ottawa in 1973 until Perth in 2011, although her formal participation only began in 1997.She was represented by the Prince of Wales at the 2013 meeting as the 87-year-old monarch was curtailing long-distance travel.", "The Queen attended the 2015 summit in Malta and the 2018 summit (delayed by one year) in London, but was represented again by the Prince of Wales at the 2022 meeting (delayed by two years) in Rwanda.The first CHOGM was held in 1971 in Singapore and there have been 26 held in total: the most recent was held in Kigali, Rwanda.", "They are held once every two years, although this pattern has occasionally been interrupted.", "They are held around the Commonwealth, rotating by invitation amongst its members.In the past, CHOGMs have attempted to orchestrate common policies on certain contentious issues and current events, with a special focus on issues affecting member nations.", "CHOGMs have discussed the continuation of apartheid rule in South Africa and how to end it, military coups in Pakistan and Fiji, and allegations of electoral fraud in Zimbabwe.", "Sometimes the member states agree on a common idea or solution and release a joint statement declaring their opinion.", "More recently, beginning at the 1997 CHOGM, the meeting has had an official theme, set by the host nation, on which the primary discussions have been focused." ], [ "History", "The heads of government of five members of the Commonwealth of Nations at the 1944 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference.The meetings originated with the leaders of the self-governing colonies of the British Empire.", "The First Colonial Conference in 1887 was followed by periodic meetings, known as Imperial Conferences from 1907, of government leaders of the Empire.", "The development of the independence of the dominions, and the creation of a number of new dominions, as well as the invitation of Southern Rhodesia (which also attended as a ''sui generis'' colony), changed the nature of the meetings.", "As the dominion leaders asserted themselves more and more at the meetings, it became clear that the time for 'imperial' conferences was over.From the ashes of the Second World War, seventeen Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conferences were held between 1944 and 1969.Of these, sixteen were held in London, reflecting then-prevailing views of the Commonwealth as the continuation of the Empire and the centralisation of power in the British Commonwealth Office (the one meeting outside London, in Lagos, was an extraordinary meeting held in January 1966 to co-ordinate policies towards Rhodesia).", "Two supplementary meetings were also held during this period: a Commonwealth Statesmen's meeting to discuss peace terms in April 1945, and a Commonwealth Economic Conference in 1952.The 1960s saw an overhaul of the Commonwealth.", "The swift expansion of the Commonwealth after decolonisation saw the newly independent countries demand the creation of the Commonwealth Secretariat, and the United Kingdom, in response, successfully founding the Commonwealth Foundation.", "This decentralisation of power demanded a reformulation of the meetings.", "Instead of the meetings always being held in London, they would rotate across the membership, subject to countries' ability to host the meetings: beginning with Singapore in 1971.They were also renamed the 'Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings' to reflect the growing diversity of the constitutional structures in the Commonwealth." ], [ "Structure", "Theresa May chairs the 2018 sessionThe core of the CHOGM are the executive sessions, which are the formal gatherings of the heads of government to do business.", "However, the majority of the important decisions are held not in the main meetings themselves, but at the informal 'retreats': introduced at the second CHOGM, in Ottawa, by Prime Minister of Canada Pierre Trudeau, but reminiscent of the excursions to Chequers or Dorneywood in the days of the Prime Ministers' Conferences.", "Only the head of the delegation and their spouse and one additional person attend the retreats.", "The additional person may be of any capacity (personal, political, security, etc.)", "but only has occasional and intermittent access to the head of the delegation.", "It is usually at the retreat where, isolated from their advisers, the heads resolve the most intransigent issues: leading to the Gleneagles Agreement in 1977, the Lusaka Declaration in 1979, the Langkawi Declaration in 1989, the Millbrook Programme in 1995, the Aso Rock Declaration in 2003, and the Colombo Declaration on Sustainable, Inclusive and Equitable Development in 2013.The 'fringe' of civil society organisations, including the Commonwealth Family and local groups, adds a cultural dimension to the event, and brings the CHOGM a higher media profile and greater acceptance by the local population.", "First officially recognised at Limassol in 1993, these events, spanning a longer period than the meeting itself, have, to an extent, preserved the length of the CHOGM: but only in the cultural sphere.", "Other meetings, such as those of the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group, Commonwealth Business Council, and respective foreign ministers, have also dealt with business away from the heads of government themselves.As the scope of the CHOGM has expanded beyond the meetings of the heads of governments themselves, the CHOGMs have become progressively shorter, and their business compacted into less time.", "The 1971 CHOGM lasted for nine days, and the 1977 and 1991 CHOGMs for seven days each.", "However, Harare's epochal CHOGM was the last to last a week; the 1993 CHOGM lasted for five days, and the contentious 1995 CHOGM for only three-and-a-half.", "The 2005 and subsequent conferences were held over two to two-and-a-half-days.", "However, recent CHOGMs have also featured several days of pre-summit Commonwealth Forums on business, women, youth, as well as the Commonwealth People's Forum and meetings of foreign ministers." ], [ "Issues", "Protests during the 2011 CHOGM in PerthDuring the 1980s, CHOGMs were dominated by calls for the Commonwealth to impose sanctions on South Africa to pressure the country to end apartheid.", "The division between Britain, during the government of Margaret Thatcher which resisted the call for sanctions and African Commonwealth countries, and the rest of the Commonwealth was intense at times and led to speculation that the organisation might collapse.", "According to one of Margaret Thatcher's former aides, Mrs. Thatcher, very privately, used to say that CHOGM stood for \"Compulsory Handouts to Greedy Mendicants.\"", "According to his daughter, Denis Thatcher also referred to CHOGM as standing for 'Coons Holidaying on Government Money'.In 2011, British Prime Minister David Cameron informed the British House of Commons that his proposals to reform the rules governing royal succession, a change which would require the approval of all sixteen Commonwealth realms, was approved at the 28–30 October CHOGM in Perth, subsequently referred to as the Perth Agreement.Rwanda joined the Commonwealth in 2009 despite the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative's (CHRI) finding that \"the state of governance and human rights in Rwanda does not satisfy Commonwealth standards\", and that it \"does not therefore qualify for admission\".", "Both the CHRI and Human Rights Watch have found that respect for democracy and human rights in Rwanda has declined since the country joined the Commonwealth.", "There have been calls for the Commonwealth to stand up for democracy and human rights in Rwanda at the 2022 CHOGM." ], [ "Agenda", "Under the Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, each CHOGM is responsible for renewing the remit of the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group, whose responsibility it is to uphold the Harare Declaration on the core political principles of the Commonwealth." ], [ "Incidents", "A bomb exploded at the Sydney Hilton Hotel, the venue for the February 1978 Commonwealth Heads of Government Regional Meeting.", "Twelve foreign heads of government were staying in the hotel at the time.", "Most delegates were evacuated by Royal Australian Air Force helicopters and the meeting was moved to Bowral, protected by 800 soldiers of the Australian Army.As the convocation of heads of governments and permanent Commonwealth staff and experts, CHOGMs are the highest institution of action in the Commonwealth, and rare occasions on which Commonwealth leaders all come together.", "CHOGMs have been the venues of many of the Commonwealth's most dramatic events.", "Robert Mugabe announced Zimbabwe's immediate withdrawal from the Commonwealth at the 2003 CHOGM, and Nigeria's execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight others on the first day of the 1995 CHOGM led to that country's suspension.It has also been the trigger of a number of events that have shaken participating countries domestically.", "The departure of Uganda's President Milton Obote to the 1971 CHOGM allowed Idi Amin to overthrow Obote's government.", "Similarly, President James Mancham's attendance of the 1977 CHOGM gave Prime Minister France-Albert René the opportunity to seize power in the Seychelles." ], [ "List of meetings", " Year Date Country City Retreat Chairperson Secretary-General Head of the Commonwealth 1971 14–22 January Singapore ''None'' Lee Kuan YewArnold SmithElizabeth II 1973 2–10 August Ottawa Mont-Tremblant Pierre Trudeau 1975 29 April – 6 May Kingston ''None'' Michael Manley 1977 8–15 June London Gleneagles Hotel James CallaghanShridath Ramphal 1979 1–7 August Lusaka Lusaka Kenneth Kaunda 1981 30 September – 7 October Melbourne Canberra Malcolm Fraser 1983 23–29 November New Delhi Goa Indira Gandhi 1985 16–22 October Nassau Lyford Cay Lynden Pindling 1986 * 3–5 August London ''None'' Margaret Thatcher 1987 13–17 October Vancouver Okanagan Brian Mulroney 1989 18–24 October Kuala Lumpur Langkawi Mahathir bin Mohamad 1991 16–21 October Harare Victoria Falls Robert MugabeEmeka Anyaoku 1993 21–25 October Limassol ''None'' Glafcos Clerides 1995 10–13 November Auckland Millbrook Jim Bolger 1997 24–27 October Edinburgh St Andrews Tony Blair 1999 12–14 November Durban George Thabo Mbeki 2002 2–5 March Coolum ''None'' John HowardDon McKinnon 2003 5–8 December Abuja Aso Rock Olusegun Obasanjo 2005 25–27 November Valletta Mellieħa Lawrence Gonzi 2007 23–25 November Kampala Munyonyo Yoweri Museveni 2009 27–29 November Port of Spain Port-of-Spain Patrick ManningKamalesh Sharma 2011 28–30 October Perth Kings Park Julia Gillard 2013 15–17 November Colombo Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte Mahinda Rajapaksa 2015 27–29 November Valletta; Mellieħa Fort St Angelo Joseph Muscat 2018 19–20 April London Windsor CastleTheresa MayPatricia Scotland 202221–23 June Kigali Kigali Convention CentrePaul Kagame 2023 *5–6 May London ''None''Rishi Sunak/Paul KagameCharles III ''2024''Apia Fiamē Naomi Mataʻafa The 1986 and 2023 meetings were special sessions that fell outside the usual timetable.", "The 1986 CHOGM convened to discuss the issue of apartheid and only involved a handful of heads of government.", "The 2023 meeting (billed as 'Commonwealth Leaders' Summit') was an extraordinary session on the occasion of the Coronation of King Charles III and consisted of a leaders meeting at Marlborough House and a reception at Buckingham Palace.", "Heads of State were also in attendance and the position of Chair-In-Office did not transfer to the prime minister of the United Kingdom.", "According to a statement issued by the Commonwealth Secretariat \"After their meeting with the King, leaders from the Commonwealth's 56 member states then met privately to discuss issues of mutual interest, including initiatives to support the empowerment of young people, as this year has been designated the Commonwealth Year of Youth.", "\"The 25th CHOGM was originally scheduled for Vanuatu in 2017 but the country rescinded its offer to host after Cyclone Pam devastated the country's infrastructure in March 2015.The meeting was rescheduled for the United Kingdom in the spring of 2018 which also resulted in the 26th CHOGM, originally scheduled for 2019, to be rescheduled for 22–27 June 2020.However, due to the coronavirus pandemic, the 26th CHOGM was again postponed to 2022." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting page on the Commonwealth Secretariat web site* ''Kampala' 2007'' , CHOGM 2007 Official page* ''CHOGM count Down'', CHOGM News* CHOGM 2007, CHOGM 2007 Kampala Uganda, Updates and information* CHOGM 2007 Highlights & News, CHOGM 2007 Highlights* CHOGM 2011, Australian Government* CHOGM 2013, CHOGM 2013 Official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chinese classics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chinese classic texts''' or '''canonical texts''' () or simply '''dianji''' () refers to the Chinese texts which originated before the imperial unification by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, particularly the \"Four Books and Five Classics\" of the Neo-Confucian tradition, themselves a customary abridgment of the \"Thirteen Classics\".", "All of these pre-Qin texts were written in either Old or Classical Chinese.", "All three canons are collectively known as the '''Classics''' ().The term Chinese classic texts may be broadly used in reference to texts which were written in vernacular Chinese or it may be narrowly used in reference to texts which were written in the classical Chinese which was current until the fall of the last imperial dynasty, the Qing, in 1912.These texts can include ''shi'' (, historical works), ''zi'' (, \"Masters texts\", philosophical works usually associated with an individual and later systematised into schools of thought but also including works on agriculture, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, divination, art criticism, and other miscellaneous writings) and ''ji'' (, literary works) as well as the cultivation of ''jing'', \"essence\" in Chinese medicine.In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Four Books and Five Classics were the subjects of mandatory study by those Confucian scholars who wished to take the imperial exams and needed to pass them in order to become government officials.", "Any political discussion was full of references to this background, and one could not be one of the literati (or, in some periods, even a military officer) without having memorized them.", "Generally, children first memorized the Chinese characters of the \"Three Character Classic\" and the \"Hundred Family Surnames\" and they then went on to memorize the other classics.", "The literate elite therefore shared a common culture and set of values." ], [ "Qin dynasty", "===Loss of texts during the Qin dynasty===According to Sima Qian's ''Shiji'' (''Records of the Grand Historian''), after Qin Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China, unified China in 221 BC, his chancellor Li Si suggested suppressing intellectual discourse to unify thought and political opinion.", "This was alleged to have destroyed philosophical treatises of the Hundred Schools of Thought, with the goal of strengthening the official Qin governing philosophy of Legalism.", "This traditional account is anachronistic in that Legalism was not yet a defined category of thought during the Qin period, and the \"schools of thought\" model is no longer considered to be an accurate portrayal of the intellectual history of pre-imperial China.", "According to the ''Shiji'', three categories of books were viewed by Li Si to be most dangerous politically.", "These were poetry, history (especially historical records of other states than Qin), and philosophy.", "The ancient collection of poetry and historical records contained many stories concerning the ancient virtuous rulers.", "Li Si believed that if the people were to read these works they were likely to invoke the past and become dissatisfied with the present.", "The reason for opposing various schools of philosophy was that they advocated political ideas often incompatible with the totalitarian regime.Modern historians doubt the details of the story, which first appeared more than a century later.", "Michael Nylan observes that despite its mythic significance, the Burning of the Books legend does not bear close scrutiny.", "Nylan suggests that the reason Han dynasty scholars charged the Qin with destroying the Confucian Five Classics was partly to \"slander\" the state they defeated and partly because Han scholars misunderstood the nature of the texts, for it was only after the founding of the Han that Sima Qian labeled the Five Classics as \"Confucian\".", "Nylan also points out that the Qin court appointed classical scholars who were specialists on the ''Classic of Poetry'' and the ''Book of Documents'', which meant that these texts would have been exempted, and that the ''Book of Rites'' and the ''Zuozhuan'' did not contain the glorification of defeated feudal states which the First Emperor gave as his reason for destroying them.", "Nylan further suggests that the story might be based on the fact that the Qin palace was razed in 207 BCE and many books were undoubtedly lost at that time.", "Martin Kern adds that Qin and early Han writings frequently cite the Classics, especially the ''Documents'' and the ''Classic of Poetry'', which would not have been possible if they had been burned, as reported." ], [ "Western Han dynasty", "===Five Classics===The '''Five Classics''' () are five pre-Qin Chinese books that became part of the state-sponsored curriculum during the Western Han dynasty, which adopted Confucianism as its official ideology.", "It was during this period that the texts first began to be considered together as a set collection, and to be called collectively the \"Five Classics\".", "Several of the texts were already prominent by the Warring States period, but the literature culture at the time did not lend itself to clear boundaries between works, so a high degree of variance between individual witnesses of the same title was common, as well as considerable intertextuality and cognate chapters between different titles.", "Mencius, the leading Confucian scholar of the time, regarded the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' as being equally important as the semi-legendary chronicles of earlier periods.", ";''Classic of Poetry'':A collection of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 105 festal songs sung at court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies sung at sacrifices to heroes and ancestral spirits of the royal house.", ";''Book of Documents'':A collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and officials of the early Zhou period and before.", "It is possibly the oldest Chinese narrative, and may date from the 6th century BC.", "It includes examples of early Chinese prose.", ";''Book of Rites'':Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies.", "The version studied today is a re-worked version compiled by scholars in the third century BC rather than the original text, which is said to have been edited by Confucius himself.", ";''I Ching'' (''Book of Changes''):The book contains a divination system comparable to Western geomancy or the West African Ifá system.", "In Western cultures and modern East Asia, it is still widely used for this purpose.", ";''Spring and Autumn Annals'':A historical record of the State of Lu, Confucius's native state, 722–481 BC.Up to the Western Han, authors would typically list the Classics in the order Poems-Documents-Rituals-Changes-Spring and Autumn.", "However, from the Eastern Han the default order instead became Changes-Documents-Poems-Rituals-Spring and Autumn.", "===Han Imperial Library===In the Han dynasty, Liu Xiang edited the text for many Chinese classical works such as The Book of Rites, and compiled Biographies of Exemplary WomenIn 26 BCE, at the command of the emperor, Liu Xiang (77–6BC) compiled the first catalogue of the imperial library, the ''Abstracts'' (), and is the first known editor of the ''Classic of Mountains and Seas'' (''Shanhaijing''), which was finished by his son.", "Liu also edited collections of stories and biographies, the ''Biographies of Exemplary Women'' (''Lienüzhuan'').", "He has long erroneously been credited with compiling the ''Biographies of the Immortals'' (''Liexian Zhuan''), a collection of Taoist hagiographies and hymns.", "Liu Xiang was also a poet - he is credited with the \"Nine Laments\" (''\"Jiu Tan\"'') that appears in the anthology Chu Ci'.The works edited and compiled by Liu Xiang include:This work was continued by his son, Liu Xin, who finally completed the task after his father's death.", "The transmitted corpus of these classical texts all derives from the versions edited down by Liu Xiang and Liu Xin.", "Michael Nylan has characterised the scope of the Liu pair's editing as having been so vast that it affects our understanding of China's pre-imperial period to the same degree as the Qin unification does." ], [ "Song dynasty", "=== Four Books ===Zhu Xi (1130-1200) selected the list of four books in the Song dynasty.The '''Four Books''' () are Chinese classic texts illustrating the core value and belief systems in Confucianism.", "They were selected by Zhu Xi in the Song dynasty to serve as general introduction to Confucian thought, and they were, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations.They are:; ''Great Learning'': Originally one chapter in the ''Book of Rites''.", "It consists of a short main text attributed to Confucius and nine commentary chapters by Zengzi, one of the disciples of Confucius.", "Its importance is illustrated by Zengzi's foreword that this is the gateway of learning.", "It is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought.", "Government, self-cultivation and investigation of things are linked.", "; ''Doctrine of the Mean'': Another chapter in ''Book of Rites'', attributed to Confucius's grandson Zisi.", "The purpose of this small, 33-chapter book is to demonstrate the usefulness of a golden way to gain perfect virtue.", "It focuses on the Way of the ''Tao'' () that is prescribed by a heavenly mandate not only to the ruler but to everyone.", "To follow these heavenly instructions by learning and teaching will automatically result in a Confucian virtue of ''De'' ().", "Because Heaven has laid down what is the way to perfect virtue, it is not that difficult to follow the steps of the holy rulers of old if one only knows what is the right way.", "; ''Analects'': Thought to be a compilation of speeches by Confucius and his disciples, as well as the discussions they held.", "Since Confucius's time, the ''Analects'' has heavily influenced the philosophy and moral values of China and later other East Asian countries as well.", "The Imperial examinations, started in the Sui dynasty and eventually abolished with the founding of the Republic of China, emphasized Confucian studies and expected candidates to quote and apply the words of Confucius in their essays.", "; ''Mencius'': A collection of conversations of the scholar Mencius with kings of his time.", "In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained, the ''Mencius'' consists of long dialogues with extensive prose." ], [ "Ming dynasty", "===Thirteen Classics===The official curriculum of the imperial examination system from the Song dynasty onward are the Thirteen Classics.", "In total, these works total to more than 600,000 characters that must be memorized in order to pass the examination.", "Moreover, these works are accompanied by extensive commentary and annotation, containing approximately 300 million characters by some estimates.", "* ''Classic of Changes'' or ''I Ching''* ''Book of Documents''* ''Classic of Poetry''* The Three Ritual Classics ()** ''Rites of Zhou''** ''Ceremonies and Rites''** ''Book of Rites''*** \"Great Learning\" chapter ()*** \"Doctrine of the Mean\" chapter ()* The Three Commentaries on the ''Spring and Autumn Annals''** ''The Commentary of Zuo'' ** ''The Commentary of Gongyang''** ''The Commentary of Guliang''* ''The Analects''* ''Classic of Filial Piety''* ''Erya''* ''Mencius''" ], [ "List of Classics", "===Before 221 BC===It is often difficult or impossible to precisely date pre-Qin works beyond their being \"pre-Qin\", a period of 1000 years.", "Information in ancient China was often by oral tradition and passed down from generations before so was rarely written down, so the older the composition of the texts may not be in a chronological order as that which was arranged and presented by their attributed \"authors\".The below list is therefore organized in the order which is found in the ''Complete Library of the Four Treasuries'', the encyclopaedic collation of the works found in the imperial library of the Qing dynasty under the Qianlong Emperor.", "The ''Complete Library of the Four Treasuries'' classifies all works into 4 top-level branches: the Confucian Classics and their secondary literature; history; philosophy; and poetry.", "There are sub-categories within each branch, but due to the small number of pre-Qin works in the Classics, History and Poetry branches, the sub-categories are only reproduced for the Philosophy branch.====Classics branch====TitleDescriptionThe ''I Ching'' (or ''Book of Changes'')A manual of divination based on the eight trigrams attributed to the mythical figure Fuxi (by at least the time of the early Eastern Zhou these eight trigrams had been multiplied to sixty-four hexagrams).", "The ''I Ching'' is still used by modern adherents of folk religion.The ''Classic of History''A collection of documents and speeches allegedly from the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou periods, and even earlier.", "It contains some of the earliest examples of Chinese prose.The ''Classic of Poetry''Made up of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 74 minor festal songs, traditionally sung at court festivities, 31 major festal songs, sung at more solemn court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies, sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house.", "This book is traditionally credited as a compilation from Confucius.", "A standard version, named ''Maoshi Zhengyi'', was compiled in the mid-7th century under the leadership of Kong Yingda.The Three RitesThe ''Rites of Zhou''Conferred the status of a classic in the 12th century (in place of the lost ''Classic of Music'').The ''Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial'' Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies.The ''Classic of Rites''Describes social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites.The ''Spring and Autumn Annals''Chronologically the earliest of the annals; comprising about 16,000 characters, it records the events of the State of Lu from 722 BC to 481 BC, with implied condemnation of usurpations, murder, incest, etc.", "The ''Zuo zhuan'' (''Commentary of Zuo'') A different report of the same events as the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' with a few significant differences.", "It covers a longer period than the ''Spring and Autumn Annals''.The ''Commentary of Gongyang'' Another surviving commentary on the same events (see ''Spring and Autumn Annals'').", "The ''Commentary of Guliang'' Another surviving commentary on the same events (see ''Spring and Autumn Annals'').The ''Classic of Filial Piety''A small book giving advice on filial piety; how to behave towards a senior (such as a father, an elder brother, or ruler).The Four BooksThe ''Mencius''A book of anecdotes and conversations of Mencius.The ''Analects of Confucius''A twenty-chapter work of dialogues attributed to Confucius and his disciples; traditionally believed to have been written by Confucius's own circle it is thought to have been set down by later Confucian scholars.Doctrine of the MeanA chapter from the Book of Rites made into an independent work by Zhu XiThe Great LearningA chapter from the Book of Rites made into an independent work by Zhu XiPhilologyThe ''Erya''A dictionary explaining the meaning and interpretation of words in the context of the Confucian Canon.====History branch====TitleDescriptionBamboo AnnalsHistory of Zhou dynasty excavated from a Wei tomb in the Jin dynasty.Yi Zhou ShuSimilar in style to the Book of Documents''Discourses of the States'' A collection of historical records of numerous states recorded the period from Western Zhou to 453 BC.The ''Strategies of the Warring States'' Edited by Liu Xiang.", "''Yanzi chunqiu''Attributed to the statesman Yan Ying, a contemporary of Confucius====Philosophy branch====The philosophical typology of individual pre-imperial texts has in every case been applied retroactively, rather than consciously within the text itself.", "The categorisation of works of these genera has been highly contentious, especially in modern times.", "Many modern scholars reject the continued usefulness of this model as a heuristic for understanding the shape of the intellectual landscape of the time.TitleDescriptionConfucianism (excl.", "Classics branch)Kongzi JiayuCollection of stories about Confucius and his disciples.", "Authenticity disputed.", "''Xunzi'' Attributed to Xun Kuang, an ancient Chinese collection of philosophical writings that makes the distinction between what is born in man and what must be learned through rigorous education.Militarism''Six Secret Teachings'' Attributed to Jiang Ziya (Taigong) ''The Art of War''Attributed to Sunzi.", "''Wuzi'' Attributed to Wu Qi.", "''The Methods of the Sima''Attributed to Sima Rangju.", "''Wei Liaozi'' Attributed to Wei Liao.", "The ''Three Strategies of Huang Shigong'' Attributed to Jiang Ziya.", "The ''Thirty-Six Stratagems'' Recently recovered.Legalism ''Guanzi'' Attributed to Guan Zhong.", "''Deng Xizi''Fragment''The Book of Lord Shang'' Attributed to Shang Yang.", "''Hanfeizi'' Attributed to Han Fei.", "''Shenzi'' Attributed to Shen Buhai; all but one chapter is lost.The ''Canon of Laws'' Attributed to Li Kui.Medicine''Huangdi Neijing''Nan JingMiscellaneousYuziFragment''Mozi'' Attributed to the philosopher of the same name, Mozi.YinwenziFragment''Shenzi'' Attributed to Shen Dao.", "It originally consisted of ten volumes and forty-two chapters, of which all but seven chapters have been lost.HeguanziGongsun longziGuiguziThe ''Lüshi Chunqiu'' An encyclopedic of ancient classics edited by Lü Buwei.", "''Shizi'' Attributed to Shi JiaoMythologyThe ''Classic of Mountains and Seas''A compilation of early geography descriptions of animals and myths from various locations around China.Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaventells the tale of king mu and his quest for immortality and after receiving it sadness over the death of his lover.Taoism''Dao De Jing''Attributed to Laozi.Guan YinziFragment The ''Liezi''Attributed to Lie Yukou.", "''Zhuangzi'' Attributed to the philosopher of the same name, Zhuangzi.Wenzi====Poetry====TitleDescription''Chu Ci''Aside from the Shi Jing (see Classics branch) the only surviving pre-Qin poetry collection.", "Attributed to the southern state of Chu, and especially Qu Yuan.===After 206 BC===* The ''Twenty-Four Histories'', a collection of authoritative histories of China for various dynasties:** The ''Records of the Grand Historian'' by Sima Qian ** The ''Book of Han'' by Ban Gu.", "** The ''Book of Later Han'' by Fan Ye** The ''Records of Three Kingdoms'' by Chen Shou** The ''Book of Jin'' by Fang Xuanling** The ''Book of Song'' by Shen Yue** The ''Book of Southern Qi'' by Xiao Zixian** The ''Book of Liang'' by Yao Silian** The ''Book of Chen'' by Yao Silian** The ''History of the Southern Dynasties'' by Li Yanshou** The ''Book of Wei'' by Wei Shou** The ''Book of Zhou'' by Linghu Defen** The ''Book of Northern Qi'' by Li Baiyao** The ''History of the Northern Dynasties'' by Li Yanshou** The ''Book of Sui'' by Wei Zheng** The ''Old Book of Tang'' by Liu Xu** The ''New Book of Tang'' by Ouyang Xiu** The ''Old History of Five Dynasties'' by Xue Juzheng** The ''New History of Five Dynasties'' by Ouyang Xiu** The ''History of Song'' by Toqto'a** The ''History of Liao'' by Toqto'a** The ''History of Jin'' by Toqto'a** The ''History of Yuan'' by Song Lian** The ''History of Ming'' by Zhang Tingyu** The ''Draft History of Qing'' by Zhao Erxun is usually referred as the 25th classic of history records** The ''New History of Yuan'' by Ke Shaomin is sometimes referred as the 26th classic of history records* The ''Chronicles of Huayang'', an old record of ancient history and tales of southwestern China, attributed to Chang Qu.", "*The ''Biographies of Exemplary Women'', a biographical collection of exemplary women in ancient China, compiled by Liu Xiang.", "* The ''Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms'', a historical record of the Sixteen Kingdoms, attributed to Cui Hong, is lost.", "* The ''Shiming'', is a dictionary compiled by Liu Xi by the end of 2nd century.", "* ''A New Account of the Tales of the World'', a collection of historical anecdotes and character sketches of some 600 literati, musicians, and painters.", "* The ''Thirty-Six Strategies'', a military strategy book attributed to Tan Daoji.", "*The ''Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons'' (''Wen Xin Diao Long''), a review book on ancient Chinese literature and writings by Liu Xie.", "* The ''Commentary on the Water Classic'', a book on hydrology of rivers in China attributed to the great geographer Li Daoyuan.", "* The ''Dialogues between Li Jing and Tang Taizong'', a military strategy book attributed to Li Jing* The ''Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government (Zizhi Tongjian)'', with Sima Guang as its main editor.", "* The ''Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue'', a historical record of the states of Wu and Yue during the Spring and Autumn period, attributed to Zhao Ye.", "* The ''Zhenguan Zhengyao'', a record of governance strategies and leadership of Emperor Taizong of Tang, attributed to Wu Jing.", "* ''Da Dai Li Ji by Dai de a commentary/edition of the book of rites though less popular then Dai sheng's version'' * ''Xiao Dai Li Ji'' or just jiji a commentary/edition of the book of rites by Dai Sheng it is relatively the book of rites along with Dai de's da Dai li ji it makes up the commentaries by the dai's or translated tai in some instances * The ''Jiaoshi Yilin'', a work modelled after the ''I Ching'', composed during the Western Han dynasty and attributed to Jiao Yanshou.", "* ''The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art'', a mathematics Chinese book composed by several generations scholars of Han dynasty.", "* The ''Thousand Character Classic'', attributed to Zhou Xingsi.", "* The ''Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era'', compiled by Gautama Siddha, is a Chinese encyclopedia on astrology and divination.", "* The ''Shitong'', written by Liu Zhiji, a work on historiography.", "* The ''Tongdian'', written by Du You, a contemporary text focused on the Tang dynasty.", "* The ''Tang Huiyao'', compiled by Wang Pu, a text based on the institutional history of the Tang dynasty.", "* The ''Great Tang Records on the Western Regions'', compiled by Bianji; a recount of Xuanzang's journey.", "* The ''Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang'', written by Duan Chengshi, records fantastic stories, anecdotes, and exotic customs.", "* The ''Four Great Books of Song'', a term referring to the four large compilations during the beginning of Song dynasty:** The ''Taiping Yulan,'' a ''leishu'' encyclopedia.", "** The ''Taiping Guangji'', a collection of folk tales and theology.", "** The ''Wenyuan Yinghua'', an anthology of poetry, odes, songs and other writings.", "** The ''Cefu Yuangui'', a ''leishu'' encyclopedia of political essays, autobiographies, memorials and decrees.", "* The ''Dream Pool Essay'', a collection of essays on science, technology, military strategies, history, politics, music and arts, written by Shen Kuo.", "* The ''Exploitation of the Works of Nature'', an encyclopedia compiled by Song Yingxing.", "* The ''Compendium of Materia Medica'', a classic book of medicine written by Li Shizhen.", "* The ''Complete Library of the Four Treasuries'', the largest compilation of literature in Chinese history.", "* The ''New Songs from the Jade Terrace'', a poetry collection from the Six Dynasties period.", "* The ''Complete Tang Poems'', compiled during the Qing dynasty, published AD 1705.", "* The ''Xiaolin Guangji'', a collection of jokes compiled during the Qing dynasty.===See also===*Chinese literature*List of early Chinese texts*Kaicheng Stone Classics*Seven Military Classics*Ancient Script Texts" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===; Primary sources* ** ; Other sources* * * * * * * * ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * * * Online* * * Endymion Wilkinson.", "''Chinese History: A New Manual.''", "(Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Asia Center, Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series.", "New Edition; Second, Revised printing March 2013).", ".", "See esp.", "pp.", "365– 377, Ch.", "28, \"The Confucian Classics.\"" ], [ "External links", "* Chinese Text Project ( English Chinese) (Chinese philosophy texts in classical Chinese with English and modern Chinese translations)* The Canonical Books of Confucianism, David K. Jordan* Relevant Electronic Resources for Chinese Classical Studies; in Traditional Chinese* Scripta Sinica Big classic texts database by Academia Sinica* Palace Museum Chinese Text Database* 中國電子古籍世界 Classics database* Research Center for Chinese Ancient Texts includes CHANT (CHinese ANcient Texts) Database* Chinese classic text online; in Simplified Chinese* 凌云小筑 In Chinese, with articles and discussions on literature, history, and philosophy.", "* 国学导航; in Japanese* 東方學デジタル圖書館" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Call centre" ], [ "Introduction", "A 1970 police call centre in Brierley Hill, EnglandA '''call centre''' (Commonwealth spelling) or '''call center''' (American spelling; see spelling differences) is a managed capability that can be centralised or remote that is used for receiving or transmitting a large volume of enquiries by telephone.", "An inbound call centre is operated by a company to administer incoming product or service support or information inquiries from consumers.", "Outbound call centres are usually operated for sales purposes such as telemarketing, for solicitation of charitable or political donations, debt collection, market research, emergency notifications, and urgent/critical needs blood banks.", "A '''contact centre''' is a further extension of call centres telephony based capabilities, administers centralised handling of individual communications, including letters, faxes, live support software, social media, instant message, and email.A call center was previously seen as an open workspace for call center agents, with workstations that included a computer and display for each agent and were connected to an inbound/outbound call management system, and one or more supervisor stations.", "It can be independently operated or networked with additional centers, often linked to a corporate computer network, including mainframes, microcomputer, servers and LANs.The contact center is a central point from which all customer contacts are managed.", "Through contact centers, valuable information can be routed to the appropriate people or systems, contacts can be tracked, and data may be gathered.", "It is generally a part of the company's customer relationship management infrastructure.", "The majority of large companies use contact centers as a means of managing their customer interactions.", "These centers can be operated by either an in-house department responsible or outsourcing customer interaction to a third-party agency (known as Outsourcing Call Centres)." ], [ "History", "A very large call centre in Lakeland, Florida (2006)Answering services, as known in the 1960s through the 1980s, earlier and slightly later, involved a business that specifically provided the service.", "Primarily, by using an off-premises extension (OPX) for each subscribing business, connected at a switchboard at the answering service business, the answering service would answer the otherwise unattended phones of the subscribing businesses with a live operator.", "The live operator could take messages or relay information, doing so with greater human interactivity than a mechanical answering machine.", "Although undoubtedly more costly (the human service, the cost of setting up and paying the phone company for the OPX on a monthly basis), it had the advantage of being more ready to respond to the unique needs of after-hours callers.", "The answering service operators also had the option of calling the client and alerting them to particularly important calls.The origins of call centers date back to the 1960s with the UK-based Birmingham Press and Mail, which installed Private Automated Business Exchanges (PABX) to have rows of agents handling customer contacts.", "By 1973, call centers had received mainstream attention after Rockwell International patented its Galaxy Automatic Call Distributor (GACD) for a telephone booking system as well as the popularization of telephone headsets as seen on televised NASA Mission Control Center events.During the late 1970s, call center technology expanded to include telephone sales, airline reservations, and banking systems.", "The term \"call center\" was first published and recognised by the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' in 1983.The 1980s saw the development of toll-free telephone numbers to increase the efficiency of agents and overall call volume.", "Call centers increased with the deregulation of long-distance calling and growth in information-dependent industries.As call centres expanded, workers in North America began to join unions such as the Communications Workers of America and the United Steelworkers.", "In Australia, the National Union of Workers represents unionised workers; their activities form part of the Australian labour movement.", "In Europe, UNI Global Union of Switzerland is involved in assisting unionisation in the call center industry, and in Germany Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft represents call centre workers.During the 1990s, call centres expanded internationally and developed into two additional subsets of communication: contact centres and outsourced bureau centres.", "A contact centre is a coordinated system of people, processes, technologies, and strategies that provides access to information, resources, and expertise, through appropriate channels of communication, enabling interactions that create value for the customer and organization.", "In contrast to in-house management, outsourced bureau contact centres are a model of contact centre that provide services on a \"pay per use\" model.", "The overheads of the contact centre are shared by many clients, thereby supporting a very cost effective model, especially for low volumes of calls.", "The modern contact centre includes automated call blending of inbound and outbound calls as well as predictive dialing capabilities, dramatically increasing agents' productivity.", "New implementations of more complex systems require highly skilled operational and management staff that can use multichannel online and offline tools to improve customer interactions." ], [ "Technology", "Call centre worker confined to a small workstation/booth, using CallWeb Internet-based survey softwareCall centre technologies often include: speech recognition software which allowed Interactive Voice Response (IVR) systems to handle first levels of customer support, text mining, natural language processing to allow better customer handling, agent training via interactive scripting and automatic mining using best practices from past interactions, support automation and many other technologies to improve agent productivity and customer satisfaction.", "Automatic lead selection or lead steering is also intended to improve efficiencies, both for inbound and outbound campaigns.", "This allows inbound calls to be directly routed to the appropriate agent for the task, whilst minimising wait times and long lists of irrelevant options for people calling in.For outbound calls, lead selection allows management to designate what type of leads go to which agent based on factors including skill, socioeconomic factors, past performance, and percentage likelihood of closing a sale per lead.The universal queue standardises the processing of communications across multiple technologies such as fax, phone, and email.", "The virtual queue provides callers with an alternative to waiting on hold when no agents are available to handle inbound call demand.===Premises-based technology===Historically call centres have been built on Private branch exchange (PBX) equipment owned, hosted, and maintained by the call centre operator.", "The PBX can provide functions such as automatic call distribution, interactive voice response, and skills-based routing.===Virtual call centre===In a virtual call centre model, the call centre operator (business) pays a monthly or annual fee to a vendor that hosts the call centre telephony and data equipment in their own facility, cloud-based.", "In this model, the operator does not own, operate or host the equipment on which the call centre runs.", "Agents connect to the vendor's equipment through traditional PSTN telephone lines, or over voice over IP.", "Calls to and from prospects or contacts originate from or terminate at the vendor's data centre, rather than at the call centre operator's premises.", "The vendor's telephony equipment (at times data servers) then connects the calls to the call centre operator's agents.Virtual call centre technology allows people to work from home or any other location instead of in a traditional, centralised, call centre location, which increasingly allows people 'on the go' or with physical or other disabilities to work from desired locations - i.e.", "not leaving their house.", "The only required equipment is Internet access, a workstation, and a softphone.", "If the virtual call centre software utilizes webRTC, a softphone is not required to dial.", "The companies are preferring Virtual Call Centre services due to cost advantage.", "Companies can start their call centre business immediately without installing the basic infrastructure like Dialer, ACD and IVRS.Virtual call centres became increasingly used after the COVID-19 pandemic restricted businesses from operating with large groups of people working in close proximity.===Cloud computing===Through the use of application programming interfaces (APIs), hosted and on-demand call centres that are built on cloud-based software as a service (SaaS) platforms can integrate their functionality with cloud-based applications for customer relationship management (CRM), lead management and more.Developers use APIs to enhance cloud-based call centre platform functionality—including Computer telephony integration (CTI) APIs which provide basic telephony controls and sophisticated call handling from a separate application, and configuration APIs which enable graphical user interface (GUI) controls of administrative functions.===Outsourcing===Outsourced call centres are often located in developing countries, where wages are significantly lower than in western countries with higher minimum wages.", "These include the call centre industries in the Philippines, Bangladesh, and India.Companies that regularly utilise outsourced contact centre services include British Sky Broadcasting and Orange in the telecommunications industry, Adidas in the sports and leisure sector, Audi in car manufacturing and charities such as the RSPCA." ], [ "Industries", "===Healthcare===The healthcare industry has and continues to use outbound call centre programmes for years to help manage billing, collections, and patient communication.", "The inbound call centre is a new and increasingly popular service for many types of healthcare facilities, including large hospitals.", "Inbound call centres can be outsourced or managed in-house.These healthcare call centres are designed to help streamline communications, enhance patient retention and satisfaction, reduce expenses and improve operational efficiencies.===Hospitality===Many large hospitality companies such as the Hilton Hotels Corporation and Marriott International make use of call centres to manage reservations.", "These are known in the industry as \"central reservations offices\".", "Staff members at these call centres take calls from clients wishing to make reservations or other inquiries via a public number, usually a 1-800 number.", "These centres may operate as many as 24 hours per day, seven days a week, depending on the call volume the chain receives." ], [ "Evaluation", "=== Mathematical theory ===Queueing theory is a branch of mathematics in which models of service systems have been developed.", "A call centre can be seen as a queueing network and results from queueing theory such as the probability an arriving customer needs to wait before starting service useful for provisioning capacity.", "(Erlang's C formula is such a result for an M/M/c queue and approximations exist for an M/G/k queue.)", "Statistical analysis of call centre data has suggested arrivals are governed by an inhomogeneous Poisson process and jobs have a log-normal service time distribution.", "Simulation algorithms are increasingly being used to model call arrival, queueing and service levels.Call centre operations have been supported by mathematical models beyond queueing, with operations research, which considers a wide range of optimisation problems seeking to reduce waiting times while keeping server utilisation and therefore efficiency high." ], [ "Criticism", "Call centres have received criticism for low rates of pay and restrictive working practices for employees, which have been deemed as a dehumanising environment.", "Other research illustrates how call centre workers develop ways to counter or resist this environment by integrating local cultural sensibilities or embracing a vision of a new life.", "Most call centres provide electronic reports that outline performance metrics, quarterly highlights and other information about the calls made and received.", "This has the benefit of helping the company to plan the workload and time of its employees.", "However, it has also been argued that such close monitoring breaches the human right to privacy.Complaints are often logged by callers who find the staff do not have enough skill or authority to resolve problems, as well as appearing apathetic.", "These concerns are due to a business process that exhibits levels of variability because the experience a customer gets and results a company achieves on a given call are dependent upon the quality of the agent.", "Call centres are beginning to address this by using agent-assisted automation to standardise the process all agents use.", "However, more popular alternatives are using personality and skill based approaches.", "The various challenges encountered by call operators are discussed by several authors." ], [ "Media portrayals", "Call centres located in India have been the focus of several documentary films, the 2004 film ''Thomas L. Friedman Reporting: The Other Side of Outsourcing'', the 2005 films ''John and Jane'', ''Nalini by Day, Nancy by Night'', and ''1-800-India: Importing a White-Collar Economy'', and the 2006 film ''Bombay Calling'', among others.", "An Indian call centre is also the subject of the 2006 film ''Outsourced'' and a key location in the 2008 film, ''Slumdog Millionaire''.", "The 2014 BBC fly on the wall documentary series ''The Call Centre'' gave an often distorted although humorous view of life in a Welsh call centre." ], [ "Appointment Setting", "Appointment setting is a specialized function within call centres, where dedicated agents focus on facilitating and scheduling meetings between clients and businesses or sales representatives.", "This service is particularly prevalent in various industries such as financial services, healthcare, real estate, and B2B sales, where time-sensitive and personalized communications are essential for effective client engagement.==Lead Generation== Lead generation is a common operation for call centers, encompassing strategies and activities aimed at identifying potential customers or clients for businesses or sales representatives.", "It involves gathering information and generating interest among individuals or organizations who may have a potential interest in the products or services offered." ], [ "See also", "* Automatic call distributor* Business process outsourcing* Call management* List of call centre companies* Predictive dialling* Operator messaging* Queue management system* Skills based routing* Virtual queue* The Call Centre, a BBC fly-on-the-wall documentary at a Welsh call centre* *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Cusack M., \"Online Customer Care\", American Society for Quality (ASQ) Press, 2000.", "* Brad Cleveland, \"Call Center Management on Fast Forward\", ICMI Press, 2006.", "* Kennedy I., ''Call centres'', School of Electrical and Information Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, 2003.", "* Masi D.M.B., Fischer M.J., Harris C.M., ''Numerical Analysis of Routing Rules for Call centres'', Telecommunications Review, 1998, noblis.org* HSE website Psychosocial risk factors in call centres: An evaluation of work design and well-being.", "* Reena Patel, ''Working the Night Shift: Women in India's Call Center Industry'' (Stanford University Press; 2010) 219 pages; traces changing views of \"women's work\" in India under globalization.", "* Fluss, Donna, \"The Real-Time Contact centre\", 2005 AMACOM* Wegge, J., van Dick, R., Fisher, G., Wecking, C., & Moltzen, K. (2006, January).", "Work motivation, organisational identification, and well-being in call centre work.", "Work & Stress, 20(1), 60–83.", "* Legros, B.", "(2016).", "Unintended consequences of optimizing a queue discipline for a service level defined by a percentile of the waiting time.", "''Operations Research Letters'', ''44''(6), 839–845." ], [ "External links", "** Mandelbaum, Avishai Call Centers (Centres) Research Bibliography with Abstracts .", "Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology." ] ]
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[ [ "Charles Messier" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Charles Messier''' (; 26 June 1730 – 12 April 1817) was a French astronomer.", "He published an astronomical catalogue consisting of 110 nebulae and star clusters, which came to be known as the ''Messier objects'', referred to with the letter M and their number between 1 and 110.Messier's purpose for the catalogue was to help astronomical observers distinguish between permanent and transient visually diffuse objects in the sky." ], [ "Biography", "Messier was born in Badonviller in the Lorraine region of France, in 1730, the tenth of twelve children of Françoise B. Grandblaise and Nicolas Messier, a Court usher.", "Six of his brothers and sisters died while young, and his father died in 1741.Charles' interest in astronomy was stimulated by the appearance of the great six-tailed comet in 1744 and by an annular solar eclipse visible from his hometown on 25 July 1748.In 1751, Messier entered the employ of Joseph Nicolas Delisle, the astronomer of the French Navy, who instructed him to keep careful records of his observations.", "Messier's first documented observation was that of the Mercury transit of 6 May 1753, followed by his observations journals at Cluny Hotel and at the French Navy observatories.In 1764, Messier was made a fellow of the Royal Society; in 1769, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; and on 30 June 1770, he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences.", "He was given the nickname \"Ferret of Comets\" by King Louis XV.Messier discovered 13 comets:* C/1760 B1 (Messier)* C/1763 S1 (Messier)* C/1764 A1 (Messier)* C/1766 E1 (Messier)* C/1769 P1 (Messier)* D/1770 L1 (Lexell)* C/1771 G1 (Messier)* C/1773 T1 (Messier)* C/1780 U2 (Messier)* C/1788 W1 (Messier)* C/1793 S2 (Messier)* C/1798 G1 (Messier)* C/1785 A1 (Messier-Méchain)Père LachaiseHe also co-discovered Comet C/1801 N1 (Comet Pons-Messier-Méchain-Bouvard), a discovery shared with several other observers including Pons, Méchain, and Bouvard.", "Near the end of his life, Messier self-published a booklet connecting the great comet of 1769 to the birth of Napoleon, who was in power at the time of publishing.", "According to Maik Meyer:Messier is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in the 20th arrondissement of Paris." ], [ "Messier catalogue", "M 42 in his catalogueMessier's occupation as a comet hunter led him to continually come across fixed diffuse objects in the night sky which could be mistaken for comets.", "He compiled a list of them, in collaboration with his friend and assistant Pierre Méchain (who may have found at least 20 of the objects), to avoid wasting time sorting them out from the comets they were looking for.", "The entries are now known to be 39 galaxies, 4 planetary nebulae, 7 other types of nebulae, 26 open star clusters and 29 globular star clusters.Messier did his observing with a 100 mm (four-inch) refracting telescope from Hôtel de Cluny (now the Musée national du Moyen Âge), in downtown Paris, France.", "The list he compiled only contains objects found in the area of the sky Messier could observe, from the north celestial pole to a declination of about −35.7° .", "They are not organized scientifically by object type, or by location.", "The first version of Messier's catalogue contained 45 objects and was published in 1774 in the journal of the French Academy of Sciences in Paris.", "In addition to his own discoveries, this version included objects previously observed by other astronomers, with only 17 of the 45 objects being discovered by Messier himself.", "By 1780 the catalog had increased to 80 objects.The final version of the catalogue was published in 1781, in the 1784 issue of ''Connaissance des Temps''.", "The final list of Messier objects had grown to 103.On several occasions between 1921 and 1966, astronomers and historians discovered evidence of another seven objects that were observed either by Messier or by Méchain, shortly after the final version was published.", "These seven objects, M 104 through M 110, are accepted by astronomers as \"official\" Messier objects.The objects' Messier designations, from M 1 to M 110, are still used by professional and amateur astronomers today and their relative brightness makes them popular objects in the amateur astronomical community." ], [ "Legacy", "Commemorative plaque in Messier's hometown of BadonvillerThe lunar crater Messier and the asteroid 7359 Messier were named in his honour." ], [ "See also", "* Deep-sky object* List of Messier objects* Messier object* Messier marathon* Caldwell catalogue" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * a virtual exhibition by the * Charles Messier's manuscripts on Paris Observatory digital library" ] ]
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[ [ "Cemetery H culture" ], [ "Introduction", "Painted pottery urns from Harappa (Cemetery H period) might correspond to a period of shift towards Vedic cultureArchaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian migrations (after EIEC).", "The Andronovo, BMAC and Yaz cultures have often been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations.", "The GGC (Swat), Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo-Aryan migrations.The '''Cemetery H culture''' was a Bronze Age culture in the Punjab region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, from about 1900 BC until about 1300 BC.", "It is regarded as a regional form of the late phase of the Harappan (Indus Valley) civilisation (alongside the Jhukar culture of Sindh and Rangpur culture of Gujarat), but also as the manifestation of a first wave of Indo-Aryan migrations, predating the migrations of the proto-Rig Vedic people." ], [ "Origins", "The Cemetery H culture was located in and around the Punjab region in present-day India and Pakistan.", "It was named after a cemetery found in \"area H\" at Harappa.", "Remains of the culture have been dated from about 1900 BC until about 1300 BC.According to Mohammad Rafique Mughal, the Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley civilization around 1700 BC, being part of the Punjab Phase, one of three cultural phases that developed in the Localization Era or \"Late Harappan phase\" of the Indus Valley Tradition.", "According to Kenoyer, the Cemetery H culture \"may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past.\"", "According to Kennedy and Mallory & Adams, the Cemetery H culture also \"shows clear biological affinities\" with the earlier population of Harappa.Some traits of the Cemetery H culture have been associated with the Swat culture, which has been regarded as evidence of the Indo-Aryan movement toward the Indian subcontinent.", "According to Parpola, the Cemetery H culture represents a first wave of Indo-Aryan migration from as early as 1900 BC, which was followed by a migration to the Punjab -1400 BC.", "According to Kochhar, the Swat IV co-founded the Harappan Cemetery H phase in Punjab (2000-1800 BC), while the Rigvedic Indo-Aryans of Swat V later absorbed the Cemetery H people and gave rise to the Painted Grey Ware culture (to 1400 BC).Together with the Gandhara grave culture and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, the Cemetery H culture is considered by some scholars as a factor in the formation of the Vedic civilization." ], [ "Features", "The distinguishing features of this culture include:* The use of cremation of human remains.", "The bones were stored in painted pottery burial urns.", "This is completely different from the Indus civilization where bodies were buried in wooden coffins.", "The urn burials and the \"grave skeletons\" were nearly contemporaneous.", "* Reddish pottery, painted in black with antelopes, peacocks etc., sun or star motifs, with different surface treatments to the earlier period.", "* Expansion of settlements into the east.", "* Rice became a main crop.", "* Apparent breakdown of the widespread trade of the Indus civilization, with materials such as marine shells no longer used.", "* Continued use of mud brick for building.Some of the designs painted on the Cemetery H funerary urns have been interpreted through the lens of Vedic mythology: for instance, peacocks with hollow bodies and a small human form inside, which has been interpreted as the souls of the dead, and a hound that can be seen as the hound of Yama, the god of death.", "This may indicate the introduction of new religious beliefs during this period, but the archaeological evidence does not support the hypothesis that the Cemetery H people were the destroyers of the Harappan cities." ], [ "Archaeology", "Cremation in India is first attested in the Cemetery H culture, a practice previously described in the Vedas.", "The Rigveda contains a reference to the emerging practice, in RV 10.15.14, where the forefathers \"both cremated (''agnidagdhá-'') and uncremated (''ánagnidagdha-'')\" are invoked." ], [ "See also", "* Chronological dating** Phases in archaeology** Pottery in the Indian subcontinent* Periodisation of the Indus Valley civilisation** Ahar-Banas culture (3000 – 1500 BCE)** Late Harappan Phase of IVC (1900 - 1500 BCE)*** Cemetery H culture in Punjab*** Jhukar-Jhangar culture in Punjab*** Rangpur culture in Gujarat* Vedic period** Kuru Kingdom (1200 – )** OCP (2000-1500 BCE) ** Copper Hoard culture (2800-1500 BCE), may or may not be independent of vedic culture" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* http://www.harappa.com harappa.com* https://web.archive.org/web/20060908052731/http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/3_1_01.html journal" ] ]
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[ [ "Corrado Gini" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Corrado Gini''' (23 May 1884 – 13 March 1965) was an Italian statistician, demographer and sociologist who developed the Gini coefficient, a measure of the income inequality in a society.", "Gini was a proponent of organicism and applied it to nations.", "Gini was a eugenicist, and prior to and during World War II, he was an advocate of Italian Fascism.", "Following the war, he founded the Italian Unionist Movement, which advocated for the annexation of Italy by the United States." ], [ "Career", "Gini was born on May 23, 1884, in Motta di Livenza, near Treviso, into an old landed family.", "He entered the Faculty of Law at the University of Bologna, where in addition to law he studied mathematics, economics, and biology.Gini's scientific work ran in two directions: towards the social sciences and towards statistics.", "His interests ranged well beyond the formal aspects of statistics—to the laws that govern biological and social phenomena.His first published work was ''Il sesso dal punto di vista statistico'' (1908).", "This work is a thorough review of the natal sex ratio, looking at past theories and at how new hypothesis fit the statistical data.", "In particular, it presents evidence that the tendency to produce one or the other sex of child is, to some extent, heritable.He published the Gini coefficient in the 1912 paper ''Variability and Mutability'' ().", "Also called the Gini index and the Gini ratio, it is a measure of statistical dispersion intended to represent the income inequality within a nation or other group.In 1910, he acceded to the Chair of Statistics in the University of Cagliari and then at Padua in 1913.He founded the statistical journal ''Metron'' in 1920, directing it until his death; it only accepted articles with practical applications.He became a professor at the Sapienza University of Rome in 1925.At the University, he founded a lecture course on sociology, maintaining it until his retirement.", "He also set up the School of Statistics in 1928, and, in 1936, the Faculty of Statistical, Demographic and Actuarial Sciences." ], [ "Under fascism", "In 1926, he was appointed President of the Central Institute of Statistics in Rome.", "This he organised as a single centre for Italian statistical services.", "He was a close intimate of Mussolini throughout the 20s.", "He resigned from his position within the institute in 1932.In 1927 he published a treatise entitled ''The Scientific Basis of Fascism''.In 1929, Gini founded the Italian Committee for the Study of Population Problems (''Comitato italiano per lo studio dei problemi della popolazione) '' which, two years later, organised the first Population Congress in Rome.A eugenicist apart from being a demographer, Gini led an expedition to survey Polish populations, among them the Karaites.", "Gini was throughout the 20s a supporter of fascism, and expressed his hope that Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy would emerge as victors in WW2.However, he never supported any measure of exclusion of the Jews.Milestones during the rest of his career include:* In 1933 – vice president of the International Sociological Institute.", "* In 1934 – president of the Italian Genetics and Eugenics Society.", "* In 1935 – president of the International Federation of Eugenics Societies in Latin-language Countries.", "* In 1937 – president of the Italian Sociological Society.", "* In 1941 – president of the Italian Statistical Society.", "* In 1957 – Gold Medal for outstanding service to the Italian School.", "* In 1962 – National Member of the Accademia dei Lincei." ], [ "Italian Unionist Movement", "On October 12, 1944, Gini joined with the Calabrian activist Santi Paladino, and fellow-statistician Ugo Damiani to found the Italian Unionist Movement, for which the emblem was the Stars and Stripes, the Italian flag and a world map.", "According to the three men, the government of the United States should annex all free and democratic nations worldwide, thereby transforming itself into a world government, and allowing Washington, D.C. to maintain Earth in a perpetual condition of peace.", "The party existed up to 1948 but had little success and its aims were not supported by the United States." ], [ "Organicism and nations", "Gini was a proponent of organicism and saw nations as organic in nature.", "Gini shared the view held by Oswald Spengler that populations go through a cycle of birth, growth, and decay.", "Gini claimed that nations at a primitive level have a high birth rate, but, as they evolve, the upper classes birth rate drops while the lower class birth rate, while higher, will inevitably deplete as their stronger members emigrate, die in war, or enter into the upper classes.", "If a nation continues on this path without resistance, Gini claimed the nation would enter a final decadent stage where the nation would degenerate as noted by decreasing birth rate, decreasing cultural output, and the lack of imperial conquest.", "At this point, the decadent nation with its aging population can be overrun by a more youthful and vigorous nation.", "Gini's organicist theories of nations and natality are believed to have influenced policies of Italian Fascism." ], [ "Honours", "The following honorary degrees were conferred upon him:* Economics by the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart in Milan (1932),* Sociology by the University of Geneva (1934),* Sciences by Harvard University (1936),* Social Sciences by the University of Cordoba, Argentine (1963)." ], [ "Partial bibliography", "* ''Il sesso dal punto di vista statistica: le leggi della produzione dei sessi'' (1908)* ''Sulla misura della concentrazione e della variabilità dei caratteri'' (1914)* ''Quelques considérations au sujet de la construction des nombres indices des prix et des questions analogues'' (1924)* ''Memorie di metodologia statistica.", "Vol.1: Variabilità e Concentrazione'' (1955)* ''Memorie di metodologia statistica.", "Vol.2: Transvariazione'' (1960)*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Biography Of Corrado Gini at the ''Metron'', the statistics journal he founded.", "* Paper on \"Corrado Gini and Italian Statistics under Fascism\" by Giovanni Favero June 2002* A. Forcina and G. M. Giorgi \"Early Gini’s Contributions to Inequality Measurement and Statistical Inference.\"", "JEHPS mars 2005* Another photograph" ] ]
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[ [ "Crankshaft" ], [ "Introduction", "Crankshaft (red), pistons (gray), cylinders (blue) and flywheel (black)A '''crankshaft''' is a mechanical component used in a piston engine to convert the reciprocating motion into rotational motion.", "The crankshaft is a rotating shaft containing one or more crankpins, that are driven by the pistons via the connecting rods.The crankpins are also called ''rod bearing journals'', and they rotate within the \"big end\" of the connecting rods.Most modern crankshafts are located in the engine block.", "They are made from steel or cast iron, using either a forging, casting or machining process." ], [ "Design", "pistons and connecting rods for a typical internal combustion engineMarine engine crankshafts from 1942The crankshaft located within the engine block, held in place via main bearings which allow the crankshaft to rotate within the block.", "The up-down motion of each piston is transferred to the crankshaft via connecting rods.", "A flywheel is often attached to one end of the crankshaft, in order to smoothen the power delivery and reduce vibration.A crankshaft is subjected to enormous stresses, in some cases more than per cylinder.", "Crankshafts for single-cylinder engines are usually a simpler design than for engines with multiple cylinders.===Bearings===The crankshaft is able to rotate in the engine block due to the 'main bearings'.", "Since the crankshaft is subject to large horizontal and torsional forces from each cylinder, these main bearings are located at various points along the crankshaft, rather than just one at each end.", "The number of main bearings is determined based on the overall load factor and the maximum engine speed.", "Crankshafts in diesel engines often use a main bearing between every cylinder and at both ends of the crankshaft, due to the high forces of combustion present.Flexing of the crankshaft was a factor in V8 engines replacing straight-eight engines in the 1950s; the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher engine speeds (RPM).===Piston stroke===The distance between the axis of the crankpins and the axis of the crankshaft determines the stroke length of the engine.Most modern car engines are classified as \"over square\" or short-stroke, wherein the stroke is less than the diameter of the cylinder bore.", "A common way to increase the low-RPM torque of an engine is to increase the stroke, sometimes known as \"stroking\" the engine.", "Historically, the trade-off for a long-stroke engine was a lower rev limit and increased vibration at high RPM, due to the increased piston velocity.=== Cross-plane and flat-plane configurations ===When designing an engine, the crankshaft configuration is closely related to the engine's firing order.Most production V8 engines (such as the Ford Modular engine and the General Motors LS engine) use a cross-plane crank whereby the crank throws are spaced 90° apart.", "However, some high-performance V8 engines (such as the Ferrari 488) instead use a flat-plane crank, whereby the throws are spaced 180° apart, which essentially results in two inline-four engines sharing a common crankcase.", "Flat-plane engines are usually able to operate at higher RPM, however they have higher second-order vibrations, so they are better suited to racing car engines.===Engine balance===For some engines it is necessary to provide counterweights for the reciprocating mass of the piston, conrods and crankshaft, in order to improve the engine balance.", "These counterweights are typically cast as part of the crankshaft but, occasionally, are bolt-on pieces.===Flying arms===Flying arm (the boomerang-shaped link between first and second crankpins) on a crankshaft) In some engines, the crankshaft contains direct links between adjacent crank pins, without the usual intermediate main bearing.", "These links are called ''flying arms''.", "This arrangement is sometimes used in V6 and V8 engines, in order to maintain an even firing interval while using different V angles, and to reduce the number of main bearings required.", "The downside of flying arms is that the rigidity of the crankshaft is reduced, which can cause problems at high RPM or high power outputs.=== Counter-rotating crankshafts ===In most engines, each connecting rod is attached a single crankshaft, which results in the angle of the connecting rod varying as the piston moves through its stroke.", "This variation in angle pushes the pistons against the cylinder wall, which causes friction between the piston and cylinder wall.", "To prevent this, some early engines - such as the 1900-1904 Lanchester Engine Company flat-twin engines - connected each piston to two crankshafts that are rotating in opposite directions.", "This arrangement cancels out the lateral forces and reduces the requirement for counterweights.", "This design is rarely used, however a similar principle applies to balance shafts, which are occasionally used." ], [ "Construction", "=== Forged crankshafts ===Forged crankshaftCrankshafts can be created from a steel bar using roll forging.", "Today, manufacturers tend to favour the use of forged crankshafts due to their lighter weight, more compact dimensions and better inherent damping.", "With forged crankshafts, vanadium micro-alloyed steels are mainly used as these steels can be air-cooled after reaching high strengths without additional heat treatment, except for the surface hardening of the bearing surfaces.", "The low alloy content also makes the material cheaper than high alloy steels.", "Carbon steels also require additional heat treatment to reach the desired properties.=== Cast crankshafts ===Another construction method is to cast the crankshaft from ductile.", "Cast iron crankshafts are today mostly found in cheaper production engines where the loads are lower.=== Machined crankshafts ===Crankshafts can also be machined from billet, often a bar of high quality vacuum remelted steel.", "Though the fiber flow (local inhomogeneities of the material's chemical composition generated during casting) does not follow the shape of the crankshaft (which is undesirable), this is usually not a problem since higher quality steels, which normally are difficult to forge, can be used.", "Per unit, these crankshafts tend to be very expensive due to the large amount of material that must be removed with lathes and milling machines, the high material cost, and the additional heat treatment required.", "However, since no expensive tooling is needed, this production method allows small production runs without high up-front costs." ], [ "History", "=== China ===Querns are a form of hand-operated crank.The earliest hand-operated cranks appeared in China during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD).", "They were used for silk-reeling, hemp-spinning, for the agricultural winnowing fan, in the water-powered flour-sifter, for hydraulic-powered metallurgic bellows, and in the well windlass.", "The rotary winnowing fan greatly increased the efficiency of separating grain from husks and stalks.", "However, the potential of the crank of converting circular motion into reciprocal motion never seems to have been fully realized in China, and the crank was typically absent from such machines until the turn of the 20th century.=== Europe ===Roman crank handle, A crank in the form of an eccentrically-mounted handle of the rotary handmill appeared in 5th century BC Celtiberian Spain and ultimately spread across the Roman Empire.", "A Roman iron crank dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland.", "The crank-operated Roman mill is dated to the late 2nd century.Hierapolis sawmill in Asia Minor (3rd century), a machine that combines a crank with a connecting rod.Evidence for the crank combined with a connecting rod appears in the Hierapolis mill, dating to the 3rd century; they are also found in stone sawmills in Roman Syria and Ephesus dating to the 6th century.", "The pediment of the Hierapolis mill shows a waterwheel fed by a mill race powering via a gear train two frame saws which cut blocks by the way of some kind of connecting rods and cranks.", "The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically-attested sawmills worked without a gear train.", "Water-powered marble saws in Germany were mentioned by the late 4th century poet Ausonius; about the same time, these mill types seem also to be indicated by Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia.A rotary grindstone operated by a crank handle is shown in the Carolingian manuscript ''Utrecht Psalter''; the pen drawing of around 830 goes back to a late antique original.", "Cranks used to turn wheels are also depicted or described in various works dating from the tenth to thirteenth centuries.The first depictions of the compound crank in the carpenter's brace appear between 1420 and 1430 in northern European artwork.", "The rapid adoption of the compound crank can be traced in the works of an unknown German engineer writing on the state of military technology during the Hussite Wars: first, the connecting-rod, applied to cranks, reappeared; second, double-compound cranks also began to be equipped with connecting-rods; and third, the flywheel was employed for these cranks to get them over the 'dead-spot'.", "The concept was much improved by the Italian engineer and writer Roberto Valturio in 1463, who devised a boat with five sets, where the parallel cranks are all joined to a single power source by one connecting-rod, an idea also taken up by his compatriot Italian painter Francesco di Giorgio.The crank had become common in Europe by the early 15th century, as seen in the works of the military engineer Konrad Kyeser (1366–after 1405).", "Devices depicted in Kyeser's ''Bellifortis'' include cranked windlasses for spanning siege crossbows, cranked chain of buckets for water-lifting and cranks fitted to a wheel of bells.", "Kyeser also equipped the Archimedes' screws for water-raising with a crank handle, an innovation which subsequently replaced the ancient practice of working the pipe by treading.Pisanello painted a piston-pump driven by a water-wheel and operated by two simple cranks and two connecting-rods.15th century paddle-wheel boatThe 15th also century saw the introduction of cranked rack-and-pinion devices, called cranequins, which were fitted to the crossbow's stock as a means of exerting even more force while spanning the missile weapon.", "In the textile industry, cranked reels for winding skeins of yarn were introduced.The Italian physician Guido da Vigevano (−1349), planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels, identified as an early crankshaft prototype by Lynn Townsend White.", "The ''Luttrell Psalter'', dating to around 1340, describes a grindstone which was rotated by two cranks, one at each end of its axle; the geared hand-mill, operated either with one or two cranks, appeared later in the 15th century.1661 water pump by Georg Andreas Böckler Around 1480, the early medieval rotary grindstone was improved with a treadle and crank mechanism.", "Cranks mounted on push-carts first appear in a German engraving of 1589.Crankshafts were also described by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and a Dutch farmer and windmill owner by the name Cornelis Corneliszoon van Uitgeest in 1592.His wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmill's circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw.", "Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597.From the 16th century onwards, evidence of cranks and connecting rods integrated into machine design becomes abundant in the technological treatises of the period: Agostino Ramelli's ''The Diverse and Artifactitious Machines'' of 1588 depicts eighteen examples, a number that rises in the ''Theatrum Machinarum Novum'' by Georg Andreas Böckler to 45 different machines.", "Cranks were formerly common on some machines in the early 20th century; for example almost all phonographs before the 1930s were powered by clockwork motors wound with cranks.", "Reciprocating piston engines use cranks to convert the linear piston motion into rotational motion.", "Internal combustion engines of early 20th century automobiles were usually started with hand cranks, before electric starters came into general use.=== Western Asia ===The non-manual crank appears in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in their 9th-century ''Book of Ingenious Devices''.", "These automatically operated cranks appear in several devices, two of which contain an action which approximates to that of a crankshaft.", "The automatic crank described by the Banū Mūsā would not have allowed a full rotation, however, but only a small modification was required to convert it to a crankshaft." ], [ "See also", "*Bicycle crankset*Brace (tool)*Cam (mechanism)*Cam engine*Camshaft*Crank (mechanism)*Crankcase*Crankshaft torsional vibration*List of auto parts*Piston motion equations*Tunnel crankshaft*Scotch yoke*Swashplate" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "***** ********" ], [ "External links", "*Interactive crank animation https://www.desmos.com/calculator/8l2kvyivqo*D & T Mechanisms - Interactive Tools for Teachers (applets) https://web.archive.org/web/20140714155346/http://www.content.networcs.net/tft/mechanisms.htm*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "CNS" ], [ "Introduction", "'''CNS''' may refer to:" ], [ "Science and medicine", "* Central nervous system* Clinical nurse specialist* Coagulase-negative staphylococcus* Connectedness to nature scale* Conserved non-coding sequence of DNA* Crigler–Najjar syndrome* Crystallography and NMR system, a software library* Color Naming System" ], [ "Military", "* CNS (chemical weapon), a mixture of chloroacetophenone, chloropicrin and chloroform* Chief of the Naval Staff (disambiguation), in several countries* Former Taiwanese navy ship prefix" ], [ "Education", "* Cicero-North Syracuse High School, New York, US* City of Norwich School, England* Computation and Neural Systems, a Caltech program" ], [ "Organisations", "* Canadian Nuclear Society* Chinese Nuclear Society* Congress of Neurological Surgeons* Corporation for National Service, later the Corporation for National and Community Service, commonly known as AmeriCorps* Council for National Security, military junta of Thailand in 2006* Cuban National Series, baseball league* Szekler National Council (), Romania" ], [ "Media", "* Cartoon Network Studios* Catholic News Service* China News Service* CNSNews, formerly Cybercast News Service" ], [ "Other", "* Cairns International Airport, IATA code* Chateau Neuf Spelemannslag, Norwegian folk music group* Chinese National Standards* Cooper Nuclear Station, a nuclear power plant in United States* Communication, navigation and surveillance, in air traffic management* Custody Notification Service, Australian advice service* \"Cell, Nature, or Science\" : a \"CNS Paper\" means a scientific publication in one of these high-evaluated scientific journals" ], [ "See also" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Central nervous system" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''central nervous system''' ('''CNS''') is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord, the retina and optic nerve, and the olfactory nerve and epithelia.", "The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterally symmetric and triploblastic animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and diploblasts.", "It is a structure composed of nervous tissue positioned along the rostral (nose end) to caudal (tail end) axis of the body and may have an enlarged section at the rostral end which is a brain.", "Only arthropods, cephalopods and vertebrates have a true brain, though precursor structures exist in onychophorans, gastropods and lancelets.The rest of this article exclusively discusses the vertebrate central nervous system, which is radically distinct from all other animals." ], [ "Overview", "In vertebrates, the brain and spinal cord are both enclosed in the meninges.", "The meninges provide a barrier to chemicals dissolved in the blood, protecting the brain from most neurotoxins commonly found in food.", "Within the meninges the brain and spinal cord are bathed in cerebral spinal fluid which replaces the body fluid found outside the cells of all bilateral animals.In vertebrates, the CNS is contained within the dorsal body cavity, while the brain is housed in the cranial cavity within the skull.", "The spinal cord is housed in the spinal canal within the vertebrae.", "Within the CNS, the interneuronal space is filled with a large amount of supporting non-nervous cells called neuroglia or glia from the Greek for \"glue\".In vertebrates, the CNS also includes the retina and the optic nerve (cranial nerve II), as well as the olfactory nerves and olfactory epithelium.", "As parts of the CNS, they connect directly to brain neurons without intermediate ganglia.", "The olfactory epithelium is the only central nervous tissue outside the meninges in direct contact with the environment, which opens up a pathway for therapeutic agents which cannot otherwise cross the meninges barrier." ], [ "Structure", "The CNS consists of two major structures: the brain and spinal cord.", "The brain is encased in the skull, and protected by the cranium.", "The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and lies caudally to the brain.", "It is protected by the vertebrae.", "The spinal cord reaches from the base of the skull, and continues through or starting below the foramen magnum, and terminates roughly level with the first or second lumbar vertebra, occupying the upper sections of the vertebral canal.===White and gray matter===Dissection of a human brain with labels showing the clear division between white and gray matter.Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the CNS and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).", "The CNS is composed of white and gray matter.", "This can also be seen macroscopically on brain tissue.", "The white matter consists of axons and oligodendrocytes, while the gray matter consists of neurons and unmyelinated fibers.", "Both tissues include a number of glial cells (although the white matter contains more), which are often referred to as supporting cells of the CNS.", "Different forms of glial cells have different functions, some acting almost as scaffolding for neuroblasts to climb during neurogenesis such as bergmann glia, while others such as microglia are a specialized form of macrophage, involved in the immune system of the brain as well as the clearance of various metabolites from the brain tissue.", "Astrocytes may be involved with both clearance of metabolites as well as transport of fuel and various beneficial substances to neurons from the capillaries of the brain.", "Upon CNS injury astrocytes will proliferate, causing gliosis, a form of neuronal scar tissue, lacking in functional neurons.The brain (cerebrum as well as midbrain and hindbrain) consists of a cortex, composed of neuron-bodies constituting gray matter, while internally there is more white matter that form tracts and commissures.", "Apart from cortical gray matter there is also subcortical gray matter making up a large number of different nuclei.===Spinal cord===Diagram of the columns and of the course of the fibers in the spinal cord.", "Sensory synapses occur in the dorsal spinal cord (above in this image), and motor nerves leave through the ventral (as well as lateral) horns of the spinal cord as seen below in the image.Different ways in which the CNS can be activated without engaging the cortex, and making us aware of the actions.", "The above example shows the process in which the pupil dilates during dim light, activating neurons in the spinal cord.", "The second example shows the constriction of the pupil as a result of the activation of the Eddinger-Westphal nucleus (a cerebral ganglion).From and to the spinal cord are projections of the peripheral nervous system in the form of spinal nerves (sometimes segmental nerves).", "The nerves connect the spinal cord to skin, joints, muscles etc.", "and allow for the transmission of efferent motor as well as afferent sensory signals and stimuli.", "This allows for voluntary and involuntary motions of muscles, as well as the perception of senses.All in all 31 spinal nerves project from the brain stem, some forming plexa as they branch out, such as the brachial plexa, sacral plexa etc.", "Each spinal nerve will carry both sensory and motor signals, but the nerves synapse at different regions of the spinal cord, either from the periphery to sensory relay neurons that relay the information to the CNS or from the CNS to motor neurons, which relay the information out.The spinal cord relays information up to the brain through spinal tracts through the final common pathway to the thalamus and ultimately to the cortex.File:1615 Locations Spinal Fiber Tracts.jpg|Schematic image showing the locations of a few tracts of the spinal cord.File:1507 Short and Long Reflexes.jpg|Reflexes may also occur without engaging more than one neuron of the CNS as in the below example of a short reflex.====Cranial nerves====Apart from the spinal cord, there are also peripheral nerves of the PNS that synapse through intermediaries or ganglia directly on the CNS.", "These 12 nerves exist in the head and neck region and are called cranial nerves.", "Cranial nerves bring information to the CNS to and from the face, as well as to certain muscles (such as the trapezius muscle, which is innervated by accessory nerves as well as certain cervical spinal nerves).Two pairs of cranial nerves; the olfactory nerves and the optic nerves are often considered structures of the CNS.", "This is because they do not synapse first on peripheral ganglia, but directly on CNS neurons.", "The olfactory epithelium is significant in that it consists of CNS tissue expressed in direct contact to the environment, allowing for administration of certain pharmaceuticals and drugs.===Brain===At the anterior end of the spinal cord lies the brain.", "The brain makes up the largest portion of the CNS.", "It is often the main structure referred to when speaking of the nervous system in general.", "The brain is the major functional unit of the CNS.", "While the spinal cord has certain processing ability such as that of spinal locomotion and can process reflexes, the brain is the major processing unit of the nervous system.====Brainstem====The brainstem consists of the medulla, the pons and the midbrain.", "The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, which both have similar organization and functional properties.", "The tracts passing from the spinal cord to the brain pass through here.Regulatory functions of the medulla nuclei include control of blood pressure and breathing.", "Other nuclei are involved in balance, taste, hearing, and control of muscles of the face and neck.The next structure rostral to the medulla is the pons, which lies on the ventral anterior side of the brainstem.", "Nuclei in the pons include pontine nuclei which work with the cerebellum and transmit information between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex.In the dorsal posterior pons lie nuclei that are involved in the functions of breathing, sleep, and taste.The midbrain, or mesencephalon, is situated above and rostral to the pons.", "It includes nuclei linking distinct parts of the motor system, including the cerebellum, the basal ganglia and both cerebral hemispheres, among others.", "Additionally, parts of the visual and auditory systems are located in the midbrain, including control of automatic eye movements.The brainstem at large provides entry and exit to the brain for a number of pathways for motor and autonomic control of the face and neck through cranial nerves, Autonomic control of the organs is mediated by the tenth cranial nerve.", "A large portion of the brainstem is involved in such autonomic control of the body.", "Such functions may engage the heart, blood vessels, and pupils, among others.The brainstem also holds the reticular formation, a group of nuclei involved in both arousal and alertness.====Cerebellum====The cerebellum lies behind the pons.", "The cerebellum is composed of several dividing fissures and lobes.", "Its function includes the control of posture and the coordination of movements of parts of the body, including the eyes and head, as well as the limbs.", "Further, it is involved in motion that has been learned and perfected through practice, and it will adapt to new learned movements.Despite its previous classification as a motor structure, the cerebellum also displays connections to areas of the cerebral cortex involved in language and cognition.", "These connections have been shown by the use of medical imaging techniques, such as functional MRI and Positron emission tomography.The body of the cerebellum holds more neurons than any other structure of the brain, including that of the larger cerebrum, but is also more extensively understood than other structures of the brain, as it includes fewer types of different neurons.", "It handles and processes sensory stimuli, motor information, as well as balance information from the vestibular organ.====Diencephalon====The two structures of the diencephalon worth noting are the thalamus and the hypothalamus.", "The thalamus acts as a linkage between incoming pathways from the peripheral nervous system as well as the optical nerve (though it does not receive input from the olfactory nerve) to the cerebral hemispheres.", "Previously it was considered only a \"relay station\", but it is engaged in the sorting of information that will reach cerebral hemispheres (neocortex).Apart from its function of sorting information from the periphery, the thalamus also connects the cerebellum and basal ganglia with the cerebrum.", "In common with the aforementioned reticular system the thalamus is involved in wakefullness and consciousness, such as though the SCN.The hypothalamus engages in functions of a number of primitive emotions or feelings such as hunger, thirst and maternal bonding.", "This is regulated partly through control of secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland.", "Additionally the hypothalamus plays a role in motivation and many other behaviors of the individual.====Cerebrum====The cerebrum of cerebral hemispheres make up the largest visual portion of the human brain.", "Various structures combine to form the cerebral hemispheres, among others: the cortex, basal ganglia, amygdala and hippocampus.", "The hemispheres together control a large portion of the functions of the human brain such as emotion, memory, perception and motor functions.", "Apart from this the cerebral hemispheres stand for the cognitive capabilities of the brain.Connecting each of the hemispheres is the corpus callosum as well as several additional commissures.One of the most important parts of the cerebral hemispheres is the cortex, made up of gray matter covering the surface of the brain.", "Functionally, the cerebral cortex is involved in planning and carrying out of everyday tasks.The hippocampus is involved in storage of memories, the amygdala plays a role in perception and communication of emotion, while the basal ganglia play a major role in the coordination of voluntary movement.===Difference from the peripheral nervous system===PNS, autonomic nervous system, and enteric nervous system.This differentiates the CNS from the PNS, which consists of neurons, axons, and Schwann cells.", "Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the CNS and PNS, respectively.", "Both act to add myelin sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along the nerves.", "Axons in the CNS are often very short, barely a few millimeters, and do not need the same degree of isolation as peripheral nerves.", "Some peripheral nerves can be over 1 meter in length, such as the nerves to the big toe.", "To ensure signals move at sufficient speed, myelination is needed.The way in which the Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes myelinate nerves differ.", "A Schwann cell usually myelinates a single axon, completely surrounding it.", "Sometimes, they may myelinate many axons, especially when in areas of short axons.", "Oligodendrocytes usually myelinate several axons.", "They do this by sending out thin projections of their cell membrane, which envelop and enclose the axon." ], [ "Development", "During early development of the vertebrate embryo, a longitudinal groove on the neural plate gradually deepens and the ridges on either side of the groove (the neural folds) become elevated, and ultimately meet, transforming the groove into a closed tube called the neural tube.", "The formation of the neural tube is called neurulation.", "At this stage, the walls of the neural tube contain proliferating neural stem cells in a region called the ventricular zone.", "The neural stem cells, principally radial glial cells, multiply and generate neurons through the process of neurogenesis, forming the rudiment of the CNS.The neural tube gives rise to both brain and spinal cord.", "The anterior (or 'rostral') portion of the neural tube initially differentiates into three brain vesicles (pockets): the prosencephalon at the front, the mesencephalon, and, between the mesencephalon and the spinal cord, the rhombencephalon.", "(By six weeks in the human embryo) the prosencephalon then divides further into the telencephalon and diencephalon; and the rhombencephalon divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon.", "The spinal cord is derived from the posterior or 'caudal' portion of the neural tube.As a vertebrate grows, these vesicles differentiate further still.", "The telencephalon differentiates into, among other things, the striatum, the hippocampus and the neocortex, and its cavity becomes the first and second ventricles.", "Diencephalon elaborations include the subthalamus, hypothalamus, thalamus and epithalamus, and its cavity forms the third ventricle.", "The tectum, pretectum, cerebral peduncle and other structures develop out of the mesencephalon, and its cavity grows into the mesencephalic duct (cerebral aqueduct).", "The metencephalon becomes, among other things, the pons and the cerebellum, the myelencephalon forms the medulla oblongata, and their cavities develop into the fourth ventricle.File:EmbryonicBrain.svg|Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain, later forming forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.File:Development of the neural tube.png|Development of the neural tube CNSBrainProsencephalonTelencephalonRhinencephalon,amygdala,hippocampus,neocortex,basal ganglia,lateral ventriclesDiencephalonEpithalamus,thalamus,hypothalamus,subthalamus,pituitary gland,pineal gland,third ventricleBrain stemMesencephalonTectum,cerebral peduncle,pretectum,mesencephalic ductRhombencephalonMetencephalonPons,cerebellumMyelencephalonMedulla oblongataSpinal cord===Evolution=======Planaria====Planarians, members of the phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms), have the simplest, clearly defined delineation of a nervous system into a CNS and a PNS.Their primitive brains, consisting of two fused anterior ganglia, and longitudinal nerve cords form the CNS.", "Like vertebrates, have a distinct CNS and PNS.", "The nerves projecting laterally from the CNS form their PNS.A molecular study found that more than 95% of the 116 genes involved in the nervous system of planarians, which includes genes related to the CNS, also exist in humans.====Arthropoda====In arthropods, the ventral nerve cord, the subesophageal ganglia and the supraesophageal ganglia are usually seen as making up the CNS.", "Arthropoda, unlike vertebrates, have inhibitory motor neurons due to their small size.====Chordata====The CNS of chordates differs from that of other animals in being placed dorsally in the body, above the gut and notochord/spine.", "The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of vertebrates and during evolution.", "The major trend that can be observed is towards a progressive telencephalisation: the telencephalon of reptiles is only an appendix to the large olfactory bulb, while in mammals it makes up most of the volume of the CNS.", "In the human brain, the telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the entire mesencephalon.", "Indeed, the allometric study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through cranial endocasts.=====Mammals=====Mammals – which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles – are the only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of the cerebral cortex (main part of the telencephalon excluding olfactory bulb) known as the neocortex.", "This part of the brain is, in mammals, involved in higher thinking and further processing of all senses in the sensory cortices (processing for smell was previously only done by its bulb while those for non-smell senses were only done by the tectum).", "The neocortex of monotremes (the duck-billed platypus and several species of spiny anteaters) and of marsupials (such as kangaroos, koalas, opossums, wombats, and Tasmanian devils) lack the convolutions – gyri and sulci – found in the neocortex of most placental mammals (eutherians).Within placental mammals, the size and complexity of the neocortex increased over time.", "The area of the neocortex of mice is only about 1/100 that of monkeys, and that of monkeys is only about 1/10 that of humans.", "In addition, rats lack convolutions in their neocortex (possibly also because rats are small mammals), whereas cats have a moderate degree of convolutions, and humans have quite extensive convolutions.", "Extreme convolution of the neocortex is found in dolphins, possibly related to their complex echolocation." ], [ "Clinical significance", "===Diseases===There are many CNS diseases and conditions, including infections such as encephalitis and poliomyelitis, early-onset neurological disorders including ADHD and autism, seizure disorders such as epilepsy, headache disorders such as migraine, late-onset neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and essential tremor, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, genetic disorders such as Krabbe's disease and Huntington's disease, as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and adrenoleukodystrophy.", "Lastly, cancers of the central nervous system can cause severe illness and, when malignant, can have very high mortality rates.", "Symptoms depend on the size, growth rate, location and malignancy of tumors and can include alterations in motor control, hearing loss, headaches and changes in cognitive ability and autonomic functioning.Specialty professional organizations recommend that neurological imaging of the brain be done only to answer a specific clinical question and not as routine screening." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases* Explaining the human nervous system.", "* The Department of Neuroscience at Wikiversity* Central nervous system histology" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cell cycle" ], [ "Introduction", "Life cycle of the cellOnion (''Allium'') cells in different phases of the cell cycle.", "Growth in an 'organism' is carefully controlled by regulating the cell cycle.Cell cycle in ''Deinococcus radiodurans''The '''cell cycle''', or '''cell-division cycle''', is the series of events that take place in a cell that causes it to divide into two daughter cells.", "These events include the duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) and some of its organelles, and subsequently the partitioning of its cytoplasm, chromosomes and other components into two daughter cells in a process called cell division.In eukaryotic cells (having a cell nucleus) including animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells, the cell cycle is divided into two main stages: interphase, and mitosis in the M phase that also includes cytokinesis.", "During interphase, the cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis, and replicates its DNA and some of its organelles.", "During the M phase, the replicated chromosomes, organelles, and cytoplasm separate into two new daughter cells.", "To ensure the proper replication of cellular components and division, there are control mechanisms known as cell cycle checkpoints after each of the key steps of the cycle that determine if the cell can progress to the next phase.In cells without nuclei the prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea, the cell cycle is divided into the B, C, and D periods.", "The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication.", "DNA replication occurs during the C period.", "The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter cells.In single-celled organisms, a single cell-division cycle is how the organism replicates itself.", "In multicellular organisms such as plants and animals, a series of cell-division cycles is how the organism develops from a single-celled fertilized egg into a mature organism, and is also the process by which hair, skin, blood cells, and some internal organs are regenerated and healed (with possible exception of nerves; see nerve damage).", "After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cell cycle.", "Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of the cell division." ], [ "Phases", "The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G1 phase, S phase (synthesis), G2 phase (collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis and cytokinesis).", "M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes: mitosis, in which the cell's nucleus divides, and cytokinesis, in which the cell's cytoplasm divides forming two daughter cells.", "Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one.", "Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence called G0 phase.Schematic of the cell cycle.", "Outer ring: I = Interphase, M = Mitosis; inner ring: M = Mitosis, G1 = Gap 1, G2 = Gap 2, S = Synthesis; not in ring: G0 = Gap 0/Resting State Phase Abbreviation Description Resting Gap 0 '''G0''' A phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing.", "Interphase Gap 1 '''G1''' Cell growth.", "The ''G1 checkpoint'' ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis.", "Synthesis '''S''' DNA replication.", "Gap 2 '''G2''' Growth and preparation for mitosis.", "The ''G2 checkpoint'' ensures that everything is ready to enter the M (mitosis) phase and divide.", "Cell division Mitosis '''M''' Cell division occurs.", "The ''Metaphase Checkpoint'' ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell division.After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle.", "Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell division.===G0 phase (quiescence)===Plant cell cycleAnimal cell cycleG0 is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing.", "The cell cycle starts with this phase.", "Non-proliferative (non-dividing) cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally enter the quiescent G0 state from G1 and may remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is often the case for neurons).", "This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated.", "Some cells enter the G0 phase semi-permanently and are considered post-mitotic, e.g., some liver, kidney, and stomach cells.", "Many cells do not enter G0 and continue to divide throughout an organism's life, e.g., epithelial cells.The word \"post-mitotic\" is sometimes used to refer to both quiescent and senescent cells.", "Cellular senescence occurs in response to DNA damage and external stress and usually constitutes an arrest in G1.Cellular senescence may make a cell's progeny nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self-destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis.===Interphase ===Interphase represent the phase between two successive M phases.", "Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus before it becomes capable of division again.", "It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis.", "Typically interphase lasts for at least 91% of the total time required for the cell cycle.Interphase proceeds in three stages, G1, S, and G2, followed by the cycle of mitosis and cytokinesis.", "The cell's nuclear DNA contents are duplicated during S phase.====G1 phase (First growth phase or Post mitotic gap phase)====Schematic karyogram of the human chromosomes, showing their usual state in the G0 and G1 phase of the cell cycle.", "At top center it also shows the chromosome 3 pair in metaphase (annotated as \"Meta.", "\"), which takes place after having undergone DNA synthesis which occurs in the S phase (annotated as S) of the cell cycle.The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis, is called G1 (G indicating ''gap'').", "It is also called the growth phase.", "During this phase, the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which are considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate.", "The duration of G1 is highly variable, even among different cells of the same species.", "In this phase, the cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of organelles (such as mitochondria, ribosomes), and grows in size.", "In G1 phase, a cell has three options.", "*To continue cell cycle and enter S phase*Stop cell cycle and enter G0 phase for undergoing differentiation.", "*Become arrested in G1 phase hence it may enter G0 phase or re-enter cell cycle.", "The deciding point is called check point (Restriction point).", "This check point is called the restriction point or START and is regulated by G1/S cyclins, which cause transition from G1 to S phase.", "Passage through the G1 check point commits the cell to division.====S phase (DNA replication)====The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences; when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids.", "Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has doubled, though the ploidy and number of chromosomes are unchanged.", "Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very low during this phase.", "An exception to this is histone production, most of which occurs during the S phase.====G2 phase (growth)====G2 phase occurs after DNA replication and is a period of protein synthesis and rapid cell growth to prepare the cell for mitosis.During this phase microtubules begin to reorganize to form a spindle (preprophase).", "Before proceeding to mitotic phase, cells must be checked at the G2 checkpoint for any DNA damage within the chromosomes.", "The G2 checkpoint is mainly regulated by the tumor protein p53.If the DNA is damaged, p53 will either repair the DNA or trigger the apoptosis of the cell.", "If p53 is dysfunctional or mutated, cells with damaged DNA may continue through the cell cycle, leading to the development of cancer.===Mitotic phase (chromosome separation)===The relatively brief ''M phase'' consists of nuclear division (karyokinesis).", "It is a relatively short period of the cell cycle.", "M phase is complex and highly regulated.", "The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next.", "These phases are sequentially known as:*prophase*prometaphase*metaphase*anaphase*telophaseA diagram of the mitotic phasesMitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei.", "During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to microtubules that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell.Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species.", "For example, animal cells undergo an \"open\" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as ''Aspergillus nidulans'' and ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' (yeast) undergo a \"closed\" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus.===Cytokinesis phase (separation of all cell components)===Mitosis is immediately followed by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components.", "Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell.", "This accounts for approximately 10% of the cell cycle.Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, \"mitosis\" is often used interchangeably with \"M phase\".", "However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei in a process called endoreplication.", "This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime molds, but is found in various groups.", "Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development.", "Errors in mitosis can result in cell death through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer." ], [ "{{anchor|Regulation_of_cell_cycle}}Regulation of eukaryotic cell cycle", "Levels of the three major cyclin types oscillate during the cell cycle (top), providing the basis for oscillations in the cyclin–Cdk complexes that drive cell-cycle events (bottom).", "In general, Cdk levels are constant and in large excess over cyclin levels; thus, cyclin–Cdk complexes form in parallel with cyclin levels.", "The enzymatic activities of cyclin–Cdk complexes also tend to rise and fall in parallel with cyclin levels, although in some cases Cdk inhibitor proteins or phosphorylation introduce a delay between the formation and activation of cyclin–Cdk complexes.", "Formation of active G1/S–Cdk complexes commits the cell to a new division cycle at the Start checkpoint in late G1.G1/S–Cdks then activate the S–Cdk complexes that initiate DNA replication at the beginning of S phase.", "M–Cdk activation occurs after the completion of S phase, resulting in progression through the G2/M checkpoint and assembly of the mitotic spindle.", "APC activation then triggers sister-chromatid separation at the metaphase-to-anaphase transition.", "APC activity also causes the destruction of S and M cyclins and thus the inactivation of Cdks, which promotes the completion of mitosis and cytokinesis.", "APC activity is maintained in G1 until G1/S–Cdk activity rises again and commits the cell to the next cycle.", "This scheme serves only as a general guide and does not apply to all cell types.Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell, including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division.", "The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional; that is, each process occurs in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to \"reverse\" the cycle.===Role of cyclins and CDKs===120pxNobel LaureatePaul Nurse132pxNobel LaureateTim HuntTwo key classes of regulatory molecules, cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), determine a cell's progress through the cell cycle.", "Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, and Paul M. Nurse won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of these central molecules.", "Many of the genes encoding cyclins and CDKs are conserved among all eukaryotes, but in general, more complex organisms have more elaborate cell cycle control systems that incorporate more individual components.", "Many of the relevant genes were first identified by studying yeast, especially ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''; genetic nomenclature in yeast dubs many of these genes ''cdc'' (for \"cell division cycle\") followed by an identifying number, e.g.", "''cdc25'' or ''cdc20''.Cyclins form the regulatory subunits and CDKs the catalytic subunits of an activated heterodimer; cyclins have no catalytic activity and CDKs are inactive in the absence of a partner cyclin.", "When activated by a bound cyclin, CDKs perform a common biochemical reaction called phosphorylation that activates or inactivates target proteins to orchestrate coordinated entry into the next phase of the cell cycle.", "Different cyclin-CDK combinations determine the downstream proteins targeted.", "CDKs are constitutively expressed in cells whereas cyclins are synthesised at specific stages of the cell cycle, in response to various molecular signals.====General mechanism of cyclin-CDK interaction====Upon receiving a pro-mitotic extracellular signal, G1 cyclin-CDK complexes become active to prepare the cell for S phase, promoting the expression of transcription factors that in turn promote the expression of S cyclins and of enzymes required for DNA replication.", "The G1 cyclin-CDK complexes also promote the degradation of molecules that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them for ubiquitination.", "Once a protein has been ubiquitinated, it is targeted for proteolytic degradation by the proteasome.", "However, results from a recent study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level argue that the role of G1 cyclin-CDK activities, in particular cyclin D-CDK4/6, is to tune the timing rather than the commitment of cell cycle entry.Active S cyclin-CDK complexes phosphorylate proteins that make up the pre-replication complexes assembled during G1 phase on DNA replication origins.", "The phosphorylation serves two purposes: to activate each already-assembled pre-replication complex, and to prevent new complexes from forming.", "This ensures that every portion of the cell's genome will be replicated once and only once.", "The reason for prevention of gaps in replication is fairly clear, because daughter cells that are missing all or part of crucial genes will die.", "However, for reasons related to gene copy number effects, possession of extra copies of certain genes is also deleterious to the daughter cells.Mitotic cyclin-CDK complexes, which are synthesized but inactivated during S and G2 phases, promote the initiation of mitosis by stimulating downstream proteins involved in chromosome condensation and mitotic spindle assembly.", "A critical complex activated during this process is a ubiquitin ligase known as the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), which promotes degradation of structural proteins associated with the chromosomal kinetochore.", "APC also targets the mitotic cyclins for degradation, ensuring that telophase and cytokinesis can proceed.====Specific action of cyclin-CDK complexes====Cyclin D is the first cyclin produced in the cells that enter the cell cycle, in response to extracellular signals (e.g.", "growth factors).", "Cyclin D levels stay low in resting cells that are not proliferating.", "Additionally, CDK4/6 and CDK2 are also inactive because CDK4/6 are bound by INK4 family members (e.g., p16), limiting kinase activity.", "Meanwhile, CDK2 complexes are inhibited by the CIP/KIP proteins such as p21 and p27, When it is time for a cell to enter the cell cycle, which is triggered by a mitogenic stimuli, levels of cyclin D increase.", "In response to this trigger, cyclin D binds to existing CDK4/6, forming the active cyclin D-CDK4/6 complex.", "Cyclin D-CDK4/6 complexes in turn mono-phosphorylates the retinoblastoma susceptibility protein (Rb) to pRb.", "The un-phosphorylated Rb tumour suppressor functions in inducing cell cycle exit and maintaining G0 arrest (senescence).In the last few decades, a model has been widely accepted whereby pRB proteins are inactivated by cyclin D-Cdk4/6-mediated phosphorylation.", "Rb has 14+ potential phosphorylation sites.", "Cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 progressively phosphorylates Rb to hyperphosphorylated state, which triggers dissociation of pRB–E2F complexes, thereby inducing G1/S cell cycle gene expression and progression into S phase.However, scientific observations from a recent study show that Rb is present in three types of isoforms: (1) un-phosphorylated Rb in G0 state; (2) mono-phosphorylated Rb, also referred to as \"hypo-phosphorylated' or 'partially' phosphorylated Rb in early G1 state; and (3) inactive hyper-phosphorylated Rb in late G1 state.", "In early G1 cells, mono-phosphorylated Rb exits as 14 different isoforms, one of each has distinct E2F binding affinity.", "Rb has been found to associate with hundreds of different proteins and the idea that different mono-phosphorylated Rb isoforms have different protein partners was very appealing.", "A recent report confirmed that mono-phosphorylation controls Rb's association with other proteins and generates functional distinct forms of Rb.", "All different mono-phosphorylated Rb isoforms inhibit E2F transcriptional program and are able to arrest cells in G1-phase.", "Importantly, different mono-phosphorylated forms of Rb have distinct transcriptional outputs that are extended beyond E2F regulation.In general, the binding of pRb to E2F inhibits the E2F target gene expression of certain G1/S and S transition genes including E-type cyclins.", "The partial phosphorylation of Rb de-represses the Rb-mediated suppression of E2F target gene expression, begins the expression of cyclin E. The molecular mechanism that causes the cell switched to cyclin E activation is currently not known, but as cyclin E levels rise, the active cyclin E-CDK2 complex is formed, bringing Rb to be inactivated by hyper-phosphorylation.", "Hyperphosphorylated Rb is completely dissociated from E2F, enabling further expression of a wide range of E2F target genes are required for driving cells to proceed into S phase 1.Recently, it has been identified that cyclin D-Cdk4/6 binds to a C-terminal alpha-helix region of Rb that is only distinguishable to cyclin D rather than other cyclins, cyclin E, A and B.", "This observation based on the structural analysis of Rb phosphorylation supports that Rb is phosphorylated in a different level through multiple Cyclin-Cdk complexes.", "This also makes feasible the current model of a simultaneous switch-like inactivation of all mono-phosphorylated Rb isoforms through one type of Rb hyper-phosphorylation mechanism.", "In addition, mutational analysis of the cyclin D- Cdk 4/6 specific Rb C-terminal helix shows that disruptions of cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 binding to Rb prevents Rb phosphorylation, arrests cells in G1, and bolsters Rb's functions in tumor suppressor.", "This cyclin-Cdk driven cell cycle transitional mechanism governs a cell committed to the cell cycle that allows cell proliferation.", "A cancerous cell growth often accompanies with deregulation of Cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 activity.The hyperphosphorylated Rb dissociates from the E2F/DP1/Rb complex (which was bound to the E2F responsive genes, effectively \"blocking\" them from transcription), activating E2F.", "Activation of E2F results in transcription of various genes like cyclin E, cyclin A, DNA polymerase, thymidine kinase, etc.", "Cyclin E thus produced binds to CDK2, forming the cyclin E-CDK2 complex, which pushes the cell from G1 to S phase (G1/S, which initiates the G2/M transition).", "Cyclin B-cdk1 complex activation causes breakdown of nuclear envelope and initiation of prophase, and subsequently, its deactivation causes the cell to exit mitosis.", "A quantitative study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level by using engineered fluorescent reporter cells provided a quantitative framework for understanding the control logic of cell cycle entry, challenging the canonical textbook model.", "Genes that regulate the amplitude of E2F accumulation, such as Myc, determine the commitment in cell cycle and S phase entry.", "G1 cyclin-CDK activities are not the driver of cell cycle entry.", "Instead, they primarily tune the timing of E2F increase, thereby modulating the pace of cell cycle progression.=== Inhibitors ======= Endogenous ====Overview of signal transduction pathways involved in apoptosis, also known as \"programmed cell death\"Two families of genes, the ''cip/kip'' (''CDK interacting protein/Kinase inhibitory protein'') family and the INK4a/ARF (''In''hibitor of ''K''inase 4/''A''lternative ''R''eading ''F''rame) family, prevent the progression of the cell cycle.", "Because these genes are instrumental in prevention of tumor formation, they are known as tumor suppressors.The '''''cip/kip'' family''' includes the genes p21, p27 and p57.They halt the cell cycle in G1 phase by binding to and inactivating cyclin-CDK complexes.", "p21 is activated by p53 (which, in turn, is triggered by DNA damage e.g.", "due to radiation).", "p27 is activated by Transforming Growth Factor β (TGF β), a growth inhibitor.The '''INK4a/ARF family''' includes p16INK4a, which binds to CDK4 and arrests the cell cycle in G1 phase, and p14ARF which prevents p53 degradation.==== Synthetic ====Synthetic inhibitors of Cdc25 could also be useful for the arrest of cell cycle and therefore be useful as antineoplastic and anticancer agents.Many human cancers possess the hyper-activated Cdk 4/6 activities.", "Given the observations of cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 functions, inhibition of Cdk 4/6 should result in preventing a malignant tumor from proliferating.", "Consequently, scientists have tried to invent the synthetic Cdk4/6 inhibitor as Cdk4/6 has been characterized to be a therapeutic target for anti-tumor effectiveness.", "Three Cdk4/6 inhibitors – palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib – currently received FDA approval for clinical use to treat advanced-stage or metastatic, hormone-receptor-positive (HR-positive, HR+), HER2-negative (HER2-) breast cancer.", "For example, palbociclib is an orally active CDK4/6 inhibitor which has demonstrated improved outcomes for ER-positive/HER2-negative advanced breast cancer.", "The main side effect is neutropenia which can be managed by dose reduction.Cdk4/6 targeted therapy will only treat cancer types where Rb is expressed.", "Cancer cells with loss of Rb have primary resistance to Cdk4/6 inhibitors.===Transcriptional regulatory network===Current evidence suggests that a semi-autonomous transcriptional network acts in concert with the CDK-cyclin machinery to regulate the cell cycle.", "Several gene expression studies in ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' have identified 800–1200 genes that change expression over the course of the cell cycle.", "They are transcribed at high levels at specific points in the cell cycle, and remain at lower levels throughout the rest of the cycle.", "While the set of identified genes differs between studies due to the computational methods and criteria used to identify them, each study indicates that a large portion of yeast genes are temporally regulated.Many periodically expressed genes are driven by transcription factors that are also periodically expressed.", "One screen of single-gene knockouts identified 48 transcription factors (about 20% of all non-essential transcription factors) that show cell cycle progression defects.", "Genome-wide studies using high throughput technologies have identified the transcription factors that bind to the promoters of yeast genes, and correlating these findings with temporal expression patterns have allowed the identification of transcription factors that drive phase-specific gene expression.", "The expression profiles of these transcription factors are driven by the transcription factors that peak in the prior phase, and computational models have shown that a CDK-autonomous network of these transcription factors is sufficient to produce steady-state oscillations in gene expression).Experimental evidence also suggests that gene expression can oscillate with the period seen in dividing wild-type cells independently of the CDK machinery.", "Orlando ''et al.''", "used microarrays to measure the expression of a set of 1,271 genes that they identified as periodic in both wild type cells and cells lacking all S-phase and mitotic cyclins (''clb1,2,3,4,5,6'').", "Of the 1,271 genes assayed, 882 continued to be expressed in the cyclin-deficient cells at the same time as in the wild type cells, despite the fact that the cyclin-deficient cells arrest at the border between G1 and S phase.", "However, 833 of the genes assayed changed behavior between the wild type and mutant cells, indicating that these genes are likely directly or indirectly regulated by the CDK-cyclin machinery.", "Some genes that continued to be expressed on time in the mutant cells were also expressed at different levels in the mutant and wild type cells.", "These findings suggest that while the transcriptional network may oscillate independently of the CDK-cyclin oscillator, they are coupled in a manner that requires both to ensure the proper timing of cell cycle events.", "Other work indicates that phosphorylation, a post-translational modification, of cell cycle transcription factors by Cdk1 may alter the localization or activity of the transcription factors in order to tightly control timing of target genes.While oscillatory transcription plays a key role in the progression of the yeast cell cycle, the CDK-cyclin machinery operates independently in the early embryonic cell cycle.", "Before the midblastula transition, zygotic transcription does not occur and all needed proteins, such as the B-type cyclins, are translated from maternally loaded mRNA.===DNA replication and DNA replication origin activity===Analyses of synchronized cultures of ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' under conditions that prevent DNA replication initiation without delaying cell cycle progression showed that origin licensing decreases the expression of genes with origins near their 3' ends, revealing that downstream origins can regulate the expression of upstream genes.", "This confirms previous predictions from mathematical modeling of a global causal coordination between DNA replication origin activity and mRNA expression, and shows that mathematical modeling of DNA microarray data can be used to correctly predict previously unknown biological modes of regulation." ], [ "Checkpoints", "Cell cycle checkpoints are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle.", "Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage.", "The cell cannot proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met.", "Checkpoints typically consist of a network of regulatory proteins that monitor and dictate the progression of the cell through the different stages of the cell cycle.It is estimated that in normal human cells about 1% of single-strand DNA damages are converted to about 50 endogenous DNA double-strand breaks per cell per cell cycle.", "Although such double-strand breaks are usually repaired with high fidelity, errors in their repair are considered to contribute significantly to the rate of cancer in humans.There are several checkpoints to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells.", "Three main checkpoints exist: the G1/S checkpoint, the G2/M checkpoint and the metaphase (mitotic) checkpoint.", "Another checkpoint is the Go checkpoint, in which the cells are checked for maturity.", "If the cells fail to pass this checkpoint by not being ready yet, they will be discarded from dividing.G1/S transition is a rate-limiting step in the cell cycle and is also known as restriction point.", "This is where the cell checks whether it has enough raw materials to fully replicate its DNA (nucleotide bases, DNA synthase, chromatin, etc.).", "An unhealthy or malnourished cell will get stuck at this checkpoint.The G2/M checkpoint is where the cell ensures that it has enough cytoplasm and phospholipids for two daughter cells.", "But sometimes more importantly, it checks to see if it is the right time to replicate.", "There are some situations where many cells need to all replicate simultaneously (for example, a growing embryo should have a symmetric cell distribution until it reaches the mid-blastula transition).", "This is done by controlling the G2/M checkpoint.The metaphase checkpoint is a fairly minor checkpoint, in that once a cell is in metaphase, it has committed to undergoing mitosis.", "However that's not to say it isn't important.", "In this checkpoint, the cell checks to ensure that the spindle has formed and that all of the chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator before anaphase begins.While these are the three \"main\" checkpoints, not all cells have to pass through each of these checkpoints in this order to replicate.", "Many types of cancer are caused by mutations that allow the cells to speed through the various checkpoints or even skip them altogether.", "Going from S to M to S phase almost consecutively.", "Because these cells have lost their checkpoints, any DNA mutations that may have occurred are disregarded and passed on to the daughter cells.", "This is one reason why cancer cells have a tendency to exponentially acquire mutations.", "Aside from cancer cells, many fully differentiated cell types no longer replicate so they leave the cell cycle and stay in G0 until their death.", "Thus removing the need for cellular checkpoints.", "An alternative model of the cell cycle response to DNA damage has also been proposed, known as the postreplication checkpoint.Checkpoint regulation plays an important role in an organism's development.", "In sexual reproduction, when egg fertilization occurs, when the sperm binds to the egg, it releases signalling factors that notify the egg that it has been fertilized.", "Among other things, this induces the now fertilized oocyte to return from its previously dormant, G0, state back into the cell cycle and on to mitotic replication and division.p53 plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G1/S and G2/M checkpoints.", "In addition to p53, checkpoint regulators are being heavily researched for their roles in cancer growth and proliferation." ], [ "Fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle", "Fluorescent proteins visualize the cell cycle progression.", "IFP2.0-hGem(1/110) fluorescence is shown in green and highlights the S/G2/M phases.", "smURFP-hCdtI(30/120) fluorescence is shown in red and highlights the G0/G1 phases.Pioneering work by Atsushi Miyawaki and coworkers developed the fluorescent ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicator ( FUCCI), which enables fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle.", "Originally, a green fluorescent protein, mAG, was fused to hGem(1/110) and an orange fluorescent protein (mKO2) was fused to hCdt1(30/120).", "Note, these fusions are fragments that contain a nuclear localization signal and ubiquitination sites for degradation, but are not functional proteins.", "The green fluorescent protein is made during the S, G2, or M phase and degraded during the G0 or G1 phase, while the orange fluorescent protein is made during the G0 or G1 phase and destroyed during the S, G2, or M phase.", "A far-red and near-infrared FUCCI was developed using a cyanobacteria-derived fluorescent protein (smURFP) and a bacteriophytochrome-derived fluorescent protein ( movie found at this link)." ], [ "Role in tumor formation", "A disregulation of the cell cycle components may lead to tumor formation.", "As mentioned above, when some genes like the cell cycle inhibitors, RB, p53 etc.", "mutate, they may cause the cell to multiply uncontrollably, forming a tumor.", "Although the duration of cell cycle in tumor cells is equal to or longer than that of normal cell cycle, the proportion of cells that are in active cell division (versus quiescent cells in G0 phase) in tumors is much higher than that in normal tissue.", "Thus there is a net increase in cell number as the number of cells that die by apoptosis or senescence remains the same.The cells which are actively undergoing cell cycle are targeted in cancer therapy as the DNA is relatively exposed during cell division and hence susceptible to damage by drugs or radiation.", "This fact is made use of in cancer treatment; by a process known as debulking, a significant mass of the tumor is removed which pushes a significant number of the remaining tumor cells from G0 to G1 phase (due to increased availability of nutrients, oxygen, growth factors etc.).", "Radiation or chemotherapy following the debulking procedure kills these cells which have newly entered the cell cycle.The fastest cycling mammalian cells in culture, crypt cells in the intestinal epithelium, have a cycle time as short as 9 to 10 hours.", "Stem cells in resting mouse skin may have a cycle time of more than 200 hours.", "Most of this difference is due to the varying length of G1, the most variable phase of the cycle.", "M and S do not vary much.In general, cells are most radiosensitive in late M and G2 phases and most resistant in late S phase.", "For cells with a longer cell cycle time and a significantly long G1 phase, there is a second peak of resistance late in G1.The pattern of resistance and sensitivity correlates with the level of sulfhydryl compounds in the cell.", "Sulfhydryls are natural substances that protect cells from radiation damage and tend to be at their highest levels in S and at their lowest near mitosis.Homologous recombination (HR) is an accurate process for repairing DNA double-strand breaks.", "HR is nearly absent in G1 phase, is most active in S phase, and declines in G2/M.", "Non-homologous end joining, a less accurate and more mutagenic process for repairing double strand breaks, is active throughout the cell cycle." ], [ "Cell cycle evolution", "===Evolution of the genome===The cell cycle must duplicate all cellular constituents and equally partition them into two daughter cells.", "Many constituents, such as proteins and ribosomes, are produced continuously throughout the cell cycle (except during M-phase).", "However, the chromosomes and other associated elements like MTOCs, are duplicated just once during the cell cycle.", "A central component of the cell cycle is its ability to coordinate the continuous and periodic duplications of different cellular elements, which evolved with the formation of the genome.The pre-cellular environment contained functional and self-replicating RNAs.", "All RNA concentrations depended on the concentrations of other RNAs that might be helping or hindering the gathering of resources.", "In this environment, growth was simply the continuous production of RNAs.", "These pre-cellular structures would have had to contend with parasitic RNAs, issues of inheritance, and copy-number control of specific RNAs.", "Partitioning “genomic” RNA from “functional” RNA helped solve these problems.", "The fusion of multiple RNAs into a genome gave a template from which functional RNAs were cleaved.", "Now, parasitic RNAs would have to incorporate themselves into the genome, a much greater barrier, in order to survive.", "Controlling the copy number of genomic RNA also allowed RNA concentration to be determined through synthesis rates and RNA half-lives, instead of competition.", "Separating the duplication of genomic RNAs from the generation of functional RNAs allowed for much greater duplication fidelity of genomic RNAs without compromising the production of functional RNAs.", "Finally, the replacement of genomic RNA with DNA, which is a more stable molecule, allowed for larger genomes.", "The transition from self-catalysis enzyme synthesis to genome-directed enzyme synthesis was a critical step in cell evolution, and had lasting implications on the cell cycle, which must regulate functional synthesis and genomic duplication in very different ways.===Cyclin-dependent kinase and cyclin evolution===Cell-cycle progression is controlled by the oscillating concentrations of different cyclins and the resulting molecular interactions from the various cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs).", "In yeast, just one CDK (Cdc28 in ''S.", "cerevisiae'' and Cdc2 in ''S.", "pombe'') controls the cell cycle.", "However, in animals, whole families of CDKs have evolved.", "Cdk1 controls entry to mitosis and Cdk2, Cdk4, and Cdk6 regulate entry into S phase.", "Despite the evolution of the CDK family in animals, these proteins have related or redundant functions.", "For example, ''cdk2 cdk4 cdk6'' triple knockout mice cells can still progress through the basic cell cycle.", "''cdk1'' knockouts are lethal, which suggests an ancestral CDK1-type kinase ultimately controlling the cell cycle.", "''Arabidopsis thaliana'' has a Cdk1 homolog called CDKA;1, however ''cdka;1'' ''A.", "thaliana'' mutants are still viable, running counter to the opisthokont pattern of CDK1-type kinases as essential regulators controlling the cell cycle.", "Plants also have a unique group of B-type CDKs, whose functions may range from development-specific functions to major players in mitotic regulation.===G1/S checkpoint evolution===Overviews of the G1/S transition control networks in plants, animals, and yeast.", "All three show striking network topology similarities, even though individual proteins in the network have very little sequence similarity.The G1/S checkpoint is the point at which the cell commits to division through the cell cycle.", "Complex regulatory networks lead to the G1/S transition decision.", "Across opisthokonts, there are both highly diverged protein sequences as well as strikingly similar network topologies.", "Entry into S-phase in both yeast and animals is controlled by the levels of two opposing regulators.", "The networks regulating these transcription factors are double-negative feedback loops and positive feedback loops in both yeast and animals.", "Additional regulation of the regulatory network for the G1/S checkpoint in yeast and animals includes the phosphorylation/de-phosphorylation of CDK-cyclin complexes.", "The sum of these regulatory networks creates a hysteretic and bistable scheme, despite the specific proteins being highly diverged.", "For yeast, Whi5 must be suppressed by Cln3 phosphorylation for SBF to be expressed, while in animals Rb must be suppressed by the Cdk4/6-cyclin D complex for E2F to be expressed.", "Both Rb and Whi5 inhibit transcript through the recruitment of histone deacetylase proteins to promoters.", "Both proteins additionally have multiple CDK phosphorylation sites through which they are inhibited.", "However, these proteins share no sequence similarity.", "Studies in ''A.", "thaliana'' extend our knowledge of the G1/S transition across eukaryotes as a whole.", "Plants also share a number of conserved network features with opisthokonts, and many plant regulators have direct animal homologs.", "For example, plants also need to suppress Rb for E2F translation in the network.", "These conserved elements of the plant and animal cell cycles may be ancestral in eukaryotes.", "While yeast share a conserved network topology with plants and animals, the highly diverged nature of yeast regulators suggests possible rapid evolution along the yeast lineage." ], [ "See also", "* Cellular model* Eukaryotic DNA replication* Mitotic catastrophe* Origin recognition complex* Retinoblastoma protein* Synchronous culture – synchronization of cell cultures* Wee1" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * David Morgan's Seminar: Controlling the Cell Cycle* The cell cycle & Cell death * Transcriptional program of the cell cycle: high-resolution timing* Cell cycle and metabolic cycle regulated transcription in yeast* Cell Cycle Animation 1Lec.com* Cell Cycle* Fucci:Using GFP to visualize the cell-cycle* Science Creative Quarterly's overview of the cell cycle* KEGG – Human Cell Cycle" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cartesian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cartesian''' means of or relating to the French philosopher René Descartes—from his Latinized name ''Cartesius''.", "It may refer to:" ], [ "Mathematics", "*Cartesian closed category, a closed category in category theory*Cartesian coordinate system, modern rectangular coordinate system*Cartesian diagram, a construction in category theory*Cartesian geometry, now more commonly called analytic geometry*Cartesian morphism, formalisation of ''pull-back'' operation in category theory*Cartesian oval, a curve*Cartesian product, a direct product of two sets*Cartesian product of graphs, a binary operation on graphs*Cartesian tree, a binary tree in computer science" ], [ "Philosophy", "*Cartesian anxiety, a hope that studying the world will give us unchangeable knowledge of ourselves and the world*Cartesian circle, a potential mistake in reasoning*Cartesian doubt, a form of methodical skepticism as a basis for philosophical rigor*Cartesian dualism, the philosophy of the distinction between mind and body**Cartesianism, the philosophy of René Descartes**Cartesianists, followers of Cartesianism*''Cartesian Meditations'', a work by Edmund Husserl*''Cartesian linguistics'', a work by Noam Chomsky*Cartesian theatre, a derisive view of Cartesian dualism coined by Daniel Dennett" ], [ "Science", "*Cartesian diver, a science experiment demonstrating buoyancy and the ideal gas law*Cartesian physics, attempts to explain gravity without a need for action at distance" ], [ "See also", "* * Cart (disambiguation)* Carte (disambiguation)* Cartes (disambiguation)* Descartes (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Connection (dance)" ], [ "Introduction", "In partner dancing, '''connection''' is physical, non-verbal communication between dancers to facilitate synchronized or coordinated dance movements.", "Some forms of connection involve \"lead/follow\" in which one dancer (the \"lead\") directs the movements of the other dancer (the \"follower\") by means of non-verbal directions conveyed through a physical connection between the dancers.", "In other forms, connection involves multiple dancers (more than two) without a distinct leader or follower (e.g.", "contact improvisation).", "Connection refers to a host of different techniques in many types of partner dancing, especially (but not exclusively) those that feature significant physical contact between the dancers, including the Argentine Tango, Lindy Hop, Balboa, East Coast Swing, West Coast Swing, Salsa, and other ballroom dances.Other forms of communication, such as visual cues or spoken cues, sometimes aid in connecting with one's partner, but are often used in specific circumstances (e.g., practicing figures, or figures which are purposely danced without physical connection).", "Connection can be used to transmit power and energy as well as information and signals; some dance forms (and some dancers) primarily emphasize power or signaling, but most are probably a mixture of both.", "Philosopher of dance Ilya Vidrin argues that connection between partners involves norm-based communication that include “a physical exchange of information on the basis of ethically-bound conditions” (proximity, orientation, and points of contact) which constrain agency and predictability." ], [ "Lead/Follow", "Following and leading in a partner dance is accomplished by maintaining a physical connection called the frame that allows the leader to transmit body movement to the follower, and for the follower to suggest ideas to the leader.", "A frame is a stable structural combination of both bodies maintained through the dancers' arms and/or legs.Connection occurs in both open and closed dance positions (also called \"open frame\" and \"closed frame\").In closed position with body contact, connection is achieved by maintaining the frame.", "The follower moves to match the leader, maintaining the pressure between the two bodies as well as the position.When creating frame, tension is the primary means of establishing communication.", "Changes in tension are made to create rhythmic variations in moves and movements, and are communicated through points of contact.", "In an open position or a closed position without body contact, the hands and arms alone provide the connection, which may be one of three forms: tension, compression or neutral.", "* During ''tension'' or ''leverage connection'', the dancers are pulling away from each other with an equal and opposite force.", "The arms do not originate this force alone: they are often assisted by tension in trunk musculature, through body weight or by momentum.", "* During ''compression connection'', the dancers are pushing towards each other.", "* In a neutral position, the hands do not impart any force other than the touch of the follower's hands in the leader's.In swing dances, tension and compression may be maintained for a significant period of time.", "In other dances, such as Latin, tension and compression may be used as indications of upcoming movement.", "However, in both styles, tension and compression do not signal immediate movement: the follow must be careful not to move prior to actual movement by the lead.", "Until then, the dancers must match pressures without moving their hands.", "In some styles of Lindy Hop, the tension may become quite high without initiating movement.The general rule for open connections is that moves of the leader's hands back, forth, left or right are originated through moves of the entire body.", "Accordingly, for the follower, a move of the connected hand is immediately transformed into the corresponding move of the body.", "Tensing the muscles and locking the arm achieves this effect but is neither comfortable nor correct.", "Such tension eliminates the subtler communication in the connection, and eliminates free movement up and down, such as is required to initiate many turns.Instead of just tensing the arms, connection is achieved by engaging the shoulder, upper body and torso muscles.", "Movement originates in the body's core.", "A leader leads by moving himself and maintaining frame and connection.", "Different forms of dance and different movements within each dance may call for differences in the connection.", "In some dances the separation distance between the partners remains pretty constant.", "In others e.g.", "Modern Jive moving closer together and further apart are fundamental to the dance, requiring flexion and extension of the arms, alternating compression and tension.The connection between two partners has a different feel in every dance and with every partner.", "Good social dancers adapt to the conventions of the dance and the responses of their partners." ], [ "See also", "*Frame*Dance move*Lead and follow*Musicality" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Caste" ], [ "Introduction", "The ''Basor'' weaving bamboo baskets in a 1916 book.", "The ''Basor'' are a Scheduled Caste found in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India.A '''caste''' is a fixed social group into which an individual is born within a particular system of social stratification: a '''caste system'''.", "Within such a system, individuals are expected to: marry exclusively within the same caste (endogamy), follow lifestyles often linked to a particular occupation, hold a ritual status observed within a hierarchy, and interact with others based on cultural notions of exclusion, with certain castes considered as either more pure or more polluted than others.", "Its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of India's Hindu society into rigid social groups.", "Its roots lie in South Asia's ancient history and it still exists.", "However, the economic significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanisation and affirmative action programs.", "A subject of much scholarship by sociologists and anthropologists, the Hindu caste system is sometimes used as an analogical basis for the study of caste-like social divisions existing outside Hinduism and India.", "The term \"caste\" is also applied to morphological groupings in eusocial insects such as ants, bees, and termites." ], [ "Etymology", "The English word ''caste'' () derives from the Spanish and Portuguese , which, according to the John Minsheu's Spanish dictionary (1569), means \"race, lineage, tribe or breed\".", "When the Spanish colonised the New World, they used the word to mean a 'clan or lineage'.", "It was, however, the Portuguese who first employed in the primary modern sense of the English word 'caste' when they applied it to the thousands of endogamous, hereditary Indian social groups they encountered upon their arrival in India in 1498.The use of the spelling ''caste'', with this latter meaning, is first attested in English in 1613.In the Latin American context, the term ''caste'' is sometimes used to describe the ''casta'' system of racial classification, based on whether a person was of pure European, Indigenous or African descent, or some mix thereof, with the different groups being placed in a racial hierarchy; however, despite the etymological connection between the Latin American ''casta'' system and South Asian caste systems (the former giving its name to the latter), it is controversial to what extent the two phenomena are really comparable." ], [ "In South Asia", "=== India ===Modern India's caste system is based on the artificial modern superimposition of an old four-fold theoretical classification called the Varna on the social groupings called the Jāti.", "Varna conceptualised a society as consisting of four types of varnas, or categories: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, according to the nature of the work of its members.", "Varna was not an inherited category and the occupation determined the varna.", "However, a person's Jati is determined at birth and makes them take up that Jati's occupation; members could and did change their occupation based on personal strengths as well as economic, social and political factors.", "A 2016 study based on the DNA analysis of unrelated Indians determined that endogamous Jatis originated during the Gupta Empire.From 1901 onwards, for the purposes of the Decennial Census, the British colonial authorities arbitrarily and incorrectly forced all Jātis into the four ''Varna'' categories as described in ancient texts.", "Herbert Hope Risley, the Census Commissioner, noted that \"The principle suggested as a basis was that of classification by social precedence as recognized by native public opinion at the present day, and manifesting itself in the facts that particular castes are supposed to be the modern representatives of one or other of the castes of the theoretical Indian system.", "\"''Varna'', as mentioned in ancient Hindu texts, describes society as divided into four categories: Brahmins (scholars and yajna priests), Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors), Vaishyas (farmers, merchants and artisans) and Shudras (workmen/service providers).", "The texts do not mention any hierarchy or a separate, untouchable category in ''Varna'' classifications.", "Scholars believe that the ''Varnas'' system was never truly operational in society and there is no evidence of it ever being a reality in Indian history.", "The practical division of the society had always been in terms of ''Jatis'' (birth groups), which are not based on any specific religious principle but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations to geographic areas.", "The ''Jātis'' have been endogamous social groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle and social, political, or economic status.", "Many of India's major empires and dynasties like the Mauryas, Shalivahanas, Chalukyas, Kakatiyas among many others, were founded by people who would have been classified as Shudras, under the ''Varnas'' system, as interpreted by the British rulers.", "It is well established that by the 9th century, kings from all the four Varnas, including Brahmins and Vaishyas, had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India, contrary to the Varna theory.", "In many instances, as in Bengal, historically the kings and rulers had been called upon, when required, to mediate on the ranks of ''Jātis'', which might number in thousands all over the subcontinent and vary by region.", "In practice, the ''jātis'' may or may not fit into the ''Varna'' classes and many prominent ''Jatis'', for example the Jats and Yadavs, straddled two Varnas i.e.", "Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, and the ''Varna'' status of ''Jātis'' itself was subject to articulation over time.Starting with the 1901 Census of India led by colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley, all the ''jātis'' were grouped under the theoretical ''varnas'' categories.", "According to political scientist Lloyd Rudolph, Risley believed that ''varna'', however ancient, could be applied to all the modern castes found in India, and \"he meant to identify and place several hundred million Indians within it.\"", "The terms ''varna'' (conceptual classification based on occupation) and ''jāti'' (groups) are two distinct concepts: while ''varna'' is a theoretical four-part division, ''jāti'' (community) refers to the thousands of actual endogamous social groups prevalent across the subcontinent.", "The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the ''varnas'', as it provided a convenient shorthand; but a problem arises when colonial Indologists sometimes confuse the two.Madura, India in 1837, which confirms the popular perception and nature of caste as Jati, before the British colonial authorities made it applicable only to Hindus grouped under the ''varna'' categories from the 1901 census onwardsUpon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 Jatis across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination.", "This constitution would also ban discrimination of the basis of the caste, though its practice in India remained intact.", "The Untouchable communities are sometimes called ''Scheduled Castes'', ''Dalit'' or ''Harijan'' in contemporary literature.", "In 2001, Dalits were 16.2% of India's population.", "Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes.", "Independent India has witnessed caste-related violence.", "In 2005, government recorded approximately 110,000 cases of reported violent acts, including rape and murder, against Dalits.", "For 2012, the government recorded 651 murders, 3,855 injuries, 1,576 rapes, 490 kidnappings, and 214 cases of arson.The socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanisation and affirmative action.", "Nevertheless, the caste system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and thrives in the politics of democracy, where caste provides ready made constituencies to politicians.", "The globalisation and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of India's middle-class population.", "Some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community (CPCC) are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members.", "There is persistence of caste in Indian politics.", "Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties.", "Political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilisation of people and policy development.Studies by Bhatt and Beteille have shown changes in status, openness, mobility in the social aspects of Indian society.", "As a result of modern socio-economic changes in the country, India is experiencing significant changes in the dynamics and the economics of its social sphere.", "While arranged marriages are still the most common practice in India, the internet has provided a network for younger Indians to take control of their relationships through the use of dating apps.", "This remains isolated to informal terms, as marriage is not often achieved through the use of these apps.", "Hypergamy is still a common practice in India and Hindu culture.", "Men are expected to marry within their caste, or one below, with no social repercussions.", "If a woman marries into a higher caste, then her children will take the status of their father.", "If she marries down, her family is reduced to the social status of their son in law.", "In this case, the women are bearers of the egalitarian principle of the marriage.", "There would be no benefit in marrying a higher caste if the terms of the marriage did not imply equality.", "However, men are systematically shielded from the negative implications of the agreement.Geographical factors also determine adherence to the caste system.", "Many Northern villages are more likely to participate in exogamous marriage, due to a lack of eligible suitors within the same caste.", "Women in North India have been found to be less likely to leave or divorce their husbands since they are of a relatively lower caste system, and have higher restrictions on their freedoms.", "On the other hand, Pahari women, of the northern mountains, have much more freedom to leave their husbands without stigma.", "This often leads to better husbandry as his actions are not protected by social expectations.Chiefly among the factors influencing the rise of exogamy is the rapid urbanisation in India experienced over the last century.", "It is well known that urban centers tend to be less reliant on agriculture and are more progressive as a whole.", "As India's cities boomed in population, the job market grew to keep pace.", "Prosperity and stability were now more easily attained by an individual, and the anxiety to marry quickly and effectively was reduced.", "Thus, younger, more progressive generations of urban Indians are less likely than ever to participate in the antiquated system of arranged endogamy.India has also implemented a form of Affirmative Action, locally known as \"reservation groups\".", "Quota system jobs, as well as placements in publicly funded colleges, hold spots for the 8% of India's minority, and underprivileged groups.", "As a result, in states such as Tamil Nadu or those in the north-east, where underprivileged populations predominate, over 80% of government jobs are set aside in quotas.", "In education, colleges lower the marks necessary for the Dalits to enter.===Nepal===The Nepali caste system resembles in some respects the Indian ''jāti'' system, with numerous ''jāti'' divisions with a ''varna'' system superimposed.", "Inscriptions attest the beginnings of a caste system during the Licchavi period.", "Jayasthiti Malla (1382–1395) categorised Newars into 64 castes (Gellner 2001).", "A similar exercise was made during the reign of Mahindra Malla (1506–1575).", "The Hindu social code was later set up in the Gorkha Kingdom by Ram Shah (1603–1636).===Pakistan===McKim Marriott claims a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan.", "Frederik Barth in his review of this system of social stratification in Pakistan suggested that these are castes.===Sri Lanka===The caste system in Sri Lanka is a division of society into strata, influenced by the textbook ''jāti'' system found in India.", "Ancient Sri Lankan texts such as the Pujavaliya, Sadharmaratnavaliya and Yogaratnakaraya and inscriptional evidence show that the above hierarchy prevailed throughout the feudal period.", "The repetition of the same caste hierarchy even as recently as the 18th century, in the Kandyan-period Kadayimpoth – Boundary books as well indicates the continuation of the tradition right up to the end of Sri Lanka's monarchy." ], [ "Outside South Asia", "===Southeast Asia===A Sudra caste man from Bali.", "Photo from 1870, courtesy of Tropenmuseum, Netherlands.====Indonesia====Balinese caste structure has been described as being based either on three categories—the noble triwangsa (thrice born), the middle class of ''dwijāti'' (twice born), and the lower class of ''ekajāti'' (once born), much similar to the traditional Indian BKVS social stratification — or on four castes*Brahminas – priest*Satrias – knighthood*Wesias – commerce*Sudras – servitudeThe Brahmana caste was further subdivided by Dutch ethnographers into two: Siwa and Buda.", "The Siwa caste was subdivided into five: Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan.", "This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher-caste Brahmana men with lower-caste women.", "The other castes were similarly further sub-classified by 19th-century and early-20th-century ethnographers based on numerous criteria ranging from profession, endogamy or exogamy or polygamy, and a host of other factors in a manner similar to ''castas'' in Spanish colonies such as Mexico, and caste system studies in British colonies such as India.====Philippines====Tagalog royal couple (''maginoo''), from the Boxer Codex ()In the Philippines, pre-colonial societies do not have a single social structure.", "The class structures can be roughly categorised into four types:* Classless societies – egalitarian societies with no class structure.", "Examples include the Mangyan and the Kalanguya peoples.", "* Warrior societies – societies where a distinct warrior class exists, and whose membership depends on martial prowess.", "Examples include the Mandaya, Bagobo, Tagakaulo, and B'laan peoples who had warriors called the ''bagani'' or ''magani''.", "Similarly, in the Cordillera highlands of Luzon, the Isneg and Kalinga peoples refer to their warriors as ''mengal'' or ''maingal''.", "This society is typical for head-hunting ethnic groups or ethnic groups which had seasonal raids (''mangayaw'') into enemy territory.", "* Petty plutocracies – societies which have a wealthy class based on property and the hosting of periodic prestige feasts.", "In some groups, it was an actual caste whose members had specialised leadership roles, married only within the same caste, and wore specialised clothing.", "These include the ''kadangyan'' of the Ifugao, Bontoc, and Kankanaey peoples, as well as the ''baknang'' of the Ibaloi people.", "In others, though wealth may give one prestige and leadership qualifications, it was not a caste per se.", "*Principalities – societies with an actual ruling class and caste systems determined by birthright.", "Most of these societies are either Indianized or Islamized to a degree.", "They include the larger coastal ethnic groups like the Tagalog, Kapampangan, Visayan, and Moro societies.", "Most of them were usually divided into four to five caste systems with different names under different ethnic groups that roughly correspond to each other.", "The system was more or less feudalistic, with the ''datu'' ultimately having control of all the lands of the community.", "The land is subdivided among the enfranchised classes, the ''sakop'' or ''sa-op'' (vassals, lit.", "\"those under the power of another\").", "The castes were hereditary, though they were not rigid.", "They were more accurately a reflection of the interpersonal political relationships, a person is always the follower of another.", "People can move up the caste system by marriage, by wealth, or by doing something extraordinary; and conversely they can be demoted, usually as criminal punishment or as a result of debt.", "Shamans are the exception, as they are either volunteers, chosen by the ranking shamans, or born into the role by innate propensity for it.", "They are enumerated below from the highest rank to the lowest::* Royalty – (Visayan: ''kadatoan'') the ''datu'' and immediate descendants.", "They are often further categorised according to purity of lineage.", "The power of the ''datu'' is dependent on the willingness of their followers to render him respect and obedience.", "Most roles of the datu were judicial and military.", "In case of an unfit ''datu'', support may be withdrawn by his followers.", "''Datu'' were almost always male, though in some ethnic groups like the Banwaon people, the female shaman (''babaiyon'') co-rules as the female counterpart of the ''datu''.", ":* Nobility – (Visayan: ''tumao''; Tagalog: ''maginoo''; Kapampangan ''ginu''; Tausug: ''bangsa mataas'') the ruling class, either inclusive of or exclusive of the royal family.", "Most are descendants of the royal line or gained their status through wealth or bravery in battle.", "They owned lands and subjects, from whom they collected taxes.", ":* Shamans – (Visayan: ''babaylan''; Tagalog: ''katalonan'') the spirit mediums, usually female or feminised men.", "While they were not technically a caste, they commanded the same respect and status as nobility.", ":* Warriors – (Visayan: ''timawa''; Tagalog: ''maharlika'') the martial class.", "They could own land and subjects like the higher ranks, but were required to fight for the ''datu'' in times of war.", "In some Filipino ethnic groups, they were often tattooed extensively to record feats in battle and as protection against harm.", "They were sometimes further subdivided into different classes, depending on their relationship with the ''datu''.", "They traditionally went on seasonal raids on enemy settlements.", ":* Commoners and slaves – (Visayan, Maguindanao: ''ulipon''; Tagalog: ''alipin''; Tausug: ''kiapangdilihan''; Maranao: ''kakatamokan'') – the lowest class composed of the rest of the community who were not part of the enfranchised classes.", "They were further subdivided into the commoner class who had their own houses, the servants who lived in the houses of others, and the slaves who were usually captives from raids, criminals, or debtors.", "Most members of this class were equivalent to the European serf class, who paid taxes and can be conscripted to communal tasks, but were more or less free to do as they please.===East Asia=======China and Mongolia====During the period of the Yuan dynasty, ruler Kublai Khan enforced a ''Four Class System'', which was a legal caste system.", "The order of four classes of people in descending order were:* Mongolian* Semu people* Han people (in the northern areas of China)* Southerners (people of the former Southern Song dynasty)Today, the Hukou system is argued by various Western sources to be the current caste system of China.====Tibet====There is significant controversy over the social classes of Tibet, especially with regards to the serfdom in Tibet controversy.", "has put forth the argument that pre-1950s Tibetan society was functionally a caste system, in contrast to previous scholars who defined the Tibetan social class system as similar to European feudal serfdom, as well as non-scholarly western accounts which seek to romanticise a supposedly 'egalitarian' ancient Tibetan society.====Japan====Social classes during the Edo period (Tokugawa shogunate)In Japan's history, social strata based on inherited position rather than personal merit, were rigid and highly formalised in a system called ''mibunsei'' (身分制).", "At the top were the Emperor and Court nobles (kuge), together with the Shōgun and daimyō.", "Below them, the population was divided into four classes: samurai, peasants, craftsmen and merchants.", "Only samurai were allowed to bear arms.", "A samurai had a right to kill any peasants, craftsman or merchant who he felt were disrespectful.", "Merchants were the lowest caste because they did not produce any products.", "The castes were further sub-divided; for example, peasants were labelled as ''furiuri'', ''tanagari'', ''mizunomi-byakusho'' among others.", "As in Europe, the castes and sub-classes were of the same race, religion and culture.Howell, in his review of Japanese society notes that if a Western power had colonised Japan in the 19th century, they would have discovered and imposed a rigid four-caste hierarchy in Japan.De Vos and Wagatsuma observe that Japanese society had a systematic and extensive caste system.", "They discuss how alleged caste impurity and alleged racial inferiority, concepts often assumed to be different, are superficial terms, and are due to identical inner psychological processes, which expressed themselves in Japan and elsewhere.Endogamy was common because marriage across caste lines was socially unacceptable.Japan had its own untouchable caste, shunned and ostracised, historically referred to by the insulting term ''eta'', now called ''burakumin''.", "While modern law has officially abolished the class hierarchy, there are reports of discrimination against the ''buraku'' or ''burakumin'' underclasses.", "The ''burakumin'' are regarded as \"ostracised\".", "The ''burakumin'' are one of the main minority groups in Japan, along with the Ainu of Hokkaidō and those of Korean or Chinese descent.====Korea====A typical Yangban family scene from 1904.The Yoon family had an enduring presence in Korean politics from the 1800s until the 1970s.The baekjeong (백정) were an \"untouchable\" outcaste of Korea.", "The meaning today is that of butcher.", "It originates in the Khitan invasion of Korea in the 11th century.", "The defeated Khitans who surrendered were settled in isolated communities throughout Goryeo to forestall rebellion.", "They were valued for their skills in hunting, herding, butchering, and making of leather, common skill sets among nomads.", "Over time, their ethnic origin was forgotten, and they formed the bottom layer of Korean society.In 1392, with the foundation of the Confucian Joseon dynasty, Korea systemised its own native class system.", "At the top were the two official classes, the Yangban, which literally means \"two classes\".", "It was composed of scholars (''munban'') and warriors (''muban'').", "Scholars had a significant social advantage over the warriors.", "Below were the ''jung-in'' (중인-中人: literally \"middle people\").", "This was a small class of specialised professions such as medicine, accounting, translators, regional bureaucrats, etc.", "Below that were the ''sangmin'' (상민-常民: literally 'commoner'), farmers working their own fields.", "Korea also had a serf population known as the ''nobi''.", "The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population.", "In 1801, the vast majority of government nobi were emancipated, and by 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5% of the total population of Korea.", "The hereditary nobi system was officially abolished around 1886–87 and the rest of the nobi system was abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894, but traces remained until 1930.The opening of Korea to foreign Christian missionary activity in the late 19th century saw some improvement in the status of the ''baekjeong''.", "However, everyone was not equal under the Christian congregation, and even so protests erupted when missionaries tried to integrate ''baekjeong'' into worship, with non-''baekjeong'' finding this attempt insensitive to traditional notions of hierarchical advantage.", "Around the same time, the ''baekjeong'' began to resist open social discrimination.", "They focused on social and economic injustices affecting them, hoping to create an egalitarian Korean society.", "Their efforts included attacking social discrimination by upper class, authorities, and \"commoners\", and the use of degrading language against children in public schools.With the Gabo reform of 1896, the class system of Korea was officially abolished.", "Following the collapse of the Gabo government, the new cabinet, which became the Gwangmu government after the establishment of the Korean Empire, introduced systematic measures for abolishing the traditional class system.", "One measure was the new household registration system, reflecting the goals of formal social equality, which was implemented by the loyalists' cabinet.", "Whereas the old registration system signified household members according to their hierarchical social status, the new system called for an occupation.While most Koreans by then had surnames and even bongwan, although still substantial number of cheonmin, mostly consisted of serfs and slaves, and untouchables did not.", "According to the new system, they were then required to fill in the blanks for surname in order to be registered as constituting separate households.", "Instead of creating their own family name, some cheonmins appropriated their masters' surname, while others simply took the most common surname and its bongwan in the local area.", "Along with this example, activists within and outside the Korean government had based their visions of a new relationship between the government and people through the concept of citizenship, employing the term ''inmin'' (\"people\") and later, ''kungmin'' (\"citizen\").====North Korea====The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea reported that \"Every North Korean citizen is assigned a heredity-based class and socio-political rank over which the individual exercises no control but which determines all aspects of his or her life.\"", "Called ''Songbun'', Barbara Demick describes this \"class structure\" as an updating of the hereditary \"caste system\", a combination of Confucianism and Stalinism.", "It originated in 1946 and was entrenched by the 1960s, and consisted of 53 categories ranging across three classes: loyal, wavering, and impure.", "The privileged \"loyal\" class included members of the Korean Workers' Party and Korean People's Army officers' corps, the wavering class included peasants, and the impure class included collaborators with Imperial Japan and landowners.", "She claims that a bad family background is called \"tainted blood\", and that by law this \"tainted blood\" lasts three generations.===West Asia======= Kurdistan ========= Yazidis =====There are three hereditary groups, often called castes, in Yazidism.", "Membership in the Yazidi society and a caste is conferred by birth.", "Pîrs and Sheikhs are the priestly castes, which are represented by many sacred lineages ().", "Sheikhs are in charge of both religious and administrative functions and are divided into three endogamous houses, Şemsanî, Adanî and Qatanî who are in turn divided into lineages.", "The Pîrs are in charge of purely religious functions and traditionally consist of 40 lineages or clans, but approximately 90 appellations of Pîr lineages have been found, which may have been a result of new sub-lineages arising and number of clans increasing over time due to division as Yazidis settled in different places and countries.", "Division could occur in one family, if there were a few brothers in one clan, each of them could become the founder of their own Pîr sub-clan ().", "Mirîds are the lay caste and are divided into tribes, who are each affiliated to a Pîr and a Sheikh priestly lineage assigned to the tribe.==== Iran ====Pre-Islamic Sassanid society was immensely complex, with separate systems of social organisation governing numerous different groups within the empire.", "Historians believe society comprised four social classes, which linguistic analysis indicates may have been referred to collectively as \"pistras\".", "The classes, from highest to lowest status, were priests (), warriors (), secretaries (), and commoners ().====Yemen====In Yemen there exists a hereditary caste, the African-descended Al-Akhdam who are kept as perennial manual workers.", "Estimates put their number at over 3.5 million residents who are discriminated, out of a total Yemeni population of around 22 million.===Africa===Various sociologists have reported caste systems in Africa.", "The specifics of the caste systems have varied in ethnically and culturally diverse Africa; however, the following features are common – it has been a closed system of social stratification, the social status is inherited, the castes are hierarchical, certain castes are shunned while others are merely endogamous and exclusionary.", "In some cases, concepts of purity and impurity by birth have been prevalent in Africa.", "In other cases, such as the ''Nupe'' of Nigeria, the ''Beni Amer'' of East Africa, and the ''Tira'' of Sudan, the exclusionary principle has been driven by evolving social factors.====West Africa====A Griot, who have been described as an endogamous caste of West Africa who specialise in oral story telling and culture preservation.", "They have been also referred to as the bard caste.Among the Igbo of Nigeria – especially Enugu, Anambra, Imo, Abia, Ebonyi, Edo and Delta states of the country – scholar Elijah Obinna finds that the Osu caste system has been and continues to be a major social issue.", "The Osu caste is determined by one's birth into a particular family irrespective of the religion practised by the individual.", "Once born into Osu caste, this Nigerian person is an outcast, shunned and ostracised, with limited opportunities or acceptance, regardless of his or her ability or merit.", "Obinna discusses how this caste system-related identity and power is deployed within government, Church and indigenous communities.The ''osu'' class systems of eastern Nigeria and southern Cameroon are derived from indigenous religious beliefs and discriminate against the \"Osus\" people as \"owned by deities\" and outcasts.The Songhai economy was based on a caste system.", "The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters.", "Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working immigrants, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society.", "At the top were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders.In a review of social stratification systems in Africa, Richter reports that the term caste has been used by French and American scholars to many groups of West African artisans.", "These groups have been described as inferior, deprived of all political power, have a specific occupation, are hereditary and sometimes despised by others.", "Richter illustrates caste system in Ivory Coast, with six sub-caste categories.", "Unlike other parts of the world, mobility is sometimes possible within sub-castes, but not across caste lines.", "Farmers and artisans have been, claims Richter, distinct castes.", "Certain sub-castes are shunned more than others.", "For example, exogamy is rare for women born into families of woodcarvers.Similarly, the Mandé societies in Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Senegal and Sierra Leone have social stratification systems that divide society by ethnic ties.", "The Mande class system regards the ''jonow'' slaves as inferior.", "Similarly, the Wolof in Senegal is divided into three main groups, the ''geer'' (freeborn/nobles), ''jaam'' (slaves and slave descendants) and the underclass ''neeno''.", "In various parts of West Africa, Fulani societies also have class divisions.", "Other castes include ''Griots'', ''Forgerons'', and ''Cordonniers''.Tamari has described endogamous castes of over fifteen West African peoples, including the Tukulor, Songhay, Dogon, Senufo, Minianka, Moors, Manding, Soninke, Wolof, Serer, Fulani, and Tuareg.", "Castes appeared among the ''Malinke'' people no later than 14th century, and was present among the ''Wolof'' and ''Soninke'', as well as some ''Songhay'' and ''Fulani'' populations, no later than 16th century.", "Tamari claims that wars, such as the ''Sosso-Malinke'' war described in the ''Sunjata'' epic, led to the formation of blacksmith and bard castes among the people that ultimately became the Mali empire.As West Africa evolved over time, sub-castes emerged that acquired secondary specialisations or changed occupations.", "Endogamy was prevalent within a caste or among a limited number of castes, yet castes did not form demographic isolates according to Tamari.", "Social status according to caste was inherited by off-springs automatically; but this inheritance was paternal.", "That is, children of higher caste men and lower caste or slave concubines would have the caste status of the father.====Central Africa====Ethel M. Albert in 1960 claimed that the societies in Central Africa were caste-like social stratification systems.", "Similarly, in 1961, Maquet notes that the society in Rwanda and Burundi can be best described as castes.", "The Tutsi, noted Maquet, considered themselves as superior, with the more numerous Hutu and the least numerous Twa regarded, by birth, as respectively, second and third in the hierarchy of Rwandese society.", "These groups were largely endogamous, exclusionary and with limited mobility.====Horn of Africa====The Madhiban (Midgan) specialise in leather occupation.", "Along with the Tumal and Yibir, they are collectively known as ''sab''.In a review published in 1977, Todd reports that numerous scholars report a system of social stratification in different parts of Africa that resembles some or all aspects of caste system.", "Examples of such caste systems, he claims, are to be found in Ethiopia in communities such as the Gurage and Konso.", "He then presents the Dime of Southwestern Ethiopia, amongst whom there operates a system which Todd claims can be unequivocally labelled as caste system.", "The Dime have seven castes whose size varies considerably.", "Each broad caste level is a hierarchical order that is based on notions of purity, non-purity and impurity.", "It uses the concepts of defilement to limit contacts between caste categories and to preserve the purity of the upper castes.", "These caste categories have been exclusionary, endogamous and the social identity inherited.", "Alula Pankhurst has published a study of caste groups in SW Ethiopia.Among the Kafa, there were also traditionally groups labelled as castes.", "\"Based on research done before the Derg regime, these studies generally presume the existence of a social hierarchy similar to the caste system.", "At the top of this hierarchy were the Kafa, followed by occupational groups including blacksmiths (Qemmo), weavers (Shammano), bards (Shatto), potters, and tanners (Manno).", "In this hierarchy, the Manjo were commonly referred to as hunters, given the lowest status equal only to slaves.", "\"The Borana Oromo of southern Ethiopia in the Horn of Africa also have a class system, wherein the Wata, an acculturated hunter-gatherer group, represent the lowest class.", "Though the Wata today speak the Oromo language, they have traditions of having previously spoken another language before adopting Oromo.The traditionally nomadic Somali people are divided into clans, wherein the Rahanweyn agro-pastoral clans and the occupational clans such as the Madhiban were traditionally sometimes treated as outcasts.", "As Gabboye, the Madhiban along with the Yibir and Tumaal (collectively referred to as ''sab'') have since obtained political representation within Somalia, and their general social status has improved with the expansion of urban centers.===Europe===European feudalism with its rigid aristocracy can also be considered as a caste system.A formal political expression of the system was the system of three or four estates of the realm.==== Basque region ====For centuries, through the modern times, the majority regarded Cagots who lived primarily in the Basque region of France and Spain as an inferior caste, the untouchables.", "While they had the same skin color and religion as the majority, in the churches they had to use segregated doors, drink from segregated fonts, and receive communion on the end of long wooden spoons.", "It was a closed social system.", "The socially isolated Cagots were endogamous, and chances of social mobility non-existent.====United Kingdom====In July 2013, the UK government announced its intention to amend the Equality Act 2010, to \"introduce legislation on caste, including any necessary exceptions to the caste provisions, within the framework of domestic discrimination law\".", "Section 9(5) of the Equality Act 2010 provides that \"a Minister may by order amend the statutory definition of race to include caste and may provide for exceptions in the Act to apply or not to apply to caste\".From September 2013 to February 2014, Meena Dhanda led a project on \"Caste in Britain\" for the UK Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC).===Americas=======Latin America====The existence of a caste system based on the concept of casta in Latin America under colonial Spain has been raised and contemporarily contested, distinguishing it from more general colonial or racial discrimination.====United States====In the opinion of W. Lloyd Warner, discrimination in the Southern United States in the 1930s against Blacks was similar to Indian castes in such features as residential segregation and marriage restrictions.", "In her 2020 book ''Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents'', journalist Isabel Wilkerson used caste as an analogy to understand racial discrimination in the United States.Gerald D. Berreman contrasted the differences between discrimination in the United States and India.", "In India, there are complex religious features which make up the system, whereas in the United States race and color are the basis for differentiation.", "The caste systems in India and the United States have higher groups which desire to retain their positions for themselves and thus perpetuate the two systems.The process of creating a homogenized society by social engineering in both India and the Southern US has created other institutions that have made class distinctions among different groups evident.", "Anthropologist James C. Scott elaborates on how \"global capitalism is perhaps the most powerful force for homogenization, whereas the state may be the defender of local difference and variety in some instances\".", "The caste system, a relic of feudalistic economic systems, emphasizes differences between socio-economic classes that are obviated by openly free market capitalistic economic systems, which reward individual initiative, enterprise, merit, and thrift, thereby creating a path for social mobility.", "When the feudalistic slave economy of the southern United States was dismantled, Jim Crow laws and acts of domestic terrorism committed by white supremacists prevented many industrious African Americans from participating in the formal economy and achieving economic success on parity with their white peers, or destroying that economic success in instances where it was achieved, such as Black Wall Street, with only rare but commonly touted exceptions of lasting personal success such as Maggie Walker, Annie Malone, and Madame C.J.", "Walker.", "Parts of the United States are sometimes divided by race and class status despite the national narrative of integration.A survey on caste discrimination conducted by Equality Labs found 67% of Indian Dalits living in the US reporting that they faced caste-based harassment at the workplace, and 27% reporting verbal or physical assault based on their caste.", "However, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace study in 2021 criticizes Equality Labs findings and methodology noting Equality Labs study \"relied on a nonrepresentative snowball sampling method to recruit respondents.", "Furthermore, respondents who did not disclose a caste identity were dropped from the data set.", "Therefore, it is likely that the sample does not fully represent the South Asian American population and could skew in favor of those who have strong views about caste.", "While the existence of caste discrimination in India is incontrovertible, its precise extent and intensity in the United States can be contested\".In 2023, Seattle became the first city in the United States to ban discrimination based on caste." ], [ "Racial casteism", "Racial casteism is a term used to identify the relationship between caste, race, and colorism.", "In modern-day India, the caste system has expanded to include groups and identities from diasporic groups as well such as the Africana Siddis and Kaffirs.", "Siddis make up 40,000 of India's vast population and are perceived as untouchables under the caste framework.This categorization is paired with anti-black ideology in the country, that is often adapted by broader uses of the term caste in western countries, most notably the United States.", "Like the Siddis, Africana caste Sri Lanka Kaffirs make up a small minority of the population with scholars noting that the exact number is hard to determine due to exclusion and lack of recognition from the government.", "Siddis and Kaffirs are considered untouchables due to their darker skin color alongside other physical factors that distinguish the group as lower caste.The migration of Africana groups such as the Siddis and Kaffirs to South Asia is widely considered to be a result of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade, initiated by Muslim Arabs.", "During the trade, enslaved Africans were often brought as court servants, herbalists, midwives, or as bonded labor.", "The limited awareness of these groups can be attributed to caste-ideology fueled from this trade.The racial understanding of caste has largely been debated by scholars, with some like Dr. B.R Ambedkar arguing that caste differences between higher caste Aryans and lower cast native-Indians being more due to religious factors.", "While the term remains contended, it is widely understood that this racial assessment is based on the way lower-caste people are treated.", "Africana diasporic groups who do not fit the caste system reflected by the scheduled tribe are thus considered inferior for their darker skin and grouped in with the untouchables.", "Since caste is inherited at birth and is inflexible to change throughout a lifetime, this can lead to a racial caste system where colorism largely influences the mobility one has in their lifetime.", "Terminology shifted away from race-conscious terms in South Asian antiquity, where Aryans had pre-conceived social hierarchies built off of race, to a caste framework during Buddhism's rise in the third century BCE.Racial caste is embedded in the institutions that make up South Asia, particularly its governing bodies.", "When it comes to the electorate of India, voter preference is often based on race, caste, religion, alongside other attributing physical and political factors.", "This power imbalance alongside the rigid nature of caste can work against those of darker skin complexion to hold positions of power." ], [ "Caste and higher education", "The foundational divisions of caste have historically been seen as a determining factor in one's skills and career prospects.", "Today, many people perceive higher education as a means of achieving their own professional goals, but there are still methods based on caste assumptions used to keep lower caste out of universities.", "This leads to their exclusion from the potential to be part of higher-paying jobs that are perceived as more elite.", "This social expectation and prevention of access to education and opportunity have elongated the struggle for financial and social equity amongst people from scheduled tribes and castes.Affirmative Action has been a global phenomenon to develop more spaces in politics, jobs, and education for people from historically disadvantaged backgrounds, which has led to the reservation system being applied to universities.", "Even with these regulations, caste nevertheless remains a largely determining factor in the University system in India.", "The guarantee of admittance to a certain proportion of people from oppressed castes is not enough to deal with the implications of divisions in higher education.", "For example, the reservation percentage can vary by state but is generally around 15% for Scheduled Castes, but 2019-20 data shows most universities miss this mark.", "Across the board, there is an average of 14.7% of scheduled caste students, meaning many universities are at a far lower rate than legislated.", "These reservation systems have backlash from upper caste groups, who claim that people are only admitted due to their caste status, as opposed to merit, in a similar argument playing out to affirmative action in the United States.Reservation policies constitute a first step in providing access to admittance into higher education opportunities but do not overcome the overarching challenge of casteism.", "Caste-based discrimination and social stigma can still affect the experiences of students from marginalized communities in academic institutions.", "Universities are a crucial place of integration and moving to offer equitable opportunity beyond just attendance, but implementing protective policies to ensure students can be successful.", "Attendance at university has already been shown to impact how people view caste and has the potential to shape equity building beyond the current interpersonal and systemic relationship.", "Several forms of discrimination manifest in universities:Social Discrimination: Students from marginalized castes face social discrimination, exclusion, and/or isolation on campuses.", "This affects their general educational experience and mental well-being.", "Numerous cases of harassment and bullying based on caste lines have been reported, with drastic consequences for the victims, but often none for the perpetrators.", "This promotes a hostile environment for students and hampers their ability to engage positively in the academic community.", "\"When I was enrolled for an undergraduate course, I was vocal about his Dalit identity and vouched for the rights of Dalits and marginalized sections.", "Most of my upper-caste mates were against reservation.", "I was always typecast, stereotyped and even labeled with derogatory nicknames,\" Nishat Kabir, who is studying film at Ambedkar University in New Delhi, told Anadolu Agency.", "Campus Facilities: Discrimination can also be observed in access to living facilities, food services, and other campus amenities.", "Students from marginalized castes may encounter difficulties in availing of these services without bias, and the living arrangements are often internally segregated.Academic + Faculty Discrimination: Discrimination may extend to the academic sphere, with students facing biased treatment, unfair grading, or limited access to academic resources based on their caste background.", "Instances of discrimination can involve faculty members, who may hold biases that affect their interactions with students.", "This comes from the inherent hierarchical nature of caste having built centuries of prejudice against lower caste and indigenous students.", "This influences academic mentorship, guidance, and opportunities for students from marginalized backgrounds.“Eighty-four percent of the SC/ST students surveyed said examiners had asked them about their caste directly or indirectly during their evaluations.", "One student said: “Teachers are fine till they do not know your caste.", "The moment they come to know, their attitude towards you changes completely.", "Due to the challenges experienced on top of the normal pressure of being a student, the discrimination that Dalits and people of OBCs face has led to increased rates of suicide, with numerous examples shown to be tied directly to campus harassment and lack of administrative support.The clarity that comes from people sharing their experiences has led to significant pushback in the 21st century, where students have been centering fights for justice and equity, often based on movements that student activists of the past have used.", "Allahabad University has seen a spike in student protests and demonstrations against institutional discrimination.", "Students used tactics of information spreading from pamphlets and court cases, to public civil disobedience through marches and sit-ins to disrupt the flow of university life and lead to broader discussions.", "The student unrest was not unique to Allahabad University but was strong enough to last over 90 days." ], [ "Caste in sociology and entomology", "The initial observational studies of the division of labour in ant colonies attempted to demonstrate that ants specialized in tasks that were best suited to their size when they emerged from the pupae stage into the adult stage.", "A large proportion of the experimental work was done in species that showed strong variation in size.", "As the size of an adult was fixed for life, workers of a specific size range came to be called a \"caste\", calling up the traditional caste system in India in which a human's standing in society was decided at birth.The notion of caste encouraged a link between scholarship in entomology and sociology because it served as an example of a division of labour in which the participants seemed to be uncompromisingly adapted to special functions and sometimes even unique environments.", "To bolster the concept of caste, entomologists and sociologists referred to the complementary social or natural parallel and thereby appeared to generalize the concept and give it an appearance of familiarity.", "In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, the perceived similarities between the Indian caste system and caste polymorphism in insects were used to create a correspondence or parallelism for the purpose of explaining or clarifying racial stratification in human societies; the explanations came particularly to be employed in the United States.", "Ideas from heredity and natural selection influenced some sociologists who believed that some groups were predetermined to belong to a lower social or occupational status.", "Chiefly through the work of W. Lloyd Warner at the University of Chicago, a group of sociologists sharing similar principles came to evolve around the creed of caste in the 1930s and 1940s.The ecologically oriented sociologist Robert E. Park, although attributing more weight to environmental explanations than the biological nonetheless believed that there were obstacles to the assimilation of blacks into American society and that an \"accommodation stage\" in a biracially organized caste system was required before full assimilation.", "He did disavow his position in 1937, suggesting that blacks were a minority and not a caste.", "The Indian sociologist Radhakamal Mukerjee was influenced by Robert E. Park and adopted the concept of \"caste\" to describe race relations in the US.", "According to anthropologist Diane Rodgers, Mukerjee \"proceeded to suggest that a caste system should be correctly instituted in the (US) South to ease race relations.\"", "Mukerjee often employed both entomological and sociological data and clues to describe caste systems.", "He wrote \"while the fundamental industries of man are dispersed throughout the insect world, the same kind of polymorphism appears again and again in different species of social insects which have reacted in the same manner as man, under the influence of the same environment, to ensure the supply and provision of subsistence.\"", "Comparing the caste system in India to caste polymorphism in insects, he noted, \"where we find the organization of social insects developed to perfection, there also has been seen among human associations a minute and even rigid specialization of functions, along with ant- and bee-like societal integrity and cohesiveness.\"", "He considered the \"resemblances between insect associations and caste-ridden societies\" to be striking enough to be \"amusing\"." ], [ "See also", "*Estates of the realm*Inter-caste marriages in India*Job*Kamaiya*Priestly caste*Propiska*Social exclusion*Warrior caste" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*** * ********''Oxford English Dictionary'' () Quote: '''caste, n.''' 2a.", "spec.", "One of the several hereditary classes into which society in India has from time immemorial been divided; ... ''This is now the leading sense, which influences all others.", "''************" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Spectres of Agrarian Territory'' by David Ludden 11 December 2001* \"Early Evidence for Caste in South India\", pp.", "467–492 in ''Dimensions of Social Life: Essays in honour of David G. Mandelbaum'', Edited by Paul Hockings and Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, New York, Amsterdam, 1987." ], [ "External links", "* Casteless* Auguste Comte on why and how castes developed across the world – in The Positive Philosophy, Volume 3 (see page 55 onwards)* Robert Merton on Caste and The Sociology of Science* Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age – Susan Bayly* Class In Yemen by Marguerite Abadjian (Archive of the Baltimore Sun)* International Dalit Solidarity Network: An international advocacy group for Dalits" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Creation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Creation''' or '''The Creation''' may refer to:" ], [ "Religion", "*''Creatio ex nihilo'', the concept that matter was created by God out of nothing*Creation myth, a religious story of the origin of the world and how people first came to inhabit it*Creationism, the belief that the universe was created in specific divine acts and the social movement affiliated with it*Creator deity, a deity responsible for the creation of everything that exists*Genesis creation narrative, the biblical account of creation*Creation Museum, a creationist museum in Kentucky*Creation Ministries International, a Christian apologetics organization*Creation Festival, two annual four-day Christian music festivals held in the United States" ], [ "Entertainment", "===Music=======Albums====*''Creation'' (EP), 2016 EP by Seven Lions*''Creation'' (John Coltrane album), 1965*''Creation'' (Branford Marsalis album), 2001*''Creation'' (Keith Jarrett album), 2015*''Creation'' (Archie Roach album), 2013*''Creation'' (The Pierces album), 2014*''Creation'', album by Creation*''Creation'', album by Leslie Satcher 2005====Songs====*\"Creation\" (William Billings), a hymn tune composed by William Billings*''The Creation'', 1954, an orchestral song by Wolfgang Fortner*\"Creation\", a song by The Creation, 1994*\"Creation\", a song by Joe Higgs, 1976*\"Creation\", a song by Jonathan King, 1965*\"Creation\", a song by The Pierces from ''Creation'', 2014*\"Creation\", a song by Zion I from ''Mind Over Matter''====Other uses in music====*Creation (American band), a teen musical group*Creation (Japanese band), also known as Blues Creation, led by Kazuo Takeda*The Creation (band), a British band*''The Creation'' (Haydn), a 1798 oratorio by Joseph Haydn*''Creation'', Nathaniel Shilkret's contribution to the ''Genesis Suite'' (1945)*Creation Records, a record label created in 1983 by Alan McGee===Other uses in entertainment===*''Creation'' (2009 film), by Jon Amiel about the life of Charles Darwin*''Creation'' (unfinished film), a 1931 film that inspired ''King Kong''*''Creation'' (novel), a 1981 novel by Gore Vidal*Creation (Dragonlance), creation of Krynn, a fictional world of Dragonlance*''Création'', a 1940 ballet by Shirō Fukai*\"''The Creation of Adam''\" (ca.", "1511), a 1512 section of Michelangelo's fresco Sistine Chapel ceiling*''The Creation: An Appeal to Save Life on Earth'' (2006), a book by biologist Edward O. Wilson*\"The Creation\" (1927), a poem by James Weldon Johnson, published in ''God's Trombones: Seven Negro Sermons in Verse''*''La création du monde'', a 1923 ballet by Darius Milhaud*''Creation'' (video game), an unreleased video game developed by Bullfrog Productions" ], [ "Other uses", "*Creation (initial grant) of a noble title (such as a dukedom or earldom)* The use of creativity" ], [ "See also", "*Create (disambiguation)*Creator (disambiguation)*Creation of the world (disambiguation)*Generate (disambiguation)*Origin (disambiguation)*Existence (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "CORAL" ], [ "Introduction", "'''CORAL''', short for '''Computer On-line Real-time Applications Language''' is a programming language originally developed in 1964 at the Royal Radar Establishment (RRE), Malvern, Worcestershire, in the United Kingdom.", "The R was originally for \"radar\", not \"real-time\".", "It was influenced primarily by JOVIAL, and thus ALGOL, but is not a subset of either.The most widely-known version, '''CORAL 66''', was subsequently developed by I. F. Currie and M. Griffiths under the auspices of the ''Inter-Establishment Committee for Computer Applications'' (IECCA).", "Its official definition, edited by Woodward, Wetherall, and Gorman, was first published in 1970.In 1971, CORAL was selected by the Ministry of Defence as the language for future military applications and to support this, a standardization program was introduced to ensure CORAL compilers met the specifications.", "This process was later adopted by the US Department of Defense while defining Ada." ], [ "Overview", "Coral 66 is a general-purpose programming language based on ALGOL 60, with some features from Coral 64, JOVIAL, and Fortran.", "It includes structured record types (as in Pascal) and supports the packing of data into limited storage (also as in Pascal).", "Like Edinburgh IMP it allows inline (embedded) assembly language, and also offers good runtime checking and diagnostics.", "It is designed for real-time computing and embedded system applications, and for use on computers with limited processing power, including those limited to fixed-point arithmetic and those without support for dynamic storage allocation.The language was an inter-service standard for British military programming, and was also widely adopted for civil purposes in the British control and automation industry.", "It was used to write software for both the Ferranti and General Electric Company (GEC) computers from 1971 onwards.", "Implementations also exist for the Interdata 8/32, PDP-11, VAX and Alpha platforms and HPE Integrity Servers; for the Honeywell, and for the Computer Technology Limited (CTL, later ITL) Modular-1; and for SPARC running Solaris, and Intel running Linux.Queen Elizabeth II sent the first email from a head of state from the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment over the ARPANET on March 26, 1976.The message read \"This message to all ARPANET users announces the availability on ARPANET of the Coral 66 compiler provided by the GEC 4080 computer at the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment, Malvern, England, ... Coral 66 is the standard real-time high level language adopted by the Ministry of Defence.", "\"As Coral was aimed at a variety of real-time work, rather than general office data processing, there was no standardised equivalent to a stdio library.", "IECCA recommended a primitive input/output (I/O) package to accompany any compiler (in a document titled ''Input/Output of Character data in Coral 66 Utility Programs'').", "Most implementers avoided this by producing Coral interfaces to extant Fortran and, later, C libraries.CORAL's most significant contribution to computing may have been enforcing quality control in commercial compilers.", "To have a CORAL compiler approved by IECCA, and thus allowing a compiler to be marketed as a CORAL 66 compiler, the candidate compiler had to compile and execute a standard suite of 25 test programs and 6 benchmark programs.", "The process was part of the British Standard (BS) 5905 approval process.", "This methodology was observed and adapted later by the United States Department of Defense for the certification of Ada compilers.Source code for a Coral 66 compiler (written in BCPL) has been recovered and the ''Official Definition of Coral 66'' document by Her Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO) has been scanned; the Ministry of Defence patent office has issued a licence to the Edinburgh Computer History project to allow them to put both the code and the language reference online for non-commercial use." ], [ "Variants", "A variant of Coral 66 named PO-CORAL was developed during the late 1970s to early 1980s by the British General Post Office (GPO), together with GEC, STC and Plessey, for use on the System X digital telephone exchange control computers.", "This was later renamed BT-CORAL when British Telecom was spun off from the Post Office.", "Unique features of this language were the focus on real-time execution, message processing, limits on statement execution between waiting for input, and a prohibition on recursion to remove the need for a stack." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* CORAL 66 test program extracted from the Test Responder report* CORAL 66 benchmarks* BS5905 CORAL 66 Standard* DEF STAN 05-47* PDP-11 CORAL/ASM interfacing library* ECCE editor script to translate CORAL 66 into Edinburgh IMP" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Rhyming slang" ], [ "Introduction", "An optional Cockney rhyming slang language setting on an ATM on Hackney Road in London, England.", "The rhyming words are not omitted, to make the slang easier to understand.", "'''Rhyming slang''' is a form of slang word construction in the English language.", "It is especially prevalent among Cockneys in England, and was first used in the early 19th century in the East End of London; hence its alternative name, '''Cockney rhyming slang'''.", "In the US, especially the criminal underworld of the West Coast between 1880 and 1920, rhyming slang has sometimes been known as '''Australian slang'''.The construction of rhyming slang involves replacing a common word with a phrase of two or more words, the last of which rhymes with the original word; then, in almost all cases, omitting, from the end of the phrase, the secondary rhyming word (which is thereafter implied), making the origin and meaning of the phrase elusive to listeners not in the know." ], [ "Examples", "The form of Cockney slang is made clear with the following example.", "The rhyming phrase \"apples and pears\" is used to mean \"stairs\".", "Following the pattern of omission, \"and pears\" is dropped, thus the spoken phrase \"I'm going up the apples\" means \"I'm going up the stairs\".The following are further common examples of these phrases: Slang word Meaning Original phrase JF Tenner (10 British pounds) John Fennah Aristotle Bottle Bottle Aris Arse (backside) This is the result of a double rhyme, starting with the original rough synonym \"arse\", which is rhymed with \"bottle and glass\", leading to \"bottle\".", "\"Bottle\" was then rhymed with \"Aristotle\" and truncated to \"Aris\" Bottle Arse (backside) Bottle and Glass Brassic (Boracic) skint (Penniless) Boracic lint Bristols Titty Bristol City Britneys Beers Britney Spears Butchers Look Butcher's hook China Mate China Plate Carpets Tits (Breasts) Carpet bits Dog Telephone Dog and Bone Frog Road Frog and Toad Gary Tablet (Ecstasy) Gary Ablett Hampsteads Teeth Hampstead Heath Khyber Arse Khyber Pass Loaf Head Loaf of Bread Louis Thong Louis Vuitton Marvin Starving Hank Marvin Mincers Eyes Mince pies Porkies Lies Pork pies Plates Feet Plates of meat Raspberry Fart Raspberry TartRubbityPubRubbity-dub Septic (abbr: seppo) Yank Septic Tank Syrup Wig Syrup of figs Tom Jewellery Tomfoolery Trouble Wife Trouble and strife Treacle Sweetheart Treacle Tart Turkish Laugh Turkish bathWhistle Suit Whistle and fluteIn some examples the meaning is further obscured by adding a second iteration of rhyme and truncation to the original rhymed phrase.", "For example, the word \"Aris\" is often used to indicate the buttocks.", "This is the result of a double rhyme, starting with the original rough synonym \"arse\", which is rhymed with \"bottle and glass\", leading to \"bottle\".", "\"Bottle\" was then rhymed with \"Aristotle\" and truncated to \"Aris\".=== Phonetic ''versus'' phono-semantic forms ===Ghil'ad Zuckermann, a linguist and revivalist, has proposed a distinction between rhyming slang based on sound only, and phono-semantic rhyming slang, which includes a semantic link between the slang expression and its referent (the thing it refers to).", "An example of rhyming slang based only on sound is the Cockney \"tea leaf\" (thief).", "An example of phono-semantic rhyming slang is the Cockney \"sorrowful tale\" ((three months in) jail), in which case the person coining the slang term sees a semantic link, sometimes jocular, between the Cockney expression and its referent.=== Mainstream usage ===The use of rhyming slang has spread beyond the purely dialectal and some examples are to be found in the mainstream British English lexicon, although many users may be unaware of the origin of those words.", "* The expression \"blowing a raspberry\" comes from \"raspberry tart\" for \"fart\".", "* Another example is \"berk\", a mild pejorative widely used across the UK and not usually considered particularly offensive, although the origin lies in a contraction of \"Berkeley Hunt\", as the rhyme for the significantly more offensive \"cunt\".", "* Another example is to \"have a butcher's\" for to have a look, from \"butcher's hook\".Most of the words changed by this process are nouns, but a few are adjectival, e.g., \"bales\" of cotton (rotten), or the adjectival phrase \"on one's tod\" for \"on one's own\", after Tod Sloan, a famous jockey." ], [ "History", "Rhyming slang is believed to have originated in the mid-19th century in the East End of London, with several sources suggesting some time in the 1840s.", "''The Flash Dictionary'' of unknown authorship, published in 1921 by Smeeton (48mo), contains a few rhymes.", "John Camden Hotten's 1859 ''Dictionary of Modern Slang, Cant, and Vulgar Words'' likewise states that it originated in the 1840s (\"about twelve or fifteen years ago\"), but with \"chaunters\" and \"patterers\" in the Seven Dials area of London.", "Hotten's ''Dictionary'' included the first known \"Glossary of the Rhyming Slang\", which included later mainstays such as \"frog and toad\" (the main road) and \"apples and pears\" (stairs), as well as many more obscure examples, e.g.", "\"Battle of the Nile\" (a tile, a vulgar term for a hat), \"Duke of York\" (take a walk), and \"Top of Rome\" (home).It remains a matter of speculation exactly how rhyming slang originated, for example, as a linguistic game among friends or as a cryptolect developed intentionally to confuse non-locals.", "If deliberate, it may also have been used to maintain a sense of community, or to allow traders to talk amongst themselves in marketplaces to facilitate collusion, without customers knowing what they were saying, or by criminals to confuse the police (see thieves' cant).The academic, lexicographer and radio personality Terence Dolan has suggested that rhyming slang was invented by Irish immigrants to London \"so the actual English wouldn't understand what they were talking about.\"" ], [ "Development", "Many examples of rhyming slang are based on locations in London, such as \"Peckham Rye\", meaning \"tie\", which dates from the late nineteenth century; \"Hampstead Heath\", meaning \"teeth\" (usually as \"Hampsteads\"), which was first recorded in 1887; and \"barnet\" (Barnet Fair), meaning \"hair\", which dates from the 1850s.In the 20th century, rhyming slang began to be based on the names of celebrities — Gregory Peck (neck; cheque), Ruby Murray as Ruby (curry), Alan Whicker as \"Alan Whickers\" (knickers), Puff Daddy (caddy), Max Miller (pillow pronounced ), Meryl Streep (cheap), Nat King Cole (\"dole\"), Britney Spears (beers, tears), Henry Halls (balls) — and after pop culture references — Captain Kirk (work), Pop Goes the Weasel (diesel), Mona Lisa (pizza), Mickey Mouse (Scouse), Wallace and Gromit (vomit), Brady Bunch (lunch), Bugs Bunny (money), Scooby-Doo (clue), Winnie the Pooh (shoe), and ''Schindler's List'' (pissed).", "Some words have numerous definitions, such as dead (''Father Ted'', \"gone to bed\", brown bread), door (Roger Moore, Andrea Corr, George Bernard Shaw, Rory O'Moore), cocaine (Kurt Cobain; as \"Charlie\" Bob Marley, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Gianluca Vialli, oats and barley; as \"line\" Patsy Cline; as \"powder\" Niki Lauda), flares (\"Lionel Blairs\", \"Tony Blairs\", \"Rupert Bears\", \"Dan Dares\"), etc.Many examples have passed into common usage.", "Some substitutions have become relatively widespread in England in their contracted form.", "\"To have a butcher's\", meaning to have a look, originates from \"butcher's hook\", an S-shaped hook used by butchers to hang up meat, and dates from the late nineteenth century but has existed independently in general use from around the 1930s simply as \"butchers\".", "Similarly, \"use your loaf\", meaning \"use your head\", derives from \"loaf of bread\" and also dates from the late nineteenth century but came into independent use in the 1930s.Conversely usages have lapsed, or been usurped (\"Hounslow Heath\" for teeth, was replaced by \"Hampsteads\" from the heath of the same name, starting ).In some cases, false etymologies exist.", "For example, the term \"barney\" has been used to mean an altercation or fight since the late nineteenth century, although without a clear derivation.", "In the 2001 feature film ''Ocean's Eleven'', the explanation for the term is that it derives from Barney Rubble, the name of a cartoon character from the ''Flintstones'' television program many decades later in origin.=== Regional and international variations ===Rhyming slang is used mainly in London in England but can to some degree be understood across the country.", "Some constructions, however, rely on particular regional accents for the rhymes to work.", "For instance, the term \"Charing Cross\" (a place in London), used to mean \"horse\" since the mid-nineteenth century, does not work for a speaker without the lot–cloth split, common in London at that time but not nowadays.", "A similar example is \"Joanna\" meaning \"piano\", which is based on the pronunciation of \"piano\" as \"pianna\" .", "Unique formations also exist in other parts of the United Kingdom, such as in the East Midlands, where the local accent has formed \"Derby Road\", which rhymes with \"cold\".Outside England, rhyming slang is used in many English-speaking countries in the Commonwealth of Nations, with local variations.", "For example, in Australian slang, the term for an English person is \"pommy\", which has been proposed as a rhyme on \"pomegranate\", pronounced \"Pummy Grant\", which rhymed with \"immigrant\".Rhyming slang is continually evolving, and new phrases are introduced all the time; new personalities replace old ones—pop culture introduces new words—as in \"I haven't a Scooby\" (from Scooby Doo, the eponymous cartoon dog of the cartoon series) meaning \"I haven't a clue\".=== Taboo terms ===Rhyming slang is often used as a substitute for words regarded as taboo, often to the extent that the association with the taboo word becomes unknown over time.", "\"Berk\" (often used to mean \"foolish person\") originates from the most famous of all fox hunts, the \"Berkeley Hunt\" meaning \"cunt\"; \"cobblers\" (often used in the context \"what you said is rubbish\") originates from \"cobbler's awls\", meaning \"balls\" (as in testicles); and \"hampton\" (usually \"'ampton\") meaning \"prick\" (as in penis) originates from \"Hampton Wick\" (a place in London) – the second part \"wick\" also entered common usage as \"he gets on my wick\" (he is an annoying person).Lesser taboo terms include \"pony and trap\" for \"crap\" (as in defecate, but often used to denote nonsense or low quality); to blow a raspberry (rude sound of derision) from raspberry tart for \"fart\"; \"D'Oyly Carte\" (an opera company) for \"fart\"; \"Jimmy Riddle\" (an American country musician) for \"piddle\" (as in urinate), \"J. Arthur Rank\" (a film mogul), \"Sherman tank\", \"Jodrell Bank\" or \"ham shank\" for \"wank\", \"Bristol Cities\" (contracted to 'Bristols') for \"titties\", etc.", "\"Taking the Mick\" or \"taking the Mickey\" is thought to be a rhyming slang form of \"taking the piss\", where \"Mick\" came from \"Mickey Bliss\".In December 2004 Joe Pasquale, winner of the fourth series of ITV's ''I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!", "'', became well known for his frequent use of the term \"Jacobs\", for Jacob's Cream Crackers, a rhyming slang term for knackers i.e.", "testicles." ], [ "In popular culture", "Rhyming slang has been widely used in popular culture including film, television, music, literature, sport and degree classification.=== In university degree classification ===In the British undergraduate degree classification system a first class honours degree is known as a \"Geoff Hurst\" (First) after the English 1966 World Cup footballer.", "An upper second class degree (a.k.a.", "a \"2:1\") is called an \"Attila the Hun\", and a lower second class (\"2:2\") a \"Desmond Tutu\", while a third class degree is known as a \"Thora Hird\" or \"Douglas Hurd\".=== In film ===Cary Grant's character teaches rhyming slang to his female companion in ''Mr.", "Lucky'' (1943), describing it as 'Australian rhyming slang'.", "Rhyming slang is also used and described in a scene of the 1967 film ''To Sir, with Love'' starring Sidney Poitier, where the English students tell their foreign teacher that the slang is a drag and something for old people.", "The closing song of the 1969 crime caper, ''The Italian Job'', (\"Getta Bloomin' Move On\" a.k.a.", "\"The Self Preservation Society\") contains many slang terms.Rhyming slang has been used to lend authenticity to an East End setting.", "Examples include ''Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels'' (1998) (wherein the slang is translated via subtitles in one scene); ''The Limey'' (1999); ''Sexy Beast'' (2000); ''Snatch'' (2000); ''Ocean's Eleven'' (2001); and ''Austin Powers in Goldmember'' (2002); ''It's All Gone Pete Tong'' (2004), after BBC radio disc jockey Pete Tong whose name is used in this context as rhyming slang for \"wrong\"; ''Green Street Hooligans'' (2005).", "In ''Margin Call'' (2011), Will Emerson, played by London-born actor Paul Bettany, asks a friend on the telephone, \"How's the trouble and strife?\"", "(\"wife\").", "''Cockneys vs Zombies'' (2012) mocked the genesis of rhyming slang terms when a Cockney character calls zombies \"Trafalgars\" to even his Cockney fellows' puzzlement; he then explains it thus: \"''Trafalgar square – fox and hare – hairy Greek – five day week – weak and feeble – pins and needles – needle and stitch – Abercrombie and Fitch – Abercrombie: zombie''\".The live-action Disney film ''Mary Poppins Returns'' song \"Trip A Little Light Fantastic\" involves Cockney rhyming slang in part of its lyrics, and is primarily spoken by the London lamplighters.In the animated superhero film ''Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse'' (2023), character Spider-Punk, a Camden native, is heard saying: \"I haven’t got a scooby\" (\"clue\").=== Television ===Slang had a resurgence of popular interest in Britain beginning in the 1970s, resulting from its use in a number of London-based television programmes such as ''Steptoe and Son'' (1970–74); and ''Not On Your Nellie'' (1974–75), starring Hylda Baker as Nellie Pickersgill, alludes to the phrase \"not on your Nellie Duff\", rhyming slang for \"not on your puff\" i.e.", "not on your life.", "Similarly, ''The Sweeney'' (1975–78) alludes to the phrase \"Sweeney Todd\" for \"Flying Squad\", a rapid response unit of London's Metropolitan Police.", "In ''The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin'' (1976–79), a comic twist was added to rhyming slang by way of spurious and fabricated examples which a young man had laboriously attempted to explain to his father (e.g.", "'dustbins' meaning 'children', as in 'dustbin lids'='kids'; 'Teds' being 'Ted Heath' and thus 'teeth'; and even 'Chitty Chitty' being 'Chitty Chitty Bang Bang', and thus 'rhyming slang'...).", "It was also featured in an episode of ''The Good Life'' in the first season (1975) where Tom and Barbara purchase a wood-burning range from a junk trader called Sam, who litters his language with phony rhyming slang in hopes of convincing suburban residents that he is an authentic traditional Cockney trader.", "He comes up with a fake story as to the origin of Cockney rhyming slang and is caught out rather quickly.", "In ''The Jeffersons'' season 2 (1976) episode \"The Breakup: Part 2\", Mr. Bentley explains Cockney rhyming slang to George Jefferson, in that \"whistle and flute\" means \"suit\", \"apples and pears\" means \"stairs\", \"plates of meat\" means \"feet\".The use of rhyming slang was also prominent in ''Mind Your Language'' (1977–79), ''Citizen Smith'' (1977–80), ''Minder'' (1979–94), ''Only Fools and Horses'' (1981–91), and ''EastEnders'' (1985–).", "''Minder'' could be quite uncompromising in its use of obscure forms without any clarification.", "Thus the non-Cockney viewer was obliged to deduce that, say, \"iron\" was \"male homosexual\" ('iron'='iron hoof'='poof').", "One episode in Series 5 of ''Steptoe and Son'' was entitled \"Any Old Iron\", for the same reason, when Albert thinks that Harold is 'on the turn'.", "Variations of rhyming slang were also used in sitcom ''Birds of a Feather'', by main characters Sharon and Tracey, often to the confusion of character, Dorian Green, who was unfamiliar with the terms.One early US show to regularly feature rhyming slang was the Saturday morning children's show ''The Bugaloos'' (1970–72), with the character of Harmony (Wayne Laryea) often incorporating it in his dialogue.=== Music ===In popular music, Spike Jones and his City Slickers recorded \"So 'Elp Me\", based on rhyming slang, in 1950.The 1967 Kinks song \"Harry Rag\" was based on the usage of the name Harry Wragg as rhyming slang for \"fag\" (i.e.", "a cigarette).", "The idiom made a brief appearance in the UK-based DJ reggae music of the 1980s in the hit \"Cockney Translation\" by Smiley Culture of South London; this was followed a couple of years later by Domenick and Peter Metro's \"Cockney and Yardie\".", "London-based artists such as Audio Bullys and Chas & Dave (and others from elsewhere in the UK, such as The Streets, who are from Birmingham) frequently use rhyming slang in their songs.British-born M.C.", "MF Doom released an ode entitled \"Rhymin' Slang\", after settling in the UK in 2010.The track was released on the 2012 album JJ Doom album ''Keys to the Kuffs''.Another contributor was Lonnie Donegan who had a song called \"My Old Man's a Dustman\".", "In it he says his father has trouble putting on his boots \"He's got such a job to pull them up that he calls them daisy roots\".=== Literature ===In modern literature, Cockney rhyming slang is used frequently in the novels and short stories of Kim Newman, for instance in the short story collections \"The Man from the Diogenes Club\" (2006) and \"Secret Files of the Diogenes Club\" (2007), where it is explained at the end of each book.It is also parodied in ''Going Postal'' by Terry Pratchett, which features a geriatric Junior Postman by the name of Tolliver Groat, a speaker of 'Dimwell Arrhythmic Rhyming Slang', the only rhyming slang on the Disc which ''does not actually rhyme''.", "Thus, a wig is a 'prunes', from 'syrup of prunes', an obvious parody of the Cockney ''syrup'' from ''syrup of figs – wig''.", "There are numerous other parodies, though it has been pointed out that the result is even more impenetrable than a conventional rhyming slang and so may not be quite so illogical as it seems, given the assumed purpose of rhyming slang as a means of communicating in a manner unintelligible to all but the initiated.In the book ''Goodbye to All That'' by Robert Graves, a beer is a \"broken square\" as Welch Fusiliers officers walk into a pub and order broken squares when they see men from the Black Watch.", "The Black Watch had a minor blemish on its record of otherwise unbroken squares.", "Fistfights ensued.In Dashiell Hammett's ''The Dain Curse'', the protagonist exhibits familiarity with Cockney rhyming slang.", "referring to gambling at dice with the phrase \"rats and mice.", "\"Cockney rhyming slang is one of the main influences for the dialect spoken in ''A Clockwork Orange'' (1962).", "The author of the novel, Anthony Burgess, also believed the phrase \"as queer as a clockwork orange\" was Cockney slang having heard it in a London pub in 1945, and subsequently named it in the title of his book.=== Sport ===In Scottish football, a number of clubs have nicknames taken from rhyming slang.", "Partick Thistle are known as the \"Harry Rags\", which is taken from the rhyming slang of their 'official' nickname \"the jags\".", "Rangers are known as the \"Teddy Bears\", which comes from the rhyming slang for \"the Gers\" (shortened version of Ran-gers).", "Heart of Midlothian are known as the \"Jambos\", which comes from \"Jam Tarts\" which is the rhyming slang for \"Hearts\" which is the common abbreviation of the club's name.", "Hibernian are also referred to as \"The Cabbage\" which comes from Cabbage and Ribs being the rhyming slang for Hibs.In rugby league, \"meat pie\" is used for try." ], [ "See also", "* Argot* Costermonger* Euphemism* Daffynition* Navvy slang* Nickname" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* \"Having a barney\", bulletin board discussion at Phrases.org.uk* To Sir With Love, on YouTube.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Canchim" ], [ "Introduction", "A Canchim bullThe '''Canchim''' is a breed of beef cattle developed in Central Brazil by crossing European Charolais cattle with Indubrazil cattle already kept in Brazil where Asian Zebu type cattle are best suited to the tropical conditions.", "When compared with Zebu bulls, Canchim bulls produce the same number of calves, but heavier and of superior quality.", "Compared to European breeds, the Canchim bull produces calves with the same weight but in larger numbers.", "The fast-growing progeny, from crossbred zebu cows with Canchim bulls, can be slaughtered at 18 months old from feedlots after weaning, up to 24 months old from feedlots after grazing and at 30 months from grazing on the range." ], [ "Origin", "Zebu cattle (Bos Indicus), introduced to Brazil in the last century, were extensively crossbred with herds of native cattle.", "The Indian breed, well known for its ability to survive in the tropics, adapted quickly to Brazil, and soon populated large areas, considerably improving Brazilian beef cattle breeding.", "Zebu cattle were however found to be inferior to the European breeds in growth rate and yield of meat.", "It became clear that the beef cattle population required genetic improvement.", "Simply placing European beef cattle (Bos Taurus), highly productive in temperate climates, in Central Brazil, would not produce good results, due to their inability to adapt to a tropical environment.", "Besides the climate, other factors such as the high occurrence of parasites, diseases and the very low nutritional value of the native forage were problems." ], [ "Formation of the breed", "The European breed used in the formation of Canchim cattle was Charolais.", "In 1922 the Ministry of Agriculture imported Charolais cattle to the State of Goias, where they remained till 1936, when they were transferred to São Carlos in the State of São Paulo, to the Canchim Farm of the Government Research Station, EMBRAPA.", "From this herd originated the dams and sires utilised in the program of crossbreeding.The main Zebu breed which contributed to the formation to the Canchim was the Indubrazil, although Guzerá and Nelore cattle were also used.", "Preference was given to the Indubrasil breed, due to the ease of obtaining large herds at reasonable prices, which would have been difficult with Gir, Nelore or Guzerá.The alternative crossbreeding programs initiated in 1940 by Dr. Antonio Teixeira Viana had the objective of obtaining first, crossbreeds 5/8 Charolais and 3/8 Zebu and second, 3/8 Charolais x 5/8 Zebu, to evaluate which of the two was the most successful.", "The total number of Zebu cows utilized to produce the half-breeds was 368, of which 292 were Indubrasil, 44 Guzerá and 32 Nelore.", "All the animals produced were reared exclusively on the range.", "Control of parasites was done every 15 days and the animals were weighed at birth and monthly.", "The females were weighed up to 30 months and the males up to 40 months.The data collected during various years of work, permitted an evaluation of the various degrees of crossbreeding.", "The conclusion was that the 5/8 Charolais and 3/8 Zebu was the most suitable, presenting an excellent frame for meat, precocious, resistance to heat and parasites, and a uniform coat.", "The first crossbred animals, 5/8 Charolais and 3/8 Zebu, were born in 1953.Thus was born a new type of beef cattle for Central Brazil, with the name CANCHIM, derived from the name of a tree very common in the region where the breed was developed.", "It was not until 1971 that the Brazilian Association of Canchim Cattle Breeders (ABCCAN) was formed, and on 11 November 1972 the Herd Book was initiated.", "On 18 May 1983 the Ministry of Agriculture, recognized Canchim type cattle as a Breed." ], [ "New bloodlines", "The Canchim breed, being a synthetic breed, permits breeders, in the development of new crossbreeding systems, to use the breeds used to form the Canchim breed, besides the breed itself, in its development.There are many Canchim breeders forming new blood lines.", "Today the Nelore breed totally dominates the Zebu breed in the formation of Canchim.", "American and French Charolais semen, from carefully selected bulls is also used and recommended by the ABCCAN to form new bloodlines." ], [ "Past Presidents of the Brazilian Association of Canchim Cattle Breeders", "* Roberto Luiz de Souza Barros; 1971–1978* Francisco Jacintho da Silveira; 1978–1982* Diogo Antonio de Barros; 1984–1992* João Paulo Marques Canto Porto; 1992–1997* Peter Anthony Baines; 1997–2001* Deniz Ferreira Ribeiro; 2001–2007* Luiz Adelar Scheuer; 2007–2009" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Extensive article at Embryoplus.com* Breed society site in Portuguese" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Communist Party of the Soviet Union" ], [ "Introduction", "Moskva River with a large sign promoting the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Moscow, 1975The '''Communist Party of the Soviet Union''' ('''CPSU'''), at some points known as the '''Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''' and '''All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''', sometimes referred to as the '''Soviet Communist Party''' ('''SCP'''), and formerly known as the '''Bolshevik Party''', was the founding and ruling political party of the Soviet Union.", "The CPSU was the sole governing party of the Soviet Union until 1990 when the Congress of People's Deputies modified Article 6 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, which had previously granted the CPSU a monopoly over the political system.", "The party's main ideology was Marxism-Leninism.The party started in 1898 as the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party.", "In 1903, that party split into a Menshevik (minority) and Bolshevik (majority) faction; the latter, led by Vladimir Lenin, is the direct ancestor of the CPSU and is the party that seized power in the October Revolution of 1917.Its activities were suspended on Soviet territory 74 years later, on 29 August 1991, soon after a failed coup d'état by conservative CPSU leaders against the reforming Soviet president and party general secretary Mikhail Gorbachev.The CPSU was a communist party based on democratic centralism.", "This principle, conceived by Lenin, entails democratic and open discussion of policy issues within the party, followed by the requirement of total unity in upholding the agreed policies.", "The highest body within the CPSU was the Party Congress, which convened every five years.", "When the Congress was not in session, the Central Committee was the highest body.", "Because the Central Committee met twice a year, most day-to-day duties and responsibilities were vested in the Politburo, (previously the Presidium), the Secretariat and the Orgburo (until 1952).", "The party leader was the head of government and held the office of either General Secretary, Premier or head of state, or two of the three offices concurrently, but never all three at the same time.", "The party leader was the ''de facto'' chairman of the CPSU Politburo and chief executive of the Soviet Union.", "The tension between the party and the state (Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union) for the shifting focus of power was never formally resolved.", "After the founding of the Soviet Union in 1922, Lenin had introduced a mixed economy, commonly referred to as the New Economic Policy, which allowed for capitalist practices to resume under the Communist Party dictation in order to develop the necessary conditions for socialism to become a practical pursuit in the economically undeveloped country.", "In 1929, as Joseph Stalin became the leader of the party, Marxism–Leninism, a fusion of the original ideas of German philosopher and economic theorist Karl Marx, and Lenin, became formalized as the party's guiding ideology and would remain so throughout the rest of its existence.", "The party pursued state socialism, under which all industries were nationalized, and a command economy was implemented.", "After recovering from the Second World War, reforms were implemented which decentralized economic planning and liberalized Soviet society in general under Nikita Khrushchev.", "By 1980, various factors, including the continuing Cold War, and ongoing nuclear arms race with the United States and other Western European powers and unaddressed inefficiencies in the economy, led to stagnant economic growth under Alexei Kosygin, and further with Leonid Brezhnev and growing disillusionment.", "After the younger, vigorous Mikhail Gorbachev assumed leadership in 1985 (following two short-term elderly leaders, Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko, who quickly died in succession), rapid steps were taken to transform the tottering Soviet economic system in the direction of a market economy once again.", "Gorbachev and his allies envisioned the introduction of an economy similar to Lenin's earlier New Economic Policy through a program of \"perestroika\", or restructuring, but their reforms, along with the institution of free multi-candidate elections led to a decline in the party's power, and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the banning of the party by later last RSFSR President Boris Yeltsin and subsequent first President of an evolving democratic and free-market economy of the successor Russian Federation.A number of causes contributed to CPSU's loss of control and the dissolution of the Soviet Union during the early 1990s.", "Some historians have written that Gorbachev's policy of \"glasnost\" (political openness) was the root cause, noting that it weakened the party's control over society.", "Gorbachev maintained that ''perestroika'' without ''glasnost'' was doomed to failure anyway.", "Others have blamed the economic stagnation and subsequent loss of faith by the general populace in communist ideology.", "In the final years of the CPSU's existence, the Communist Parties of the federal subjects of Russia were united into the Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR).", "After the CPSU's demise, the Communist Parties of the Union Republics became independent and underwent various separate paths of reform.", "In Russia, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation emerged and has been regarded as the inheritor of the CPSU's old Bolshevik legacy into the present day." ], [ "History", "===Name===* 16 August 1917 – 8 March 1918: '''Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)''' ()* 8 March 1918 – 31 December 1925: '''Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''' ()* 31 December 1925 – 14 October 1952: '''All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''' ()* 14 October 1952 – 6 November 1991: '''Communist Party of the Soviet Union''' ()===Early years (1898–1924)===The origin of the CPSU was in the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP).", "This faction arose out of the split between followers of Julius Martov and Vladimir Lenin in August 1903 at the Party's second conference.", "Martov's followers were called the Mensheviks (which means minority in Russian); and Lenin's, the Bolsheviks (majority).", "(The two factions were in fact of fairly equal numerical size.)", "The split became more formalized in 1914, when the factions became named the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks), and Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Mensheviks).", "Prior to the February Revolution, the first phase of the Russian Revolutions of 1917, the party worked underground as organized anti-Tsarist groups.", "By the time of the revolution, many of the party's central leaders, including Lenin, were in exile.With Emperor Nicholas II (1868–1918, reigned 1894–1917), deposed in February 1917, a republic was established and administered by a provisional government, which was largely dominated by the interests of the military, former nobility, major capitalists business owners and democratic socialists.", "Alongside it, grassroots general assemblies spontaneously formed, called soviets, and a dual-power structure between the soviets and the provisional government was in place until such a time that their differences would be reconciled in a post-provisional government.", "Lenin was at this time in exile in Switzerland where he, with other dissidents in exile, managed to arrange with the Imperial German government safe passage through Germany in a sealed train back to Russia through the continent amidst the ongoing World War.", "In April, Lenin arrived in Petrograd (renamed former St. Petersburg) and condemned the provisional government, calling for the advancement of the revolution towards the transformation of the ongoing war into a war of the working class against capitalism.", "The rebellion proved not yet to be over, as tensions between the social forces aligned with the soviets (councils) and those with the provisional government now led by Alexander Kerensky (1881–1970, in power 1917), came into explosive tensions during that summer.The Bolsheviks had rapidly increased their political presence from May onward through the popularity of their program, notably calling for an immediate end to the war, land reform for the peasants, and restoring food allocation to the urban population.", "This program was translated to the masses through simple slogans that patiently explained their solution to each crisis the revolution created.", "Up to July, these policies were disseminated through 41 publications, ''Pravda'' being the main paper, with a readership of 320,000.This was roughly halved after the repression of the Bolsheviks following the July Days demonstrations so that even by the end of August, the principal paper of the Bolsheviks had a print run of only 50,000 copies.", "Despite this, their ideas gained them increasing popularity in elections to the soviets.The factions within the soviets became increasingly polarized in the later summer after armed demonstrations by soldiers at the call of the Bolsheviks and an attempted military coup by commanding Gen. Lavr Kornilov to eliminate the socialists from the provisional government.", "As the general consensus within the soviets moved leftward, less militant forces began to abandon them, leaving the Bolsheviks in a stronger position.", "By October, the Bolsheviks were demanding the full transfer of power to the soviets and for total rejection of the Kerensky led provisional government's legitimacy.", "The provisional government, insistent on maintaining the universally despised war effort on the Eastern Front because of treaty ties with its Allies and fears of Imperial German victory, had become socially isolated and had no enthusiastic support on the streets.", "On 7 November (25 October, old style), the Bolsheviks led an armed insurrection, which overthrew the Kerensky provisional government and left the soviets as the sole governing force in Russia.In the aftermath of the October Revolution, the soviets united federally and the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the world's first constitutionally socialist state, was established.", "The Bolsheviks were the majority within the soviets and began to fulfill their campaign promises by signing a damaging peace to end the war with the Germans in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and transferring estates and imperial lands to workers' and peasants' soviets.", "In this context, in 1918, RSDLP(b) became All-Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks).", "Outside of Russia, social-democrats who supported the Soviet government began to identify as communists, while those who opposed it retained the social-democratic label.In 1921, as the Civil War was drawing to a close, Lenin proposed the New Economic Policy (NEP), a system of state capitalism that started the process of industrialization and post-war recovery.", "The NEP ended a brief period of intense rationing called \"war communism\" and began a period of a market economy under Communist dictation.", "The Bolsheviks believed at this time that Russia, being among the most economically undeveloped and socially backward countries in Europe, had not yet reached the necessary conditions of development for socialism to become a practical pursuit and that this would have to wait for such conditions to arrive under capitalist development as had been achieved in more advanced countries such as England and Germany.", "On 30 December 1922, the Russian SFSR joined former territories of the Russian Empire to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), of which Lenin was elected leader.", "On 9 March 1923, Lenin suffered a stroke, which incapacitated him and effectively ended his role in government.", "He died on 21 January 1924, only thirteen months after the founding of the Soviet Union, of which he would become regarded as the founding father.===Stalin era (1924–53)===After Lenin's death, a power struggle ensued between Joseph Stalin, the party's General Secretary, and Leon Trotsky, the Minister of Defence, each with highly contrasting visions for the future direction of the country.", "Trotsky sought to implement a policy of permanent revolution, which was predicated on the notion that the Soviet Union would not be able to survive in a socialist character when surrounded by hostile governments and therefore concluded that it was necessary to actively support similar revolutions in the more advanced capitalist countries.", "Stalin, however, argued that such a foreign policy would not be feasible with the capabilities then possessed by the Soviet Union and that it would invite the country's destruction by engaging in armed conflict.", "Rather, Stalin argued that the Soviet Union should, in the meantime, pursue peaceful coexistence and invite foreign investment in order to develop the country's economy and build socialism in one country.Joseph Stalin, leader of the party from 1924 to his death in 1953Ultimately, Stalin gained the greatest support within the party, and Trotsky, who was increasingly viewed as a collaborator with outside forces in an effort to depose Stalin, was isolated and subsequently expelled from the party and exiled from the country in 1928.Stalin's policies henceforth would later become collectively known as Stalinism.", "In 1925, the name of the party was changed to the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), reflecting that the republics outside of Russia proper were no longer part of an all-encompassing Russian state.", "The acronym was usually transliterated as VKP(b), or sometimes VCP(b).", "Stalin sought to formalize the party's ideological outlook into a philosophical hybrid of the original ideas of Lenin with orthodox Marxism into what would be called Marxism–Leninism.", "Stalin's position as General Secretary became the top executive position within the party, giving Stalin significant authority over party and state policy.By the end of the 1920s, diplomatic relations with Western countries were deteriorating to the point that there was a growing fear of another allied attack on the Soviet Union.", "Within the country, the conditions of the NEP had enabled growing inequalities between increasingly wealthy strata and the remaining poor.", "The combination of these tensions led the party leadership to conclude that it was necessary for the government's survival to pursue a new policy that would centralize economic activity and accelerate industrialization.", "To do this, the first five-year plan was implemented in 1928.The plan doubled the industrial workforce, proletarianizing many of the peasants by removing them from their land and assembling them into urban centers.", "Peasants who remained in agricultural work were also made to have a similarly proletarian relationship to their labor through the policies of collectivization, which turned feudal-style farms into collective farms which would be in a cooperative nature under the direction of the state.", "These two shifts changed the base of Soviet society towards a more working-class alignment.", "The plan was fulfilled ahead of schedule in 1932.The success of industrialization in the Soviet Union led Western countries, such as the United States, to open diplomatic relations with the Soviet government.", "In 1933, after years of unsuccessful workers' revolutions (including a short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic) and spiraling economic calamity, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, violently suppressing the revolutionary organizers and posing a direct threat to the Soviet Union that ideologically supported them.", "The threat of fascist sabotage and imminent attack greatly exacerbated the already existing tensions within the Soviet Union and the Communist Party.", "A wave of paranoia overtook Stalin and the party leadership and spread through Soviet society.", "Seeing potential enemies everywhere, leaders of the government security apparatuses began severe crackdowns known as the Great Purge.", "In total, hundreds of thousands of people, many of whom were posthumously recognized as innocent, were arrested and either sent to prison camps or executed.", "Also during this time, a campaign against religion was waged in which the Russian Orthodox Church, which had long been a political arm of Tsarism before the revolution, was ruthlessly repressed, organized religion was generally removed from public life and made into a completely private matter, with many churches, mosques and other shrines being repurposed or demolished.The Soviet Union was the first to warn of the impending danger of invasion from Nazi Germany to the international community.", "The Western powers, however, remained committed to maintaining peace and avoiding another war breaking out, many considering the Soviet Union's warnings to be an unwanted provocation.", "After many unsuccessful attempts to create an anti-fascist alliance among the Western countries, including trying to rally international support for the Spanish Republic in its struggle against a nationalist military coup which received supported from Germany and Italy, in 1939 the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, later jointly invading Poland to fulfil a secret protocol of the pact, as well as occupying the Baltic States, this pact would be broken in June 1941 when the German military invaded the Soviet Union in the largest land invasion in history, beginning the Great Patriotic War.The Communist International was dissolved in 1943 after it was concluded that such an organization had failed to prevent the rise of fascism and the global war necessary to defeat it.", "After the 1945 Allied victory of World War II, the Party held to a doctrine of establishing socialist governments in the post-war occupied territories that would be administered by Communists loyal to Stalin's administration.", "The party also sought to expand its sphere of influence beyond the occupied territories, using proxy wars and espionage and providing training and funding to promote Communist elements abroad, leading to the establishment of the Cominform in 1947.In 1949, the Communists emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil War, causing an extreme shift in the global balance of forces and greatly escalating tensions between the Communists and the Western powers, fueling the Cold War.", "In Europe, Yugoslavia, under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, acquired the territory of Trieste, causing conflict both with the Western powers and with the Stalin administration who opposed such a provocative move.", "Furthermore, the Yugoslav Communists actively supported the Greek Communists during their civil war, further frustrating the Soviet government.", "These tensions led to a Tito–Stalin split, which marked the beginning of international sectarian division within the world communist movement.===Post-Stalin years (1953–85)===After Stalin's death, Nikita Khrushchev rose to the top post by overcoming political adversaries, including Lavrentiy Beria and Georgy Malenkov, in a power struggle.", "In 1955, Khrushchev achieved the demotion of Malenkov and secured his own position as Soviet leader.", "Early in his rule and with the support of several members of the Presidium, Khrushchev initiated the Thaw, which effectively ended the Stalinist mass terror of the prior decades and reduced socio-economic oppression considerably.", "At the 20th Congress held in 1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin's crimes, being careful to omit any reference to complicity by any sitting Presidium members.", "His economic policies, while bringing about improvements, were not enough to fix the fundamental problems of the Soviet economy.", "The standard of living for ordinary citizens did increase; 108 million people moved into new housing between 1956 and 1965.Khrushchev's foreign policies led to the Sino-Soviet split, in part a consequence of his public denunciation of Stalin.", "Khrushchev improved relations with Josip Broz Tito's League of Communists of Yugoslavia but failed to establish the close, party-to-party relations that he wanted.", "While the Thaw reduced political oppression at home, it led to unintended consequences abroad, such as the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and unrest in Poland, where the local citizenry now felt confident enough to rebel against Soviet control.", "Khrushchev also failed to improve Soviet relations with the West, partially because of a hawkish military stance.", "In the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Khrushchev's position within the party was substantially weakened.", "Shortly before his eventual ousting, he tried to introduce economic reforms championed by Evsei Liberman, a Soviet economist, which tried to implement market mechanisms into the planned economy.Khrushchev was ousted on 14 October 1964 in a Central Committee plenum that officially cited his inability to listen to others, his failure in consulting with the members of the Presidium, his establishment of a cult of personality, his economic mismanagement, and his anti-party reforms as the reasons he was no longer fit to remain as head of the party.", "He was succeeded in office by Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Chairman of the Council of Ministers.Brezhnev era is commonly referred to by historians as the Era of Stagnation, a term coined by CPSU General Secretary Gorbachev.The Brezhnev era began with a rejection of Khrushchevism in virtually every arena except one: continued opposition to Stalinist methods of terror and political violence.", "Khrushchev's policies were criticized as voluntarism, and the Brezhnev period saw the rise of neo-Stalinism.", "While Stalin was never rehabilitated during this period, the most conservative journals in the country were allowed to highlight positive features of his rule.At the 23rd Congress held in 1966, the names of the office of First Secretary and the body of the Presidium reverted to their original names: General Secretary and Politburo, respectively.", "At the start of his premiership, Kosygin experimented with economic reforms similar to those championed by Malenkov, including prioritizing light industry over heavy industry to increase the production of consumer goods.", "Similar reforms were introduced in Hungary under the name New Economic Mechanism; however, with the rise to power of Alexander Dubček in Czechoslovakia, who called for the establishment of \"socialism with a human face\", all non-conformist reform attempts in the Soviet Union were stopped.During his rule, Brezhnev supported ''détente'', a passive weakening of animosity with the West with the goal of improving political and economic relations.", "However, by the 25th Congress held in 1976, political, economic and social problems within the Soviet Union began to mount, and the Brezhnev administration found itself in an increasingly difficult position.", "The previous year, Brezhnev's health began to deteriorate.", "He became addicted to painkillers and needed to take increasingly more potent medications to attend official meetings.", "Because of the \"trust in cadres\" policy implemented by his administration, the CPSU leadership evolved into a gerontocracy.", "At the end of Brezhnev's rule, problems continued to amount; in 1979 he consented to the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan to save the embattled communist regime there and supported the oppression of the Solidarity movement in Poland.", "As problems grew at home and abroad, Brezhnev was increasingly ineffective in responding to the growing criticism of the Soviet Union by Western leaders, most prominently by US Presidents Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan, and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.", "The CPSU, which had wishfully interpreted the financial crisis of the 1970s as the beginning of the end of capitalism, found its country falling far behind the West in its economic development.", "Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982, and was succeeded by Yuri Andropov on 12 November.Andropov, a staunch anti-Stalinist, chaired the KGB during most of Brezhnev's reign.", "He had appointed several reformers to leadership positions in the KGB, many of whom later became leading officials under Gorbachev.", "Andropov supported increased openness in the press, particularly regarding the challenges facing the Soviet Union.", "Andropov was in office briefly, but he appointed a number of reformers, including Yegor Ligachev, Nikolay Ryzhkov and Mikhail Gorbachev, to important positions.", "He also supported a crackdown on absenteeism and corruption.", "Andropov had intended to let Gorbachev succeed him in office, but Konstantin Chernenko and his supporters suppressed the paragraph in the letter which called for Gorbachev's elevation.", "Andropov died on 9 February 1984 and was succeeded by Chernenko.", "The elderly Cherneko was in poor health throughout his short leadership and was unable to consolidate power; effective control of the party organization remained with Gorbachev.", "Chernenko died on 10 March 1985 and was succeeded in office by Gorbachev the next day.===Gorbachev and the party's demise (1985–91)===The Politburo did not want another elderly and frail leader after its previous three leaders, and elected Gorbachev as CPSU General Secretary on 11 March 1985, one day after Chernenko's death.", "When Gorbachev acceded to power, the Soviet Union was stagnating but was stable and might have continued largely unchanged into the 21st century if not for Gorbachev's reforms.Gorbachev conducted a significant personnel reshuffling of the CPSU leadership, forcing old party conservatives out of office.", "In 1985 and early 1986 the new leadership of the party called for ''uskoreniye'' ().", "Gorbachev reinvigorated the party ideology, adding new concepts and updating older ones.", "Positive consequences of this included the allowance of \"pluralism of thought\" and a call for the establishment of \"socialist pluralism\" (literally, socialist democracy).", "Gorbachev introduced a policy of glasnost (, meaning ''openness'' or ''transparency'') in 1986, which led to a wave of unintended democratization.", "According to the British researcher of Russian affairs, Archie Brown, the democratization of the Soviet Union brought mixed blessings to Gorbachev; it helped him to weaken his conservative opponents within the party but brought out accumulated grievances which had been suppressed during the previous decades.", "Mikhail Gorbachev, the last leader of the CPSU and the Soviet Union, as seen in 1986In reaction to these changes, a conservative movement gained momentum in 1987 in response to Boris Yeltsin's dismissal as First Secretary of the CPSU Moscow City Committee.", "On 13 March 1988, Nina Andreyeva, a university lecturer, wrote an article titled \"I Cannot Forsake My Principles\".", "The publication was planned to occur when both Gorbachev and his protege Alexander Yakovlev were visiting foreign countries.", "In their place, Yegor Ligachev led the party organization and told journalists that the article was \"a benchmark for what we need in our ideology today\".", "Upon Gorbachev's return, the article was discussed at length during a Politburo meeting; it was revealed that nearly half of its members were sympathetic to the letter and opposed further reforms which could weaken the party.", "The meeting lasted for two days, but on 5 April a Politburo resolution responded with a point-by-point rebuttal to Andreyeva's article.Gorbachev convened the 19th Party Conference in June 1988.He criticized leading party conservativesLigachev, Andrei Gromyko and Mikhail Solomentsev.", "In turn, conservative delegates attacked Gorbachev and the reformers.", "According to Brown, there had not been as much open discussion and dissent at a party meeting since the early 1920s.Despite the deep-seated opposition to further reform, the CPSU remained hierarchical; the conservatives acceded to Gorbachev's demands in deference to his position as the CPSU General Secretary.", "The 19th Conference approved the establishment of the Congress of People's Deputies (CPD) and allowed for contested elections between the CPSU and independent candidates.", "Other organized parties were not allowed.", "The CPD was elected in 1989; one-third of the seats were appointed by the CPSU and other public organizations to sustain the Soviet one-party state.", "The elections were democratic, but most elected CPD members opposed any more radical reform.", "The elections featured the highest electoral turnout in Russian history; no election before or since had a higher participation rate.", "An organized opposition was established within the legislature under the name Inter-Regional Group of Deputies by dissident Andrei Sakharov.", "An unintended consequence of these reforms was the increased anti-CPSU pressure; in March 1990, at a session of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the party was forced to relinquish its political monopoly of power, in effect turning the Soviet Union into a liberal democracy.The CPSU's demise began in March 1990, when state bodies eclipsed party elements in power.", "From then until the Soviet Union's disestablishment, Gorbachev ruled the country through the newly created post of President of the Soviet Union.", "Following this, the central party apparatus did not play a practical role in Soviet affairs.", "Gorbachev had become independent from the Politburo and faced few constraints from party leaders.", "In the summer of 1990 the party convened the 28th Congress.", "A new Politburo was elected, previous incumbents (except Gorbachev and Vladimir Ivashko, the CPSU Deputy General Secretary) were removed.", "Later that year, the party began work on a new program with a working title, \"Towards a Humane, Democratic Socialism\".", "According to Brown, the program reflected Gorbachev's journey from an orthodox communist to a European social democrat.", "The freedoms of thought and organization which Gorbachev allowed led to a rise in nationalism in the Soviet republics, indirectly weakening the central authorities.", "In response to this, a referendum took place in 1991, in which most of the union republics voted to preserve the union in a different form.", "In reaction to this, conservative elements within the CPSU launched the August 1991 coup, which overthrew Gorbachev but failed to preserve the Soviet Union.", "When Gorbachev resumed control (21 August 1991) after the coup's collapse, he resigned from the CPSU on 24 August 1991 and operations were handed over to Ivashko.", "On 29 August 1991 the activity of the CPSU was suspended throughout the country, on 6 November Yeltsin banned the activities of the party in Russia and Gorbachev resigned from the presidency on 25 December; the following day the Soviet of Republics dissolved the Soviet Union.On 30 November 1992, the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation recognized the ban on the activities of the primary organizations of the Communist Party, formed on a territorial basis, as inconsistent with the Constitution of Russia, but upheld the dissolution of the governing structures of the CPSU and the governing structures of its republican organizationthe Communist Party of the RSFSR.After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russian adherents to the CPSU tradition, particularly as it existed before Gorbachev, reorganized themselves within the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF).", "Today a wide range of parties in Russia present themselves as successors of CPSU.", "Several of them have used the name \"CPSU\".", "However, the CPRF is generally seen (due to its massive size) as the heir of the CPSU in Russia.", "Additionally, the CPRF was initially founded as the Communist Party of the Russian SFSR in 1990 (sometime before the abolition of the CPSU) and was seen by critics as a \"Russian-nationalist\" counterpart to the CPSU." ], [ "Governing style", "The style of governance in the party alternated between collective leadership and a cult of personality.", "Collective leadership split power between the Politburo, the Central Committee, and the Council of Ministers to hinder any attempts to create a one-man dominance over the Soviet political system.", "By contrast, Stalin's period as the leader was characterized by an extensive cult of personality.", "Regardless of leadership style, all political power in the Soviet Union was concentrated in the organization of the CPSU.===Democratic centralism===Democratic centralism is an organizational principle conceived by Lenin.", "According to Soviet pronouncements, democratic centralism was distinguished from \"bureaucratic centralism\", which referred to high-handed formulae without knowledge or discussion.", "In democratic centralism, decisions are taken after discussions, but once the general party line has been formed, discussion on the subject must cease.", "No member or organizational institution may dissent on a policy after it has been agreed upon by the party's governing body; to do so would lead to expulsion from the party (formalized at the 10th Congress).", "Because of this stance, Lenin initiated a ban on factions, which was approved at the 10th Congress.Lenin believed that democratic centralism safeguarded both party unity and ideological correctness.", "He conceived of the system after the events of 1917 when several socialist parties \"deformed\" themselves and actively began supporting nationalist sentiments.", "Lenin intended that the devotion to policy required by centralism would protect the parties from such revisionist ills and bourgeois deformation of socialism.", "Lenin supported the notion of a highly centralized vanguard party, in which ordinary party members elected the local party committee, the local party committee elected the regional committee, the regional committee elected the Central Committee, and the Central Committee elected the Politburo, Orgburo, and the Secretariat.", "Lenin believed that the party needed to be ruled from the center and have at its disposal power to mobilize party members at will.", "This system was later introduced in communist parties abroad through the Communist International (Comintern).===Vanguardism===A central tenet of Leninism was that of the vanguard party.", "In a capitalist society, the party was to represent the interests of the working class and all of those who were exploited by capitalism in general; however, it was not to become a part of that class.", "Lenin decided that the party's sole responsibility was to articulate and plan the long-term interests of the oppressed classes.", "It was not responsible for the daily grievances of those classes; that was the responsibility of the trade unions.", "According to Lenin, the party and the oppressed classes could never become one because the party was responsible for leading the oppressed classes to victory.", "The basic idea was that a small group of organized people could wield power disproportionate to their size with superior organizational skills.", "Despite this, until the end of his life, Lenin warned of the danger that the party could be taken over by bureaucrats, by a small clique, or by an individual.", "Toward the end of his life, he criticized the bureaucratic inertia of certain officials and admitted to problems with some of the party's control structures, which were to supervise organizational life." ], [ "Organization", "* Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Armenia (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Azerbaijan (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Bukhara**Communist Party of Byelorussia (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Estonia (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Georgia (Central Committee)**Communist Party of the Karelia-Finland SSR (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Kazakhstan (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Kirgizia (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Khorezm* Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Latvia (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Lithuania (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Lithuania and Byelorussia (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Moldavia–Moldova (Central Committee)**Communist Party of the Russian SFSR (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Tajikistan (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Turkestan (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Turkmenistan (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Ukraine (Central Committee)**Communist Party of Uzbekistan (Central Committee)===Congress===The Congress, nominally the highest organ of the party, was convened every five years.", "Leading up to the October Revolution and until Stalin's consolidation of power, the Congress was the party's main decision-making body.", "However, after Stalin's ascension, the Congresses became largely symbolic.", "CPSU leaders used Congresses as a propaganda and control tool.", "The most noteworthy Congress since the 1930s was the 20th Congress, in which Khrushchev denounced Stalin in a speech titled \"The Personality Cult and its Consequences\".Despite delegates to Congresses losing their powers to criticize or remove party leadership, the Congresses functioned as a form of elite-mass communication.", "They were occasions for the party leadership to express the party line over the next five years to ordinary CPSU members and the general public.", "The information provided was general, ensuring that party leadership retained the ability to make specific policy changes as they saw fit.The Congresses also provided the party leadership with formal legitimacy by providing a mechanism for the election of new members and the retirement of old members who had lost favor.", "The elections at Congresses were all predetermined and the candidates who stood for seats to the Central Committee and the Central Auditing Commission were approved beforehand by the Politburo and the Secretariat.", "A Congress could also provide a platform for the announcement of new ideological concepts.", "For instance, at the 22nd Congress, Khrushchev announced that the Soviet Union would see \"communism in twenty years\" a position later retracted.A Conference, officially referred to as an All-Union Conference, was convened between Congresses by the Central Committee to discuss party policy and to make personnel changes within the Central Committee.", "19 conferences were convened during the CPSU's existence.", "The 19th Congress held in 1952 removed the clause in the party's statute which stipulated that a party Conference could be convened.", "The clause was reinstated at the 23rd Congress, which was held in 1966.====Central Committee====The Central Committee was a collective body elected at the annual party congress.", "It was mandated to meet at least twice a year to act as the party's supreme governing body.", "Membership of the Central Committee increased from 71 full members in 1934 to 287 in 1976.Central Committee members were elected to the seats because of the offices they held, not on their personal merit.", "Because of this, the Central Committee was commonly considered an indicator for Sovietologists to study the strength of the different institutions.", "The Politburo was elected by and reported to the Central Committee.", "Besides the Politburo, the Central Committee also elected the Secretariat and the General Secretarythe ''de facto'' leader of the Soviet Union.", "In 1919–1952, the Orgburo was also elected in the same manner as the Politburo and the Secretariat by the plenums of the Central Committee.", "In between Central Committee plenums, the Politburo and the Secretariat were legally empowered to make decisions on its behalf.", "The Central Committee or the Politburo and/or Secretariat on its behalf could issue nationwide decisions; decisions on behalf of the party were transmitted from the top to the bottom.Under Lenin, the Central Committee functioned much as the Politburo did during the post-Stalin era, serving as the party's governing body.", "However, as the membership in the Central Committee increased, its role was eclipsed by the Politburo.", "Between Congresses, the Central Committee functioned as the Soviet leadership's source of legitimacy.", "The decline in the Central Committee's standing began in the 1920s; it was reduced to a compliant body of the Party leadership during the Great Purge.", "According to party rules, the Central Committee was to convene at least twice a year to discuss political mattersbut not matters relating to military policy.", "The body remained largely symbolic after Stalin's consolidation; leading party officials rarely attended meetings of the Central Committee.====Central Auditing Commission====The Central Auditing Commission (CAC) was elected by the party Congresses and reported only to the party Congress.", "It had about as many members as the Central Committee.", "It was responsible for supervising the expeditious and proper handling of affairs by the central bodies of the Party; it audited the accounts of the Treasury and the enterprises of the Central Committee.", "It was also responsible for supervising the Central Committee apparatus, making sure that its directives were implemented and that Central Committee directives complied with the party Statute.====Statute====The Statute (also referred to as the Rules, Charter and Constitution) was the party's by-laws and controlled life within the CPSU.", "The 1st Statute was adopted at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Partythe forerunner of the CPSU.", "How the Statute was to be structured and organized led to a schism within the party, leading to the establishment of two competing factions; Bolsheviks (literally ''majority'') and Mensheviks (literally ''minority'').", "The 1st Statute was based upon Lenin's idea of a centralized vanguard party.", "The 4th Congress, despite a majority of Menshevik delegates, added the concept of democratic centralism to Article 2 of the Statute.", "The 1st Statute lasted until 1919 when the 8th Congress adopted the 2nd Statute.", "It was nearly five times as long as the 1st Statute and contained 66 articles.", "It was amended at the 9th Congress.", "At the 11th Congress, the 3rd Statute was adopted with only minor amendments being made.", "New statutes were approved at the 17th and 18th Congresses respectively.", "The last party statute, which existed until the dissolution of the CPSU, was adopted at the 22nd Congress.===Central Committee apparatus=======General Secretary====General Secretary of the Central Committee was the title given to the overall leader of the party.", "The office was synonymous with the leader of the Soviet Union after Joseph Stalin's consolidation of power in the 1920s.", "Stalin used the office of General Secretary to create a strong power base for himself.", "The office was formally titled ''First Secretary'' between 1953 and 1966.====Politburo====Politburo resolution to execute 346 \"enemies of the CPSU and Soviet Power\" who led \"counter-revolutionary, right-trotskyite, plotting and spying activities\" (signed by Stalin)The Political Bureau (Politburo), known as the Presidium from 1952 to 1966, was the highest party organ when the Congress and the Central Committee were not in session.", "Until the 19th Conference in 1988, the Politburo alongside the Secretariat controlled appointments and dismissals nationwide.", "In the post-Stalin period, the Politburo controlled the Central Committee apparatus through two channels; the General Department distributed the Politburo's orders to the Central Committee departments and through the personnel overlap which existed within the Politburo and the Secretariat.", "This personnel overlap gave the CPSU General Secretary a way of strengthening his position within the Politburo through the Secretariat.", "Kirill Mazurov, Politburo member from 1965 to 1978, accused Brezhnev of turning the Politburo into a \"second echelon\" of power.", "He accomplished this by discussing policies before Politburo meetings with Mikhail Suslov, Andrei Kirilenko, Fyodor Kulakov and Dmitriy Ustinov among others, who held seats both in the Politburo and the Secretariat.", "Mazurov's claim was later verified by Nikolai Ryzhkov, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers under Gorbachev.", "Ryzhkov said that Politburo meetings lasted only 15 minutes because the people close to Brezhnev had already decided what was to be approved.The Politburo was abolished and replaced by a Presidium in 1952 at the 19th Congress.", "In the aftermath the 19th Congress and the 1st Plenum of the 19th Central Committee, Stalin ordered the creation of the Bureau of the Presidium, which acted as the standing committee of the Presidium.", "On 6 March 1953, one day after Stalin's death, a new and smaller Presidium was elected, and the Bureau of the Presidium was abolished in a joint session with the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet and the Council of Ministers.Until 1990, the CPSU General Secretary acted as the informal chairman of the Politburo.", "During the first decades of the CPSU's existence, the Politburo was officially chaired by the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars; first by Lenin, then by Aleksey Rykov, Molotov, Stalin and Malenkov.", "After 1922, when Lenin was incapacitated, Lev Kamenev as Deputy Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars chaired the Politburo's meetings.", "This tradition lasted until Khrushchev's consolidation of power.", "In the first post-Stalin years, when Malenkov chaired Politburo meetings, Khrushchev as First Secretary signed all Central Committee documents into force.", "From 1954 until 1958, Khrushchev chaired the Politburo as First Secretary, but in 1958 he dismissed and succeeded Nikolai Bulganin as Chairman of the Council of Ministers.", "During this period, the informal position of Second Secretarylater formalized as Deputy General Secretarywas established.", "The Second Secretary became responsible for chairing the Secretariat in place of the General Secretary.", "When the General Secretary could not chair the meetings of the Politburo, the Second Secretary would take his place.", "This system survived until the dissolution of the CPSU in 1991.To be elected to the Politburo, a member had to serve in the Central Committee.", "The Central Committee elected the Politburo in the aftermath of a party Congress.", "Members of the Central Committee were given a predetermined list of candidates for the Politburo having only one candidate for each seat; for this reason, the election of the Politburo was usually passed unanimously.", "The greater the power held by the sitting CPSU General Secretary, the higher the chance that the Politburo membership would be approved.====Secretariat====The Secretariat headed the CPSU's central apparatus and was solely responsible for the development and implementation of party policies.", "It was legally empowered to take over the duties and functions of the Central Committee when it was not in the plenum (did not hold a meeting).", "Many members of the Secretariat concurrently held a seat in the Politburo.", "According to a Soviet textbook on party procedures, the Secretariat's role was that of \"leadership of current work, chiefly in the realm of personnel selection and in the organization of the verification of fulfillment of party-state decisions\".", "\"Selections of personnel\" () in this instance meant the maintenance of general standards and the criteria for selecting various personnel.", "\"Verification of fulfillment\" () of party and state decisions meant that the Secretariat instructed other bodies.The powers of the Secretariat were weakened under Mikhail Gorbachev, and the Central Committee Commissions took over the functions of the Secretariat in 1988.Yegor Ligachev, a Secretariat member, said that the changes completely destroyed the Secretariat's hold on power and made the body almost superfluous.", "Because of this, the Secretariat rarely met during the next two years.", "It was revitalized at the 28th Party Congress in 1990, and the Deputy General Secretary became the official head of the Secretariat.====Orgburo====The Organizational Bureau, or Orgburo, existed from 1919 to 1952 and was one of three leading bodies of the party when the Central Committee was not in session.", "It was responsible for \"organizational questions, the recruitment, and allocation of personnel, the coordination of activities of the party, government and social organizations (e.g., trade unions and youth organizations), improvement to the party's structure, the distribution of information and reports within the party\".", "The 19th Congress abolished the Orgburo and its duties and responsibilities were taken over by the Secretariat.", "At the beginning, the Orgburo held three meetings a week and reported to the Central Committee every second week.", "Lenin described the relation between the Politburo and the Orgburo as \"the Orgburo allocates forces, while the Politburo decides policy\".", "A decision of the Orgburo was implemented by the Secretariat.", "However, the Secretariat could make decisions in the Orgburo's name without consulting its members, but if one Orgburo member objected to a Secretariat resolution, the resolution would not be implemented.", "In the 1920s, if the Central Committee could not convene the Politburo and the Orgburo would hold a joint session in its place.====Control Commission====The Central Control Commission (CCC) functioned as the party's supreme court.", "The CCC was established at the 9th All-Russian Conference in September 1920, but rules organizing its procedure were not enacted before the 10th Congress.", "The 10th Congress formally established the CCC on all party levels and stated that it could only be elected at a party congress or a party conference.", "The CCC and the CCs were formally independent but had to make decisions through the party committees at their level, which led them in practice to lose their administrative independence.", "At first, the primary responsibility of the CCs was to respond to party complaints, focusing mostly on party complaints of factionalism and bureaucratism.", "At the 11th Congress, the brief of the CCs was expanded; it became responsible for overseeing party discipline.", "In a bid to further centralize the powers of the CCC, a Presidium of the CCC, which functioned in a similar manner to the Politburo in relation to the Central Committee, was established in 1923.At the 18th Congress, party rules regarding the CCC were changed; it was now elected by the Central Committee and was subordinate to the Central Committee.CCC members could not concurrently be members of the Central Committee.", "To create an organizational link between the CCC and other central-level organs, the 9th All-Russian Conference created the joint CC–CCC plenums.", "The CCC was a powerful organ; the 10th Congress allowed it to expel full and candidate Central Committee members and members of their subordinate organs if two-thirds of attendants at a CC–CCC plenum voted for such.", "At its first such session in 1921, Lenin tried to persuade the joint plenum to expel Alexander Shliapnikov from the party; instead of expelling him, Shliapnikov was given a severe reprimand.====Departments====The leader of a department was usually given the title \"head\" ().", "In practice, the Secretariat had a major say in the running of the departments; for example, five of eleven secretaries headed their own departments in 1978.Normally, specific secretaries were given supervising duties over one or more departments.", "Each department established its own cellscalled sectionswhich specialized in one or more fields.", "During the Gorbachev era, a variety of departments made up the Central Committee apparatus.", "The Party Building and Cadre Work Department assigned party personnel in the nomenklatura system.", "The State and Legal Department supervised the armed forces, KGB, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the trade unions, and the Procuracy.", "Before 1989, the Central Committee had several departments, but some were abolished that year.", "Among these departments was the Economics Department that was responsible for the economy as a whole, one for machine building, one for the chemical industry, etc.", "The party abolished these departments to remove itself from the day-to-day management of the economy in favor of government bodies and a greater role for the market, as a part of the perestroika process.", "In their place, Gorbachev called for the creations of commissions with the same responsibilities as departments, but giving more independence from the state apparatus.", "This change was approved at the 19th Conference, which was held in 1988.Six commissions were established by late 1988.====''Pravda''====''Pravda'' (''The Truth'') was the leading newspaper in the Soviet Union.", "The Organizational Department of the Central Committee was the only organ empowered to dismiss ''Pravda'' editors.", "In 1905, ''Pravda'' began as a project by members of the Ukrainian Social Democratic Labour Party.", "Leon Trotsky was approached about the possibility of running the new paper because of his previous work on Ukrainian newspaper ''Kyivan Thought''.", "The first issue of ''Pravda'' was published on 3 October 1908 in Lvov, where it continued until the publication of the sixth issue in November 1909, when the operation was moved to Vienna, Austria-Hungary.", "During the Russian Civil War, sales of ''Pravda'' were curtailed by ''Izvestia'', the government run newspaper.", "At the time, the average reading figure for ''Pravda'' was 130,000.This Vienna-based newspaper published its last issue in 1912 and was succeeded the same year by a new newspaper dominated by the Bolsheviks, also called ''Pravda'', which was headquartered in St. Petersburg.", "The paper's main goal was to promote Marxist–Leninist philosophy and expose the lies of the bourgeoisie.", "In 1975, the paper reached a circulation of 10.6 million.", "It is currently owned by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation.====Higher Party School====The Higher Party School (HPS) was the organ responsible for teaching cadres in the Soviet Union.", "It was the successor of the Communist Academy, which was established in 1918.The HPS was established in 1939 as the Moscow Higher Party School and it offered its students a two-year training course for becoming a CPSU official.", "It was reorganized in 1956 to that it could offer more specialized ideological training.", "In 1956, the school in Moscow was opened for students from socialist countries outside the Soviet Union.", "The Moscow Higher Party School was the party school with the highest standing.", "The school itself had eleven faculties until a 1972 Central Committee resolution demanded a reorganization of the curriculum.", "The first regional HPS outside Moscow was established in 1946 and by the early 1950s there were 70 Higher Party Schools.", "During the reorganization drive of 1956, Khrushchev closed 13 of them and reclassified 29 as inter-republican and inter-oblast schools.===Lower-level organization=======Republican and local organization====The lowest organ above the primary party organization (PPO) was the district level.", "Every two years, the local PPO would elect delegates to the district-level party conference, which was overseen by a secretary from a higher party level.", "The conference elected a Party Committee and First Secretary and re-declared the district's commitment to the CPSU's program.", "In between conferences, the \"raion\" party committeecommonly referred to as \"raikom\"was vested with ultimate authority.", "It convened at least six times a year to discuss party directives and to oversee the implementation of party policies in their respective districts, to oversee the implementation of party directives at the PPO-level, and to issue directives to PPOs.", "75–80 percent of raikom members were full members, while the remaining 20–25 were non-voting, candidate members.", "Raikom members were commonly from the state sector, party sector, Komsomol or the trade unions.Day-to-day responsibility of the raikom was handed over to a Politburo, which usually composed of 12 members.", "The district-level First Secretary chaired the meetings of the local Politburo and the raikom, and was the direct link between the district and the higher party echelons.", "The First Secretary was responsible for the smooth running of operations.", "The raikom was headed by the local apparatthe local agitation department or industry department.", "A raikom usually had no more than 4 or 5 departments, each of which was responsible for overseeing the work of the state sector but would not interfere in their work.This system remained identical at all other levels of the CPSU hierarchy.", "The other levels were cities, oblasts (regions) and republics.", "The district-level elected delegates to a conference held at least every three years to elect the party committee.", "The only difference between the oblast and the district level was that the oblast had its own Secretariat and had more departments at its disposal.", "The oblast's party committee in turn elected delegates to the republican-level Congress, which was held every five years.", "The Congress then elected the Central Committee of the republic, which in turn elected a First Secretary and a Politburo.", "Until 1990, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was the only republic that did not have its own republican branch, being instead represented by the CPSU Central Committee.====Primary party organizations====The primary party organization (PPO) was the lowest level in the CPSU hierarchy.", "PPOs were organized cells consisting of three or more members.", "A PPO could exist anywhere; for example, in a factory or a student dormitory.", "They functioned as the party's \"eyes and ears\" at the lowest level and were used to mobilize support for party policies.", "All CPSU members had to be a member of a local PPO.", "The size of a PPO varied from three people to several hundred, depending upon its setting.", "In a large enterprise, a PPO usually had several hundred members.", "In such cases, the PPO was divided into bureaus based upon production-units.", "Each PPO was led by an executive committee and an executive committee secretary.", "Each executive committee is responsible for the PPO executive committee and its secretary.", "In small PPOs, members met periodically to mainly discuss party policies, ideology, or practical matters.", "In such a case, the PPO secretary was responsible for collecting party dues, reporting to higher organs, and maintaining the party records.", "A secretary could be elected democratically through a secret ballot, but that was not often the case; in 1979, only 88 out of the over 400,000 PPOs were elected in this fashion.", "The remainder were chosen by a higher party organ and ratified by the general meetings of the PPO.", "The PPO general meeting was responsible for electing delegates to the party conference at either the district- or town-level, depending on where the PPO was located.====Membership====CPSU membership card (1989)Membership of the party was not open.", "To become a party member, one had to be approved by various committees, and one's past was closely scrutinized.", "As generations grew up having known nothing before the Soviet Union, party membership became something one generally achieved after passing a series of stages.", "Children would join the Young Pioneers and, at the age of 14, might graduate to the Komsomol (Young Communist League).", "Ultimately, as an adult, if one had shown the proper adherence to party disciplineor had the right connections, one would become a member of the Communist Party itself.", "Membership of the party carried obligations as it expected Komsomol and CPSU members to pay dues and to carry out appropriate assignments and \"social tasks\" ().In 1918, party membership was approximately 200,000.In the late 1920s under Stalin, the party engaged in an intensive recruitment campaign, the \"Lenin Levy\", resulting in new members referred to as the Lenin Enrolment, from both the working class and rural areas.", "This represented an attempt to \"proletarianize\" the party and an attempt by Stalin to strengthen his base by outnumbering the Old Bolsheviks and reducing their influence in the Party.", "In 1925, the party had 1,025,000 members in a Soviet population of 147 million.", "In 1927, membership had risen to 1,200,000.During the collectivization campaign and industrialization campaigns of the first five-year plan from 1929 to 1933, party membership grew rapidly to approximately 3.5 million members.", "However, party leaders suspected that the mass intake of new members had allowed \"social-alien elements\" to penetrate the party's ranks and document verifications of membership ensued in 1933 and 1935, removing supposedly unreliable members.", "Meanwhile, the party closed its ranks to new members from 1933 to November 1936.Even after the reopening of party recruiting, membership fell to 1.9 million by 1939.Nicholas DeWitt gives 2.307 million members in 1939, including candidate members, compared with 1.535 million in 1929 and 6.3 million in 1947.In 1986, the CPSU had over 19 million membersapproximately 10% of the Soviet Union's adult population.", "Over 44% of party members were classified as industrial workers and 12% as collective farmers.", "The CPSU had party organizations in 14 of the Soviet Union's 15 republics.", "The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic itself had no separate Communist Party until 1990 because the CPSU controlled affairs there directly.===Komsomol===The All-Union Leninist Communist Youth League, commonly referred to as Komsomol, was the party's youth wing.", "The Komsomol acted under the direction of the CPSU Central Committee.", "It was responsible for indoctrinating youths in communist ideology and organizing social events.", "It was closely modeled on the CPSU; nominally the highest body was the Congress, followed by the Central Committee, Secretariat and the Politburo.", "The Komsomol participated in nationwide policy-making by appointing members to the collegiums of the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Higher and Specialized Secondary Education, the Ministry of Education and the State Committee for Physical Culture and Sports.", "The organization's newspaper was the ''Komsomolskaya Pravda''.", "The First Secretary and the Second Secretary were commonly members of the Central Committee but were never elected to the Politburo.", "However, at the republican level, several Komsomol first secretaries were appointed to the Politburo." ], [ "Ideology", "===Marxism–Leninism===Marxism–Leninism was the cornerstone of Soviet ideology.", "It explained and legitimized the CPSU's right to rule while explaining its role as a vanguard party.", "For instance, the ideology explained that the CPSU's policies, even if they were unpopular, were correct because the party was enlightened.", "It was represented as the only truth in Soviet society; the party rejected the notion of multiple truths.", "Marxism–Leninism was used to justify CPSU rule and Soviet policy, but it was not used as a means to an end.", "The relationship between ideology and decision-making was at best ambivalent; most policy decisions were made in the light of the continued, permanent development of Marxism–Leninism.", "Marxism–Leninism as the only truth could notby its very naturebecome outdated.Despite having evolved over the years, Marxism–Leninism had several central tenets.", "The main tenet was the party's status as the sole ruling party.", "The 1977 Constitution referred to the party as \"The leading and guiding force of Soviet society, and the nucleus of its political system, of all state and public organizations, is the Communist Party of the Soviet Union\".", "State socialism was essential and from Stalin until Gorbachev, official discourse considered that private social and economic activity retarding the development of collective consciousness and the economy.", "Gorbachev supported privatization to a degree but based his policies on Lenin's and Nikolai Bukharin's opinions of the New Economic Policy of the 1920s, and supported complete state ownership over the commanding heights of the economy.", "Unlike liberalism, Marxism–Leninism stressed the role of the individual as a member of a collective rather than the importance of the individual.", "Individuals only had the right to freedom of expression if it safeguarded the interests of a collective.", "For instance, the 1977 Constitution stated that every person had the right to express his or her opinion, but the opinion could only be expressed if it was in accordance with the \"general interests of Soviet society\".", "The number of rights granted to an individual was decided by the state, and the state could remove these rights if it saw fit.", "Soviet Marxism–Leninism justified nationalism; the Soviet media portrayed every victory of the state as a victory for the communist movement as a whole.", "Largely, Soviet nationalism was based upon ethnic Russian nationalism.", "Marxism–Leninism stressed the importance of the worldwide conflict between capitalism and socialism; the Soviet press wrote about progressive and reactionary forces while claiming that socialism was on the verge of victory and that the \"correlations of forces\" were in the Soviet Union's favor.", "The ideology professed state atheism and party members were consequently not allowed to be religious.Marxism–Leninism believed in the feasibility of a communist mode of production.", "All policies were justifiable if it contributed to the Soviet Union's achievement of that stage.====Leninism====In Marxist philosophy, Leninism is the body of political theory for the democratic organization of a revolutionary vanguard party and the achievement of a dictatorship of the proletariat as a political prelude to the establishment of the socialist mode of production developed by Lenin.", "Since Karl Marx rarely, if ever wrote about how the socialist mode of production would function, these tasks were left for Lenin to solve.", "Lenin's main contribution to Marxist thought is the concept of the vanguard party of the working class.", "He conceived the vanguard party as a highly knit, centralized organization that was led by intellectuals rather than by the working class itself.", "The CPSU was open only to a small number of workers because the workers in Russia still had not developed class consciousness and needed to be educated to reach such a state.", "Lenin believed that the vanguard party could initiate policies in the name of the working class even if the working class did not support them.", "The vanguard party would know what was best for the workers because the party functionaries had attained consciousness.Lenin, in light of the Marx's theory of the state (which views the state as an oppressive organ of the ruling class), had no qualms of forcing change upon the country.", "He viewed the dictatorship of the proletariat, rather than the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, to be the dictatorship of the majority.", "The repressive powers of the state were to be used to transform the country, and to strip of the former ruling class of their wealth.", "Lenin believed that the transition from the capitalist mode of production to the socialist mode of production would last for a long period.", "According to some authors, Leninism was by definition authoritarian.", "In contrast to Marx, who believed that the socialist revolution would comprise and be led by the working class alone, Lenin argued that a socialist revolution did not necessarily need to be led or to comprise the working class alone.", "Instead, he said that a revolution needed to be led by the oppressed classes of society, which in the case of Russia was the peasant class.====Stalinism====Stalinism, while not an ideology ''per se'', refers to the thoughts and policies of Stalin.Stalinism, while not an ideology ''per se'', refers to Stalin's thoughts and policies.", "Stalin's introduction of the concept \"Socialism in One Country\" in 1924 was an important moment in Soviet ideological discourse.", "According to Stalin, the Soviet Union did not need a socialist world revolution to construct a socialist society.", "Four years later, Stalin initiated his \"Second Revolution\" with the introduction of state socialism and central planning.", "In the early 1930s, he initiated the collectivization of Soviet agriculture by de-privatizing agriculture and creating peasant cooperatives rather than making it the responsibility of the state.", "With the initiation of his \"Second Revolution\", Stalin launched the \"Cult of Lenin\"a cult of personality centered upon himself.", "The name of the city of Petrograd was changed to Leningrad, the town of Lenin's birth was renamed Ulyanov (Lenin's birth-name), the Order of Lenin became the highest state award and portraits of Lenin were hung in public squares, workplaces and elsewhere.", "The increasing bureaucracy which followed the introduction of a state socialist economy was at complete odds with the Marxist notion of \"the withering away of the state\".", "Stalin explained the reasoning behind it at the 16th Congress held in 1930;We stand for the strengthening of the dictatorship of the proletariat, which represents the mightiest and most powerful authority of all forms of State that have ever existed.", "The highest development of the State power for the withering away of State power —this is the Marxian formula.", "Is this contradictory?", "Yes, it is contradictory.", "But this contradiction springs from life itself and reflects completely Marxist dialectic.At the 1939 18th Congress, Stalin abandoned the idea that the state would wither away.", "In its place, he expressed confidence that the state would exist, even if the Soviet Union reached communism, as long as it was encircled by capitalism.", "Two key concepts were created in the latter half of his rule; the \"two camps\" theory and the \"capitalist encirclement\" theory.", "The threat of capitalism was used to strengthen Stalin's personal powers and Soviet propaganda began making a direct link with Stalin and stability in society, saying that the country would crumble without the leader.", "Stalin deviated greatly from classical Marxism on the subject of \"subjective factors\"; Stalin said that party members of all ranks had to profess fanatic adherence to the party's line and ideology, if not, those policies would fail.===Concepts=======Dictatorship of the proletariat====Lenin, supporting Marx's theory of the state, believed democracy to be unattainable anywhere in the world before the proletariat seized power.", "According to Marxist theory, the state is a vehicle for oppression and is headed by a ruling class.", "He believed that by his time, the only viable solution was dictatorship since the war was heading into a final conflict between the \"progressive forces of socialism and the degenerate forces of capitalism\".", "The Russian Revolution was by 1917, already a failure according to its original aim, which was to act as an inspiration for a world revolution.", "The initial anti-statist posture and the active campaigning for direct democracy was replaced because of Russia's level of development withaccording to their own assessmentsdictatorship.", "The reasoning was Russia's lack of development, its status as the sole socialist state in the world, its encirclement by imperialist powers, and its internal encirclement by the peasantry.Marx and Lenin did not care if a bourgeois state was ruled in accordance with a republican, parliamentary or a constitutional monarchical system since this did not change the overall situation.", "These systems, even if they were ruled by a small clique or ruled through mass participation, were all dictatorships of the bourgeoisie who implemented policies in defense of capitalism.", "However, there was a difference; after the failures of the world revolutions, Lenin argued that this did not necessarily have to change under the dictatorship of the proletariat.", "The reasoning came from practical considerations; the majority of the country's inhabitants were not communists, neither could the party reintroduce parliamentary democracy because that was not in synchronization with its ideology and would lead to the party losing power.", "He, therefore, concluded that the form of government has nothing to do with the nature of the dictatorship of the proletariat.Bukharin and Trotsky agreed with Lenin; both said that the revolution had destroyed the old but had failed to create anything new.", "Lenin had now concluded that the dictatorship of the proletariat would not alter the relationship of power between men, but would rather \"transform their productive relations so that, in the long run, the realm of necessity could be overcome and, with that, genuine social freedom realized\".", "From 1920 to 1921, Soviet leaders and ideologists began differentiating between socialism and communism; hitherto the two terms had been used interchangeably and used to explain the same things.", "From then, the two terms had different meanings; Russia was in transition from capitalism to socialismreferred to interchangeably under Lenin as the dictatorship of the proletariat, socialism was the intermediate stage to communism and communism was considered the last stage of social development.", "By now, the party leaders believed that because of Russia's backward state, universal mass participation and true democracy could only take form in the last stage.In early Bolshevik discourse, the term \"dictatorship of the proletariat\" was of little significance, and the few times it was mentioned it was likened to the form of government which had existed in the Paris Commune.", "However, with the ensuing Russian Civil War and the social and material devastation that followed, its meaning altered from commune-type democracy to rule by iron-discipline.", "By now, Lenin had concluded that only a proletarian regime as oppressive as its opponents could survive in this world.", "The powers previously bestowed upon the Soviets were now given to the Council of People's Commissars, the central government, which was, in turn, to be governed by \"an army of steeled revolutionary Communists by Communists he referred to the Party\".", "In a letter to Gavril Myasnikov in late 1920, Lenin explained his new interpretation of the term \"dictatorship of the proletariat\":Dictatorship means nothing more nor less than authority untrammeled by any laws, absolutely unrestricted by any rules whatever, and based directly on force.", "The term 'dictatorship' .Lenin justified these policies by claiming that all states were class states by nature and that these states were maintained through class struggle.", "This meant that the dictatorship of the proletariat in the Soviet Union could only be \"won and maintained by the use of violence against the bourgeoisie\".", "The main problem with this analysis is that the party came to view anyone opposing or holding alternate views of the party as bourgeois.", "Its worst enemy remained the moderates, which were considered to be \"the real agents of the bourgeoisie in the working-class movement, the labor lieutenants of the capitalist class\".", "The term \"bourgeoisie\" became synonymous with \"opponent\" and with people who disagreed with the party in general.", "These oppressive measures led to another reinterpretation of the dictatorship of the proletariat and socialism in general; it was now defined as a purely economic system.", "Slogans and theoretical works about democratic mass participation and collective decision-making were now replaced with texts which supported authoritarian management.", "Considering the situation, the party believed it had to use the same powers as the bourgeoisie to transform Russia; there was no alternative.", "Lenin began arguing that the proletariat, like the bourgeoisie, did not have a single preference for a form of government and because of that, the dictatorship was acceptable to both the party and the proletariat.", "In a meeting with party officials, Lenin statedin line with his economist view of socialismthat \"Industry is indispensable, democracy is not\", further arguing that \"we the Party do not promise any democracy or any freedom\".====Anti-imperialism====The Marxist theory on imperialism was conceived by Lenin in his book, ''Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism'' (published in 1917).", "It was written in response to the theoretical crisis within Marxist thought, which occurred due to capitalism's recovery in the 19th century.", "According to Lenin, imperialism was a specific stage of development of capitalism; a stage he referred to as state monopoly capitalism.", "The Marxist movement was split on how to solve capitalism's resurgence after the great depression of the late 19th century.", "Eduard Bernstein from the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SDP) considered capitalism's revitalization as proof that it was evolving into a more humane system, adding that the basic aims of socialists were not to overthrow the state but to take power through elections.", "Karl Kautsky, also from the SDP, held a highly dogmatic view; he said that there was no crisis within Marxist theory.", "Both of them denied or belittled the role of class contradictions in society after the crisis.", "In contrast, Lenin believed that the resurgence was the beginning of a new phase of capitalism; this stage was created because of a strengthening of class contradiction, not because of its reduction.Lenin did not know when the imperialist stage of capitalism began; he said it would be foolish to look for a specific year, however, said it began at the beginning of the 20th century (at least in Europe).", "Lenin believed that the economic crisis of 1900 accelerated and intensified the concentration of industry and banking, which led to the transformation of the finance capital connection to industry into the monopoly of large banks.", "In ''Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism'', Lenin wrote; \"the twentieth century marks the turning point from the old capitalism to the new, from the domination of capital in general to the domination of finance capital\".", "Lenin defines imperialism as the monopoly stage of capitalism.The 1986 Party Program claimed the Tsarist regime collapsed because the contradictions of imperialism, which he held to be the gap \"between the social nature of production and the private capitalist form of appropriation\" manifesting itself in wars, economic recessions, and exploitation of the working class, were strongest in Russia.", "Imperialism was held to have caused the Russo-Japanese War and the First World War, with the 1905 Russian Revolution presented as \"the first people's revolution of the imperialist epoch\" and the October Revolution is said to have been rooted in \"the nationwide movement against imperialist war and for peace.", "\"====Peaceful coexistence====\"Peaceful coexistence\" was an ideological concept introduced under Khrushchev's rule.", "While the concept has been interpreted by fellow communists as proposing an end to the conflict between the systems of capitalism and socialism, Khrushchev saw it as a continuation of the conflict in every area except in the military field.", "The concept said that the two systems were developed \"by way of diametrically opposed laws\", which led to \"opposite principles in foreign policy\".Peaceful coexistence was steeped in Leninist and Stalinist thought.", "Lenin believed that international politics were dominated by class struggle; in the 1940s Stalin stressed the growing polarization which was occurring in the capitalist and socialist systems.", "Khrushchev's peaceful coexistence was based on practical changes which had occurred; he accused the old \"two camp\" theory of neglecting the non-aligned movement and the national liberation movements.", "Khrushchev considered these \"grey areas\", in which the conflict between capitalism and socialism would be fought.", "He still stressed that the main contradiction in international relations were those of capitalism and socialism.", "The Soviet Government under Khrushchev stressed the importance of peaceful coexistence, saying that it had to form the basis of Soviet foreign policy.", "Failure to do, they believed, would lead to nuclear conflict.", "Despite this, Soviet theorists still considered peaceful coexistence to be a continuation of the class struggle between the capitalist and socialist worlds, but not based on armed conflict.", "Khrushchev believed that the conflict, in its current phase, was mainly economic.The emphasis on peaceful coexistence did not mean that the Soviet Union accepted a static world with clear lines.", "It continued to uphold the creed that socialism was inevitable and they sincerely believed that the world had reached a stage in which the \"correlations of forces\" were moving towards socialism.", "With the establishment of socialist regimes in Eastern Europe and Asia, Soviet foreign policy planners believed that capitalism had lost its dominance as an economic system.====Socialism in One Country====The concept of \"Socialism in One Country\" was conceived by Stalin in his struggle against Leon Trotsky and his concept of permanent revolution.", "In 1924, Trotsky published his pamphlet ''Lessons of October'', in which he stated that socialism in the Soviet Union would fail because of the backward state of economic development unless a world revolution began.", "Stalin responded to Trotsky's pamphlet with his article, \"October and Comrade Trotsky's Theory of Permanent Revolution\".", "In it, Stalin stated that he did not believe an inevitable conflict between the working class and the peasants would take place, and that \"socialism in one country is completely possible and probable\".", "Stalin held the view common among most Bolsheviks at the time; there was a possibility of real success for socialism in the Soviet Union despite the country's backwardness and international isolation.", "While Grigoriy Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and Nikolai Bukharintogether with Stalinopposed Trotsky's theory of permanent revolution, their views on the way socialism could be built diverged.According to Bukharin, Zinoviev and Kamenev supported the resolution of the 14th Conference held in 1925, which stated that \"we cannot complete the building of socialism due to our technological backwardness\".", "Despite this cynical attitude, Zinoviev and Kamenev believed that a defective form of socialism could be constructed.", "At the 14th Conference, Stalin reiterated his position that socialism in one country was feasible despite the capitalist blockade of the Soviet Union.", "After the conference, Stalin wrote \"Concerning the Results of the XIV Conference of the RCP(b)\", in which he stated that the peasantry would not turn against the socialist system because they had a self-interest in preserving it.", "Stalin said the contradictions which arose within the peasantry during the socialist transition could \"be overcome by our own efforts\".", "He concluded that the only viable threat to socialism in the Soviet Union was a military intervention.In late 1925, Stalin received a letter from a party official which stated that his position of \"Socialism in One Country\" was in contradiction with Friedrich Engels' writings on the subject.", "Stalin countered that Engels' writings reflected \"the era of pre-monopoly capitalism, the pre-imperialist era when there were not yet the conditions of an uneven, abrupt development of the capitalist countries\".", "From 1925, Bukharin began writing extensively on the subject and in 1926, Stalin wrote ''On Questions of Leninism'', which contains his best-known writings on the subject.", "With the publishing of ''Leninism'', Trotsky began countering Bukharin's and Stalin's arguments, writing that socialism in one country was only possible only in the short term, and said that without a world revolution it would be impossible to safeguard the Soviet Union from the \"restoration of bourgeois relations\".", "Zinoviev disagreed with Trotsky and Bukharin, and Stalin; he maintained Lenin's position from 1917 to 1922 and continued to say that only a defective form of socialism could be constructed in the Soviet Union without a world revolution.", "Bukharin began arguing for the creation of an autarkic economic model, while Trotsky said that the Soviet Union had to participate in the international division of labor to develop.", "In contrast to Trotsky and Bukharin, in 1938, Stalin said that a world revolution was impossible and that Engels was wrong on the matter.", "At the 18th Congress, Stalin took the theory to its inevitable conclusion, saying that the communist mode of production could be conceived in one country.", "He rationalized this by saying that the state could exist in a communist society as long as the Soviet Union was encircled by capitalism.", "However, with the establishment of socialist regimes in Eastern Europe, Stalin said that socialism in one country was only possible in a large country like the Soviet Union and that to survive, the other states had to follow the Soviet line." ], [ "Reasons for demise", "===Western view===There were few, if any, who believed that the Soviet Union was on the verge of collapse by 1985.The economy was stagnating, but stable enough for the Soviet Union to continue into the 21st century.", "The political situation was calm because of twenty years of systematic repression against any threat to the country and one-party rule, and the Soviet Union was in its peak of influence in world affairs.", "The immediate causes for the Soviet Union's dissolution were the policies and thoughts of Mikhail Gorbachev, the CPSU General Secretary.", "His policies of perestroika and glasnost tried to revitalize the Soviet economy and the social and political culture of the country.", "Throughout his rule, he put more emphasis on democratizing the Soviet Union because he believed it had lost its moral legitimacy to rule.", "These policies led to the collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe and indirectly destabilized Gorbachev's and the CPSU's control over the Soviet Union.", "Archie Brown said:The expectations of, again most notably, Lithuanians, Estonians, and Latvians were enormously enhanced by what they saw happening in the 'outer empire' Eastern Europe, and they began to believe that they could remove themselves from the 'inner empire'.", "In truth, a democratized Soviet Union was incompatible with denial of the Baltic states' independence for, to the extent that those Soviet republics became democratic, their opposition to remaining in a political entity whose center was Moscow would become increasingly evident.", "Yet, it was not preordained that the entire Soviet Union would break up.However, Brown said that the system did not need to collapse or to do so in the way it did.", "The democratization from above weakened the party's control over the country and put it on the defensive.", "Brown added that a different leader than Gorbachev would probably have oppressed the opposition and continued with economic reform.", "Nonetheless, Gorbachev accepted that the people sought a different road and consented to the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991.He said that because of its peaceful collapse, the fall of Soviet communism is \"one of the great success stories of 20th-century politics\".", "According to Lars T. Lih, the Soviet Union collapsed because people stopped believing in its ideology.", "He wrote:When in 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed not with a bang but a whimper, this unexpected outcome was partly the result of the previous disenchantments of the narrative of class leadership.", "The Soviet Union had always been based on the fervent belief in this narrative in its various permutations.", "When the binding power of the narrative dissolved, the Soviet Union itself dissolved.===According to the Chinese Communist Party===The first research into the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc were very simple and did not take into account several factors.", "However, these examinations became more advanced by the 1990s, and unlike most Western scholarship, which focuses on the role of Gorbachev and his reform efforts, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) examined \"core (political) life and death issues\" so that it could learn from them and not make the same mistakes.", "Following the CPSU's demise and the Soviet Union's collapse, the CCP's analysis began examining systematic causes.", "Several leading CCP officials began hailing Khrushchev's rule, saying that he was the first reformer and that if he had continued after 1964, the Soviet Union would not have witnessed the Era of Stagnation began under Brezhnev and continued under Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko.", "The main economic failure was that the political leadership did not pursue any reforms to tackle the economic malaise that had taken hold, dismissing certain techniques as capitalist, and never disentangling the planned economy from socialism.", "Xu Zhixin from the CASS Institute of Eastern Europe, Russia, and Central Asia, argued that Soviet planners laid too much emphasis on heavy industry, which led to shortages of consumer goods.", "Unlike his counterparts, Xu argued that the shortages of consumer goods were not an error but \"was a consciously planned feature of the system\".", "Other CPSU failures were pursuing the policy of state socialism, the high spending on the military-industrial complex, a low tax base, and the subsidizing of the economy.", "The CCP argued that when Gorbachev came to power and introduced his economic reforms, they were \"too little, too late, and too fast\".While most CCP researchers criticize the CPSU's economic policies, many have criticized what they see as \"Soviet totalitarianism\".", "They accuse Joseph Stalin of creating a system of mass terror, intimidation, annulling the democracy component of democratic centralism and emphasizing centralism, which led to the creation of an inner-party dictatorship.", "Other points were Russian nationalism, a lack of separation between the party and state bureaucracies, suppression of non-Russian ethnicities, distortion of the economy through the introduction of over-centralization and the collectivization of agriculture.", "According to CCP researcher Xiao Guisen, Stalin's policies led to \"stunted economic growth, tight surveillance of society, a lack of democracy in decision-making, an absence of the rule of law, the burden of bureaucracy, the CPSU's alienation from people's concerns, and an accumulation of ethnic tensions\".", "Stalin's effect on ideology was also criticized; several researchers accused his policies of being \"leftist\", \"dogmatist\" and a deviation \"from true Marxism–Leninism.\"", "He is criticized for initiating the \"bastardization of Leninism\", of deviating from true democratic centralism by establishing a one-man rule and destroying all inner-party consultation, of misinterpreting Lenin's theory of imperialism and of supporting foreign revolutionary movements only when the Soviet Union could get something out of it.", "Yu Sui, a CCP theoretician, said that \"the collapse of the Soviet Union and CPSU is a punishment for its past wrongs!\"", "Similarly, Brezhnev, Mikhail Suslov, Alexei Kosygin and Konstantin Chernenko have been criticized for being \"dogmatic, ossified, inflexible, for having a bureaucratic ideology and thinking\", while Yuri Andropov is depicted by some of having the potential of becoming a new Khrushchev if he had not died early.While the CCP concur with Gorbachev's assessment that the CPSU needed internal reform, they do not agree on how it was implemented, criticizing his idea of \"humanistic and democratic socialism\", of negating the leading role of the CPSU, of negating Marxism, of negating the analysis of class contradictions and class struggle, and of negating the \"ultimate socialist goal of realizing communism\".", "Unlike the other Soviet leaders, Gorbachev is criticized for pursuing the wrong reformist policies and for being too flexible and too rightist.", "The CCP Organization Department said, \"What Gorbachev in fact did was not to transform the CPSU by correct principles—indeed the Soviet Communist Party —but instead he, step-by-step, and ultimately, eroded the ruling party's dominance in ideological, political and organizational aspects\".The CPSU was also criticized for not taking enough care in building the primary party organization and not having inner-party democracy.", "Others, more radically, concur with Milovan Đilas assessment, saying that a new class was established within the central party leadership of the CPSU and that a \"corrupt and privileged class\" had developed because of the nomenklatura system.", "Others criticized the special privileges bestowed on the CPSU elite, the nomenklatura systemwhich some said had decayed continuously since Stalin's ruleand the relationship between the Soviet military and the CPSU.", "Unlike in China, the Soviet military was a state institution whereas in China it is a party (and state) institution.", "The CCP criticizes the CPSU of pursuing Soviet imperialism in its foreign policies." ], [ "Electoral history", "=== Presidential election ===ElectionParty candidateVotes%Result1990Mikhail Gorbachev1,32972.9%'''Elected''' === Supreme Soviet elections ===ElectionSoviet of the UnionSoviet of NationalitiesPositionParty leaderVotes%Seats+/–Votes%Seats+/–1937 Joseph Stalin89,844,27199.3%89,063,16999.4% 1st 1st1946100,621,22599.2% 115100,603,56799.2% 100 1st 1st1950110,788,37799.7% 4110,782,00999.7% 10 1st 1st1954 Nikita Khrushchev120,479,24999.8% 15120,539,86099.8% 34 1st 1st1958133,214,65299.6% 2133,431,52499.7% 1st 1st1962139,210,43199.5% 41139,391,45599.6% 5 1st 1st1966 Leonid Brezhnev143,570,97699.8% 31143,595,67899.8% 78 1st 1st1970152,771,73999.7% 11152,843,22899.8% 34 1st 1st1974161,355,95999.8%161,443,60599.8% 1st 1st1979174,734,45999.9% 13174,770,39899.9% 8 1st 1st1984Konstantin Chernenko183,897,27899.94% 2183,892,27199.95% 5 1st 1st" ], [ "See also", "*Communist Party of the Russian Federation===Communist parties within the Warsaw Pact===*Bulgarian Communist Party*Communist Party of Czechoslovakia*Socialist Unity Party of Germany*Hungarian Working People's Party*Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party*Polish United Workers' Party*Romanian Communist Party===Other ruling communist parties===*People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan*Party of Labour of Albania*People's Revolutionary Party of Benin*Communist Party of Kampuchea*Chinese Communist Party*Communist Party of Cuba*Workers' Party of Ethiopia*New Jewel Movement*Workers' Party of Korea*Lao People's Revolutionary Party*Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party*Communist Party of Vietnam*League of Communists of Yugoslavia" ], [ "Footnotes", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography=======Articles and journal entries====* ====Books====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Executive Bodies of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1917–1991) * Program of the CPSU, 27th Party Congress (1986)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Christianity and homosexuality" ], [ "Introduction", "Within Christianity, there are a variety of views on sexual orientation and homosexuality.", "The view that various Bible passages speak of homosexuality as immoral or sinful emerged in the first millennium AD, and have since become entrenched in many Christian denominations through church doctrine and the wording of various translations of the Bible.In the present day, there are a wide variety of views within Christianity on homosexuality and sexual orientation, with some scholars of Christianity contesting the notion that scripture speaks explicitly of homosexuality as a sin against God.", "Within a Christian denomination, individual believers and the groups they belong to may hold different views, and not all members of a denomination necessarily support their church's views on homosexuality.", "Most Christian denominations teach that homosexual behavior and acts are sinful.", "Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism officially condemn homosexual activity as sin.", "Various mainline Protestant denominations have taken a supportive stance towards blessing homosexual clergy and same-sex marriage while others have not." ], [ "History", "The Hebrew Bible and its traditional interpretations in Judaism and Christianity have historically affirmed and endorsed a patriarchal and heteronormative approach towards human sexuality, favouring exclusively penetrative vaginal intercourse between men and women within the boundaries of marriage over all other forms of human sexual activity, including autoeroticism, masturbation, oral sex, non-penetrative and non-heterosexual sexual intercourse (all of which have been labeled as \"sodomy\" at various times).They have believed and taught that such behaviors are forbidden because they are considered sinful, and further compared to or derived from the behavior of the alleged residents of Sodom and Gomorrah.", "However, the status of LGBT people in early Christianity is debated.The history of Christianity and homosexuality has been much debated.", "Some maintain that the early Christian churches deplored same-sex relationships, while others maintain that they accepted them on the level of their heterosexual counterparts.", "These disagreements concern, in some cases, the translations of certain terms, or the meaning and context of some biblical passages.The extent to which the Bible mentions the subject, whether or not it is condemned, and whether the various passages apply today, have become contentious topics in the 20th and 21st centuries.", "Significant debate has arisen over the proper interpretation of the Levitical code; the narrative of Sodom and Gomorrah; and various Pauline passages, and whether these verses condemn same-sex sexual activities." ], [ "Christian denominational positions", "Lot prevents sodomites from raping the angels'', Heinrich Aldegrever, 1555.Execution by fire and torture of five homosexual Franciscan friars, Bruges, 26 July 1578Christian protesters at a 2006 gay pride event in San Francisco===Catholic Church===The Catholic Church views as sinful any sexual act not related to procreation by a couple joined in marriage.", "The Church states that \"homosexual tendencies\" are \"objectively disordered\", but does not consider the tendency itself to be sinful but rather a temptation toward sin.The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that \"men and women who have deep-seated homosexual tendencies... must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity\" and that \"every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided.\"", "The Church opposes criminal penalties against homosexuality.", "The Catholic Church requires those who are attracted to people of the same (or opposite) sex to practise chastity, because it teaches that sexuality should only be practised within marriage, which includes chaste sex as permanent, procreative, heterosexual, and monogamous.", "The Vatican distinguishes between \"deep-seated homosexual tendencies\" and the \"expression of a transitory problem\", in relation to ordination to the priesthood; saying in a 2005 document that homosexual tendencies \"must be clearly overcome at least three years before ordination to the diaconate.\"", "A 2011 report based on telephone surveys of self-identified American Catholics conducted by the Public Religion Research Institute found that 56% believe that sexual relations between two people of the same sex are not sinful.", "Research indicates that the Catholic Church's teachings on sexuality are \"a major source of conflict and distress\" to LGBT Catholics.In January 2018 German bishop Franz-Josef Bode of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Osnabrück, and in February 2018 German Roman Catholic cardinal Reinhard Marx, chairman of the German Bishops' Conference said in interviews with German journalists that blessing of same-sex unions is possible in Roman Catholic churches in Germany.", "In Austria blessing of same sex unions is performed in two churches located in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Linz.", "In 2021, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith clarified that same-sex civil unions cannot be blessed.On March 11, 2023, the Synodal Path with support of over 80 percentage of German Roman Catholic bishops allowed blessing ceremonies for same-sex couples in all 27 German Roman Catholic diocese.", "A similar decision had been taken a few months earlier by the Flemish bishops of the Episcopal Conference of Belgium.", "Both decisions received strong condemnation by the Holy See and by conservative Catholic clergy: Cardinal Pietro Parolin stated that the German bishops had no authority over the issue and Cardinal Wim Eijk urged Flemish bishops to withdraw their decision.On December 18, 2023, blessings of same-sex couples in document ''Fiducia supplicans'' were approved by Pope Francis and published by the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith.", "However, \"it is not a formal liturgical blessing and does not give the impression that the Catholic Church is blessing the union as if it were a marriage\".===Orthodox churches===The Eastern Orthodox churches condemn homosexual acts.", "The Orthodox Church shares a long history of church teachings and canon law with the Catholic Church and has a similar conservative stance on homosexuality.", "Some Orthodox Church jurisdictions, such as the Orthodox Church in America, have taken the approach of welcoming people with \"homosexual feelings and emotions\", while encouraging them to work towards \"overcoming its harmful effects in their lives\", while not allowing the sacraments to people who seek to justify homosexual activity.", "Other Orthodox Churches, such as those in Eastern Europe and Greece, view homosexuality less favourably.", "The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America lists homosexuality along with fornication, adultery, and more because of the thinking that homosexuality breaks up the institution of marriage and family.", "A 2017 Pew Research Center poll found that the majority of Orthodox Christians in the Eastern European and former USSR states surveyed believe that homosexuality \"should not be accepted by society\"; 45% of Orthodox Christians in Greece and 31% in the United States answered the same way.In July 2022, Archbishop Elpidophoros of America baptized two babies adopted by clothing designers Evanggelos Bousis and Peter Dundas, making him the first Greek Orthodox bishop to baptize children adopted by gay couples.", "According to the metropolitan in whose diocese the baptism took place (Antonios of Glyfada), Elpidophoros did not inform him in advance that the baptism in question was to be performed for a gay couple.", "Metropolitan Antonios reported Elpidophoros to the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece, which issued a formal protest to both Elpidophoros and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.===Protestant churches=======Accepting position====Certain other Christian denominations do not view monogamous same-sex relationships as sinful or immoral, and may bless such unions and consider them marriages.", "These include the United Church of Canada, the Presbyterian Church (USA), the United Church of Christ, all German Lutheran, reformed and united churches in EKD, all Swiss reformed churches, the Protestant Church in the Netherlands, the United Protestant Church in Belgium, the United Protestant Church of France, the Church of Denmark, the Church of Sweden, the Church of Iceland, the Church of Norway, and the Uniting Church in Australia.", "The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland also allows prayer for same-sex couples.", "The Metropolitan Community Church was founded specifically to serve the Christian LGBT community.", "The Global Alliance of Affirming Apostolic Pentecostals (GAAAP) traces its roots back to 1980, making it the oldest LGBT-affirming Apostolic Pentecostal denomination in existence.", "Another such organization is the Affirming Pentecostal Church International, currently the largest affirming Pentecostal organization, with churches in the US, UK, Central and South America, Europe and Africa.LGBT-affirming denominations regard homosexuality as a natural occurrence.", "The United Church of Christ celebrates gay marriage, and some parts of the Anglican and Lutheran churches allow for the blessing of gay unions.", "The United Church of Canada also allows same-sex marriage, and views sexual orientation as a gift from God.", "Within the Anglican Communion, there are openly gay clergy; for example, Gene Robinson is an openly gay Bishop in the US Episcopal Church.", "Within the Lutheran communion, there are openly gay clergy, too; for example, bishop Eva Brunne is an openly lesbian bishop in the Church of Sweden.", "Such religious groups and denominations interpret scripture and doctrine in a way that leads them to accept that homosexuality is morally acceptable, and a natural occurrence.", "For example, in 1988 the United Church of Canada, that country's largest Protestant denomination, affirmed that \"a) All persons, regardless of their sexual orientation, who profess Jesus Christ and obedience to Him, are welcome to be or become full members of the Church; b) All members of the Church are eligible to be considered for the Ordered Ministry.\"", "In 2000, the Church's General Assembly further affirmed that \"human sexual orientations, whether heterosexual or homosexual, are a gift from God and part of the marvelous diversity of creation.", "\"In addition, some Christian denominations such as the Moravian Church, believe that the Bible speaks negatively of homosexual acts but, as research on the matter continues, the Moravian Church seeks to establish a policy on homosexuality and the ordination of homosexuals.", "In 2014, Moravian Church in Europe allowed blessings of same-sex unions.Liberal Quakers, those in membership of Britain Yearly Meeting and Friends General Conference in the US approve of same-sex marriage and union.", "Quakers were the first Christian group in the United Kingdom to advocate for equal marriage and Quakers in Britain formally recognised same-sex relationships in 1963.The United Methodist Church elected a lesbian bishop in 2016, and on 7 May 2018, the Council of Bishops proposed the One Church Plan, which would allow individual pastors and regional church bodies to decide whether to ordain LGBT clergy and perform same-sex weddings.", "On 26 February 2019, a special session of the General Conference rejected the One Church Plan and voted to strengthen its official opposition to same-sex marriages and ordaining openly LGBT clergy.====Various positions========= Anglican =====Since 1998, the Anglican Church has reassured people with same sex attraction they are loved by God and are welcomed as full members of the Body of Christ.", "The Church leadership has a variety of views in regard to homosexual expression and ordination.", "Some expressions of sexuality are considered sinful including \"promiscuity, prostitution, incest, pornography, paedophilia, predatory sexual behaviour, and sadomasochism (all of which may be heterosexual and homosexual)\".", "The Church is concerned with pressures on young people to engage sexually and encourages abstinence.At the 13th Lambeth Conference in 1998, homosexuality was the most hotly debated issue.", "It was finally decided, by a vote of 526–70, to pass a resolution (1.10) calling for a \"listening process\" but stating (in an amendment passed by a vote of 389–190) that \"homosexual practice\" (not necessarily orientation) is \"incompatible with Scripture\".", "Reflecting on resolution 1.10 in the lead up to Lambeth 2022, Angela Tilby recalled the intervention of Bishop Michael Bourke, who successfully proposed an amendment which said: \"We commit ourselves to listen to the experience of homosexual persons\".", "Tilby considered that while the amendment had appeared inconsequential at the time, it had indeed been significant: she said that the idea of \"patient listening\" underpinned the Church of England's process \"Living in Love and Faith\".===== Lutheran =====Churches within Lutheranism hold stances on the issue ranging from labeling homosexual acts as sinful, to acceptance of homosexual relationships.", "For example, the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, the Lutheran Church of Australia, and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod recognize homosexual behavior as intrinsically sinful and seek to minister to those who are struggling with homosexual inclinations.", "However, the Church of Sweden, the Church of Denmark, the Church of Norway, or Lutheran churches of the Evangelical Church in Germany conducts same-sex marriages, while the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada opens the ministry of the church to gay pastors and other professional workers living in committed relationships.", "The Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus, the Lutheran denomination in Ethiopia, and second largest non-united Lutheran denomination in the world, however, has taken a stand that marriage is inherently between a man and a woman, and has formally broken fellowship with the ELCA.====Rejecting position====Some mainline Protestant denominations, such as the African Methodist churches, the Reformed Church in America, and the Presbyterian Church in America, Christian Reformed Church in North America also oppose LGBT relationships.The Seventh-day Adventist Church \"recognizes that every human being is valuable in the sight of God, and seeks to minister to all men and women including homosexuals in the spirit of Jesus,\" while maintaining that homosexual sex itself is forbidden in the Bible.", "\"Jesus affirmed the dignity of all human beings and reached out compassionately to persons and families suffering the consequences of sin.", "He offered caring ministry and words of solace to struggling people, while differentiating His love for sinners from His clear teaching about sinful practices.", "\"Conservative Quakers, those within Friends United Meeting and the Evangelical Friends International believe that sexual relations are condoned only in marriage, which they define to be between a man and a woman.Confessional Lutheran churches teach that it is sinful to have homosexual desires, even if they do not lead to homosexual activity.", "The Doctrinal statement issued by the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states that making a distinction between homosexual orientation and the act of homosexuality is confusing:However, confessional Lutherans also warn against selective morality which harshly condemns homosexuality while treating other sins more lightly.===Evangelical churches===The positions of the evangelical churches are varied, according to denominations.", "Some evangelical denominations have adopted neutral positions, leaving the choice to local churches to decide for same-sex marriage.", "Others strongly oppose same-sex marriage, same-sex sexual activity, and expression of gay/lesbian/bisexual identity generally.==== Evangelical Conservative positions ====Some Evangelical Christians regard homosexual acts as sinful and think they should not be accepted by society.", "They tend to interpret biblical verses on homosexual acts to mean that the heterosexual family was created by God to be the bedrock of civilization and that same-sex relationships contradict God's design for marriage and is not his will.", "Christians who oppose homosexual relationships sometimes argue that same-gender sexual activity is a sin.In opposing interpretations of the Bible that are supportive of homosexual relationships, conservative Christians have argued for the reliability of the Bible, and the meaning of texts related to homosexual acts, while often seeing what they call the diminishing of the authority of the Bible by many homosexual authors as being ideologically driven.As an alternative to a school-sponsored Day of Silence opposing bullying of LGBT students, conservative Christians organized a Golden Rule Initiative, where they passed out cards saying \"As a follower of Christ, I believe that all people are created in the image of God and therefore deserve love and respect.\"", "Others created a Day of Dialogue to oppose what they believe is the silencing of Christian students who make public their opposition to homosexuality.On 29 August 2017, the Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood released a manifesto on human sexuality known as the \"Nashville Statement\".", "The statement was signed by 150 evangelical leaders, and includes 14 points of belief.===== Fundamentalist position =====It is in some fundamentalist conservative positions, that there are anti-LGBT activists on TV or radio who accuse homosexual people of a gay agenda and of being responsible for social problems, such as terrorism.", "Some fundamentalists also regularly accuse homosexuals of being responsible for natural disasters.", "Some evangelical churches in Uganda strongly oppose homosexuality and homosexuals.", "They have campaigned for laws criminalizing homosexuality.===== Moderate position =====Some churches have a moderate Conservative position.", "Although they do not approve homosexual practices, they show sympathy and respect for homosexuals.", "Churches thus see themselves as “welcoming, but not affirming”.", "This expression has its origin in the book ''Welcoming but Not Affirming: An Evangelical Response to Homosexuality'' published in 1998 by the American Baptist theologian Stanley Grenz.====== Organizations ======The French Evangelical Alliance, a member of the European Evangelical Alliance and the World Evangelical Alliance, adopted on 12 October 2002, through its National Council, a document entitled (\"Faith, Hope and Homosexuality\"), in which homophobia, hatred and rejection of homosexuals are condemned, but which denies homosexual practices and full church membership of unrepentant homosexuals and those who approve of these practices.", "In 2015, the Conseil national des évangéliques de France (French National Council of Evangelicals) reaffirmed its position on the issue by opposing marriage of same-sex couples, while not rejecting homosexuals, but wanting to offer them more than a blessing; an accompaniment and a welcome.The French evangelical pastor Philippe Auzenet, a chaplain of the association Oser en parler, regularly intervenes on the subject in the media.", "It promotes dialogue and respect, as well as sensitization in order to better understand homosexuals.", "He also said in 2012 that Jesus would go to a gay bar, because he was going to all people with love.==== Liberal positions ========= International =====There are some international evangelical associations that are gay-friendly, such as the Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists and Affirming Pentecostal Church International.===== U.S. =====A 2014 survey reported that 43% of white evangelical American Christians between the ages of 18 and 33 supported same-sex marriage.", "Some evangelical churches accept homosexuality and celebrate gay weddings.", "The change in beliefs in favor of gay marriage in evangelical churches has certain consequences for them.", "Various churches thus received an excommunication from their Christian denomination for not respecting the confession of faith.", "Other churches have faced significant departures of members from their congregations, seeing their financial resources diminish.==== Neutral positions ====Some evangelical associations have adopted neutral positions, leaving the choice to local churches to decide for same-sex marriage.====Denominational positions========= Anabaptism =====Most Mennonite associations hold a conservative position on homosexuality.The Brethren Mennonite Council for LGBT Interests was founded in 1976 in the US and has member churches of different associations in the US and Canada.The Mennonite Church Canada leaves the choice to each church for same-sex marriage.The Mennonite Church in the Netherlands and the Mennonite Church USA permit same-sex marriage.===== Baptist =====Most Baptist associations around the world hold a conservative view on homosexuality.Some Baptist associations in the United States do not have official beliefs about marriage in a confession of faith and invoke congregationalism to leave the choice to each church to decide.", "This is the case of American Baptist Churches USA, Progressive National Baptist Convention, Cooperative Baptist Fellowship and National Baptist Convention, USA.Some Baptist associations support same-sex marriage.", "The Alliance of Baptists (USA), the Canadian Association for Baptist Freedoms, the Aliança de Batistas do Brasil, the Fraternidad de Iglesias Bautistas de Cuba, and the Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists (international) all support same-sex marriage.===== Pentecostalism =====Most Pentecostal associations take a conservative stance on homosexuality.Various international associations of the Gay Apostolic Pentecostals movement founded in the United States allow same-sex marriage.===Restorationist churches===Restorationist churches, such as Seventh-Day Adventists, generally teach that homosexuals are 'broken' and can be 'fixed'.", "Jehovah's Witnesses believe that \"The Bible condemns sexual activity that is not between a husband and wife, whether it is homosexual or heterosexual conduct.", "(1 Corinthians 6:18)...", "While the Bible disapproves of homosexual acts, it does not condone hatred of homosexuals or homophobia.", "Instead, Christians are directed to \"respect everyone.", "\"—1 Peter 2:17, ''Good News Translation''.\"", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints said in 2015 that it officially welcomes its gay and lesbian members, if they choose sexual abstinence.", "The Community of Christ, a branch of Mormonism, fully accepts LGBT persons, performs weddings for gay and lesbian couples, and ordains LGBT members.", "Within the Stone-Campbell aligned restorationist churches the views are divergent.", "The churches of Christ (A Capella) and the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ mostly adhere to a very conservative ideology; socially, politically, and religiously and are generally not accepting of openly LGBT members and will not perform weddings for gay and lesbian couples.", "The Disciples of Christ, is fully accepting of LGBT persons, often performs weddings for gay and lesbian couples, and ordains LGBT members.", "The United Church of Christ is an officially \"open and affirming\" church.", "Other Restorationist churches such as Millerite churches, have taken mixed positions but are increasingly accepting with some of their congregations fully accepting LGBT persons in all aspects of religious and political life." ], [ "Views supportive of homosexuality", "''Friendship between Jonathan and David'' by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld (1860)In the 20th century, theologians like Jürgen Moltmann, Hans Küng, John Robinson, Bishop David Jenkins, Don Cupitt, and Bishop Jack Spong challenged traditional theological positions and understandings of the Bible; following these developments some have suggested that passages have been mistranslated or that they do not refer to what is in the modern day understood as \"homosexuality.\"", "Clay Witt, a minister in the Metropolitan Community Church, explains how theologians and commentators like John Shelby Spong, George Edwards and Michael England interpret injunctions against certain sexual acts as being originally intended as a means of distinguishing religious worship between Abrahamic and the surrounding pagan faiths, within which homosexual acts featured as part of idolatrous religious practices: \"England argues that these prohibitions should be seen as being directed against sexual practices of fertility cult worship.", "As with the earlier reference from Strong's, he notes that the word 'abomination' used here is directly related to idolatry and idolatrous practices throughout the Hebrew Testament.", "Edwards makes a similar suggestion, observing that 'the context of the two prohibitions in Leviticus 18:22 and Leviticus 20:13 suggest that what is opposed is not same-sex activity outside the cult, as in the modern secular sense, but within the cult identified as Canaanite'\".In 1986, the Evangelical and Ecumenical Women's Caucus (EEWC), then known as the Evangelical Women's Caucus International, passed a resolution stating: \"Whereas homosexual people are children of God, and because of the biblical mandate of Jesus Christ that we are all created equal in God's sight, and in recognition of the presence of the lesbian minority in EWCI, EWCI takes a firm stand in favor of civil rights protection for homosexual persons.", "\"Some Christians believe that Biblical passages have been mistranslated or that these passages do not refer to LGBT orientation as currently understood.", "Liberal Christian scholars, like conservative Christian scholars, accept earlier versions of the texts that make up the Bible in Hebrew or Greek.", "However, within these early texts there are many terms that modern scholars have interpreted differently from previous generations of scholars.", "There are concerns with copying errors, forgery, and biases among the translators of later Bibles.", "They consider some verses such as those they say support slavery or the inferior treatment of women as not being valid today, and against the will of God present in the context of the Bible.", "They cite these issues when arguing for a change in theological views on sexual relationships to what they say is an earlier view.", "They differentiate among various sexual practices, treating rape, prostitution, or temple sex rituals as immoral and those within committed relationships as positive regardless of sexual orientation.", "They view certain verses, which they believe refer only to homosexual rape, as not relevant to consensual homosexual relationships.Yale professor John Boswell has argued that a number of Early Christians entered into homosexual relationships, and that certain Biblical figures had homosexual relationships, such as Ruth and her mother-in-law Naomi, Daniel and the court official Ashpenaz, and David and King Saul's son Jonathan.", "Boswell has also argued that adelphopoiesis, a rite bonding two men, was akin to a religiously sanctioned same-sex union.", "Having partaken in such a rite, a person was prohibited from entering into marriage or taking monastic vows, and the choreography of the service itself closely parallelled that of the marriage rite.", "His views have not found wide acceptance, and opponents have argued that this rite sanctified a platonic brotherly bond, not a homosexual union.", "He also argued that condemnation of homosexuality began only in the 12th century.", "Boswell's critics point out that many earlier doctrinal sources condemn homosexuality as a sin even if they do not prescribe a specific punishment, and that Boswell's arguments are based on sources which reflected a general trend towards harsher penalties, rather than a change in doctrine, from the 12th century onwards.Desmond Tutu, the former Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town and a Nobel Peace Prize winner, described homophobia as a \"crime against humanity\" and \"every bit as unjust\" as apartheid: \"We struggled against apartheid in South Africa, supported by people the world over, because black people were being blamed and made to suffer for something we could do nothing about; our very skins.", "It is the same with sexual orientation.", "It is a given.... We treat them gays and lesbians as pariahs and push them outside our communities.", "We make them doubt that they too are children of God – and this must be nearly the ultimate blasphemy.", "We blame them for what they are.", "\"Modern gay Christian leader Justin R. Cannon promotes what he calls \"Inclusive Orthodoxy\" ('orthodoxy' in this sense is not to be confused with the Eastern Orthodox Church).", "He explains on his ministry website: \"Inclusive Orthodoxy is the belief that the Church can and must be inclusive of LGBT individuals without sacrificing the Gospel and the Apostolic teachings of the Christian faith.\"", "Cannon's ministry takes a unique and distinct approach from modern liberal Christians while still supporting homosexual relations.", "His ministry affirms the divine inspiration of the Bible, the authority of Tradition, and says \"...that there is a place within the full life and ministry of the Christian Church for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender Christians, both those who are called to lifelong celibacy and those who are partnered.", "\"Today, many religious people are becoming more affirming of same-sex relationships, even in denominations with official stances against homosexuality.", "In the United States, people in denominations who are against same-sex relationships are liberalizing quickly, though not as quickly as those in more affirming groups.", "This social change is creating tension within many denominations, and even schisms and mass walk-outs among Mormons and other conservative groups.Pope Francis voiced support for same-sex civil unions during an interview in a documentary film, ''Francesco'', which was premiered at the Rome Film Festival on 21 October 2020.===Homosexual Christians and organizations===Rev.", "Troy Perry preaching in 2006 at a Metropolitan Community ChurchStudies in the US show more LGBT individuals identify as Protestant than Catholic.", "George Barna, a conservative Christian author and researcher, conducted a survey in the United States in 2009 that found gay and lesbian people having a Christian affiliation were more numerous than had been presumed.", "He characterized some of his leading conclusions from the data as follows: \"People who portray gay adults as godless, hedonistic, Christian bashers are not working with the facts.", "A substantial majority of gays cite their faith as a central facet of their life, consider themselves to be Christian, and claim to have some type of meaningful personal commitment to Jesus Christ active in their life today.\"", "Barna also found that LGBT people were more likely to interpret faith as an individual rather than a collective experience.Candace Chellew-Hodge, liberal Christian lesbian founder of the online magazine ''Whosoever'', responded to the findings: \"All in all, I'm grateful for Barna even wandering into the subject of gay and lesbian religious belief.", "I think his study is important and can go a long way to dispelling the old \"gays vs. God\" dichotomy that too often gets played out in the media.", "However, his overall message is still harmful: Gays and lesbians are Christians – they're just not as good as straight ones.\"", "She argued that Barna had formulated his report with undue irony and skepticism, and that he had failed to take into account the reasons for the data which enkindled his \"arrière pensée.\"", "The reason why far fewer homosexuals attend church, she argued, is that there are far fewer churches who will accept them.", "Equally, gays and lesbians do not see the Bible as unequivocally true because they are forced by its use against them to read it more closely and with less credulity, leading them to note its myriad contradictions.Organizations for homosexual Christians exist across a wide range of beliefs and traditions.", "The interdenominational Q Christian Fellowship (formerly Gay Christian Network) has some members who affirm same-sex relationships and others who commit themselves to celibacy, groups it refers to as \"Side A\" and \"Side B\", respectively.", "According to founder Justin Lee:Some organizations cater exclusively to homosexual Christians who do not want to have gay sex, or attraction; the goals of these organizations vary.", "Some Christian groups focus on simply refraining from gay sex, such as Courage International and North Star.", "Other groups additionally encourage gay members to reduce or eliminate same-sex attractions.", "Love Won Out and the now-defunct Exodus International are examples of such ministries.", "These groups are sometimes referred to as ex-gay organizations, though many no longer use the term.", "Alan Chambers, the president of Exodus, says the term incorrectly implies a complete change in sexual orientation, though the group Parents and Friends of Ex-Gays and Gays continues to use the term.", "In addition, individual Christians identifying as gay who want to subscribe to the conservative ethic are becoming more vocal themselves.Gay Christian writer and actor Peterson Toscano argues that organizations promoting orientation change are a \"ruse\".", "An organization he co-founded, Beyond Ex-Gay, supports people who feel they have been wounded by such organizations.Other groups support or advocate for gay Christians and their relationships.", "For example, in the United States, IntegrityUSA represents the interests of lesbian and gay Christians in the Episcopal Church, while United Methodists have the Reconciling Ministries Network and evangelical Christians have ''Evangelicals Concerned''.", "GracePointe Church became one of the first evangelical megachurches in the US to support full equality for LGBT people in 2015.In 2014 the United Church of Christ filed a lawsuit challenging North Carolina's ban on same-sex marriage, which is America's first faith-based challenge to same-sex marriage bans; the Alliance of Baptists joined the lawsuit later that year.In Europe, working within the worldwide Anglican Communion on a range of discrimination issues, including those of LGBT clergy and people in the church, is ''Inclusive Church''.", "The longest standing groups for lesbian and gay Christians in the UK, were Quest (for lgbt Catholics) and Metropolitan Community Church (UK) both founded in 1973; followed in 1976 by the non-denominational Lesbian and Gay Christian Movement; specifically aimed to meet the needs of lesbian and gay evangelicals, there is the ''Evangelical Fellowship for Lesbian and Gay Christians''; specifically working within the Church of England is ''Changing Attitude'', which also takes an international focus in working for gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender affirmation within the Anglican Communion.Sociologist Richard N. Pitt argues that these organizations are only available to LGBT members of liberal denominations, as opposed to those in conservative denominations.", "His review of the literature on gay Christians suggests that these organizations not only represent the interests of Christians who attend their churches, but (like gay-friendly and gay-affirming churches) also give these members useful responses to homophobic and heterosexist rhetoric.", "His research shows that those LGBT Christians who stay at homophobic churches \"kill the messenger\" by attacking the minister's knowledge about homosexuality, personal morality, focus on sin instead of forgiveness, and motivations for preaching against homosexuality." ], [ "Movement of pro-celibacy gay Christians", "There is a movement of people who call themselves \"gay Christians\", but choose to practice celibacy.", "The movement is often positioned against both liberals and conservatives.", "Recognizing themselves as gay or bisexual, these people believe that their attraction to same-sex people, while present, does not allow them to have homosexual relationships.", "They often say that their Christian conversion did not instantly change their sexual desires.", "They insist that the church should always reject homosexual practices, but that it should welcome gay people." ], [ "Ex-gay movement", "Various Christian organizations have been involved in the ex-gay movement.", "Love in Action, founded in 1973, was the first in the USA.", "In 1976, its members founded Exodus International, a Christian organization (more specifically Protestant and Evangelical) in the United States and in various countries of the world.", "The Catholic organization Courage International was founded in 1980.Conversion therapies for people wishing to change sexual orientation have been associated with the movement.", "Conversion therapy has been widely criticized and denounced by many major medical associations.", "Studies have found that LGBT individuals who experienced conversion therapy reported significantly higher rates of depression, suicide attempts, and substance abuse than their peers who did not." ], [ "Criticism", "In 2005, Baptist Pastor Al Sharpton criticized megachurches for focusing on \"bedroom morals\", statements against same-sex marriage and abortion, by ignoring issues of social justice, such as the immorality of war and the erosion of affirmative action.In 2015, American theologian L. Gregory Jones has criticized some Christian churches for their lack of effort to interest young people in the Christian faith in a relevant way, while putting a lot of energy into talking negatively about homosexuality, which is even more boring for young people who want to work with the whole world." ], [ "See also", "* List of Christian denominational positions on homosexuality* Ex-gay movement* Side A, Side B, Side X, Side Y (theological views)* Christianity and sexual orientation* Homosexuality and religion* Ellen Barrett – first openly lesbian priest (Episcopal) * ''Corpus Christi'' (play)* Evangelical and Ecumenical Women's Caucus* Gay bishops* History of Christianity and homosexuality* Homosexuality and Judaism* Queer theology* The Bible and homosexuality* Homosexuality and Seventh-day Adventism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bates, Stephen (2004).", "''A Church at War: Anglicans and Homosexuality''.", "I.B.", "Tauris.", ".", "* Boswell, John (1980).", "''Christianity, social tolerance, and homosexuality: Gay people in Western Europe from the beginning of the Christian era to the fourteenth century''.", "University of Chicago Press.", "* Boswell, John (1979). ''", "The Church & the Homosexual ''* Brug, John F. (2009), ''Doctrinal Brief: Is Homosexuality a Sin?", "'', Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library* Crompton, Louis, et al., (2003).", "''Homosexuality and Civilization'' Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.", "**Etengoff, C. & Daiute, C., (2014/5).", "Clinicians' perspectives of religious families' and gay men's negotiation of sexual orientation disclosure and prejudice, ''Journal of Homosexuality'' 62(4).", "*Etengoff, C. & Daiute, C. 2014/15).", "Online Coming Out Communications between Gay Men and their Religious Family Allies: A Family of Choice and Origin Perspective, ''Journal of GLBT Family Studies''.", "* Gagnon, Robert A.J.", "(2002).", "''The Bible and Homosexual Practice: Texts and Hermeneutics''.", "Abingdon Press.", "* Harvey, John F., O.S.F.S.", "(1996).", "''The Truth about Homosexuality: The Cry of the Faithful, introduction by Benedict J. Groeschel, C.F.R.''.", "Ignatius Press.", ".", "* Hays, Katie; Chiasson, Susan A.", "(2021).", "''Family of Origin, Family of Choice: Stories of Queer Christians''.", "Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing.", "* Helminiak, Daniel A.", "(2000).", "\"Frequently Asked Questions About Being Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, or Transgender and Catholic\" Dignity USA.", "* Hildegard of Bingen (c. 1142).", "\"Scivias,\" Columba Hart and Jane Bishop, translators; New York: Paulist Press, 1990* Homosexuality and Christianity* Johansson, Warren (1992).", "\"Whosoever Shall Say To His Brother, Racha.\"", "''Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy.''", "Ed.", "Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson.", "New York & London: Garland, pp.", "212–214* Mader, Donald (1992).", "\"The ''Entimos Pais'' of Matthew 8:5–13 and Luke 7:1–10\" ''Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy.''", "Ed.", "Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson.", "New York & London: Garland, pp. 223–235.", "* *** Saletan, William (29 November 2005).", "\"Gland Inquisitor\".", "''Slate''.", "* Smith, Morton (1992).", "\"Clement of Alexandria and Secret Mark: The Score at the End of the First Decade.\"", "''Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy.''", "Ed.", "Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson.", "New York & London: Garland, pp.", "295–307" ], [ "External links", "* gaychurch.org — International database of LGB-friendly churches." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chadic languages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Chadic languages''' form a branch of the Afroasiatic language family.", "They are spoken in parts of the Sahel.", "They include 150 languages spoken across northern Nigeria, southern Niger, southern Chad, the Central African Republic, and northern Cameroon.", "By far the most widely spoken Chadic language is Hausa, a ''lingua franca'' of much of inland Eastern West Africa, particularly Niger and the northern half of Nigeria." ], [ "Composition", "Paul Newman (1977) classified the languages into the four groups which have been accepted in all subsequent literature.", "Further subbranching, however, has not been as robust; Roger Blench (2006), for example, only accepts the A/B bifurcation of East Chadic.", "Kujargé has been added from Blench (2008), who suggests Kujargé may have split off before the breakup of Proto-Chadic and then subsequently became influenced by East Chadic.", "Subsequent work by Joseph Lovestrand argues strongly that Kujarge is a valid member of East Chadic.", "The placing of Luri as a primary split of West Chadic is erroneous.", "Bernard Caron (2004) shows that this language is South Bauchi and part of the Polci cluster.", "*'''West Chadic'''.", "Two branches, which include:(A) the Hausa, Ron, Bole, and Angas languages; and:(B) the Bade, Warji, and Zaar languages.", "*'''Biu–Mandara''' (Central Chadic).", "Three branches, which include:(A) the Bura, Kamwe, and Bata languages, among other groups;:(B) the Buduma and Musgu languages; and:(C) Gidar*'''East Chadic'''.", "Two branches, which include:(A) the Tumak, Nancere, and Kera languages; and:(B) the Dangaléat, Mukulu, and Sokoro languages*'''Masa'''*?", "'''''Kujargé'''''A chart of the Chadic branch of the Afroasiatic languages." ], [ "Origin", "Main Chadic-speaking peoples in Nigeria.Hausa-speaking areas in Nigeria and Niger.Modern genetic studies of Northwestern Cameroonian Chadic-speaking populations have observed relatively high frequencies (~23%) of the Y-chromosome Haplogroup R1b in these populations (the R1b-V88 variant).", "This paternal marker is common in parts of West Eurasia, but otherwise rare in Africa.", "Cruciani et al.", "(2010) thus proposed that the Proto-Chadic speakers during the mid-Holocene (~7,000 years ago) migrated from the Levant to the Central Sahara, and from there settled in the Lake Chad Basin.D'Atanasio et al.", "(2018) claim that R1b-V88 originated in Europe about 12,000 years ago and crossed to North Africa by about 8000 years ago; it may formerly have been common in southern Europe, where it has since been replaced by waves of other haplogroups, leaving remnant subclades almost exclusively in Sardinia.", "It first radiated within Africa likely between 7 and 8 000 years ago – at the same time as trans-Saharan expansions within the unrelated haplogroups E-M2 and A-M13 – possibly due to population growth allowed by humid conditions and the adoption of livestock herding in the Sahara.", "R1b-V1589, the main subclade within R1b-V88, underwent a further expansion around 5500 years ago, likely in the Lake Chad Basin region, from which some lines recrossed the Sahara to North Africa." ], [ "Loanwords", "Chadic languages contain many Nilo-Saharan loanwords from either the Songhay or Maban branches, pointing to early contact between Chadic and Nilo-Saharan speakers as Chadic was migrating west.Although Adamawa languages are spoken adjacently to Chadic languages, interaction between Chadic and Adamawa is limited." ], [ "Pronouns", "Pronouns in Proto-Chadic, as compared to pronouns in Proto-Afroasiatic (Vossen & Dimmendaal 2020:351): Pronoun Proto-Chadic Proto-Afroasiatic 1 *ní *i ~ *yi 2M *ka *ku, *ka 2F *ki(m) *kim 3M *nì *si, *isi 3F *ta 1PL *mun (incl.", "), *na (excl.)", "(*-na ~ *-nu ~ *-ni) ?", "2PL *kun *kuuna 3PL *sun *su ~ *usu" ], [ "Comparative vocabulary", "Sample basic vocabulary in different Chadic branches listed in order from west to east, with reconstructions of other Afroasiatic branches also given for comparison: Language eye ear nose tooth tongue mouth blood bone tree water eat name Proto-Chadic (hard); (soft) Hausa ido kunne hanci haƙori harshe baki jini ƙashi itaci; bishiya ruwa ci suna Proto-Ron *kumu **atin *haŋgor *liʃ *fo ɟɑ̄lɑ̄, tɾɔ̃̄ *kaʃ *sum Proto-South Bauchi *(gwà)yìr(-ŋ) *kə̂m(-si) *bʸak(-ì) *bìràm *gu(ŋ)ul *pit-ə̀ *(yì)sûm(-s₃) Polci yiir kəəm cin shen haƙori bii buran; bəran gooloo pət maa ci suŋ Proto-Central Chadic *hadaj; *tsɨʸ *ɬɨmɨɗʸ *hʷɨtsɨnʸ *ɬɨɗɨnʸ *ɗɨrɨnɨhʸ; *ɣanaɗʸ; *naɬɨj *maj *ɗiɬ; *kɨrakaɬʸ *hʷɨp *ɗɨjɨm *zɨm *ɬɨmɨɗʸ Proto-Masa *ir *hum *cin *s- *si *vun *vuzur *sok *gu *mb- *ti *sem Kujarge kunɟu kumayo ~ kime kaata kiya aliŋati apa ɪbɪrí (kaɟeɟa), kàyɛ́ya kaʃíè ʃia (tona), tuye imp.", "sg.", "; tuwona imp.", "pl.", "rúwà '''Other Afroasiatic branches''' Proto-Cushitic *ʔil- *ʔisŋʷ- *ʔiɬkʷ- *caanrab- *ʔaf-/*yaf- *mikʷ’-; *moc’- *-aħm-/*-uħm-; *ɬaam- *sim-/*sum- Proto-Maji *ʔaːb *háːy *aːç’u *eːdu *uːs *inču *haːy *um Tarifiyt Berber ŧit’t’ aməžžun, aməz’z’uɣ ŧinzā ŧiɣməsŧ iřəs aqəmmum iđammən iɣəss aman šš isəm Coptic ia ma'aje ša šol, najhe las ro snof kas šēn mou wōm ran Proto-Semitic *ʕayn- *ʔuḏn- *ʔanp- *šinn- *lišān- *dam- *ʕaṯ̣m- *ʕiṣ̂- *mā̆y- *ʔ-k-l (*šim-) Proto-Afroasiatic *ʔǐl- *-ʔânxʷ- *sǐn-/*sǎn- 'tip, point' *-lis’- 'to lick' *âf- *dîm-/*dâm- *k’os- *ɣǎ *âm-; *akʷ’- *-mǎaʕ-; *-iit-; *-kʷ’-̌ *sǔm-/*sǐm-" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Caron, Bernard 2004.Le Luri: quelques notes sur une langue tchadique du Nigeria.", "In: Pascal Boyeldieu & Pierre Nougayrol (eds.", "), Langues et Cultures: Terrains d’Afrique.", "Hommages à France Cloarec-Heiss (Afrique et Langage 7).", "193–201.Louvain-Paris: Peeters.", "* Lukas, Johannes (1936) 'The linguistic situation in the Lake Chad area in Central Africa.'", "''Africa'', 9, 332–349.", "* Lukas, Johannes.", "Zentralsudanische Studien, Hamburg 1937;* * Newman, Paul (1977) 'Chadic classification and reconstructions.'", "''Afroasiatic Linguistics'' 5, 1, 1–42.", "* Newman, Paul (1978) 'Chado-Hamitic 'adieu': new thoughts on Chadic language classification', in Fronzaroli, Pelio (ed.", "), ''Atti del Secondo Congresso Internazionale di Linguistica Camito-Semitica''.", "Florence: Instituto de Linguistica e di Lingue Orientali, Università di Firenze, 389–397.", "* Newman, Paul (1980) ''The Classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic.''", "Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden.", "* Herrmann Jungraithmayr, Kiyoshi Shimizu: ''Chadic lexical roots.''", "Reimer, Berlin 1981.", "* Herrmann Jungraithmayr, Dymitr Ibriszimow: ''Chadic lexical roots.''", "2 volumes.", "Reimer, Berlin 1994* Schuh, Russell (2003) 'Chadic overview', in M. Lionel Bender, Gabor Takacs, and David L. Appleyard (eds.", "), ''Selected Comparative-Historical Afrasian Linguistic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff'', LINCOM Europa, 55–60.", ";Data sets*" ], [ "See also", "*Proto-Chadic reconstructions (Wiktionary)" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cushitic languages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Cushitic languages''' are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family.", "They are spoken primarily in the Horn of Africa, with minorities speaking Cushitic languages to the north in Egypt and Sudan, and to the south in Kenya and Tanzania.", "As of 2012, the Cushitic languages with over one million speakers were Oromo, Somali, Beja, Afar, Hadiyya, Kambaata, and Sidama." ], [ "Official status", "The Cushitic languages with the greatest number of total speakers are Oromo (37 million), Somali (22 million), Beja (3.2 million), Sidamo (3 million), and Afar (2 million).Oromo serves as one of the official working languages of Ethiopia and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia, Harari and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region.Somali is the first of two official languages of Somalia and three official languages of the republic of Somaliland.", "It also serves as a language of instruction in Djibouti, and as the working language of the Somali Region in Ethiopia.Beja, Afar, Blin and Saho, the languages of the Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic that are spoken in Eritrea, are languages of instruction in the Eritrean elementary school curriculum.", "The constitution of Eritrea also recognizes the equality of all natively spoken languages.", "Additionally, Afar is a language of instruction in Djibouti, as well as the working language of the Afar Region in Ethiopia." ], [ "Origin and prehistory", "Christopher Ehret argues for a unified Proto-Cushitic language in the Red Sea Hills as far back as the Early Holocene.", "Based on onomastic evidence, the Medjay and the Blemmyes of northern Nubia are believed to have spoken Cushitic languages related to the modern Beja language.", "Less certain are hypotheses which propose that Cushitic languages were spoken by the people of the C-Group culture in northern Nubia, or the people of the Kerma culture in southern Nubia." ], [ "Typological characteristics", "===Phonology===Most Cushitic languages have a simple five-vowel system with phonemic length (); a notable exception are the Agaw languages, which do not contrast vowel length, but have one or two additional central vowels.", "The consonant inventory of many Cushitic languages includes glottalic consonants, e.g.", "in Oromo, which has the ejectives and the implosive .", "Less common are pharyngeal consonants , which appear e.g.", "in Somali or the Saho–Afar languages.Most Cushitic languages have a system of restrictive tone (also known as ‘pitch accent’ in which tonal contours overlaid on the stressed syllable play a prominent role in morphology and syntax.===Grammar=======Nouns====Nouns are inflected for case and number.", "All nouns are further grouped into two gender categories, masculine gender and feminine gender.", "In many languages, gender is overtly marked directly on the noun (e.g.", "in Awngi, where all female nouns carry the suffix ''-a'').The case system of many Cushitic languages is characterized by marked nominative alignment, which is typologically quite rare and predominantly found in languages of Africa.", "In marked nominative languages, the noun appears in unmarked \"absolutive\" case when cited in isolation, or when used as predicative noun and as object of a transitive verb; on the other hand, it is explicitly marked for nominative case when it functions as subject in a transitive or intransitive sentence.Possession is usually expressed by genitive case marking of the possessor.", "South Cushitic—which has no case marking for subject and object—follows the opposite strategy: here, the possessed noun is marked for construct case, e.g.", "Iraqw ''afé-r mar'i'' \"doors\" (lit.", "\"mouths of houses\"), where ''afee'' \"mouth\" is marked for construct case.Most nouns are by default unmarked for number, but can be explicitly marked for singular (\"singulative\") and plural number.", "E.g.", "in Bilin, ''dəmmu'' \"cat(s)\" is number-neutral, from which singular ''dəmmura'' \"a single cat\" and plural ''dəmmut'' \"several cats\" can be formed.", "Plural formation is very diverse, and employs ablaut (i.e.", "changes of root vowels or consonants), suffixes and reduplication.====Verbs====Verbs are inflected for person/number and tense/aspect.", "Many languages also have a special form of the verb in negative clauses.Most languages distinguish seven person/number categories: first, second, third person, singular and plural number, with a masculine/feminine gender distinction in third person singular.", "The most common conjugation type employs suffixes.", "Some languages also have a prefix conjugation: in Beja and the Saho–Afar languages, the prefix conjugation is still a productive part of the verb paradigm, whereas in most other languages, e.g.", "Somali, it is restricted to only a few verbs.", "It is generally assumed that historically, the suffix conjugation developed from the older prefix conjugation, by combining the verb stem with a suffixed auxiliary verb.", "The following table gives an example for the suffix and prefix conjugations in affirmative present tense in Somali.", "suffixconjugation prefixconjugation \"bring\" \"come\" 1.sg.", "''keen-aa'' ''i-maadd-aa'' 2.sg.", "''keen-taa'' ''ti-maadd-aa'' 3.sg.masc.", "''keen-aa'' ''yi-maadd-aa'' 3.sg.fem.", "''keen-taa'' ''ti-maadd-aa'' 1.pl.", "''keen-naa'' ''ni-maad-naa'' 2.pl.", "''keen-taan'' ''ti-maadd-aan'' 3.pl.", "''keen-aan'' ''yi-maadd-aan''====Syntax====Basic word order is verb final, the most common order being subject–object–verb (SOV).", "The subject or object can also follow the verb to indicate focus." ], [ "Classification", "===Overview===The phylum was first designated as ''Cushitic'' in 1858.The Omotic languages, once included in Cushitic, have almost universally been removed.", "The most influential recent classification, Tosco (2003), has informed later approaches.", "It and two more recent classifications are as follows:====Tosco====Tosco (2000, East Cushitic revised 2020)* '''Cushitic'''** North Cushitic (Beja)** Central Cushitic (Agaw)** South Cushitic*** Maa (Bantu hybrid & partially a planned language, difficult to classify)*** Dahalo (divergent; possibly not Southern Cushitic)*** Rift** East Cushitic*** Highland*** Lowland**** Saho–Afar**** Southern***** (nuclear Southern)****** Omo–Tana****** Oromoid***** Peripheral (?", ")****** Yaaku****** Dullay====Appleyard (2012)====* '''Cushitic'''** North Cushitic (Beja)** Central Cushitic (Agaw)** South Cushitic** East Cushitic*** Lowland East Cushitic*** Highland East Cushitic*** Yaaku–Dullay*** Dahalo====Bender (2019)====Geographic labels are given for comparison; Bender's labels are added in parentheses.", "Dahalo is made a primary branch, as also suggested by Kiessling and Mous (2003).", "Yaaku is not listed, being placed within Arboroid.", "Afar–Saho is removed from Lowland East Cushitic; since they are the most 'lowland' of the Cushitic languages, Bender calls the remnant 'core' East Cushitic.", "* '''Cushitic'''** North Cushitic (Beja)** Central Cushitic (Agew)** Dahalo** South Cushitic** East Cushitic*** Afar–Saho*** Highland East Cushitic*** Lowland East Cushitic ('core' East Cushitic)**** Dullay**** SAOK***** Eastern Omo–Tana (Somaloid)***** Western Omo–Tana (Arboroid)***** Oromoid (Oromo–Konsoid)These classifications have not been without contention.", "For example, it has been argued that Southern Cushitic belongs in the Eastern branch, with its divergence explained by contact with Hadza- and Sandawe-like languages.", "Hetzron (1980) and Fleming (post-1981) exclude Beja altogether, though this is rejected by other linguists.", "Some of the classifications that have been proposed over the years are summarized here:+ Other subclassifications of Cushitic Greenberg (1963) Hetzron (1980) Orel & Stolbova (1995) Ehret (2011)* Cushitic** Northern Cushitic (Beja)** Central Cushitic** Eastern Cushitic** Western Cushitic (Omotic)** Southern Cushitic* Beja (not part of Cushitic)* Cushitic**Highland***Rift Valley (= Highland East Cushitic)***Agaw**Lowland ***Saho–Afar***Southern****Omo-Tana****Oromoid****Dullay****Yaaku****Iraqw (i.e.", "Southern Cushitic)* Cushitic** Omotic** Beja** Agaw** Sidamic(i.e.", "Highland East Cushitic)** East Lowlands** Rift (Southern)* Cushitic** North Cushitic (Beja)** Agäw–East–South Cushitic*** Agäw*** East–South Cushitic**** Eastern Cushitic**** Southern CushiticFor debate on the placement of the Cushitic branch within Afroasiatic, see Afroasiatic languages.===Beja===Beja constitutes the only member of the Northern Cushitic subgroup.", "As such, Beja contains a number of linguistic innovations that are unique to it, as is also the situation with the other subgroups of Cushitic (e.g.", "idiosyncratic features in Agaw or Central Cushitic).", "Hetzron (1980) argues that Beja therefore may comprise an independent branch of the Afroasiatic family.", "However, this suggestion has been rejected by most other scholars.", "The characteristics of Beja that differ from those of other Cushitic languages are instead generally acknowledged as normal branch variation.Didier Morin (2001) assigned Beja to Lowland Cushitic on the grounds that the language shared lexical and phonological features with the Afar and Saho idioms, and also because the languages were historically spoken in adjacent speech areas.", "However, among linguists specializing in the Cushitic languages, the standard classification of Beja as North Cushitic is accepted.===Other divergent languages===There are also a few poorly-classified languages, including Yaaku, Dahalo, Aasax, Kw'adza, Boon, the Cushitic element of Mbugu (Ma'a) and Ongota.", "There is a wide range of opinions as to how the languages are interrelated.The positions of the Dullay languages and of Yaaku are uncertain.", "They have traditionally been assigned to an East Cushitic subbranch along with Highland (Sidamic) and Lowland East Cushitic.", "However, Hayward thinks that East Cushitic may not be a valid node and that its constituents should be considered separately when attempting to work out the internal relationships of Cushitic.The Afroasiatic identity of Ongota has also been broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, because of the \"mixed\" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data.", "Harold C. Fleming (2006) proposes that Ongota is a separate branch of Afroasiatic.", "Bonny Sands (2009) thinks the most convincing proposal is by Savà and Tosco (2003), namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a Nilo-Saharan substratum.", "In other words, it would appear that the Ongota people once spoke a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language while retaining some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language.Hetzron (1980) and Ehret (1995) have suggested that the South Cushitic languages (Rift languages) are a part of Lowland East Cushitic, the only one of the six groups with much internal diversity.Cushitic was formerly seen as also including the Omotic languages, then called West Cushitic.", "However, this view has been abandoned.", "Omotic is generally agreed to be an independent branch of Afroasiatic, primarily due to the work of Harold C. Fleming (1974) and Lionel Bender (1975); some linguists like Paul Newman (1980) challenge Omotic's classification within the Afroasiatic family itself." ], [ "Extinct languages", "A number of extinct populations have been proposed to have spoken Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic branch.", "Marianne Bechhaus-Gerst (2000) proposed that the peoples of the Kerma Culture – which inhabited the Nile Valley in present-day Sudan immediately before the arrival of the first Nubian speakers – spoke Cushitic languages.", "She argues that the Nilo-Saharan Nobiin language today contains a number of key pastoralism related loanwords that are of proto-Highland East Cushitic origin, including the terms for sheep/goatskin, hen/cock, livestock enclosure, butter and milk.", "However, more recent linguistic research indicates that the people of the Kerma culture (who were based in southern Nubia) instead spoke Nilo-Saharan languages of the Eastern Sudanic branch, and that the peoples of the C-Group culture to their north (in northern Nubia) and other groups in northern Nubia (such as the Medjay and Blemmyes) spoke Cushitic languages with the latter being related to the modern Beja language.", "The linguistic affinity of the ancient A-Group culture of northern Nubia—the predecessor of the C-Group culture—is unknown, but Rilly (2019) suggests that it is unlikely to have spoken a language of the Northern East Sudanic branch of Nilo-Saharan, and may have spoken a Cushitic language, another Afro-Asiatic language, or a language belonging to another (non-Northern East Sudanic) branch of the Nilo-Saharan family.", "Rilly also criticizes proposals (by Behrens and Bechaus-Gerst) of significant early Afro-Asiatic influence on Nobiin, and considers evidence of substratal influence on Nobiin from an earlier now extinct Eastern Sudanic language to be stronger.Linguistic evidence indicates that Cushitic languages were spoken in Lower Nubia, an ancient region which straddles present day Southern Egypt and Northern Sudan, before the arrival of North Eastern Sudanic languages from Upper Nubia.Julien Cooper (2017) states that in antiquity, Cushitic languages were spoken in Lower Nubia (the northernmost part of modern-day Sudan).", "He also states that Eastern Sudanic-speaking populations from southern and west Nubia gradually replaced the earlier Cushitic-speaking populations of this region.In Handbook of Ancient Nubia, Claude Rilly (2019) states that Cushitic languages once dominated Lower Nubia along with the Ancient Egyptian language.", "He mentions historical records of the Blemmyes, a Cushitic-speaking tribe which controlled Lower Nubia and some cities in Upper Egypt.", "He mentions the linguistic relationship between the modern Beja language and the ancient Blemmyan language, and that the Blemmyes can be regarded as a particular tribe of the Medjay.Additionally, historiolinguistics indicate that the makers of the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic (Stone Bowl Culture) in the Great Lakes area likely spoke South Cushitic languages.Christopher Ehret (1998) proposed on the basis of loanwords that South Cushitic languages (called \"Tale\" and \"Bisha\" by Ehret) were spoken in an area closer to Lake Victoria than are found today.Also, historically, the Southern Nilotic languages have undergone extensive contact with a \"missing\" branch of East Cushitic that Heine (1979) refers to as ''Baz''.==Reconstruction== Christopher Ehret proposed a reconstruction of Proto-Cushitic in 1987, but did not base this on individual branch reconstructions.", "Grover Hudson (1989) has done some preliminary work on Highland East Cushitic, David Appleyard (2006) has proposed a reconstruction of Proto-Agaw, and Roland Kießling and Maarten Mous (2003) have jointly proposed a reconstruction of West Rift Southern Cushitic.", "No reconstruction has been published for Lowland East Cushitic, though Paul D. Black wrote his (unpublished) dissertation on the topic in 1974.Hans-Jürgen Sasse (1979) proposed a reconstruction of the consonants of Proto-East Cushitic.", "No comparative work has yet brought these branch reconstructions together." ], [ "Comparative vocabulary", "===Basic vocabulary===Sample basic vocabulary of Cushitic languages from Vossen & Dimmendaal (2020:318) (with PSC denoting Proto-Southern Cushitic): Branch Northern Southern Eastern Central Gloss Beja Iraqw Oromo Somali Awŋi Kemantney 'foot' ragad/lagad yaaee miila/luka lug lɨkw lɨkw 'tooth' kwire sihhinoo ilkee ilig ɨrkwí ɨrkw 'hair' hami/d.ifi se'eeengw dabbasaa timo ʧiʧifí ʃibka 'heart' gin'a muuná onnee wadne ɨʃew lɨbäka 'house' gau/'anda do' mana guri/min ŋɨn nɨŋ 'wood' hindi slupi mukha qori/alwaax kani kana 'meat' ʃa/dof fu'naay foon so'/hilib ɨʃʃi sɨya 'water' yam ma'ay biʃan biyo/maayo aɣu axw 'door' ɖefa/yaf piindo balbala irrid/albaab lɨmʧi/sank bäla 'grass' siyam/ʃuʃ gitsoo ʧ'itaa caws sigwi ʃanka 'black' hadal/hadod boo gurraʧʧa madow ʧárkí ʃämäna 'red' adal/adar daa/aat diimaa cas/guduud dɨmmí säraɣ 'road' darab loohi karaa/godaana jid/waddo dad gorwa 'mountain' reba tlooma tuullu buur kán dɨba 'spear' fena/gwiʃ'a *laabala (PSC) waraana waran werém ʃämärgina 'stick' (n) 'amis/'adi *hhada ulee/dullaa ul gɨmb kɨnbɨ 'fire' n'e 'asla ibidda dab leg wɨzɨŋ 'donkey' mek daqwaay haare dameer dɨɣwarí dɨɣora 'cat' bissa/kaffa maytsí adure bisad/dummad anguʧʧa damiya 'dog' yas/mani seeaay seere eey gɨséŋ gɨzɨŋ 'cow' ʃ'a/yiwe slee sa'a sac ɨllwa käma 'lion' hada diraangw lenʧ'a libaax wuʤi gämäna 'hyena' galaba/karai *bahaa (PSC) waraabo waraabe ɨɣwí wäya 'sister' kwa hat'ay obboleeytii walaalo/abbaayo séná ʃän 'brother' san nana obboleessa walaal/abboowe sén zän 'mother' de aayi haaɗa hooyo ʧwá gäna 'father' baba taata aabba aabbe tablí aba 'sit' s'a/ʈaʈam iwiit taa'uu fadhiiso ɨnʤikw- täkosɨm- 'sleep' diw/nari guu' rafuu hurud ɣur\\y- gänʤ- 'eat' tam/'am aag ɲaaʧʧu cun ɣw- xw- 'drink' gw'a/ʃifi wah ɗugaaiti cab zɨq- ʤax- 'kill' dir gaas aʤʤeesuu dil kw- kw- 'speak' hadid/kwinh 'oo' dubbattu hadal dibs- gämär- 'thin' 'iyai/bilil *'iiraw (PSC) hap'ii caato ɨnʧu k'ät'än- 'fat' dah/l'a *du/*iya (PSC) furdaa shilis/buuran morí wäfär- 'small' dis/dabali *niinaw (PSC) t'innoo yar ʧɨlí ʃigwey 'big' win/ragaga *dir (PSC) guddaa/dagaaga weyn dɨngulí fɨraq===Numerals===Comparison of numerals in individual Cushitic languages: Classification Language 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 North Beja (Bedawi) ɡaːl ˈmale mheːj ˈfaɖiɡ eːj (lit: 'hand') aˈsaɡwir (5 + 1) asaːˈrama (5 + 2) asiˈmheːj (5 + 3) aʃˈʃaɖiɡ (5 + 4) ˈtamin South Alagwa (Wasi) wák ndʒad tam tsʼiɡaħ kooʔan laħooʔ faanqʼw dakat ɡwelen mibi South Burunge leyiŋ / leẽ t͡ʃʼada tami t͡ʃʼiɡaħa koːʔani laħaʔu faɴqʼu daɡati ɡweleli mili South Dahalo vattúkwe (mascu) / vattékwe (fem) líima kʼaba saʕála dáwàtte w / la ləŋa səxwa sədʒa ʔankwa wəlta ləŋəta səxwəta səssa ʃɨka Central, Eastern Xamtanga lə́w líŋa ʃáqwa síza ákwa wálta láŋta / lánta sə́wta sʼájtʃʼa sʼɨ́kʼa Central, Southern Awngi ɨ́mpɨ́l / láɢú láŋa ʃúɢa sedza áŋkwa wɨ́lta láŋéta sóɢéta sésta tsɨ́kka Central, Western Kimant (Qimant) laɣa / la liŋa siɣwa sədʒa ankwa wəlta ləŋəta səɣwəta səssa ʃɨka East, Dullay Gawwada tóʔon lákke ízzaħ sálaħ xúpin tappi táʔan sétten kóllan ħúɗɗan East, Dullay Tsamai (Ts'amakko) doːkːo laːkːi zeːħ salaħ χobin tabːen taħːan sezːen ɡolːan kuŋko East, Highland Alaaba matú lamú sasú ʃɔːlú ʔɔntú lehú lamalá hizzeːtú hɔnsú tɔnnsú East, Highland Burji mičča lama fadia foola umutta lia lamala hiditta wonfa tanna East, Highland Gedeo mitte lame sase šoole onde ǰaane torbaane saddeeta sallane tomme East, Highland Hadiyya mato lamo saso sooro onto loho lamara sadeento honso tommo East, Highland Kambaata máto lámo sáso ʃóolo ónto lého lamála hezzéeto hónso tordúma East, Highland Libido mato lamo saso sooro ʔonto leho lamara sadeento honso tommo East, Highland Sidamo (Sidaama) mite lame sase ʃoole onte lee lamala sette honse tonne East, Konso-Gidole Bussa (Harso-Bobase) tóʔo lakki, lam(m)e, lamay ezzaħ, siséħ salaħ xúpin cappi caħħan sásse /sésse kollan húddʼan East, Konso-Gidole Dirasha (Gidole) ʃakka(ha) fem., ʃokko(ha) masculine lakki halpatta afur hen lehi tappa lakkuʃeti tsinqoota hunda East, Konso-Gidole Konso takka lakki sessa afur ken lehi tappa sette saɡal kuɗan East, Oromo Orma tokkō lamā sadi afurī ʃanī ja torbā saddeetī saɡalī kuɗenī East, Oromo West Central Oromo tokko lama sadii afur ʃani jaha torba saddet saɡal kuɗan East, Rendille-Boni Boni kóów, hál-ó (mascu) / hás-só (fem) lába síddéh áfar ʃan líh toddóu siyyéèd saaɡal tammán East, Rendille-Boni Rendille kôːw / ko:kalɖay (isolated form) lámːa sɛ́jːaħ áfːar t͡ʃán líħ tɛːbá sijːɛ̂ːt saːɡáːl tomón East, Saho-Afar Afar enèki / inìki nammàya sidòħu / sidòħoòyu ferèyi / fereèyi konòyu / konoòyu leħèyi / leħeèyi malħiini baħaàra saɡaàla tàbana East, Saho-Afar Saho inik lam:a adoħ afar ko:n liħ malħin baħar saɡal taman East, Somali Garre (Karre) kow lamma siddeh afar ʃan liʔ toddobe siyeed saɡaal tommon East, Somali Somali ków labá sáddeħ áfar ʃán liħ toddobá siddèed saɡaal toban East, Somali Tunni (Af-Tunni) ków lámma síddiʔ áfar ʃán líʔ toddóbo siyéed saɡáal tómon East, Western Omo-Tana Arbore tokkó (masc)/ takká (fem), ˈtaˈka laamá, ˈlaːma sezzé, ˈsɛːze ʔafúr, ʔaˈfur tʃénn, t͡ʃɛn dʒih, ˈd͡ʒi tuzba, ˈtuːzba suyé, suˈjɛ saaɡalɗ, ˈsaɡal tommoɲɗ, ˈtɔmːɔn East, Western Omo-Tana Bayso (Baiso) koo (masculine) / too (feminine) lɑ́ɑmɑ sédi ɑ́fɑr ken le todobɑ́ siddéd sɑ́ɑɡɑɑl tómon East, Western Omo-Tana Daasanach tɪ̀ɡɪ̀ɗɪ̀ (adj.", ")/ tàqàt͡ʃ ̚ (crd.", ")/ ʔɛ̀ɾ (ord.)", "nàːmə̀ sɛ̀d̪ɛ̀ ʔàfʊ̀ɾ t͡ʃɛ̀n lɪ̀h t̪ɪ̀ːjə̀ síɪ̀t̚ sàːl t̪òmòn East, Western Omo-Tana El Molo t'óko / t'áka l'ááma séépe áfur kên, cên yíi tíípa, s'ápa fúe s'áákal t'ómon" ], [ "See also", "*Cushitic speaking peoples*List of Proto-Cushitic reconstructions (Wiktionary)*Meroitic language" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Ethnologue on the Cushitic branch* * * Bender, Marvin Lionel.", "1975.Omotic: a new Afroasiatic language family.", "Southern Illinois University Museum series, number 3.", "* Bender, M. Lionel.", "1986.A possible Cushomotic isomorph.", "Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere 6:149–155.", "* * * * Fleming, Harold C. 1974.Omotic as an Afroasiatic family.", "In: Proceedings of the 5th annual conference on African linguistics (ed.", "by William Leben), p 81-94.African Studies Center & Department of Linguistics, UCLA.", "* * * Kießling, Roland & Maarten Mous.", "2003.", "''The Lexical Reconstruction of West-Rift Southern Cushitic.''", "Cushitic Language Studies Volume 21* * Lamberti, Marcello.", "1991.Cushitic and its classification.", "Anthropos 86(4/6):552-561.", "* * Newman, Paul.", "1980.The Classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic.", "Universitaire Pers.", "* * * * * Zaborski, Andrzej.", "1986.Can Omotic be reclassified as West Cushitic?", "In Gideon Goldenberg, ed., Ethiopian Studies: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference, pp.", "525–530.Rotterdam: Balkema.", "* Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (1995) Christopher Ehret" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Encyclopædia Britannica: Cushitic languages* BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HIGHLAND EAST CUSHITIC* Faculty of Humanities – Leiden University" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code''' (Title 11 of the United States Code) permits reorganization under the bankruptcy laws of the United States.", "Such reorganization, known as '''Chapter 11 bankruptcy''', is available to every business, whether organized as a corporation, partnership or sole proprietorship, and to individuals, although it is most prominently used by corporate entities.", "In contrast, Chapter 7 governs the process of a liquidation bankruptcy, though liquidation may also occur under Chapter 11; while Chapter 13 provides a reorganization process for the majority of private individuals." ], [ "Chapter 11 overview", "When a business is unable to service its debt or pay its creditors, the business or its creditors can file with a federal bankruptcy court for protection under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 11.In Chapter 7, the business ceases operations, a trustee sells all of its assets, and then distributes the proceeds to its creditors.", "Any residual amount is returned to the owners of the company.In Chapter 11, in most instances the debtor remains in control of its business operations as a debtor in possession, and is subject to the oversight and jurisdiction of the court.A Chapter 11 bankruptcy will result in one of three outcomes for the debtor: reorganization, conversion to Chapter 7 bankruptcy, or dismissal.", "In order for a Chapter 11 debtor to reorganize, the debtor must file (and the court must confirm) a plan of reorganization.", "In effect, the plan is a compromise between the major stakeholders in the case, including the debtor and its creditors.", "Most Chapter 11 cases aim to confirm a plan, but that may not always be possible.If the judge approves the reorganization plan and the creditors all agree, then the plan can be confirmed.", "Section 1129 of the Bankruptcy Code requires the bankruptcy court reach certain conclusions prior to confirming or approving the plan and making it binding on all parties in the case, most notably that the plan complies with applicable law and was proposed in good faith.", "The court must also find that the reorganization plan is feasible in that, unless the plan provides otherwise, the plan is not likely to be followed by further reorganization or liquidation.In a Chapter 11 bankruptcy, the debtor corporation is typically recapitalized so that it emerges from bankruptcy with more equity and less debt, a process through which some of the debtor corporation's debts may be discharged.", "Determinations as to which debts are discharged, and how equity and other entitlements are distributed to various groups of investors, are often based on a valuation of the reorganized business.", "Bankruptcy valuation is often highly contentious because it is both subjective and important to case outcomes.", "The methods of valuation used in bankruptcy have changed over time, generally tracking methods used in investment banking, Delaware corporate law, and corporate and academic finance, but with a significant time lag." ], [ "Features of Chapter 11 reorganization", "Chapter 11 retains many of the features present in all, or most, bankruptcy proceedings in the United States.", "It provides additional tools for debtors as well.", "Most importantly, empowers the trustee to operate the debtor's business.", "In Chapter 11, unless a separate trustee is appointed for cause, the debtor, as debtor in possession, acts as trustee of the business.Chapter 11 affords the debtor in possession a number of mechanisms to restructure its business.", "A debtor in possession can acquire financing and loans on favorable terms by giving new lenders first priority on the business's earnings.", "The court may also permit the debtor in possession to reject and cancel contracts.", "Debtors are also protected from other litigation against the business through the imposition of an automatic stay.", "While the automatic stay is in place, creditors are stayed from any collection attempts or activities against the debtor in possession, and most litigation against the debtor is stayed, or put on hold, until it can be resolved in bankruptcy court, or resumed in its original venue.", "An example of proceedings that are not necessarily stayed automatically are family law proceedings against a spouse or parent.", "Further, creditors may file with the court seeking relief from the automatic stay.If the business is insolvent, its debts exceed its assets and the business is unable to pay debts as they come due, the bankruptcy restructuring may result in the company's owners being left with nothing; instead, the owners' rights and interests are ended and the company's creditors are left with ownership of the newly reorganized company.All creditors are entitled to be heard by the court.", "The court is ultimately responsible for determining whether the proposed plan of reorganization complies with bankruptcy laws.One controversy that has broken out in bankruptcy courts concerns the proper amount of disclosure that the court and other parties are entitled to receive from the members of the creditor's committees that play a large role in many proceedings.=== Chapter 11 plan ===Chapter 11 usually results in reorganization of the debtor's business or personal assets and debts, but can also be used as a mechanism for liquidation.", "Debtors may \"emerge\" from a chapter 11 bankruptcy within a few months or within several years, depending on the size and complexity of the bankruptcy.", "The Bankruptcy Code accomplishes this objective through the use of a bankruptcy plan.", "The debtor in possession typically has the first opportunity to propose a plan during the period of exclusivity.", "This period allows the debtor 120 days from the date of filing for chapter 11 to propose a plan of reorganization before any other party in interest may propose a plan.", "If the debtor proposes a plan within the 120-day exclusivity period, a 180-day exclusivity period from the date of filing for chapter 11 is granted in order to allow the debtor to gain confirmation of the proposed plan.", "With some exceptions, the plan may be proposed by any party in interest.", "Interested creditors then vote for a plan.=== Confirmation ===If the judge approves the reorganization plan and the creditors all agree, then the plan can be confirmed.", "If at least one class of creditors objects and votes against the plan, it may nonetheless be confirmed if the requirements of cramdown are met.", "In order to be confirmed over the creditors' objection, the plan must not discriminate against that class of creditors, and the plan must be found fair and equitable to that class.", "Upon confirmation, the plan becomes binding and identifies the treatment of debts and operations of the business for the duration of the plan.", "If a plan cannot be confirmed, the court may either convert the case to a liquidation under chapter 7, or, if in the best interests of the creditors and the estate, the case may be dismissed resulting in a return to the status quo before bankruptcy.", "If the case is dismissed, creditors will look to non-bankruptcy law in order to satisfy their claims.In order to proceed to the confirmation hearing, a disclosure statement must be approved by the bankruptcy court.", "Once the disclosure statement is approved, the plan proponent will solicit votes from the classes of creditors.", "Solicitation is the process by which creditors vote on the proposed confirmation plan.", "This process can be complicated if creditors fail or refuse to vote.", "In which case, the plan proponent might tailor his or her efforts in obtaining votes, or the plan itself.", "The plan may be modified before confirmation, so long as the modified plan meets all the requirements of Chapter 11.A chapter 11 case typically results in one of three outcomes: a reorganization; a conversion into chapter 7 liquidation, or it is dismissed.In order for a chapter 11 debtor to reorganize, they must file (and the court must confirm) a plan of reorganization.", "Simply put, the plan is a compromise between the major stakeholders in the case, including, but not limited to the debtor and its creditors.", "Most chapter 11 cases aim to confirm a plan, but that may not always be possible.", "Section 1121(b) of the Bankruptcy Code provides for an exclusivity period in which only the debtor may file a plan of reorganization.", "This period lasts 120 days after the date of the order for relief, and if the debtor does file a plan within the first 120 days, the exclusivity period is extended to 180 days after the order for relief for the debtor to seek acceptance of the plan by holders of claims and interests.If the judge approves the reorganization plan and the creditors all \"agree\", then the plan can be confirmed.", "§1129 of the Bankruptcy Code requires the bankruptcy court reach certain conclusions prior to \"confirming\" or \"approving\" the plan and making it binding on all parties in the case.", "Most importantly, the bankruptcy court must find the plan (a) complies with applicable law, and (b) has been proposed in good faith.", "Furthermore, the court must determine whether the plan is \"feasible,\" in other words, the court must safeguard that confirming the plan will not yield to liquidation down the road.The plan must ensure that the debtor will be able to pay most administrative and priority claims (priority claims over unsecured claims) on the effective date.=== Automatic stay ===Like other forms of bankruptcy, petitions filed under chapter 11 invoke the automatic stay of § 362.The automatic stay requires all creditors to cease collection attempts, and makes many post-petition debt collection efforts void or voidable.", "Under some circumstances, some creditors, or the United States Trustee, can request the court convert the case into a liquidation under chapter 7, or appoint a trustee to manage the debtor's business.", "The court will grant a motion to convert to chapter 7 or appoint a trustee if either of these actions is in the best interest of all creditors.", "Sometimes a company will liquidate under chapter 11 (perhaps in a 363 sale), in which the pre-existing management may be able to help get a higher price for divisions or other assets than a chapter 7 liquidation would be likely to achieve.", "Section 362(d) of the Bankruptcy Code allows the court to terminate, annul, or modify the continuation of the automatic stay as may be necessary or appropriate to balance the competing interests of the debtor, its estate, creditors, and other parties in interest and grants the bankruptcy court considerable flexibility to tailor relief to the exigencies of the circumstances.", "Relief from the automatic stay is generally sought by motion and, if opposed, is treated as a contested matter under Bankruptcy Rule 9014.A party seeking relief from the automatic stay must also pay the filing fee required by 28 U.S.C.A.", "§ 1930(b).=== Executory contracts ===In the new millennium, airlines have fallen under intense scrutiny for what many see as abusing Chapter 11 bankruptcy as a tool for escaping labor contracts, usually 30–35% of an airline's operating cost.", "Every major US airline has filed for Chapter 11 since 2002.In the space of 2 years (2002–2004) US Airways filed for bankruptcy twice leaving the AFL–CIO, pilot unions and other airline employees claiming the rules of Chapter 11 have helped turn the United States into a corporatocracy.", "The trustee or debtor-in-possession is given the right, under § 365 of the Bankruptcy Code, subject to court approval, to assume or reject executory contracts and unexpired leases.", "The trustee or debtor-in-possession must assume or reject an executory contract in its entirety, unless some portion of it is severable.", "The trustee or debtor-in-possession normally assumes a contract or lease if it is needed to operate the reorganized business or if it can be assigned or sold at a profit.", "The trustee or debtor-in-possession normally rejects a contract or lease to transform damage claims arising from the nonperformance of those obligations into a prepetition claim.", "In some situations, rejection can also limit the damages that a contract counterparty can claim against the debtor.=== Priority ===Chapter 11 follows the same priority scheme as other bankruptcy chapters.", "The priority structure is defined primarily by § 507 of the Bankruptcy Code ().As a general rule, administrative expenses (the actual, necessary expenses of preserving the bankruptcy estate, including expenses such as employee wages, and the cost of litigating the chapter 11 case) are paid first.", "Secured creditors—creditors who have a security interest, or collateral, in the debtor's property—will be paid before unsecured creditors.", "Unsecured creditors' claims are prioritized by § 507.For instance the claims of suppliers of products or employees of a company may be paid before other unsecured creditors are paid.", "Each priority level must be paid in full before the next lower priority level may receive payment.=== Section 1110 ===Section 1110 () generally provides a secured party with an interest in an aircraft the ability to take possession of the equipment within 60 days after a bankruptcy filing unless the airline cures all defaults.", "More specifically, the right of the lender to take possession of the secured equipment is not hampered by the automatic stay provisions of the Bankruptcy Code.=== Subchapter V ===In August 2019, the Small Business Reorganization Act of 2019 (\"SBRA\") added Subchapter V to Chapter 11 of the Bankruptcy Code.", "Subchapter V, which took effect in February 2020, is reserved exclusively for the small business debtor with the purpose of expediting bankruptcy procedure and economically resolving small business bankruptcy cases.Subchapter V retains many of the advantages of a traditional Chapter 11 case without the unnecessary procedural burdens and costs.", "It seeks to increase the debtor's ability to negotiate a successful reorganization and retain control of the business and increase oversight and ensure a quick reorganization.A Subchapter V case contrasts from a traditional Chapter 11 in several key aspects: It's earmarked only for the \"small business debtor\" (as defined by the Bankruptcy Code), so, only a debtor can file a plan of reorganization.", "The SBRA requires the U.S.", "Trustee appoint a \"subchapter V trustee\" to every Subchapter V case to supervise and control estate funds, and facilitate the development of a consensual plan.", "It also eliminates automatic appointment of an official committee of unsecured creditors and abolishes quarterly fees usually paid to the U.S.", "Trustee throughout the case.", "Most notably, Subchapter V allows the small business owner to retain their equity in the business so long as the reorganization plan does not discriminate unfairly and is fair and equitable with respect to each class of claims or interests." ], [ "Considerations", "The reorganization and court process may take an inordinate amount of time, limiting the chances of a successful outcome and sufficient debtor-in-possession financing may be unavailable during an economic recession.", "A preplanned, pre-agreed approach between the debtor and its creditors (sometimes called a pre-packaged bankruptcy) may facilitate the desired result.", "A company undergoing Chapter 11 reorganization is effectively operating under the \"protection\" of the court until it emerges.", "An example is the airline industry in the United States; in 2006 over half the industry's seating capacity was on airlines that were in Chapter 11.These airlines were able to stop making debt payments, break their previously agreed upon labor union contracts, freeing up cash to expand routes or weather a price war against competitors — all with the bankruptcy court's approval.Studies on the impact of forestalling the creditors' rights to enforce their security reach different conclusions." ], [ "Statistics", "=== Frequency ===Chapter 11 cases dropped by 60% from 1991 to 2003.One 2007 study found this was because businesses were turning to bankruptcy-like proceedings under state law, rather than the federal bankruptcy proceedings, including those under chapter 11.Insolvency proceedings under state law, the study stated, are currently faster, less expensive, and more private, with some states not even requiring court filings.", "However, a 2005 study claimed the drop may have been due to an increase in the incorrect classification of many bankruptcies as \"consumer cases\" rather than \"business cases\".Cases involving more than US$50 million in assets are almost always handled in federal bankruptcy court, and not in bankruptcy-like state proceeding.=== Largest cases ===The largest bankruptcy in history was of the US investment bank Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc., which listed $639 billion in assets as of its Chapter 11 filing in 2008.The 16 largest corporate bankruptcies as of December 13, 2011 Company Filing date Total Assets pre-filing Assets adjusted to the year 2012 Filing court district Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. # 2008-09-15 $639,063,000,800 $ NY-S Washington Mutual # 2008-09-26 $327,913,000,000 $ DE Worldcom Inc. 2002-07-21 $103,914,000,000 $ NY-S General Motors Corporation 2009-06-01 $82,300,000,000 $ NY-S CIT Group 2009-11-01 $71,019,200,000 $ NY-S Enron Corp. #‡ 2001-12-02 $63,392,000,000 $ NY-S Conseco, Inc. 2002-12-18 $61,392,000,000 $ IL-N MF Global # 2011-10-31 $41,000,000,000 $ NY-S Chrysler LLC 2009-04-30 $39,300,000,000 $ NY-S Texaco, Inc. 1987-04-12 $35,892,000,000 $ NY-S Financial Corp. of America 1988-09-09 $33,864,000,000 $ CA-C Penn Central Transportation Company # 1970-06-21 $7,000,000,000 $ PA-S Refco Inc. # 2005-10-17 $33,333,172,000 $ NY-S Global Crossing Ltd. 2002-01-28 $30,185,000,000 $ NY-S Pacific Gas and Electric Co. 2001-04-06 $29,770,000,000 $ CA-N UAL Corp. 2002-12-09 $25,197,000,000 $ IL-N Delta Air Lines, Inc. 2005-09-14 $21,801,000,000 $ NY-S Delphi Corporation, Inc. 2005-10-08 $22,000,000,000 $ NY-SEnron, Lehman Brothers, MF Global and Refco have all ceased operations while others were acquired by other buyers or emerged as a new company with a similar name.‡ The Enron assets were taken from the 10-Q filed on November 11, 2001.The company announced that the annual financials were under review at the time of filing for Chapter 11." ], [ "See also", "* 722 redemption* Administration (law) in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand* Examinership in Ireland * Insolvency law of Canada" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* US changes bankruptcy protection laws, via BBC News.", "* Complete Title 11 (ZIP file), via www.house.gov" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Conjugation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Conjugation''' or '''conjugate''' may refer to:" ], [ "Linguistics", "*Grammatical conjugation, the modification of a verb from its basic form*Emotive conjugation or Russell's conjugation, the use of loaded language" ], [ "Mathematics", "*Complex conjugation, the change of sign of the imaginary part of a complex number*Conjugate (square roots), the change of sign of a square root in an expression*Conjugate element (field theory), a generalization of the preceding conjugations to roots of a polynomial of any degree *Conjugate transpose, the complex conjugate of the transpose of a matrix*Harmonic conjugate in complex analysis*Conjugate (graph theory), an alternative term for a line graph, i.e.", "a graph representing the edge adjacencies of another graph*In group theory, various notions are called conjugation: **Inner automorphism, a type of conjugation homomorphism**Conjugation in group theory, related to matrix similarity in linear algebra**Conjugation (group theory), the image of an element under the conjugation homomorphisms**Conjugate closure, the image of a subgroup under the conjugation homomorphisms*Conjugate words in combinatorics; this operation on strings resembles conjugation in groups*Isogonal conjugate, in geometry*Conjugate gradient method, an algorithm for the numerical solution of particular systems of linear equations*Conjugate points, in differential geometry*Topological conjugation, which identifies equivalent dynamical systems*Convex conjugate, the (\"dual\") lower-semicontinuous convex function resulting from the Legendre–Fenchel transformation of a \"primal\" function" ], [ "Probability and statistics", "* Conjugate prior, in Bayesian statistics, a family of probability distributions that contains a prior and the posterior distributions for a particular likelihood function (particularly for one-parameter exponential families)* Conjugate pairing of probability distributions, in the Fourier-analytic theory of characteristic functions and statistical mechanics" ], [ "Science", "*Sexual conjugation, a type of isogamy in unicellular eukaryotes*Bacterial conjugation, a mechanism of exchange of genetic material between bacteria*Conjugate vaccine, in immunology*Conjugation (biochemistry), covalently linking a biomolecule with another molecule*Conjugate (acid-base theory), a system describing a conjugate acid-base pair*Conjugated system, a system of atoms covalently bonded with alternating single and multiple bonds*Conjugate variables (thermodynamics), pairs of variables that always change simultaneously*Conjugate quantities, observables that are linked by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle*Conjugate focal plane, in optics" ], [ "See also", "*Conjugal (disambiguation)*Conjoint**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Controversy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Controversy''' is a state of prolonged public dispute or debate, usually concerning a matter of conflicting opinion or point of view.", "The word was coined from the Latin ''controversia'', as a composite of ''controversus'' – \"turned in an opposite direction\".", "('''Controversial)'''if something is labeled as controversial by the public it is considered an important issue(problem, happening)people often strongly disagree on things labeled for controversial for many reasons like values,morals,opinion and many more." ], [ "Legal", "In the theory of law, a controversy differs from a legal case; while legal cases include all suits, criminal as well as civil, a controversy is a purely civil proceeding.For example, the Case or Controversy Clause of Article Three of the United States Constitution (Section 2, Clause 1) states that \"the judicial Power shall extend ... to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party\".", "This clause has been deemed to impose a requirement that United States federal courts are not permitted to cases that do not pose an actual controversy—that is, an actual dispute between adverse parties which is capable of being resolved by the court.", "In addition to setting out the scope of the jurisdiction of the federal judiciary, it also prohibits courts from issuing advisory opinions, or from hearing cases that are either unripe, meaning that the controversy has not arisen yet, or moot, meaning that the controversy has already been resolved." ], [ "Benford's law", "Benford's law of controversy, as expressed by the astrophysicist and science fiction author Gregory Benford in 1980, states: ''Passion is inversely proportional to the amount of real information available.''", "In other words, it claims that the less factual information is available on a topic, the more controversy can arise around that topic – and the more facts are available, the less controversy can arise.", "Thus, for example, controversies in physics would be limited to subject areas where experiments cannot be carried out yet, whereas controversies would be inherent to politics, where communities must frequently decide on courses of action based on insufficient information." ], [ "Psychological bases", "Controversies are frequently thought to be a result of a lack of confidence on the part of the disputants – as implied by Benford's law of controversy, which only talks about lack of information (\"passion is inversely proportional to the amount of real information available\").", "For example, in analyses of the political controversy over anthropogenic climate change, which is exceptionally virulent in the United States, it has been proposed that those who are opposed to the scientific consensus do so because they don't have enough information about the topic.", "A study of 1540 US adults found instead that levels of scientific literacy correlated with the strength of opinion on climate change, but not on which side of the debate that they stood.The puzzling phenomenon of two individuals being able to reach different conclusions after being exposed to the same facts has been frequently explained (particularly by Daniel Kahneman) by reference to a 'bounded rationality' – in other words, that most judgments are made using fast acting heuristics that work well in every day situations, but are not amenable to decision-making about complex subjects such as climate change.", "Anchoring has been particularly identified as relevant in climate change controversies as individuals are found to be more positively inclined to believe in climate change if the outside temperature is higher, if they have been primed to think about heat, and if they are primed with higher temperatures when thinking about the future temperature increases from climate change.In other controversies – such as that around the HPV vaccine, the same evidence seemed to license inference to radically different conclusions.", "Kahan et al.", "explained this by the cognitive biases of biased assimilation and a credibility heuristic.Similar effects on reasoning are also seen in non-scientific controversies, for example in the gun control debate in the United States.", "As with other controversies, it has been suggested that exposure to empirical facts would be sufficient to resolve the debate once and for all.", "In computer simulations of cultural communities, beliefs were found to polarize within isolated sub-groups, based on the mistaken belief of the community's unhindered access to ground truth.", "Such confidence in the group to find the ground truth is explicable through the success of wisdom of the crowd based inferences.", "However, if there is no access to the ground truth, as there was not in this model, the method will fail.Bayesian decision theory allows these failures of rationality to be described as part of a statistically optimized system for decision making.", "Experiments and computational models in multisensory integration have shown that sensory input from different senses is integrated in a statistically optimal way, in addition, it appears that the kind of inferences used to infer single sources for multiple sensory inputs uses a Bayesian inference about the causal origin of the sensory stimuli.", "As such, it appears neurobiologically plausible that the brain implements decision-making procedures that are close to optimal for Bayesian inference.Brocas and Carrillo propose a model to make decisions based on noisy sensory inputs, beliefs about the state of the world are modified by Bayesian updating, and then decisions are made based on beliefs passing a threshold.", "They show that this model, when optimized for single-step decision making, produces belief anchoring and polarization of opinions – exactly as described in the global warming controversy context – in spite of identical evidence presented, the pre-existing beliefs (or evidence presented first) has an overwhelming effect on the beliefs formed.", "In addition, the preferences of the agent (the particular rewards that they value) also cause the beliefs formed to change – this explains the biased assimilation (also known as confirmation bias) shown above.", "This model allows the production of controversy to be seen as a consequence of a decision maker optimized for single-step decision making, rather than a result of limited reasoning in the bounded rationality of Daniel Kahneman." ], [ "See also", "*Argument*Bipartisanship*Dialectic*Misinformation*ProCon.org*Scandal*Third rail (politics)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Brian Martin, '' The Controversy Manual'' (Sparsnäs, Sweden: Irene Publishing, 2014).", "* Controversial topics based on machine learning on Wikipedia data* Controversial Today" ] ]
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[ [ "Centromere" ], [ "Introduction", "In this diagram of a duplicated chromosome, (2) identifies the centromere—the region that joins the two sister chromatids, or each half of the chromosome.", "In prophase of mitosis, specialized regions on centromeres called kinetochores attach chromosomes to spindle fibers.The '''centromere''' links a pair of sister chromatids together during cell division.", "This constricted region of chromosome connects the sister chromatids, creating a short arm (p) and a long arm (q) on the chromatids.", "During mitosis, spindle fibers attach to the centromere via the kinetochore.The physical role of the centromere is to act as the site of assembly of the kinetochores – a highly complex multiprotein structure that is responsible for the actual events of chromosome segregation – i.e.", "binding microtubules and signaling to the cell cycle machinery when all chromosomes have adopted correct attachments to the spindle, so that it is safe for cell division to proceed to completion and for cells to enter anaphase.There are, broadly speaking, two types of centromeres.", "\"Point centromeres\" bind to specific proteins that recognize particular DNA sequences with high efficiency.", "Any piece of DNA with the point centromere DNA sequence on it will typically form a centromere if present in the appropriate species.", "The best characterized point centromeres are those of the budding yeast, ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''.", "\"Regional centromeres\" is the term coined to describe most centromeres, which typically form on regions of preferred DNA sequence, but which can form on other DNA sequences as well.", "The signal for formation of a regional centromere appears to be epigenetic.", "Most organisms, ranging from the fission yeast ''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'' to humans, have regional centromeres.Regarding mitotic chromosome structure, centromeres represent a constricted region of the chromosome (often referred to as the primary constriction) where two identical sister chromatids are most closely in contact.", "When cells enter mitosis, the sister chromatids (the two copies of each chromosomal DNA molecule resulting from DNA replication in chromatin form) are linked along their length by the action of the cohesin complex.", "It is now believed that this complex is mostly released from chromosome arms during prophase, so that by the time the chromosomes line up at the mid-plane of the mitotic spindle (also known as the metaphase plate), the last place where they are linked with one another is in the chromatin in and around the centromere." ], [ "Position", "}'''A''': Short arm (p arm)'''B''': Centromere'''C''': Long arm (q arm)'''D''': Sister ChromatidsIn humans, centromere positions define the chromosomal karyotype, in which each chromosome has two arms, ''p'' (the shorter of the two) and ''q'' (the longer).", "The short arm 'p' is reportedly named for the French word \"petit\" meaning 'small'.", "The position of the centromere relative to any particular linear chromosome is used to classify chromosomes as metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric, telocentric, or holocentric.", "'''Categorization of chromosomes according to the relative arms length''' '''Centromere position''' '''Arms length ratio''' '''Sign''' '''Description''''''Medial ''sensu stricto'' '''1.0 – 1.6'''M''''''Metacentric''''''Medial region'''1.7'''m''''''Metacentric''''''Submedial'''3.0'''sm''''''Submetacentric''''''Subterminal'''3.1 – 6.9'''st''''''Subtelocentric''''''Terminal region'''7.0'''t''''''Acrocentric''''''Terminal ''sensu stricto'' ''''''''∞''''''''T''''''Telocentric''''''Notes''' '''''–''''''''Metacentric''': '''M'''+'''m''''''Atelocentric''': '''M'''+'''m'''+'''sm'''+'''st'''+'''t'''=== Metacentric ===Metacentric means that the centromere is positioned midway between the chromosome ends, resulting in the arms being approximately equal in length.", "When the centromeres are metacentric, the chromosomes appear to be \"x-shaped.", "\"=== Submetacentric ===Submetacentric means that the centromere is positioned below the middle, with one chromosome arm shorter than the other, often resulting in an L shape.=== Acrocentric ===An acrocentric chromosome's centromere is situated so that one of the chromosome arms is much shorter than the other.", "The \"acro-\" in acrocentric refers to the Greek word for \"peak.\"", "The human genome has six acrocentric chromosomes, including five autosomal chromosomes (13, 14, 15, 21, 22) and the Y chromosome.Short acrocentric p-arms contain little genetic material and can be translocated without significant harm, as in a balanced Robertsonian translocation.", "In addition to some protein coding genes, human acrocentric p-arms also contain Nucleolus organizer regions (NORs), from which ribosomal RNA is transcribed.", "However, a proportion of acrocentric p-arms in cell lines and tissues from normal human donors do not contain detectable NORs.", "The domestic horse genome includes one metacentric chromosome that is homologous to two acrocentric chromosomes in the conspecific but undomesticated Przewalski's horse.", "This may reflect either fixation of a balanced Robertsonian translocation in domestic horses or, conversely, fixation of the fission of one metacentric chromosome into two acrocentric chromosomes in Przewalski's horses.", "A similar situation exists between the human and great ape genomes, with a reduction of two acrocentric chromosomes in the great apes to one metacentric chromosome in humans (see aneuploidy and the human chromosome 2).Many diseases from the result of unbalanced translocations more frequently involve acrocentric chromosomes than other non-acrocentric chromosomes.", "Acrocentric chromosomes are usually located in and around the nucleolus.", "As a result these chromosomes tend to be less densely packed than chromosomes in the nuclear periphery.", "Consistently, chromosomal regions that are less densely packed are also more prone to chromosomal translocations in cancers.=== Telocentric ===Telocentric chromosomes have a centromere at one end of the chromosome and therefore exhibit only one arm at the cytological (microscopic) level.", "They are not present in human but can form through cellular chromosomal errors.", "Telocentric chromosomes occur naturally in many species, such as the house mouse, in which all chromosomes except the Y are telocentric.=== Subtelocentric ===Subtelocentric chromosomes' centromeres are located between the middle and the end of the chromosomes, but reside closer to the end of the chromosomes." ], [ "Centromere types", "=== Acentric ===An acentric chromosome is fragment of a chromosome that lacks a centromere.", "Since centromeres are the attachment point for spindle fibers in cell division, acentric fragments are not evenly distributed to daughter cells during cell division.", "As a result, a daughter cell will lack the acentric fragment and deleterious consequences could occur.Chromosome-breaking events can also generate acentric chromosomes or acentric fragments.", "===Dicentric===A dicentric chromosome is an abnormal chromosome with two centromeres, which can be unstable through cell divisions.", "It can form through translocation between or fusion of two chromosome segments, each with a centromere.", "Some rearrangements produce both dicentric chromosomes and acentric fragments which can not attach to spindles at mitosis.", "The formation of dicentric chromosomes has been attributed to genetic processes, such as Robertsonian translocation and paracentric inversion.", "Dicentric chromosomes can have a variety of fates, including mitotic stability.", "In some cases, their stability comes from inactivation of one of the two centromeres to make a functionally monocentric chromosome capable of normal transmission to daughter cells during cell division.For example, human chromosome 2, which is believed to be the result of a Robertsonian translocation at some point in the evolution between the great apes and ''Homo'', has a second, vestigial, centromere near the middle of its long arm.===Monocentric===The monocentric chromosome is a chromosome that has only one centromere in a chromosome and forms a narrow constriction.Monocentric centromeres are the most common structure on highly repetitive DNA in plants and animals.=== Holocentric ===Unlike monocentric chromosomes, holocentric chromosomes have no distinct primary constriction when viewed at mitosis.", "Instead, spindle fibers attach along almost the entire (Greek: holo-) length of the chromosome.", "In holocentric chromosomes centromeric proteins, such as CENPA (CenH3) are spread over the whole chromosome.", "The nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, is a well-known example of an organism with holocentric chromosomes, but this type of centromere can be found in various species, plants, and animals, across eukaryotes.", "Holocentromeres are actually composed of multiple distributed centromere units that form a line-like structure along the chromosomes during mitosis.", "Alternative or nonconventional strategies are deployed at meiosis to achieve the homologous chromosome pairing and segregation needed to produce viable gametes or gametophytes for sexual reproduction.Different types of holocentromeres exist in different species, namely with or without centromeric repetitive DNA sequences and with or without CenH3.Holocentricity has evolved at least 13 times independently in various green algae, protozoans, invertebrates, and different plant families.", "Contrary to monocentric species where acentric fragments usually become lost during cell division, the breakage of holocentric chromosomes creates fragments with normal spindle fiber attachment sites.", "Because of this, organisms with holocentric chromosomes can more rapidly evolve karyotype variation, able to heal fragmented chromosomes through subsequent addition of telomere caps at the sites of breakage.===Polycentric====== Human chromosomes ===karyogram, with each row vertically aligned at centromere level, and with annotated bands and sub-bands.", "It is a graphical representation of the idealized human diploid karyotype.", "It shows dark and white regions on G banding.", "It shows both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the sex chromosome.", "+ Table of human chromosomes with data on centromeres and sizes.", "Chromosome Centromere position (Mbp) Category Chromosome Size (Mbp) Centromere size (Mbp) 1 125.0 metacentric 247.2 7.4 2 93.3 submetacentric 242.8 6.3 3 91.0 metacentric 199.4 6.0 4 50.4 submetacentric 191.3 — 5 48.4 submetacentric 180.8 — 6 61.0 submetacentric 170.9 — 7 59.9 submetacentric 158.8 — 8 45.6 submetacentric 146.3 — 9 49.0 submetacentric 140.4 — 10 40.2 submetacentric 135.4 — 11 53.7 submetacentric 134.5 — 12 35.8 submetacentric 132.3 — 13 17.9 acrocentric 114.1 — 14 17.6 acrocentric 106.3 — 15 19.0 acrocentric 100.3 — 16 36.6 metacentric 88.8 — 17 24.0 submetacentric 78.7 — 18 17.2 submetacentric 76.1 — 19 26.5 metacentric 63.8 — 20 27.5 metacentric 62.4 — 21 13.2 acrocentric 46.9 — 22 14.7 acrocentric 49.5 — X 60.6 submetacentric 154.9 — Y 12.5 acrocentric 57.7 —Based on the micrographic characteristics of size, position of the centromere and sometimes the presence of a chromosomal satellite, the human chromosomes are classified into the following groups: Group Chromosomes Features Group A Chromosome 1-3 Large, metacentric and submetacentric Group B Chromosome 4-5 Large, submetacentric Group C Chromosome 6-12, X Medium-sized, submetacentric Group D Chromosome 13-15 Medium-sized, acrocentric, with satellite Group E Chromosome 16-18 Small, metacentric and submetacentric Group F Chromosome 19-20 Very small, metacentric Group G Chromosome 21-22, Y Very small, acrocentric, with satellite" ], [ "Sequence", "There are two types of centromeres.", "In regional centromeres, DNA sequences contribute to but do not define function.", "Regional centromeres contain large amounts of DNA and are often packaged into heterochromatin.", "In most eukaryotes, the centromere's DNA sequence consists of large arrays of repetitive DNA (e.g.", "satellite DNA) where the sequence within individual repeat elements is similar but not identical.", "In humans, the primary centromeric repeat unit is called α-satellite (or alphoid), although a number of other sequence types are found in this region.", "Centromere satellites are hypothesized to evolve by a process called layered expansion.", "They evolve rapidly between species, and analyses in wild mice show that satellite copy number and heterogeneity relates to population origins and subspecies.", "Additionally, satellite sequences may be affected by inbreeding.Point centromeres are smaller and more compact.", "DNA sequences are both necessary and sufficient to specify centromere identity and function in organisms with point centromeres.", "In budding yeasts, the centromere region is relatively small (about 125 bp DNA) and contains two highly conserved DNA sequences that serve as binding sites for essential kinetochore proteins." ], [ "Inheritance", "Since centromeric DNA sequence is not the key determinant of centromeric identity in metazoans, it is thought that epigenetic inheritance plays a major role in specifying the centromere.", "The daughter chromosomes will assemble centromeres in the same place as the parent chromosome, independent of sequence.", "It has been proposed that histone H3 variant CENP-A (Centromere Protein A) is the epigenetic mark of the centromere.", "The question arises whether there must be still some original way in which the centromere is specified, even if it is subsequently propagated epigenetically.", "If the centromere is inherited epigenetically from one generation to the next, the problem is pushed back to the origin of the first metazoans.On the other hand, thanks to comparisons of the centromeres in the X chromosomes, epigenetic and structural variations have been seen in these regions.", "In addition, a recent assembly of the human genome has detected a possible mechanism of how pericentromeric and centromeric structures evolve, through a layered expansion model for αSat sequences.", "This model proposes that different αSat sequence repeats emerge periodically and expand within an active vector, displacing old sequences, and becoming the site of kinetochore assembly.", "The αSat can originate from the same, or from different vectors.", "As this process is repeated over time, the layers that flank the active centromere shrink and deteriorate.", "This process raises questions about the relationship between this dynamic evolutionary process and the position of the centromere." ], [ "Structure", "The centromeric DNA is normally in a heterochromatin state, which is essential for the recruitment of the cohesin complex that mediates sister chromatid cohesion after DNA replication as well as coordinating sister chromatid separation during anaphase.", "In this chromatin, the normal histone H3 is replaced with a centromere-specific variant, CENP-A in humans.", "The presence of CENP-A is believed to be important for the assembly of the kinetochore on the centromere.", "CENP-C has been shown to localise almost exclusively to these regions of CENP-A associated chromatin.", "In human cells, the histones are found to be most enriched for H4K20me3 and H3K9me3 which are known heterochromatic modifications.", "In Drosophila, Islands of retroelements are major components of the centromeres.In the yeast ''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'' (and probably in other eukaryotes), the formation of centromeric heterochromatin is connected to RNAi.", "In nematodes such as ''Caenorhabditis elegans'', some plants, and the insect orders Lepidoptera and Hemiptera, chromosomes are \"holocentric\", indicating that there is not a primary site of microtubule attachments or a primary constriction, and a \"diffuse\" kinetochore assembles along the entire length of the chromosome." ], [ "Centromeric aberrations", "In rare cases, neocentromeres can form at new sites on a chromosome as a result of a repositioning of the centromere.", "This phenomenon is most well known from human clinical studies and there are currently over 90 known human neocentromeres identified on 20 different chromosomes.", "The formation of a neocentromere must be coupled with the inactivation of the previous centromere, since chromosomes with two functional centromeres (Dicentric chromosome) will result in chromosome breakage during mitosis.", "In some unusual cases human neocentromeres have been observed to form spontaneously on fragmented chromosomes.", "Some of these new positions were originally euchromatic and lack alpha satellite DNA altogether.", "Neocentromeres lack the repetitive structure seen in normal centromeres which suggest that centromere formation is mainly controlled epigenetically.", "Over time a neocentromere can accumulate repetitive elements and mature into what is known as an evolutionary new centromere.", "There are several well known examples in primate chromosomes where the centromere position is different from the human centromere of the same chromosome and is thought to be evolutionary new centromeres.", "Centromere repositioning and the formation of evolutionary new centromeres has been suggested to be a mechanism of speciation.Centromere proteins are also the autoantigenic target for some anti-nuclear antibodies, such as anti-centromere antibodies." ], [ "Dysfunction and disease", "It has been known that centromere misregulation contributes to mis-segregation of chromosomes, which is strongly related to cancer and miscarriage.", "Notably, overexpression of many centromere genes have been linked to cancer malignant phenotypes.", "Overexpression of these centromere genes can increase genomic instability in cancers.", "Elevated genomic instability on one hand relates to malignant phenotypes; on the other hand, it makes the tumor cells more vulnerable to specific adjuvant therapies such as certain chemotherapies and radiotherapy.", "Instability of centromere repetitive DNA was recently shown in cancer and aging." ], [ "Repair of centromeric DNA", "When DNA breaks occur at centromeres in the G1 phase of the cell cycle, the cells are able to recruit the homologous recombinational repair machinery to the damaged site, even in the absence of a sister chromatid.", "It appears that homologous recombinational repair can occur at centromeric breaks throughout the cell cycle in order to prevent the activation of inaccurate mutagenic DNA repair pathways and to preserve centromeric integrity." ], [ "Etymology and pronunciation", "The word ''centromere'' () uses combining forms of ''centro- and -mere'', yielding \"central part\", describing the centromere's location at the center of the chromosome." ], [ "See also", "* Telomere* Chromatid* Diploid* Monopolin" ], [ "References", "=== Further reading ===* * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Castello" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Castello''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "*Municipalities of San Marino, known as Castello in Italian*Castello, Venice, the largest of the six ''sestieri'' of Venice*''Castello'', the old town center of Giudicato of Cagliari in Sardinia*''Castello'', a neighbourhood in Florence*Castello, Hong Kong, a private housing estate in Hong Kong*A locality in the town of Monteggio in Switzerland*Cittadella (Gozo), a citadel in Gozo, Malta*Short name of Castellón de la Plana, a city in the Valencian Community, Spain*Città di Castello, a town in Umbria, Italy" ], [ "Other", "*Roman Catholic Diocese of Castello, a former diocese based in Venice*Castello (surname)*Castello cheeses" ], [ "See also", "*Castell (disambiguation)*Castella (disambiguation)*Castelli (disambiguation)*Castellón (disambiguation)*Castells (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "CuteFTP" ], [ "Introduction", "'''CuteFTP''' is a series of FTP (file transfer protocol) client applications distributed and supported since 1996 by GlobalSCAPE, who later bought the rights to the software.", "Both a Windows-based or Mac-based interface were made for both home and professional use.CuteFTP is used to transfer files between computers and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) servers to publish web pages, download digital images, music, multi-media files and software, and transfer files of any size or type between home and office.", "Since 1999, CuteFTP Pro and CuteFTP Mac Pro have also been available alongside CuteFTP Home with free trial periods.It was originally developed by Alex Kunadze, a Russian programmer." ], [ "See also", "*Comparison of FTP client software" ], [ "References", "** CuteFTP Softonic Review" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * Globalscape Parent Company" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Commodore 64" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Commodore 64''', also known as the '''C64''', is an 8-bit home computer introduced in January 1982 by Commodore International (first shown at the Consumer Electronics Show, January 7–10, 1982, in Las Vegas).", "It has been listed in the Guinness World Records as the highest-selling single computer model of all time, with independent estimates placing the number sold between 12.5 and 17 million units.", "Volume production started in early 1982, marketing in August for .", "Preceded by the VIC-20 and Commodore PET, the C64 took its name from its of RAM.", "With support for multicolor sprites and a custom chip for waveform generation, the C64 could create superior visuals and audio compared to systems without such custom hardware.The C64 dominated the low-end computer market (except in the UK and Japan, lasting only about six months in Japan) for most of the later years of the 1980s.", "For a substantial period (1983–1986), the C64 had between 30% and 40% share of the US market and two million units sold per year, outselling IBM PC compatibles, Apple computers, and the Atari 8-bit family of computers.", "Sam Tramiel, a later Atari president and the son of Commodore's founder, said in a 1989 interview, \"When I was at Commodore we were building C64s a month for a couple of years.\"", "In the UK market, the C64 faced competition from the BBC Micro, the ZX Spectrum, and later the Amstrad CPC 464.but the C64 was still the second-most-popular computer in the UK after the ZX Spectrum.", "The Commodore 64 failed to make any impact in Japan, as their market was dominated by Japanese computers, such as the NEC PC-8801, Sharp X1, Fujitsu FM-7, and MSX.Part of the Commodore 64's success was its sale in regular retail stores instead of only electronics or computer hobbyist specialty stores.", "Commodore produced many of its parts in-house to control costs, including custom integrated circuit chips from MOS Technology.", "In the United States, it has been compared to the Ford Model T automobile for its role in bringing a new technology to middle-class households via creative and affordable mass-production.", "Approximately 10,000 commercial software titles have been made for the Commodore 64, including development tools, office productivity applications, and video games.", "C64 emulators allow anyone with a modern computer, or a compatible video game console, to run these programs today.", "The C64 is also credited with popularizing the computer demoscene and is still used today by some computer hobbyists.", "In 2011, 17 years after it was taken off the market, research showed that brand recognition for the model was still at 87%." ], [ "History", "The Commodore 64 startup screenIn January 1981, MOS Technology, Inc., Commodore's integrated circuit design subsidiary, initiated a project to design the graphic and audio chips for a next-generation video game console.", "Design work for the chips, named MOS Technology VIC-II (Video Integrated Circuit for graphics) and MOS Technology SID (Sound Interface Device for audio), was completed in November 1981.Commodore then began a game console project that would use the new chips—called the ''Ultimax'' or the ''MAX Machine'', engineered by Yash Terakura from Commodore Japan.", "This project was eventually cancelled after just a few machines were manufactured for the Japanese market.", "At the same time, Robert \"Bob\" Russell (system programmer and architect on the VIC-20) and Robert \"Bob\" Yannes (engineer of the SID) were critical of the current product line-up at Commodore, which was a continuation of the Commodore PET line aimed at business users.", "With the support of Al Charpentier (engineer of the VIC-II) and Charles Winterble (manager of MOS Technology), they proposed to Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel a low-cost sequel to the VIC-20.Tramiel dictated that the machine should have of random-access memory (RAM).", "Although 64-Kbit dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) chips cost over at the time, he knew that 64K DRAM prices were falling and would drop to an acceptable level before full production was reached.", "The team was able to quickly design the computer because, unlike most other home-computer companies, Commodore had its own semiconductor fab to produce test chips; because the fab was not running at full capacity, development costs were part of existing corporate overhead.", "The chips were complete by November, by which time Charpentier, Winterble, and Tramiel had decided to proceed with the new computer; the latter set a final deadline for the first weekend of January, to coincide with the 1982 Consumer Electronics Show (CES).The product was code named the VIC-40 as the successor to the popular VIC-20.The team that constructed it consisted of Yash Terakura, Shiraz Shivji, Bob Russell, Bob Yannes, and David A. Ziembicki.", "The design, prototypes, and some sample software were finished in time for the show, after the team had worked tirelessly over both Thanksgiving and Christmas weekends.", "The machine used the same case, same-sized motherboard, and same Commodore BASIC 2.0 in ROM as the VIC-20.BASIC also served as the user interface shell and was available immediately on startup at the READY prompt.", "When the product was to be presented, the VIC-40 product was renamed C64.The C64 made an impressive debut at the January 1982 Consumer Electronics Show, as recalled by Production Engineer David A. Ziembicki: \"All we saw at our booth were Atari people with their mouths dropping open, saying, 'How can you do that for $595?", "The answer was vertical integration; due to Commodore's ownership of MOS Technology's semiconductor fabrication facilities, each C64 had an estimated production cost of (equivalent to $350 in 2022).=== Reception ===In July 1983, ''BYTE'' magazine stated that \"the 64 retails for .", "At that price it promises to be one of the hottest contenders in the under- personal computer market.\"", "It described the SID as \"a true music synthesizer ... the quality of the sound has to be heard to be believed\", while criticizing the use of Commodore BASIC 2.0, the floppy disk performance which is \"even slower than the Atari 810 drive\", and Commodore's quality control.", "''BYTE'' gave more details, saying the C64 had \"inadequate Commodore BASIC 2.0.An 8K-byte interpreted BASIC\" which they assumed was because \"Obviously, Commodore feels that most home users will be running prepackaged software - there is no provision for using graphics (or sound as mentioned above) from within a BASIC program except by means of POKE commands.\"", "This was one of very few warnings about C64 BASIC published in any computer magazines.", "''Creative Computing'' said in December 1984 that the C64 was \"the overwhelming winner\" in the category of home computers under .", "Despite criticizing its \"slow disk drive, only two cursor directional keys, zero manufacturer support, non-standard interfaces, etc.", "\", the magazine said that at the C64's price of less than \"you can't get another system with the same features: 64K, color, sprite graphics, and barrels of available software\".", "The Tandy Color Computer was the runner up.", "The Apple II was the winner in the category of home computer over , which was the category the Commodore 64 was in when it was first released at the price of .=== Market war: 1982–1983 ===Game cartridges for ''Radar Rat Race'' and ''International Soccer''Commodore had a reputation for announcing products that never appeared, so sought to quickly ship the C64.Production began in the spring of 1982, and volume shipments began in August.", "The C64 faced a wide range of competing home computers, but with a lower price and more flexible hardware, it quickly outsold many of its competitors.In the United States, the greatest competitors were the Atari 8-bit 400, the Atari 800, and the Apple II.", "The Atari 400 and 800 had been designed to accommodate previously stringent FCC emissions requirements and so were expensive to manufacture.", "Though similar in specifications, the C64 and Apple II represented differing design philosophies; as an open architecture system, upgrade capability for the Apple II was granted by internal expansion slots, whereas the C64's comparatively closed architecture had only a single external ROM cartridge port for bus expansion.", "However, the Apple II used its expansion slots for interfacing with common peripherals like disk drives, printers, and modems; the C64 had a variety of ports integrated into its motherboard, which were used for these purposes, usually leaving the cartridge port free.", "Commodore's was not a completely closed system, however, the company had published detailed specifications for most of their models since the Commodore PET and VIC-20 days, and the C64 was no exception.", "C64 sales were nonetheless relatively slow due to a lack of software, reliability issues with early production models, particularly high failure rates of the PLA chip, which used a new production process, and a shortage of 1541 disk drives, which also suffered rather severe reliability issues.", "During 1983, however, a trickle of software turned into a flood and sales began rapidly climbing.Commodore sold the C64 not only through its network of authorized dealers but also through department stores, discount stores, toy stores and college bookstores.", "The C64 had a built-in RF modulator and thus could be plugged into any television set.", "This allowed it (like its predecessor, the VIC-20) to compete directly against video game consoles such as the Atari 2600.Like the Apple IIe, the C64 could also output a composite video signal, avoiding the RF modulator altogether.", "This allowed the C64 to be plugged into a specialized monitor for a sharper picture.", "Unlike the IIe, the C64's NTSC output capability also included separate luminance/chroma signal output equivalent to (and electrically compatible with) S-Video, for connection to the Commodore 1702 monitor, providing even better video quality than a composite signal.Aggressive pricing of the C64 is considered to have been a major catalyst in the video game crash of 1983.In January 1983, Commodore offered a $100 rebate in the United States on the purchase of a C64 to anyone that traded in another video game console or computer.", "To take advantage of this rebate, some mail-order dealers and retailers offered a Timex Sinclair 1000 (TS1000) for as little as with the purchase of a C64.This deal meant that the consumer could send the TS1000 to Commodore, collect the rebate, and pocket the difference; Timex Corporation departed the computer market within a year.", "Commodore's tactics soon led to a price war with the major home computer manufacturers.", "The success of the VIC-20 and C64 contributed significantly to the exit from the field of Texas Instruments and other smaller competitors.The price war with Texas Instruments was seen as a personal battle for Commodore president Jack Tramiel.", "Commodore dropped the C64's list price by within two months of its release.", "In June 1983 the company lowered the price to (equivalent to $ in ), and some stores sold the computer for .", "At one point, the company was selling as many C64s as all computers sold by the rest of the industry combined.", "Meanwhile, TI lost money by selling the TI-99/4A for .", "TI's subsequent demise in the home computer industry in October 1983 was seen as revenge for TI's tactics in the electronic calculator market in the mid-1970s, when Commodore was almost bankrupted by TI.All four machines had similar memory configurations which were standard in 1982–83: for the Apple II+ (upgraded within months of C64's release to with the Apple IIe) and for the Atari 800.At upwards of , the Apple II was about twice as expensive, while the Atari 800 cost $899.One key to the C64's success was Commodore's aggressive marketing tactics, and they were quick to exploit the relative price/performance divisions between its competitors with a series of television commercials after the C64's launch in late 1982.The company also published detailed documentation to help developers, while Atari initially kept technical information secret.Although many early C64 games were inferior Atari 8-bit ports, by late 1983, the growing installed base caused developers to create new software with better graphics and sound.", "Rumors spread in late 1983 that Commodore would discontinue the C64, but it was the only non-discontinued, widely available home computer in the US by then, with more than 500,000 sold during the Christmas season; because of production problems in Atari's supply chain, by the start of 1984 \"the Commodore 64 largely has the low-end market to itself right now\", ''The Washington Post'' reported.=== 1984–1987 ===With sales booming and the early reliability issues with the hardware addressed, software for the C64 began to grow in size and ambition during 1984.This growth shifted to the primary focus of most US game developers.", "The two holdouts were Sierra, who largely skipped over the C64 in favor of Apple and PC-compatible machines, and Broderbund, who were heavily invested in educational software and developed primarily around the Apple II.", "In the North American market, the disk format had become nearly universal while cassette and cartridge-based software all but disappeared.", "So most US-developed games by this point grew large enough to require multi-loading.At a mid-1984 conference of game developers and experts at Origins Game Fair, Dan Bunten, Sid Meier, and a representative of Avalon Hill said that they were developing games for the C64 first as the most promising market.", "By 1985, games were an estimated 60 to 70% of Commodore 64 software.", "''Computer Gaming World'' stated in January 1985 that companies such as Epyx that survived the video game crash did so because they \"jumped on the Commodore bandwagon early\".", "Over 35% of SSI's 1986 sales were for the C64, ten points higher than for the Apple II.", "The C64 was even more important for other companies, which often found that more than half the sales for a title ported to six platforms came from the C64 version.", "That year, ''Computer Gaming World'' published a survey of ten game publishers that found that they planned to release forty-three Commodore 64 games that year, compared to nineteen for Atari and forty-eight for Apple II, and Alan Miller stated that Accolade developed first for the C64 because \"it will sell the most on that system\".In Europe, the primary competitors to the C64 were British-built computers: the Sinclair ZX Spectrum, the BBC Micro, and the Amstrad CPC 464.In the UK, the 48K Spectrum had not only been released a few months ahead of the C64's early 1983 debut, but it was also selling for £175, less than half the C64's £399 price.", "The Spectrum quickly became the market leader and Commodore had an uphill struggle against it in the marketplace.", "The C64 did however go on to rival the Spectrum in popularity in the latter half of the 1980s.", "Adjusted to the population size, the popularity of Commodore 64 was the highest in Finland at roughly 3 units per 100 inhabitants, where it was subsequently marketed as \"the Computer of the Republic\".By early 1985 the C64's price was ; with an estimated production cost of , its profitability was still within the industry-standard markup of two to three times.", "Commodore sold about one million C64s in 1985 and a total of 3.5 million by mid-1986.Although the company reportedly attempted to discontinue the C64 more than once in favor of more expensive computers such as the Commodore 128, demand remained strong.", "In 1986, Commodore introduced the 64C, a redesigned 64, which ''Compute!''", "saw as evidence that—contrary to C64 owners' fears that the company would abandon them in favor of the Amiga and 128—\"the 64 refuses to die\".", "Its introduction also meant that Commodore raised the price of the C64 for the first time, which the magazine cited as the end of the home-computer price war.", "Software sales also remained strong; MicroProse, for example, in 1987 cited the Commodore and IBM PC markets as its top priorities.=== 1988–1994 ===By 1988, PC compatibles were the largest and fastest-growing home and entertainment software markets, displacing former leader Commodore.", "Commodore 64 software sales were almost unchanged in the third quarter of 1988 year over year while the overall market grew 42%, but the company was still selling 1 to 1.5 million units worldwide each year of what ''Computer Chronicles'' that year called \"the Model T of personal computers\".", "Epyx CEO Dave Morse cautioned that \"there are no new 64 buyers, or very few.", "It's a consistent group that's not growing... it's going to shrink as part of our business.\"", "One computer gaming executive stated that the Nintendo Entertainment System's enormous popularityseven million sold in 1988, almost as many as the number of C64s sold in its first five yearshad stopped the C64's growth.", "Trip Hawkins reinforced that sentiment, stating that Nintendo was \"the last hurrah of the 8-bit world\".SSI exited the Commodore 64 market in 1991, after most competitors.", "''Ultima VI'', released in 1991, was the last major C64 game release from a North American developer, and ''The Simpsons'', published by Ultra Games, was the last arcade conversion.", "The latter was a somewhat uncommon example of a US-developed arcade port as after the early years of the C64, most arcade conversions were produced by UK developers and converted to NTSC and disk format for the US market, American developers instead focusing on more computer-centered game genres such as RPGs and simulations.", "In the European market, disk software was rarer and cassettes were the most common distribution method; this led to a higher prevalence of arcade titles and smaller, lower-budget games that could fit entirely in the computer's memory without requiring multiloads.", "European programmers also tended to exploit advanced features of the C64's hardware more than their US counterparts.In the United States, demand for 8-bit computers all but ceased as the 1990s began and PC compatibles completely dominated the computer market.", "However, the C64 continued to be popular in the UK and other European countries.", "The machine's eventual demise was not due to lack of demand or the cost of the C64 itself (still profitable at a retail price point between £44 and £50), but rather because of the cost of producing the disk drive.", "In March 1994, at CeBIT in Hanover, Germany, Commodore announced that the C64 would be finally discontinued in 1995, noting that the Commodore 1541 cost more than the C64 itself.However, only one month later in April 1994, the company filed for bankruptcy.", "When Commodore went bankrupt, all production on their inventory, including the C64, was discontinued, thus ending the C64's 11 and a half year production.", "Claims of sales of 17, 22 and 30 million of C64 units sold worldwide have been made.", "Company sales records, however, indicate that the total number was about 12.5 million.", "Based on that figure, the Commodore 64 was still the third most popular computing platform into the 21st century until 2017 when the Raspberry Pi family replaced it.", "While 360,000 C64s were sold in 1982, about 1.3 million were sold in 1983, followed by a large spike in 1984 when 2.6 million were sold.", "After that, sales held steady at between 1.3 and 1.6 million a year for the remainder of the decade and then dropped off after 1989.North American sales peaked between 1983 and 1985 and gradually tapered off afterward, while European sales remained quite strong into the early 1990s." ], [ "C64 family", "=== Commodore MAX ===MAX Machine In 1982, Commodore released the MAX Machine in Japan.", "It was called the Ultimax in the United States and VC-10 in Germany.", "The MAX was intended to be a game console with limited computing capability and was based on a cut-down version of the hardware family later used in the C64.The MAX was discontinued months after its introduction because of poor sales in Japan.=== Commodore Educator 64 ===Commodore Educator 64 1983 saw Commodore attempt to compete with the Apple II's hold on the US education market with the Educator 64, essentially a C64 and \"greenscale\" monochrome monitor in a PET case.", "Schools preferred the all-in-one metal construction of the PET over the standard C64's separate components, which could be easily damaged, vandalized, or stolen.", "Schools did not prefer the Educator 64 to the wide range of software and hardware options the Apple IIe was able to offer, and it was produced in limited quantities.=== SX-64 ===Commodore SX-64 Also in 1983, Commodore released the SX-64, a portable version of the C64.The SX-64 has the distinction of being the first commercial ''full-color'' portable computer.", "While earlier computers using this form factor only incorporate monochrome (\"green screen\") displays, the base SX-64 unit features a color cathode-ray tube (CRT) and one integrated 1541 floppy disk drive.", "Even though Commodore claimed in advertisements that it would have dual 1541 drives, when the SX-64 was released there was only one and the other became a floppy disk storage slot.", "Also, unlike most other C64s, the SX-64 does not have a datasette connector so an external cassette was not an option.=== Commodore 128 ===Two designers at Commodore, Fred Bowen and Bil Herd, were determined to rectify the problems of the Plus/4.They intended that the eventual successors to the C64—the Commodore 128 and 128D computers (1985)—were to build upon the C64, avoiding the Plus/4's flaws.", "The successors had many improvements such as a BASIC with graphics and sound commands (like almost all home computers not made by Commodore), 80-column display ability, and full CP/M compatibility.", "The decision to make the Commodore 128 plug compatible with the C64 was made quietly by Bowen and Herd, software and hardware designers respectively, without the knowledge or approval by the management in the post Jack Tramiel era.", "The designers were careful not to reveal their decision until the project was too far along to be challenged or changed and still make the impending Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in Las Vegas.", "Upon learning that the C128 was designed to be compatible with the C64, Commodore's marketing department independently announced that the C128 would be 100% compatible with the C64, thereby raising the bar for C64 support.", "In a case of malicious compliance, the 128 design was altered to include a separate \"64 mode\" using a complete C64 environment to try to ensure total compatibility.=== Commodore 64C ===1541-II floppy disk drive and 1084S monitor displaying television-compatible S-Video The C64's designers intended the computer to have a new, wedge-shaped case within a year of release, but the change did not occur.", "In 1986, Commodore released the 64C computer, which is functionally identical to the original.", "The exterior design was remodeled in the sleeker style of the Commodore 128.The 64C uses new versions of the SID, VIC-II, and I/O chips being deployed.", "Models with the C64E board had the graphic symbols printed on the top of the keys, instead of the normal location on the front.", "The sound chip (SID) was changed to use the MOS 8580 chip, with the core voltage reduced from 12V to 9V.", "The most significant changes include different behavior in the filters and in the volume control, which result in some music/sound effects sounding differently than intended, and in digitally-sampled audio being almost inaudible, respectively (though both of these can mostly be corrected-for in software).", "The 64 KB RAM memory went from eight chips to two chips.", "BASIC and the KERNAL went from two separate chips into one 16 KB ROM chip.", "The PLA chip and some TTL chips were integrated into a DIL 64-pin chip.", "The \"252535-01\" PLA integrated the color RAM as well into the same chip.", "The smaller physical space made it impossible to put in some internal expansions like a floppy-speeder.", "In the United States, the 64C was often bundled with the third-party GEOS graphical user interface (GUI)-based operating system, as well as the software needed to access Quantum Link.", "The 1541 drive received a matching face-lift, resulting in the 1541C.", "Later, a smaller, sleeker 1541-II model was introduced, along with the 3.5-inch microfloppy 1581.=== Commodore 64 Games System ===Commodore 64 Games System \"C64GS\"In 1990, the C64 was repackaged in the form of a game console, called the C64 Games System (C64GS), with most external connectivity removed.", "A simple modification to the 64C's motherboard was made to allow cartridges to be inserted from above.", "A modified ROM replaced the BASIC interpreter with a boot screen to inform the user to insert a cartridge.", "Designed to compete with the Nintendo Entertainment System and Sega's Master System, it suffered from very low sales compared to its rivals.", "It was another commercial failure for Commodore, and it was never released outside Europe.", "The Commodore game system lacked a keyboard, so any software that required a keyboard could not be used.=== Commodore 65 ===In 1990, an advanced successor to the C64, the Commodore 65 (also known as the \"C64DX\"), was prototyped, but the project was canceled by Commodore's chairman Irving Gould in 1991.The C65's specifications were impressive for an 8-bit computer, bringing specs comparable to the 16-bit Apple IIGS.", "For example, it could display 256 colors on the screen, while OCS based Amigas could only display 64 in HalfBrite mode (32 colors and half-bright transformations).", "Although no specific reason was given for the C65's cancellation, it would have competed in the marketplace with Commodore's lower-end Amigas and the Commodore CDTV." ], [ "Software", "In 1982, the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were rivaled only by the Atari 8-bit family and appeared exceptional when compared with the widely publicized Atari VCS and Apple II.", "The C64 is often credited with starting the computer subculture known as the demoscene (see Commodore 64 demos).", "It is still being actively used in the demoscene, especially for music (its SID sound chip even being used in special sound cards for PCs, and the Elektron SidStation synthesizer).", "Even though other computers quickly caught up with it, the C64 remained a strong competitor to the later video game consoles Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) and Master System, thanks in part to its by-then established software base, especially outside North America, where it comprehensively outsold the NES.Because of lower incomes and the domination of the ZX Spectrum in the UK, almost all British C64 software used cassette tapes.", "Few cassette C64 programs were released in the US after 1983 and, in North America, the diskette was the principal method of software distribution.", "The cartridge slot on the C64 was also mainly a feature used in the computer's first two years on the US market and became rapidly obsolete once the price and reliability of 1541 drives improved.", "A handful of PAL region games used bank switched cartridges to get around the 16 KB memory limit.=== BASIC ===The Simons' BASIC interpreter start-up screen.", "Note the altered background and text colors (vs the ordinary C64 blue tones) and the reduction of available BASIC-interpreter program memory allocation, due to the address space used by the cartridge.As is common for home computers of the early 1980s, the C64 comes with a BASIC interpreter, in ROM.", "KERNAL, I/O, and tape/disk drive operations are accessed via custom BASIC language commands.", "The disk drive has its own interfacing microprocessor and ROM (firmware) I/O routines, much like the earlier CBM/PET systems and the Atari 400 and Atari 800.This means that no memory space is dedicated to running a disk operating system, as was the case with earlier systems such as the Apple II and TRS-80.Commodore BASIC 2.0 is used instead of the more advanced BASIC 4.0 from the PET series, since C64 users were not expected to need the disk-oriented enhancements of BASIC 4.0.The company did not expect many to buy a disk drive, and using BASIC 2.0 simplified VIC-20 owners' transition to the 64.", "\"The choice of BASIC 2.0 instead of 4.0 was made with some soul-searching, not just at random.", "The typical user of a C64 is not expected to need the direct disk commands as much as other extensions, and the amount of memory to be committed to BASIC were to be limited.", "We chose to leave expansion space for color and sound extensions instead of the disk features.", "As a result, you will have to handle the disk in the more cumbersome manner of the 'old days'.", "\"The version of Microsoft BASIC is not very comprehensive and does not include specific commands for sound or graphics manipulation, instead requiring users to use the \"PEEK and POKE\" commands to access the graphics and sound chip registers directly.", "To provide extended commands, including graphics and sound, Commodore produced two different cartridge-based extensions to BASIC 2.0: Simons' BASIC and Super Expander 64.Other languages available for the C64 include Pascal, C, Logo, Forth, and FORTRAN.", "Compilers for BASIC 2.0 such as Petspeed 2 (from Commodore), Blitz (from Jason Ranheim), and Turbo Lightning (from Ocean Software) were produced.", "Most commercial C64 software was written in assembly language, either cross-developed on a larger computer, or directly on the C64 using a machine code monitor or an assembler.", "This maximized speed and minimized memory use.", "Some games, particularly adventures, used high-level scripting languages and sometimes mixed BASIC and machine language.=== Alternative operating systems ===Many third-party operating systems have been developed for the C64.As well as the original GEOS, two third-party GEOS-compatible systems have been written: Wheels and GEOS megapatch.", "Both of these require hardware upgrades to the original C64.Several other operating systems are or have been available, including WiNGS OS, the Unix-like LUnix, operated from a command-line, and the embedded systems OS Contiki, with full GUI.", "Other less well-known OSes include ACE, Asterix, DOS/65, and GeckOS.", "A version of CP/M was released, but this requires the addition of an external Z80 processor to the expansion bus.", "Furthermore, the Z80 processor is underclocked to be compatible with the C64's memory bus, so performance is poor compared to other CP/M implementations.", "C64 CP/M and C128 CP/M both suffer a lack of software; although most commercial CP/M software can run on these systems, software media is incompatible between platforms.", "The low usage of CP/M on Commodores means that software houses saw no need to invest in mastering versions for the Commodore disk format.", "The C64 CP/M cartridge is also not compatible with anything except the early 326298 motherboards.=== Networking software ===During the 1980s, the Commodore 64 was used to run bulletin board systems using software packages such as Punter BBS, Bizarre 64, Blue Board, C-Net, Color 64, CMBBS, C-Base, DMBBS, Image BBS, EBBS, and The Deadlock Deluxe BBS Construction Kit, often with sysop-made modifications.", "These boards sometimes were used to distribute cracked software.", "As late as December 2013, there were 25 such Bulletin Board Systems in operation, reachable via the Telnet protocol.", "There were major commercial online services, such as Compunet (UK), CompuServe (US later bought by America Online), The Source (US), and Minitel (France) among many others.", "These services usually required custom software which was often bundled with a modem and included free online time as they were billed by the minute.", "Quantum Link (or Q-Link) was a US and Canadian online service for Commodore 64 and 128 personal computers that operated from November 5, 1985, to November 1, 1994.It was operated by Quantum Computer Services of Vienna, Virginia, which in October 1991 changed its name to America Online and continued to operate its AOL service for the IBM PC compatible and Apple Macintosh.", "Q-Link was a modified version of the PlayNET system, which Control Video Corporation (CVC, later renamed Quantum Computer Services) licensed.=== Online gaming ===The first graphical character-based interactive environment is ''Club Caribe''.", "First released as ''Habitat'' in 1988, ''Club Caribe'' was introduced by LucasArts for Q-Link customers on their Commodore 64 computers.", "Users could interact with one another, chat and exchange items.", "Although the game's open world was very basic, its use of online avatars and the combination of chat and graphics was revolutionary.", "Online graphics in the late 1980s were severely restricted by the need to support modem data transfer rates as low as 300 bits per second.", "Habitat's graphics were stored locally on floppy disk, eliminating the need for network transfer." ], [ "Hardware", "=== CPU and memory ===Block diagram of the C64The C64 uses an 8-bit MOS Technology 6510 microprocessor that is almost identical to the 6502 but has three-state buses, a different pinout, slightly different clock signals and other minor changes for this application.", "It also has six I/O lines on otherwise-unused legs on the 40-pin IC package.", "These are used for two purposes in the C64: to bank-switch the machine's read-only memory (ROM) in and out of the processor's address space, and to operate the datasette tape recorder.", "The C64 has of 8-bit-wide dynamic RAM, of 4-bit-wide static color RAM for text mode, and are available to built-in Commodore BASIC 2.0 on startup.", "There is of ROM, made up of the BASIC interpreter, the KERNAL, and the character ROM.", "Because the processor can only address at a time, the ROM was mapped into memory and only of RAM (plus between the ROMs) were available at startup.", "Most \"breadbin\" Commodore 64s used 4164 DRAM with eight chips totaling 64K of system RAM.", "Later models, featuring Assy 250466 and Assy 250469 motherboards, used 41464 DRAM (64K×4) chips which stored per chip (so only two were required).", "Because 4164 DRAMs are 64K×1, eight chips are needed to make an entire byte; the computer will not function without all of them present.", "The first chip contains Bit 0 for the memory space, the second chip contains Bit 1, and so forth.The C64 performs a RAM test on power-up and if a RAM error is detected, the amount of free BASIC memory will be lower than the normal 38,911.If the faulty chip is in lower memory, then an ?OUT OF MEMORY IN 0 error is displayed rather than the usual BASIC startup banner.The C64 uses a complicated memory-banking scheme; the normal power-on default is the BASIC ROM mapped in at -, and the screen editor (KERNAL) ROM at –.", "RAM under the system ROMs can be written to, but not read back, without swapping out the ROMs.", "Memory location contains a register with control bits for enabling or disabling the system ROMs and the I/O area at .", "If the KERNAL ROM is swapped out, BASIC will be removed at the same time.", "BASIC is not active without the KERNAL; BASIC often calls KERNAL routines, and part of the ROM code for BASIC is in the KERNAL ROM.The character ROM is normally invisible to the CPU.", "The character ROM may be mapped into –, where it is then visible to the CPU.", "Because doing so necessitates swapping out the I/O registers, interrupts must first be disabled.", "By removing I/O from the memory map, – becomes free RAM.C64 cartridges map into assigned ranges in the CPU's address space.", "The most common cartridge auto-starting requires a string at which contains \"\" followed by the address where program execution begins.", "A few C64 cartridges released in 1982 use Ultimax mode (or MAX mode), a leftover feature of the unsuccessful MAX Machine.", "These cartridges map into and displace the KERNAL ROM.", "If Ultimax mode is used, the programmer will have to provide code for handling system interrupts.", "The cartridge port has 16 address lines, which grants access to the computer's entire address space if needed.", "Disk and tape software normally load at the start of BASIC memory ($0801), and use a small BASIC stub (such as 10 SYS(2064)) to jump to the start of the program.", "Although no Commodore 8-bit machine except the C128 can automatically boot from a floppy disk, some software intentionally overwrites certain BASIC vectors in the process of loading so execution begins automatically (instead of requiring the user to type RUN at the BASIC prompt after loading).About 300 cartridges were released for the C64, primarily during the machine's first years on the market, after which most software outgrew the cartridge limit.", "Larger software companies, such as Ocean Software, began releasing games on bank-switched cartridges to overcome the cartridge limit during the C64's final years.Commodore did not include a reset button on its computers until the CBM-II line, but third-party cartridges had a reset button.", "A soft reset can be triggered by jumping to the CPU reset routine at (64738).", "A few programs use this as an exit feature, although it does not clear memory.The KERNAL ROM underwent three revisions, mainly designed to fix bugs.", "The initial version is only found on 326298 motherboards (used in the first production models), and cannot detect whether an NTSC or PAL VIC-II is present.", "The second revision is found on all C64s made from late 1982 through 1985.The final KERNAL ROM revision was introduced on the 250466 motherboard (late breadbin models with 41464 RAM), and is found in all C64Cs.", "The 6510 CPU is clocked at (NTSC) and (PAL), lower than some competing systems; the Atari 800, for example, is clocked at ).", "Performance can be boosted slightly by disabling the VIC-II's video output via a register write.", "This feature is often used by tape and disk fast loaders and the KERNAL cassette routine to keep a standard CPU cycle timing not modified by the VIC-II's sharing of the bus.The restore key is gated directly to the CPU's NMI line, and will generate an NMI if pressed.", "The KERNAL handler for the NMI checks if run/stop is also pressed; if not, it ignores the NMI and exits.", "Run/stop-restore is normally a soft reset in BASIC which restores all I/O registers to their power-on default state, but does not clear memory or reset pointers; any BASIC programs in memory will be left untouched.", "Machine-language software usually disables run/stop-restore by remapping the NMI vector to a dummy RTI instruction.", "The NMI can also be used for an extra interrupt thread by programs, but risks a system lockup or other undesirable side effects if the restore key is accidentally pressed (which activates the NMI thread).=== Joysticks, mice, and paddles ===The C64 retained the VIC-20's DE-9 Atari joystick port and added another; any Atari-specification game controller can be used on a C64.The joysticks are read from the registers at and , and most software is designed to use a joystick in port 2 for control rather than port 1; the upper bits of are used by the keyboard, and an I/O conflict can result.", "Although it is possible to use Sega gamepads on a C64, it is not recommended; their slightly-different signal can damage the CIA chip.", "The SID chip's register , used to control paddles, is an analog input.", "A handful of games, primarily released early in the computer's life cycle, can use paddles.", "In 1986, Commodore released two mice for the C64 and C128: the 1350 and 1351.The 1350 is a digital device read from the joystick registers, and can be used with any program supporting joystick input.", "The 1351 is an analog potentiometer-based mouse, read with the SID's analog-to-digital converter.=== Graphics ===The VIC-II graphics chip features 16 colors, eight hardware sprites per scanline (enabling up to 112 sprites per PAL screen), scrolling capabilities, and two bitmap graphics modes.+ Commodore 64 palette Color # Name Hexadecimal RGB value 0 Black 1 White 2 Red 3 Cyan 4 Purple 5 Green 6 Blue 7 Yellow 8 Orange 9 Brown 10 Light Red 11 Dark-Gray 12 Mid-Gray 13 Light Green 14 Light Blue 15 Light-Gray === Text modes ===The standard text mode features 40 columns, like most Commodore PET models; the built-in character encoding is not standard ASCII but PETSCII, an extended form of ASCII-1963.The KERNAL ROM sets the VIC-II to a dark-blue background on power-up, with a light-blue border and text.", "Unlike the PET and VIC-20, the C64 uses double-width text; some early VIC-IIs had poor video quality which resulted in a fuzzy picture.", "Most screenshots show borders around the screen, a feature of the VIC-II chip.", "By utilizing interrupts to reset hardware registers with precise timing, it was possible to place graphics within the borders and use the full screen.The C64's two PETSCII character setsThe C64 has a resolution of 320×200 pixels, consisting of a 40×25 grid of 8×8 character blocks.", "It has 255 predefined character blocks, known as PETSCII.", "The character set can be copied into RAM and modified by a programmer.There are two color modes: high resolution, with two colours available per character block (one foreground and one background), and multicolour (four colors per character blockthree foreground and one background).", "In multicolor mode, attributes are shared between pixel pairs so the effective visible resolution is 160×200 pixels; only 16 KB of memory is available for the VIC-II video processor.Since the C64 has a bitmapped screen, it is possible (but slow) to draw each pixel individually.", "Most programmers used techniques developed for earlier, non-bitmapped systems like the Commodore PET and TRS-80.A programmer redraws the character set, and the video processor fills the screen block by block from the top left corner to the bottom right corner.", "Two types of animation are used: character block animation and hardware sprites.====Character block animation====The user draws a series of characters of a person walking, possibly two in the middle of the block and another two walking in and out of the block.", "Then the user sequences them so the character walks into the block and out again.", "Drawing a series of these gets a person walking across the screen.", "By timing the redraw to occur when the television screen blanks out to restart drawing the screen, there will be no flicker.", "For this to happen, a user programs the VIC-II that it generates a raster interrupt when video flyback occurs.", "This technique is used in the ''Space Invaders'' arcade game.Horizontal and vertical pixel scrolling of up to one character block is supported by two hardware scroll registers.", "Depending on timing, hardware scrolling affects the entire screen or selected lines of character blocks.", "On a non-emulated C64, scrolling is glass-like and blur-free.====Hardware sprites====Sprites on screen in a C64 gameA sprite is a character which moves over an area of the screen, draws over the background, and redraws it after it moves.", "This differs from character block animation, where the user flips character blocks.", "On the C64, the VIC-II video controller handles most sprite emulation; the programmer defines the sprite and where it goes.The C64 has two types of sprites, respecting their color-mode limitations.", "Hi-res sprites have one color (one background and one foreground), and multi-color sprites have three (one background and three foreground).", "Color modes can be split or windowed on a single screen.", "Sprites can be doubled in size vertically and horizontally up to four times their size, but the pixel attributes are the same – the pixels become \"fatter\".", "There are eight sprites, and all eight can be shown in each horizontal line concurrently.", "Sprites can move with glassy smoothness in front of, and behind, screen characters and other sprites.The hardware sprites of a C64 can be displayed on a bitmapped (high-resolution) screen or a text-mode screen in conjunction with fast and smooth character block animation.", "Software-emulated sprites on systems without support for hardware sprites, such as the Apple II and ZX Spectrum, required a bitmapped screen.", "Sprite-sprite and sprite-background collisions are detected in hardware, and the VIC-II can be programmed to trigger an interrupt accordingly.=== Sound ===The SID chip has three channels, each with its own ADSR envelope generator and filter capabilities.", "Ring modulation makes use of channel three to work with the other two channels.", "Bob Yannes developed the SID chip and, later, co-founded the synthesizer company Ensoniq.", "Composers and programmers of game music on the C64 include Rob Hubbard, Jeroen Tel, Tim Follin, David Whittaker, Chris Hülsbeck, Ben Daglish, Martin Galway, Kjell Nordbø and David Dunn.", "Due to the chip's three channels, chords are often played as arpeggios.", "It was also possible to continuously update the master volume with sampled data to enable the playback of 4-bit digitized audio.", "By 2008, it was possible to play four-channel 8-bit audio samples and two SID channels and still use filtering.An example of SID chip-generated musicThere are two versions of the SID chip: the 6581 and the 8580.The MOS Technology 6581 was used in the original (\"breadbin\") C64s, the early versions of the 64C, and the Commodore 128.The 6581 was replaced with the MOS Technology 8580 in 1987.Although the 6581 sound quality is a little crisper, it lacks the 8580's versatility; the 8580 can mix all available waveforms on each channel, but the 6581 can only mix waveforms in a channel in a limited fashion.", "The main difference between the 6581 and the 8580 is the supply voltage; the 6581 requires , and the 8580 .", "A modification can be made to use the 6581 in a newer 64C board (which uses the chip).In 1986, the Sound Expander was released for the Commodore 64.It was a sound module with a Yamaha YM3526 chip capable of FM synthesis, primarily intended for professional music production.=== Revisions ===Three case styles were used: C64 (top, 1982), C64C (1986, middle) and C64G (1987, bottom).Commodore made many changes to the C64's hardware, sometimes introducing compatibility issues.", "The computer's rapid development and Commodore and Jack Tramiel's focus on cost-cutting instead of product testing resulted in several defects which caused developers like Epyx to complain and required many revisions; Charpentier said that \"not coming a little close to quality\" was one of the company's mistakes.Cost reduction was the reason for most of the revisions.", "Reducing manufacturing costs was vitally important to Commodore's survival during the price war and lean years of the 16-bit era.", "The C64's original (NMOS-based) motherboard went through two major redesigns and a number of revisions, exchanging positions of the VIC-II, SID and PLA chips.", "Much of the cost was initially eliminated by reducing the number of discrete components, such as diodes and resistors, which enabled a smaller printed circuit board.", "There were 16 C64 motherboard revisions to simplify production and reduce manufacturing costs.", "Some board revisions were exclusive to PAL regions.", "All C64 motherboards were manufactured in Hong Kong.IC locations changed frequently with each motherboard revision, as did the presence (or lack) of the metal RF shield around the VIC-II; PAL boards often had aluminized cardboard instead of a metal shield.", "The SID and VIC-II are socketed on all boards, but the other ICs may be socketed or soldered.", "The first production C64s, made from 1982 to early 1983, are known as \"silver label\" models due to the case having a silver-colored \"Commodore\" logo.", "The power LED had a silver badge reading \"64\" around it.", "These machines have only a five-pin video cable, and cannot produce S-Video.", "Commodore introduced the familiar \"rainbow badge\" case in late 1982, but many machines produced into early 1983 also used silver-label cases until the existing stock was used up.", "The original 326298 board was replaced in spring 1983 by the 250407 motherboard, which had an eight-pin video connector and added S-Video support.", "This case design was used until the C64C appeared in 1986.All ICs switched to plastic shells, but the silver-label C64s (notably the VIC-II) had some ceramic ICs.", "The case is made from ABS plastic, which may become brown with time; this can be reversed with retrobright.==== ICs ====An early C64 motherboard (Rev A PAL 1982)A C64C motherboard (\"C64E\" Rev B PAL 1992)The VIC-II was manufactured with 5-micrometer NMOS technology, and was clocked at (PAL) or (NTSC).", "Internally, the clock was divided to generate the dot clock (about 8 MHz) and the two-phase system clocks (about 1 MHz; the pixel and system clock speeds differ slightly on NTSC and PAL machines).", "At such high clock rates the chip generated considerable heat, forcing MOS Technology to use a ceramic dual in-line package known as a CERDIP.", "The ceramic package was more expensive, but dissipated heat more effectively than plastic.After a redesign in 1983, the VIC-II was encased in a plastic dual in-line package; this reduced costs substantially, but did not eliminate the heat problem.", "Without a ceramic package, the VIC-II required a heat sink.", "To avoid extra cost, the metal RF shielding doubled as the VIC's heat sink; not all units shipped with this type of shielding, however.", "Most C64s in Europe shipped with a cardboard RF shield coated with a layer of metal foil.", "The effectiveness of the cardboard was questionable; it acted instead as an insulator, blocking airflow and trapping heat generated by the SID, VIC, and PLA chips.", "The SID was originally manufactured using NMOS at 7 micrometers and, in some areas, 6 micrometers.", "The prototype SID and some early production models had a ceramic dual in-line package, but (unlike the VIC-II) are very rare; the SID was encased in plastic when production began in early 1982.==== Motherboard ====In 1986, Commodore released the last revision of the classic C64 motherboard.", "It was otherwise identical to the 1984 design, except for two 64-kilobit × 4-bit DRAM chips which replaced the original eight 64-kilobit × 1-bit ICs.", "After the release of the Commodore 64C, MOS Technology began to reconfigure the original C64's chipset to use HMOS technology.", "The main benefit of HMOS was that it required less voltage to drive the IC, generating less heat.", "This enhanced the reliability of the SID and VIC-II.", "The new chipset was renumbered 85xx to reflect the change to HMOS.In 1987, Commodore released a 64C variant with a redesigned motherboard known as a \"short board\".", "The new board used the HMOS chipset, with a new 64-pin PLA chip.", "The \"SuperPLA\", as it was called, integrated discrete components and transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips.", "In the last revision of the 64C motherboard, the 2114 4-bit-wide color RAM was integrated into the SuperPLA.=== Power supply ===, , The C64 used an external power supply, a linear transformer with multiple taps differing from switch mode (presently used on PC power supplies).", "It was encased in epoxy resin gel, which discouraged tampering but increased the heat level during use.", "The design saved space in the computer's case, and allowed international versions to be more easily manufactured.", "The 1541-II and 1581 disk drives and third-party clones also have external power-supply \"bricks\", like most peripherals.Commodore power supplies often failed sooner than expected.", "The computer reportedly had a 30-percent return rate in late 1983, compared to the 5–7 percent rate considered acceptable by the industry; ''Creative Computing'' reported four working C64s, out of seven.", "Malfunctioning power bricks were notorious for damaging the RAM chips.", "Due to their higher density and single supply (+5V), they had less tolerance for over-voltage.", "The usually-failing voltage regulator could be replaced by piggybacking a new regulator on the board and fitting a heat sink on top.The original PSU on early-1982 and 1983 machines had a 5-pin connector which could accidentally be plugged into the computer's video output.", "Commodore later changed the design, omitting the resin gel to reduce costs.", "The following model, the Commodore 128, used a larger, improved power supply which included a fuse.", "The power supply for the Commodore REU was similar to that of the Commodore 128, providing an upgrade for customers purchasing the accessory.=== Specifications ======= Internal hardware ====* Microprocessor CPU:** MOS Technology 6510/8500 (the 6510/8500 is a modified 6502 with an integrated 6-bit I/O port)** Clock speed: or * Video: MOS Technology VIC-II 6567/8562 (NTSC), 6569/8565 (PAL)** 16 colors** Text mode: 40×25 characters; 256 user-defined chars (8×8 pixels, or 4×8 in multicolor mode); or extended background color; 64 user-defined chars with 4 background colors, 4-bit color RAM defines foreground color** Bitmap modes: 320×200 (2 unique colors in each 8×8 pixel block), 160×200 (3 unique colors + 1 common color in each 4×8 block)** 8 hardware sprites of 24×21 pixels (12×21 in multicolor mode)** Smooth scrolling, raster interrupts* Sound: MOS Technology 6581/8580 SID** 3-channel synthesizer with programmable ADSR envelope** 8 octaves** 4 waveforms per audio channel: triangle, sawtooth, variable pulse, noise** Oscillator synchronization, ring modulation** Programmable filter: high pass, low pass, band pass, notch filter* Input/Output: Two 6526 Complex Interface Adapters** 16 bit parallel I/O** 8 bit serial I/O** 24-hours (AM/PM) Time of Day clock (TOD), with programmable alarm clock** 16 bit interval timers* RAM:** 64 KB, of which 38 KB were available for BASIC programs** 1024 nybbles color RAM (memory allocated for screen color data storage)** Expandable to 320 KB with Commodore 1764 256 KB RAM Expansion Unit (REU); although only 64 KB directly accessible; REU used mostly for the GEOS.", "REUs of 128 KB and 512 KB, originally designed for the C128, were also available, but required the user to buy a stronger power supply from some third party supplier; with the 1764 this was included.Creative Micro Designs also produced a 2 MB REU for the C64 and C128, called the 1750 XL.", "The technology actually supported up to 16 MB, but 2 MB was the biggest one officially made.", "Expansions of up to 16 MB were also possible via the CMD SuperCPU.", "* ROM:** ( Commodore BASIC 2.0; KERNAL; character generator, providing two character sets)==== Input/output (I/O) ports and power supply ====Commodore 64 ports (from left: Joy1, Joy2, Power, ROM cartridge, RF-adj, RF modulator, A/V, Serial 488 bus, Tape, User)* I/O ports:** ROM cartridge expansion slot (44-pin slot for edge connector with 6510 CPU address/data bus lines and control signals, as well as GND and voltage pins; used for program modules and memory expansions, among others)** Integrated RF modulator television antenna output via an RCA connector.", "The used channel could be adjusted from number 36 with the potentiometer to the left.", "** 8-pin DIN connector containing composite video output, separate Y/C outputs and sound input/output.", "This is a 262° horseshoe version of the plug, rather than the 270° circular version.", "Early C64 units (with motherboard Assy 326298) use a 5-pin DIN connector that carries composite video and luminance signals, but lacks a chroma signal.", "** Serial bus (proprietary serial version of IEEE-488, 6-pin DIN plug) for CBM printers and disk drives** PET-type Commodore Datasette 300 baud tape interface (edge connector with digital cassette motor/read/write/key-sense signals), Ground and +5V DC lines.", "The cassette motor is controlled by a +5V DC signal from the 6510 CPU.", "The 9V AC input is transformed into unregulated 6.36V DC which is used to actually power the cassette motor.", "** User port (edge connector with TTL-level signals, for modems and so on; byte-parallel signals which can be used to drive third-party parallel printers, among other things, 17 logic signals, 7 Ground and voltage pins, including 9V AC)** 2 × screwless DE9M game controller ports (compatible with Atari 2600 controllers), each supporting five digital inputs and two analog inputs.", "Available peripherals included digital joysticks, analog paddles, a light pen, the Commodore 1351 mouse, and graphics tablets such as the KoalaPad.", "* Power supply:** 5V DC and 9V AC from an external \"power brick\", attached to a 7-pin female DIN-connector on the computer.The is used to supply power via a charge pump to the SID sound generator chip, provide via a rectifier to the cassette motor, a \"0\" pulse for every positive half wave to the time-of-day (TOD) input on the CIA chips, and directly to the user-port.", "Thus, as a minimum, a square wave is required.", "But a sine wave is preferred.==== Memory map ==== Address SizeKB Description 0x0000 32 RAM 0x8000 8 RAM Cartridge ROM 0xA000 8 RAM BASIC ROM 0xC000 4 RAM 0xD000 4 RAM   I/O/Color RAM Character ROM 0xE000 8 RAM KERNAL ROM Note that even if an I/O chip like the VIC-II only uses 64 positions in the memory address space, it will occupy 1,024 addresses because some address bits are left undecoded.==== Peripherals ====File:Commodore-64-1541-Floppy-Drive-01.jpg|Commodore 1541 floppy driveFile:Commodore 1541 white.jpg|Commodore 1541C floppy driveFile:C64-IMG 5372.jpg|Commodore 1541-II floppy driveFile:Commodore-Datasette-C2N-Mk1-Front.jpg|Commodore 1530 DatasetteFile:Commodore Matrixdrucker MPS-802 (weißen hintergrund).jpg|Commodore MPS-802 dot matrix printerFile:CommodoreVICModem.jpg|Commodore VIC-ModemFile:Commodore blockomaus.jpg|Commodore 1351 mouseFile:Commodore 1702 (made by JVC) front.jpg|Commodore 1702 video monitorFile:Commodore 1581 Disk Drive Front.jpg|Commodore 1581 3.5\" double-sided floppy drive=== Manufacturing cost ===Vertical integration was the key to keeping Commodore 64 production costs low.", "At the introduction in 1982, the production cost was US$135 and the retail price US$595.In 1985, the retail price went down to US$149 (US$ today) and the production costs were believed to be somewhere between US$35–50 ( Commodore would not confirm this cost figure.", "Dougherty of the Berkeley Softworks estimated the costs of the Commodore 64 parts based on his experience at Mattel and Imagic.+Cost Count Price in 1985 US$ Part 3 1 ROMs 8 1.85 Dynamic RAMs 4 SID (sound) chip 4 VIC-II (graphics) chip 3 RF modulator package 1–2 6510 8-bit microprocessor 5 A handful of TTL, buffers, power regulators and capacitors 10 max Keyboard 1–2 Printed circuit board 1–2 Plastic case 5–10 Power supply and miscellaneous connectors 1–2 Packaging and manual Total: 52.8–61.8To lower costs, TTL chips were replaced with less expensive custom chips and ways to increase the yields on the sound and graphics chips were found.", "The video chip 6567 had the ceramic package replaced with plastic but heat dissipation demanded a redesign of the chip and the development of a plastic package that can dissipate heat as well as ceramic.=== Clones ===C64 Direct-to-TVClones are computers which imitate C64 functions.", "In mid-2004, after an absence from the marketplace of more than 10 years, PC manufacturer Tulip Computers (owners of the Commodore brand since 1997) announced the C64 Direct-to-TV (C64DTV): a joystick-based TV game based on the C64, with 30 games in its ROM.", "Designed by Jeri Ellsworth, a self-taught computer designer who had designed the C-One C64 implementation, the C64DTV was similar to other mini-consoles based on the modestly-successful Atari 2600 and Intellivision.", "The C64DTV was advertised on QVC in the United States for the 2004 holiday season.", "In 2015, a Commodore 64-compatible motherboard was produced by Individual Computers.", "Called the C64 Reloaded, it is a redesign of Commodore 64 motherboard revision 250466 with several new features.", "The motherboard is designed to be placed in an existing, empty C64 or C64C case.", "Produced in limited quantities, models of this Commodore 64 clone have machined or ZIF sockets in which custom C64 chips are placed.", "The board contains jumpers to accept revisions of the VIC-II and SID chips and the ability to switch between the PAL and NTSC video systems.", "It has several innovations, including selection (via the restore key) of KERNAL and character ROMs, built-in reset toggle on the power switch, and an S-Video socket to replace the original TV modulator.", "The motherboard is powered by a DC-to-DC converter which uses from a mains adapter, rather than the original (and failure-prone) Commodore 64 power-supply brick.=== Compatible hardware ===C64 enthusiasts were developing new hardware in 2008, including Ethernet cards, specially-adapted hard disks and flash card interfaces (sd2iec).", "A-SID, which gives the C-64 a wah-wah effect, was introduced in 2022.=== Brand reuse ===C64 Web.it Internet ComputerThe C64 brand was reused in 1998 for the Web.it Internet Computer, a low-powered, Internet-oriented, all-in-one x86 PC running MS-DOS and Windows 3.1.It uses an AMD Élan SC400 SoC with 16 MB of RAM, a 3.5-inch floppy disk drive, 56k modem and PC Card.", "Despite its Commodore 64 nameplate, the C64 Web.it looks different and is only directly compatible with the original via included emulation software.", "PC clones branded C64x sold by Commodore USA, a company licensing the Commodore trademark, began shipping in June 2011.The C64x's case resembles the original C64 computer, but – like the Web.it – it is based on x86 architecture and is not compatible with the Commodore 64.=== Virtual Console ===Several Commodore 64 games were released on the Nintendo Wii's Virtual Console service in Europe and North America.", "They were delisted from the service in August 2013.=== THEC64 and THEC64 Mini ===THEC64 Mini ''(top)'' next to an original C64Full-size THEC64 in its original boxTHEC64 Mini, an unofficial Linux-based console emulating the Commodore 64, was released in 2018 by UK-based Retro Games.", "The console is a decorative, half-scale Commodore 64 with two USB and one HDMI port, and a mini USB connection to power the system.", "The console's keyboard is non-functional; the system is controlled by an included THEC64 joystick or a separate USB keyboard.", "New software ROMs can be loaded into the console, which uses emulator x64 (as part of VICE) to run software and has a built-in graphical operating system.The full-size THEC64 was released in 2019 in Europe and Australia, and was scheduled for release in November 2020 in North America.", "The console and built-in keyboard are built to scale with the original Commodore 64, including a functional keyboard.", "Enhancements include VIC-20 emulation, four USB ports, and an upgraded joystick.", "Neither product has a Commodore trademark.", "The Commodore key on the original keyboard is replaced with a THEC64 key; Retro Games can call neither product a C64, although the system ROMs are licensed from Cloanto Corporation.", "The consoles can be switched between carousel mode (to access the built-in game library) and classic mode, in which they operate similarly to a traditional Commodore 64.USB storage can be used to hold disk, cartridge and tape images for use with the machine." ], [ "Emulators", "Commodore 64 emulators include the open source VICE, Hoxs64, and CCS64.An iPhone app was also released with a compilation of C64 ports." ], [ "See also", "* List of Commodore 64 games* History of personal computers* IDE64 – P-ATA interface cartridge for the C64* SuperCPU – CPU upgrade for C64 and C128" ], [ "Footnotes", "=== References ====== Sources ===** Bagnall, Brian (2005).", "''On the Edge: the Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore''.", "Variant Press.", ".", "See especially pp. 224–260.", "* Tomczyk, Michael (1984).", "''The Home Computer Wars: An Insider's Account of Commodore and Jack Tramiel''.", "COMPUTE!", "Publications, Inc.", ".", "* Jeffries, Ron. \"", "A best buy for '83: Commodore 64\".", "''Creative Computing'', January 1983.", "* Amiga Format News Special.", "\"Commodore at CeBIT '94\".", "''Amiga Format'', Issue 59, May 1994.", "* Computer Chronicles; \" Commodore 64 – Interview with Commodore president Max Toy\", 1988.", "* The C-64 Scene Database; \" – Kjell Nordbø artist page (bio/release history) at CSDb\".", "* **" ], [ "External links", "* * Commodore 64 history, manuals, and photos * C64-Wiki (wiki-based encyclopaedia)* C64.com (C64 game database)* Lemon64 (C64 fanbase)* Csdb.dk (Commodore Scene/Software Database)* Extensive collection of information on C64 programming* A History of Gaming Platforms: The Commodore 64 from October 2007* A Commodore 64 Web Server Using Contiki v2.3* * Design case history: the Commodore 64, IEEE Spectrum, March 1985* Comparing different unit sales analyses" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cartography" ], [ "Introduction", "A medieval depiction of the Ecumene (1482, Johannes Schnitzer, engraver), constructed after the coordinates in Ptolemy's ''Geography'' and using his second map projection.", "The translation into Latin and dissemination of ''Geography'' in Europe, in the beginning of the 15th century, marked the rebirth of scientific cartography, after more than a millennium of stagnation.", "'''Cartography''' (; from , 'papyrus, sheet of paper, map'; and , 'write') is the study and practice of making and using maps.", "Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an imagined reality) can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively.The fundamental objectives of traditional cartography are to:* Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped.", "This is the concern of map editing.", "Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries.", "* Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media.", "This is the concern of map projections.", "* Eliminate the mapped object's characteristics that are irrelevant to the map's purpose.", "This is the concern of generalization.", "* Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped.", "This is also the concern of generalization.", "* Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience.", "This is the concern of map design.Modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems (GIS) and geographic information science (GISc)." ], [ "History", "=== Ancient times ===Valcamonica rock art (I), Paspardo r. 29, topographic composition, 4th millennium BCEWhat is the earliest known map is a matter of some debate, both because the term \"map\" is not well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else.", "A wall painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük (previously known as Catal Huyuk or Çatal Hüyük) has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE.", "Among the prehistoric alpine rock carvings of Mount Bego (France) and Valcamonica (Italy), dated to the 4th millennium BCE, geometric patterns consisting of dotted rectangles and lines are widely interpreted in archaeological literature as depicting cultivated plots.", "Other known maps of the ancient world include the Minoan \"House of the Admiral\" wall painting from , showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective, and an engraved map of the holy Babylonian city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (14th12th centuries BCE).", "The oldest surviving world maps are from 9th century BCE Babylonia.", "One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu and several cities, all, in turn, surrounded by a \"bitter river\" (Oceanus).", "Another depicts Babylon as being north of the center of the world.The ''Bedolina Map'' and its tracing, 6th–4th century BCEThe ancient Greeks and Romans created maps from the time of Anaximander in the 6th century BCE.", "In the 2nd century CE, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia.", "This contained Ptolemy's world map – the world then known to Western society ''(Ecumene)''.", "As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic.", "Roads were essential in the Roman world, motivating the creation of maps, called ''itinerarium'', that portrayed the world as experienced via the roads.", "The is the only surviving example.A 14th-century Byzantine map of the British Isles from a manuscript of Ptolemy's ''Geography'', using Greek numerals for its graticule: 52–63°N of the equator and 6–33°E from Ptolemy's Prime Meridian at the Fortunate Isles.In ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE.", "The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, during the Warring States period.", "In the book ''Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao'', published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection.", "Although this method of charting seems to have existed in China even before this publication and scientist, the greatest significance of the star maps by Su Song is that they represent the oldest existent star maps in printed form.Early forms of cartography of India included depictions of the pole star and surrounding constellations.", "These charts may have been used for navigation.=== Middle Ages and Renaissance ===St.", "Isidore's TO map of the world.", "('maps of the world') are the medieval European maps of the world.", "About 1,100 of these are known to have survived: of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts, and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents.The ''Tabula Rogeriana'', drawn by Muhammad al-Idrisi for Roger II of Sicily in 1154.South is at the top.The Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas ''Tabula Rogeriana (Book of Roger)'' in 1154.By combining the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean, Europe, and the Far East (which he learned through contemporary accounts from Arab merchants and explorers) with the information he inherited from the classical geographers, he was able to write detailed descriptions of a multitude of countries.", "Along with the substantial text he had written, he created a world map influenced mostly by the Ptolemaic conception of the world, but with significant influence from multiple Arab geographers.", "It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries.", "The map was divided into seven climatic zones, with detailed descriptions of each zone.", "As part of this work, a smaller, circular map depicting the south on top and Arabia in the center was made.", "Al-Idrisi also made an estimate of the circumference of the world, accurate to within 10%.", "''Europa regina'' in Sebastian Münster's \"''Cosmographia''\", 1570In the Age of Discovery, from the 15th century to the 17th century, European cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques.", "The invention of the magnetic compass, telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy.", "In 1492, Martin Behaim, a German cartographer and advisor to the king John II of Portugal, made the oldest extant globe of the Earth.In 1507, Martin Waldseemüller produced a globular world map and a large 12-panel world wall map (''Universalis Cosmographia'') bearing the first use of the name \"America.\"", "Portuguese cartographer Diogo Ribero was the author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527).", "Italian cartographer Battista Agnese produced at least 71 manuscript atlases of sea charts.", "Johannes Werner refined and promoted the Werner projection.", "This was an equal-area, heart-shaped world map projection (generally called a cordiform projection) that was used in the 16th and 17th centuries.", "Over time, other iterations of this map type arose; most notable are the sinusoidal projection and the Bonne projection.", "The Werner projection places its standard parallel at the North Pole; a sinusoidal projection places its standard parallel at the equator; and the Bonne projection is intermediate between the two.In 1569, mapmaker Gerardus Mercator first published a map based on his Mercator projection, which uses equally-spaced parallel vertical lines of longitude and parallel latitude lines spaced farther apart as they get farther away from the equator.", "By this construction, courses of constant bearing are conveniently represented as straight lines for navigation.", "The same property limits its value as a general-purpose world map because regions are shown as increasingly larger than they actually are the further from the equator they are.", "Mercator is also credited as the first to use the word \"atlas\" to describe a collection of maps.", "In the later years of his life, Mercator resolved to create his Atlas, a book filled with many maps of different regions of the world, as well as a chronological history of the world from the Earth's creation by God until 1568.He was unable to complete it to his satisfaction before he died.", "Still, some additions were made to the Atlas after his death, and new editions were published after his death.In 1570, the Brabantian cartographer Abraham Ortelius, strongly encouraged by Gillis Hooftman, created the first true modern atlas, ''Theatrum Orbis Terrarum.''", "In a rare move, Ortelius credited mapmakers who contributed to the atlas, the list of which grew to 183 individuals by 1603.In the Renaissance, maps were used to impress viewers and establish the owner's reputation as sophisticated, educated, and worldly.", "Because of this, towards the end of the Renaissance, maps were displayed with equal importance of painting, sculptures, and other pieces of art.", "In the sixteenth century, maps were becoming increasingly available to consumers through the introduction of printmaking, with about 10% of Venetian homes having some sort of map by the late 1500s.There were three main functions of maps in the Renaissance:* General descriptions of the world* Navigation and wayfinding* Land surveying and property managementIn medieval times, written directions of how to get somewhere were more common than the use of maps.", "With the Renaissance, cartography began to be seen as a metaphor for power.", "Political leaders could lay claim to territories through the use of maps, and this was greatly aided by the religious and colonial expansion of Europe.", "The Holy Land and other religious places were the most commonly mapped during the Renaissance.In the late 1400s to the late 1500s, Rome, Florence, and Venice dominated map-making and trade.", "It started in Florence in the mid-to late 1400s.", "Map trade quickly shifted to Rome and Venice but then was overtaken by atlas makers in the late 16th century.", "Map publishing in Venice was completed with humanities and book publishing in mind, rather than just informational use.==== Printing technology ====There were two main printmaking technologies in the Renaissance: woodcut and copper-plate intaglio, referring to the medium used to transfer the image onto paper.In woodcut, the map image is created as a relief chiseled from medium-grain hardwood.", "The areas intended to be printed are inked and pressed against the sheet.", "Being raised from the rest of the block, the map lines cause indentations in the paper that can often be felt on the back of the map.", "There are advantages to using relief to make maps.", "For one, a printmaker doesn't need a press because the maps could be developed as rubbings.", "Woodblock is durable enough to be used many times before defects appear.", "Existing printing presses can be used to create the prints rather than having to create a new one.", "On the other hand, it is hard to achieve fine detail with the relief technique.", "Inconsistencies in linework are more apparent in woodcut than in intaglio.", "To improve quality in the late fifteenth century, a style of relief craftsmanship developed using fine chisels to carve the wood, rather than the more commonly used knife.In intaglio, lines are engraved into workable metals, typically copper but sometimes brass.", "The engraver spreads a thin sheet of wax over the metal plate and uses ink to draw the details.", "Then, the engraver traces the lines with a stylus to etch them into the plate beneath.", "The engraver can also use styli to prick holes along the drawn lines, trace along them with colored chalk, and then engrave the map.", "Lines going in the same direction are carved at the same time, and then the plate is turned to carve lines going in a different direction.", "To print from the finished plate, ink is spread over the metal surface and scraped off such that it remains only in the etched channels.", "Then the plate is pressed forcibly against the paper so that the ink in the channels is transferred to the paper.", "The pressing is so forceful that it leaves a \"plate mark\" around the border of the map at the edge of the plate, within which the paper is depressed compared to the margins.", "Copper and other metals were expensive at the time, so the plate was often reused for new maps or melted down for other purposes.Whether woodcut or intaglio, the printed map is hung out to dry.", "Once dry, it is usually placed in another press to flatten the paper.", "Any type of paper that was available at the time could be used to print the map, but thicker paper was more durable.Both relief and intaglio were used about equally by the end of the fifteenth century.==== Lettering ====Lettering in mapmaking is important for denoting information.", "Fine lettering is difficult in woodcut, where it often turned out square and blocky, contrary to the stylized, rounded writing style popular in Italy at the time.", "To improve quality, mapmakers developed fine chisels to carve the relief.", "Intaglio lettering did not suffer the troubles of a coarse medium and so was able to express the looping cursive that came to be known as cancellaresca.", "There were custom-made reverse punches that were also used in metal engraving alongside freehand lettering.==== Color ====The first use of color in map-making cannot be narrowed down to one reason.", "There are arguments that color started as a way to indicate information on the map, with aesthetics coming second.", "There are also arguments that color was first used on maps for aesthetics but then evolved into conveying information.", "Either way, many maps of the Renaissance left the publisher without being colored, a practice that continued all the way into the 1800s.", "However, most publishers accepted orders from their patrons to have their maps or atlases colored if they wished.", "Because all coloring was done by hand, the patron could request simple, cheap color, or more expensive, elaborate color, even going so far as silver or gold gilding.", "The simplest coloring was merely outlines, such as of borders and along rivers.", "Wash color meant painting regions with inks or watercolors.", "Limning meant adding silver and gold leaf to the map to illuminate lettering, heraldic arms, or other decorative elements.=== Early modern period ===The early modern period saw the convergence of cartographical techniques across Eurasia and the exchange of mercantile mapping techniques via the Indian Ocean.In the early seventeenth century, the Selden map was created by a Chinese cartographer.", "Historians have put its date of creation around 1620, but there is debate in this regard.", "This map's significance draws from historical misconceptions of East Asian cartography, the main one being that East Asians did not do cartography until Europeans arrived.", "The map's depiction of trading routes, a compass rose, and scale bar points to the culmination of many map-making techniques incorporated into Chinese mercantile cartography.In 1689, representatives of the Russian tsar and Qing Dynasty met near the border town of Nerchinsk, which was near the disputed border of the two powers, in eastern Siberia.", "The two parties, with the Qing negotiation party bringing Jesuits as intermediaries, managed to work a treaty which placed the Amur River as the border between the Eurasian powers, and opened up trading relations between the two.", "This treaty's significance draws from the interaction between the two sides, and the intermediaries who were drawn from a wide variety of nationalities.=== Age of Enlightenment ===Maps of the Enlightenment period practically universally used copper plate intaglio, having abandoned the fragile, coarse woodcut technology.", "Use of map projections evolved, with the double hemisphere being very common and Mercator's prestigious navigational projection gradually making more appearances.Due to the paucity of information and the immense difficulty of surveying during the period, mapmakers frequently plagiarized material without giving credit to the original cartographer.", "For example, a famous map of North America known as the \"Beaver Map\" was published in 1715 by Herman Moll.", "This map is a close reproduction of a 1698 work by Nicolas de Fer.", "De Fer, in turn, had copied images that were first printed in books by Louis Hennepin, published in 1697, and François Du Creux, in 1664.By the late 18th century, mapmakers often credited the original publisher with something along the lines of, \"After the original cartographer\" in the map's title or cartouche.=== Modern period ===A pre-Mercator nautical chart of 1571, from Portuguese cartographer Fernão Vaz Dourado ().", "It belongs to the so-called ''plane chart'' model, where observed latitudes and magnetic directions are plotted directly into the plane, with a constant scale, as if the Earth were a plane (Portuguese National Archives of Torre do Tombo, Lisbon).Mapping can be done with GPS and laser rangefinder directly in the field.", "Image shows mapping of forest structure (position of trees, dead wood and canopy).In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users.", "The first maps were produced manually, with brushes and parchment; so they varied in quality and were limited in distribution.", "The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later, magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant, and vernier allowed the mass production of maps and the creation of accurate reproductions from more accurate data.", "Hartmann Schedel was one of the first cartographers to use the printing press to make maps more widely available.", "Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant, and other devices that use telescopes, allowed accurate land surveys and allowed mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the Sun at noon.Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, make possible maps with fine details, which do not distort in shape and which resist moisture and wear.", "This also eliminated the need for engraving, which further speeded up map production.In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite imagery, and remote sensing provided efficient, precise methods for mapping physical features, such as coastlines, roads, buildings, watersheds, and topography.", "The United States Geological Survey has devised multiple new map projections, notably the Space Oblique Mercator for interpreting satellite ground tracks for mapping the surface.", "The use of satellites and space telescopes now allows researchers to map other planets and moons in outer space.", "Advances in electronic technology ushered in another revolution in cartography: ready availability of computers and peripherals such as monitors, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters, along with computer programs for visualization, image processing, spatial analysis, and database management, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps.", "The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps has created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials.", "See also digital raster graphic.In the early years of the new millennium, three key technological advances transformed cartography: the removal of Selective Availability in the Global Positioning System (GPS) in May 2000, which improved locational accuracy for consumer-grade GPS receivers to within a few metres; the invention of OpenStreetMap in 2004, a global digital counter-map that allowed anyone to contribute and use new spatial data without complex licensing agreements; and the launch of Google Earth in 2005 as a development of the virtual globe EarthViewer 3D (2004), which revolutionised accessibility of accurate world maps, as well as access to satellite and aerial imagery.", "These advances brought more accuracy to geographical and location-based data and widened the range of applications for cartography, for example in the development of satnav devices.Today most commercial-quality maps are made using software of three main types: CAD, GIS and specialized illustration software.", "Spatial information can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted on demand.", "These tools lead to increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally.Field-rugged computers, GPS, and laser rangefinders make it possible to create maps directly from measurements made on site." ], [ "Deconstruction", "There are technical and cultural aspects to producing maps.", "In this sense, maps can sometimes be said to be biased.", "The study of bias, influence, and agenda in making a map is what comprise a map's deconstruction.", "A central tenet of deconstructionism is that maps have power.", "Other assertions are that maps are inherently biased and that we search for metaphor and rhetoric in maps.It is claimed that the Europeans promoted an \"epistemological\" understanding of the map as early as the 17th century.", "An example of this understanding is that \"European reproduction of terrain on maps reality can be expressed in mathematical terms; that systematic observation and measurement offer the only route to cartographic truth…\".A common belief is that science heads in a direction of progress, and thus leads to more accurate representations of maps.", "In this belief, European maps must be superior to others, which necessarily employed different map-making skills.", "\"There was a 'not cartography' land where lurked an army of inaccurate, heretical, subjective, valuative, and ideologically distorted images.", "Cartographers developed a 'sense of the other' in relation to nonconforming maps.", "\"Depictions of Africa are a common target of deconstructionism.", "According to deconstructionist models, cartography was used for strategic purposes associated with imperialism and as instruments and representations of power during the conquest of Africa.", "The depiction of Africa and the low latitudes in general on the Mercator projection has been interpreted as imperialistic and as symbolic of subjugation due to the diminished proportions of those regions compared to higher latitudes where the European powers were concentrated.Maps furthered imperialism and colonization of Africa in practical ways by showing basic information like roads, terrain, natural resources, settlements, and communities.", "Through this, maps made European commerce in Africa possible by showing potential commercial routes and made natural resource extraction possible by depicting locations of resources.", "Such maps also enabled military conquests and made them more efficient, and imperial nations further used them to put their conquests on display.", "These same maps were then used to cement territorial claims, such as at the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885.Before 1749, maps of the African continent had African kingdoms drawn with assumed or contrived boundaries, with unknown or unexplored areas having drawings of animals, imaginary physical geographic features, and descriptive texts.", "In 1748, Jean B.", "B. d'Anville created the first map of the African continent that had blank spaces to represent the unknown territory." ], [ "Map types", "=== General vs. thematic cartography ===Small section of an orienteering mapTopographic map of Easter IslandSierra NevadaIn understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography.", "General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features.", "General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series.", "For example, the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps.", "The government of the UK produces the classic 1:50,000 (replacing the older 1 inch to 1 mile) \"Ordnance Survey\" maps of the entire UK and with a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail.", "Many private mapping companies have also produced thematic map series.Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes, oriented toward specific audiences.", "A couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties, divided into numerical choropleth classes.", "As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial, cultural and social data.A third type of map is known as an \"orienteering,\" or special purpose map.", "This type of map falls somewhere between thematic and general maps.", "They combine general map elements with thematic attributes in order to design a map with a specific audience in mind.", "Oftentimes, the type of audience an orienteering map is made for is in a particular industry or occupation.", "An example of this kind of map would be a municipal utility map.=== Topographic vs. topological ===A topographic map is primarily concerned with the topographic description of a place, including (especially in the 20th and 21st centuries) the use of contour lines showing elevation.", "Terrain or relief can be shown in a variety of ways (see Cartographic relief depiction).", "In the present era, one of the most widespread and advanced methods used to form topographic maps is to use computer software to generate digital elevation models which show shaded relief.", "Before such software existed, cartographers had to draw shaded relief by hand.", "One cartographer who is respected as a master of hand-drawn shaded relief is the Swiss professor Eduard Imhof whose efforts in hill shading were so influential that his method became used around the world despite it being so labor-intensive.A topological map is a very general type of map, the kind one might sketch on a napkin.", "It often disregards scale and detail in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relational information.", "Beck's London Underground map is an iconic example.", "Although the most widely used map of \"The Tube,\" it preserves little of reality: it varies scale constantly and abruptly, it straightens curved tracks, and it contorts directions.", "The only topography on it is the River Thames, letting the reader know whether a station is north or south of the river.", "That and the topology of station order and interchanges between train lines are all that is left of the geographic space.", "Yet those are all a typical passenger wishes to know, so the map fulfills its purpose." ], [ "Map design", "Illustrated mapModern technology, including advances in printing, the advent of geographic information systems and graphics software, and the Internet, has vastly simplified the process of map creation and increased the palette of design options available to cartographers.", "This has led to a decreased focus on production skill, and an increased focus on quality design, the attempt to craft maps that are both aesthetically pleasing and practically useful for their intended purposes.=== Map purpose and audience ===A map has a purpose and an audience.", "Its purpose may be as broad as teaching the major physical and political features of the entire world, or as narrow as convincing a neighbor to move a fence.", "The audience may be as broad as the general public or as narrow as a single person.", "Mapmakers use design principles to guide them in constructing a map that is effective for its purpose and audience.==== Cartographic process ====The cartographic process The cartographic process spans many stages, starting from conceiving the need for a map and extending all the way through its consumption by an audience.", "Conception begins with a real or imagined environment.", "As the cartographer gathers information about the subject, they consider how that information is structured and how that structure should inform the map's design.", "Next, the cartographers experiment with generalization, symbolization, typography, and other map elements to find ways to portray the information so that the map reader can interpret the map as intended.", "Guided by these experiments, the cartographer settles on a design and creates the map, whether in physical or electronic form.", "Once finished, the map is delivered to its audience.", "The map reader interprets the symbols and patterns on the map to draw conclusions and perhaps to take action.", "By the spatial perspectives they provide, maps help shape how we view the world.=== Aspects of map design ===Designing a map involves bringing together a number of elements and making a large number of decisions.", "The elements of design fall into several broad topics, each of which has its own theory, its own research agenda, and its own best practices.", "That said, there are synergistic effects between these elements, meaning that the overall design process is not just working on each element one at a time, but an iterative feedback process of adjusting each to achieve the desired gestalt.", "* Areal distortion caused by Mercator projection'''Map projections''': The foundation of the map is the plane on which it rests (whether paper or screen), but projections are required to flatten the surface of the Earth or other celestial bodies.", "While all projections distort the surface, cartographers strategically control how and where distortion occurs For example, the popular Mercator projection does not distort angles on the surface, but it makes regions near the poles appear larger than they are.", "* '''Generalization''': All maps must be drawn at a smaller scale than reality, requiring that the information included on a map be a very small sample of the wealth of information about a place.", "Generalization is the process of adjusting the level of detail in geographic information to be appropriate for the scale and purpose of a map, through procedures such as selection, simplification, and classification.", "* '''Symbology''': Any map visually represents the location and properties of geographic phenomena using map symbols, graphical depictions composed of several visual variables, such as size, shape, color, and pattern.", "* '''Composition''': As all of the symbols are brought together, their interactions have major effects on map reading, such as grouping and visual hierarchy.", "* '''Typography or labeling''': Text serves a number of purposes on the map, especially aiding the recognition of features, but labels must be designed and positioned well to be effective.", "* '''Layout''': The map image must be placed on the page (whether paper, web, or other media), along with related elements, such as the title, legend, additional maps, text, images, and so on.", "Each of these elements have their own design considerations, as does their integration, which largely follows the principles of graphic design.", "* '''Map type-specific design''': Different kinds of maps, especially thematic maps, have their own design needs and best practices." ], [ "Deliberate cartographic errors", "Some maps contain deliberate errors or distortions, either as propaganda or as a \"watermark\" to help the copyright owner identify infringement if the error appears in competitors' maps.", "The latter often come in the form of nonexistent, misnamed, or misspelled \"trap streets\".", "Other names and forms for this are paper towns, fictitious entries, and copyright easter eggs.Another motive for deliberate errors is cartographic \"vandalism\": a mapmaker wishing to leave their mark on the work.", "Mount Richard, for example, was a fictitious peak on the Rocky Mountains' continental divide that appeared on a Boulder County, Colorado map in the early 1970s.", "It is believed to be the work of draftsman Richard Ciacci.", "The fiction was not discovered until two years later.Sandy Island in New Caledonia is an example of a fictitious location that stubbornly survives, reappearing on new maps copied from older maps while being deleted from other new editions.With the emergence of the internet and Web mapping, technologies allow for the creation and distribution of maps by people without proper cartographic training are readily available.", "This has led to maps that ignore cartographic conventions and are potentially misleading." ], [ "Professional and learned societies", "Professional and learned societies include:* International Cartographic Association (ICA), the world body for mapping and GIScience professionals, as well as the ICA member organizations* British Cartographic Society (BCS) a registered charity in the UK dedicated to exploring and developing the world of maps* Society of Cartographers supports in the UK the practising cartographer and encourages and maintains a high standard of cartographic illustration* Cartography and Geographic Information Society (CaGIS), promotes in the U.S. research, education, and practice to improve the understanding, creation, analysis, and use of maps and geographic information.", "The society serves as a forum for the exchange of original concepts, techniques, approaches, and experiences by those who design, implement, and use cartography, geographical information systems, and related geospatial technologies.", "* North American Cartographic Information Society (NACIS), A North American-based cartography society that is aimed at improving communication, coordination and cooperation among the producers, disseminators, curators, and users of cartographic information.", "Their members are located worldwide and the meetings are on an annual basis* Canadian Cartographic Association (CCA)=== Academic journals ===Journals related to cartography, as well as GIS, GISc, include:*''International Journal of Cartography''*''The Cartographic Journal''*''Cartographica''*''Cartography and Geographic Information Science''*''Cartographic Perspectives''*''KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information''*''Journal of Maps''*''Journal of Geovisualization and Spatial Analysis''*''Transactions in GIS''*''Journal of Spatial Science''*''Geocarto International''*''GIScience & Remote Sensing''*''International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation''*''International Journal of Digital Earth''*''Geoinformatica''*''ISPRS International Journal of Geo-information''*''Journal of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Geoinformation Science''*''Geo-spatial Information Science''*''ACM Transactions on Spatial Algorithms and Systems''*''Imago Mundi''*''Revista Cartográfica''*''Terrae Incognitae''" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===*" ], [ "Further reading", "'''Mapmaking'''* * * * * '''History'''* * * * * * * * * '''Meanings'''* *" ], [ "External links", "* Mapping History – a learning resource from the British Library* Antique Maps by Carl Moreland and David Bannister – complete text of the book, with information both on mapmaking and on mapmakers, including short biographies of many cartographers (archived 2 February 2007)* Concise Bibliography of the History of Cartography , Newberry Library" ] ]
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[ [ "Consumption" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Consumption''' may refer to:*Resource consumption*Tuberculosis, an infectious disease, historically known as consumption* Consumer (food chain), receipt of energy by consuming other organisms* Consumption (economics), the purchasing of newly produced goods for current use also defined as the consuming of products** Consumption function, an economic formula* Consumption (sociology) of resources, associated with social class, identity, group membership, and age" ], [ "See also", "* * Eating (disambiguation)* Consumerism" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cardiac glycoside" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cardiac glycosides''' are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump.", "Their beneficial medical uses are as treatments for congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias; however, their relative toxicity prevents them from being widely used.", "Most commonly found as secondary metabolites in several plants such as foxglove plants, these compounds nevertheless have a diverse range of biochemical effects regarding cardiac cell function and have also been suggested for use in cancer treatment." ], [ "Classification", "=== General structure ===The general structure of a cardiac glycoside consists of a steroid molecule attached to a sugar (glycoside) and an R group.", "The steroid nucleus consists of four fused rings to which other functional groups such as methyl, hydroxyl, and aldehyde groups can be attached to influence the overall molecule's biological activity.", "Cardiac glycosides also vary in the groups attached at either end of the steroid.", "Specifically, different sugar groups attached at the sugar end of the steroid can alter the molecule's solubility and kinetics; however, the lactone moiety at the R group end only serves a structural function.In particular, the structure of the ring attached at the R end of the molecule allows it to be classified as either a cardenolide or bufadienolide.", "Cardenolides differ from bufadienolides due to the presence of an \"enolide,\" a five-membered ring with a single double bond, at the lactone end.", "Bufadienolides, on the other hand, contain a \"dienolide,\" a six-membered ring with two double bonds, at the lactone end.", "While compounds of both groups can be used to influence the cardiac output of the heart, cardenolides are more commonly used medicinally, primarily due to the widespread availability of the plants from which they are derived.=== Classification ===Cardiac glycosides can be more specifically categorized based on the plant they are derived from, as in the following list.", "For example, cardenolides have been primarily derived from the foxglove plants ''Digitalis purpurea'' and ''Digitalis lanata'', while bufadienolides have been derived from the venom of the cane toad ''Rhinella marina'' (formerly known as ''Bufo marinus''), from which they receive the \"bufo\" portion of their name.", "Below is a list of organisms from which cardiac glycosides can be derived.Example of the chemical structure of oleandrin, a potent toxic cardiac glycoside extracted from the Oleander bush.==== Plant cardenolides ====* ''Convallaria majalis'' (Lily of the Valley): convallatoxin* ''Antiaris toxicaria'' (upas tree): antiarin* ''Strophanthus kombe'' (''Strophanthus'' vine): ouabain (g-strophanthin) and other strophanthins* ''Digitalis lanata'' and ''Digitalis purpurea'' (Woolly and purple foxglove): digoxin, digitoxin* ''Nerium oleander'' (oleander tree): oleandrin* ''Asclepias sp.''", "(milkweed): oleandrin* ''Adonis vernalis'' (Spring pheasant's eye): adonitoxin* ''Kalanchoe daigremontiana'' and other ''Kalanchoe'' species: daigremontianin* ''Erysimum cheiranthoides'' (wormseed wallflower) and other ''Erysimum'' species* ''Cerbera odollam'' (suicide tree): cerberin* ''Periploca sepium: periplocin==== Other cardenolides ====* some species of Chrysolina beetles, including ''Chrysolina coerulans'', have cardiac glycosides (including Xylose) in their defensive glands.==== Bufadienolides ====* ''Leonurus cardiaca'' (motherwort): scillarenin* ''Drimia maritima'' (squill): proscillaridine A* ''Bufo marinus'' (cane toad): various bufadienolides – see also toad venom* ''Kalanchoe daigremontiana'' and other ''Kalanchoe'' species: daigremontianin and others* ''Helleborus'' spp.", "(hellebore)" ], [ "Mechanism of action", "Cardiac glycosides affect the sodium-potassium ATPase pump in cardiac muscle cells to alter their function.", "Normally, these sodium-potassium pumps move potassium ions in and sodium ions out.", "Cardiac glycosides, however, inhibit this pump by stabilizing it in the E2-P transition state, so that sodium cannot be extruded: intracellular sodium concentration therefore increases.", "With regard to potassium ion movement, because both cardiac glycosides and potassium compete for binding to the ATPase pump, changes in extracellular potassium concentration can potentially lead to altered drug efficacy.", "Nevertheless, by carefully controlling the dosage, such adverse effects can be avoided.", "Continuing on with the mechanism, raised intracellular sodium levels inhibit the function of a second membrane ion exchanger, NCX, which is responsible for pumping calcium ions out of the cell and sodium ions in at a ratio of /.", "Thus, calcium ions are also not extruded and will begin to build up inside the cell as well.The disrupted calcium homeostasis and increased cytoplasmic calcium concentrations cause increased calcium uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) via the SERCA2 transporter.", "Raised calcium stores in the SR allow for greater calcium release on stimulation, so the myocyte can achieve faster and more powerful contraction by cross-bridge cycling.", "The refractory period of the AV node is increased, so cardiac glycosides also function to decrease heart rate.", "For example, the ingestion of digoxin leads to increased cardiac output and decreased heart rate without significant changes in blood pressure; this quality allows it to be widely used medicinally in the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias.=== Non-cardiac uses ===Cardiac glycosides were identified as senolytics: they can selectively eliminate senescent cells which are more sensitive to the ATPase-inhibiting action due to cell membrane changes." ], [ "Clinical significance", "Cardiac glycosides have long served as the main medical treatment to congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia, due to their effects of increasing the force of muscle contraction while reducing heart rate.", "Heart failure is characterized by an inability to pump enough blood to support the body, possibly due to a decrease in the volume of the blood or its contractile force.", "Treatments for the condition thus focus on lowering blood pressure, so that the heart does not have to exert as much force to pump the blood, or directly increasing the heart's contractile force, so that the heart can overcome the higher blood pressure.", "Cardiac glycosides, such as the commonly used digoxin and digitoxin, deal with the latter, due to their positive inotropic activity.", "On the other hand, cardiac arrhythmia are changes in heart rate, whether faster (tachycardia) or slower (bradycardia).", "Medicinal treatments for this condition work primarily to counteract tachycardia or atrial fibrillation by slowing down heart rate, as done by cardiac glycosides.Nevertheless, due to questions of toxicity and dosage, cardiac glycosides have been replaced with synthetic drugs such as ACE inhibitors and beta blockers and are no longer used as the primary medical treatment for such conditions.", "Depending on the severity of the condition, though, they may still be used in conjunction with other treatments." ], [ "Toxicity", "From ancient times, humans have used cardiac-glycoside-containing plants and their crude extracts as arrow coatings, homicidal or suicidal aids, rat poisons, heart tonics, diuretics and emetics, primarily due to the toxic nature of these compounds.", "Thus, though cardiac glycosides have been used for their medicinal function, their toxicity must also be recognized.", "For example, in 2008 US poison centers reported 2,632 cases of digoxin toxicity, and 17 cases of digoxin-related deaths.", "Because cardiac glycosides affect the cardiovascular, neurologic, and gastrointestinal systems, these three systems can be used to determine the effects of toxicity.", "The effect of these compounds on the cardiovascular system presents a reason for concern, as they can directly affect the function of the heart through their inotropic and chronotropic effects.", "In terms of inotropic activity, excessive cardiac glycoside dosage results in cardiac contractions with greater force, as further calcium is released from the SR of cardiac muscle cells.", "Toxicity also results in changes to heart chronotropic activity, resulting in multiple kinds of dysrhythmia and potentially fatal ventricular tachycardia.", "These dysrhythmias are an effect of an influx of sodium and decrease of resting membrane potential threshold in cardiac muscle cells.", "When taken beyond a narrow dosage range specific to each particular cardiac glycoside, these compounds can rapidly become dangerous.", "In sum, they interfere with fundamental processes that regulate membrane potential.", "They are toxic to the heart, the brain, and the gut at doses that are not difficult to reach.", "In the heart, the most common negative effect is premature ventricular contraction." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Colonialism" ], [ "Introduction", "''factory'' entrepôt, a basic example of colonialism illustrating its different elements, hierarchies and impact on the land and people (the Dutch V.O.C.", "factory in Hugli-Chuchura, Bengal, in 1665)'''Colonialism''' is the establishment and maintenance of one group of people as superior to other peoples and areas, often for imperialist control and exploitation, and through a range of practices and relations of colonization, installing coloniality and possibly colonies.", "That said there is no clear definition of colonialism and definitions may vary depending on the use of the term and context.Colonialism is etymologically rooted in the Latin word \"Colonus\", which was used to describe tenant farmers in the Roman Empire.", "The ''coloni'' sharecroppers started as tenants of landlords, but as the system evolved they became permanently indebted to the landowner and trapped in servitude.Colonialism has existed since ancient times.", "In the modern period, the concept is most strongly associated with European colonialism, starting in the 15th century and extending to the mid-1900s.", "At first, conquest followed policies of mercantilism, aiming to strengthen the home-country economy, so agreements usually restricted the colony to trading only with the metropole (mother country).", "By the mid-19th century, many empires gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and adopted the principle of free trade, with few restrictions or tariffs.Missionaries were active in practically all of the European-controlled colonies because the metropoles were Christian.", "Historian Philip Hoffman calculated that by 1800, before the Industrial Revolution, Europeans already controlled at least 35% of the globe, and by 1914, they had gained control of 84% of the globe.", "In the aftermath of World War II colonial powers retreated between 1945 and 1975; over which time nearly all colonies gained independence, entering into changed colonial, so-called postcolonial and neocolonialist relations." ], [ "Definitions", "''The East Offering its Riches to Britannia'', painted by Spiridione Roma for the boardroom of the British East India Company ''Collins English Dictionary'' defines colonialism as \"the practice by which a powerful country directly controls less powerful countries and uses their resources to increase its own power and wealth\".", "''Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary'' defines colonialism as \"the system or policy of a nation seeking to extend or retain its authority over other people or territories\".", "The ''Merriam-Webster Dictionary'' offers four definitions, including \"something characteristic of a colony\" and \"control by one power over a dependent area or people\".", "The ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' uses the term \"to describe the process of European settlement and political control over the rest of the world, including the Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa and Asia\".", "It discusses the distinction between colonialism, imperialism and conquest and states that \"the difficulty of defining colonialism stems from the fact that the term is often used as a synonym for imperialism.", "Both colonialism and imperialism were forms of conquest that were expected to benefit Europe economically and strategically,\" and continues \"given the difficulty of consistently distinguishing between the two terms, this entry will use ''colonialism'' broadly to refer to the project of European political domination from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries that ended with the national liberation movements of the 1960s\".In his preface to Jürgen Osterhammel's ''Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview'', Roger Tignor says \"For Osterhammel, the essence of colonialism is the existence of colonies, which are by definition governed differently from other territories such as protectorates or informal spheres of influence.\"", "In the book, Osterhammel asks, \"How can 'colonialism' be defined independently from 'colony?", "He settles on a three-sentence definition:" ], [ "Additional definitions", "Dutch family in Java, 1927''The Times'' once quipped that there were three types of colonial empire: \"The English, which consists in making colonies with colonists; the German, which collects colonists without colonies; the French, which sets up colonies without colonists.\"", "Modern studies of colonialism have often distinguished between various overlapping categories of colonialism, broadly classified into four types: settler colonialism, exploitation colonialism, surrogate colonialism, and internal colonialism.", "Some historians have identified other forms of colonialism, including national and trade forms.", "* Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration by settlers to colonies, often motivated by religious, political, or economic reasons.", "This form of colonialism aims largely to supplant prior existing populations with a settler one, and involves large number of settlers emigrating to colonies for the purpose of establishing settlements.", "Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, New Zealand, Russia, South Africa, United States, Uruguay, and (controversially) Israel, are examples of nations created or expanded in their contemporary form by settler colonization.", "* Exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on the exploitation of natural resources or labour to the benefit of the metropole.", "This form consists of trading posts as well as larger colonies where colonists would constitute much of the political and economic administration.", "The European colonization of Africa and Asia was largely conducted under the auspices of exploitation colonialism.", "* Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, in which most of the settlers do not come from the same ethnic group as the ruling power, as was the case of the British Mandate for Palestine.", "* Internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state.", "The source of exploitation comes from within the state.", "This is demonstrated in the way control and exploitation may pass from people from the colonizing country to an immigrant population within a newly independent country.", "* National colonialism is a process involving elements of both settler and internal colonialism, in which nation-building and colonization are symbiotically connected, with the colonial regime seeking to remake the colonized peoples into their own cultural and political image.", "The goal is to integrate them into the state, but only as reflections of the state's preferred culture.", "The Republic of China in Taiwan is the archetypal example of a national-colonialist society.", "* Trade colonialism involves the undertaking of colonialist ventures in support of trade opportunities for merchants.", "This form of colonialism was most prominent in 19th-century Asia, where previously isolationist states were forced to open their ports to Western powers.", "Examples of this include the Opium Wars and the opening of Japan." ], [ "Socio-cultural evolution", "When colonists settled in pre-populated areas, the societies and cultures of the people in those areas permanently changed.", "Colonial practices directly and indirectly forced the colonized peoples to abandon their traditional cultures.", "For example, European colonizers in the United States implemented the residential schools program to force native children to assimilate into the hegemonic culture.", "Cultural colonialism gave rise to culturally and ethnically mixed populations such as the mestizos of the Americas, as well as racially divided populations such as those found in French Algeria or in Southern Rhodesia.", "In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, hybrid communities existed.Notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian Singaporean, Filipino mestizo, Kristang, and Macanese peoples.", "In the Dutch East Indies (later Indonesia) the vast majority of \"Dutch\" settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, formally belonging to the European legal class in the colony." ], [ "List of colonies", "=== British colonies and protectorates ===Harbour Street, Kingston, Jamaica, c. 1820The Battle of Isandlwana during the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879.After an initial defeat the British were able to conquer Zululand.", "* Aden* Anglo-Egyptian Sudan* Afghanistan* Ascension Island* Australia** New South Wales** Victoria** Tasmania** Queensland** South Australia** Western Australia* Angevin Empire* Bahamas* Barbados* Basutoland* Bechuanaland* Bhutan* British Borneo** Brunei** Labuan** North Borneo** Sarawak* British East Africa* Suriname* British Guiana* British Honduras* British Hong Kong* Eastern China* Southern Japan* British Leeward Islands** Anguilla** Antigua** Barbuda** British Virgin Islands** Dominica** Montserrat** Nevis The Delhi Durbar of 1877: the proclamation of Queen Victoria as Empress of India** Saint Kitts* British Malaya The First Anglo-Sikh War, 1845–46** Federated Malay States** Straits Settlements** Unfederated Malay States* British Somaliland* British Western Pacific Territories** British Solomon Islands** Fiji** Gilbert and Ellice Islands** Phoenix Islands** Pitcairn Islands** New Hebrides (condominium with France)** Tonga** Union Islands* British Windward Islands** Barbados** Dominica** Grenada** Saint Lucia** Saint Vincent and the Grenadines* Burma* Canada* Ceylon* Central Asia and the Caucasus* Christmas Island* Cocos (Keeling) Islands* Cyprus (including Akrotiri and Dhekelia)The end result of the Boer Wars was the annexation of the Boer Republics to the British Empire in 1902* Egypt* Falkland Islands* Falkland Islands Dependencies** Graham Land** South Georgia** South Orkney Islands** South Shetland Islands** South Sandwich Islands** Victoria Land* Gambia* Gibraltar* Ethiopia* Somalia* Gold Coast* India (including what is today Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar) A view of shops with anti-British and pro-Independence signs, Malta, c. 1960* Heard Island and McDonald Islands* Ireland* Jamaica* Kenya* Peninsular Thailand* Maldives* Malta* Eastern Italy* Mandatory Palestine* Mauritius* Mosquito Coast* Muscat and Oman* Norfolk Island* Nigeria* Northern Rhodesia* North Sea Empire* Nyasaland *Oregon Country* Panama* Seychelles* Sierra Leone* Shanghai International Settlement* South Africa** Cape Colony** Natal** Transvaal Colony** Orange River Colony* Iraq* Southern Iran* Southeastern Saudi Arabia* Baltic States* Southern Rhodesia* St Helena* Swaziland* Thailand* The Californias* Thirteen Colonies* Trinidad and Tobago* Tristan da Cunha* Trucial States* Tonga* Persia* Tunisia* Tibet* Uganda* Austria* West Berlin* West Germany* Y WladfaCondominium of the New Hebrides=== French colonies ===* Acadia* Algeria* Canada* Clipperton Island* Comoros Islands (including Mayotte)Siege of Constantine (1836) during the French conquest of Algeria.", "* Corsica* French Guiana* French Equatorial Africa** Chad** Oubangui-Chari** French Congo** Gabon* French India (Pondichéry, Chandernagor, Karikal, Mahé and Yanaon)* French Indochina**Annam Tonkinese riflemen, 1884** Tonkin** Cochinchina** Cambodia** Laos** Most of Thailand* French Polynesia* French Somaliland* French Southern and Antarctic Lands* French West Africa** Ivory Coast** Dahomey** Guinea Marchand's trek across Africa in 1898** French Sudan** Mauritania** Niger** Senegal** Upper Volta* Guadeloupe** Saint Barthélemy** Saint Martin* La Réunion* Louisiana* Madagascar* Martinique* French Morocco* Lebanon* New Caledonia* Austria* West Germany* West Berlin* Saarland* Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon* Saint-Domingue* Shanghai French Concession (similar concessions in Kouang-Tchéou-Wan, Tientsin, Hankéou)* Tunisia* New Hebrides (condominium with Britain)* Wallis-et-Futuna=== Russian colonies and protectorates ===The Russian settlement of St. Paul's Harbour (present-day Kodiak, Alaska), Russian America, 1814* Sagallo* Kauai (Hawaii) (1816–1817)* Russian America (Alaska) (1733–1867)* Fort Ross (California)* Northern Iran* Mongolia (Later conceded to the Soviet Union)*Russian Dalian *Tianjin ====Soviet colonies====* Finland* Afghanistan* Mongolia* North Korea* Vietnam* Cuba* Northeastern China* East Germany* East Berlin* Austria=== German colonies ===Kamerun (by R. Hellgrewe, 1908)* Bismarck Archipelago* Cameroon* Caroline Islands* German New Guinea* German Solomon Islands* German East Africa* German South-West Africa* Gilbert Islands* Jiaozhou Bay* Mariana Islands* Marshall Islands* Togo* Tianjin=== Italian colonies and protectorates ===The Italian invasion of Libya during the Italo-Turkish War, 1911* Italian Aegean Islands* Italian protectorate of Albania* Italian governorate of Dalmatia* Italian governorate of Montenegro* Italian Concession of Tientsin* Italian East Africa** Italian Eritrea** Italian Ethiopia** Italian Somaliland -''Italian Trans-Juba'' (briefly; annexed) * Italian Libya** Italian Tripolitania** Italian Cyrenaica=== Dutch colonies and Overseas Territories ===View of Cape Town with ships of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), c. 1683* Dutch Brazil* Dutch Ceylon* Dutch Formosa* Dutch Cape Colony* Aruba* Bonaire* Curaçao* Saba* Sint Eustatius* Sint Maarten* Suriname* Dutch East Indies* Dutch New Guinea* Malacca=== Portuguese colonies ===Portuguese women in Goa, India, 16th century* Portuguese Africa** Cabinda** Ceuta** Madeira** Portuguese Angola** Portuguese Cape Verde** Portuguese Guinea** Portuguese Mozambique** Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe** Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá* Portuguese Asia** Portuguese India*** Goa*** Daman*** DiuBattle of Macau, 21–24 June 1622.Portuguese repel Dutch attack.", "** Portuguese Macau** Portuguese Nagasaki** Portuguese Ceylon** Portuguese Malacca** Portuguese Oman* Portuguese Oceania** Flores** Portuguese Timor** Solor* Portuguese South America** Colonial Brazil** Cisplatina** Misiones Orientales* Portuguese North America** Azores** Newfoundland and Labrador=== Spanish colonies ===An 18th-century casta painting from New Spain shows a Spanish man and his indigenous wife.The Battle of Tétouan, 1860, by Marià FortunySpanish General Arsenio Martínez Campos in Havana, Colonial Cuba, 1878* Canary Islands* Cape Juby* Captaincy General of Cuba** Spanish Florida** Spanish Louisiana* Captaincy General of the Philippines** Caroline Islands** Mariana Islands** Palau Islands* Ifni* Río de Oro* Saguia el-Hamra* Spanish Morocco* Tunisia* Algeria* Libya* Spanish Netherlands* Union with Holy Roman Empire* Iberian Union* Oran* Tripoli * Tunis* Béjaïa* Peñón of Algiers* Spanish Sahara* Spanish Naples* Spanish Sardinia* Spanish Sicily* Spanish Milan* Southeast and Eastern Europe* Viceroyalty of Peru** Captaincy General of Chile** Acre* Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata** Spanish Guinea*** Annobón*** Fernando Po*** Río Muni* Viceroyalty of New Granada** Captaincy General of Venezuela* Viceroyalty of New Spain** Captaincy General of Guatemala** Captaincy General of Yucatán** Captaincy General of Santo Domingo** Captaincy General of Puerto Rico** Spanish Formosa** Tidore** Cambodia** Brunei=== Austrian colonies ===Muslim Bosniak resistance during the battle of Sarajevo in 1878 against the Austro-Hungarian occupation* Bosnia and Herzegovina* Tianjin* Austrian Netherlands* Nicobar Islands* North Borneo* Austrian Colonial Policy=== Danish colonies ===Overseas Countries and Territories and Outermost Regions.", "* Andaman and Nicobar Islands* Danish West Indies (now United States Virgin Islands)* Danish Norway* Faroe Islands* Greenland* Iceland* Serampore* Danish Gold Coast* Danish India*Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)=== Belgian colonies ===* Belgian Congo* Ruanda-Urundi* Tianjin* Santo Tomás de Castilla, Guatemala (1843–1854)=== Swedish colonies ===* Baltic states* Guadeloupe* New Sweden* Saint Barthélemy* Swedish Pomerania* Swedish Gold Coast=== Norwegian Overseas Territories ===*Svalbard*Jan Mayen*Bouvet Island*Queen Maud Land*Peter I Island=== Ottoman colonies and Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire===Territorial extent of the Ottoman Empire in 1683*Sultanate of Aceh*Maldives*Rumelia*Ottoman North Africa*Ottoman Arabia*Ottoman Serbia*Ottoman Bulgaria*Ottoman Bosnia*Ottoman Albania*Ottoman Hungary*Ottoman Greece=== Colonization attempts by Poland ===* New Courland* James Island* St. Mary's Island* Fort Jillifree* Toco===Australian Overseas Territories===patrol officer in Australia's Territory of Papua and New Guinea in 1964* Papua New Guinea* Christmas Island* Cocos Islands* Coral Sea Islands* Heard Island and McDonald Islands* Norfolk Island* Nauru* Australian Antarctic Territory===New Zealand dependencies===Governor Lord Ranfurly reading the annexation proclamation to Queen Makea on 7 October 1900.", "* Cook Islands* Nauru* Niue* Ross Dependency** Balleny Islands** Ross Island** Scott Island** Roosevelt Island* Samoa===United States colonies and protectorates===* Alaska* American Concession in Tianjin (1869–1902)* American Concession in Shanghai (1848–1863)* American Concession in Beihai (1876–1943)* American Concession in Harbin (1898–1943)* American SamoaGovernor General William Howard Taft addressing the audience at the Philippine Assembly in the Manila Grand Opera HouseU.S.", "Exclusive Economic Zone, showing the location of each U.S. territory* Austria* Beijing Legation Quarter (1861–1945)* Corn Islands (1914–1971)* Canton and Enderbury Islands* Chile (1818 during the Chilean war of independence)* Costa Rica (Protected by the United States Military)*Cuba (Platt Amendment turned Cuba into a protectorate, protectorate until Cuban Revolution)* Dominican Republic* Falkland Islands (1832)* Guantánamo Bay* Guam* Gulangyu Island (1903–1945)* Haiti (1915–1934)*Hawaii* Indian Territory (1834–1907)* Isle of Pines (1899–1925)*Liberia (Independent since 1847, US protectorate until post-WW2)* Mexico City (1847)* Midway* Nicaragua (1912–1933)* Palmyra Atoll* Panama (Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty turned Panama into a protectorate, protectorate until post-WW2)* Panama Canal Zone (1903–1979)* Philippines (1898–1946)* Puerto Rico* Veracruz* Quita Sueño Bank (1869–1981)* Roncador Bank (1856–1981)*Ryukyu Islands* Russian Far East* Shanghai International Settlement (1863–1945)* Japan* South Korea* Sultanate of Sulu (1903–1915)* Swan Islands, Honduras (1914–1972)* Algeria* Morocco* Tangier International Zone (Now present-day Tangier, Morocco) (1924–1956)* Iraq* Afghanistan* Treaty Ports of China, Korea and Japan*Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands* United States Virgin Islands* Wake Island* Wilkes Land* West Berlin* West Germany===Japanese colonies and protectorates===* Aleutian Islands* Bonin Islands Three Koreans shot for pulling up rails as a protest against seizure of land without payment by the Japanese* Hokkaido* Karafuto* Korea* Kuril Islands* Kwantung Leased Territory* Nanyo** Caroline Islands** Marshall Islands** Northern Mariana Islands* Penghu Islands* Ryukyu Domain* Taiwan* Volcano Islands===Chinese colonies and protectorates===Camp of the Qing Military in Khalkha in 1688.", "* East Turkistan (Xinjiang) from 1884 – 1933, 1949–present* Guangxi (Tusi)* Hainan** Nansha Islands** Xisha Islands* Manchuria* Inner Mongolia* Outer Mongolia during the Qing dynasty* Taiwan* Tibet (Kashag)* Tuva during the Qing dynasty* Yunnan (Tusi)* Vietnam during the Han, Sui, and Tang dynasties* Ryukyu from the 15th to the 19th century===Mexican colonies===* Californias* Central America* Chiapas* Clipperton Island* Revillagigedo Islands* Texas* Manila===Guatemalan Colonies===* Belize* Chiapas===Ecuatorian colonies===* Galápagos Islands===Colombian colonies===* Panama* Ecuador* Venezuela* Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina===Venezuelan Colonies===* Western part of Guyana===Argentine colonies and protectorates===C-130 and control tower, Marambio AirportThe Conquest of the Desert extended Argentine power into Patagonia.", "* Argentine Antarctica* Asuncion (1873)* California (1818)* Chile (1817–1818 during the Chilean war of independence)* Equatorial Guinea (1810–1815)* Falkland Islands and Dependencies (1829–1831, 1832–1833, 1982)* Formosa* Gobierno del Cerrito (1843–1851)* Gonaïves, Haití.", "* Misiones* Paraguay (1873)* Patagonia* Peru (1820–1822 during the Independence of Peru)*Philippines (1818)* Puna de Atacama (1839– )* San Martin Camp, Cyprus.", "* Tierra del Fuego* Uruguay (Cisplatine War)===Paraguayan colonies===* Mato Grosso do Sul* Formosa===Bolivian colonies===* Puna de Atacama (1825–1839 ceded to Argentina) (1825–1879 ceded to Chile)* Acre===Chilean Colonies===*Patagonia* Tierra del Fuego*Easter Island===Brazilian Colonies===* Uruguay* Acre* Cape Verde (Occupied for two years after independence)* Angola (During the Angolan war of independence)* Mozambique (During the Mozambican war of independence)* Asuncion* Brazilian Antarctica===Ethiopian colonies===*Eritrea*Yemen===South African Colonies===*Namibia*Prince Edward Islands===Moroccan colonies===*Western Sahara===Omani colonies===Omani EmpireFollowing the expulsion of the Portuguese colonizers, Sultanate of Oman was the preeminent power in the western Indian Ocean during the 17th century.", "* Swahili coast* Zanzibar* Qatar* Bahrain* Somalia* Socotra===Thai colonies (Siam)===Siamese Army in Laos in 1893.", "* Kingdom of Vientiane (1778–1828)* Kingdom of Luang Prabang (1778–1893)* Kingdom of Champasak (1778–1893)* Kingdom of Cambodia (1771–1867)* Kedah (1821–1826)* Perlis (1821–1836)===(Ancient) Egyptian colonies===* Canaan (Now present-day Israel)* Sudan===Ancient Roman Colonies===* Aegyptus* Achaia* Hispania* Lusitania* Illyricum* Aquitania* Gallia* Galatia* Raetia* Moesia* Judea* Britannia" ], [ "History", "===Antiquity===Activity that could be called colonialism has a long history, starting at least as early as the ancient Egyptians.", "Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans founded colonies in antiquity.", "Phoenicia had an enterprising maritime trading-culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC; later the Persian Empire and various Greek city-states continued on this line of setting up colonies.", "The Romans would soon follow, setting up ''coloniae'' throughout the Mediterranean, in North Africa, and in Western Asia.", "=== Medieval Period ===Beginning in the 7th century, Arabs colonized a substantial portion of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia and Europe.", "From the 9th century Vikings (Norsemen) such as Leif Erikson established colonies in Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, North America, present-day Russia and Ukraine, France (Normandy) and Sicily.", "In the 9th century a new wave of Mediterranean colonisation began, with competitors such as the Venetians, Genovese and Amalfians infiltrating the wealthy previously Byzantine or Eastern Roman islands and lands.", "European Crusaders set up colonial regimes in Outremer (in the Levant, 1097–1291) and in the Baltic littoral (12th century onwards).", "Venice began to dominate Dalmatia and reached its greatest nominal colonial extent at the conclusion of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, with the declaration of the acquisition of three octaves of the Byzantine Empire.===Modernity===Iberian Union of Spain and Portugal between 1580 and 1640The European early modern period began with the Turkish colonization of Anatolia.", "After the Ottoman Empire colonialised Constantinople in 1453, the sea routes discovered by Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) became central to trade, and helped fuel the Age of Discovery.The Crown of Castile encountered the Americas in 1492 through sea travel and built trading posts or conquered large extents of land.", "The Treaty of Tordesillas divided the areas of these \"new\" lands between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire in 1494.The 17th century saw the birth of the Dutch Empire and French colonial empire, as well as the English overseas possessions, which later became the British Empire.", "It also saw the establishment of Danish overseas colonies and Swedish overseas colonies.A first wave of separatism started with the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), initiating the Rise of the \"Second\" British Empire (1783–1815).", "The Spanish Empire largely collapsed in the Americas with the Spanish American wars of independence (1808–1833).", "Empire-builders established several new colonies after this time, including in the German colonial empire and Belgian colonial empire.", "Starting with the end of the French Revolution European authors such as Johann Gottfried Herder, August von Kotzebue, and Heinrich von Kleist prolifically published so as to conjure up sympathy for the oppressed native peoples and the slaves of the new world, thereby starting the idealization of ''native'' humans.Map of European empires in 1800The Habsburg monarchy, the Russian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire existed at the same time but did not expand over oceans.", "Rather, these empires expanded through the conquest of neighbouring territories.", "There was, though, some Russian colonization of North America across the Bering Strait.", "From the 1860s onwards the Empire of Japan modelled itself on European colonial empires and expanded its territories in the Pacific and on the Asian mainland.", "The Empire of Brazil fought for hegemony in South America.", "The United States gained overseas territories after the 1898 Spanish–American War, hence, the coining of the term \"American imperialism\".", "''American Progress'' (1872) by John Gast is an allegorical representation of the idea of manifest destiny.", "Columbia, a personification of the United States, leads settler civilization westward, bringing light, stringing telegraph wire, holding a book, and highlighting different stages of economic activity and evolving forms of transportation, while on the left, displacing Native Americans in the United States from their homelandIn the late 19th century many European powers became involved in the Scramble for Africa.===20th century===The world's colonial population at the outbreak of the First World War (1914) – a high point for colonialism – totalled about 560 million people, of whom 70% lived in British possessions, 10% in French possessions, 9% in Dutch possessions, 4% in Japanese possessions, 2% in German possessions, 2% in American possessions, 3% in Portuguese possessions, 1% in Belgian possessions and 0.5% in Italian possessions.", "The domestic domains of the colonial powers had a total population of about 370 million people.", "Outside Europe, few areas had remained without coming under formal colonial tutorship – and even Siam, China, Japan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Persia, and Abyssinia had felt varying degrees of Western colonial-style influence – concessions, unequal treaties, extraterritoriality and the like.Asking whether colonies paid, economic historian Grover Clark (1891–1938) argues an emphatic \"No!\"", "He reports that in every case the support cost, especially the military system necessary to support and defend colonies, outran the total trade they produced.", "Apart from the British Empire, they did not provide favoured destinations for the immigration of surplus metropole populations.", "The question of whether colonies paid is a complicated one when recognizing the multiplicity of interests involved.", "In some cases colonial powers paid a lot in military costs while private investors pocketed the benefits.", "In other cases the colonial powers managed to move the burden of administrative costs to the colonies themselves by imposing taxes.Map of colonial and land-based empires throughout the world in 1914After World War I (1914–1918), the victorious Allies divided up the German colonial empire and much of the Ottoman Empire between themselves as League of Nations mandates, grouping these territories into three classes according to how quickly it was deemed that they could prepare for independence.", "The empires of Russia and Austria collapsed in 1917–1918.Nazi Germany set up short-lived colonial systems (''Reichskommissariate'', ''Generalgouvernement'') in Eastern Europe in the early 1940s.In the aftermath of World War II (1939–1945), decolonisation progressed rapidly.", "The tumultuous upheaval of the war significantly weakened the major colonial powers, and they quickly lost control of colonies such as Singapore, India, and Libya.", "In addition, the United Nations shows support for decolonisation in its 1945 charter.", "In 1960, the UN issued the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, which affirmed its stance (though notably, colonial empires such as France, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States abstained).", "The word \"neocolonialism\" originated from Jean-Paul Sartre in 1956, to refer to a variety of contexts since the decolonisation that took place after World War II.", "Generally it does not refer to a type of direct colonisation – rather to colonialism or colonial-style exploitation by other means.", "Specifically, neocolonialism may refer to the theory that former or existing economic relationships, such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Central American Free Trade Agreement, or the operations of companies (such as Royal Dutch Shell in Nigeria and Brunei) fostered by former colonial powers were or are used to maintain control of former colonies and dependencies after the colonial independence movements of the post–World War II period.The term \"neocolonialism\" became popular in ex-colonies in the late 20th century." ], [ "Impact", "Bob Satterfield about the brutality committed by Western nations: the personifications of England, the United States, and Germany carrying spears topped by the severed heads of Tibet, the Philippines, and Southwest Africa respectively.", "The caption describes this as \"The advance guard of civilization\".The Dutch Public Health Service provides medical care for the natives of the Dutch East Indies, May 1946.The impacts of colonisation are immense and pervasive.", "Various effects, both immediate and protracted, include the spread of virulent diseases, unequal social relations, detribalization, exploitation, enslavement, medical advances, the creation of new institutions, abolitionism, improved infrastructure, and technological progress.", "Colonial practices also spur the spread of conquerers' languages, literature and cultural institutions, while endangering or obliterating those of Indigenous peoples.", "The cultures of the colonised peoples can also have a powerful influence on the imperial country.", "With respect to international borders, Britain and France traced close to 40% of the entire length of the world's international boundaries.===Economy, trade and commerce===Economic expansion, sometimes described as the colonial surplus, has accompanied imperial expansion since ancient times.", "Greek trade networks spread throughout the Mediterranean region while Roman trade expanded with the primary goal of directing tribute from the colonised areas towards the Roman metropole.", "According to Strabo, by the time of emperor Augustus, up to 120 Roman ships would set sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India.", "With the development of trade routes under the Ottoman Empire,Portuguese trade routes (blue) and the rival Manila-Acapulco galleons trade routes (white) established in 1568Aztec civilisation developed into an extensive empire that, much like the Roman Empire, had the goal of exacting tribute from the conquered colonial areas.", "For the Aztecs, a significant tribute was the acquisition of sacrificial victims for their religious rituals.On the other hand, European colonial empires sometimes attempted to channel, restrict and impede trade involving their colonies, funneling activity through the metropole and taxing accordingly.Despite the general trend of economic expansion, the economic performance of former European colonies varies significantly.", "In \"Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-run Growth\", economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James A. Robinson compare the economic influences of the European colonists on different colonies and study what could explain the huge discrepancies in previous European colonies, for example, between West African colonies like Sierra Leone and Hong Kong and Singapore.According to the paper, economic institutions are the determinant of the colonial success because they determine their financial performance and order for the distribution of resources.", "At the same time, these institutions are also consequences of political institutions – especially how de facto and de jure political power is allocated.", "To explain the different colonial cases, we thus need to look first into the political institutions that shaped the economic institutions.Dutch East India Company was the first-ever multinational corporation, financed by shares that established the first modern stock exchange.For example, one interesting observation is \"the Reversal of Fortune\" – the less developed civilisations in 1500, like North America, Australia, and New Zealand, are now much richer than those countries who used to be in the prosperous civilisations in 1500 before the colonists came, like the Mughals in India and the Incas in the Americas.", "One explanation offered by the paper focuses on the political institutions of the various colonies: it was less likely for European colonists to introduce economic institutions where they could benefit quickly from the extraction of resources in the area.", "Therefore, given a more developed civilisation and denser population, European colonists would rather keep the existing economic systems than introduce an entirely new system; while in places with little to extract, European colonists would rather establish new economic institutions to protect their interests.", "Political institutions thus gave rise to different types of economic systems, which determined the colonial economic performance.European colonisation and development also changed gendered systems of power already in place around the world.", "In many pre-colonialist areas, women maintained power, prestige, or authority through reproductive or agricultural control.", "For example, in certain parts of sub-Saharan Africa women maintained farmland in which they had usage rights.", "While men would make political and communal decisions for a community, the women would control the village's food supply or their individual family's land.", "This allowed women to achieve power and autonomy, even in patrilineal and patriarchal societies.Through the rise of European colonialism came a large push for development and industrialisation of most economic systems.", "When working to improve productivity, Europeans focused mostly on male workers.", "Foreign aid arrived in the form of loans, land, credit, and tools to speed up development, but were only allocated to men.", "In a more European fashion, women were expected to serve on a more domestic level.", "The result was a technologic, economic, and class-based gender gap that widened over time.Within a colony, the presence of extractive colonial institutions in a given area has been found have effects on the modern day economic development, institutions and infrastructure of these areas.===Slavery and indentured servitude===European nations entered their imperial projects with the goal of enriching the European metropoles.", "Exploitation of non-Europeans and of other Europeans to support imperial goals was acceptable to the colonisers.", "Two outgrowths of this imperial agenda were the extension of slavery and indentured servitude.", "In the 17th century, nearly two-thirds of English settlers came to North America as indentured servants.European slave traders brought large numbers of African slaves to the Americas by sail.", "Spain and Portugal had brought African slaves to work in African colonies such as Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe, and then in Latin America, by the 16th century.", "The British, French and Dutch joined in the slave trade in subsequent centuries.", "The European colonial system took approximately 11 million Africans to the Caribbean and to North and South America as slaves.Slave traders in Gorée, Senegal, 18th century European empire Colonial destination Number of slaves imported between 1450 and 1870 Portuguese Empire Brazil 3,646,800 British Empire British Caribbean 1,665,000 French Empire French Caribbean 1,600,200 Spanish Empire Latin America 1,552,100 Dutch Empire Dutch Caribbean 500,000 British Empire British North America 399,000Abolitionists in Europe and Americas protested the inhumane treatment of African slaves, which led to the elimination of the slave trade (and later, of most forms of slavery) by the late 19th century.", "One (disputed) school of thought points to the role of abolitionism in the American Revolution: while the British colonial metropole started to move towards outlawing slavery, slave-owning elites in the Thirteen Colonies saw this as one of the reasons to fight for their post-colonial independence and for the right to develop and continue a largely slave-based economy.British colonising activity in New Zealand from the early 19th century played a part in ending slave-taking and slave-keeping among the indigenous Māori.On the other hand, British colonial administration in Southern Africa, when it officially abolished slavery in the 1830s, caused rifts in society which arguably perpetuated slavery in the Boer Republics and fed into the philosophy of ''apartheid''.The labour shortages that resulted from abolition inspired European colonisers in Queensland, British Guaiana and Fiji (for example) to develop new sources of labour, re-adopting a system of indentured servitude.", "Indentured servants consented to a contract with the European colonisers.", "Under their contract, the servant would work for an employer for a term of at least a year, while the employer agreed to pay for the servant's voyage to the colony, possibly pay for the return to the country of origin, and pay the employee a wage as well.", "The employees became \"indentured\" to the employer because they owed a debt back to the employer for their travel expense to the colony, which they were expected to pay through their wages.", "In practice, indentured servants were exploited through terrible working conditions and burdensome debts imposed by the employers, with whom the servants had no means of negotiating the debt once they arrived in the colony.India and China were the largest source of indentured servants during the colonial era.", "Indentured servants from India travelled to British colonies in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean, and also to French and Portuguese colonies, while Chinese servants travelled to British and Dutch colonies.", "Between 1830 and 1930, around 30 million indentured servants migrated from India, and 24 million returned to India.", "China sent more indentured servants to European colonies, and around the same proportion returned to China.Following the Scramble for Africa, an early but secondary focus for most colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade.", "By the end of the colonial period they were mostly successful in this aim, though slavery persists in Africa and in the world at large with much the same practices of ''de facto'' servility despite legislative prohibition.===Military innovation===The First Anglo-Ashanti War, 1823–1831Conquering forces have throughout history applied innovation in order to gain an advantage over the armies of the people they aim to conquer.", "Greeks developed the phalanx system, which enabled their military units to present themselves to their enemies as a wall, with foot soldiers using shields to cover one another during their advance on the battlefield.", "Under Philip II of Macedon, they were able to organise thousands of soldiers into a formidable battle force, bringing together carefully trained infantry and cavalry regiments.", "Alexander the Great exploited this military foundation further during his conquests.The Spanish Empire held a major advantage over Mesoamerican warriors through the use of weapons made of stronger metal, predominantly iron, which was able to shatter the blades of axes used by the Aztec civilisation and others.", "The use of gunpowder weapons cemented the European military advantage over the peoples they sought to subjugate in the Americas and elsewhere.===End of empire===Gandhi with Lord Pethwick-Lawrence, British Secretary of State for India, after a meeting on 18 April 1946The populations of some colonial territories, such as Canada, enjoyed relative peace and prosperity as part of a European power, at least among the majority.", "Minority populations such as First Nations peoples and French-Canadians experienced marginalisation and resented colonial practices.", "Francophone residents of Quebec, for example, were vocal in opposing conscription into the armed services to fight on behalf of Britain during World War I, resulting in the Conscription crisis of 1917.Other European colonies had much more pronounced conflict between European settlers and the local population.", "Rebellions broke out in the later decades of the imperial era, such as India's Sepoy Rebellion of 1857.The territorial boundaries imposed by European colonisers, notably in central Africa and South Asia, defied the existing boundaries of native populations that had previously interacted little with one another.", "European colonisers disregarded native political and cultural animosities, imposing peace upon people under their military control.", "Native populations were often relocated at the will of the colonial administrators.The Partition of British India in August 1947 led to the Independence of India and the creation of Pakistan.", "These events also caused much bloodshed at the time of the migration of immigrants from the two countries.", "Muslims from India and Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan migrated to the respective countries they sought independence for.===Post-independence population movement===The annual Notting Hill Carnival in London is a celebration led by the Trinidadian and Tobagonian British community.In a reversal of the migration patterns experienced during the modern colonial era, post-independence era migration followed a route back towards the imperial country.", "In some cases, this was a movement of settlers of European origin returning to the land of their birth, or to an ancestral birthplace.", "900,000 French colonists (known as the ''Pied-Noirs'') resettled in France following Algeria's independence in 1962.A significant number of these migrants were also of Algerian descent.", "800,000 people of Portuguese origin migrated to Portugal after the independence of former colonies in Africa between 1974 and 1979; 300,000 settlers of Dutch origin migrated to the Netherlands from the Dutch West Indies after Dutch military control of the colony ended.After WWII 300,000 Dutchmen from the Dutch East Indies, of which the majority were people of Eurasian descent called Indo Europeans, repatriated to the Netherlands.", "A significant number later migrated to the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.Global travel and migration in general developed at an increasingly brisk pace throughout the era of European colonial expansion.", "Citizens of the former colonies of European countries may have a privileged status in some respects with regard to immigration rights when settling in the former European imperial nation.", "For example, rights to dual citizenship may be generous, or larger immigrant quotas may be extended to former colonies.In some cases, the former European imperial nations continue to foster close political and economic ties with former colonies.", "The Commonwealth of Nations is an organisation that promotes cooperation between and among Britain and its former colonies, the Commonwealth members.", "A similar organisation exists for former colonies of France, the Francophonie; the Community of Portuguese Language Countries plays a similar role for former Portuguese colonies, and the Dutch Language Union is the equivalent for former colonies of the Netherlands.Migration from former colonies has proven to be problematic for European countries, where the majority population may express hostility to ethnic minorities who have immigrated from former colonies.", "Cultural and religious conflict have often erupted in France in recent decades, between immigrants from the Maghreb countries of north Africa and the majority population of France.", "Nonetheless, immigration has changed the ethnic composition of France; by the 1980s, 25% of the total population of \"inner Paris\" and 14% of the metropolitan region were of foreign origin, mainly Algerian.===Introduced diseases===Aztecs dying of smallpox, (''Florentine Codex'', 1540–1585)Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence.", "For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America.Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox.", "Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlan alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors.", "Measles killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 17th century.", "In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans.", "Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians.", "Some believe that the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases.", "Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no time to build such immunity.Smallpox decimated the native population of Australia, killing around 50% of indigenous Australians in the early years of British colonisation.", "It also killed many New Zealand Māori.", "As late as 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza.", "Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island.", "In 1875, measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population.", "The Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large partto infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido.Conversely, researchers have hypothesised that a precursor to syphilis may have been carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus's voyages.", "The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe.", "The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today; syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance.", "The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820.Ten thousand British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic.", "Between 1736 and 1834 only some 10% of East India Company's officers survived to take the final voyage home.", "Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague in the 1890s, is considered the first microbiologist.According to a 2021 study by Jörg Baten and Laura Maravall on the anthropometric influence of colonialism on Africans, the average height of Africans decreased by 1.1 centimetres upon colonization and later recovered and increased overall during colonial rule.", "The authors attributed the decrease to diseases, such as malaria and sleeping sickness, forced labor during the early decades of colonial rule, conflicts, land grabbing, and widespread cattle deaths from the rinderpest viral disease.====Countering disease====As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organised a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there.", "By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans.", "Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination in India.", "From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers.", "The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk.", "In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances.", "The world population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to over seven billion today." ], [ "Botany", "Colonial botany refers to the body of works concerning the study, cultivation, marketing and naming of the new plants that were acquired or traded during the age of European colonialism.", "Notable examples of these plants included sugar, nutmeg, tobacco, cloves, cinnamon, Peruvian bark, peppers, ''Sassafras albidum'', and tea.", "This work was a large part of securing financing for colonial ambitions, supporting European expansion and ensuring the profitability of such endeavors.", "Vasco de Gama and Christopher Columbus were seeking to establish routes to trade spices, dyes and silk from the Moluccas, India and China by sea that would be independent of the established routes controlled by Venetian and Middle Eastern merchants.", "Naturalists like Hendrik van Rheede, Georg Eberhard Rumphius, and Jacobus Bontius compiled data about eastern plants on behalf of the Europeans.", "Though Sweden did not possess an extensive colonial network, botanical research based on Carl Linnaeus identified and developed techniques to grow cinnamon, tea and rice locally as an alternative to costly imports." ], [ "Geography", "British Togoland in 1953Settlers acted as the link between indigenous populations and the imperial hegemony, thus bridging the geographical, ideological and commercial gap between the colonisers and colonised.", "While the extent in which geography as an academic study is implicated in colonialism is contentious, geographical tools such as cartography, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and agricultural productivity were instrumental in European colonial expansion.", "Colonisers' awareness of the Earth's surface and abundance of practical skills provided colonisers with a knowledge that, in turn, created power.Anne Godlewska and Neil Smith argue that \"empire was 'quintessentially a geographical project.", "Historical geographical theories such as environmental determinism legitimised colonialism by positing the view that some parts of the world were underdeveloped, which created notions of skewed evolution.", "Geographers such as Ellen Churchill Semple and Ellsworth Huntington put forward the notion that northern climates bred vigour and intelligence as opposed to those indigenous to tropical climates (See The Tropics) viz a viz a combination of environmental determinism and Social Darwinism in their approach.Political geographers also maintain that colonial behaviour was reinforced by the physical mapping of the world, therefore creating a visual separation between \"them\" and \"us\".", "Geographers are primarily focused on the spaces of colonialism and imperialism; more specifically, the material and symbolic appropriation of space enabling colonialism.Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913Maps played an extensive role in colonialism, as Bassett would put it \"by providing geographical information in a convenient and standardised format, cartographers helped open West Africa to European conquest, commerce, and colonisation\".", "Because the relationship between colonialism and geography was not scientifically objective, cartography was often manipulated during the colonial era.", "Social norms and values had an effect on the constructing of maps.", "During colonialism map-makers used rhetoric in their formation of boundaries and in their art.", "The rhetoric favoured the view of the conquering Europeans; this is evident in the fact that any map created by a non-European was instantly regarded as inaccurate.", "Furthermore, European cartographers were required to follow a set of rules which led to ethnocentrism; portraying one's own ethnicity in the centre of the map.", "As J.B. Harley put it, \"The steps in making a map – selection, omission, simplification, classification, the creation of hierarchies, and 'symbolisation' – are all inherently rhetorical.", "\"A common practice by the European cartographers of the time was to map unexplored areas as \"blank spaces\".", "This influenced the colonial powers as it sparked competition amongst them to explore and colonise these regions.", "Imperialists aggressively and passionately looked forward to filling these spaces for the glory of their respective countries.", "The ''Dictionary of Human Geography'' notes that cartography was used to empty 'undiscovered' lands of their Indigenous meaning and bring them into spatial existence via the imposition of \"Western place-names and borders, therefore priming 'virgin' (putatively empty land, 'wilderness') for colonisation (thus sexualising colonial landscapes as domains of male penetration), reconfiguring alien space as absolute, quantifiable and separable (as property).", "\"David Livingstone stresses \"that geography has meant different things at different times and in different places\" and that we should keep an open mind in regards to the relationship between geography and colonialism instead of identifying boundaries.", "Geography as a discipline was not and is not an objective science, Painter and Jeffrey argue, rather it is based on assumptions about the physical world.", "Comparison of exogeographical representations of ostensibly tropical environments in science fiction art support this conjecture, finding the notion of the tropics to be an artificial collection of ideas and beliefs that are independent of geography." ], [ "Versus imperialism", "Governor-General Félix Éboué welcomes Charles de Gaulle to Chad" ], [ "Marxism", "Marxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism, enforcing exploitation and social change.", "Marx thought that working within the global capitalist system, colonialism is closely associated with uneven development.", "It is an \"instrument of wholesale destruction, dependency and systematic exploitation producing distorted economies, socio-psychological disorientation, massive poverty and neocolonial dependency\".", "Colonies are constructed into modes of production.", "The search for raw materials and the current search for new investment opportunities is a result of inter-capitalist rivalry for capital accumulation.", "Lenin regarded colonialism as the root cause of imperialism, as imperialism was distinguished by monopoly capitalism via colonialism and as Lyal S. Sunga explains: \"Vladimir Lenin advocated forcefully the principle of self-determination of peoples in his \"Theses on the Socialist Revolution and the Right of Nations to Self-Determination\" as an integral plank in the programme of socialist internationalism\" and he quotes Lenin who contended that \"The right of nations to self-determination implies exclusively the right to independence in the political sense, the right to free political separation from the oppressor nation.", "Specifically, this demand for political democracy implies complete freedom to agitate for secession and for a referendum on secession by the seceding nation.\"", "Non Russian marxists within the RSFSR and later the USSR, like Sultan Galiev and Vasyl Shakhrai, meanwhile, between 1918 and 1923 and then after 1929, considered the Soviet Regime a renewed version of the Russian imperialism and colonialism.In his critique of colonialism in Africa, the Guyanese historian and political activist Walter Rodney states:The decisiveness of the short period of colonialism and its negative consequences for Africa spring mainly from the fact that Africa lost power.", "Power is the ultimate determinant in human society, being basic to the relations within any group and between groups.", "It implies the ability to defend one's interests and if necessary to impose one's will by any means available ...", "When one society finds itself forced to relinquish power entirely to another society that in itself is a form of underdevelopment ... During the centuries of pre-colonial trade, some control over social political and economic life was retained in Africa, in spite of the disadvantageous commerce with Europeans.", "That little control over internal matters disappeared under colonialism.", "Colonialism went much further than trade.", "It meant a tendency towards direct appropriation by Europeans of the social institutions within Africa.", "Africans ceased to set indigenous cultural goals and standards, and lost full command of training young members of the society.", "Those were undoubtedly major steps backwards ... Colonialism was not merely a system of exploitation, but one whose essential purpose was to repatriate the profits to the so-called 'mother country'.", "From an African view-point, that amounted to consistent expatriation of surplus produced by African labour out of African resources.", "It meant the development of Europe as part of the same dialectical process in which Africa was underdeveloped.", "Colonial Africa fell within that part of the international capitalist economy from which surplus was drawn to feed the metropolitan sector.", "As seen earlier, exploitation of land and labour is essential for human social advance, but only on the assumption that the product is made available within the area where the exploitation takes place.According to Lenin, the new imperialism emphasised the transition of capitalism from free trade to a stage of monopoly capitalism to finance capital.", "He states it is, \"connected with the intensification of the struggle for the partition of the world\".", "As free trade thrives on exports of commodities, monopoly capitalism thrived on the export of capital amassed by profits from banks and industry.", "This, to Lenin, was the highest stage of capitalism.", "He goes on to state that this form of capitalism was doomed for war between the capitalists and the exploited nations with the former inevitably losing.", "War is stated to be the consequence of imperialism.", "As a continuation of this thought G.N.", "Uzoigwe states, \"But it is now clear from more serious investigations of African history in this period that imperialism was essentially economic in its fundamental impulses.\"" ], [ "Liberalism and capitalism", "Classical liberals were generally in abstract opposition to colonialism and imperialism, including Adam Smith, Frédéric Bastiat, Richard Cobden, John Bright, Henry Richard, Herbert Spencer, H.R.", "Fox Bourne, Edward Morel, Josephine Butler, W.J.", "Fox and William Ewart Gladstone.", "Their philosophies found the colonial enterprise, particularly mercantilism, in opposition to the principles of free trade and liberal policies.", "Adam Smith wrote in ''The Wealth of Nations'' that Britain should grant independence to all of its colonies and also argued that it would be economically beneficial for British people in the average, although the merchants having mercantilist privileges would lose out." ], [ "Race and gender", "During the colonial era, the global process of colonisation served to spread and synthesize the social and political belief systems of the \"mother-countries\" which often included a belief in a certain natural racial superiority of the race of the mother-country.", "Colonialism also acted to reinforce these same racial belief systems within the \"mother-countries\" themselves.", "Usually also included within the colonial belief systems was a certain belief in the inherent superiority of male over female.", "This particular belief was often pre-existing amongst the pre-colonial societies, prior to their colonisation.Popular political practices of the time reinforced colonial rule by legitimising European (and/ or Japanese) male authority, and also legitimising female and non-mother-country race inferiority through studies of craniology, comparative anatomy, and phrenology.", "Biologists, naturalists, anthropologists, and ethnologists of the 19th century were focused on the study of colonised indigenous women, as in the case of Georges Cuvier's study of Sarah Baartman.", "Such cases embraced a natural superiority and inferiority relationship between the races based on the observations of naturalists' from the mother-countries.", "European studies along these lines gave rise to the perception that African women's anatomy, and especially genitalia, resembled those of mandrills, baboons, and monkeys, thus differentiating colonised Africans from what were viewed as the features of the evolutionarily superior, and thus rightfully authoritarian, European woman.In addition to what would now be viewed as pseudo-scientific studies of race, which tended to reinforce a belief in an inherent mother-country racial superiority, a new supposedly \"science-based\" ideology concerning gender roles also then emerged as an adjunct to the general body of beliefs of inherent superiority of the colonial era.", "Female inferiority across all cultures was emerging as an idea supposedly supported by craniology that led scientists to argue that the typical brain size of the female human was, on the average, slightly smaller than that of the male, thus inferring that therefore female humans must be less developed and less evolutionarily advanced than males.", "This finding of relative cranial size difference was later attributed to the general typical size difference of the human male body versus that of the typical human female body.Within the former European colonies, non-Europeans and women sometimes faced invasive studies by the colonial powers in the interest of the then prevailing pro-colonial scientific ideology of the day." ], [ "Othering", "Othering is the process of creating a separate entity to persons or groups who are labelled as different or non-normal due to the repetition of characteristics.", "Othering is the creation of those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, categorise those who do not fit in the societal norm.", "Several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the \"other\" as an epistemological concept in social theory.", "For example, postcolonial scholars, believed that colonising powers explained an \"other\" who were there to dominate, civilise, and extract resources through colonisation of land.Political geographers explain how colonial/imperial powers \"othered\" places they wanted to dominate to legalise their exploitation of the land.", "During and after the rise of colonialism the Western powers perceived the East as the \"other\", being different and separate from their societal norm.", "This viewpoint and separation of culture had divided the Eastern and Western culture creating a dominant/subordinate dynamic, both being the \"other\" towards themselves." ], [ "Post-colonialism", "Queen Victoria Street in the former British colony of Hong KongPost-colonialism (or post-colonial theory) can refer to a set of theories in philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonial rule.", "In this sense, one can regard post-colonial literature as a branch of postmodern literature concerned with the political and cultural independence of peoples formerly subjugated in colonial empires.Many practitioners take Edward Saïd's book ''Orientalism'' (1978) as the theory's founding work (although French theorists such as Aimé Césaire (1913–2008) and Frantz Fanon (1925–1961) made similar claims decades before Saïd).", "Saïd analyzed the works of Balzac, Baudelaire and Lautréamont, arguing that they helped to shape a societal fantasy of European racial superiority.Writers of post-colonial fiction interact with the traditional colonial discourse, but modify or subvert it; for instance by retelling a familiar story from the perspective of an oppressed minor character in the story.", "Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's ''Can the Subaltern Speak?''", "(1998) gave its name to Subaltern Studies.In ''A Critique of Postcolonial Reason'' (1999), Spivak argued that major works of European metaphysics (such as those of Kant and Hegel) not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussions, but actively prevent non-Europeans from occupying positions as fully human subjects.", "Hegel's ''Phenomenology of Spirit'' (1807), famous for its explicit ethnocentrism, considers Western civilisation as the most accomplished of all, while Kant also had some traces of racialism in his work.The 2014 YouGov survey found that British people are mostly proud of colonialism and the British Empire:" ], [ "Colonistics", "The field of '''colonistics''' studies colonialism from such viewpoints as those of economics, sociology and psychology." ], [ "Migrations", "Indigenous Tibetans protesting the Sinicization of TibetIrish leaving Ireland, many in response to the Great Famine in the 1840sNations and regions outside Northern China with significant populations of Han Chinese ancestry:* Xinjiang: 42.24% Han settlers, 44.96% Indigenous* Tibet: disputed.", "12.2% Han Chinese in the Tibet Autonomous Region.", "* Taiwan: 95–97% Han Taiwanese, 2.3% Indigenous* Singapore: 74.3% Han Chinese, 13.5% Indigenous Malay* Malaysia: 22.9% Han Chinese, 69.7% Indigenous* Manchuria: 80%+ Han Chinese, <20% Indigenous Manchurians.Nations and regions outside Europe with significant populations of European ancestryBoer family in South Africa, 1886* '''Africa''' (see Europeans in Africa)** South Africa (European South African): 5.8% of the population** Namibia (European Namibians): 6.5% of the population, of which most are Afrikaans-speaking, in addition to a German-speaking minority.", "** Réunion: estimated to be approx.", "25% of the population** Zimbabwe (Europeans in Zimbabwe)** Algeria (Pied-noir)** Botswana: 3% of the population** Kenya (Europeans in Kenya)** Mauritius (Franco-Mauritian)** Morocco (European Moroccans)** Ivory Coast (French people)** Senegal** Canary Islands (Spaniards), known as Canarians.", "** Seychelles (Franco-Seychellois)** Somalia (Italian Somalis)** Eritrea (Italian Eritreans)** Saint Helena (UK) including Tristan da Cunha (UK): predominantly European.", "** Eswatini: 3% of the population** Tunisia (European Tunisians)Central Asia, present-day Kazakhstan, 1911* '''Asia'''** Siberia (Russians, Germans and Ukrainians)** Kazakhstan (Russians in Kazakhstan, Germans of Kazakhstan): 30% of the population** Uzbekistan (Russians and other Slavs): 6% of the population** Kyrgyzstan (Russians and other Slavs): 14% of the population** Turkmenistan (Russians and other Slavs): 4% of the population** Tajikistan (Russians and other Slavs): 1% of the population** Hong Kong** Philippines (Spanish Ancestry): 3% of the population** China (Russians in China)** Indian subcontinent (Anglo-Indians)* '''Latin America''' (see White Latin American) Italian immigrants arriving in São Paulo, Brazil, ** Argentina (European Immigration to Argentina): 97% European and mestizo of the population** Bolivia: 15% of the population** Brazil (White Brazilian): 47% of the population** Chile (White Chilean): 60–70% of the population.", "** Colombia (White Colombian): 37% of the population** Costa Rica: 83% of the population** Cuba (White Cuban): 65% of the population** Dominican Republic: 16% of the population** Ecuador: 7% of the population** Honduras: 1% of the population** El Salvador: 12% of the population** Mexico (White Mexican): 9% or ~17% of the population.", "and 70–80% more as Mestizos.", "** Nicaragua: 17% of the population** Panama: 10% of the population** Puerto Rico: approx.", "80% of the population** Peru (European Peruvian): 15% of the population** Paraguay: approx.", "20% of the population** Uruguay (White Uruguayan): 88% of the populationMennonites of German descent in Belize ** Venezuela (White Venezuelan): 42% of the population* Rest of the '''Americas'''** Bahamas: 12% of the population** Barbados (White Barbadian): 4% of the population** Bermuda: 34% of the population** Canada (European Canadians): 80% of the population** Falkland Islands: mostly of British descent.", "** French Guiana: 12% of the population** Greenland: 12% of the population** Martinique: 5% of the population** Saint Barthélemy** Trinidad and Tobago: 1% of the populationPortuguese immigrant family in Hawaii during the 19th century** United States (European American): 72% of the population, including Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Whites.", "* '''Oceania''' (see Europeans in Oceania)** Australia (European Australians): 90% of the population** New Zealand (European New Zealanders): 78% of the population** New Caledonia (Caldoche): 35% of the population** French Polynesia: (Zoreilles) 10% of the population** Hawaii: 25% of the population** Christmas Island: approx.", "20% of the population.", "** Guam: 7% of the population** Norfolk Island: 9→5% of the population" ], [ "See also", "* African independence movements* Age of Discovery* Anti-imperialism* Chartered company* Chinese imperialism* Christianity and colonialism* Civilising mission* Client state* Colonial Empire* Colonialism and the Olympic Games* Coloniality of power* Colonial war* Cultural colonialism* Decoloniality* Decolonization of the Americas* Developmentalism* Direct colonial rule* Empire of Liberty* European colonization of Africa* European colonization of the Americas* European colonization of Micronesia* European colonisation of Southeast Asia* French law on colonialism* German eastward expansion* Global Empire* Historiography of the British Empire* Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation* International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)* Muslim conquests* Orientalism* Pluricontinental* Protectorate* Satellite state* Soviet Empire* Stranger King (Concept)* Western imperialism in Asia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Albertini, Rudolf von.", "''European Colonial Rule, 1880–1940: The Impact of the West on India, Southeast Asia, and Africa'' (1982) 581 pp* Benjamin, Thomas, ed.", "''Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism Since 1450'' (2006)* Cooper, Frederick.", "''Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History'' (2005)* Cotterell, Arthur.", "''Western Power in Asia: Its Slow Rise and Swift Fall, 1415–1999'' (2009) popular history; excerpt* Getz, Trevor R. and Heather Streets-Salter, eds.", ": ''Modern Imperialism and Colonialism: A Global Perspective'' (2010)* * LeCour Grandmaison, Olivier: ''Coloniser, Exterminer – Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial'', Fayard, 2005, * Lindqvist, Sven: ''Exterminate All The Brutes'', 1992, New Press; Reprint edition (June 1997), * Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds.", "''Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present'' (1970) online* Ness, Immanuel and Zak Cope, eds.", "''The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism'' (2 vol 2015), 1456 pp* Nuzzo, Luigi: ''Colonial Law'', European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: December 17, 2012.", "* Osterhammel, Jürgen: ''Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview'', Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener, 1997.", "* Page, Melvin E. et al.", "eds.", "''Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia'' (3 vol 2003)* Petringa, Maria, ''Brazza, A Life for Africa'' (2006), .", "* Prashad, Vijay: ''The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World'', The New Press, 2007.ISBN 978-1-56584-785-9* * Rönnbäck, K. & Broberg, O.", "(2019) Capital and Colonialism.", "The Return on British Investments in Africa 1869–1969 (Palgrave Studies in Economic History)* Schill, Pierre : ''Réveiller l'archive d'une guerre coloniale.", "Photographies et écrits de Gaston Chérau, correspondant de guerre lors du conflit italo-turc pour la Libye (1911–1912)'', Créaphis, 480 p., 2018 ().", "''Awaken the archive of a colonial war.", "Photographs and writings of a French war correspondent during the Italo-Turkish war in Libya (1911–1912)''.", "With contributions from art historian Caroline Recher, critic Smaranda Olcèse, writer Mathieu Larnaudie and historian Quentin Deluermoz.", "* Stuchtey, Benedikt: ''Colonialism and Imperialism, 1450–1950'', European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: July 13, 2011.", "* Townsend, Mary Evelyn.", "''European colonial expansion since 1871'' (1941).", "* U.S.", "Tariff Commission.", "''Colonial tariff policies'' (1922), worldwide; 922pp survey online* Ab Imperio E* Wendt, Reinhard: ''European Overseas Rule'', European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: June 13, 2012.===Primary sources===* Conrad, Joseph, ''Heart of Darkness'', 1899* Fanon, Frantz, ''The Wretched of the Earth'', Preface by Jean-Paul Sartre.", "Translated by Constance Farrington.", "London: Penguin Book, 2001* Las Casas, Bartolomé de, ''A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies'' (1542, published in 1552)." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Colonial" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Colonial''' or '''The Colonial''' may refer to:* Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology)" ], [ "Architecture", "* American colonial architecture* French colonial architecture* Spanish colonial architecture" ], [ "Automobiles", "* Colonial (1920 automobile), the first American automobile with four-wheel brakes* Colonial (Shaw automobile), a rebranded Shaw sold from 1921 until 1922* Colonial (1921 automobile), a car from Boston which was sold from 1921 until 1922" ], [ "Commerce", "* Colonial Pipeline, the largest oil pipeline network in the U.S.* Inmobiliaria Colonial, a Spanish corporation, which includes companies in the domains of real estate" ], [ "Places", "* The Colonial (Indianapolis, Indiana)* The Colonial (Mansfield, Ohio), a National Register of Historic Places listing in Richland County, Ohio* Ciudad Colonial (Santo Domingo), a historic central neighborhood of Santo Domingo* Colonial Country Club (Memphis), a golf course in Tennessee* Colonial Country Club (Fort Worth), a golf course in Texas** Fort Worth Invitational or The Colonial, a PGA golf tournament" ], [ "Trains", "* ''Colonial'' (PRR train), a Pennsylvania Railroad run between Washington, DC and New York City, last operated in 1973 by Amtrak* ''Colonial'' (Amtrak train), an Amtrak train that ran between Newport News, Virginia and Boston from 1976 to 1992, and between Richmond, Virginia and New York City from 1997 to 1999" ], [ "See also", "* Colonial history of the United States, the period of American history from the 17th century to 1776, under the rule of Great Britain, France and Spain* Colonial Hotel (disambiguation)* Colonial Revival architecture* Colonial Theatre (disambiguation)* Colonial troops, any of various military units recruited from, or used as garrison troops in, colonial territories* Colonialism, the extension of political control to new areas* Colonials (disambiguation)* Colonist, a person who has migrated to an area and established a permanent residence there to colonize the area* History of Australia* Spanish colonization of the Americas, the period of history of Spanish rule over most of the Americas, from the 15th century through the late 19th century" ] ]
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