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[
[
"Compactron"
],
[
"Introduction",
"12AE10 Compactron tube (a dual pentode), made by GE'''Compactrons''' are a type of vacuum tube, which contain multiple electrode structures packed into a single enclosure.",
"They were designed to compete with early transistor electronics and were used in televisions, radios, and similar roles."
],
[
"History",
"The '''Compactron''' was a trade name applied to multi-electrode structure tubes specifically constructed on a 12-pin Duodecar base.",
"This vacuum tube family was introduced in 1961 by General Electric in Owensboro, Kentucky to compete with transistorized electronics during the solid state transition.",
"Television sets were a primary application.",
"The idea of multi-electrode tubes itself was far from new and indeed the Loewe company of Germany was producing multi-electrode tubes as far back as 1926, and they even included all of the required passive components as well.Use was prevalent in televisions because transistors were slow to achieve the high power and frequency capabilities needed particularly in color television sets.",
"The first portable color television, the General Electric Porta-Color, was designed using 13 tubes, 10 of which were Compactrons.",
"Even before the compactron design was unveiled, nearly all tube based electronic equipment used multi-electrode tubes of one type or another.",
"Virtually every AM/FM radio receiver of the 1950s and 60's used a 6AK8 (EABC80) tube (or equivalent) consisting of three diodes and a triode which was designed in 1954.Compactron's integrated valve design helped lower power consumption and heat generation (they were to tubes what integrated circuits were to transistors).",
"Compactrons were also used in a few high end Hi-Fi stereos.",
"They were also used by Ampeg and Fender in some of their guitar amplifiers.",
"No modern tube based Hi-Fi systems are known to use this tube type, as simpler and more readily available tubes have again filled this niche.",
"One tube, the 7868, is used in some Hi-Fi systems made today.",
"This tube is a Novar tube.",
"It has the same physical dimensions as the compactron, but a 9 pin base.",
"The exhaust tip is on the top or bottom of the tube, depending on the manufacturer's preference.",
"It is currently in production by Electro-Harmonix.",
"(The new power amp, Linear Tube Audio's Ultralinear, uses 4 17JN6 compactron tubes as the power tube in the amp.)",
"The amp generates 20 watts of power with these inexpensive TV tubes."
],
[
"Notable features",
"The evacuation tip is in the center of the circular pin pattern.A distinguishing feature of most Compactrons is the placement of the evacuation tip on the bottom end, rather than the top end as was customary with \"miniature\" tubes, and a characteristic 3/4\" diameter circle pin pattern.",
"* Most Compactrons ranged in glass envelope diameter from 28 to 70 mm depending upon the internal configuration.",
"Variations of the Compactron design were made by Sylvania and by some Japanese firms."
],
[
"Examples",
"Examples of Compactrons type types include:* 6AG11 double diode similar to 6AL5, double triode high-mu similar to 12AT7.Designed for FM stereo multiplex service.",
"* 6BK11 triple triode.",
"Two of the triodes are similar to 12AX7 and one of them is similar to 5751.",
"* 6C10 high-mu triple triode, all three being similar to 12AX7, used for audio amplifiers, and as color matrix amplifiers in television by Sylvania, etc.... ''not related to the Edison Swan (later Mazda) 6C10 triode-hexode''* 6M11 twin triode - pentode.",
"Designed for sync separators and AGC amplifier circuits.",
"* 6K11 triple triode.",
"Designed for sync separators and AGC amplifier circuits.",
"* 6LF6 beam power pentode with anode cap.",
"Designed for horizontal output service.",
"* 8B10 twin triode - twin diode.",
"Designed for horizontal phase detector service, and horizontal oscillator service.",
"* 12AE10 twin pentode.",
"Designed for FM discriminator/detector, and audio output.",
"* 38HK7 pentode diode.",
"Designed for horizontal output service and as a damper diode* 1AD2 diode high voltage, used in flyback transformer rectificationDue to their specific applications in television circuits, many different Compactron types were produced.",
"Almost all were assigned using standard US tube numbers."
],
[
"Technological obsolescence",
"Integrated circuits (of the analogue and digital type) gradually took over all of the functions that the Compactron was designed for.",
"\"Hybrid\" television sets produced in the early to mid-1970s made use of a combination of tubes (typically Compactrons), transistors, and integrated circuits in the same set.",
"By the mid-1980s this type of tube was functionally obsolete.",
"Compactrons simply don't exist in any TV sets designed after 1986.Other specialist uses of the tube declined in parallel with the television set manufacture.",
"Manufacture of Compactrons ceased in the early 1990s.",
"New old stock replacements for almost all Compactron types produced are easily found for sale on the Internet."
],
[
"References",
"=== Notes ==="
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Carmichael number"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In number theory, a '''Carmichael number''' is a composite number , which in modular arithmetic satisfies the congruence relation::for all integers .",
"The relation may also be expressed in the form::.for all integers which are relatively prime to .",
"Carmichael numbers are named after American mathematician Robert Carmichael, the term having been introduced by Nicolaas Beeger in 1950 (Øystein Ore had referred to them in 1948 as numbers with the \"Fermat property\", or \"''F'' numbers\" for short).They are infinite in number.Robert Daniel CarmichaelThey constitute the comparatively rare instances where the strict converse of Fermat's Little Theorem does not hold.",
"This fact precludes the use of that theorem as an absolute test of primality.The Carmichael numbers form the subset ''K''1 of the Knödel numbers."
],
[
"Overview",
"Fermat's little theorem states that if is a prime number, then for any integer , the number is an integer multiple of .",
"Carmichael numbers are composite numbers which have the same property.",
"Carmichael numbers are also called Fermat pseudoprimes or '''absolute Fermat pseudoprimes'''.",
"A Carmichael number will pass a Fermat primality test to every base relatively prime to the number, even though it is not actually prime.This makes tests based on Fermat's Little Theorem less effective than strong probable prime tests such as the Baillie–PSW primality test and the Miller–Rabin primality test.However, no Carmichael number is either an Euler–Jacobi pseudoprime or a strong pseudoprime to every base relatively prime to itso, in theory, either an Euler or a strong probable prime test could prove that a Carmichael number is, in fact, composite.Arnaultgives a 397-digit Carmichael number that is a ''strong'' pseudoprime to all ''prime'' bases less than 307::where:29674495668685510550154174642905332730771991799853043350995075531276838753171770199594238596428121188033664754218345562493168782883is a 131-digit prime.",
"is the smallest prime factor of , so this Carmichael number is also a (not necessarily strong) pseudoprime to all bases less than .As numbers become larger, Carmichael numbers become increasingly rare.",
"For example, there are 20,138,200 Carmichael numbers between 1 and 1021 (approximately one in 50 trillion (5·1013) numbers).===Korselt's criterion===An alternative and equivalent definition of Carmichael numbers is given by '''Korselt's criterion'''.",
":'''Theorem''' (A. Korselt 1899): A positive composite integer is a Carmichael number if and only if is square-free, and for all prime divisors of , it is true that .It follows from this theorem that all Carmichael numbers are odd, since any even composite number that is square-free (and hence has only one prime factor of two) will have at least one odd prime factor, and thus results in an even dividing an odd, a contradiction.",
"(The oddness of Carmichael numbers also follows from the fact that is a Fermat witness for any even composite number.",
")From the criterion it also follows that Carmichael numbers are cyclic.",
"Additionally, it follows that there are no Carmichael numbers with exactly two prime divisors."
],
[
"Discovery",
"Korselt was the first who observed the basic properties of Carmichael numbers, but he did not give any examples.",
"In 1910, Carmichael found the first and smallest such number, 561, which explains the name \"Carmichael number\".Václav Šimerka listed the first seven Carmichael numbersThat 561 is a Carmichael number can be seen with Korselt's criterion.",
"Indeed, is square-free and , and .The next six Carmichael numbers are :::::::These first seven Carmichael numbers, from 561 to 8911, were all found by the Czech mathematician Václav Šimerka in 1885 (thus preceding not just Carmichael but also Korselt, although Šimerka did not find anything like Korselt's criterion).",
"His work, published in Czech scientific journal ''Časopis pro pěstování matematiky a fysiky'', however, remained unnoticed.Jack Chernick proved a theorem in 1939 which can be used to construct a subset of Carmichael numbers.",
"The number is a Carmichael number if its three factors are all prime.",
"Whether this formula produces an infinite quantity of Carmichael numbers is an open question (though it is implied by Dickson's conjecture).Paul Erdős heuristically argued there should be infinitely many Carmichael numbers.",
"In 1994 W. R. (Red) Alford, Andrew Granville and Carl Pomerance used a bound on Olson's constant to show that there really do exist infinitely many Carmichael numbers.",
"Specifically, they showed that for sufficiently large , there are at least Carmichael numbers between 1 and Thomas Wright proved that if and are relatively prime,then there are infinitely many Carmichael numbers in the arithmetic progression ,where .Löh and Niebuhr in 1992 found some very large Carmichael numbers, including one with 1,101,518 factors and over 16 million digits.This has been improved to 10,333,229,505 prime factors and 295,486,761,787 digits, so the largest known Carmichael number is much greater than the largest known prime."
],
[
"Properties",
"=== Factorizations ===Carmichael numbers have at least three positive prime factors.",
"The first Carmichael numbers with prime factors are :''k'' 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The first Carmichael numbers with 4 prime factors are :''i'' 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 The second Carmichael number (1105) can be expressed as the sum of two squares in more ways than any smaller number.",
"The third Carmichael number (1729) is the Hardy-Ramanujan Number: the smallest number that can be expressed as the sum of two cubes (of positive numbers) in two different ways.===Distribution===Let denote the number of Carmichael numbers less than or equal to .",
"The distribution of Carmichael numbers by powers of 10 : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 161718192021 0 0 1 7 16 43 105 255 646 1547 3605 8241 19279 44706 105212 24668358535514016443381806822077720138200In 1953, Knödel proved the upper bound::for some constant .In 1956, Erdős improved the bound to:for some constant .",
"He further gave a heuristic argument suggesting that this upper bound should be close to the true growth rate of .In the other direction, Alford, Granville and Pomerance proved in 1994 that for sufficiently large ''X'',:In 2005, this bound was further improved by Harman to:who subsequently improved the exponent to .Regarding the asymptotic distribution of Carmichael numbers, there have been several conjectures.",
"In 1956, Erdős conjectured that there were Carmichael numbers for ''X'' sufficiently large.",
"In 1981, Pomerance sharpened Erdős' heuristic arguments to conjecture that there are at least:Carmichael numbers up to , where .However, inside current computational ranges (such as the counts of Carmichael numbers performed by Pinch up to 1021), these conjectures are not yet borne out by the data.In 2021, Daniel Larsen proved an analogue of Bertrand's postulate for Carmichael numbers first conjectured by Alford, Granville, and Pomerance in 1994.Using techniques developed by Yitang Zhang and James Maynard to establish results concerning small gaps between primes, his work yielded the much stronger statement that, for any and sufficiently large in terms of , there will always be at least :Carmichael numbers between and:"
],
[
"Generalizations",
"The notion of Carmichael number generalizes to a Carmichael ideal in any number field ''K''.",
"For any nonzero prime ideal in , we have for all in , where is the norm of the ideal .",
"(This generalizes Fermat's little theorem, that for all integers ''m'' when ''p'' is prime.)",
"Call a nonzero ideal in Carmichael if it is not a prime ideal and for all , where is the norm of the ideal .",
"When ''K'' is , the ideal is principal, and if we let ''a'' be its positive generator then the ideal is Carmichael exactly when ''a'' is a Carmichael number in the usual sense.When ''K'' is larger than the rationals it is easy to write down Carmichael ideals in : for any prime number ''p'' that splits completely in ''K'', the principal ideal is a Carmichael ideal.",
"Since infinitely many prime numbers split completely in any number field, there are infinitely many Carmichael ideals in .",
"For example, if ''p'' is any prime number that is 1 mod 4, the ideal (''p'') in the Gaussian integers '''Z'''''i'' is a Carmichael ideal.Both prime and Carmichael numbers satisfy the following equality::"
],
[
"Lucas–Carmichael number",
"A positive composite integer is a Lucas–Carmichael number if and only if is square-free, and for all prime divisors of , it is true that .",
"The first Lucas–Carmichael numbers are::399, 935, 2015, 2915, 4991, 5719, 7055, 8855, 12719, 18095, 20705, 20999, 22847, 29315, 31535, 46079, 51359, 60059, 63503, 67199, 73535, 76751, 80189, 81719, 88559, 90287, ..."
],
[
"Quasi–Carmichael number",
"Quasi–Carmichael numbers are squarefree composite numbers ''n'' with the property that for every prime factor ''p'' of ''n'', ''p'' + ''b'' divides ''n'' + ''b'' positively with ''b'' being any integer besides 0.If ''b'' = −1, these are Carmichael numbers, and if ''b'' = 1, these are Lucas–Carmichael numbers.",
"The first Quasi–Carmichael numbers are:: 35, 77, 143, 165, 187, 209, 221, 231, 247, 273, 299, 323, 357, 391, 399, 437, 493, 527, 561, 589, 598, 713, 715, 899, 935, 943, 989, 1015, 1073, 1105, 1147, 1189, 1247, 1271, 1295, 1333, 1517, 1537, 1547, 1591, 1595, 1705, 1729, ..."
],
[
"Knödel number",
"An ''n''-'''Knödel number''' for a given positive integer ''n'' is a composite number ''m'' with the property that each ''i'' < ''m'' coprime to ''m'' satisfies .",
"The ''n'' = 1 case are Carmichael numbers."
],
[
"Higher-order Carmichael numbers",
"Carmichael numbers can be generalized using concepts of abstract algebra.The above definition states that a composite integer ''n'' is Carmichaelprecisely when the ''n''th-power-raising function ''p''''n'' from the ring '''Z'''''n'' of integers modulo ''n'' to itself is the identity function.",
"The identity is the only '''Z'''''n''-algebra endomorphism on '''Z'''''n'' so we can restate the definition as asking that ''p''''n'' be an algebra endomorphism of '''Z'''''n''.As above, ''p''''n'' satisfies the same property whenever ''n'' is prime.The ''n''th-power-raising function ''p''''n'' is also defined on any '''Z'''''n''-algebra '''A'''.",
"A theorem states that ''n'' is prime if and only if all such functions ''p''''n'' are algebra endomorphisms.In-between these two conditions lies the definition of '''Carmichael number of order m''' for any positive integer ''m'' as any composite number ''n'' such that ''p''''n'' is an endomorphism on every '''Z'''''n''-algebra that can be generated as '''Z'''''n''-module by ''m'' elements.",
"Carmichael numbers of order 1 are just the ordinary Carmichael numbers.===An order 2 Carmichael number===According to Howe, 17 · 31 · 41 · 43 · 89 · 97 · 167 · 331 is an order 2 Carmichael number.",
"This product is equal to 443,372,888,629,441.===Properties===Korselt's criterion can be generalized to higher-order Carmichael numbers, as shown by Howe.A heuristic argument, given in the same paper, appears to suggest that there are infinitely many Carmichael numbers of order ''m'', for any ''m''.",
"However, not a single Carmichael number of order 3 or above is known."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"*******"
],
[
"External links",
"** Encyclopedia of Mathematics* Table of Carmichael numbers* Tables of Carmichael numbers with many prime factors* Tables of Carmichael numbers below *** Final Answers Modular Arithmetic"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Controlled Substances Act"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Controlled Substances Act''' ('''CSA''') is the statute establishing federal U.S. drug policy under which the manufacture, importation, possession, use, and distribution of certain substances is regulated.",
"It was passed by the 91st United States Congress as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 and signed into law by President Richard Nixon.",
"The Act also served as the national implementing legislation for the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.The legislation created five schedules (classifications), with varying qualifications for a substance to be included in each.",
"Two federal agencies, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), determine which substances are added to or removed from the various schedules, although the statute passed by Congress created the initial listing.",
"Congress has sometimes scheduled other substances through legislation such as the Hillory J. Farias and Samantha Reid Date-Rape Prevention Act of 2000, which placed gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) in Schedule I and sodium oxybate (the isolated sodium salt in GHB) in Schedule III when used under an FDA New Drug Application (NDA) or Investigational New Drug (IND).",
"Classification decisions are required to be made on criteria including potential for abuse (an undefined term), currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and international treaties."
],
[
"History",
"The nation first outlawed addictive drugs in the early 1900s and the International Opium Convention helped lead international agreements regulating trade.",
"The Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) was the beginning of over 200 laws concerning public health and consumer protections.",
"Others were the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938), and the Kefauver Harris Amendment of 1962.In 1969, President Richard Nixon announced that the Attorney General, John N. Mitchell, was preparing a comprehensive new measure to more effectively meet the narcotic and dangerous drug problems at the federal level by combining all existing federal laws into a single new statute.",
"With the help of White House Counsel head, John Dean; the Executive Director of the Shafer Commission, Michael Sonnenreich; and the Director of the BNDD, John Ingersoll creating and writing the legislation, Mitchell was able to present Nixon with the bill.The CSA not only combined existing federal drug laws and expanded their scope, but it also changed the nature of federal drug law policies and expanded federal law enforcement pertaining to controlled substances.Title II, Part F of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 established the National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse—known as the Shafer Commission after its chairman, Raymond P. Shafer—to study cannabis abuse in the United States.",
"During his presentation of the commission's First Report to Congress, Sonnenreich and Shafer recommended the decriminalization of marijuana in small amounts, with Shafer stating,Rufus King notes that this stratagem was similar to that used by Harry Anslinger when he consolidated the previous anti-drug treaties into the Single Convention and took the opportunity to add new provisions that otherwise might have been unpalatable to the international community.",
"According to David T. Courtwright, \"the Act was part of an omnibus reform package designed to rationalize, and in some respects to liberalize, American drug policy.\"",
"(Courtwright noted that the Act became, not libertarian, but instead repressionistic to the point of tyrannical in its intent; a cruel and/or arbitrary exercise of power).",
"It eliminated mandatory minimum sentences and provided support for drug treatment and research.",
"King notes that the rehabilitation clauses were added as a compromise to Senator Jim Hughes, who favored a moderate approach.",
"The bill, as introduced by Senator Everett Dirksen, ran to 91 pages.",
"While it was being drafted, the Uniform Controlled Substances Act, to be passed by state legislatures, was also being drafted by the Department of Justice; its wording closely mirrored the Controlled Substances Act.===Amendments, 1970–2018===Since its enactment in 1970, the Act has been amended numerous times:#The 1976 Medical Device Regulation Act.#The Psychotropic Substances Act of 1978 added provisions implementing the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.#The Controlled Substances Penalties Amendments Act of 1984.#The 1986 Federal Analog Act for chemicals \"substantially similar\" in Schedule I and II to be listed#The 1988 Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act (implemented August 1, 1989 as Article 12) added provisions implementing the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances that went into force on November 11, 1990.#1990 The Anabolic Steroids Act, passed as part of the Crime Control Act of 1990, which placed anabolic steroids into Schedule III#The 1993 Domestic Chemical Diversion and Control Act (effective on April 16, 1994) in response to methamphetamine trafficking.#The Hillory J. Farias and Samantha Reid Date-Rape Prevention Act of 2000 placed gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) in Schedule I and sodium oxybate (the isolated sodium salt in GHB) in Schedule III when used under an FDA NDA or IND.#The 2008 Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act#The 2010 Electronic Prescriptions for Controlled Substances (EPCS) .#The 2012 Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act Subtitle D - synthetic drugs, added several Markush like statements that describes synthetic cannabinoid chemical space that are also controlled as Schedule 1 substances.",
"However since then many new synthetic cannabinoids not covered by this act have emerged#The 2010 Secure and Responsible Drug Disposal Act (effective on October 12, 2010), to allow pharmacies to operate take-back programs for controlled substance medications in response to the US opioid epidemic.#The 2017 Protecting Patient Access to Emergency Medications Act (PPAEMA) amended Section 33 of the CSA to include DEA registration for Emergency Medical Service (EMS) agencies, approved uses of standing orders, and requirements for the maintenance and administration of controlled substances used by EMS agencies.#In 2018 the act was also amended to describe and control all chemical space related to Fentanyl like chemicals using Markush like notation, the first time Markush like statement were directly used in the act itself"
],
[
"Statute content",
"The Controlled Substances Act consists of two subchapters.",
"Subchapter I defines Schedules I–V, lists chemicals used in the manufacture of controlled substances, and differentiates lawful and unlawful manufacturing, distribution, and possession of controlled substances, including possession of Schedule I drugs for personal use; this subchapter also specifies the dollar amounts of fines and durations of prison terms for violations.",
"Subchapter II describes the laws for exportation and importation of controlled substances, again specifying fines and prison terms for violations."
],
[
"Enforcement authority",
"U.S. Food and Drug Administration agents inspect packages for illegal drug shipments at an international mail facility in New York.The Drug Enforcement Administration was established in 1973, combining the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD) and Customs' drug agents.",
"Proceedings to add, delete, or change the schedule of a drug or other substance may be initiated by the DEA, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), or by petition from any interested party, including the manufacturer of a drug, a medical society or association, a pharmacy association, a public interest group concerned with drug abuse, a state or local government agency, or an individual citizen.",
"When a petition is received by the DEA, the agency begins its own investigation of the drug.The DEA may begin an investigation of a drug at any time based upon information received from laboratories, state and local law enforcement and regulatory agencies, or other sources of information.",
"Once the DEA has collected the necessary data, the Deputy Administrator of DEA, requests from HHS a scientific and medical evaluation and recommendation as to whether the drug or other substance should be controlled or removed from control.",
"This request is sent to the Assistant Secretary of Health of HHS.",
"Then, HHS solicits information from the Commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration and evaluations and recommendations from the National Institute on Drug Abuse and, on occasion, from the scientific and medical community at large.",
"The Assistant Secretary, by authority of the Secretary, compiles the information and transmits back to the DEA a medical and scientific evaluation regarding the drug or other substance, a recommendation as to whether the drug should be controlled, and in what schedule it should be placed.The HHS recommendation on scheduling is binding to the extent that if HHS recommends, based on its medical and scientific evaluation, that the substance not be controlled, then the DEA may not control the substance.",
"Once the DEA has received the scientific and medical evaluation from HHS, the DEA Administrator evaluates all available data and makes a final decision whether to propose that a drug or other substance be controlled and into which schedule it should be placed.",
"Under certain circumstances, the Government may temporarily schedule a drug without following the normal procedure.",
"An example is when international treaties require control of a substance.",
"allows the Attorney General to temporarily place a substance in Schedule I \"to avoid an imminent hazard to the public safety\".",
"Thirty days' notice is required before the order can be issued, and the scheduling expires after a year.",
"The period may be extended six months if rulemaking proceedings to permanently schedule the drug are in progress.",
"In any case, once these proceedings are complete, the temporary order is automatically vacated.",
"Unlike ordinary scheduling proceedings, such temporary orders are not subject to judicial review.The CSA creates a closed system of distribution for those authorized to handle controlled substances.",
"The cornerstone of this system is the registration of all those authorized by the DEA to handle controlled substances.",
"All individuals and firms that are registered are required to maintain complete and accurate inventories and records of all transactions involving controlled substances, as well as security for the storage of controlled substances."
],
[
"Treaty obligations",
"The Congressional findings in 21 USC §§ , , and state that a major purpose of the CSA is to \"enable the United States to meet all of its obligations\" under international treaties.",
"The CSA bears many resemblances to these Conventions.",
"Both the CSA and the treaties set out a system for classifying controlled substances in several schedules in accordance with the binding scientific and medical findings of a public health authority.",
"Under of the CSA, that authority is the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS).",
"Under Article 3 of the Single Convention and Article 2 of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, the World Health Organization is that authority.The domestic and international legal nature of these treaty obligations must be considered in light of the supremacy of the United States Constitution over treaties or acts and the equality of treaties and Congressional acts.",
"In ''Reid v. Covert'' the Supreme Court of the United States addressed both these issues directly and clearly holding:According to the Cato Institute, these treaties only bind (legally obligate) the United States to comply with them as long as that nation agrees to remain a state party to these treaties.",
"The U.S. Congress and the President of the United States have the absolute sovereign right to withdraw from or abrogate at any time these two instruments, in accordance with said nation's Constitution, at which point these treaties will cease to bind that nation in any way, shape, or form.A provision for automatic compliance with treaty obligations is found at , which also establishes mechanisms for amending international drug control regulations to correspond with HHS findings on scientific and medical issues.",
"If control of a substance is mandated by the Single Convention, the Attorney General is required to \"issue an order controlling such drug under the schedule he deems most appropriate to carry out such obligations,\" without regard to the normal scheduling procedure or the findings of the HHS Secretary.",
"However, the Secretary has great influence over any drug scheduling proposal under the Single Convention, because requires the Secretary the power to \"evaluate the proposal and furnish a recommendation to the Secretary of State which shall be binding on the representative of the United States in discussions and negotiations relating to the proposal.",
"\"Similarly, if the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs adds or transfers a substance to a schedule established by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, so that current U.S. regulations on the drug do not meet the treaty's requirements, the Secretary is required to issue a recommendation on how the substance should be scheduled under the CSA.",
"If the Secretary agrees with the Commission's scheduling decision, he can recommend that the Attorney General initiate proceedings to reschedule the drug accordingly.",
"If the HHS Secretary disagrees with the UN controls, the Attorney General must temporarily place the drug in Schedule IV or V (whichever meets the minimum requirements of the treaty) and exclude the substance from any regulations not mandated by the treaty.",
"The Secretary is required to request that the Secretary of State take action, through the Commission or the UN Economic and Social Council, to remove the drug from international control or transfer it to a different schedule under the Convention.",
"The temporary scheduling expires as soon as control is no longer needed to meet international treaty obligations.This provision was invoked in 1984 to place Rohypnol (flunitrazepam) in Schedule IV.",
"The drug did not then meet the Controlled Substances Act's criteria for scheduling; however, control was required by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.",
"In 1999, an FDA official explained to Congress:The Cato Institute's ''Handbook for Congress'' calls for repealing the CSA, an action that would likely bring the United States into conflict with international law, were the United States not to exercise its sovereign right to withdraw from and/or abrogate the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and/or the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances prior to repealing the Controlled Substances Act.",
"The exception would be if the U.S. were to claim that the treaty obligations violate the United States Constitution.",
"Many articles in these treaties—such as Article 35 and Article 36 of the Single Convention—are prefaced with phrases such as \"Having due regard to their constitutional, legal and administrative systems, the Parties shall .",
".",
".\"",
"or \"Subject to its constitutional limitations, each Party shall .",
".",
".\"",
"According to former United Nations Drug Control Programme Chief of Demand Reduction Cindy Fazey, \"This has been used by the USA not to implement part of article 3 of the 1988 Convention, which prevents inciting others to use narcotic or psychotropic drugs, on the basis that this would be in contravention of their constitutional amendment guaranteeing freedom of speech\"."
],
[
"Schedules of controlled substances",
"There are five different schedules of controlled substances, numbered IV.",
"The CSA describes the different schedules based on three factors:# Potential for abuse: How likely is this drug to be abused?# Accepted medical use: Is this drug used as a treatment in the United States?# Safety and potential for addiction: Is this drug safe?",
"How likely is this drug to cause addiction?",
"What kinds of addiction?The following table gives a summary of the different schedules.",
"Potential for Abuse Accepted Medical Use?",
"Potential for Addiction '''Schedule I''' High None Drug is not safe to use, even under medical supervision '''Schedule II''' High Yes; sometimes allowedonly with \"severe restrictions\" Abusing the drug can cause severe physical and mental addiction '''Schedule III''' Medium Yes Abusing the drug can cause severe mental addiction, or moderate physical addiction '''Schedule IV''' Moderate Yes Abusing the drug may lead to moderate mental or physical addiction '''Schedule V''' Lowest Yes Abusing the drug may lead to mild mental or physical addictionPlacing a drug or other substance in a certain schedule or removing it from a certain schedule is primarily based on 21 USC §§ , , , , , , and .",
"Every schedule otherwise requires finding and specifying the \"potential for abuse\" before a substance can be placed in that schedule.",
"The specific classification of any given drug or other substance is usually a source of controversy, as is the purpose and effectiveness of the entire regulatory scheme.Some have argued that this is an important exemption, since alcohol and tobacco are two of the most widely used drugs in the United States.===Schedule I===Schedule I substances are described as those that have all of the following findings:No prescriptions may be written for Schedule I substances, and such substances are subject to production quotas which the DEA imposes.Under the DEA's interpretation of the CSA, a drug does not necessarily have to have the same \"high potential for abuse\" as heroin, for example, to merit placement in Schedule I:'''Drugs listed in this control schedule include:'''* αMT (alpha-methyltryptamine), a psychedelic, stimulant, and entactogen drug of the tryptamine class that was originally developed as an antidepressant by workers at Upjohn in the 1960s.",
"* BZP (benzylpiperazine), a synthetic stimulant once sold as a designer drug.",
"It has been shown to be associated with an increase in seizures if taken alone.",
"Although the effects of BZP are not as potent as MDMA, it can produce neuroadaptations that can cause an increase in the potential for abuse of this drug.",
"* Cathinone, an amphetamine-like stimulant found in the shrub ''Catha edulis'' (khat).",
"* DMT (dimethyltryptamine), a naturally occurring psychedelic drug that is widespread throughout the plant kingdom and endogenous to the human body.",
"DMT is the main psychoactive constituent in the psychedelic South American brew, ayahuasca, for which the UDV are granted exemption from DMT's schedule I status on the grounds of religious freedom.",
"* Etorphine, a semi-synthetic opioid possessing an analgesic potency approximately 1,000–3,000 times that of morphine.",
"* GHB (gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid), a general anesthetic and treatment for narcolepsy-cataplexy and alcohol withdrawal with a limited safe dosage range and poor ability to control pain when used as an anesthetic (severely limiting its usefulness).",
"It was placed in Schedule I in March 2000 after widespread recreational use led to increased emergency room visits, hospitalizations, and deaths.",
"A specific formulation of this drug is also listed in Schedule III for limited uses, under the trademark Xyrem.",
"* Heroin is the brand name for ''diacetylmorphine'' or ''morphine diacetate'', which is an inactive prodrug that exerts its effects after being converted into the major active metabolite morphine, and the minor metabolite 6-MAM - which itself is also rapidly converted to morphine.",
"Some European countries still use it as a potent pain reliever in terminal cancer patients, and as second option, after morphine sulfate; it is about twice as potent, by weight, as morphine and, indeed, becomes morphine upon injection into the bloodstream.",
"The two acetyl groups attached to the morphine make a prodrug which delivers morphine to the opioid receptors twice as fast as morphine can.",
"* Ibogaine, a naturally occurring psychoactive substance found in plants in the family Apocynaceae.",
"Some countries in North America use ibogaine as an alternative medicine treatment for opioid drug addiction.",
"Ibogaine is also used for medicinal and ritual purposes within African spiritual traditions of the Bwiti.",
"* LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), a semi-synthetic psychedelic drug famous for its involvement in the counterculture of the 1960s.",
"* Marijuana and its cannabinoids.",
"Pure (–)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol is also listed in Schedule III for limited uses, under the trademark Marinol.",
"As a result of ballot initiatives, many states have made recreational and medical use of marijuana legal, while other states have decriminalized possession of small amounts.",
"Such measures operate only on state laws, and have no effect on federal law.",
"Whether such users would actually be prosecuted under federal law is a separate question with no definitive answer.",
"Given the widespread medicinal use of cannabis, the maintenance of its Schedule I classification has been controversial, with many calling for a reclassification and/or holistic federal decriminalization.",
"* MDMA (\"ecstasy\" or \"molly\"), a stimulant, psychedelic, and entactogenic drug which initially garnered attention in psychedelic therapy as a treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).",
"The medical community originally agreed upon placing it as a Schedule III substance, but the government denied this suggestion, despite two court rulings by the DEA's administrative law judge that placing MDMA in Schedule I was illegal.",
"It was temporarily unscheduled after the first administrative hearing from December 22, 1987 – July 1, 1988.",
"* Mescaline, a naturally occurring psychedelic drug and the main psychoactive constituent of peyote (''Lophophora williamsii''), San Pedro cactus (''Echinopsis pachanoi''), and Peruvian torch cactus (''Echinopsis peruviana'').",
"* Methaqualone (Quaalude, Sopor, Mandrax), a sedative that was previously used for similar purposes as barbiturates, until it was rescheduled.",
"* Peyote (''Lophophora williamsii''), a cactus growing in nature primarily in northeastern Mexico; one of the few plants specifically scheduled, with a narrow exception to its legal status for religious use in Native American churches.",
"* Psilocybin and psilocin, naturally occurring psychedelic drugs and the main psychoactive constituents of psilocybin mushrooms.",
"* Controlled substance analogues intended for human consumption, as defined by the Federal Analogue Act.In addition to the named substance, usually all possible ethers, esters, salts and stereo isomers of these substances are also controlled and also 'analogues', which are chemically similar chemicals.",
"===Schedule II===Schedule II substances are those that have the following findings:Except when dispensed directly to an ultimate user by a practitioner other than a pharmacist, no controlled substance in Schedule II, which is a prescription drug as determined under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (21 USC 301 ''et seq.",
"''), may be dispensed without the written or electronically transmitted (21 CFR 1306.08) prescription of a practitioner, except that in emergency situations, as prescribed by the Secretary by regulation after consultation with the Attorney General, such drug may be dispensed upon oral prescription in accordance with section 503(b) of that Act (21 USC 353 (b)).",
"With exceptions, an original prescription is always required even though faxing in a prescription in advance to a pharmacy by a prescriber is allowed.",
"Prescriptions shall be retained in conformity with the requirements of section 827 of this title.",
"No prescription for a controlled substance in Schedule II may be refilled.",
"Notably no emergency situation provisions exist outside the Controlled Substances Act's \"closed system\" although this closed system may be unavailable or nonfunctioning in the event of accidents in remote areas or disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes.",
"Acts which would widely be considered morally imperative remain offenses subject to heavy penalties.These drugs vary in potency: for example fentanyl is about 80 times as potent as morphine (heroin is roughly two times as potent).",
"More significantly, they vary in nature.",
"Pharmacology and CSA scheduling have a weak relationship.Because refills of prescriptions for Schedule II substances are not allowed, it can be burdensome to both the practitioner and the patient if the substances are to be used on a long-term basis.",
"To provide relief, in 2007, was amended (at ) to allow practitioners to write up to three prescriptions at once, to provide up to a 90-day supply, specifying on each the earliest date on which it may be filled.Drugs in this schedule include:* Amphetamine drugs including Adderall, Dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine), Lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse): treatment of ADHD, narcolepsy, severe obesity (limited use, dextroamphetamine only), binge eating disorder (lisdexamfetamine only).",
"Originally placed in Schedule III, but moved to Schedule II in 1978 as part of the Psychotropic Substances Act.",
"* Barbiturates (short-acting), such as pentobarbital* Cocaine: used as a topical anesthetic or local anesthetic and to stop severe epistaxis* Codeine (pure) and any drug for non-parenteral administration containing the equivalent of more than 90 mg of codeine per dosage unit;* Diphenoxylate (pure)* Fentanyl and most other strong pure opioid agonists, e.g.",
"levorphanol* Hydrocodone in ''any'' formulation since October 2014 (examples include Vicodin, Norco, Tussionex).",
"Prior to October 2014, formulations containing hydrocodone and over-the-counter analgesics such as Acetaminophen and Ibuprofen were Schedule III.",
"* Hydromorphone (semi-synthetic opioid; active ingredient in Dilaudid, Palladone)* Methadone: treatment of heroin addiction, extreme chronic pain* Methamphetamine: treatment of ADHD (rare), severe obesity (limited use) under the brandname Desoxyn.",
"* Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), Dexmethylphenidate (Focalin): treatment of ADHD, narcolepsy* Morphine: a pain medication of the opiate family.",
"* Nabilone (Cesamet) – A synthetic cannabinoid.",
"An analogue to dronabinol (Marinol) which is a Schedule III drug.",
"* Opium tincture (Laudanum): a potent antidiarrheal* Oxycodone (semi-synthetic opioid; active ingredient in Percocet, OxyContin, and Percodan)* Oxymorphone (semi-synthetic opioid; active ingredient in Opana)* Nembutal (Pentobarbital) – barbiturate medication originally developed for narcolepsy; primarily used today for physician assisted suicide and euthanasia of animals.",
"* Pethidine (USAN: Meperidine; Demerol)* Phencyclidine (PCP) - Used as veterinary anesthetic under the trade name Sernylan* Secobarbital (Seconal)* Tapentadol (Nucynta) – A drug with mixed opioid agonist and norepinephrine re-uptake inhibitor activity.===Schedule III===Schedule III substances are those that have the following findings:Except when dispensed directly by a practitioner, other than a pharmacist, to an ultimate user, no controlled substance in Schedule III or IV, which is a prescription drug as determined under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (21 USC 301 ''et seq.",
"''), may be dispensed without a written, electronically transmitted, or oral prescription in conformity with section 503(b) of that Act (21 USC 353 (b)).",
"Such prescriptions may not be filled or refilled more than six months after the date thereof or be refilled more than five times after the date of the prescription unless renewed by the practitioner.",
"A prescription for controlled substances in Schedules III, IV, and V issued by a practitioner, may be communicated either orally, in writing, electronically transmitted or by facsimile to the pharmacist, and may be refilled if so authorized on the prescription or by call-in.",
"Control of wholesale distribution is somewhat less stringent than Schedule II drugs.",
"Provisions for emergency situations are less restrictive within the \"closed system\" of the Controlled Substances Act than for Schedule II though no schedule has provisions to address circumstances where the closed system is unavailable, nonfunctioning or otherwise inadequate.Drugs in this schedule include:* Ketamine, a drug originally developed as a safer, shorter-acting replacement for PCP (mainly for use as a human anesthetic) but has since become popular as a veterinary and pediatric anesthetic;* Anabolic steroids (including prohormones such as androstenedione); the specific end molecule testosterone in many of its forms (Androderm, AndroGel, Testosterone Cypionate, and Testosterone Enanthate) are labeled as Schedule III while low-dose testosterone when compounded with estrogen derivatives have been exempted (from scheduling) by the FDA* Intermediate-acting barbiturates, such as talbutal or butalbital* Buprenorphine (semi-synthetic opioid; active in Suboxone, Subutex)* Dihydrocodeine when compounded with other substances, to a certain dosage and concentration.",
"* Xyrem Sodium Oxybate, a preparation of GHB used to treat narcolepsy.",
"Xyrem is in Schedule III but with a restricted distribution system.",
"All other forms or preparations of GHB are in Schedule I.",
"* Marinol, synthetically prepared tetrahydrocannabinol (officially referred to by its INN, dronabinol) used to treat nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy, as well as appetite loss caused by AIDS.",
"* Paregoric, an antidiarrheal and anti-tussive, which contains opium combined with camphor (which makes it less addiction-prone than laudanum, which is in Schedule II).",
"* Phendimetrazine Tartrate, a stimulant synthesized for use as an anorexiant.",
"* Benzphetamine HCl (Didrex), a stimulant designed for use as an anorexiant.",
"* Fast-acting barbiturates such as secobarbital (Seconal) and pentobarbital (Nembutal), when combined with one or more additional active ingredient(s) not in Schedule II (e.g., Carbrital (no longer marketed), a combination of pentobarbital and carbromal).",
"* Ergine (lysergic acid amide), listed as a sedative but also has psychedelic effects such as visual and auditory effects.",
"An inefficient precursor to its ''N'',''N''-diethyl analogue, LSD, ergine occurs naturally in the seeds of the common garden flowers ''Turbina corymbosa'', ''Ipomoea tricolor'', and ''Argyreia nervosa''.",
"* Perampanel (Fycompa), an anticonvulsant ===Schedule IV===Placement on schedules; findings requiredSchedule IV substances are those that have the following findings:Control measures are similar to Schedule III.",
"Prescriptions for Schedule IV drugs may be refilled up to five times within a six-month period.",
"A prescription for controlled substances in Schedules III, IV, and V issued by a practitioner, may be communicated either orally, in writing, electronically transmitted or by facsimile to the pharmacist, and may be refilled if so authorized on the prescription or by call-in.Drugs in this schedule include:* Benzodiazepines, such as alprazolam (Xanax), chlordiazepoxide (Librium), clonazepam (Klonopin), diazepam (Valium), midazolam (Versed), and Lorazepam (Ativan), as well as:**temazepam (Restoril) (some states require specially coded prescriptions for temazepam)** flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) (flunitrazepam is not FDA approved making it an illegal drug in the United States)**oxazepam (Serax, Serepax, Seresta, Alepam, Opamox, Oxamin)* The benzodiazepine-like Z-drugs: zolpidem (Ambien), zopiclone (Imovane), eszopiclone (Lunesta), and zaleplon (Sonata) (zopiclone is not commercially available in the U.S.)* Chloral hydrate, a sedative-hypnotic* Long-acting barbiturates such as phenobarbital* Some partial agonist opioid analgesics, such as pentazocine (Talwin)* The eugeroic drug modafinil (sold in the U.S. as Provigil) as well as its ''(R)''-enantiomer armodafinil (sold in the U.S. as Nuvigil)* Difenoxin, an antidiarrheal drug, when combined with atropine (such as Motofen) (difenoxin is 2–3 times more potent than diphenoxylate, the active ingredient in Lomotil, which is in Schedule V)* Tramadol (Ultram), an opioid analgesic * Carisoprodol (Soma) has become a Schedule IV medication as of 11 January 2012* Suvorexant and Lemborexant, orexinergic sedatives===Schedule V===Schedule V substances are those that have the following findings:No controlled substance in Schedule V which is a drug may be distributed or dispensed other than for a medical purpose.",
"A prescription for controlled substances in Schedules III, IV, and V issued by a practitioner, may be communicated either orally, in writing, electronically transmitted or by facsimile to the pharmacist, and may be refilled if so authorized on the prescription or by call-in.Drugs in this schedule include:* Cough suppressants containing small amounts of codeine (e.g., promethazine+codeine);* Preparations containing small amounts of opium or diphenoxylate (used to treat diarrhea);* Some anticonvulsants, such as pregabalin (Lyrica), lacosamide (Vimpat) and retigabine (ezogabine) (Potiga/Trobalt);* Pyrovalerone (used to treat chronic fatigue and as an appetite suppressant for weight loss);* Some centrally-acting antidiarrheals, such as diphenoxylate (Lomotil) when mixed with atropine (to make it poisonous, if taken at euphoria-inducing dosages).",
"Difenoxin with atropine (Motofen) has been moved to Schedule IV.",
"Without atropine, these drugs are in Schedule II.",
"* Cannabidiol, only in a cannabis-derived pharmaceutical formulation marketed by GW Pharmaceuticals as '''Epidiolex'''.",
"Other CBD formulations remain Schedule I, except for those derived from hemp which are unscheduled but still FDA-regulated.===Controlled by other federal laws for legal recreational use===These psychoactive drugs are not controlled by the act, and are also allowed for sale intended for recreational use at the federal level (others are allowed for sale as dietary supplements, but not specifically regulated or intended for recreational use):*Alcohol (ethanol), a sedative found in alcoholic drinks.",
"Per the National Minimum Drinking Age Act (which is voluntarily abided by all 50 U.S. states), sale is limited to persons 21-years-old and above only.",
"Sale regulated by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) and less commonly the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).",
"Alcohol was formerly illegal under the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution from 1919, until the Twenty-first Amendment repealed it in 1933.",
"*Caffeine, a stimulant found in coffee, chocolate; and some teas and soft drinks.",
"It is regulated by the FDA under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, and drinks cannot contain more than 200 parts per million (0.02%) of caffeine.",
"There is no federal age restriction for caffeine-containing products.",
"Also available medically in some pain medications (usually in combination with other drugs, like in aspirin/acetaminophen/caffeine).",
"*Nicotine, a stimulant found in tobacco (including cigarettes and cigars) and electronic cigarettes.",
"Also used medically in nicotine replacement therapy.",
"The minimum purchasing age of tobacco and e-cigarettes in the United States is 21-years-old, per the 2019 \"Tobacco 21\" amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.",
"Sales are regulated by the ATF and FDA."
],
[
"Regulation of precursors",
"The Controlled Substances Act also provides for federal regulation of precursors used to manufacture some of the controlled substances.",
"The DEA list of chemicals is actually modified when the United States Attorney General determines that illegal manufacturing processes have changed.In addition to the CSA, due to pseudoephedrine (PSE) and ephedrine being widely used in the manufacture of methamphetamine, the U.S. Congress passed the Methamphetamine Precursor Control Act which places restrictions on the sale of any medicine containing pseudoephedrine.",
"That bill was then superseded by the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005, which was passed as an amendment to the Patriot Act renewal and included wider and more comprehensive restrictions on the sale of PSE-containing products.",
"This law requires customer signature of a \"log-book\" and presentation of valid photo ID in order to purchase PSE-containing products from all retailers.Additionally, the law restricts an individual to the retail purchase of no more than three packages or 3.6 grams of such product per day per purchase – and no more than 9 grams in a single month.",
"A violation of this statute constitutes a misdemeanor.",
"Retailers now commonly require PSE-containing products to be sold behind the pharmacy or service counter.",
"This affects many preparations which were previously available over-the-counter without restriction, such as Actifed and its generic equivalents."
],
[
"Research exemptions",
"A common misunderstanding amongst researchers is that most national laws (including the Controlled Substance Act) allows the supply/use of small amounts of a controlled substance for non-clinical / non-in vivo research without licences.",
"A typical use case might be having a few milligrams or microlitres of a controlled substance within larger chemical collections (often 10K’s of chemicals) for in vitro screening or sale.",
"Researchers often believe that there is some form of \"research exemption\" for such small amounts.",
"This incorrect view may be further re-enforced by R&D chemical suppliers often stating and asking scientists to confirm that anything bought is for research use only.A further misconception is that the Controlled Substances Act simply lists a few hundred substances (e.g.",
"MDMA, Fentanyl, Amphetamine, etc.)",
"and compliance can be achieved via checking a CAS number, chemical name or similar identifier.",
"However, the reality is that in most cases all ethers, esters, salts and stereo isomers are also controlled and it is impossible to simply list all of these.",
"The act contains several \"generic statements\" or \"chemical space\" laws, which aim to control all chemicals similar to the \"named\" substance, these provide detailed descriptions similar to Markushes, these include ones for Fentanyl and also synthetic cannabinoids.",
"Due to this complexity in legislation the identification of controlled chemicals in research or chemical supply is often carried out computationally on the chemical structure, either by in house systems maintained a company or by the use of commercial software solutions.",
"Automated systems are often required as many research operations can have chemical collections running into 10Ks of molecules at the 1–5 mg scale, which are likely to include controlled substances, especially within medicinal chemistry research, even if the core research of the company is not narcotic or psychotropic drugs.",
"These may not have been controlled when created, but they have subsequently been declared controlled, or fall within chemical space close to known controlled substances, or are used as tool compounds, precursors or sythetic intermediates."
],
[
"Analogues vs Markush descriptions",
"Historically, in an attempt to prevent psychoactive chemicals which are chemically similar to controlled substance, but not specifically controlled by it, the CSA also controls \"analogues\" of many listed controlled substances.",
"The definition of what 'analogue' means is kept deliberately vague, presumably to make it harder to circumvent this rule, as it's not clear what is / is not controlled, thus placing an element of risk and deterrent in those performing the supply.",
"It is up to the courts to then decide whether a specific chemical is an analogue, often via a 'battle of experts' for the defense and prosecution which can lead to extended and more uncertain prosecutions.",
"The use of the 'analogue' definition also make it more difficult for companies involved in the legitimate supply of chemicals for research and industrial purposes to know whether a chemical is regulated under the CSAStarting in 2012, with the Synthetic drug abuse prevention act, and later an amendment to the CSA in 2018 defining fentanyl chemical space, the CSA started to use Markush descriptions to clearly define what analogues or chemical space is controlled.",
"These chemical space, chemical family, generic statements or markush statements (depending on the legislation terminology) have been used for many years by other countries, notably the UK in the Misuse of Drugs Act.",
"These have the advantage of clearly defining what is controlled, making prosecutions easier and compliance by legitimate companies simpler.",
"However the downside is that these tend to be harder to understand for non-chemists and also give those wishing to supply for illegitimate reasons something to 'aim' for in terms of non-controlled chemical space.",
"For both Markush and analogue type approaches, typically computational systems are used to flag likely regulated chemicals."
],
[
"Criticism",
"The CSA does not include a definition of \"drug abuse\".",
"In addition, research shows certain substances on Schedule I, for drugs which have no accepted medical uses and high potential for abuse, actually have accepted medical uses, have low potential for abuse, or both.",
"One of those substances is cannabis, which is either decriminalized or legalized in 33 states of the United States."
],
[
"See also",
"'''Similar legislation outside of the United States:'''* Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (Canada)* Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (United Kingdom)"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Full text of Controlled Substances Act: 1970 version | Current version* Controlled Substances Act ( PDF/ details) as amended in the GPO Statute Compilations collection* The Controlled Substances Act (CSA): A Legal Overview for the 116th Congress"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Claude Piron"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Claude Piron''', also known by the pseudonym '''Johán Valano''', was a Swiss psychologist, Esperantist, translator, and writer.",
"He worked as a translator for the United Nations from 1956 to 1961 and then for the World Health Organization.He was a prolific author of Esperanto works.",
"He spoke Esperanto from childhood and used it in Japan, China, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, in Africa and Latin America, and in nearly all the countries of Europe."
],
[
"Life",
"Piron was a psychotherapist and taught from 1973 to 1994 in the psychology department at the University of Geneva in Switzerland.",
"His French-language book ''Le défi des langues — Du gâchis au bon sens'' (The Language Challenge: From Chaos to Common Sense, 1994) is a kind of psychoanalysis of international communication.",
"A Portuguese version, ''O desafio das linguas'', was published in 2002 (Campinas, São Paulo, Pontes).In a lecture on the current system of international communication Piron argued that \"Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes\" and \"differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns...",
"The same neuropsychological law...—called by Jean Piaget ''generalizing assimilation''—applies to word formation as well as to grammar.",
"\"His diverse Esperanto writings include instructional books, books for beginners, novels, short stories, poems, articles and non-fiction books.",
"His most famous works are ''Gerda malaperis!''",
"and ''La Bona Lingvo'' (The Good Language).",
"''Gerda malaperis!''",
"is a novella which uses basic grammar and vocabulary in the first chapter and builds up to expert Esperanto by the end, including word lists so that beginners may easily follow along.In ''La Bona Lingvo'', Piron captures the basic linguistic and social aspects of Esperanto.",
"He argues strongly for imaginative use of the basic Esperanto morpheme inventory and word-formation techniques, and against unnecessary importation of neologisms from European languages.",
"He also presents the idea that, once one has learned enough vocabulary to express himself, it is easier to think clearly in Esperanto than in many other languages.Piron is the author of a book in French, ''Le bonheur clés en main'' (The Keys to Happiness), which distinguishes among pleasure, happiness and joy.",
"He showed how one may avoid contributing to his own \"anti-happiness\" (''l'anti-bonheur'') and how one may expand the areas of happiness in his life.",
"Piron's view was that, while one may desire happiness, desire is not enough.",
"He said that just as people must do certain things in order to become physically stronger, they must do certain things in order to become happier."
],
[
"See also",
"*Esperanto*Machine translation"
],
[
"References",
"*Claude Piron, ''Le défi des langues — Du gâchis au bon sens'' (The Language Challenge: From Chaos to Common Sense), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994.",
"*Claude Piron, \"Le bonheur clés en main\" (The Keys to Happiness), Saint-Maurice, Saint Augustin, 1998."
],
[
"External links",
"* Articles and texts in many languages by Claude Piron* Articles in English by Claude Piron* * ---------"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Captain America"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Captain America''' is a superhero created by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby who appears in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.",
"The character first appeared in ''Captain America Comics'' #1, published on December 20, 1940, by Timely Comics, a corporate predecessor to Marvel.",
"Captain America's civilian identity is '''Steve Rogers''', a frail man enhanced to the peak of human physical perfection by an experimental \"super-soldier serum\" after joining the United States Army to aid the country's efforts in World War II.",
"Equipped with an American flag-inspired costume and a virtually indestructible shield, Captain America and his sidekick Bucky Barnes clashed frequently with the villainous Red Skull and other members of the Axis powers.",
"In the final days of the war, an accident left Captain America frozen in a state of suspended animation until he was revived in modern times.",
"He resumes his exploits as a costumed hero and becomes leader of the superhero team the Avengers, but frequently struggles as a \"man out of time\" to adjust to the new era.The character quickly emerged as Timely's most popular and commercially successful wartime creation upon his original publication, though the popularity of superheroes declined in the post-war period and ''Captain America Comics'' was discontinued in 1950.The character saw a short-lived revival in 1953 before returning to comics in 1964, and has since remained in continuous publication.",
"Captain America's creation as an explicitly anti-Nazi figure was a deliberately political undertaking: Simon and Kirby were stridently opposed to the actions of Nazi Germany and supporters of U.S. intervention in World War II, with Simon conceiving of the character specifically in response to the American non-interventionism movement.",
"Political messages have subsequently remained a defining feature of Captain America stories, with writers regularly using the character to comment on the state of American society and government.Having appeared in more than ten thousand stories in more than five thousand media formats, Captain America is one of the most popular and recognized Marvel Comics characters, and has been described as an icon of American popular culture.",
"Though Captain America was not the first United States-themed superhero, he would become the most popular and enduring of the many patriotic American superheroes created during World War II.",
"Captain America was the first Marvel character to appear in a medium outside of comic books, in the 1944 serial film ''Captain America''; the character has subsequently appeared in a variety of films and other media, including the Marvel Cinematic Universe, where he was portrayed by actor Chris Evans from the character's first appearance in ''Captain America: The First Avenger'' (2011) to his final appearance in ''Avengers: Endgame'' (2019)."
],
[
"Publication history",
"===Creation and development===In 1940, Timely Comics publisher Martin Goodman responded to the growing popularity of superhero comics – particularly Superman at rival publisher National Comics Publications, the corporate predecessor to DC Comics – by hiring freelancer Joe Simon to create a new superhero for the company.",
"Simon began to develop the character by determining who their nemesis could be, noting that the most successful superheroes were defined by their relationship with a compelling villain, and eventually settled on Adolf Hitler.",
"He rationalized that Hitler was the \"best villain of them all\" as he was \"hated by everyone in the free world\", and that it would be a unique approach for a superhero to face a real-life adversary rather than a fictional one.This approach was also intentionally political.",
"Simon was stridently opposed to the actions of Nazi Germany and supported U.S. intervention in World War II, and intended the hero to be a response to the American non-interventionism movement.",
"Simon initially considered \"Super American\" for the hero's name, but felt there were already multiple comic book characters with \"super\" in their names.",
"He worked out the details of the character, who was eventually named \"Captain America\", after he completed sketches in consultation with Goodman.",
"The hero's civilian name \"Steve Rogers\" was derived from the telegraphy term \"roger\", meaning \"message received\".Goodman elected to launch Captain America with his own self-titled comic book, making him the first Timely character to debut with his own ongoing series without having first appeared in an anthology.",
"Simon sought to have Jack Kirby be the primary artist on the series: the two developed a working relationship and friendship in the late 1930s after working together at Fox Feature Syndicate, and had previously developed characters for Timely together.",
"Kirby also shared Simon's pro-intervention views, and was particularly drawn to the character in this regard.",
"Goodman, conversely, wanted a team of artists on the series.",
"It was ultimately determined that Kirby would serve as penciller, with Al Avison and Al Gabriele assisting as inkers; Simon additionally negotiated for himself and Kirby to receive 25 percent of the profits from the comic.",
"Simon regards Kirby as a co-creator of Captain America, stating that \"if Kirby hadn't drawn it, it might not have been much of anything.",
"\"===Debut and early success (early 1940s)===Cover of ''Captain America Comics'' #1 (December 1940, cover dated March 1941).",
"Art by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby.|alt=The front page of the first Captain America comic depicts Captain America punching Adolf Hitler in the jaw.",
"A Nazi soldier's bullet deflects from Captain America's shield, while Adolf Hitler falls onto a map of the United States of America and a document reading 'SABOTAGE PLANS FOR U.S.A.'''Captain America Comics'' #1 was published on December 20, 1940, with a cover date of March 1941.While the front cover of the issue featured Captain America punching Hitler, the comic itself established the Red Skull as Captain America's primary adversary, and also introduced Bucky Barnes as Captain America's teenaged sidekick.",
"Simon stated that he personally regarded Captain America's origin story, in which the frail Steve Rogers becomes a supersoldier after receiving an experimental serum, as \"the weakest part of the character\", and that he and Kirby \"didn't put too much thought into the origin.",
"We just wanted to get to the action.\"",
"Kirby designed the series' action scenes with an emphasis on a sense of continuity across panels, saying that he \"choreographed\" the sequences as one would a ballet, with a focus on exaggerated character movement.",
"Kirby's layouts in ''Captain America Comics'' are characterized by their distorted perspectives, irregularly shaped panels, and the heavy use of speed lines.The first issue of ''Captain America Comics'' sold out in a matter of days, and the second issue's print run was set at over one million copies.",
"Captain America quickly became Timely's most popular character, with the publisher creating an official Captain America fan club called the \"Sentinels of Liberty\".",
"Circulation figures remained close to a million copies per month after the debut issue, which outstripped even the circulation of news magazines such as ''Time'' during the same period.",
"''Captain America Comics'' was additionally one of 189 periodicals that the US Department of War deemed appropriate to distribute to its soldiers without prior screening.",
"The character would also make appearances in several of Timely's other comic titles, including ''All Winners Comics'', ''Marvel Mystery Comics'', ''U.S.A.",
"Comics'', and ''All Select Comics''.Though Captain America was not the first United States-themed superhero – a distinction that belongs to The Shield at MLJ Comics – he would become the most popular patriotic American superhero of those created during World War II.",
"Captain America's popularity drew a complaint from MLJ that the character's triangular heater shield too closely resembled the chest symbol of The Shield.",
"This prompted Goodman to direct Simon and Kirby to change the design beginning with ''Captain America Comics'' #2.The revised round shield went on to become an iconic element of the character; its use as a discus-like throwing weapon originated in a short prose story in ''Captain America Comics'' #3, written by Stan Lee in his professional debut as a writer.",
"Timely's publication of ''Captain America Comics'' led the company to be targeted with threatening letters and phone calls from the German American Bund, an American Nazi organization.",
"When members began loitering on the streets outside the company's office, police protection was posted and New York mayor Fiorello La Guardia personally contacted Simon and Kirby to guarantee the safety of the publisher's employees.Simon wrote the first two issues of ''Captain America Comics'' before becoming the editor for the series; they were the only Captain America stories he would ever directly write.",
"While Captain America generated acclaim and industry fame for Simon and Kirby, the pair believed that Goodman was withholding the promised percentage of profits for the series, prompting Simon to seek employment for himself and Kirby at National Comics Publications.",
"When Goodman learned of Simon and Kirby's intentions, he effectively fired them from Timely Comics, telling them they were to leave the company after they completed work on ''Captain America Comics'' #10.The authorship of ''Captain America Comics'' was subsequently assumed by a variety of individuals, including Otto Binder, Bill Finger, and Manly Wade Wellman as writers, and Al Avison, Vince Alascia, and Syd Shores as pencilers.===Decline in popularity (mid-1940s and 1950s)===Superhero comics began to decline in popularity in the post-war period.",
"This prompted a variety of attempts to reposition Captain America, including having the character fight gangsters rather than wartime enemies in ''Captain America Comics'' #42 (October 1944), appearing as a high school teacher in ''Captain America Comics'' #59 (August 1946), and joining Timely's first superhero team, the All-Winners Squad, in ''All Winners Comics'' #19 (Fall 1946).",
"The series nevertheless continued to face dwindling sales, and ''Captain America Comics'' ended with its 75th issue in February 1950.Horror comics were ascendant as a popular comic genre during this period; in keeping with the trend, the final two issues of ''Captain America Comics'' were published under the title ''Captain America's Weird Tales''.Timely's corporate successor Atlas Comics relaunched the character in 1953 in ''Young Men'' #24, where Captain America appears alongside the wartime heroes Human Torch and Toro, which was followed by a revival of ''Captain America Comics'' in 1954 written by Stan Lee and drawn by John Romita.",
"In the spirit of the Cold War and McCarthyism, the character was billed as \"Captain America, Commie Smasher\" and faced enemies associated with the Soviet Union.",
"The series was a commercial failure, and was cancelled after just three issues.",
"Romita attributed the series' failure to the changing political climate, particularly the public opposition to the Korean War; the character subsequently fell out of active publication for nearly a decade, with Romita noting that \"for a while, 'Captain America' was a dirty word\".===Return to comics (1960s)===The Avengers'' #4 (March 1964).",
"Art by Jack Kirby and George Roussos.|alt=The front page of The Avengers #4, depicting Captain America leading Avengers members Thor, Iron Man, Ant-Man and The Wasp under the subtitle \"CAPTAIN AMERICA LIVES AGAIN!\".",
"An inset image indicates that Namor the Sub-Mariner also appears in the issue.Captain America made his ostensible return in the anthology ''Strange Tales'' #114 (November 1963), published by Atlas' corporate successor Marvel Comics.",
"In an 18-page story written by Lee and illustrated by Kirby, Captain America reemerges following years of apparent retirement, though he is revealed as an impostor who is defeated by Johnny Storm of the Fantastic Four.",
"A caption in the final panel indicates that the story was a \"test\" to gauge interest in a potential return for Captain America; the reader response to the story was enthusiastic, and the character was formally reintroduced in ''The Avengers'' #4 (March 1964).",
"''The Avengers'' #4 retroactively established that Captain America had fallen into the Atlantic Ocean in the final days of World War II, where he spent decades frozen in ice in a state of suspended animation before being found and recovered.",
"Captain America solo stories written by Lee with Kirby as the primary penciller were published in the anthology ''Tales of Suspense'' alongside solo stories focused on fellow Avengers member Iron Man beginning in November 1964; the character also appeared in Lee and Kirby's World War II-set ''Sgt.",
"Fury and his Howling Commandos'' beginning in December same year.",
"These runs introduced and retroactively established several new companions of Captain America, including Nick Fury, Peggy Carter, and Sharon Carter.",
"In 1966, Joe Simon sued Marvel Comics, asserting that he was legally entitled to renew the copyright on the character upon the expiration of the original 28-year term.",
"The two parties settled out of court, with Simon agreeing to a statement that the character had been created under terms of employment by the publisher, and was therefore work for hire owned by the company.",
"Captain America's self-titled ongoing series was relaunched in April 1968, with Lee as writer and Kirby as penciller; Kirby later departed the series, and was replaced by Gene Colan.",
"In 1969, writer and artist Jim Steranko authored a three-issue run of ''Captain America''.",
"Despite the brevity of Steranko's time on the series, his contributions significantly influenced how Captain America was represented in post-war comics, reestablishing the character's secret identity and introducing a more experimental art style to the series.===Political shifts (1970s)===In contrast to the character's enthusiastic participation in World War II, comics featuring Captain America rarely broached the topic of the Vietnam War, though the subject of Captain America's potential participation was frequently debated by readers in the letters to the editor section in ''Captain America''.",
"Marvel maintained a position of neutrality on Vietnam; in 1971, Stan Lee wrote in an editorial that a poll indicated that a majority of readers did not want Captain America to be involved in Vietnam, adding that he believed the character \"simply doesn't lend himself to the John Wayne-type character he once was\" and that he could not \"see any of our characters taking on a role of super-patriotism in the world as it is today\".Captain America stories in the 1970s began to increasingly focus on domestic American political issues, such as poverty, racism, pollution, and political corruption.",
"''Captain America'' #117 (September 1969) introduced The Falcon as the first African-American superhero in mainstream comic books and who would become Captain America's partner; the series was cover titled as ''Captain America and the Falcon'' beginning February 1971, which it would maintain for the next seven and a half years.",
"These political shifts were significantly shaped by comics created by writer Steve Englehart and artist Sal Buscema, who joined the series in 1972.In a 1974 storyline written by Englehart directly inspired by the Watergate scandal, Captain America is framed for murder by the fascistic Secret Empire, whose leader is ultimately revealed to be the president of the United States.",
"The incident causes a disillusioned Steve Rogers to briefly drop the moniker of Captain America to become \"Nomad, the man without a country\", though he later vowed to \"reclaim the ideals of America, which its leaders have trampled upon\" and again assumed the role of Captain America.",
"Englehart and Buscema's run was highly acclaimed, bringing ''Captain America'' from one of Marvel's lowest-selling titles to its top-selling comic, and the conflict between America as it idealizes itself to be and America in reality would recur frequently as a theme in ''Captain America'' comics in the subsequent decades.In 1975, Roy Thomas created the comic book series ''The Invaders''.",
"Set during World War II, the comic focuses on a superhero team composed of Timely's wartime-era superheroes, with Captain America as its leader; Thomas, a fan of stories from the Golden Age of Comic Books, drew inspiration for the series from Timely's All-Winners Squad.",
"Jack Kirby wrote and illustrated run on ''Captain America and the Falcon'' from 1975 to 1977.This was followed by issues authored by a number of writers and artists, including Roy Thomas, Donald F. Glut, Roger McKenzie, and Sal Buscema; the series was also re-titled ''Captain America'' beginning with issue 223 in 1978.===Post-Vietnam and \"Heroes Reborn\" (1980s and 1990s)===Owing to the series' lack of a regular writer, ''Captain America'' editor Roger Stern and artist John Byrne authored the series from 1980 to 1981.Their run that saw a storyline in which Captain America declines an offer to run for president of the United States.",
"Following Stern and Byrne, ''Captain America'' was authored by writer J.M.",
"Dematteis and artist Mike Zeck from 1981 to 1984.Their run featured a year-long storyline in which Captain America faced a crisis of confidence in the face of what Dematteis described as \"Reagan Cold War rhetoric\".",
"The story was originally planned culminate in ''Captain America'' #300 with Captain America renunciating violence to become a pacifist; when that ending was rejected by Marvel editor-in-chief Jim Shooter, Dematteis resigned from ''Captain America'' in protest.Writer Mark Gruenwald, editor of ''Captain America'' from 1982 to 1985, served as writer on the series from 1985 to 1995.Various artists illustrated the series over the course of Gruenwald's decade-long run, including Paul Neary from 1985 to 1987, and Kieron Dwyer from 1988 to 1990.In contrast to DeMatteis, Gruenwald placed less emphasis on Steve Rogers' life as a civilian, wishing to show \"that Steve Rogers is Captain America first ... he has no greater needs than being Captain America.\"",
"Among the most significant storylines appearing in Gruenwald's run was \"The Choice\" in 1987, in which Steve Rogers renounces the identity of Captain America to briefly become simply \"The Captain\" after the United States government orders him to continue his superheroic activities directly under their control.After Gruenwald departed the series, writer Mark Waid and artist Ron Garney began to author ''Captain America'' in 1995.Despite early acclaim, including the reintroduction of Captain America's love interest Sharon Carter, their run was terminated after ten issues as a result of Marvel's \"Heroes Reborn\" rebranding in 1996.The rebrand saw artists Jim Lee and Rob Liefeld, who had left the company in the early 1990s to establish Image Comics, return to Marvel to re-imagine several of the company's characters.",
"Marvel faced various financial difficulties in the 1990s, culminating in the company filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in 1996, and \"Heroes Reborn\" was introduced as part of an effort to increase sales.",
"As part of the rebrand, Liefeld illustrated and co-wrote with Jeph Loeb a run on ''Captain America'' that was ultimately cancelled after six issues.",
"Marvel stated that the series was cancelled due to low sales, though Liefeld has contended that he was fired after he refused to take a lower pay rate amid Marvel's bankruptcy proceedings.",
"Waid would return to ''Captain America'' in 1998, initially with Garney as arist and later with Andy Kubert.In 1999, Joe Simon filed to claim the copyright to Captain America under a provision of the Copyright Act of 1976 that allows the original creators of works that have been sold to corporations to reclaim them after the original 56-year copyright term has expired.",
"Marvel challenged the claim, arguing that Simon's 1966 settlement made the character ineligible for copyright transfer.",
"Simon and Marvel settled out of court in 2003, in a deal that paid Simon royalties for merchandising and licensing of the character.===Modern era (2000s to present)===Writer and artist Dan Jurgens took over ''Captain America'' from Waid in 2000, positioning the character in a world he described as \"more cynical ... in terms of how we view our government, our politicians and people's motives in general\".",
"In the wake of the September 11 attacks, a new ''Captain America'' series written by John Ney Rieber with artwork by John Cassady was published under the Marvel Knights imprint from 2002 to 2003.The series received criticism for its depiction of Captain America fighting terrorists modelled after Al-Qaeda, though Cassady contended that the aim of the series was to depict \"the emotions this hero was going through\" in the wake of 9/11, and the \"guilt and anger a man in his position would feel\".In 2005, Marvel relaunched ''Captain America'' in a new volume written by Ed Brubaker and illustrated by Steve Epting.",
"The run saw the publication of \"The Winter Soldier\", which reintroduced Captain America's previously deceased partner Bucky Barnes as a brainwashed cybernetic assassin.",
"Contemporaneously, Captain America was a central character in the 2006 crossover storyline \"Civil War\", written by Mark Millar and penciled by Steve McNiven, which saw the character come into conflict with fellow Avengers member Iron Man over government efforts to regulate superheroes.",
"The character was killed in the 2007 storyline \"The Death of Captain America\" written by Brubaker, which was accompanied by the miniseries ''Fallen Son: The Death of Captain America'' written by Jeph Loeb; the character was later revived in the 2009 limited series ''Captain America: Reborn''.",
"Brubaker's run on ''Captain America'', which ran across various titles until 2012, was critically and commercially acclaimed; ''Captain America'' #25 (which contains the character's death) was the best-selling comic of 2007, and Brubaker won the Harvey Award for Best Writer for the series in 2006.After Brubaker's run on ''Captain America'' ended in 2012, a new volume of the series written by Rick Remender was published as part of the Marvel Now rebranding initiative, which saw Sam Wilson assume the mantle of Captain America in 2014.This was followed by a run written by Nick Spencer beginning in 2016, in which Captain America was replaced by a version of himself later known as \"Hydra Supreme\", loyal to the villainous organization Hydra, culminating in the 2017 crossover event ''Secret Empire''.",
"As part of Marvel's Fresh Start rebrand in 2018, a new ''Captain America'' series written by Ta-Nehisi Coates with art by Leinil Francis Yu was published from 2018 to 2021.A new volume of ''Captain America'' written by J. Michael Straczynski began publication in September 2023."
],
[
"Characterization",
"===Fictional character biography===, Captain America has appeared in more than ten thousand stories in more than five thousand media formats, including comic books, books, and trade publications.",
"The character's origin story has been retold and revised multiple times throughout his editorial history, though its broad details have remained generally consistent.",
"Steven \"Steve\" Rogers was born in the 1920s to an impoverished family on the Lower East Side of New York City.",
"The frail and infirm Rogers attempts to join the U.S. Army in order to fight in the Second World War, but is rejected after being deemed unfit for military service.",
"His resolve is nevertheless noticed by the military, and he is recruited as the first test subject for \"Project Rebirth\", a secret government program that seeks to create super soldiers through the development of the \"Super-Soldier Serum\".",
"Though the serum successfully enhances Rogers to the peak to human physical perfection, a Nazi spy posing as a military observer destroys the remaining supply of the serum and assassinates its inventor, foiling plans to produce additional super soldiers.",
"Rogers is given a patriotic uniform and shield by the American government and becomes the costumed superhero Captain America.",
"He goes on to fight the villainous Red Skull and other members of the Axis powers both domestically and abroad, alongside his sidekick Bucky Barnes and as a member of the Invaders.",
"In the final days of the war, Rogers and Barnes seemingly perish after falling from an experimental drone plane into the northern Atlantic Ocean.Rogers is found decades later by the superhero team the Avengers, the Super-Soldier Serum having allowed him to survive frozen in a block of ice in a state of suspended animation.",
"Reawakened in modern times, Rogers resumes activities as a costumed hero, joining and later becoming leader of the Avengers.",
"Many of his exploits involve missions undertaken for the Avengers or for S.H.I.E.L.D., an espionage and international law enforcement agency operated by his former war comrade Nick Fury.",
"Through Fury, Rogers befriends Sharon Carter, a S.H.I.E.L.D.",
"agent with whom he eventually begins a partnership and an on-again off-again romance.",
"He meets and trains Sam Wilson, who becomes the superhero Falcon, and they establish an enduring friendship and partnership.",
"After a conspiracy hatched by the Secret Empire to discredit Rogers is revealed to have been personally orchestrated by the President of the United States, a disillusioned Rogers abandons the mantle of Captain America and assumes the title of \"Nomad\", the \"man without a country\".",
"He eventually re-assumes the title, and later declines an offer from the \"New Populist Party\" to run for president himself.",
"He again abandons the mantle of Captain America to briefly assume the alias of \"The Captain\" when a government commission orders him to work directly for the U.S. government.In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, Rogers reveals his secret identity to the world.",
"Following the disbandment of the Avengers, he discovers that Bucky is still alive, having been brainwashed by the Soviets to become the Winter Soldier.",
"Later, in reaction to government efforts to regulate superheroes, Rogers becomes the leader of an underground anti-registration movement that clashes with a pro-registration faction led by fellow Avengers member Iron Man.",
"After significant rancor, he voluntarily surrenders and submits to arrest.",
"At his trial, he is shot and killed by Sharon Carter, whose actions are manipulated by the villainous Dr. Faustus; in his absence, a recovered Bucky assumes the title of Captain America.",
"It is eventually revealed that Rogers did not die, but became displaced in space and time; he is ultimately able to return to the present.",
"He resumes his exploits as a superhero, though his public identity is briefly supplanted by a sleeper agent from the terrorist organization Hydra.===Personality and motivations===Steve Rogers' personality has shifted across his editorial history, a fact that media scholar J. Richard Stevens sees as a natural consequence of the character being written and re-interpreted by many writers over the span of multiple decades.",
"However, Stevens identifies two aspects of the character's personality that have remained consistent across expressions: his \"uncompromising purity\" and \"his ability to judge the character in others\".",
"Early Captain America stories typically paid little attention to Rogers' civilian identity; in his 1970 book ''The Steranko History of Comics'', Jim Steranko notes that the character was often criticized for being two-dimensional as a result.",
"He argues that this was an intentional device, writing that these critics \"failed to grasp the true implication of his being.",
"Steve Rogers never existed, except perhaps as an abstract device for the convenience of storytelling.",
"Captain America was not an embodiment of human characteristics but a pure idea.",
"\"Following the character's return to comics in the 1960s, many stories gave increased focus to Rogers' civilian identity, particularly his struggles as a \"man out of time\" attempting to adjust to the modern era.",
"Often, stories depict a brooding or melancholic Rogers as he faces both a physical struggle as Captain America, and an ideological struggle as Steve Rogers to reconcile his social values with modern times.",
"The character is frequently conflicted by his World War II-era \"good war\" morality being challenged and made anachronistic by the compromising demands of the post-war era.Prior to Bucky Barnes' return to comics in the 2000s, many Captain America stories centered on Rogers' sense of guilt over Barnes' death.",
"Culture scholar Robert G. Weiner argues that these stories mirror the post-traumatic stress disorder and survivor guilt held by many war veterans, and that this trauma distinguishes the character from other well-known superheroes such as Batman and Spider-Man: while those characters became heroes because of a traumatic incident, Rogers carries on as a hero in spite of a traumatic incident, with Weiner asserting that this reinforces the nobility of the character.===Political themes===Though Marvel has historically trended away from making overt partisan statements in the post-war period, writers have nevertheless used Captain America to comment on the state of American society and government at particular moments in history.",
"For example, the conspiracy storyline of \"Secret Empire\" reflected what writer Steve Englehart saw as broad disillusionment with American institutions in the wake of the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal, the \"Streets of Poison\" storyline by Mark Gruenwald in the 1990s was intended to address anxieties around the drug trade and debates on the war on drugs, and \"Civil War\" by Mark Millar was widely interpreted as an allegory for the Patriot Act and post-9/11 debates on the balance between national security and civil liberties.",
"While the ideological orientation of Captain America stories has shifted in response to changing social and political attitudes, Stevens notes how a central component of Captain America's mythology is that the character himself does not change: when the character's attitudes have shifted, it is consistently framed as an evolution or a new understanding of his previously held ideals.",
"Stevens argues that the character's seeming paradoxical steadfastness is reflective of \"the language of comics, where continuity is continually updated to fit the needs of the serialized present.",
"\"Despite his status as patriotic superhero, Captain America is rarely depicted as an overly jingoistic figure.",
"Stevens writes that the character's \"patriotism is more focused on the universal rights of man as expressed through the American Dream\" rather than \"a position championing the specific cultural or political goals of the United States.\"",
"Weiner similarly concurs that the character \"embodies what America strives to be, not what it sometimes is\".",
"Dittmer agrees that while the character sees himself \"as the living embodiment of the American Dream (rather than a tool of the state)\", his status as a patriotic superhero nevertheless tethers him to American foreign policy and hegemony.",
"He argues that Captain America tends to skew away from interventionist actions at moments where the United States is undertaking policies that its critics deem imperialist, specifically citing the character's non-participation in the Vietnam and Iraq wars, and argues that the character's inconsistent position on the use of deadly force across his editorial history \"is perhaps a tacit acknowledgment of the violence, or the threat of violence, at the heart of American hegemony.\""
],
[
"Powers, abilities, and equipment",
"Captain America possesses no superpowers, though the Super-Soldier Serum has enhanced his body's strength, speed, agility, endurance, reflexes, reaction time, and natural self-healing ability to the peak of human physical perfection.",
"He is additionally an expert tactician and field commander, and has achieved mastery in a variety of hand-to-hand combat styles, including boxing and judo.",
"The precise parameters of Captain America's physical prowess vary across stories due to editorial dictates and artistic license taken by authors; Steve Englehart was given an editorial order to give the character superhuman strength in the 1970s, but the change did not remain permanent and was soon forgotten.",
"Steve Rogers is also a skilled visual artist, having worked as a commercial illustrator prior to joining the military, and several storylines have depicted the character working as a freelance artist.The basic design of Captain America's costume has remained largely consistent from its original incarnation in the 1940s.",
"Designed by Joe Simon, the costume is based on the United States flag, with Simon likening the character's appearance to that of \"a modern-day crusader\": chain mail armor, and a helmet adorned with wings in reference to the Roman god Mercury.",
"Steve Rogers has worn other costumes when he has adopted alternate superhero alter egos: as Nomad he wears a domino mask and a black and gold suit that is cut to expose his bare chest and stomach, and as The Captain he wears a modified version of the Captain America suit with a red, white, and black design.Captain America's shield is the character's primary piece of equipment.",
"It is a round shield with a design featuring a white star on a blue circle surrounded by red and white rings.",
"First appearing in ''Captain America Comics'' #1 as a triangular heater shield, beginning in ''Captain America Comics'' #2 it was changed to its current circular design due to a complaint from MLJ Comics that the original design too closely resembled the chest symbol of their superhero The Shield.",
"The shield is depicted as constructed from an alloy of vibranium and adamantium, two highly resilient fictional metals appearing in Marvel comic books.",
"It is portrayed as both a virtually indestructible defensive object and a highly aerodynamic offensive weapon: when thrown, it is capable of ricocheting off multiple surfaces and returning to the original thrower."
],
[
"Supporting cast",
"===Sidekicks and partners===Captain America's first sidekick was Bucky Barnes, introduced in ''Captain America Comics'' #1 as the teenaged \"mascot\" of Steve Rogers' regiment.",
"He is made Captain America's partner in that same issue after accidentally discovering the character's secret identity.",
"Joe Simon described Bucky's creation as being largely motivated by a need to give Captain America \"someone to talk to\" and avoid the overuse of dialogue delivered through internal monologue, noting that \"Bucky was brought in as a way of eliminating too many thought balloons.\"",
"Bucky was retroactively established as having been killed in the same accident that left Captain America frozen in suspended animation; the character remained deceased for many decades, contrasting the typically ephemeral nature of comic book deaths, until he returned in 2005 as the Winter Soldier.",
"Initially introduced as a brainwashed assassin and antagonist to Captain America, Bucky's memories and personality were later restored, and he was re-established as an ally to Steve Rogers.",
"Rick Jones briefly assumed the role of Captain America's sidekick and the public identity of Bucky following Captain America's return to comics in the 1960s.In 1969, Sam Wilson was introduced as the superhero Falcon and later became Captain America's sidekick, making the characters the first interracial superhero duo in American comic books.",
"Possessing the power to communicate with birds, Wilson is initially depicted as a former social worker living in Harlem, though this identity is revealed to be the result of memories implanted by the Red Skull.",
"He later receives a winged suit from the superhero Black Panther that enables him to fly.",
"Other characters who have served as Rogers' sidekick include Golden Girl (Betsy Ross), Demolition Man (Dennis Dunphy), Jack Flag (Jack Harrison), and Free Spirit (Cathy Webster).===Enemies===Over the course of several decades, writers and artists have established a rogues' gallery of supervillains to face Captain America.",
"The character's primary archenemy is the Red Skull, introduced from the character's origins as an apprentice to Adolf Hitler.",
"Just as Red Skull represents Nazism, many of Captain America's villains represent specific ideologies or political formations: for example, the Serpent Society represents labor unionism, and Flag-Smasher represents anti-nationalism.",
"The political character of Captain America's enemies has shifted over time: the character fought enemies associated with communism during his brief revival in the 1950s before shifting back to Nazi antagonists in the mid-1960s, while comics since 9/11 have frequently depicted the character facing terrorist villains.===Romantic interests===Steve Rogers' first love interest was Betsy Ross, introduced in his World War II-era comics as a member of the Women's Army Corps who later became the costumed superhero Golden Girl.",
"Peggy Carter, an American member of the French Resistance, was retroactively established in comics published in the 1960s as another of Rogers' wartime lovers.",
"When Rogers is revived in the post-war era, he begins a partnership and on-again off-again relationship with S.H.I.E.L.D.",
"agent Sharon Carter; introduced as Peggy's younger sister, she was later retconned as Peggy's grandniece to reflect Marvel's floating timeline.",
"In comics published in the 1980s, Rogers dated and became engaged to civilian Bernie Rosenthal, though they ended their relationship amicably after Bernie left New York to attend law school.",
"In the 1990s, Rogers had a romantic entanglement with the alternately villainous and antiheroic Diamondback, a member of the Serpent Society.===Alternate versions of Captain America===The title of \"Captain America\" has been used by other characters in the Marvel Universe in addition to Steve Rogers, including William Naslund, Jeffrey Mace, and William Burnside.",
"John Walker, also known as U.S.",
"Agent, was introduced as a villainous Captain America in 1988, and Isaiah Bradley was established in the 2003 limited series ''Truth: Red, White & Black'' as an African American man who acquired superpowers after being used as a test subject for the Super-Soldier Serum.",
"Rogers' sidekicks Bucky Barnes and Sam Wilson have also alternately held the title of Captain America: Barnes in 2008 following Rogers' death in 2007, and Wilson following Marvel's 2012 rebranding campaign Marvel Now!.",
"Within the multiverse of parallel universes that compose the Marvel Universe, there are many variations of Steve Rogers and Captain America; this includes Marvel's Ultimate Comics universe, which possesses its own version of Steve Rogers that is more overtly politically conservative."
],
[
"Cultural impact and legacy",
"Captain America is one of the most popular and widely recognized Marvel Comics characters, and has been described as an icon of American popular culture.",
"He is the most well-known and enduring of the United States-themed superheroes to emerge from the Second World War and inspired a proliferation of patriotic-themed superheroes in American comic books during the 1940s.",
"This included the American Crusader, the Spirit of '76, Yank & Doodle, Captain Flag, and Captain Courageous, among numerous others.",
"Though none would achieve Captain America's commercial success, the volume of Captain America imitators was such that three months after the character's debut, Timely published a statement indicating that \"there is only one Captain America\" and warning that they would take legal action against publishers that infringed on the character.",
"After being dismissed from Timely, Joe Simon and Jack Kirby would themselves create a new patriotic superhero, the Fighting American, for Prize Comics in 1954; the character became the subject of a lawsuit from Marvel in the 1990s after Rob Liefeld attempted to revive the character following his own departure from Marvel.When the character was killed in 2007, he was eulogized in numerous mainstream media outlets, including ''The New York Times'' and ''The Los Angeles Times'', with the former describing him as a \"national hero\".",
"In 2011, Captain America placed sixth on IGN's \"Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time\", and second in their 2012 list of \"The Top 50 Avengers\".",
"''Gizmodo'' and ''Entertainment Weekly'' respectively ranked Captain America first and second in their 2015 rankings of Avengers characters.",
"''Empire'' ranked Captain America as the 21st greatest comic book character of all time."
],
[
"In other media",
"Chris Evans (pictured 2010) portrays Steve Rogers in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.Captain America has appeared in a variety of adapted, spin-off, and licensed media, including films, cartoons, video games, toys, clothing, and books.",
"The first appearance of Captain America in a medium outside of comic books was in the 1944 serial film ''Captain America'', which was also the first piece of non-comics media to feature a Marvel Comics character.",
"The character later appeared in two made-for-TV films in 1979, ''Captain America'' and ''Captain America II: Death Too Soon'', and a self-titled feature-length film in 1990.A trilogy of Captain America films starring Chris Evans as the title character were produced as part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) in the 2010s: ''Captain America: The First Avenger'' (2011), ''Captain America: The Winter Soldier'' (2014), and ''Captain America: Civil War'' (2016).",
"The character also appeared in the ensemble films ''The Avengers'' (2012), ''Avengers: Age of Ultron'' (2015), ''Avengers: Infinity War'' (2018), and ''Avengers: Endgame'' (2019).The first appearance of Captain America on television was in the 1966 Grantray-Lawrence Animation series ''The Marvel Super Heroes''.",
"The character would make minor appearances in several Marvel animated series in the subsequent decades, including ''Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends'' (1981–1983), ''X-Men: The Animated Series'' (1992–1997), and ''The Avengers: United They Stand'' (1999–2000).",
"Buoyed by increased popularity from the character's appearances in the MCU, Captain America began appearing in television series in more prominent roles beginning in the 2010s, such as ''The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes'' (2010–2012).",
"Captain America was the first Marvel character to be adapted into a novel with ''Captain America: The Great Gold Steal'' by Ted White, published in 1968."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Bibliography===********* * * ** * * * ** * **** *********************"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Captain America at the Marvel Database, a Marvel Comics wiki* * '' Captain America Library'', comprehensive fan website (defunct; link via Wayback Machine)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cyclops (disambiguation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''Cyclops''' is a one-eyed monster in Greek mythology.",
"'''Cyclops''' or '''The Cyclops''' may also refer to:"
],
[
"Arts and entertainment",
"===Literature===* ''Cyclops'' (play), by Euripides* ''Cyclops'' (novel), a Dirk Pitt novel by Clive Cussler* Cyclops (Marvel Comics), a Marvel Comics superhero* ''Cyclops'' (magazine), a British underground comics magazine of the 1970s* ''Cyclops'', a comic poem by Philoxenus of Cythera* Cyclops, an organization in David Brin's novel ''The Postman''===Film and television===* ''The Cyclops'' (film), a 1957 American science fiction film* ''Cyclops'' (1976 film), a Bulgarian film* ''Cyclops'' (1982 film), a Croatian film* ''Cyclops'' (1987 film), a Japanese science fiction horror film* ''Cyclops'' (2008 film), an American fantasy film* Cyclops, a character in the TV series ''Xiaolin Showdown''* Cyclops, a character in the TV series ''Mahou Sentai Magiranger''* ''Cyclops'', the bus in the film ''The Big Bus''===Games===* Cyclops (Dungeons & Dragons), a giant in the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons* ''Cyclops'', a BattleMech in the Battletech universe* Cyclops, a unit in the video game ''Halo Wars''===Music===* ''Cyclops'' (album), by Terminal Power Company* \"Cyclops\", a song from ''Portrait of an American Family'' by Marilyn Manson* \"Cyclops\", a song from ''The Libertines'' by The Libertines===Other===* ''The Cyclops'' (Redon), an 1898 painting by Odilon Redon* Cyclops (roller coaster), at Mt.",
"Olympus Theme Park, Wisconsin, U.S."
],
[
"Science and technology",
"* Cromemco Cyclops, first commercial all-digital camera using a digital MOS area image sensor* Cyclops (computer system), an automated line-calling system in tennis* ''Cyclops'' (copepod), a genus of copepods (crustaceans)* Cyclops laser, a high-power laser built in 1975* Cyclops (rock), a type of agate* Project Cyclops, a NASA proposal for an Earth-based radio telescope array* Cyclops 1, a submersible vessel built by OceanGate"
],
[
"In the military",
"* HMS ''Cyclops'', four ships of the Royal Navy* ''Cyclops''-class monitor, four Royal Navy monitors built in the 1870s* USS ''Cyclops'', two ships of the United States Navy* Huff-Daland XHB-1, an American 1920s prototype heavy bomber nicknamed \"Cyclops\"* Cyclops Airfield, an American World War II airfield in Papua - see Sentani International Airport"
],
[
"Transportation",
"* , a British cargo steamship* Cyclops, a West Cornwall Railway steam locomotive* Cyclops, a nickname for DM 556, an NZR DM class unit on the rail passenger network of Wellington, New Zealand* Cyclops, a nickname for the British Rail Class 67 Locomotive"
],
[
"Businesses",
"* Cyclops Steel, a former steel company based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States* Cyclops (company), a UK provider of consumer speed camera alert systems* Cyclops (toy company), an Australian manufacturer of toys"
],
[
"Places",
"* Cyclops Mountains, Papua province, Indonesia * Cyclops Peak, Enderby Land, Antarctica"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* SouthWest Cyclops, a Canadian professional indoor lacrosse team* Cyclops, a Ku Klux Klan position title* A CYCLOPS junction, a certain kind of protected intersection"
],
[
"See also",
"* Cyclops64, an IBM supercomputer architecture* Cyclopes (disambiguation)* Cyclopia, a birth defect* ''Cyclopsitta'', a genus of parrot* List of one-eyed creatures in mythology and fiction"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Christian countercult movement"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Christian countercult movement''' or the '''Christian anti-cult movement''' is a social movement among certain Protestant evangelical and fundamentalist and other Christian ministries (\"discernment ministries\") and individual activists who oppose religious sects that they consider cults."
],
[
"Overview",
"Christian countercult activism mainly stems from evangelicalism or fundamentalism.",
"The countercult movement asserts that particular Christian sects are erroneous because their beliefs are not in accordance with the teachings of the Bible.",
"It also states that a religious sect can be considered a cult if its beliefs involve a denial of any of the essential Christian teachings (such as salvation, the Trinity, Jesus himself as a person, the ministry and miracles of Jesus, his crucifixion, his resurrection, the Second Coming and the Rapture).Countercult ministries often concern themselves with religious sects that consider themselves Christian but hold beliefs that are thought to contradict the teachings of the Bible.",
"Such sects may include: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Unification Church, Christian Science, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the New Apostolic Reformation.",
"Some Protestants classify the Catholic Church as a cult.",
"Some also denounce non-Christian religions such as Islam, Wicca, Paganism, New Age groups, Buddhism, Hinduism and other religions like UFO religions.Countercult literature usually expresses specific doctrinal or theological concerns and it also has a missionary or apologetic purpose.",
"It presents a rebuttal by emphasizing the teachings of the Bible against the beliefs of non-fundamental Christian sects.",
"Christian countercult activist writers also emphasize the need for Christians to evangelize to followers of cults.",
"Some Christians also share concerns similar to those of the secular anti-cult movement.The movement publishes its views through a variety of media, including books, magazines, and newsletters, radio broadcasting, audio and video cassette production, direct-mail appeals, proactive evangelistic encounters, professional and avocational websites, as well as lecture series, training workshops and counter-cult conferences."
],
[
"History",
"===Precursors and pioneers===Christians have applied theological criteria to assess the teachings of non-orthodox movements throughout church history.",
"The Apostles themselves were involved in challenging the doctrines and claims of various teachers.",
"The Apostle Paul wrote an entire epistle, Galatians, antagonistic to the teachings of a Jewish sect that claimed adherence to the teachings of both Jesus and Moses (cf.",
"Acts 15 and Gal.",
"1:6–10).",
"The First Epistle of John is devoted to countering early proto-Gnostic cults that had arisen in the first century CE, all claiming to be Christian (1 John 2:19).The early Church in the post-apostolic period was much more involved in \"defending its frontiers against alternative soteriologies—either by defining its own position with greater and greater exactness, or by attacking other religions, and particularly the Hellenistic mysteries.\"",
"In fact, a good deal of the early Christian literature is devoted to the exposure and refutation of unorthodox theology, mystery religions and Gnostic groups.",
"Irenaeus, Tertullian and Hippolytus of Rome were some of the early Christian apologists who engaged in critical analyses of unorthodox theology, Greco-Roman pagan religions, and Gnostic groups.In the Protestant tradition, some of the earliest writings opposing unorthodox groups (such as the Swedenborgians) can be traced back to John Wesley, Alexander Campbell and Princeton Theological Seminary theologians like Charles Hodge and B.",
"B. Warfield.",
"The first known usage of the term ''cult'' by a Protestant apologist to denote a group is heretical or unorthodox is in ''Anti-Christian Cults'' by A. H. Barrington, published in 1898.Quite a few of the pioneering apologists were Baptist pastors, like I. M. Haldeman, or participants in the Plymouth Brethren, like William C. Irvine and Sydney Watson.",
"Watson wrote a series of didactic novels like ''Escaped from the Snare: Christian Science'', ''Bewitched by Spiritualism'', and ''The Gilded Lie (Millennial Dawnism)'', as warnings of the dangers posed by cultic groups.",
"Watson's use of fiction to counter the cults has been repeated by later novelists like Frank E. Peretti.The early twentieth-century apologists generally applied the words ''heresy'' and ''sects'' to groups like the Christadelphians, Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, Spiritualists, and Theosophists.",
"This was reflected in several chapters contributed to the multi-volume work released in 1915 ''The Fundamentals'', where apologists criticized the teachings of Charles Taze Russell, Mary Baker Eddy, the Mormons and Spiritualists.===Mid-twentieth-century apologists===Since the 1940s, the approach of traditional Christians was to apply the meaning of ''cult'' such that it included those religious groups who use other scriptures beside the Bible or have teachings and practices deviating from traditional Christian teachings and practices.",
"Some examples of sources (with published dates where known) that documented this approach are:* ''The Missionary Faces Isms'', by John C. Mattes, pub.",
"1937 (Board of American Missions of the United Lutheran Church in America).",
"* ''Heresies Ancient and Modern'', by J. Oswald Sanders, pub.",
"1948 (Marshall Morgan & Scott, London/Zondervan, Grand Rapids).",
"* * * ''Heresies Exposed'', by W. C. Irvine, pub.",
"1917, 1921, 1985 (Loizeaux Brothers).",
"* ''Confusion of Tongues'', by C. W. Ferguson, pub.",
"1928 (Doran & Co).",
"* ''Isms New and Old'', by Julius Bodensieck.",
"* ''Some Latter-Day Religions'', by G. H. Combs.",
"One of the first prominent countercult apologists was Jan Karel van Baalen (1890–1968), an ordained minister in the Christian Reformed Church in North America.",
"His book ''The Chaos of Cults'', which was first published in 1938, became a classic in the field as it was repeatedly revised and updated until 1962.===Walter Ralston Martin===Historically, one of the most important protagonists of the movement was Walter Martin (1928–1989), whose numerous books include the 1955 ''The Rise of the Cults: An Introductory Guide to the Non-Christian Cults'' and the 1965 ''The Kingdom of the Cults: An Analysis of Major Cult Systems in the Present Christian Era'', which continues to be influential.",
"He became well-known in conservative Christian circles through a radio program, \"The Bible Answer Man\", currently hosted by Hank Hanegraaff.In ''The Rise of the Cults'', Martin gave the following definition of a cult:By cultism we mean the adherence to doctrines which are pointedly contradictory to orthodox Christianity and which yet claim the distinction of either tracing their origin to orthodox sources or of being in essential harmony with those sources.",
"Cultism, in short, is any major deviation from orthodox Christianity relative to the cardinal doctrines of the Christian faith.As Martin's definition suggests, the countercult ministries concentrate on non-traditional groups that claim to be Christian, so chief targets have been, Jehovah's Witnesses, Armstrongism, Christian Science and the Unification Church, but also smaller groups like the Swedenborgian Church.Various other conservative Christian leaders—among them John Ankerberg and Norman Geisler—have emphasized themes similar to Martin's.",
"Perhaps more importantly, numerous other well-known conservative Christian leaders as well as many conservative pastors have accepted Martin's definition of a cult as well as his understanding of the groups to which he gave that label.",
"Dave Breese summed up this kind of definition in these words:A cult is a religious perversion.",
"It is a belief and practice in the world of religion which calls for devotion to a religious view or leader centered in false doctrine.",
"It is an organized heresy.",
"A cult may take many forms but it is basically a religious movement which distorts or warps orthodox faith to the point where truth becomes perverted into a lie.",
"A cult is impossible to define except against the absolute standard of the teaching of Holy Scripture.===Discernment blogging===Kenne \"Ken\" Silva is said by other discernment bloggers to have pioneered online discernment ministry.",
"Ken was a Baptist pastor who ran the discernment blog \"Apprising\".",
"Silva wrote many blog articles about the Emerging Church, the Word of Faith Movement, the Jehovah's Witnesses, the Gay Christian Movement, and many other groups.",
"He started his blog in 2005 and wrote there until his death in 2014.Silva's work paved the way for other internet discernment ministries such as ''Pirate Christian Radio'', a group of blogs and podcasts founded by Lutheran pastor Chris Rosebrough in 2008, and ''Pulpit & Pen'', a discernment blog founded by Baptist pastor and polemicist J. D. Hall."
],
[
"Other technical terminology",
"Since the 1980s, the term ''new religions'' or ''new religious movements'' has slowly entered into evangelical usage alongside the word ''cult''.",
"Some book titles use both terms.The acceptance of these alternatives to the word ''cult'' in evangelicalism reflects, in part, the wider usage of such language in the sociology of religion."
],
[
"Apologetics",
"The term ''countercult apologetics'' first appeared in Protestant evangelical literature as a self-designation in the late 1970s and early 1980s in articles by Ronald Enroth and David Fetcho, and by Walter Martin in ''Martin Speaks Out on the Cults''.",
"A mid-1980s debate about apologetic methodology between Ronald Enroth and J. Gordon Melton, led the latter to place more emphasis in his publications on differentiating the Christian countercult from the secular anti-cult.",
"Eric Pement urged Melton to adopt the label \"Christian countercult\", and since the early 1990s the terms has entered into popular usage and is recognized by sociologists such as Douglas Cowan.The only existing umbrella organization within the countercult movement in the United States is the EMNR (Evangelical Ministries to New Religions), founded in 1982 by Martin, Enroth, Gordon Lewis, and James Bjornstad."
],
[
"Worldwide organizations",
"While the greatest number of countercult ministries are found in the United States, ministries exist in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, England, Ethiopia, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Romania, Russia, Sweden, and Ukraine.",
"A comparison between the methods employed in the United States and other nations discloses some similarities in emphasis, but also other nuances in emphasis.",
"The similarities are that globally these ministries share a common concern about the evangelization of people in cults and new religions.",
"There is also often a common thread of comparing orthodox doctrines and biblical passages with the teachings of the groups under examination.",
"In some of the European and southern hemisphere contexts, however, confrontational methods of engagement are not always relied on, and dialogical approaches are sometimes advocated.A group of organizations that originated within the context of established religion is working in more general fields of \"cult awareness,\" especially in Europe.",
"Their leaders are theologians, and they are often social ministries affiliated to big churches.===Protestant===* Berlin-based (Parish Office for Sects and World Views) headed by Lutheran pastor Thomas Gandow*Swiss (Protestant Reformed Zwinglian Information Service on Churches, Sects and Religions) headed by Zwinglian parson Georg Schmid===Catholic===* (Sects and ideologies in Saxony)* (Worldviews and religious groups) of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Linz, Austria* GRIS (), Italy===Orthodox===*Synodic Committee about Heresies of Greek Orthodox Church*Center for Religious Studies in the name of Hieromartyr Ireneus of Lyon in Russia."
],
[
"Contextual missiology",
"The phenomena of cults has also entered into the discourses of Christian missions and theology of religions.",
"An initial step in this direction occurred in 1980 when the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization convened a mini-consultation in Thailand.",
"From that consultation a position paper was produced.",
"The issue was revisited at the Lausanne Forum in 2004 with another paper.",
"The latter paper adopts a different methodology to that advocated in 1980.In the 1990s, discussions in academic missions and theological journals indicate that another trajectory is emerging that reflects the influence of contextual missions theory.",
"Advocates of this approach maintain that apologetics as a tool needs to be retained, but do not favor a confrontational style of engagement."
],
[
"Variations and models",
"Countercult apologetics has several variations and methods employed in analyzing and responding to cults.",
"The different nuances in countercult apologetics have been discussed by John A. Saliba and Philip Johnson.The dominant method is the emphasis on detecting unorthodox or heretical doctrines and contrasting those with orthodox interpretations of the Bible and early creedal documents.",
"Some apologists, such as Francis J. Beckwith, have emphasized a philosophical approach, pointing out logical, epistemological and metaphysical problems within the teachings of a particular group.",
"Another approach involves former members of cultic groups recounting their spiritual autobiographies, which highlight experiences of disenchantment with the group, unanswered questions and doubts about commitment to the group, culminating in the person's conversion to evangelical Christianity.Apologists like Dave Hunt in ''Peace, Prosperity and the Coming Holocaust'' and Hal Lindsey in ''The Terminal Generation'' have tended to interpret the phenomena of cults as part of the burgeoning evidence of signs that Christ's Second Advent is close at hand.",
"Both Hunt and Constance Cumbey have applied a conspiracy model to interpreting the emergence of New Age spirituality and linking that to speculations about fulfilled prophecies heralding Christ's reappearance."
],
[
"Prominent advocates",
"===People===*Constance Cumbey*Ronald Enroth, sociologist and Christian author of books about cults and new religious movements.",
"*Norman Geisler*Douglas Groothuis*Dave Hunt*Greg Koukl*Bob Larson*Walter Martin, late Baptist minister who was the host of the Bible Answer Man radio broadcast and the president of the Christian Research Institute.",
"He often used his show to promote arguments against Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and other movements.",
"(The show is now hosted by Hank Hanegraaff.",
")*Josh McDowell, Christian author*J. P. Moreland, Biola University*Bob and Gretchen Passantino===Organizations===*Answers in Action, Bob and Gretchen Passantino*Apologetics Index*Apologetics Resource Center, by Craig Branch*Apologetics Press, executive director Dave Miller*''Apprising'', blog of Ken Silva*Banner Ministries UK, Tricia Tillin*Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry (CARM) founded by Matthew Slick*Christian Research Institute (CRI) founded by Walter Martin*Cult Awareness and Information Centre founded by the late Jan Groenveld*Dialog Center International founded by Johannes Aagaard*EMNR Evangelical Ministries to New Religions, an umbrella group for ministries to the cults and new religions*Midwest Christian Outreach*Mormonism Research Ministry (Bill McKeever)*Personal Freedom Outreach*''Pirate Christian Radio'', founded by Lutheran pastor Chris Rosebrough*''Pulpit & Pen'', discernment blog founded by Baptist pastor and polemicist J. D. Hall*Reachout Trust, leader Michael Thomas*Spiritual Counterfeits Project, president Mark J. Harris*Stand To Reason, founded by Greg Koukl and Melinda Penner*Utah Lighthouse Ministry (Jerald & Sandra Tanner)*Watchman Fellowship, founder David Henke, president James K. Walker"
],
[
"See also",
"* Anti-cult movement"
],
[
"References",
"===Primary sources===*Abanes, Richard, ''Cults, New Religious Movements, and Your Family'', Crossway Books, Wheaton, 1998.",
"*Ankerberg, John and John Weldon, ''Encyclopedia of Cults and New Religions'', Harvest House, Eugene, 1999.",
"*Enroth, Ronald (ed)., ''A Guide to New Religious Movements'', InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 2005.",
"*Geisler, Norman L. and Ron Rhodes, ''When Cultists Ask'', Baker, Grand Rapids, 1997*House, H.Wayne, ''Charts of Cults, Sects and Religious Movements'', Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 2000.",
"*LeBar, James J.",
"''Cults, Sects, and the New Age'', Our Sunday Visitor, Huntington, 1989.",
"*Martin, Walter R. ''The Kingdom of the Cults'', edited by Ravi Zacharias, Bethany, Bloomington, 2003*McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart, ''Handbook of Today's Religions'', Thomas Nelson, Nashville, 1992*Rhodes, Ron, ''The Challenge of the Cults and New Religions'', Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 2001*Sire, James W. ''Scripture Twisting: Twenty Ways the Cults Misread the Bible'', InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 1980.",
"*Sire, James W. ''The Universe Next Door'' 4th ed., InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 2004.",
"*Tucker, Ruth A.",
"''Another Gospel: Cults, Alternative Religions and the New Age Movement'', Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 2004.",
"*''Vatican Report on Sects, Cults and New Religious Movements'', St. Paul Publications, Sydney, 1988.===History and critical assessments===*Cowan, Douglas E. ''Bearing False Witness?",
"An Introduction to the Christian Countercult'' (Praeger Publishers, Westport, Connecticut & London, 2003).",
"*Enroth, Ronald M. and J. Gordon Melton, ''Why Cults Succeed Where The Church Fails'' (Brethren Press, Elgin, 1985).",
"*Jenkins, Philip, ''Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History'' (Oxford University Press, New York, 2000).",
"*Johnson, Philip, \"Apologetics, Mission, and New Religious Movements: A Holistic Approach,\" Tribes: Journal of Christian Missions to New Religious Movements'', 1 (1) (2002)*Melton, J.",
"Gordon., \"The counter-cult monitoring movement in historical perspective,\" in ''Challenging Religion: Essays in Honour of Eileen Barker'', edited by James A. Beckford & James T. Richardson, (Routledge, London, 2003), pp. 102–113.",
"*Saliba, John A., ''Understanding New Religious Movements'', 2nd edition (Alta Mira Press, Walnut Creek, Lanham, New York & Oxford, 2003)."
],
[
"External links",
"* Apologetics Index; The counter-cult movement* Douglas E. Cowan: Christian Countercult Website Profiles* CESNUR: Overview of Christian Countercult movement by Douglas E. Cowan* Counter Cult Movement at Religious Tolerance* Jeff Lindsay's discussion of cults from an LDS perspective* Article: Anti-\"Minority Religion\" Groups with \"Big Religion\" Ties"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Professor X"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Professor X''' ('''Prof.",
"Charles Francis Xavier''') is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.",
"Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-writer Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in ''The X-Men'' #1 (September 1963).",
"The character is depicted as the founder and occasional leader of the X-Men.Xavier is a member of a subspecies of humans known as mutants, who are born with superhuman abilities.",
"He is an exceptionally powerful telepath, who can read and control the minds of others.",
"To both shelter and train mutants from around the world, he runs a private school in the X-Mansion in Salem Center, located in Westchester County, New York.",
"Xavier also strives to serve a greater good by promoting peaceful coexistence and equality between humans and mutants in a world where zealous anti-mutant bigotry is widespread, though he later abandons his dream in favor of establishing a mutant nation on Krakoa.Throughout much of the character's history, Xavier has been depicted with paraplegia and uses a wheelchair.",
"One of the world's most powerful mutant telepaths, Xavier is a scientific genius and a leading authority in genetics.",
"He has devised Cerebro and other equipment to enhance psionic powers and detect and track people with the mutant gene.Xavier's pacifist and assimilationist ideology and actions have often been contrasted with that of Magneto, a mutant leader (initially characterized as a supervillain and later as a complex antihero) with whom Xavier has a complicated relationship.",
"Writer Chris Claremont, who originated Magneto's backstory, modeled the politics of Xavier on David Ben Gurion, and that of Magneto on Menachem Begin.Patrick Stewart portrayed the character in the first three films in the 20th Century Fox ''X-Men'' film series and in various video games, while James McAvoy portrayed a younger version of the character in the 2011 prequel ''X-Men: First Class''.",
"Both actors reprised the role in the film ''X-Men: Days of Future Past''.",
"Stewart would reprise the role in the film ''Logan'' (2017), while McAvoy would further appear as his younger iteration of the character in ''X-Men: Apocalypse'' (2016), ''Deadpool 2'' (2018) and ''Dark Phoenix'' (2019).",
"Harry Lloyd portrayed the character in the third season of the television series ''Legion''.",
"Stewart again returned to the role, portraying an alternate version of the character in the 2022 Marvel Cinematic Universe film ''Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness''."
],
[
"Publication history",
"Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-writer Jack Kirby, Professor X first appeared in ''X-Men'' #1 (September 1963).===Creation and influences===Stan Lee has stated that the physical inspiration of Professor Xavier was from Academy Award-winning actor Yul Brynner.Writer Scott Lobdell established Xavier's middle name to be \"Francis\" in ''Uncanny X-Men'' #309 (February 1994).===Character===Xavier's goals are to promote the peaceful affirmation of mutant rights, to mediate the co-existence of mutants and humans, to protect mutants from violent humans, and to protect society from antagonistic mutants, including his old friend, Magneto.",
"To achieve these aims, he founded Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters (later named the Xavier Institute) to teach mutants to explore and control their powers.",
"Its first group of students was the original X-Men (Cyclops, Iceman, Marvel Girl, Angel, and Beast).",
"Xavier's students consider him a visionary and often refer to their mission as \"Xavier's dream\".",
"He is highly regarded by others in the Marvel Universe, respected by various governments, and trusted by several other superhero teams, including the Avengers and the Fantastic Four.",
"However, he also has a manipulative streak which has resulted in several significant fallings-out with allies and students.He often acts as a public advocate for mutant rights and is the authority most of the Marvel superhero community turns to for advice on mutants.",
"Despite this, his status as a mutant himself and originator of the X-Men only became public during the 2001 story \"E Is for Extinction\".",
"He also appears in almost all of the X-Men animated series and in many video games, although usually as a non-playable character.",
"Patrick Stewart plays him in the 2000s ''X-Men'' film series, as well as providing his voice in some of the X-Men video games (including some not connected to the film series).According to ''BusinessWeek'', Charles Xavier is listed as one of the top ten most intelligent fictional characters in American comics.In a number of comics, Xavier is shown to have a dark side, a part of himself that he struggles to suppress.",
"Perhaps the most notable appearance of this character element is in the Onslaught storyline, in which the crossover event's antagonist is a physical manifestation of that dark side.",
"Also, Onslaught is created in the most violent act Xavier claims to have done: erasing the mind of Magneto.",
"In ''X-Men'' #106 (August 1977), the new X-Men fight images of the original team, which have been created by what Xavier says is his \"evil self ... who would use his powers for personal gain and conquest\", which he says he is normally able to keep in check.",
"In the 1984 four-part series titled ''The X-Men and the Micronauts'', Xavier's dark desires manifest themselves as the Entity and threaten to destroy the Micronauts' universe.In other instances, Xavier is shown to be secretive and manipulative.",
"During the Onslaught storyline, the X-Men find Xavier's files, the \"Xavier Protocols\", which detail how to kill many of the characters, including Xavier himself, should the need ever arise, such as if they went rogue.",
"''Astonishing X-Men'' vol.",
"3, #12 (August 2005) reveals that when Xavier realizes that the Danger Room has become sentient, he keeps it trapped and experiments on it for years, an act that Cyclops calls \"the oppression of a new life\" and equates to humanity's treatment of mutants (however, ''X-Men Legacy'' #220 - 224 reveals that Xavier did not intend for the Danger Room to become sentient: it was an accident, and Xavier sought a way to free Danger, but was unable to find a way to accomplish this without deleting her sentience as well)."
],
[
"Fictional character biography",
"Charles Francis Xavier was born in New York City to the wealthy Dr. Brian Xavier, a well-respected nuclear scientist, and Sharon Xavier.",
"The family lives in a very grand mansion estate in Westchester County because of the riches his father's nuclear research has brought them.",
"He later grows up to attend Pembroke College at the University of Oxford, where he earns a Professorship in Genetics and other science fields, and goes on to live first in Oxford and then London for a number of years.",
"Crucially, as he enters late adolescence, Xavier inherits the mansion-house he was raised in, enabling him not only to continue to live in it, but also to turn it in to '''Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters''', which he begins together with the first of the X-Men.Brian, his father, dies in an accident when Xavier is still very young, and Brian's science partner Kurt Marko comforts and then marries the grieving Sharon.",
"When Xavier's telepathic mutant powers emerge, he discovers Marko cares only about his mother's money.A young Charles Xavier.",
"Story by Stan Lee.",
"Art by Jack Kirby, Alex Toth, and Vincent Colletta.After the wedding, Kurt moves in with the Xaviers, bringing with him his son Cain.",
"Kurt quickly grows neglectful of Sharon, driving her to alcoholism, and abuses both Charles and Cain.",
"Cain takes out his frustrations and insecurities on his stepbrother.",
"Charles uses his telepathic powers to read Cain's mind and explore the extent of his psychological damage, which only leads to Cain becoming more aggressive toward him and the young Xavier feeling Cain's pain firsthand.Sharon dies soon after, and a fight erupts between Cain and Charles that causes some of Kurt's lab equipment to explode.",
"Mortally wounded, Kurt drags the two children out before dying, and admits he was partly responsible for Brian's death.With help from his superhuman powers and natural genius, Xavier becomes an excellent student and athlete, though he gives up the latter, believing his powers give him an unfair advantage.",
"Due to his powers, by the time he graduates from high school, Charles loses all of his hair.",
"He enters Bard College at age 16 and graduates with his bachelor's degree in biology in only two years.",
"In graduate studies, he receives Ph.D.s in Genetics, Biophysics, Psychology, and Anthropology with a two-year residence at Pembroke College, University of Oxford.",
"He also receives an M.D.",
"in Psychiatry while spending several years in London.",
"He is later appointed adjunct professor at Columbia University.",
"''Origins of Marvel Comics: X-Men'' #1 (2010) presents a different version of events, suggesting a scholarship to the University of Oxford rescued him from his abusive home, after which he \"never looked back\", suggesting he began his academic career as a very young man at Oxford.",
"His stepbrother is resentful of him.At graduate school, he meets a Scottish girl named Moira Kinross, a fellow genetics student with whom he falls in love.",
"The two agree to get married, but soon, Xavier is drafted into the Korean War.",
"He carves himself a niche as a soldier in search and rescue missions alongside Shadowcat's father, Carmen Pryde, and witnesses Cain's transformation into Juggernaut when he touches a ruby with an inscription on it in an underground temple.",
"During the war, he receives a letter from Moira telling him that she is breaking up with him.",
"He later discovers that Moira married her old boyfriend Joseph MacTaggert, who abuses her.Deeply depressed when Moira broke off their engagement without explanation, Xavier began traveling around the world as an adventurer after leaving the army.",
"In Cairo, he meets a young girl named Ororo Munroe (later known as Storm), who is a pickpocket, and the Shadow King, a powerful mutant who is posing as Egyptian crime lord Amahl Farouk.",
"Xavier defeats the Shadow King, barely escaping with his life.",
"This encounter leads to Xavier's decision to devote his life to protecting humanity from evil mutants and safeguarding innocent mutants from human oppression.Xavier visits his friend Daniel Shomron, who runs a clinic for traumatized Holocaust victims in Haifa, Israel.",
"There, he meets a man going by the name of Magnus (who would later become Magneto), a Holocaust survivor who works as a volunteer in the clinic, and Gabrielle Haller, a woman driven into a catatonic coma by the trauma she experienced.",
"Xavier uses his mental powers to break her out of her catatonia and the two fall in love.",
"Xavier and Magneto become good friends, although neither immediately reveals to the other that he is a mutant.",
"The two hold lengthy debates hypothesizing what will happen if humanity is faced with a new super-powered race of humans.",
"While Xavier is optimistic, Magneto's experiences in the Holocaust lead him to believe that humanity will ultimately oppress the new race of humans as they have done with other minorities.",
"The two friends reveal their powers to each other when they fight Nazi Baron Wolfgang von Strucker and his Hydra agents, who kidnap Gabrielle because she knows the location of their secret cache of gold.",
"Magneto attempts to kill Strucker but Xavier stops him.",
"Realizing that his and Xavier's views on mutant-human relations are incompatible, Magneto leaves with the gold.",
"Charles stays in Israel for some time, but he and Gabrielle separate on good terms, neither knowing that she is pregnant with his son, who grows up to become the mutant Legion.In a strange town near the Himalayas, Xavier encounters an alien calling himself Lucifer, the advance scout for an invasion by his race, and foils his plans.",
"In retaliation, Lucifer drops a huge stone block on Xavier, crippling his legs.",
"After Lucifer leaves, a young woman named Sage hears Xavier's telepathic cries for help and rescues him, bringing him to safety, beginning a long alliance between the two.In a hospital in India, he is brought to an American nurse, Amelia Voght, who looks after him and, as she sees to his recovery, they fall in love.",
"When he is released from the hospital, the two moved into an apartment in Bombay together.",
"Amelia is troubled to find Charles studying mutation, as she is a mutant and unsettled by it, though she calms when he reveals himself to be a mutant as well.",
"They eventually move to the United States, living on Xavier's family estate.",
"But the night Scott Summers moves into Xavier's mansion, Amelia leaves him, believing Charles would have changed his view and that mutants should lie low.",
"Yet he is recruiting them to what she believes is a lost cause.",
"Charles tries to force her to stay with his mental powers, but immediately ashamed by this, lets her go.",
"She later becomes a disciple of Magneto.Over the years, Charles makes a name for himself as geneticist and psychologist, apparently renowned enough that the Greys were referred to him when no other expert could help their catatonic daughter, Jean.",
"Xavier trains her in the use of her telekinesis, while inhibiting her telepathic abilities until she matures.",
"Around this time, he also starts working with fellow mutation expert, Karl Lykos, as well as Moira MacTaggert again, who built a mutant research station on Muir Island.",
"Apparently, Charles had gotten over Moira in his travels to the Greek island of Kirinos.",
"Xavier discusses his candidates for recruitment to his personal strike force, the X-Men, with Moira, including those he passes over, which are Kurt Wagner, Piotr Rasputin, Pietro and Wanda Maximoff, and Ororo Munroe.",
"Xavier also trains Tessa to spy on Sebastian Shaw.Xavier founded Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters, which provides a safe haven for mutants and teaches them to master their abilities.",
"In addition, he seeks to foster mutant-human relations by providing his superhero team, the X-Men, as an example of mutants acting in good faith, as he told FBI agent Fred Duncan.",
"With his inherited fortune, he uses his ancestral mansion at 1407 Graymalkin Lane in Salem Center, Westchester County, New York as a base of operations with technologically advanced facilities, including the Danger Room - later, Fantomex mentions that Xavier is a billionaire with a net worth of $3.5 billion.",
"Presenting the image of a stern teacher, Xavier makes his students endure a rigorous training regime.Xavier's first five students are Cyclops, Iceman, Angel, Beast, and Marvel Girl who become the original X-Men.",
"After he completes recruiting the original team of X-Men, he sends them into battle with Magneto.Throughout most of his time with the team, Xavier uses his telepathic powers to keep in constant contact with his students and provides instructions and advice when needed.",
"In addition, he uses a special machine called Cerebro, which enhances his ability to detect mutants and to allow the team to find new students in need of the school.Among the obstacles Xavier faces is his old friend, Magneto, who has grown into an advocate of mutant superiority since their last encounter and who believes the only solution to mutant persecution is domination over humanity.When anthropologist Bolivar Trask resurfaces the \"mutant problem\", Xavier counters him in a televised debate, however, he appears arrogant and Trask sends his mutant-hunting robot Sentinels to terrorize mutants.",
"The X-Men dispatch them, but Trask sees the error in his ways too late as he is killed by his creations.At one point, Xavier seemingly dies during the X-Men's battle with the sub-human Grotesk, but it is later revealed that Xavier arranged for a reformed former villain named Changeling to impersonate him while he went into hiding to plan a defense against an invasion by the extraterrestrial Z'Nox, imparting a portion of his telepathic abilities to the Changeling to complete the disguise.When the X-Men are captured by the sentient island Krakoa, Xavier assembles a new team to rescue them, including Cyclops' and Havok's long-lost brother, Vulcan, along with Darwin, Petra, and Sway.",
"This new team, composed of students of Dr. Moira MacTaggert, was sent to rescue the original X-Men from Krakoa.",
"However, after rescuing Cyclops, McTaggert's former students were seemingly killed.",
"Upon Cyclops' return, Xavier removed Cyclops' memories of the death of Vulcan and his teammates; and began assembling yet another team of X-Men.Xavier's subsequent rescue team consists of Banshee, Colossus, Sunfire, Nightcrawler, Storm, Wolverine, and Thunderbird.",
"After the mission, the older team of X-Men, except for Cyclops, leave the school, believing they no longer belong there, and Xavier mentors the new X-Men.Xavier forms a psychic bond across galaxies with Princess Lilandra from the Shi'ar Empire.",
"When they finally meet, it is love at first sight.",
"She implores the professor to stop her mad brother, Shi'ar Emperor D'Ken, and he instantly aids her by deploying his X-Men.",
"When Jean Grey returns from the Savage Land to tell him that all the X-Men are dead, he shuts down the school and travels with Lilandra to her kingdom, where she is crowned Empress and he is treated like a child or a trophy husband.Xavier senses the changes taking place in Jean Grey, and returns to Earth to help and resume leadership of the X-Men.",
"Shortly thereafter he battles his pupil after she becomes Dark Phoenix and destroys a populated planet in the Shi'ar Empire.",
"It hurts Xavier to be on the opposite side of Lilandra, but he has no other choice but to challenge the Shi'ar Imperial Guard to a duel over the fate of the Phoenix.",
"Xavier would have lost against the greater power of the Dark Phoenix, but thanks to the help Jean Grey gives him (fighting her Phoenix persona), Xavier emerges victorious; she later commits suicide to prevent herself from endangering more innocent lives.When the X-Men fight members of the extraterrestrial race known as the Brood, Xavier is captured by them, and implanted with a Brood egg, which places Xavier under the Brood's control.",
"During this time, Xavier assembles a team of younger mutants called the New Mutants, secretly intended to be prime hosts for reproduction of the aliens.",
"The X-Men discover this and return to free Xavier, but they are too late to prevent his body from being destroyed with a Brood Queen in its place; however, his soul remains intact.",
"The X-Men and Starjammers subdue this monstrous creature containing Xavier's essence, but the only way to restore him is to clone a new body using tissue samples he donated to the Starjammers and transfer his consciousness into the clone body.",
"This new body possesses functional legs, though the psychosomatic pain Xavier experienced after living so long as a paraplegic takes some time to subside.",
"Subsequently, he even joins the X-Men in the field, but later decides not to continue this practice after realizing that his place is at the school, as the teacher of the New Mutants.After taking a teaching position at Columbia University in ''Uncanny X-Men'' #192, Xavier is severely injured and left for dead as the victim of a hate crime.",
"Callisto and her Morlocks, a group of underground-dwelling mutants, get him to safety.",
"One of the Morlocks partially restores Xavier's health, but Callisto warns Xavier that he is not fully healed and that he must spend more time recuperating and restrain himself from exerting his full strength or powers, or his health might fail again.",
"Xavier hides his injuries from the others and resumes his life.Charles meets with former lover Gabrielle Haller on Muir Isle and discovers that they had a child.",
"The boy, David, has autism and dissociative identity disorder.",
"Furthermore, he has vast psionic powers like his father.",
"After helping him and his team to escape from David's mind, Xavier promises he will always be there for him.A reformed Magneto is arrested and put on trial.",
"Xavier attends the trial to defend his friend.",
"Andrea and Andreas Strucker, the children of presumed dead Baron von Strucker, crash the courtroom to attack Magneto and Xavier.",
"Xavier is seriously injured.",
"Dying, he asks a shocked Magneto to look after the X-Men for him.",
"Lilandra, who has a psychic bond with Xavier, feels that he is in great danger and heads to Earth.",
"There, she and Corsair take Xavier with them so Shi'ar advanced technology can heal him.Xavier leaves Magneto in charge of the school, but some of the X-Men are unwilling to forgive their former enemy.",
"Cyclops loses a duel for the leadership of the X-Men against Storm, then leaves them and joins the other four original X-Men to form a new team called X-Factor.In the meantime, Charles becomes stranded in space with the Starjammers, but he is reunited with his lover Lilandra and relishes his carefree lifestyle.",
"He serves as a member of the Starjammers aboard the starship ''Starjammer'', mobile in the Shi'ar Galaxy.",
"He becomes consort to the Princess-Majestrix Lilandra while in exile, and when she later resumes her throne he takes up residence with her in the Imperial palace on the Shi'ar homeworld.",
"Xavier joins Lilandra in her cause to overthrow her sister Deathbird, taking on the powers of Phoenix temporarily wherein he is named Bald Phoenix by Corsair, but sees that he must return to help the X-Men.Xavier eventually becomes imprisoned by the Skrulls during their attempted invasion of the Shi'ar Empire.",
"Xavier breaks free from imprisonment by Warskrull Prime, and is reunited with the X-Men.",
"A healthy Xavier returns from the Shi'ar Empire and is reunited with both the current and original X-Men teams, and resumes his leadership responsibilities of the united teams.",
"In a battle with his old foe, the Shadow King, in the \"Muir Island Saga\", Xavier's spine is shattered, returning him to his former paraplegic state, while his son David is seemingly killed.",
"In the following months, Xavier rebuilds the mansion, which previously was rebuilt with Shi'ar technology, and restructures the X-Men into two teams.While holding a mutant rights speech, Xavier is nearly assassinated by Stryfe in the guise of Cable, being infected with a fatal techno-organic virus.",
"For reasons of his own, the villain Apocalypse saves him.",
"As a temporary side-effect, he gains full use of his legs and devotes his precious time to the youngest recruit on his team, Jubilee.With all his students now highly trained adults, Professor Xavier renames his school the Xavier Institute For Higher Learning.",
"Also, he assumes control of a private institution, the Massachusetts Academy, making it a new School for Gifted Youngsters.",
"Another group of young mutants is trained here, Generation X, with Banshee and Emma Frost as headmaster and headmistress, respectively.Professor X is for a time the unknowing host of the evil psionic entity Onslaught, the result of a previous battle with Magneto.",
"In that battle, Magneto uses his powers to rip out the adamantium bonded to Wolverine's skeleton, and a furious Xavier wipes Magneto's mind, leaving him in a coma.",
"From the psychic trauma of Xavier using his powers so violently and the mixing of Magneto's and Xavier's repressed anger, Onslaught is born.",
"Onslaught wreaks havoc, destroying much of Manhattan, until many of Marvel's superheroes—including the Avengers, the Fantastic Four and the Hulk—destroy him.",
"Xavier is left without his telepathy and, overcome with guilt, leaves the X-Men and is incarcerated for his actions.",
"He later returns to the X-Men after ''Operation: Zero Tolerance'', in which he is shocked by the cruel act of being turned over to the mutant-hating Bastion, following a clash with the sentient Cerebro and a team of impostor X-Men.Xavier questions his dream again and Magneto shortly thereafter is confronted by the X-Men.",
"After the battle, the UN concedes Genosha to Magnus, and Wolverine is angered by Xavier stopping him from getting his revenge on Magneto.",
"Charles and Logan are later trapped in a dimension with different laws of physics, wherein they have to coordinate their moves together and, in the process, gain a better understanding of the other's views.Apocalypse kidnaps the fabled \"Twelve\" special mutants (Xavier included) whose combined energies would grant him omnipotence.",
"After Apocalypse's defeat with the help of Skrull mutants, Xavier goes with the young Skrulls known as Cadre K to train them and free them from their oppressors, and eventually returns to aid in Legacy Virus research.Mystique and her Brotherhood start a deadly assault on Muir Isle by releasing an altered form of the Legacy Virus, all in retaliation against the election campaign of Robert Kelly, a seeming mutant-hater.",
"Mystique blows up Moira MacTaggert's laboratory complex, fatally wounding her.",
"Charles goes to the astral plane to meet with her and retrieve information on the cure to the Legacy Virus, but after gathering the information does not want to leave her alone.",
"If not for Jean and Cable talking him down and pulling him back, the professor would have died with his first love, who states she has no regrets.As Beast cures the Legacy Virus, many infected Genoshan mutants recover overnight, providing Magneto, the current ruler of Genosha, with an army to start the third World War.",
"He demands Earth's governments accept him as their leader, and abducts and crucifies Xavier in Magda Square for all to see.",
"A loyal member of Magneto's Acolytes, Amelia Voght, cannot stand to see her former lover punished in such a manner and sets him free.",
"Jean Grey and rather untrained newcomers, as most of the team are elsewhere, distract Magneto and Wolverine guts him.",
"Xavier is too late to intervene.Xavier's evil twin Cassandra Nova, whom Xavier attempted to kill while they were both in their mother's womb, orders a group of rogue Sentinels to destroy the independent mutant nation of Genosha.",
"Magneto, who is Genosha's leader, appears to die along with the vast majority of the nation's inhabitants.",
"Nova then takes over Xavier's body.",
"Posing as Xavier, she reveals his mutation to the world, something he needed to do but did not want to sully his reputation over, before going into space and crippling the Shi'ar Empire.",
"The X-Men restore Xavier, but Lilandra, believing that too much disaster has come from the Shi'ar's involvement with the X-Men, annuls her marriage to Xavier.",
"Lilandra previously had gone insane and tried to assassinate Charles on a trip to Mumbai.",
"During this period, a mutant named Xorn joins the X-Men.",
"Xorn uses his healing power to restore Xavier's use of his legs.When the X-Men receive a distress call from a Scottish island, they are surprised to find Juggernaut with nowhere to go, as the island was destroyed by his further-mutated partner in crime, Black Tom Cassidy, who died.",
"Xavier reaches out to his stepbrother and offers him a place in his mansion, with Cain reluctantly accepting.",
"The Juggernaut redeems himself over the next few weeks and joins the X-Men.",
"Xavier finds out that Cain's father preferred him to his own flesh and blood and that they both thought they deserved the abuse they incurred by Kurt; Cain believed this because his father loved someone else's child more than him, and Charles felt guilty about getting in the way.",
"That it is why neither of them stopped Kurt Marko with their powers.Now outed as a mutant, Xavier makes speeches to the public about mutant tolerance.",
"He also founds the X-Corporation, or X-Corp (not to be confused with the X-Corps), with offices all over the world.",
"The purpose of the X-Corp is to watch over mutant rights and help mutants in need.",
"As a result of being out, the school no longer hides the fact that it is a school for mutants and it opens its doors for more mutant (and even human) students to come in.",
"A student named Quentin Quire and members of his gang start a riot at the Xavier Institute during an open house at the school.",
"As a result, Quire and two other students are killed.",
"Uncertain about his dream's validity, Xavier announces that he will step down as headmaster and be succeeded by Jean Grey.",
"Afterwards, Xorn reveals himself to be Magneto, having apparently not died in the Sentinel raid on Genosha.",
"Magneto undoes the restoration of Xavier's ability to walk, kidnaps him, and destroys the X-Mansion (killing several of the students).",
"Then Xorn/Magneto assaults New York, where Cyclops, Fantomex and a few students confront him.",
"After the rest of the X-Men arrive, Xorn/Magneto kills Jean Grey with an electromagnetically induced stroke, and Wolverine decapitates him.",
"With Jean dead, Xavier leaves the school to Cyclops and Emma Frost, to bury Xorn/Magneto in Genosha.",
"In a retcon of Grant Morrison's storyline, there Xavier meets the \"real\" Magneto, who mysteriously survived Cassandra Nova's assault.",
"The two resolve their differences and attempt to restore their friendship, leading a team of mutants, the Genoshan Excalibur, to rebuild and restore order to the destroyed island nation.At the mansion, the Danger Room (the X-Men's simulated reality training chamber) gains sentience, christens itself \"Danger\", assumes a humanoid form, and attacks the X-Men before leaving to kill Xavier.",
"With Magneto's help, Xavier holds off Danger until the X-Men arrive.",
"Danger flees, but not before revealing to Colossus that Xavier has known it to be sentient ever since he upgraded it.",
"Colossus is especially offended by this because he had been held captive and experimented upon by Danger's ally, Ord of the Breakworld.",
"Ashamed, Xavier tries to explain to them that by the time he realized what was happening, he could see no other course.",
"The disgusted X-Men leave.===House of M===In a prelude to ''House of M'', Magneto's daughter Scarlet Witch has a mental breakdown and causes the death of several Avengers.",
"Magneto brings her to Xavier and asks him to use his mental powers to help her.",
"Although aided by Doctor Strange and the appearance of Cassandra Nova, Xavier is unsuccessful.",
"Xavier orders a meeting of the X-Men and Avengers to decide Wanda's fate.",
"Her brother Quicksilver, believing the heroes plan to kill her, speeds off to Genosha and convinces Wanda that she could right the wrongs she inflicted by using her powers to alter reality.Quicksilver somehow forces a tearful Wanda to reveal to him her heart's desires of Magneto, the assembled New Avengers, and the X-Men, and then uses her powers to make them all real.",
"Thanks to Magneto, though, this re-imagined world is a place where a much more numerous mutant-kind are the dominant species, humans a disenfranchised and oppressed 'silent majority', and Magneto himself rules supreme.",
"In this reality, the only proof that Charles Xavier ever existed is a secret monument in Magneto's palace garden, with the engraved message \"He died so Genosha could live\".After mutant Layla Miller restores the memories of some of the X-Men and Avengers, they head to Genosha where they discover that Magneto has erected a memorial garden for Xavier commemorating his death.",
"Emma is horrified until Cloak fades into the grave and discovers there is no body inside.",
"After a battle, Scarlet Witch again uses her powers to restore reality and, as a slight against her father, causes a large majority mutants to lose their powers, leaving the mutant race on the brink of extinction and causing the lost powers to become an energy mass, the Collective.",
"With reality restored, Xavier is still missing and the X-Men are unable to detect him with Cerebro.===Deadly Genesis===Xavier returns when Cyclops' and Havok's long-lost brother, Vulcan, is revived by the Collective energy released as a result of the \"House of M\" incident.",
"Vulcan then attacks the X-Men.",
"Xavier, now depowered but able to walk in the wake of \"House of M\", reveals that he had gathered and trained another team of X-Men (this one composed of students of Dr. Moira MacTaggert) sometime between the original team and the new X-Men team introduced in ''Giant Size X-Men'' #1.This team included Vulcan as a member.",
"Like the \"Giant Size\" X-Men team, McTaggert's former students were sent to rescue the original X-Men from Krakoa, the living island.",
"However, after rescuing Cyclops, McTaggert's former students were seemingly killed.",
"Upon Cyclops' return, Xavier removed Cyclops' memories of the death of Vulcan and his teammates and began assembling the \"Giant Size\" X-Men.",
"Vulcan skirmishes with the X-Men and eventually flees into space.In spite of Cyclops' feelings, Xavier forms a new team including Havok and Darwin, the lone other survivors of Moira's students.",
"Xavier seeks to confront Vulcan before he can enact his vengeance against the Shi'ar empire, which killed Vulcan's mother.",
"While en route to the Shi'ar homeworld, Xavier is abducted and is later thrown into the M'Kraan Crystal by Vulcan.",
"Darwin follows Xavier into the crystal and pulls Xavier out.",
"This somehow restores Xavier's lost telepathy.",
"With help from his longtime lover, Lilandra, Xavier escapes back to Earth with several of his X-Men.Upon Xavier's return to Earth, as seen in the ''World War Hulk'' storyline, he begins to search for lost mutants such as Magneto.",
"Charles' search for more mutants is interrupted by the Hulk, who was sent into extraterrestrial exile by the Illuminati, a group of powerful superbeings to which Xavier belongs.",
"Xavier had no part in (and did not know of) the Hulk exile decision, but Xavier admits to Hulk that he would have concurred to a temporary exile so Bruce Banner could be cured of transforming into the Hulk.",
"However, he also tells the Hulk he would not have agreed to permanent exile.",
"Xavier attempts to surrender to the Hulk, but after viewing the X-Mansion's large graveyard dedicated to post-M-Day mutant deaths, The Hulk concludes the mutants have suffered enough and leaves the Mansion grounds on his own accord.",
"While the X-Men tend to the wounded, Cyclops finally forgives Professor X.===Messiah Complex===While using Cerebra and talking to Beast during the ''Messiah Complex'' storyline, Charles detects a new mutant so powerful it fries Cerebra's system.",
"He asks Cyclops to send out a team to find out about the mutant.",
"Once the team has come back empty handed, he argues with Scott for not telling him about the team he deployed to find former Acolytes.",
"Scott tells him outright that he does not need him to run the X-Men anymore.",
"This upsets Charles and annoys him later on when he overhears Cyclops briefing X-Factor on the situation.",
"He also approaches the New X-Men in an attempt to help them figure out a non-violent way to help against the Purifiers, but is quickly rebuked by Surge, who questions where he was when they were getting attacked the first time, and that they did not need to learn from him.",
"Charles questions Cyclops' decision to send X-Force to hunt down his own son, Cable, in front of the students.",
"Cyclops then tells Xavier that he is a distraction that will keep getting in the way and that he must leave the mansion.",
"Xavier is contacted by Cable, who lost the mutant newborn to the traitorous actions of Bishop, who in turn lost the child to the Marauders, and tells him that he is the only one who can help Cable save the future.",
"In the final fight, Xavier is accidentally shot in the head by Bishop.",
"Immediately afterward Xavier's body disappears and Cyclops declares that there are no more X-Men.Professor Xavier survives Bishop's gunshot but falls into a coma.",
"Xavier is kidnapped by Exodus, Tempo, and Karima Shapandar.",
"Exodus tries to heal Xavier, Xavier mentally fights Exodus.",
"Exodus finally approaches Magneto, who is apparently still depowered, for help.",
"Magneto and Karima Shapandar are able to stir Xavier's memories and coax him out of his coma, though Xavier remains slightly confused and partly amnesiac.",
"Later, Exodus confronts Magneto about Joanna Cargill's injury (Magneto was forced to shoot a laser through her eyeball to prevent her attempted an assassination of Xavier).",
"Exodus nearly kills Magneto, and Xavier drags Exodus onto the Astral Plane, putting Xavier's own newly restored mind at stake.",
"Xavier defeats Exodus after a harrowing psionic battle, and Exodus reveals the reason he abducted Xavier and to restore his mind: Exodus wants Xavier to lead the Acolytes and find the mutant messiah child (now under the guardianship of Cable) to indoctrinate the child into their cause.",
"Xavier refuses.",
"Emma Frost's telepathy picks up on the psychic fight, and Emma informs Cyclops that Xavier is alive.",
"Xavier parts company with Magneto and Karima to try to regain his lost memories by visiting people from his past.The first person Charles visits is Carter Ryking, who had gone insane after losing his powers.",
"Charles reads Carter's memories and discovers that when the two were children they were used as test subjects by Nathan Milbury of the Black Womb Project, with the approval of Charles' father, Doctor Brian Xavier.",
"Xavier makes the connection Milbury and X-Men villain, Mister Sinister, who has apparently long been manipulating Charles' life in addition to other X-Men.",
"Afterwards, he discovers he has been targeted by assassins.Charles eventually discovers Mister Sinister had set up Charles, Sebastian Shaw, Juggernaut, and Ryking (Hazard) as potential new hosts for Sinister's mind.",
"Bleeding slowly to death, he apparently gives in to Sinister becoming the new Mister Sinister.",
"But in reality, Xavier is still battling Sinister for control of his body.",
"As Sebastian Shaw and Gambit destroy Sinister's Cronus Machine, the device that he used to transfer his consciousness into new hosts, Xavier drives Sinister out of his body permanently.",
"Xavier thanks Shaw and Gambit for their help and declares he must go and see Cyclops immediately.",
"Professor X returns to the X-Mansion to find it destroyed after recent events.",
"Afterwards, Xavier leaves the ruins of the X-Mansion to secretly meet up Cyclops by psychically coercing his former student for the visit.",
"Xavier explains to Cyclops about the recent events with Mr. Sinister and tries to explain to Cyclops how Sinister has been manipulating Scott's and Jean's lives since when they were children.",
"Xavier attempts to have Scott give him permission to scan Scott's mind for traces of Sinister's influences, but instead, Scott turns the tables on Xavier by revealing that he has secretly invited Emma Frost into their entire meeting and also into Xavier's mind.While in his mind, Emma forces Xavier to relive each of his morally ambiguous decisions under altruistic pretenses.",
"As the issue continues, Charles realizes his human arrogance and that while some of his decisions were morally wrong, he must move forward with his life and deal with the consequences.",
"Emma ends her incursion into Xavier's mind by reminding him of Moira MacTaggert's last words.",
"As he reflects on Moira's words, Xavier gives Cyclops his blessing to lead the X-Men and leaves to find his own path.",
"Following his encounter with Wolverine (in the \"Original Sin\" Arc) Professor Xavier seeks out his step-brother, the unstoppable Juggernaut in an attempt to reform him.",
"After a conversation about the meaning of the word \"Juggernaut\" and a review of Juggernaut and Xavier's shared history Xavier offers Cain an empty box as a gift.",
"Confused by Xavier's gift Cain attempts to kill the Professor bringing an entire sports bar down over their heads in the process.",
"Later Cain battles the X-Men in his full Juggernaut armor and conquers the planet.",
"Just as everything appears to be under the Juggernaut's control Xavier reappears and informs him that everything that has just taken place except for Juggernaut destroying the bar took place in Cain's mind.",
"A baffled Cain demands to know how Xavier managed to overcome his psychically shielded helmet to which the Professor replies that he decided to visit Cain in his sleep.",
"Professor Xavier then informs him that he now understands Cain as a person and that he will not attempt to get in his way or reform him again.",
"But Xavier also warns Cain that if he gets in the way of the Professor's path to redemption Xavier will stop him permanently.",
"Following his encounter with Cain it has been revealed that Xavier is now searching for Rogue.After his bruising encounter with Cyclops and Emma Frost, Professor X is forced to revisit the biggest challenge and the biggest failure of his career, Wolverine, when the feral mutant asks for Charles' help in freeing his son from the clutches of the Hellfire Club.",
"As the two search for Daken, Wolverine reveals that when he first joined the X-Men he attempted to assassinate Xavier due to some unknown programming.",
"In response, the Professor broke Logan's mind and rebuilt it so that any and all programming he received was forgotten.",
"Logan also revealed that the real reason Xavier asked him to join the X-Men was that Charles \"needed a weapon\".",
"Eventually Professor Xavier and Wolverine locate Sebastian Shaw's mansion and attack his minions, just as they are about to enter a bomb explodes from within catching them both off guard.",
"From the wreckage emerges an angry Sebastian who immobilizes Wolverine.",
"Meanwhile, Miss Sinister knocks Daken unconscious and has him taken to the med lab in the mansion's basement.",
"As Shaw prepares to deliver a killing blow to Xavier, Wolverine recovers and stops him telling Xavier to rescue his son.",
"Professor Xavier locates the med lab and after a quick psychic battle with Miss Sinister enters Daken's fractured mind.",
"While in Daken's mind Xavier discovers Romulus's psychic tampering and comments that Daken's mind is even more broken than Wolverine's was.",
"Before Xavier can heal Daken a psychic bomb explodes causing Xavier to become comatose and Daken to wake up.",
"Miss Sinister arrives and attempts to manipulate Daken who reveals that the psychic bomb in his head restored his memories and stabs Miss Sinister in the chest.",
"Meanwhile, Wolverine defeats Shaw and enters the mansion to find Daken standing over an unconscious Xavier preparing to kill him.",
"Wolverine tells Daken that he will not let him hurt Xavier and the two fight.",
"Overcome with guilt over what happened to Daken and Itsu, Wolverine allows himself to be beaten.",
"Just as Daken appears to have won Xavier pulls both of them onto the astral plane revealing that the psychic bomb had little effect on him because his psyche was already shattered.",
"Xavier then explains to Wolverine and Daken that Romulus is solely responsible for Itsu's death and that he lied to Daken about everything because he wanted Wolverine to become his weapon.",
"As the three converse, Daken returns to the physical plane and prevents Shaw from killing Xavier.",
"With the truth revealed Wolverine and Daken decide to kill Romulus.",
"As the two depart Wolverine tells Xavier that he forgives him for all of the dark moments in their history.",
"Wolverine acknowledges that Professor Xavier allowed him to become a hero.",
"Wolverine then tells the Professor that he hopes he will one day be able to forgive him for choosing to kill Romulus.Professor Xavier recruits Gambit to go with him to Australia to find and help Rogue who is currently staying at the X-Men's old base in the Outback; unaware Danger is using Rogue as a conduit for her revenge against him.In a prelude to the \"Secret Invasion\" storyline, Professor X was at the meeting of the Illuminati when it came to the discussion about the Skrulls planning an invasion by taking out Earth's heroes and posing as them.",
"He claims he was unable to distinguish that Black Bolt had been replaced by a Skrull, and his powers were tested quickly by the Black Bolt Skrull.",
"Professor X leaves after learning even he can no longer trust the others, yet appears to have severely restricted the number of people he informs of the forthcoming alien invasion, as the X-Men were not prepared for the Skrulls, at least at first.",
"Xavier has not seen again during the events of ''Secret Invasion'', though his X-Men in San Francisco are successful at repelling the invaders there through the use of the modified Legacy Virus.===Dark Reign===During the ''Dark Reign'' storyline, Professor X convinces Exodus to disband the Acolytes.",
"A H.A.M.M.E.R.",
"helicopter arrives and from inside appears Norman Osborn, who wants to talk to him.",
"During the Dark Avengers' arrival in San Francisco to enforce martial law and squelch the anti-mutant riots occurring in the city, Xavier appears (back in his wheelchair) in the company of Norman Osborn and publicly denounces Cyclops' actions and urges him to turn himself in.",
"However, this Xavier was revealed to be Mystique who Osborn found to impersonate Xavier in public.",
"The real Xavier is shown in prison on Alcatraz and slowly being stripped of his telepathic powers while in psionic contact with Beast, who was arrested earlier for his part in the anti-mutant riots.",
"It was also revealed by Emma Frost that she and Professor X are both Omega Class Telepaths when she manages to detect the real Professor X.",
"Professor X helps Emma Frost enter Sentry's mind.",
"However, as Emma frees him of the Void's influence, a minute sliver of the entity itself remains in her mind.",
"Xavier quickly tells her to remain in her diamond armor state to prevent the Void from gaining access to her psi-powers.",
"Professor X is later seen with Emma Frost where Beast is recuperating.After what happened at ''Utopia'', Xavier has come to live on the risen Asteroid M, rechristened Utopia, along with the rest of the X-Men, X-Club, and mutant refugees and is also allowed to join the Utopia lead council (Cyclops, Storm, Namor, Iceman, Beast, Wolverine and Emma Frost).",
"While he no longer continues to openly question every move that Cyclops makes, he is still concerned about some of his leadership decisions.",
"Xavier had wanted to return to the mainland to clear his name, but in the aftermath of Osborn declaring Utopia as a mutant detention area, Cyclops refused to let him leave, stating that it would be a tactical advantage to have him as an ace in the hole in case the need arose.",
"To that end, he has kept Xavier out of the field and instead relied on Emma Frost, Psylocke and the Stepford Cuckoos respectively for their own psionic talents.",
"While attending the funeral of Yuriko Takiguchi, Magneto arrives at Utopia, apparently under peaceful motives.",
"Xavier does not believe it, and attacks Magneto telepathically, causing Cyclops to force him to stand down.",
"He later apologizes to Magneto for acting out of his old passions from their complicated relationship, which Magneto accepts.===Second Coming===During the ''Second Coming'' storyline, Professor Xavier is seen on Utopia delivering a eulogy at Nightcrawler's funeral.",
"Like the other X-Men, he is deeply saddened by Kurt's death and anxious about the arrival of Cable and Hope.",
"Xavier is seen using his powers to help his son Legion control his many personalities and battle the Nimrods.",
"At the conclusion of Second Coming Professor X is seen surveying the aftermath of the battle from a helicopter.",
"As Hope descends to the ground and cradles Cable's lifeless arm, Xavier reflects on everything that has transpired and states that, while he feels that Hope has indeed come to save mutant kind and revive his dream, she is still only a young woman and will have a long and difficult journey before she can truly achieve her potential.===Avengers vs. X-Men===During the \"Avengers vs. X-Men\" storyline, the Phoenix Force is split into five pieces and bonded with Cyclops, Emma Frost, Namor, Colossus and Magik (who become known as the Phoenix Five).",
"Eventually, Cyclops and Frost come to possess the full Phoenix Force, and Professor X is instrumental in confronting them both, and dies in the ensuing battle with Cyclops.",
"The Phoenix Force is subsequently forced to abandon Cyclops as a host by the efforts of both Hope Summers and the Scarlet Witch.Xavier's body is later stolen by the Red Skull's S-Men while the group also captures Rogue and Scarlet Witch.",
"Xavier's brain is removed and fused to the brain of the Red Skull.",
"After Rogue and Scarlet Witch snapped out of the fight they were in, they find the lobotomized body of Professor X.",
"Red Skull uses the new powers conferred upon him by Professor X's brain to provoke anti-mutant riots.",
"His plans are foiled by the Avengers and the X-Men, and the Skull escapes.Professor X's spirit is later seen in the Heaven dimension along with Nightcrawler's spirit at the time when Azazel invades Heaven.During the ''AXIS'' storyline, a fragment of Professor X's psyche (which had escaped the scrubbing of his memories) still existed in Red Skull's mind preventing him from unleashing the full potential of Professor X's powers.",
"During a fight with the Stark Sentinels, Doctor Strange and Scarlet Witch attempt to cast a spell to invert the axis of Red Skull's brain and bring out the fragment of Professor X to defeat Onslaught.",
"Doctor Strange was targeted and captured by the Sentinels before they could cast the spell.",
"When Magneto arrived with his supervillain allies, Doctor Doom and Scarlet Witch attempted to cast the inversion spell again and Red Onslaught was knocked unconscious and reverted to his Red Skull form.",
"Although they did not know whether Professor X was now in control, the Avengers decided to be cautious and take Red Skull to Stark Tower.",
"It was later revealed that the spell had actually caused all the heroes and villains present to undergo a \"moral inversion\" rather than simply bringing out Professor X in the Skull, with the result that the Skull and other villains became heroic while the Avengers and X-Men present became villainous.",
"Eventually, the inversion was undone.After the Skull mounts a telepathic assault that nearly allows him to take control of the Avengers, he is defeated when Deadpool places Magneto's old helmet on Rogue, allowing her to knock out the Skull and take him to Beast.",
"Beast is subsequently able to perform brain surgery on the Skull, extracting the part of Xavier's brain that was grafted onto the villain's own brain without causing any apparent damage to the Skull.",
"Rogers attempts to claim the fragment for himself, but Rogue flies up and incinerates the fragment with the aid of the Human Torch, the two expressing hope that Xavier will rest in peace.===Resurrection===The astral form of Professor Xavier has since been revealed to be imprisoned in the Astral Plane after Shadow King somehow acquired it upon Professor X's death.",
"After what appeared to be years in the Astral Plane, Professor X is able to trick Shadow King into playing him in a 'game' that lures Rogue, Mystique and Fantomex onto the Astral Plane, while turning others into carriers for the Shadow King's 'contagious' psychic essence.",
"With the Shadow King certain of his victory, he fails to realize that Xavier's apparent 'surrender' to his game was really just him biding his time until the Shadow King's influence was distracted long enough for him to drop his already-subtly-weakened guard long enough for Xavier to break his bonds, luring in the three aforementioned X-Men as their identities were already fundamentally malleable.",
"With the Shadow King defeated, Xavier is apparently returned to the real world in the body of Fantomex, Fantomex reasoning that nobody really knows who he is as an individual beyond his status as one of the X-Men whereas this act of sacrifice will ensure that he is remembered for a great deed.Proteus has spent years trapped in a psionic hellscape of the Astral Plane, where The Shadow King reigned supreme, only to escape last issue.",
"Part of the reason that he could was the escape of Charles Xavier (who now chooses to go by X, since he is now in a younger body after escaping), and now X leads the X-Men directly into an ambush, as Proteus has warped an entire village with his powers, leading to a mind-to-mind battle that leaves X on the receiving end of a psychic beatdown.Proteus has started his garden and his seeds are planted all over the world.",
"Psylocke is in command and has a plan which mainly consists of Archangel using metal and Mystique morphing into his mother.",
"Once they drain him, Rogue and Bishop convert his energy and release him back to the universe.",
"Whilst this all went down Psylocke and X combined forces to burn out the seeds across the planet.",
"As they are working on it they discover they are not enough to accomplish the task.",
"X mentions the network of psychics the Shadow King was using and that Betsy who is in control should tap into it.",
"She agrees and does so yet unbeknownst to her X was possessed by the Shadow King who violently erupts from X's head.Following X's apparent death after the Shadow King exploded from his skull, the psychic villain tears the X-Men apart until X literally pulls himself back together (a feat he later refuses to explain), and he and Psylocke team up to harness the power of all of Earth's psychics to destroy the Shadow King.",
"As Psylocke says she feels no psychic trace of him anywhere, X implants comforting post-hypnotic psychic suggestions in his allies and then erases their memories (including allowing Warren Worthington to switch between his identities at will).",
"Only Psylocke's memory is left intact, with X telling her she will be the one to \"keep him honest\" while he embarks on a new mission.===Dawn of X===X has since made his presence known to his former students and reveals his new plan for all mutantkind.",
"Now clad in a Cerebro-like helmet, Xavier has apparently abandoned his dream for peaceful coexistence, and had turned Krakoa into a sovereign nation state for mutants as well as use it to apparently heal the X-Men from their ordeals during the showdown against the forces of O.N.E.",
"He then leads the X-Men into planting in seeds in strategic locations around the world and Mars, which, overnight, grow into massive plantlike \"Habitats\".",
"As it turns out, these \"Habitats\" – and the plants that grew them – are extensions of Krakoa.",
"Through the advancement of mutant technology combined with Krakoa's unique abilities as a living mutant island, Professor X and the X-Men have embassies around the world.",
"Also through this combination of technology and mutant power, Xavier have developed three drugs that could change human life – a pill that extends human life by five years, an adaptable universal antibiotic, and a pill that cures \"diseases of the mind, in humans\".” In exchange for recognizing the sovereignty of Krakoa, Professor X will give these drugs to mankind, with mutants living in peace on the island.Xavier and Magneto later meet with Raven Darkholm inside his sanctum.",
"The two mutant leaders both greatly pleased with the success of her mission as she presents what they'ed petitioned her to steal.",
"A mysterious USB tab containing sensitive information stolen from Damage Control, Mystique would inquire for her payment as she had met their demands.",
"However, Xavier mentions that he still had more demands that needed to be met as they were building their protected future of Homo Sapiens Superior, seeming to psychokinetically beckon the contents of her theft into his hands while Mystique questions how much more needed to be done for his ultimate pet project.Xavier and Magneto reveal the contents of the USB drive to Cyclops, which are shown to be information on Orchis, an organization dedicated to responding to a large-scale mutant threat and the plans of a Mother Mold.",
"They believe that the creation of the Mother Mold will herald a new generation of Sentinels and along with it, Nimrod.",
"They task Cyclops with assembling a team to destroy the Mother Mold station.",
"Although the team (composed of Cyclops, Marvel Girl, Wolverine, Nightcrawler, Husk, Mystique, Archangel, and Monet) is successfully, they are all killed in the process.",
"X mourns them, vowing \"No more.",
"\"Xavier is revealed to have upgraded Cerebro with the help of Forge, which is now able to copy and store the minds of mutants in a database.",
"After the Five (Hope Summers, Goldballs, Elixir, Proteus, and Tempus) are able to grow the bodies of deceased mutants, Xavier is able to copy the minds back in these empty shells.",
"Thus, he is able to resurrect Cyclops's team, thanking them for what they did.",
"At the U.N., Xavier, Beast, and Emma celebrate with other ambassadors for the recognition of Krakoa as a sovereign nation.",
"Xavier telepathically converses with Emma, revealing that he knows that she manipulated the Russian ambassador to abstain from the vote, before thanking her for her service.",
"Two days after the U.N. vote, Xavier, Magneto, and Wolverine are in Krakoa waiting besides several portals.",
"While Wolverine expresses his misgivings about the upcoming event, Xavier and Magneto assure him all will be alright.",
"Soon after, several villainous mutants, including Mister Sinister, Sebastian Shaw, Exodus, Selene (comics) and Apocalypse arrive through the portals.",
"Apocalypse in particular expresses satisfaction at arriving and Krakoa responds in the same way.",
"Magneto and Xavier reveal that they have invited all mutants, even those who have fought against them in the past, to Krakoa, to form a society.",
"The assembled villainous mutants agree to their terms, and Xavier shakes Apocalypse's hand, welcoming him and the others to their home.",
"\"While peace reigns on Krakoa, a mysterious team of assassins HALO drops into the island and assassinates Xavier, destroying his Cerebro helmet in the process.",
"The Quiet Council hides Xavier's death from the rest of the world, and through the activation of a Cerebro backup, and the efforts of The Five, Xavier is reborn once more.",
"Soon after, he partakes in a global conference alongside Magneto and Apocalypse, professing that he still loves humanity, whilst subtly warning them in regards to his previous assassination - and his knowledge of an ongoing assassination attempt at the forum itself, foiled by Cyclops and Gorgon."
],
[
"Powers and abilities",
"Professor X is a mutant who possesses vast telepathic powers, and is among the strongest and most powerful telepaths in the Marvel Universe.",
"He is able to perceive the thoughts of others or project his own thoughts within a radius of approximately .",
"Xavier's telepathy once covered the entire world; although following this, Magneto altered the Earth's electromagnetic field to restrict Xavier's telepathic range.",
"While not on Earth, Xavier's natural telepathic abilities have reached across space to make universal mental contact with multiple alien races.",
"With extreme effort, he can also greatly extend the range of his telepathy.",
"He can learn foreign languages by reading the language centers of the brain of someone adept, and alternately \"teach\" languages to others in the same manner.",
"As side effect of his telepathy, Xavier possesses an eidetic memory and his brain can assimilate and process impossibly huge amounts of raw data in an astonishingly short amount of time.Xavier's vast psionic powers enable him to manipulate the minds of others, warp perceptions to make himself seem invisible, project mental illusions, cause loss of particular memories or total amnesia, and induce pain or temporary mental and/or physical paralysis in others.",
"Xavier once trained a new group of mutants mentally, subjectively making them experience months of training together, while only hours passed in the real world.",
"Within close range, he can manipulate almost any number of minds for such simple feats.",
"However, he can only take full possession of one other mind at a time, and must strictly be within that person's physical presence.",
"He is one of the few telepaths skilled enough to communicate with animals and even share their perceptions.",
"He can also telepathically take away or control people's natural bodily functions and senses, such as sight, hearing, smell, taste, or even mutant powers.",
"He has displayed telepathic prowess sufficient to confront Ego the Living Planet (while aided by Cadre K) as well as narrowly defeat Exodus.",
"However, he cannot permanently \"reprogram\" human minds to believe what he might want them to believe even if he wanted to do so, explaining that the mind is an organism that would always recall the steps necessary for it to reach the present and thus 'rewrite' itself to its original setting if he tried to change it.",
"However, his initial reprogramming of Wolverine lasted several years, despite Wolverine overcoming the reprogramming much faster than an ordinary human because of his healing factor.He is able to project from his mind 'bolts' composed of psychic energy, enabling him to stun the mind of another person into unconsciousness, inflict mental trauma, or even cause death.",
"These 'bolts' inflict damage only upon other minds, having a negligible effect on non-mental beings, if any.",
"The manner in which Xavier's powers function indicates that his telepathy is physical in some way, as it can be enhanced by physical means (for example, Cerebro), but can also be disrupted by physical means (for example, Magneto's alteration of the Earth's magnetic field).Xavier can perceive the distinct mental presence/brain waves of other superhuman mutants within a small radius of himself.",
"To detect mutants to a wider area beyond this radius, he must amplify his powers through Cerebro and subsequently Cerebra, computer devices of his own design which are sensitive to the psychic/physical energies produced by the mind.Professor X can project his astral form into a psychic dimension known as the astral plane.",
"There, he can use his powers to create objects, control his surroundings, and even control and destroy the astral forms of others.",
"He cannot project this form over long distances.",
"''Uncanny X-Men'' writer Ed Brubaker has claimed that, after being de-powered by the Scarlet Witch, and then re-powered by the M'Kraan Crystal, Charles' telepathy is more powerful than was previously known.",
"However, the extent of this enhancement is unknown.",
"Years prior to initial publishing, Charles Xavier had an undefined level of telekinesis.",
"This aspect of his powers were potent enough to cause catastrophic system disruption in computerized appliances.",
"Such an attribute has faded, however.",
"His evil counterpart Cassandra Nova Xavier would possess this ability, indicating he still possessed the potential for them.",
"This potential was proven true after his death and resurgence within the younger, stronger body of Charlie Cluster 7.The Professor, using the moniker X, fashioned a Cerebro like a helmet which acts as a focusing device for his psionic powers and used it to galvanize latent aspects of his X-Gene to stimulate some dormant properties, seemingly using telekinesis to will a flash drive on Mystique's person into his hand.Charles Xavier is a genius with multiple doctorates.",
"He is a world-renowned geneticist, a leading expert in mutation, possesses considerable knowledge of various life sciences, and is the inventor of Cerebro.",
"He possesses Ph.D.s in Genetics, Biophysics, Psychology, and Anthropology, and an M.D.",
"in Psychiatry.",
"He is highly talented in devising equipment for utilizing and enhancing psionic powers.",
"He is also a great tactician and strategist, effectively evaluating situations and devising swift responses.During his travels in Asia, Xavier learned martial arts, acquiring \"refined combat skills\" according to Magneto.",
"When these skills are coordinated in tandem with his telepathic abilities, Xavier is a dangerous unarmed combatant, capable of sensing the intentions of others and countering them with superhuman efficiency.",
"He also has extensive knowledge of pressure points.Charles Xavier was also given possession of the Mind Gem.",
"It allows the user to boost mental power and access the thoughts and dreams of other beings.",
"Backed by the Power Gem, it is possible to access all minds in existence simultaneously.",
"Like all other former Illuminati members, Xavier has sworn to never use the gem and to keep its location hidden."
],
[
"Xavier Protocols",
"The '''Xavier Protocols''' are a set of doomsday plans created by Professor X.",
"The protocols detail the best way to kill many powerful mutant characters, including the X-Men and Xavier himself, should they become too large of a danger.",
"The Xavier Protocols are first mentioned during the ''Onslaught'' crossover and first seen in ''Excalibur'' #100 in Moira MacTaggert's lab.",
"Charles Xavier compiled a list of the Earth's most powerful mutants and plans on how to defeat them if they become a threat to the world.",
"They are first used after Onslaught grows too powerful.",
"Only parts of the actual protocols are ever shown.",
"In the ''Operation: Zero Tolerance'' crossover Bastion obtains an encrypted copy of the protocols, intending to use them against the X-Men.",
"However, Cable infiltrates the X-Mansion and secures all encrypted files before Bastion has a chance to decrypt them.",
"Due to the tampering of Bastion and his Sentinels, the X-Mansion computer system Cerebro gains autonomy and seeks to destroy the X-Men by employing its knowledge of the Xavier Protocols.",
"In a virtual environment created by Professor X, Cerebro executes the Xavier Protocols against the X-Men.Each protocol is activated by the presence of a different combination of X-Men and were written by Xavier himself :* Code 0-0-0 (Charles Xavier) was activated by Moira MacTaggert, Cyclops, and Jean Grey.",
"This file is both an entry on Charles Xavier, as well as an introduction to the Xavier Protocols.",
"It contained a holographic image of Charles Xavier, reading the following message: \"Moira, Scott, Jean; if you three are seeing these images, then I have become a mortal threat to my X-Men.",
"In this instance, I must be stopped by any means necessary.",
"Some years ago, I made a study of various forms of possible defense against my own psychic abilities.",
"The image next to me is that of an anti-psionic armor.",
"The wearer should be protected from my talent.",
"When I finish speaking, a blueprint for this armor will be downloaded.",
"\"* Code 0-2-1 (Wolverine) was activated by Archangel, Cyclops, and Jean Grey.",
"* Code 1-3-9 (Cable) was activated by Cyclops, Jean Grey, and Cannonball.Other X-Men who have faced their Xavier Protocols are Colossus, Rogue, Shadowcat, Nightcrawler, Storm, and Gambit."
],
[
"Reception",
"=== Accolades ===* In 2014, ''Entertainment Weekly'' ranked Charles Xavier 13th in their \"Let's rank every X-Man ever\" list.",
"* In 2014, ''BuzzFeed'' ranked Charles Xavier 11th in their \"95 X-Men Members Ranked From Worst To Best\" list.",
"* In 2019, ''ComicBook.com'' ranked Charles Xavier 14th in their \"50 Most Important Superheroes Ever\" list.",
"* In 2022, ''The Mary Sue'' ranked Charles Xavier 8th in their \"10 Most Powerful X-Men of All Time\" list and 7th in their \"8 Most Powerful Marvel Mutants\" list.",
"* In 2022, ''Digital Trends'' ranked Charles Xavier 6th in their \"Marvel’s most powerful mutants\" list.",
"* In 2022, ''Screen Rant'' included Charles Xavier in their \"10 Smartest Marvel Telepaths\" list.",
"* In 2022, ''Newsarama'' ranked Charles Xavier 15th in their \"Best X-Men members of all time\" list.",
"* In 2022, ''CBR.com'' ranked Charles Xavier 1st in their \"10 Greatest X-Men, Ranked By Experience\" list."
],
[
"Other versions",
"===1602===Professor X is '''Carlos Javier''' in the miniseries ''Marvel 1602'' (set in the alternative reality known as Earth-311), set at the end of the Elizabethan Era in an alternative universe.",
"In this reality Carlos Javier set up a school for the Witchbreed to train them and prepare them to survive in a world that distrusted and hated them.",
"He hid them away and would only send them out on mercy missions to retrieve other witchbreed who were in danger.",
"When the young man named Werner – born with angel's wings – was to be burnt at the stake by the Inquisition, Javier sent his team leader, Scotius Summerisle, and Roberto Trefusis to rescue the boy.",
"They did, and brought him back to Javier's school.Nicholas Fury, the Queen of England's spymaster, came to visit Javier at his school and warn him of the danger posed by Elizabeth's death and the eventual rise to power of King James of Scotland, who had no love for witchbreed.",
"Javier acknowledged the threat, but did nothing about it, though he showed Fury his team of super-powered youths.",
"Fury also asked a favor, and requested that Javier use his powers to read the thoughts of a captured assassin.",
"All Javier could tell him what that he was one of three; another was to kill a girl from the colonies, and the third, the queen.",
"Fury later sent his protégé, Peter Parquagh, to Javier's school, to warn him that Fury would be coming for him in the name of King James soon, and that Javier should go quietly, rather than risk a war that would have serious consequences.",
"Javier agreed, and when Fury arrived with an army of men, he and his students went without a fight.While captive, Javier joined a discussion with Fury and Doctor Strange—the physician and magician of Queen Elizabeth.",
"Strange told them that the world was coming to an end and the only way to save it would be to launch an attack on the castle of Otto von Doom, and steal away the treasure of the Templars and the survivors from the Four of the Fantastick.",
"Fury disbelieved him, thinking his friend Sir Richard Reed dead, but Javier read Strange's mind, revealing that Strange thought he was telling the truth; and so it was decided.",
"They traveled upon a ship that Javier's student Jean Grey lifted into the air with her mind, while Javier bolstered her powers with his own, and they flew to Latveria.",
"Javier and Jean remained in meditation the whole way; keeping the ship afloat, for if they set down they would not get airborne again.As the battle commenced, Javier led his men.",
"He sent Angel and Scotius down to silence the cannons, while he ordered Roberto to deflect cannonballs, which he himself would try to steer off course via the cannoneer's minds.",
"His beast-like student Henry he asked to protect the ship from the flying minions of Doom that soon boarded the ship from the air.",
"When the Captain of the Fantastick raged against his stone prison beneath Castle Doomstadt, it freed the members of the Captain's crew, along with Donal (Thor) and Matthew Murdoch.",
"Donal quickly used the staff that was his greatest treasure, and turned himself into the Thunder God, Thor.",
"When Thor created a massive storm to use against Doom, Roberto used the sudden moisture in the air to freeze the cannons and save their ship.",
"Doom also used Thor's storm to electrify the golden globe he held — a distraction given to him by Donal — but it exploded in his face, scarring him and bringing him to the brink of death.",
"Victorious, Thor and the members of the Fantastick joined Javier's crew, and with Thor's help they got the boat to sea, as Jean Grey had collapsed.The band of heroes set sail for the New World to fix the tear in time that had created the weather anomalies circling the globe, as well as endangering the universe itself.",
"On the way, Jean Grey's body finally gave up under the strain of the use of her powers, and as per her final wish, she was flown into the air and vaporized by Scotius’ eye blasts, falling to the sea as ash; but not before Angel saw an image of an immense, flaming bird in the air.",
"Almost to the Roanoke Colony, Javier sensed a trio of ships making their way to the New World; the first, Virginia Dare returning to the colonies with her time-traveling friend; the second, containing James’ men, set to kill Fury; and the third, the witchbreed Enrique with his two children.",
"Enrique was an old friend of Javier's, later set against him.",
"Javier's group intercepted Enrique's boat first, and Roberto encased it in ice to imprison them, while Javier demanded to know what they were doing.",
"Enrique explained that the winds had taken them to the New World, but Javier did not trust him.Javier soon participated in another group discussion; this led by the severed head of Doctor Strange, brought from England by his wife, Clea.",
"Strange told them through his head that the faux-Indian Rojhaz was actually a visitor from the future, Captain America, whose arrival had jeopardized the universe itself.",
"To fix it, the heroes would have to return him to the rift.",
"They soon found the rift, and Javier had no choice but to make a deal with his old friend, Enrique, who was the only one with the power to open the rift to put the man back.",
"Enrique agreed without hearing the proposal, but demanded that his own terms be met when his job was done.",
"As Javier had no other choice, he agreed.",
"Together with Enrique, Thor, and Fury, they opened the rift enough for Fury to drag Captain America through, and it closed, healing the universe permanently.",
"Though instead of reverting things back to the way they should have been, it separated the universe from the original, creating a pocket universe where the out-of-time heroes continued to exist.Before parting, Enrique explained his terms: that he would head north, and no one would follow him or investigate him; and that Javier would teach his children, Wanda and Petros, but not reveal to them that he was their father, though he would return one day to fetch them.",
"Javier agreed, and parted with his old friend.===Age of Apocalypse===In the ''Age of Apocalypse'', Charles Xavier was killed when he sacrificed himself to save Erik Lensherr from his own future son, David Haller (Legion), who had gone back in time to eliminate Magneto in the belief that his father would thus be there for him and succeed in his dream without Magneto to 'hinder' his efforts.",
"As a result, Magneto founded the X-Men and sought human/mutant co-existence in Xavier's name- even naming his new son with Rogue 'Charles' after his friend- but Haller's rampage also prompted Apocalypse to awaken decades before the world was ready for him, resulting in Apocalypse conquering North America and most of the world, eventually forcing Magneto's X-Men to attempt a daring mission to gain the power necessary to go back in time and save Xavier from Haller as they recognised how vital Xavier was to the future.===Amalgam Comics===In the ''Amalgam Comics'' continuity, Charles Xavier was combined with DC's Doctor Fate and Marvel's Doctor Strange to create '''Dr.",
"Strangefate'''.",
"He was the only character aware of the nature of the Amalgam Comics universe.He was also combined with Martian Manhunter to create Mr. X, leader of the JLX (a mash up of the X-Men and Justice League).===Deadpool Corps===In the second issue of ''Prelude to Deadpool Corps'', Deadpool visits a universe where Prof. X runs an orphanage for troubled kids that includes Kidpool (kid version of Deadpool), Cyclops, Wolverine, Angel, and Colossus, with Storm being the headmistress and Beast as a teacher.",
"In this universe, the professor has a fondness for Emma Frost who runs an orphanage for girls that includes Jean Grey and Rogue.",
"He tries to get her attention by wearing wigs, throwing a dance for both orphanages, and trying to alter her memory.===Exiles===* In the first mission of the Exiles they release an evil Professor X from prison, assuming that he was the 'teacher' who was needed to help the mutants of this world as many of their original realities featured Professor X as a benevolent teacher similar to his mainstream version.",
"Having learned that Magneto was the teacher they were meant to save, they freed the other heroes from prison, with Mimic killing Xavier by getting up-close with a telepathic blocker designed by Forge and impaling him in the head with Wolverine's claws.",
"* On the world of the Sons of Iron and Daughters of the Dragon, the New Exiles face a squad of alternative 'core X-Men' who are loyal to Lilandra.",
"These X-Men are led by an alternative version of Xavier who is codenamed 'Black Cloak,' which is reference to his clothes.",
"Xavier is able to walk on this world and carries a spear.",
"The astral form of his head appears above his and he tends to mostly use his powers to prey upon the fears of his enemies.",
"Xavier is unable to enter Psylocke's mind.===House of M===When the Scarlet Witch ''altered reality'' so Magneto ruled over the Earth and mutants were the dominant species, Professor X is initially depicted as missing; Wolverine attempts to locate him but his search turns up fruitless.",
"Later on Genosha, Magneto is seen staring at a grave for the Professor, with the epitaph \"He died so Genosha could live\".",
"However, when the grave is searched by Cloak, he finds there is no body.",
"The question of Xavier's status in this world was left open-ended until ''House of M: Civil War'', detailing the history of Magneto in this world.",
"Xavier, while living, sought out Magneto when the latter was attempting to halt the oppression of mutantkind, declaring war on humans.",
"He saved Magneto's life from a sniper attack and joined him, hoping to influence Magneto's actions into benevolence.",
"He was disabled during the mutant takeover of Genosha and slowly grew more distant from Magneto as the latter's actions grew more bloodthirsty.",
"Ultimately, when the United States sent a team onto Genosha to assassinate Magneto, Xavier found himself trying to appeal to a furious Bucky Barnes, who stabbed Xavier through the chest.",
"What became of his body afterwards is unknown.===Marvel Zombies===In the ''Marvel Zombies'' one-shot ''Marvel Zombies: Dead Days'', a zombified Alpha Flight attacks the X-Mansion.",
"Storm informs the X-Men during the battle that Alpha Flight has ripped Xavier to pieces.",
"Cyclops, trying not to deal with the fact that Xavier is dead, continues to fight.",
"In the Marvel Zombies/Army of Darkness crossover, a zombified Beast informs Doctor Doom of Xavier's death, and that it was the Zombie Reed Richards who reprogrammed Cerebro to seek out humans.In ''Marvel Zombies Return'' however, another alternative Xaiver is zombified and turned into a human-detection system, his brain being permanently connected up to Cerebro so that he can find any remaining human beings.===Mutant X===In the alternative reality known as ''Mutant X'', Professor X believing in harmony between man and mutant, formed, along with his friend Magnus, the X-Men and led the team towards that peaceful goal .",
"However, the day they fought the Shadow King, everything changed.",
"The good in Xavier was corrupted, and he left the team to explore his powers further.",
"When he returned, it was during an attack by the Juggernaut.",
"Xavier fired a blast at Juggernaut, but it missed and killed Magneto's lover Moira MacTaggert, instead.",
"Xavier left the X-Men for good then, and traveled the world seeking out telepaths, whom he captured and incarcerated around the globe.",
"He joined forces with Sinister in a bid to transfer all the mental energy of all the world's telepaths into himself.",
"To that end, they created the X-Man, and Xavier took control of S.H.I.E.L.D., captured Gambit's adopted daughter Raven, and had Fury attempt to kill the X-Men with a nuclear strike.",
"Xavier met up with The Six in New York, \"fleeing\" from Apocalypse and the Four Horsemen.",
"However, when Xavier made several attempts to abduct Scotty, Havok was alerted to the truth by Jean Grey and Magneto, and realized who the true villain was.",
"After a pitched battle, Xavier donned his psychic armor, and he and Sinister released a giant replica of Galactus to induce fear in the citizens of Earth, on which Xavier could feed his power.",
"In the end, the replica was destroyed and the Six beat the fear phantoms that had comprised it.",
"Xavier turned on Sinister and destroyed him, and X-Man ran off, leaving Scotty and Raven, who with X-Man were to be Xavier's psychic batteries, to help Havok blast away at Xavier.",
"Xavier was knocked out of his armor and fled the scene, but not before unleashing a blast at Havok that hit Brute when he jumped in front of it to save Alex.",
"Fortunately, the blast temporarily restored Hank to his former levels of intelligence, and he was able to devise cures for his friends before the effect faded away.",
"Xavier was later summoned by Dr.",
"Strange to help fight the Beyonder (Goblin Queen) by adding his psychic power to others to help Havok reach a higher plane of reality.",
"While hooked up to the psychic amplification machine, Xavier was about to be killed by Dracula when he was saved by Bloodstorm, who staked her former master.===Ruins===Warren Ellis' ''Ruins'' was set in an alternative version of the Marvel Universe where \"everything went wrong\".",
"In this world, \"President X\" leads a corrupt regime over the United States.",
"He moved the White House from Washington to Westchester, New York, letting the capital fall to waste and corruption.",
"He never formed the X-Men, with only Warren Worthington working for him as a secret serviceman.",
"Some of his would-be X-Men are locked in a Texan prison by his orders and are sometimes forcibly deformed in an effort to keep their powers under control.",
"He was known to frequently visit and verbally abuse them ''\"leaving them all sobbing and throwing up\"''.",
"The Avengers were depicted in this world as a Californian pro-secessionist revolutionary cell that opposed Xavier's regime, who were all killed when the Avengers Quinjet was shot down.",
"President X also started the 'Genoshan Police Action', also known as the 'Genoshan War'.===Shadow Xavier===In the first arc of New Excalibur the team is brought together partly as a response to a clash between Dazzler and a group of homicidal mutants bearing a resemblance to the Original X-Men.",
"It turns out that these are the X-Men of an alternative universe where Charles Xavier is possessed by the Shadow King and has gone on to use his mind-controlled and thoroughly corrupted X-Men to wipe out all the other superhumans.",
"This version of Xavier can walk, and insists that his followers refer to him as 'Master'.He, along with the Shadow King, are killed by Lionheart.===Ultimate Marvel===In the ''Ultimate Marvel'' continuity, Professor Charles Xavier is the world's most powerful telepath, the founder and patron of the X-Men and a world-famous lecturer for pacifism and mutant emancipation.",
"In contrast to his mainstream version, he is publicly open about his mutant status from the beginning and also has limited telekinetic abilities.",
"He leaves his wife Moira MacTaggert, whom he collaborated with to create new therapies and surgical techniques for their mutant patients, and their sick son David to pursue Magneto's dream of a mutant society, but Magneto turns on him, crippling him with a shard of metal through his spine.Xavier also repeatedly tampers with other people's minds to reach his goals, but he recognizes his flaws.",
"In one instance, Xavier finds that Iceman has told a girl several secrets about the X-Men and is forced to erase the conversation from their minds.",
"He generally believes that reading minds without permission is unacceptable, or so he leads his students to believe.",
"In ''Ultimate X-Men'' #40, when Angel flies away, the Professor sends Storm after him because he telepathically knows that Angel is attracted to her.",
"Similarly, Beast questions whether Xavier has made Storm love him.In this timeline, his former love interests include Mystique and Emma Frost.",
"In ''Ultimate X-Men'' #77, he tells Cyclops that he is in love with Jean.",
"He also has a pet cat which he has named \"Mystique\".In ''Ultimate X-Men'' #78, Xavier is apparently killed by Cable who was trying to prevent the horrible events in the future.",
"In ''Ultimate X-Men'' #80 it is revealed that he is in fact alive, and a captive of Cable in the future.",
"It has also been revealed that Cable has repaired his spine and is training Xavier to fight against Apocalypse.",
"However, once the battle came, Jean Grey manifested as the Phoenix and destroyed Apocalypse.",
"Jean returned everything back to normal, giving Xavier a \"fresh start\".",
"As she did so however, she undid the repair to his spine that Cable had performed, leaving him once again disabled.",
"Xavier reformed the X-Men upon return as the Headmaster of the Xavier Institute.Soon after, Xavier left the school temporarily to aid Moira in some research on Muir Island.",
"While he is away, the school is attacked by Alpha Flight whose mutant powers are enhanced by a drug called Banshee.",
"Furthermore, it is revealed that Colossus has been using Banshee during his entire time at the Xavier's School to use his power without pain.",
"Due to the sudden and apparently rampant use of the drug, Xavier and Jean begin screening all the students for traces of Banshee.",
"However, it is later revealed the Banshee drug was created by Xavier himself, during his time in the Savage Land, and that it was created from Wolverine's blood.",
"When Xavier tested Banshee, he was given powers that mimicked Wolverine's, including claws, enhanced senses, and a healing factor.",
"Xavier and Magneto, however, deemed the drug too dangerous and stopped production of it.",
"When Wolverine discovered that he was the source of the drug and that Xavier was responsible for its initial creation, Wolverine attacked Muir Island.",
"Xavier admits to creating the drug but denies that he is responsible for its continued creation and use.",
"It is revealed then that Moira got hold of Xavier's research and began creating and selling the drug to finance Muir Island.",
"Moira, who had used the drug to give herself a sonic scream, begins to do battle with Wolverine, and Xavier evacuates the children moments before the research facility explodes.In the Ultimatum story arc, Charles informs all mutants that Magneto is behind the actions.",
"Magneto confronts Charles, explaining that he believes that he shall act as God did to cleanse the world and usher in an era of mutant supremacy.",
"When Charles states that Magneto is not God and that he will stop him as he always has in the past, Magneto then snaps Charles's neck, killing him.He returned, revealed as Rogue's benefactor, secretly sending her on an undercover mission and stating that he does not want his former students to know about his plan.",
"It is unconfirmed if this is truly Xavier, as both William Stryker, Alex Summers and Quicksilver have been seen talking to their supposedly dead loved ones, hinting at a foe mentally manipulating several characters.",
"It was revealed to be the work of Mr. Sinister, Apocalypse's disciple.===X-Men Noir===In ''X-Men Noir'', Charles Xavier is a psychiatrist who ran the \"Xavier School for Exceptionally Wayward Youth\", in Westchester where he took in juvenile delinquents, but instead of reforming them, he actually further trained them in criminal talents, due to his belief that sociopathy was in fact the next state in human behavioral evolution.",
"The paper in which he stated this led to his expulsion from the American Psychological Association.",
"He is currently in Riker's Island, awaiting charges after the truth about his reform school were made public.",
"Xavier had been framed by Chief of Detectives Eric Magnus for the murder of one of his own students: Warren.",
"Magnus had murdered Warren after Xavier refused to make his X-Men join Magnus' Brotherhood.===''X-Treme X-Men''===An alternative of Earth-616's Professor X is shown, there was seemingly little to distinguish Charles Xavier until the day he was kidnapped by the forces of the Savior (unbeknownst to him, an alternative of himself), who removed his head from his body, placed in a life-giving \"jar\", and placed it with the heads of all the other alternative Xaviers put through the same procedure and made to scan the multiverse for the next mutants to be kidnapped.",
"When the Savior was defeated, the collective of Xavier heads put themselves to work finding a new home for the people of the world they had been kidnapped to.",
"However, in the process, all of the heads exploded, except one.",
"This Xavier head would later aide a cross-dimension X-Men team in defeating ten evil Xaviers who are scattered throughout the multiverse and threaten existence itself.",
"During the X-Termination crossover, AoA Nightcrawler's trip home resulted in the release of three evil beings that destroy anyone they touch.",
"Several casualties resulted, including the AoA's Sabretooth, Horror Show, and Fiend, as well as the X-Treme X-Men's Xavier and Hercules."
],
[
"In other media",
"Professor X has appeared on a number of animated television shows including the ''X-Men'' animated series voiced by Cedric Smith, ''X-Men: Evolution'' voiced by David Kaye, and in ''Wolverine and the X-Men'' voiced by Jim Ward.He has appeared in twelve live-action 20th Century Fox ''X-Men'' feature films to date.",
"He is played by Patrick Stewart in ''X-Men'', ''X2'', ''X-Men: The Last Stand'', ''X-Men Origins: Wolverine'', ''The Wolverine'', ''Logan'', and ''Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness'' and by James McAvoy in ''X-Men: First Class'', ''X-Men: Apocalypse'', ''Deadpool 2'' and ''Dark Phoenix''.",
"Both actors play him at different ages in ''X-Men: Days of Future Past''.Harry Lloyd portrays a young Charles Xavier in the television series ''Legion''.=== Video games ===He has also appeared in a number of books and video games.Professor X appears as a collectable card in Marvel SNAP."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* Sanderson, Peter ( April 17, 2006).",
"''X-Men: The Ultimate Guide''.",
"DK CHILDREN (3rd ed.).",
".",
"* Barney-Hawke, Syd, Moreels, Eric J.",
"( April 1, 2003).",
"''Marvel Encyclopedia Volume 2: X-Men''.",
"Marvel Comics.",
".",
"* Yaco, Linc, Haber, Karen (February 2004).",
"''The Science of the X-Men''.",
"I Books/Marvel.",
".",
"* Marvel Entertainment ( May 7, 2003).",
"''The Marvel Universe Roleplaying Game''.",
"Marvel Comics.",
"."
],
[
"External links",
"* Professor X at Marvel.com"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Central Pacific Railroad"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Central Pacific Railroad''' ('''CPRR''') was a rail company chartered by U.S. Congress in 1862 to build a railroad eastwards from Sacramento, California, to complete the western part of the \"First transcontinental railroad\" in North America.",
"Incorporated in 1861, CPRR ceased operation in 1959 when assets were formally merged into the Southern Pacific Railroad.Following the completion of the Pacific Railroad Surveys in 1855, several national proposals to build a transcontinental railroad failed because of political disputes over slavery.",
"With the secession of the South in 1861, the modernizers in the Republican Party controlled the US Congress.",
"They passed legislation in 1862 authorizing the central rail route with financing in the form of land grants and government railroad bond, which were all eventually repaid with interest.",
"The government and the railroads both shared in the increased value of the land grants, which the railroads developed.",
"The construction of the railroad also secured for the government the economical \"safe and speedy transportation of the mails, troops, munitions of war, and public stores\"."
],
[
"History",
"===Authorization and construction===In the fall of 1860, Charles Marsh, a surveyor, civil engineer and water company owner, met with Theodore Judah, a civil engineer, who had recently built the Sacramento Valley Railroad from Sacramento to Folsom, California.",
"Marsh, who had already surveyed a potential railroad route between Sacramento and Nevada City, California, a decade earlier, went with Judah into the Sierra Nevada Mountains.",
"There they examined the Henness Pass Turnpike Company's route (Marsh was a founding director of that company).",
"They measured elevations and distances, and discussed the possibility of a transcontinental railroad.",
"Both were convinced that it could be done.Gold Spike at the California State Railroad Museum, Sacramento, California.",
"The museum also has a wall-sized painting of the Gold Spike ceremony which includes images of Charles Marsh and Leland Stanford (who were the only two Central Pacific directors to attend the Gold Spike ceremony at Promontory Summit, Utah).In December 1860 or early January 1861, Marsh met with Judah and Daniel Strong in Strong's drug store in Dutch Flat, California, to discuss the project, which they called the Central Pacific Railroad of California.",
"James Bailey, a friend of Judah, told Leland Stanford that Judah had a feasible route for a railroad across the Sierras, and urged Stanford to meet with Judah.",
"In early 1861, Marsh, Judah and Strong met with Collis P. Huntington, Leland Stanford, Mark Hopkins Jr. and Charles Crocker to obtain financial backing.",
"Papers were filed to incorporate the new company, and on April 30, 1861, the eight of them, along with Lucius Anson Booth, became the first board of directors of the Central Pacific Railroad.Planned by Judah, the Central Pacific Railroad was promoted by Congress by the Pacific Railway Act of 1862 which authorized the issuance of government bonds and land grants for each mile that was constructed.",
"Stanford served as president (at the same time he was elected governor of California), Huntington served as vice-president in charge of fundraising and purchasing, Hopkins was treasurer and Crocker was in charge of construction.",
"They called themselves \"The Associates,\" but became known as \"The Big Four.\"",
"Construction began in 1863 when the first rails were laid in Sacramento.The Truckee River at Verdi, Nevada, .",
"When the Central Pacific Railroad reached its site in 1868, Charles Crocker pulled a slip of paper from a hat and read the name of Giuseppe Verdi; so, the town was named after the Italian opera composer.Construction proceeded in earnest in 1865 when James Harvey Strobridge, the head of the construction work force, hired the first Cantonese emigrant workers at Crocker's suggestion.",
"The construction crew grew to include 12,000 Chinese laborers by 1868, when they breached Donner summit and constituted eighty percent of the entire work force.",
"The \"Golden spike\", connecting the western railroad to the Union Pacific Railroad at Promontory, Utah, was hammered on May 10, 1869.Coast-to-coast train travel in eight days became possible, replacing months-long sea voyages and lengthy, hazardous travel by wagon trains.In 1885 the Central Pacific Railroad was acquired by the Southern Pacific Company as a leased line.",
"Technically the CPRR remained a corporate entity until 1959, when it was formally merged into Southern Pacific.",
"(It was reorganized in 1899 as the Central Pacific \"Railway\".)",
"The original right-of-way is now controlled by the Union Pacific, which bought Southern Pacific in 1996.The Union Pacific-Central Pacific (Southern Pacific) main line followed the historic Overland Route from Omaha, Nebraska, to San Francisco Bay.Chinese labor was the most vital source for constructing the railroad.",
"Most of the railroad workers in the west were Chinese, as they could be hired at a lower cost to do the difficult work.",
"Fifty Cantonese emigrant workers were hired by the Central Pacific Railroad in February 1865 on a trial basis, and soon more and more Cantonese emigrants were hired.",
"Working conditions were harsh, and Chinese were compensated less than their white counterparts.",
"Chinese laborers were paid thirty-one dollars each month , and while white workers were paid the same, they were also given room and board.",
"In time, CPRR came to see the advantage of good workers employed at low wages: \"Chinese labor proved to be Central Pacific's salvation.",
"\"The difficulties faced by the Central Pacific in the Sierra Nevada - particularly the extensive tunneling required - were far more formidable than those encountered by the Union Pacific Railroad in the Rocky Mountains.",
"The story that Chinese workers were suspended in wicker baskets over vertical granite cliffs at Cape Horn, California, to drill and blast a ledge for the Central Pacific has been repeated and exaggerated by uncritical historians.The slope there was steep, but definitely not vertical, the rock was not granite, and no one used any baskets.",
"There is reliable, primary-source evidence stating that surveyors used safety ropes while staking out the route, but nothing about construction workers using ropes.",
"Digging the cut was done downward from the top, and from each horizontal end of the cut.",
"It is conceivable that a safety rope would have been useful when digging an initial footpath, that could then be enlarged into a shelf, but there was no reason to be suspended by ropes to dig or drill into the face of the cut.",
"It wasn't done that way.",
"And, most of the Chinese labor was not hired until later.",
"So, the gangs that did the digging at Cape Horn were probably Irish.Central Pacific Director Charles Marsh had extensive civil engineering experience in projects of this nature, both from planning an earlier proposed railroad into the Sierras, and from building ditches and flumes through those mountains for his water company.===Financing===Advertisement for CPRR First Mortgage Bonds (1867)Construction of the road was financed primarily by 30-year, 6% U.S. government bonds authorized by Sec.",
"5 of the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862.They were issued at the rate of $16,000 ($265,000 in 2017 dollars) per mile of tracked grade completed east of the designated base of the Sierra Nevada range near Roseville, CA where California state geologist Josiah Whitney had determined were the geologic start of the Sierras' foothills.",
"Sec.",
"11 of the Act also provided that the issuance of bonds \"shall be treble the number per mile\" (to $48,000) for tracked grade completed over and within the two mountain ranges (but limited to a total of at this rate), and \"doubled\" (to $32,000) per mile of completed grade laid between the two mountain ranges.",
"The U.S. Government Bonds, which constituted a lien upon the railroads and all their fixtures, were repaid in full (and with interest) by the company as and when they became due.Sec.",
"10 of the 1864 amending Pacific Railroad Act (13 Statutes at Large, 356) additionally authorized the company to issue its own \"First Mortgage Bonds\" in total amounts up to (but not exceeding) that of the bonds issued by the United States.",
"Such company-issued securities had priority over the original Government Bonds.",
"(Local and state governments also aided the financing, although the City and County of San Francisco did not do so willingly.",
"This materially slowed early construction efforts.)",
"Sec.",
"3 of the 1862 Act granted the railroads of public land for every mile laid, except where railroads ran through cities and crossed rivers.",
"This grant was apportioned in 5 sections on alternating sides of the railroad, with each section measuring by .",
"These grants were later doubled to per mile of grade by the 1864 Act.Although the Pacific Railroad eventually benefited the Bay Area, the City and County of San Francisco obstructed financing it during the early years of 1863–1865.When Stanford was Governor of California, the Legislature passed on April 22, 1863, \"An Act to Authorize the Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco to take and subscribe One Million Dollars to the Capital Stock of the Western Pacific Rail Road Company and the Central Pacific Rail Road Company of California and to provide for the payment of the same and other matters relating thereto\" (which was later amended by Section Five of the \"Compromise Act\" of April 4, 1864).",
"On May 19, 1863, the electors of the City and County of San Francisco passed this bond by a vote of 6,329 to 3,116, in a highly controversial Special Election.The City and County's financing of the investment through the issuance and delivery of Bonds was delayed for two years, when Mayor Henry P. Coon, and the County Clerk, Wilhelm Loewy, each refused to countersign the Bonds.",
"It took legal actions to force them to do so: in 1864 the Supreme Court of the State of California ordered them under Writs of Mandamus (''The People of the State of California ''ex rel'' the Central Pacific Railroad Company vs. Henry P. Coon, Mayor; Henry M. Hale, Auditor; and Joseph S. Paxson, Treasurer, of the City and County of San Francisco.''",
"25 Cal.",
"635) and in 1865, a legal judgment against Loewy (''The People ''ex rel'' The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California vs.",
"The Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco, and Wilhelm Lowey, Clerk'' 27 Cal.",
"655) directing that the Bonds be countersigned and delivered.In 1863 the State legislature's forcing of City and County action became known as the \"Dutch Flat Swindle\".",
"Critics claimed the CPRR's Big Four intended to build a railroad only as far as Dutch Flat, California, to connect to the Dutch Flat-Donner Pass Wagon Road to monopolize the lucrative mining traffic, and not push the track east of Dutch Flat into the more challenging and expensive High Sierra effort.",
"CPRR's chief engineer, Theodore Judah, also argued against such a road and hence against the Big Four, fearing that its construction would siphon money from CPRR's paramount trans-Sierra railroad effort.",
"Despite Judah's strong objection, the Big Four incorporated in August 1863 the Dutch Flat-Donner Lake Wagon Road Company.",
"Frustrated, Judah headed off for New York via Panama to raise funds to buy out the Big Four from CPRR and build his trans-Sierra railroad.",
"Unfortunately, Judah contracted yellow fever in Panama and died in New York in November 1863."
],
[
"Museums and archives",
"A replica of the Sacramento, California, Central Pacific Railroad passenger station is part of the California State Railroad Museum, located in the Old Sacramento State Historic Park.Nearly all the company's early correspondence is preserved at Syracuse University, as part of the Collis Huntington Papers collection.",
"It has been released on microfilm (133 reels).",
"The following libraries have the microfilm: University of Arizona at Tucson; and Virginia Commonwealth University at Richmond.",
"Additional collections of manuscript letters are held at Stanford University and the Mariners' Museum at Newport News, Virginia.",
"Alfred A. Hart was the official photographer of the CPRR construction."
],
[
"Locomotives",
"CPRR #113 ''Falcon'', a Danforth 4-4-0, at Argenta, Nevada, March 1, 1869 (photo: J.B. Silvis)The Central Pacific's first three locomotives were of the then common 4-4-0 type, although with the American Civil War raging in the east, they had difficulty acquiring engines from eastern builders, who at times only had smaller 4-2-4 or 4-2-2 types available.",
"Until the completion of the Transcontinental rail link and the railroad's opening of its own shops, all locomotives had to be purchased from builders in the northeastern U.S.",
"The engines had to be dismantled, loaded on a ship, which would embark on a four-month journey that went around South America's Cape Horn until arriving in Sacramento where the locomotives would be unloaded, re-assembled, and placed in service.Locomotives at the time came from many manufacturers, such as Cooke, Schenectady, Mason, Rogers, Danforth, Norris, Booth, and McKay & Aldus, among others.",
"The railroad had been on rather unfriendly terms with the Baldwin Locomotive Works, one of the more well-known firms.",
"It is not clear as to the cause of this dispute, though some attribute it to the builder insisting on cash payment (though this has yet to be verified).",
"Consequently, the railroad refused to buy engines from Baldwin, and three former Western Pacific Railroad (which the CP had absorbed in 1870) engines were the only Baldwin engines owned by the Central Pacific.",
"The Central Pacific's dispute with Baldwin remained unresolved until well after the road had been acquired by the Southern Pacific.In the 1870s, the road opened up its own locomotive construction facilities in Sacramento.",
"Central Pacific's 173 was rebuilt by these shops and served as the basis for CP's engine construction.",
"The locomotives built before the 1870s were given names as well as numbers.",
"By the 1870s, it was decided to eliminate the names and as each engine was sent to the shops for service, their names would be removed.",
"However, one engine that was built in the 1880s did receive a name: the El Gobernador.Construction of the rails was often dangerous work.",
"Towards the end of construction, almost all workers were Chinese immigrants.",
"The ethnicity of workers depended largely on the \"gang\" of workers/specific area on the rails they were working."
],
[
"Preserved locomotives",
"The following CP engines have been preserved:The ''Gov.",
"Stanford'' locomotive, one of the locomotives preserved* Central Pacific 1, ''Gov.",
"Stanford''* CP 233, a 2-6-2T the railroad had built, is stored at the California State Railroad Museum.",
"* Central Pacific 3, ''C.",
"P. Huntington'', later purchased by the Southern Pacific Transportation Company.",
"* Former Western Pacific ''Mariposa'', Central Pacific's second number 31.Was sold to Stockton Terminal and Eastern in 1914 and renumbered 1.Currently at the Travel Town Museum in Los Angeles.",
"* ''Virginia and Truckee 18 Dayton'' was built for the Virginia and Truckee Railroad and never served on the Central Pacific, but the engine was one of two locomotives built by the CP's Sacramento shops in preservation (the other being CP 233).",
"Moreover, its specifications were derived from CP 173, and thus is the only surviving example of that engine's design.",
"* Central Pacific's numbers 60 ''Jupiter'', and 63 ''Leviathan''.",
"Although both engines have been scrapped, and therefore technically do not count as having been preserved, there are exact, full-size operating replicas built in recent years.",
"The ''Jupiter'' was built for the National Park Service along with a replica of Union Pacific's 119 for use at their Golden Spike National Historic Site.",
"''Leviathan'' was finished in 2009, and was privately owned, traveling to various railroads to operate, until sold in 2018 to Stone Gable Estates of Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania.",
"Stone Gable relettered the locomotive as Pennsylvania Railroad No.",
"331, a now-scrapped steam locomotive that pulled Abraham Lincoln's funeral train, and operates on the estate's Harrisburg, Lincoln and Lancaster Railroad."
],
[
"Timeline",
"'''1861'''* June 28, 1861: \"Central Pacific Rail Road of California\" incorporated; name changed to \"Central Pacific Railroad of California\" on October 8, 1864, after the Pacific Railway Act amendment passes that summer.CPRR logo gilded \"Staff\" uniform button'''1862'''* July 1, 1862: President Lincoln signs the Pacific Railway Act, which authorized the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific to build a railroad to the Pacific Ocean.",
"'''1863'''* January 8, 1863: Ground-breaking ceremonies take place at Sacramento, California, at the foot of \"K\" Street at the waterfront of the Sacramento River.",
"* October 26, 1863: First rail of the Pacific Railroad laid at Sacramento.",
"'''1864'''* April 26, 1864: Central Pacific opened to Roseville, , where it makes a junction with the California Central Railroad, operating from Folsom north to Lincoln.",
"* June 3, 1864: The first revenue train on the Central Pacific operates between Sacramento and Newcastle, California* October 8, 1864: Following passage of the amendment to the Pacific Railroad Act, the company's name is changed to \"Central Pacific Railroad of California,\" a new corporation.1865 CPRR journal coverEnd of the track near Humboldt River Canyon, Nevada, 1868Summit station at Sierra Nevada'''1865'''* February 1865: Central Pacific hired its first 50 Cantonese emigrant laborers on a trial basis.",
"* May 13, 1865: Central Pacific opened to Auburn, California.",
"* September 1, 1865: Central Pacific opened to Colfax, California (formerly known as \"Illinoistown.",
"\")'''1866'''* December 3, 1866: Central Pacific opened to Cisco, California.",
"'''1867'''Summit Tunnel, West Portal ''(Composite image with the tracks removed in 1993 digitally restored)''* June 25, 1867: 5,000 Chinese railroad workers went on strike in protest against the longer hours and wage inequality they were facing.",
"* August 28, 1867: The Sierra Nevadas were finally \"conquered\" by the Central Pacific Railroad, after almost five years of sustained construction effort by its mainly Chinese crew about 10,000 strong, with the successful completion at Donner Pass of its 1,659-foot (506 m) Tunnel No.",
"6 (a.k.a.",
"the \"Summit Tunnel\").",
"* December 1, 1867: Central Pacific opened to Summit of the Sierra Nevada, .",
"'''1868'''* June 18, 1868: The first passenger train crosses the Sierra Nevada to Lake's Crossing (modern day Reno, Nevada) at the eastern foot of the Sierra in Nevada.",
"'''1869'''* April 28, 1869: Track crews on the Central Pacific lay of track in one day.",
"To date, this is the longest stretch of track to have been built in one day.",
"* May 10, 1869: The Central Pacific and Union Pacific tracks meet in Promontory, Utah.",
"* May 15, 1869: The first transcontinental trains are run over the new line to Sacramento.",
"* September 6, 1869: The first transcontinental train reaches the San Francisco Bay at Alameda Terminal, achieving the first coast-to-coast railroad line.",
"* November 8, 1869: Central Pacific subsidiaries, Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870) and San Francisco and Oakland Railroad, complete the final leg of the route, connecting Sacramento to Oakland Pier.",
"'''1870'''* June 23, 1870: Central Pacific is consolidated with the Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870), San Francisco and Alameda Railroad and San Francisco and Oakland Railroad to form the \"Central Pacific Railroad Co.\" (of June 1870).",
"* August 22, 1870: Central Pacific Railroad Co. is consolidated with the California & Oregon; San Francisco, Oakland & Alameda; and San Joaquin Valley Railroad; to form the \"Central Pacific Railroad Co.\", a new corporation.",
"'''1876'''* April 30, 1876: Operates the California Pacific Railroad between South Vallejo and Sacramento, Calistoga and Marysville until April 1, 1885 (see below).",
"'''1877'''* July 16, 1877: Start of the Great railroad strike of 1877 when railroad workers on strike in Martinsburg, West Virginia, derail and loot a train; United States President Rutherford B. Hayes calls in Federal troops to break the strike.",
"'''1883'''* November 18, 1883: A system of one-hour standard time zones for American railroads was first implemented.",
"The zones were named Intercolonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific.",
"Within one year, 85% of all cities having populations over 10,000, about 200 cities in total, were using standard time.",
"'''1885'''* April 1, 1885: Central Pacific is leased to Southern Pacific.",
"'''1888'''* June 30, 1888: Listed by ICC as a \"non-operating\" subsidiary of Southern Pacific.",
"'''1899'''* July 29, 1899: Central Pacific is reorganized as the \"Central Pacific Railway\".",
"'''1959'''* June 30, 1959: Central Pacific is formally merged into the Southern Pacific."
],
[
"Acquisitions",
"* Stockton and Copperopolis Railroad* Stockton and Visalia Railroad* Western Pacific Railroad (1862–1870)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Rail transport in California* Donner Pass (Sierra Nevada)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * Profiles how 20,000 Chinese railroad workers lived and worked while building the Central Pacific over Donner Pass.",
"Shows changing attitudes of CPRR officials who employed the Chinese.",
"* * * * * Questions whether promoters of the Central Pacific Railroad were oversubsidized.",
"Confirms the traditional view that subsidies were not an economic necessity because they \"influenced neither the decision to invest in the railroad nor the speed of its construction.\"",
"Notes that estimates of rate of return for the railroad developers using government funds range from 71% to 200%, while estimates of private rates of return range from 15% to 25%.",
"* * * * * * Shows how Chinese railroad workers lived and worked, and managed the finances associated with their employment.",
"Concludes that CPRR officials who employed the Chinese, even those at first opposed to the policy, came to appreciate the reliability of this group of laborers.",
"There are many quotations from accounts by contemporary observers.",
"* * Analyzes the impact of land grants from 1864 to 1890 on rates of return from investment in the Central Pacific Railroad.",
"Results suggest that even without land grants, rates of return were high enough to induce investment.",
"Also, land grants did not pay for the construction of the railroad.",
"Land grants, however, did produce large social returns in western states by accelerating construction of the system.",
"* Uses econometrics to determine the value of railroad land grants of the 19th century to the railroads and to society.",
"The author summarizes and criticizes previous treatments of this subject, and discusses his own findings.",
"Using the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific systems as the basis for his investigation, the author concludes that the railroad owners received unaided rates of return that substantially exceeded the private rate of return on the average alternative project in the economy during the same period.",
"Thus, the projects were profitable, although contemporary observers expected that the roads would be privately unprofitable without the land grant aid.",
"The land grants did not have a major effect, increasing the private rate of return only slightly.",
"Nevertheless, he says the policy of subsidizing those railroad systems was beneficial for society since the social rate of return from the project was substantial and exceeded the private rate by a significant margin.",
"* Ong tries to resolve the apparent inconsistency in the literature on Asians in early California, with contradictory studies showing evidence both for and against the exploitation of Chinese labor by the CPRR, using monopsony theory as developed by Joan Robinson.",
"Because CPRR set different wages for whites and Chinese (each group had different elasticities of supply) and used the two classes in different types of positions, the two groups were complementary, rather than interchangeable.",
"Calculations thus show higher levels of exploitation of the Chinese than found in previous studies.",
"* * Leland Stanford and the men who ran the CPRR paid lip-service to the idea of free competition, but in practice sought to dominate competing railroad and shipping lines.",
"Analyzing the period 1869–1893, the author shows how Stanford and his associates repeatedly entered into pooling arrangements to prevent competition, bought out competitors, or forced rivals to agree not to compete.",
"He concludes that Stanford and his partners viewed ''laissez-faire'' as applicable only to government controls, and not to businessmen's destruction of competition within the system.",
"* * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Central Pacific Railroad lawsuit and investigation documents, 1876-1887 at the California State Library.",
"* Guide to the Central Pacific Railroad Company Collection, 1861-1899 at California State Library.",
"* Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum* Railroads in California, handwritten report by L. M. Clement.",
"Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Clairvoyance"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Diagram by the French esotericist Paul Sédir to explain clairvoyance'''Clairvoyance''' (; ) is the claimed ability to acquire information that would considered impossible to get through scientifically proven sensation, thus classified as extrasensory perception, or \"sixth sense\".",
"Any person who is claimed to have such ability is said to be a '''clairvoyant''' () ().Claims for the existence of paranormal and psychic abilities such as clairvoyance have not been supported by scientific evidence.",
"Parapsychology explores this possibility, but the existence of the paranormal is not accepted by the scientific community.",
"The scientific community widely considers parapsychology, including the study of clairvoyance, a pseudoscience."
],
[
"Usage",
"Pertaining to the ability of clear-sightedness, clairvoyance refers to the paranormal ability to see persons and events that are distant in time or space.",
"It can be divided into roughly three classes: precognition, the ability to perceive or predict future events, retrocognition, the ability to see past events, and remote viewing, the perception of contemporary events happening outside the range of normal perception."
],
[
"In history and religion",
"Throughout history, there have been numerous places and times in which people have claimed themselves or others to be clairvoyant.In several religions, stories of certain individuals being able to see things far removed from their immediate sensory perception are commonplace, especially within pagan religions where oracles were used.",
"Prophecy often involved some degree of clairvoyance, especially when future events were predicted.",
"This ability has sometimes been attributed to a higher power rather than to the person performing it.===Christianity===A number of Christian saints were said to be able to see or know things that were far removed from their immediate sensory perception as a kind of gift from God, including Charbel Makhlouf, Padre Pio and Anne Catherine Emmerich in Catholicism and Gabriel Urgebadze, Paisios Eznepidis and John Maximovitch in Orthodoxy.",
"Jesus Christ in the Gospels is also recorded as being able to know things that were far removed from his immediate human perception.",
"Some Christians today also share the same claim.===Jainism===In Jainism, clairvoyance is regarded as one of the five kinds of knowledge.",
"The beings of hell and heaven (devas) are said to possess clairvoyance by birth.",
"According to Jain text Sarvārthasiddhi, \"this kind of knowledge has been called ''avadhi'' as it ascertains matter in downward range or knows objects within limits\".===Anthroposophy===Rudolf Steiner, famous as a clairvoyant himself, claimed that for a clairvoyant, it is easy to confuse his own emotional and spiritual being with the objective spiritual world."
],
[
"Parapsychology",
"===Early research===The earliest record of somnambulist clairvoyance is credited to the Marquis de Puységur, a follower of Franz Mesmer, who in 1784 was treating a local dull-witted peasant named Victor Race.",
"During treatment, Race reportedly would go into trance and undergo a personality change, becoming fluent and articulate, and giving diagnosis and prescription for his own disease as well as those of others.",
"Clairvoyance was a reported ability of some mediums during the spiritualist period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and psychics of many descriptions have claimed clairvoyant ability up to the present day.Character reader and clairvoyant in a British travelling show of the 1940s, collected by Arthur James Fenwick (1878–1957)Early researchers of clairvoyance included William Gregory, Gustav Pagenstecher, and Rudolf Tischner.",
"Clairvoyance experiments were reported in 1884 by Charles Richet.",
"Playing cards were enclosed in envelopes and a subject put under hypnosis attempted to identify them.",
"The subject was reported to have been successful in a series of 133 trials but the results dropped to chance level when performed before a group of scientists in Cambridge.",
"J. M. Peirce and E. C. Pickering reported a similar experiment in which they tested 36 subjects over 23,384 trials which did not obtain above chance scores.Ivor Lloyd Tuckett (1911) and Joseph McCabe (1920) analyzed early cases of clairvoyance and came to the conclusion they were best explained by coincidence or fraud.",
"In 1919, the magician P. T. Selbit staged a séance at his own flat in Bloomsbury.",
"The spiritualist Arthur Conan Doyle attended the séance and declared the clairvoyance manifestations to be genuine.A significant development in clairvoyance research came when J.",
"B. Rhine, a parapsychologist at Duke University, introduced a standard methodology, with a standard statistical approach to analyzing data, as part of his research into extrasensory perception.",
"A number of psychological departments attempted to repeat Rhine's experiments, with failure.",
"W. S. Cox (1936) from Princeton University with 132 subjects produced 25,064 trials in a playing card ESP experiment.",
"Cox concluded, \"There is no evidence of extrasensory perception either in the 'average man' or of the group investigated or in any particular individual of that group.",
"The discrepancy between these results and those obtained by Rhine is due either to uncontrollable factors in experimental procedure or to the difference in the subjects.\"",
"Four other psychological departments failed to replicate Rhine's results.",
"It was revealed that Rhine's experiments contained methodological flaws and procedural errors.Eileen Garrett was tested by Rhine at Duke University in 1933 with Zener cards.",
"Certain symbols that were placed on the cards and sealed in an envelope, and she was asked to guess their contents.",
"She performed poorly and later criticized the tests by claiming the cards lacked a psychic energy called \"energy stimulus\" and that she could not perform clairvoyance to order.",
"The parapsychologist Samuel Soal and his colleagues tested Garrett in May 1937.Most of the experiments were carried out in the Psychological Laboratory at the University College London.",
"A total of over 12,000 guesses were recorded but Garrett failed to produce above chance level.",
"In his report Soal wrote \"In the case of Mrs. Eileen Garrett we fail to find the slightest confirmation of Dr. J.",
"B. Rhine's remarkable claims relating to her alleged powers of extra-sensory perception.",
"Not only did she fail when I took charge of the experiments, but she failed equally when four other carefully trained experimenters took my place.",
"\"===Remote viewing===Remote viewing, also known as remote sensing, remote perception, telesthesia and travelling clairvoyance is the alleged paranormal ability to perceive a remote or hidden target without support of the senses.A well known study of remote viewing in recent times has been the US government-funded project at the Stanford Research Institute during the 1970s through the mid-1990s.",
"In 1972, Harold Puthoff and Russell Targ initiated a series of human subject studies to determine whether participants (the ''viewers'' or ''percipients'') could reliably identify and accurately describe salient features of remote locations or ''targets''.",
"In the early studies, a human ''sender'' was typically present at the remote location, as part of the experiment protocol.",
"A three-step process was used, the first step being to randomly select the target conditions to be experienced by the senders.",
"Secondly, in the viewing step, participants were asked to verbally express or sketch their impressions of the remote scene.",
"Thirdly, in the judging step, these descriptions were matched by separate judges, as closely as possible, with the intended targets.",
"The term remote viewing was coined to describe this overall process.",
"The first paper by Puthoff and Targ on remote viewing was published in ''Nature'' in March 1974; in it, the team reported some degree of remote viewing success.",
"After the publication of these findings, other attempts to replicate the experiments were carried out with remotely linked groups using computer conferencing.The psychologists David Marks and Richard Kammann attempted to replicate Targ and Puthoff's remote viewing experiments that were carried out in the 1970s at the Stanford Research Institute.",
"In a series of 35 studies, they were unable to replicate the results so investigated the procedure of the original experiments.",
"Marks and Kammann discovered that the notes given to the judges in Targ and Puthoff's experiments contained clues as to which order they were carried out, such as referring to yesterday's two targets, or they had the date of the session written at the top of the page.",
"They concluded that these clues were the reason for the experiment's high hit rates.",
"Marks was able to achieve 100 per cent accuracy without visiting any of the sites himself but by using cues.",
"James Randi has written controlled tests by several other researchers, eliminating several sources of cuing and extraneous evidence present in the original tests, produced negative results.",
"Students were also able to solve Puthoff and Targ's locations from the clues that had inadvertently been included in the transcripts.In 1980, Charles Tart claimed that a rejudging of the transcripts from one of Targ and Puthoff's experiments revealed an above-chance result.",
"Targ and Puthoff again refused to provide copies of the transcripts and it was not until July 1985 that they were made available for study when it was discovered they still contained sensory cues.",
"Marks and Christopher Scott (1986) wrote \"considering the importance for the remote viewing hypothesis of adequate cue removal, Tart's failure to perform this basic task seems beyond comprehension.",
"As previously concluded, remote viewing has not been demonstrated in the experiments conducted by Puthoff and Targ, only the repeated failure of the investigators to remove sensory cues.",
"\"In 1982 Robert Jahn, then Dean of the School of Engineering at Princeton University wrote a comprehensive review of psychic phenomena from an engineering perspective.",
"His paper included numerous references to remote viewing studies at the time.",
"Statistical flaws in his work have been proposed by others in the parapsychological community and within the general scientific community."
],
[
"Scientific reception",
"According to scientific research, clairvoyance is generally explained as the result of confirmation bias, expectancy bias, fraud, hallucination, self-delusion, sensory leakage, subjective validation, wishful thinking or failures to appreciate the base rate of chance occurrences and not as a paranormal power.",
"Parapsychology is generally regarded by the scientific community as a pseudoscience.",
"In 1988, the US National Research Council concluded \"The committee finds no scientific justification from research conducted over a period of 130 years, for the existence of parapsychological phenomena.",
"\"Skeptics say that if clairvoyance were a reality, it would have become abundantly clear.",
"They also contend that those who believe in paranormal phenomena do so for merely psychological reasons.",
"According to David G. Myers (''Psychology,'' 8th ed.",
"):The search for a valid and reliable test of clairvoyance has resulted in thousands of experiments.",
"One controlled procedure has invited 'senders' to telepathically transmit one of four visual images to 'receivers' deprived of sensation in a nearby chamber (Bem & Honorton, 1994).",
"The result?",
"A reported 32 percent accurate response rate, surpassing the chance rate of 25 percent.",
"But follow-up studies have (depending on who was summarizing the results) failed to replicate the phenomenon or produced mixed results (Bem & others, 2001; Milton & Wiseman, 2002; Storm, 2000, 2003).One skeptic, magician James Randi, had a longstanding offer of U.S. $1 million—\"to anyone who proves a genuine psychic power under proper observing conditions\" (Randi, 1999).",
"French, Australian, and Indian groups have parallel offers of up to 200,000 euros to anyone with demonstrable paranormal abilities (CFI, 2003).",
"Large as these sums are, the scientific seal of approval would be worth far more to anyone whose claims could be authenticated.",
"To refute those who say there is no ESP, one need only produce a single person who can demonstrate a single, reproducible ESP phenomenon.",
"So far, no such person has emerged.",
"Randi's offer has been publicized for three decades and dozens of people have been tested, sometimes under the scrutiny of an independent panel of judges.",
"Still, nothing.",
"\"People's desire to believe in the paranormal is stronger than all the evidence that it does not exist.\"",
"Susan Blackmore, \"Blackmore's first law\", 2004.Clairvoyance is considered a hallucination by mainstream psychiatry."
],
[
"See also",
"* Astral projection* Astral religion* Aura* Body of light* ''Clairvoyance'' (book)* Inner eye* List of topics characterized as pseudoscience* Mediumship* Out-of-body experience* Photoacoustic effect* Postcognition* Postdiction (retroactive clairvoyance)* Precognition* Remote viewing* Scientific skepticism* Second sight* Synchronicity* Third eye* ''Thought-Forms'' (book)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* Alt URL"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* James Alcock (1981).",
"''Parapsychology: Science or Magic?",
"A Psychological Perspective''.",
"Pergamon Press.",
".",
"* Willis Dutcher (1922).",
"''On the Other Side of the Footlights: An Expose of Routines, Apparatus and Deceptions Resorted to by Mediums, Clairvoyants, Fortune Tellers and Crystal Gazers in Deluding the Public''.",
"Berlin, WI: Heaney Magic.",
"* Thomas Gilovich (1993).",
"''How We Know What Isn't So: Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life''.",
"Free Press.",
".",
"* Henry Gordon (1988).",
"''Extrasensory Deception: ESP, Psychics, Shirley MacLaine, Ghosts, UFOs''.",
"Macmillan of Canada.",
".",
"*Donald Hebb (1980).",
"''Extrasensory Perception: A Problem''.",
"In ''Essays on Mind''.",
"Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.",
".",
"* C. E. M. Hansel (1989).",
"''The Search for Psychic Power: ESP and Parapsychology Revisited''.",
"Prometheus Books.",
".",
"* Terence Hines (2003).",
"''Pseudoscience and the Paranormal''.",
"Prometheus Books.",
".",
"* David Marks.",
"(2000).",
"''The Psychology of the Psychic'' (2nd Edition).",
"Prometheus Books.",
".",
"* Joseph McCabe (1920).",
"''Is Spiritualism Based On Fraud?",
"The Evidence Given By Sir A. C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined''.",
"Chapter \"The Subtle Art of Clairvoyance\".",
"London: Watts & Co. pp.",
"93–108."
],
[
"External links",
"* Springer Psychic: \"A Study in 'Clairvoyance' – Joe Nickell* \"Debunking the Sixth Sense\" – ''Science Daily''* \"Clairvoyance\" – ''The Skeptic's Dictionary''"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chiropractic"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Chiropractic''' is a form of alternative medicine concerned with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, especially of the spine.",
"It has esoteric origins and is based on several pseudoscientific ideas.Many '''chiropractors''', especially those in the field's early history, have proposed that mechanical disorders of the joints, especially of the spine, affect general health, and that regular manipulation of the spine (spinal adjustment) improves general health.",
"The main chiropractic treatment technique involves manual therapy, especially manipulation of the spine, other joints, and soft tissues, but may also include exercises and health and lifestyle counseling.",
"A chiropractor may have a Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.) degree and be referred to as \"doctor\" but is not a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.)",
"or a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.).",
"While many chiropractors view themselves as primary care providers, chiropractic clinical training does not meet the requirements for that designation.Systematic reviews of controlled clinical studies of treatments used by chiropractors have found no evidence that chiropractic manipulation is effective, with the possible exception of treatment for back pain.",
"A 2011 critical evaluation of 45 systematic reviews concluded that the data included in the study \"failed to demonstrate convincingly that spinal manipulation is an effective intervention for any condition.\"",
"Spinal manipulation may be cost-effective for sub-acute or chronic low back pain, but the results for acute low back pain were insufficient.",
"No compelling evidence exists to indicate that maintenance chiropractic care adequately prevents symptoms or diseases.There is not sufficient data to establish the safety of chiropractic manipulations.",
"It is frequently associated with mild to moderate adverse effects, with serious or fatal complications in rare cases.",
"There is controversy regarding the degree of risk of vertebral artery dissection, which can lead to stroke and death, from cervical manipulation.",
"Several deaths have been associated with this technique and it has been suggested that the relationship is causative, a claim which is disputed by many chiropractors.Chiropractic is well established in the United States, Canada, and Australia.",
"It overlaps with other manual-therapy professions such as osteopathy and physical therapy.",
"Most who seek chiropractic care do so for low back pain.",
"Back and neck pain are considered the specialties of chiropractic, but many chiropractors treat ailments other than musculoskeletal issues.",
"Chiropractic has two main groups: \"straights\", now the minority, emphasize vitalism, \"Innate Intelligence\", and consider vertebral subluxations to be the cause of all disease; and \"mixers\", the majority, are more open to mainstream views and conventional medical techniques, such as exercise, massage, and ice therapy.D.",
"D. Palmer founded chiropractic in the 1890s, after saying he received it from \"the other world\"; Palmer maintained that the tenets of chiropractic were passed along to him by a doctor who had died 50 years previously.",
"His son B. J. Palmer helped to expand chiropractic in the early 20th century.",
"Throughout its history, chiropractic has been controversial.",
"Its foundation is at odds with evidence-based medicine, and has been sustained by pseudoscientific ideas such as vertebral subluxation and Innate Intelligence.",
"Despite the overwhelming evidence that vaccination is an effective public health intervention, among chiropractors there are significant disagreements over the subject, which has led to negative impacts on both public vaccination and mainstream acceptance of chiropractic.",
"The American Medical Association called chiropractic an \"unscientific cult\" in 1966 and boycotted it until losing an antitrust case in 1987.Chiropractic has had a strong political base and sustained demand for services.",
"In the last decades of the twentieth century, it gained more legitimacy and greater acceptance among conventional physicians and health plans in the United States.",
"During the COVID-19 pandemic, chiropractic professional associations advised chiropractors to adhere to CDC, WHO, and local health department guidance.",
"Despite these recommendations, a small but vocal and influential number of chiropractors spread vaccine misinformation."
],
[
"Conceptual basis",
"=== Philosophy ===Chiropractic is generally categorized as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), which focuses on manipulation of the musculoskeletal system, especially the spine.",
"Its founder, D.D.",
"Palmer, called it \"a science of healing without drugs\".Chiropractic's origins lie in the folk medicine of bonesetting, and as it evolved it incorporated vitalism, spiritual inspiration and rationalism.",
"Its early philosophy was based on deduction from irrefutable doctrine, which helped distinguish chiropractic from medicine, provided it with legal and political defenses against claims of practicing medicine without a license, and allowed chiropractors to establish themselves as an autonomous profession.",
"This \"straight\" philosophy, taught to generations of chiropractors, rejects the inferential reasoning of the scientific method, and relies on deductions from vitalistic first principles rather than on the materialism of science.",
"However, most practitioners tend to incorporate scientific research into chiropractic, and most practitioners are \"mixers\" who attempt to combine the materialistic reductionism of science with the metaphysics of their predecessors and with the holistic paradigm of wellness.",
"A 2008 commentary proposed that chiropractic actively divorce itself from the straight philosophy as part of a campaign to eliminate untestable dogma and engage in critical thinking and evidence-based research.+ Two chiropractic belief system constructs The testable principle The untestable metaphor Chiropractic adjustment↓Restoration of structural integrity↓Improvement of health status Universal intelligence↓Innate intelligence↓Body physiology '''''Materialistic:''''' '''''Vitalistic:''''' ''Taken from Mootz & Phillips 1997''Although a wide diversity of ideas exist among chiropractors, they share the belief that the spine and health are related in a fundamental way, and that this relationship is mediated through the nervous system.",
"Some chiropractors claim spinal manipulation can have an effect on a variety of ailments such as irritable bowel syndrome and asthma.Chiropractic philosophy includes the following perspectives:Holism assumes that health is affected by everything in an individual's environment; some sources also include a spiritual or existential dimension.",
"In contrast, reductionism in chiropractic reduces causes and cures of health problems to a single factor, vertebral subluxation.",
"Homeostasis emphasizes the body's inherent self-healing abilities.",
"Chiropractic's early notion of innate intelligence can be thought of as a metaphor for homeostasis.A large number of chiropractors fear that if they do not separate themselves from the traditional vitalistic concept of innate intelligence, chiropractic will continue to be seen as a fringe profession.",
"A variant of chiropractic called naprapathy originated in Chicago in the early twentieth century.",
"It holds that manual manipulation of soft tissue can reduce \"interference\" in the body and thus improve health.=== Straights and mixers ===+ Range of belief perspectives in chiropractic Perspective attribute Potential belief endpoints Scope of practice: narrow (\"straight\") ←→ broad (\"mixer\") Diagnostic approach: intuitive ←→ analytical Philosophic orientation: vitalistic ←→ materialistic Scientific orientation: descriptive ←→ experimental Process orientation: implicit ←→ explicit Practice attitude: doctor/model-centered ←→ patient/situation-centered Professional integration: separate and distinct ←→ integrated into mainstream ''Taken from Mootz & Phillips 1997''''Straight'' chiropractors adhere to the philosophical principles set forth by D.D.",
"and B.J.",
"Palmer, and retain metaphysical definitions and vitalistic qualities.",
"Straight chiropractors believe that vertebral subluxation leads to interference with an \"innate intelligence\" exerted via the human nervous system and is a primary underlying risk factor for many diseases.",
"Straights view the medical diagnosis of patient complaints, which they consider to be the \"secondary effects\" of subluxations, to be unnecessary for chiropractic treatment.",
"Thus, straight chiropractors are concerned primarily with the detection and correction of vertebral subluxation via adjustment and do not \"mix\" other types of therapies into their practice style.",
"Their philosophy and explanations are metaphysical in nature and they prefer to use traditional chiropractic lexicon terminology such as \"perform spinal analysis\", \"detect subluxation\", \"correct with adjustment\".",
"They prefer to remain separate and distinct from mainstream health care.",
"Although considered the minority group, \"they have been able to transform their status as purists and heirs of the lineage into influence dramatically out of proportion to their numbers.",
"\"''Mixer'' chiropractors \"mix\" diagnostic and treatment approaches from chiropractic, medical or osteopathic viewpoints and make up the majority of chiropractors.",
"Unlike straight chiropractors, mixers believe subluxation is one of many causes of disease, and hence they tend to be open to mainstream medicine.",
"Many of them incorporate mainstream medical diagnostics and employ conventional treatments including techniques of physical therapy such as exercise, stretching, massage, ice packs, electrical muscle stimulation, therapeutic ultrasound, and moist heat.",
"Some mixers also use techniques from alternative medicine, including nutritional supplements, acupuncture, homeopathy, herbal remedies, and biofeedback.Although mixers are the majority group, many of them retain belief in vertebral subluxation as shown in a 2003 survey of 1,100 North American chiropractors, which found that 88 percent wanted to retain the term \"vertebral subluxation complex\", and that when asked to estimate the percent of disorders of internal organs that subluxation significantly contributes to, the mean response was 62 percent.",
"A 2008 survey of 6,000 American chiropractors demonstrated that most chiropractors seem to believe that a subluxation-based clinical approach may be of limited utility for addressing visceral disorders, and greatly favored non-subluxation-based clinical approaches for such conditions.",
"The same survey showed that most chiropractors generally believed that the majority of their clinical approach for addressing musculoskeletal/biomechanical disorders such as back pain was based on subluxation.",
"Chiropractors often offer conventional therapies such as physical therapy and lifestyle counseling, and it may for the lay person be difficult to distinguish the unscientific from the scientific.=== Vertebral subluxation ===In science-based medicine, the term \"subluxation\" refers to an incomplete or partial dislocation of a joint, from the Latin ''luxare'' for 'dislocate'.",
"While medical doctors use the term exclusively to refer to physical dislocations, Chiropractic founder D. D. Palmer imbued the word ''subluxation'' with a metaphysical and philosophical meaning drawn from pseudoscientific traditions such as Vitalism.Palmer claimed that ''vertebral subluxations'' interfered with the body's function and its inborn ability to heal itself.",
"D. D. Palmer repudiated his earlier theory that vertebral subluxations caused pinched nerves in the intervertebral spaces in favor of subluxations causing altered nerve vibration, either too tense or too slack, affecting the tone (health) of the end organ.",
"He qualified this by noting that knowledge of innate intelligence was not essential to the competent practice of chiropractic.",
"This concept was later expanded upon by his son, B. J. Palmer, and was instrumental in providing the legal basis of differentiating chiropractic from conventional medicine.",
"In 1910, D. D. Palmer theorized that the nervous system controlled health:Chiropractors use x-ray radiography to examine the bone structure of a patient.Vertebral subluxation, a core concept of traditional chiropractic, remains unsubstantiated and largely untested, and a debate about whether to keep it in the chiropractic paradigm has been ongoing for decades.",
"In general, critics of traditional subluxation-based chiropractic (including chiropractors) are skeptical of its clinical value, dogmatic beliefs and metaphysical approach.",
"While straight chiropractic still retains the traditional vitalistic construct espoused by the founders, evidence-based chiropractic suggests that a mechanistic view will allow chiropractic care to become integrated into the wider health care community.",
"This is still a continuing source of debate within the chiropractic profession as well, with some schools of chiropractic still teaching the traditional/straight subluxation-based chiropractic, while others have moved towards an evidence-based chiropractic that rejects metaphysical foundings and limits itself to primarily neuromusculoskeletal conditions.In 2005, the chiropractic subluxation was defined by the World Health Organization as \"a lesion or dysfunction in a joint or motion segment in which alignment, movement integrity and/or physiological function are altered, although contact between joint surfaces remains intact.",
"It is essentially a functional entity, which may influence biomechanical and neural integrity.\"",
"This differs from the medical definition of subluxation as a significant structural displacement, which can be seen with static imaging techniques such as X-rays.",
"The use of X-ray imaging in the case of vertebral subluxation exposes patients to harmful ionizing radiation for no evidentially supported reason.",
"The 2008 book ''Trick or Treatment'' states \"X-rays can reveal neither the subluxations nor the innate intelligence associated with chiropractic philosophy, because they do not exist.\"",
"Attorney David Chapman-Smith, Secretary-General of the World Federation of Chiropractic, has stated that \"Medical critics have asked how there can be a subluxation if it cannot be seen on X-ray.",
"The answer is that the chiropractic subluxation is essentially a functional entity, not structural, and is therefore no more visible on static X-ray than a limp or headache or any other functional problem.\"",
"The General Chiropractic Council, the statutory regulatory body for chiropractors in the United Kingdom, states that the chiropractic vertebral subluxation complex \"is not supported by any clinical research evidence that would allow claims to be made that it is the cause of disease.",
"\"As of 2014, the US National Board of Chiropractic Examiners states \"The specific focus of chiropractic practice is known as the chiropractic subluxation or joint dysfunction.",
"A subluxation is a health concern that manifests in the skeletal joints, and, through complex anatomical and physiological relationships, affects the nervous system and may lead to reduced function, disability or illness.",
"\"===Pseudoscience versus spinal manipulation therapy===While some chiropractors limit their practice to short-term treatment of musculoskeletal conditions, many falsely claim to be able treat a myriad of other conditions.",
"Some dissuade patients from seeking medical care, others have pretended to be qualified to act as a family doctor.Quackwatch, an alternative medicine watchdog, cautions against seeing chiropractors who:* Treat young children* Discourage immunization* Pretend to be a family doctor* Take full spine X-rays* Promote unproven dietary supplements* Are antagonistic to scientific medicine* Claim to treat non-musculoskeletal problemsWriting for the ''Skeptical Inquirer'', one physician cautioned against seeing even chiropractors who solely claim to treat musculoskeletal conditions:"
],
[
"Scope of practice",
"A treatment table at a chiropractic officeChiropractors emphasize the conservative management of the neuromusculoskeletal system without the use of medicines or surgery, with special emphasis on the spine.",
"Back and neck pain are the specialties of chiropractic but many chiropractors treat ailments other than musculoskeletal issues.",
"There is a range of opinions among chiropractors: some believed that treatment should be confined to the spine, or back and neck pain; others disagreed.",
"For example, while one 2009 survey of American chiropractors had found that 73% classified themselves as \"back pain/musculoskeletal specialists\", the label \"back and neck pain specialists\" was regarded by 47% of them as a ''least'' desirable description in a 2005 international survey.",
"Chiropractic combines aspects from mainstream and alternative medicine, and there is no agreement about how to define the profession: although chiropractors have many attributes of primary care providers, chiropractic has more attributes of a medical specialty like dentistry or podiatry.",
"It has been proposed that chiropractors specialize in nonsurgical spine care, instead of attempting to also treat other problems, but the more expansive view of chiropractic is still widespread.Mainstream health care and governmental organizations such as the World Health Organization consider chiropractic to be complementary and alternative medicine (CAM); and a 2008 study reported that 31% of surveyed chiropractors categorized chiropractic as CAM, 27% as integrated medicine, and 12% as mainstream medicine.",
"Many chiropractors believe they are primary care providers, including US and UK chiropractors, but the length, breadth, and depth of chiropractic clinical training do not support the requirements to be considered primary care providers, so their role on primary care is limited and disputed.Chiropractic overlaps with several other forms of manual therapy, including massage therapy, osteopathy, physical therapy, and sports medicine.",
"Chiropractic is autonomous from and competitive with mainstream medicine, and osteopathy outside the US remains primarily a manual medical system; physical therapists work alongside and cooperate with mainstream medicine, and osteopathic medicine in the U.S. has merged with the medical profession.",
"Practitioners may distinguish these competing approaches through claims that, compared to other therapists, chiropractors heavily emphasize spinal manipulation, tend to use firmer manipulative techniques, and promote maintenance care; that osteopaths use a wider variety of treatment procedures; and that physical therapists emphasize machinery and exercise.Chiropractic diagnosis may involve a range of methods including skeletal imaging, observational and tactile assessments, and orthopedic and neurological evaluation.",
"A chiropractor may also refer a patient to an appropriate specialist, or co-manage with another health care provider.",
"Common patient management involves spinal manipulation (SM) and other manual therapies to the joints and soft tissues, rehabilitative exercises, health promotion, electrical modalities, complementary procedures, and lifestyle advice.A chiropractic adjustment of a horseChiropractors are not normally licensed to write medical prescriptions or perform major surgery in the United States (although New Mexico has become the first US state to allow \"advanced practice\" trained chiropractors to prescribe certain medications).",
"In the US, their scope of practice varies by state, based on inconsistent views of chiropractic care: some states, such as Iowa, broadly allow treatment of \"human ailments\"; some, such as Delaware, use vague concepts such as \"transition of nerve energy\" to define scope of practice; others, such as New Jersey, specify a severely narrowed scope.",
"US states also differ over whether chiropractors may conduct laboratory tests or diagnostic procedures, dispense dietary supplements, or use other therapies such as homeopathy and acupuncture; in Oregon they can become certified to perform minor surgery and to deliver children via natural childbirth.",
"A 2003 survey of North American chiropractors found that a slight majority favored allowing them to write prescriptions for over-the-counter drugs.",
"A 2010 survey found that 72% of Swiss chiropractors considered their ability to prescribe nonprescription medication as an advantage for chiropractic treatment.A related field, veterinary chiropractic, applies manual therapies to animals and is recognized in many US states, but is not recognized by the American Chiropractic Association as being chiropractic.",
"It remains controversial within certain segments of the veterinary and chiropractic professions.No single profession \"owns\" spinal manipulation and there is little consensus as to which profession should administer SM, raising concerns by chiropractors that other medical physicians could \"steal\" SM procedures from chiropractors.",
"A focus on evidence-based SM research has also raised concerns that the resulting practice guidelines could limit the scope of chiropractic practice to treating backs and necks.",
"Two US states (Washington and Arkansas) prohibit physical therapists from performing SM, some states allow them to do it only if they have completed advanced training in SM, and some states allow only chiropractors to perform SM, or only chiropractors and physicians.",
"Bills to further prohibit non-chiropractors from performing SM are regularly introduced into state legislatures and are opposed by physical therapist organizations."
],
[
"Treatments",
"A chiropractor performs an adjustment on a patient.Spinal manipulation, which chiropractors call \"spinal adjustment\" or \"chiropractic adjustment\", is the most common treatment used in chiropractic care.",
"Spinal manipulation is a passive manual maneuver during which a three-joint complex is taken past the normal range of movement, but not so far as to dislocate or damage the joint.",
"Its defining factor is a dynamic thrust, which is a sudden force that causes an audible release and attempts to increase a joint's range of motion.",
"High-velocity, low-amplitude spinal manipulation (HVLA-SM) thrusts have physiological effects that signal neural discharge from paraspinal muscle tissues, depending on duration and amplitude of the thrust are factors of the degree in paraspinal muscle spindles activation.",
"Clinical skill in employing HVLA-SM thrusts depends on the ability of the practitioner to handle the duration and magnitude of the load.",
"More generally, spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) describes techniques where the hands are used to manipulate, massage, mobilize, adjust, stimulate, apply traction to, or otherwise influence the spine and related tissues.There are several schools of chiropractic adjustive techniques, although most chiropractors mix techniques from several schools.",
"The following adjustive procedures were received by more than 10% of patients of licensed US chiropractors in a 2003 survey: Diversified technique (full-spine manipulation, employing various techniques), extremity adjusting, Activator technique (which uses a spring-loaded tool to deliver precise adjustments to the spine), Thompson Technique (which relies on a drop table and detailed procedural protocols), Gonstead (which emphasizes evaluating the spine along with specific adjustment that avoids rotational vectors), Cox/flexion-distraction (a gentle, low-force adjusting procedure which mixes chiropractic with osteopathic principles and utilizes specialized adjusting tables with movable parts), adjustive instrument, Sacro-Occipital Technique (which models the spine as a torsion bar), Nimmo Receptor-Tonus Technique, applied kinesiology (which emphasises \"muscle testing\" as a diagnostic tool), and cranial.",
"Chiropractic biophysics technique uses inverse functions of rotations during spinal manipulation.",
"Koren Specific Technique (KST) may use their hands, or they may use an electric device known as an \"ArthroStim\" for assessment and spinal manipulations.",
"Insurers in the US and UK that cover other chiropractic techniques exclude KST from coverage because they consider it to be \"experimental and investigational\".",
"Medicine-assisted manipulation, such as manipulation under anesthesia, involves sedation or local anesthetic and is done by a team that includes an anesthesiologist; a 2008 systematic review did not find enough evidence to make recommendations about its use for chronic low back pain.Lumbar, cervical and thoracic chiropractic spinal manipulationMany other procedures are used by chiropractors for treating the spine, other joints and tissues, and general health issues.",
"The following procedures were received by more than one-third of patients of licensed US chiropractors in a 2003 survey: Diversified technique (full-spine manipulation; mentioned in previous paragraph), physical fitness/exercise promotion, corrective or therapeutic exercise, ergonomic/postural advice, self-care strategies, activities of daily living, changing risky/unhealthy behaviors, nutritional/dietary recommendations, relaxation/stress reduction recommendations, ice pack/cryotherapy, extremity adjusting (also mentioned in previous paragraph), trigger point therapy, and disease prevention/early screening advice.A 2010 study describing Belgian chiropractors and their patients found chiropractors in Belgium mostly focus on neuromusculoskeletal complaints in adult patients, with emphasis on the spine.",
"The diversified technique is the most often applied technique at 93%, followed by the Activator mechanical-assisted technique at 41%.",
"A 2009 study assessing chiropractic students giving or receiving spinal manipulations while attending a United States chiropractic college found Diversified, Gonstead, and upper cervical manipulations are frequently used methods.=== Practice guidelines ===Reviews of research studies within the chiropractic community have been used to generate practice guidelines outlining standards that specify which chiropractic treatments are legitimate (i.e.",
"supported by evidence) and conceivably reimbursable under managed care health payment systems.",
"Evidence-based guidelines are supported by one end of an ideological continuum among chiropractors; the other end employs antiscientific reasoning and makes unsubstantiated claims.",
"Chiropractic remains at a crossroads, and that in order to progress it would need to embrace science; the promotion by some for it to be a cure-all was both \"misguided and irrational\".",
"A 2007 survey of Alberta chiropractors found that they do not consistently apply research in practice, which may have resulted from a lack of research education and skills.",
"Specific guidelines concerning the treatment of nonspecific (i.e., unknown cause) low back pain are inconsistent between countries.=== Effectiveness ===Numerous controlled clinical studies of treatments used by chiropractors have been conducted, with varied results.",
"There is no conclusive evidence that chiropractic manipulative treatment is effective for the treatment of any medical condition, except perhaps for certain kinds of back pain.Generally, the research carried out into the effectiveness of chiropractic has been of poor quality.",
"Research published by chiropractors is distinctly biased: reviews of SM for back pain tended to find positive conclusions when authored by chiropractors, while reviews by mainstream authors did not.There is a wide range of ways to measure treatment outcomes.",
"Chiropractic care benefits from the placebo response, but it is difficult to construct a trustworthy placebo for clinical trials of spinal manipulative therapy (SMT).",
"The efficacy of maintenance care in chiropractic is unknown.Available evidence covers the following conditions:* '''Low back pain'''.",
"A 2013 Cochrane review found very low to moderate evidence that SMT was no more effective than inert interventions, sham SMT or as an adjunct therapy for acute low back pain.",
"The same review found that SMT appears to be no better than other recommended therapies.",
"A 2012 overview of systematic reviews found that collectively, SM failed to show it is an effective intervention for pain.",
"A 2011 Cochrane review found strong evidence that suggests there is no clinically meaningful difference between SMT and other treatments for reducing pain and improving function for chronic low back pain.",
"A 2010 Cochrane review found no difference between the effects of combined chiropractic treatments and other treatments for chronic or mixed duration low back pain.",
"A 2010 systematic review found that most studies suggest SMT achieves equivalent or superior improvement in pain and function when compared with other commonly used interventions for short, intermediate, and long-term follow-up.",
"* '''Radiculopathy'''.",
"A 2013 systematic review and meta-analysis found a statistically significant improvement in overall recovery from sciatica following SM, when compared to usual care, and suggested that SM may be considered.",
"There is moderate quality evidence to support the use of SM for the treatment of acute lumbar radiculopathy and acute lumbar disc herniation with associated radiculopathy.",
"There is low or very low evidence supporting SM for chronic lumbar spine-related extremity symptoms and cervical spine-related extremity symptoms of any duration and no evidence exists for the treatment of thoracic radiculopathy.",
"* '''Whiplash and other neck pain'''.",
"There is no consensus on the effectiveness of manual therapies for neck pain.",
"A 2013 systematic review found that the data suggests that there are minimal short- and long-term treatment differences when comparing manipulation or mobilization of the cervical spine to physical therapy or exercise for neck pain improvement.",
"A 2013 systematic review found that although there is insufficient evidence that thoracic SM is more effective than other treatments, it is a suitable intervention to treat some patients with non-specific neck pain.",
"A 2011 systematic review found that thoracic SM may offer short-term improvement for the treatment of acute or subacute mechanical neck pain; although the body of literature is still weak.",
"A 2010 Cochrane review found low quality evidence that suggests cervical manipulation may offer better short-term pain relief than a control for neck pain, and moderate evidence that cervical manipulation and mobilization produced similar effects on pain, function and patient satisfaction.",
"A 2010 systematic review found low level evidence that suggests chiropractic care improves cervical range of motion and pain in the management of whiplash.",
"* '''Headache'''.",
"There is conflicting evidence surrounding the use of chiropractic SMT for the treatment and prevention of migraine headaches.",
"A 2006 review found no rigorous evidence supporting SM or other manual therapies for tension headache.",
"A 2005 review found that the evidence was weak for effectiveness of chiropractic manipulation for tension headache, and that it was probably more effective for tension headache than for migraine.",
"* '''Extremity conditions'''.",
"A 2011 systematic review and meta-analysis concluded that the addition of manual mobilizations to an exercise program for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis resulted in better pain relief than a supervised exercise program alone and suggested that manual therapists consider adding manual mobilization to optimize supervised active exercise programs.",
"There is silver level evidence that manual therapy is more effective than exercise for the treatment of hip osteoarthritis, however this evidence could be considered to be inconclusive.",
"There is a small amount of research into the efficacy of chiropractic treatment for upper limbs, limited to low level evidence supporting chiropractic management of shoulder pain and limited or fair evidence supporting chiropractic management of leg conditions.",
"* '''Other'''.",
"A 2012 systematic review found insufficient low bias evidence to support the use of spinal manipulation as a therapy for the treatment of hypertension.",
"A 2011 systematic review found moderate evidence to support the use of manual therapy for cervicogenic dizziness.",
"There is very weak evidence for chiropractic care for adult scoliosis (curved or rotated spine) and no scientific data for idiopathic adolescent scoliosis.",
"A 2007 systematic review found that few studies of chiropractic care for nonmusculoskeletal conditions are available, and they are typically not of high quality; it also found that the entire clinical encounter of chiropractic care (as opposed to just SM) provides benefit to patients with cervicogenic dizziness, and that the evidence from reviews is negative, or too weak to draw conclusions, for a wide variety of other nonmusculoskeletal conditions, including ADHD/learning disabilities, dizziness, high blood pressure, and vision conditions.",
"Other reviews have found no evidence of significant benefit for asthma, baby colic, bedwetting, carpal tunnel syndrome, fibromyalgia, gastrointestinal disorders, kinetic imbalance due to suboccipital strain (KISS) in infants, menstrual cramps, insomnia, postmenopausal symptoms, or pelvic and back pain during pregnancy.",
"As there is no evidence of effectiveness or safety for cervical manipulation for baby colic, it is not endorsed.=== Safety ===Chiropractic adjustment on childrenThe World Health Organization found chiropractic care in general is safe when employed skillfully and appropriately.",
"There is not sufficient data to establish the safety of chiropractic manipulations.",
"Manipulation is regarded as relatively safe but complications can arise, and it has known adverse effects, risks and contraindications.",
"Absolute contraindications to spinal manipulative therapy are conditions that should not be manipulated; these contraindications include rheumatoid arthritis and conditions known to result in unstable joints.",
"Relative contraindications are conditions where increased risk is acceptable in some situations and where low-force and soft-tissue techniques are treatments of choice; these contraindications include osteoporosis.",
"Although most contraindications apply only to manipulation of the affected region, some neurological signs indicate referral to emergency medical services; these include sudden and severe headache or neck pain unlike that previously experienced.• Indirect risks of chiropractic involve delayed or missed diagnoses through consulting a chiropractor.Spinal manipulation is associated with frequent, mild and temporary adverse effects, including new or worsening pain or stiffness in the affected region.",
"They have been estimated to occur in 33% to 61% of patients, and frequently occur within an hour of treatment and disappear within 24 to 48 hours; adverse reactions appear to be more common following manipulation than mobilization.",
"The most frequently stated adverse effects are mild headache, soreness, and briefly elevated pain fatigue.",
"Chiropractic is correlated with a very high incidence of minor adverse effects.",
"Rarely, spinal manipulation, particularly on the upper spine, can also result in complications that can lead to permanent disability or death; these can occur in adults and children.",
"Estimates vary widely for the incidence of these complications, and the actual incidence is unknown, due to high levels of underreporting and to the difficulty of linking manipulation to adverse effects such as stroke, which is a particular concern.",
"Adverse effects are poorly reported in recent studies investigating chiropractic manipulations.",
"A 2016 systematic review concludes that the level of reporting is unsuitable and unacceptable.",
"Reports of serious adverse events have occurred, resulting from spinal manipulation therapy of the lumbopelvic region.",
"Estimates for serious adverse events vary from 5 strokes per 100,000 manipulations to 1.46 serious adverse events per 10 million manipulations and 2.68 deaths per 10 million manipulations, though it was determined that there was inadequate data to be conclusive.",
"Several case reports show temporal associations between interventions and potentially serious complications.",
"The published medical literature contains reports of 26 deaths since 1934 following chiropractic manipulations and many more seem to remain unpublished.Vertebrobasilar artery stroke (VAS) is statistically associated with chiropractic services in persons under 45 years of age, but it is similarly associated with general practitioner services, suggesting that these associations are likely explained by preexisting conditions.",
"Weak to moderately strong evidence supports causation (as opposed to statistical association) between cervical manipulative therapy (CMT) and VAS.",
"There is insufficient evidence to support a strong association or no association between cervical manipulation and stroke.",
"While the biomechanical evidence is not sufficient to support the statement that CMT causes cervical artery dissection (CD), clinical reports suggest that mechanical forces have a part in a substantial number of CDs and the majority of population controlled studies found an association between CMT and VAS in young people.",
"It is strongly recommended that practitioners consider the plausibility of CD as a symptom, and people can be informed of the association between CD and CMT before administering manipulation of the cervical spine.",
"There is controversy regarding the degree of risk of stroke from cervical manipulation.",
"Many chiropractors state that, the association between chiropractic therapy and vertebral arterial dissection is not proven.",
"However, it has been suggested that the causality between chiropractic cervical manipulation beyond the normal range of motion and vascular accidents is probable or definite.",
"There is very low evidence supporting a small association between internal carotid artery dissection and chiropractic neck manipulation.",
"The incidence of internal carotid artery dissection following cervical spine manipulation is unknown.",
"The literature infrequently reports helpful data to better understand the association between cervical manipulative therapy, cervical artery dissection and stroke.",
"The limited evidence is inconclusive that chiropractic spinal manipulation therapy is not a cause of intracranial hypotension.",
"Cervical intradural disc herniation is very rare following spinal manipulation therapy.Chiropractors sometimes employ diagnostic imaging techniques such as X-rays and CT scans that rely on ionizing radiation.",
"Although there is no clear evidence to justify the practice, some chiropractors still X-ray a patient several times a year.",
"Practice guidelines aim to reduce unnecessary radiation exposure, which increases cancer risk in proportion to the amount of radiation received.",
"Research suggests that radiology instruction given at chiropractic schools worldwide seem to be evidence-based.",
"Although, there seems to be a disparity between some schools and available evidence regarding the aspect of radiography for patients with acute low back pain without an indication of a serious disease, which may contribute to chiropractic overuse of radiography for low back pain.=== Risk-benefit ===A 2012 systematic review concluded that no accurate assessment of risk-benefit exists for cervical manipulation.",
"A 2010 systematic review stated that there is no good evidence to assume that neck manipulation is an effective treatment for any medical condition and suggested a precautionary principle in healthcare for chiropractic intervention even if a causality with vertebral artery dissection after neck manipulation were merely a remote possibility.",
"The same review concluded that the risk of death from manipulations to the neck outweighs the benefits.",
"Chiropractors have criticized this conclusion, claiming that the author did not evaluate the potential benefits of spinal manipulation.",
"Edzard Ernst stated \"This detail was not the subject of my review.",
"I do, however, refer to such evaluations and should add that a report recently commissioned by the General Chiropractic Council did not support many of the outlandish claims made by many chiropractors across the world.\"",
"A 1999 review of 177 previously reported cases published between 1925 and 1997 in which injuries were attributed to manipulation of the cervical spine (MCS) concluded that \"The literature does not demonstrate that the benefits of MCS outweigh the risks.\"",
"The professions associated with each injury were assessed.",
"Physical therapists (PT) were involved in less than 2% of all cases, with no deaths caused by PTs.",
"Chiropractors were involved in a little more than 60% of all cases, including 32 deaths.A 2009 review evaluating maintenance chiropractic care found that spinal manipulation is associated with considerable harm and no compelling evidence exists to indicate that it adequately prevents symptoms or diseases, thus the risk-benefit is not evidently favorable.=== Cost-effectiveness ===A 2012 systematic review suggested that the use of spine manipulation in clinical practice is a cost-effective treatment when used alone or in combination with other treatment approaches.",
"A 2011 systematic review found evidence supporting the cost-effectiveness of using spinal manipulation for the treatment of sub-acute or chronic low back pain; the results for acute low back pain were insufficient.A 2006 systematic cost-effectiveness review found that the reported cost-effectiveness of spinal manipulation in the United Kingdom compared favorably with other treatments for back pain, but that reports were based on data from clinical trials without placebo controls and that the specific cost-effectiveness of the treatment (as opposed to non-specific effects) remains uncertain.",
"A 2005 American systematic review of economic evaluations of conservative treatments for low back pain found that significant quality problems in available studies meant that definite conclusions could not be drawn about the most cost-effective intervention.",
"The cost-effectiveness of maintenance chiropractic care is unknown.Analysis of a clinical and cost utilization data from the years 2003 to 2005 by an integrative medicine independent physician association (IPA) which looked the chiropractic services utilization found that the clinical and cost utilization of chiropractic services based on 70,274 member-months over a 7-year period decreased patient costs associate with the following use of services by 60% for in-hospital admissions, 59% for hospital days, 62% for outpatient surgeries and procedures, and 85% for pharmaceutical costs when compared with conventional medicine (visit to a medical doctor primary care provider) IPA performance for the same health maintenance organization product in the same geography and time frame."
],
[
"Education, licensing, and regulation",
"Requirements vary between countries.",
"In the U.S. chiropractors obtain a non-medical accredited diploma in the field of chiropractic.",
"Chiropractic education in the U.S. has been criticized for failing to meet generally accepted standards of evidence-based medicine.",
"The curriculum content of North American chiropractic and medical colleges with regard to basic and clinical sciences has little similarity, both in the kinds of subjects offered and in the time assigned to each subject.",
"Accredited chiropractic programs in the U.S. require that applicants have 90 semester hours of undergraduate education with a grade point average of at least 3.0 on a 4.0 scale.",
"Many programs require at least three years of undergraduate education, and more are requiring a bachelor's degree.",
"Canada requires a minimum three years of undergraduate education for applicants, and at least 4200 instructional hours (or the equivalent) of full‐time chiropractic education for matriculation through an accredited chiropractic program.",
"Graduates of the Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College (CMCC) are formally recognized to have at least 7–8 years of university level education.",
"The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines suggest three major full-time educational paths culminating in either a DC, DCM, BSc, or MSc degree.",
"Besides the full-time paths, they also suggest a conversion program for people with other health care education and limited training programs for regions where no legislation governs chiropractic.Upon graduation, there may be a requirement to pass national, state, or provincial board examinations before being licensed to practice in a particular jurisdiction.",
"Depending on the location, continuing education may be required to renew these licenses.",
"Specialty training is available through part-time postgraduate education programs such as chiropractic orthopedics and sports chiropractic, and through full-time residency programs such as radiology or orthopedics.In the U.S., chiropractic schools are accredited through the Council on Chiropractic Education (CCE) while the General Chiropractic Council (GCC) is the statutory governmental body responsible for the regulation of chiropractic in the UK.",
"The U.S. CCE requires a mixing curriculum, which means a straight-educated chiropractor may not be eligible for licensing in states requiring CCE accreditation.",
"CCEs in the U.S., Canada, Australia and Europe have joined to form CCE-International (CCE-I) as a model of accreditation standards with the goal of having credentials portable internationally.",
"Today, there are 18 accredited Doctor of Chiropractic programs in the U.S., 2 in Canada, 6 in Australasia, and 5 in Europe.",
"All but one of the chiropractic colleges in the U.S. are privately funded, but in several other countries they are in government-sponsored universities and colleges.",
"Of the two chiropractic colleges in Canada, one is publicly funded (UQTR) and one is privately funded (CMCC).",
"In 2005, CMCC was granted the privilege of offering a professional health care degree under the Post-secondary Education Choice and Excellence Act, which sets the program within the hierarchy of education in Canada as comparable to that of other primary contact health care professions such as medicine, dentistry and optometry.Regulatory colleges and chiropractic boards in the U.S., Canada, Mexico, and Australia are responsible for protecting the public, standards of practice, disciplinary issues, quality assurance and maintenance of competency.",
"There are an estimated 49,000 chiropractors in the U.S. (2008), 6,500 in Canada (2010), 2,500 in Australia (2000), and 1,500 in the UK (2000).Chiropractors often argue that this education is as good as or better than medical physicians', but most chiropractic training is confined to classrooms with much time spent learning theory, adjustment, and marketing.",
"The fourth year of chiropractic education persistently showed the highest stress levels.",
"Every student, irrespective of year, experienced different ranges of stress when studying.",
"The chiropractic leaders and colleges have had internal struggles.",
"Rather than cooperation, there has been infighting between different factions.",
"A number of actions were posturing due to the confidential nature of the chiropractic colleges in an attempt to enroll students.=== Ethics ===The chiropractic oath is a modern variation of the classical Hippocratic Oath historically taken by physicians and other healthcare professionals swearing to practice their professions ethically.",
"The American Chiropractic Association (ACA) has an ethical code \"based upon the acknowledgement that the social contract dictates the profession's responsibilities to the patient, the public, and the profession; and upholds the fundamental principle that the paramount purpose of the chiropractic doctor's professional services shall be to benefit the patient.\"",
"The International Chiropractor's Association (ICA) also has a set of professional canons.A 2008 commentary proposed that the chiropractic profession actively regulate itself to combat abuse, fraud, and quackery, which are more prevalent in chiropractic than in other health care professions, violating the social contract between patients and physicians.",
"According to a 2015 Gallup poll of U.S. adults, the perception of chiropractors is generally favorable; two-thirds of American adults agree that chiropractors have their patient's best interest in mind and more than half also agree that most chiropractors are trustworthy.",
"Less than 10% of US adults disagreed with the statement that chiropractors were trustworthy.The charity Sense about Science launched a campaign to draw attention to the BCA legal case against science writer Simon Singh.",
"In 2009, a number of organizations and public figures signed a statement entitled \"The law has no place in scientific disputes\".Chiropractors, especially in America, have a reputation for unnecessarily treating patients.",
"In many circumstances the focus seems to be put on economics instead of health care.",
"Sustained chiropractic care is promoted as a preventive tool, but unnecessary manipulation could possibly present a risk to patients.",
"Some chiropractors are concerned by the routine unjustified claims chiropractors have made.",
"A 2010 analysis of chiropractic websites found the majority of chiropractors and their associations made claims of effectiveness not supported by scientific evidence, while 28% of chiropractor websites advocate lower back pain care, which has some sound evidence.The US Office of the Inspector General (OIG) estimated that for calendar year 2013, 82% of payments to chiropractors under Medicare Part B, a total of $359 million, did not comply with Medicare requirements.",
"There have been at least 15 OIG reports about chiropractic billing irregularities since 1986.In 2009, a backlash to the libel suit filed by the British Chiropractic Association (BCA) against Simon Singh inspired the filing of formal complaints of false advertising against more than 500 individual chiropractors within one 24-hour period, prompting the McTimoney Chiropractic Association to write to its members advising them to remove leaflets that make claims about whiplash and colic from their practice, to be wary of new patients and telephone inquiries, and telling their members: \"If you have a website, take it down NOW\" and \"Finally, we strongly suggest you do NOT discuss this with others, especially patients.\"",
"An editorial in ''Nature'' suggested that the BCA may have been trying to suppress debate and that this use of English libel law was a burden on the right to freedom of expression, which is protected by the European Convention on Human Rights.",
"The libel case ended with the BCA withdrawing its suit in 2010."
],
[
"Reception",
"Chiropractic is established in the U.S., Canada, and Australia, and is present to a lesser extent in many other countries.",
"It is viewed as a marginal and non-clinically–proven attempt at complementary and alternative medicine, which has not integrated into mainstream medicine.=== Australia ===In Australia, there are approximately 2488 chiropractors, or one chiropractor for every 7980 people.",
"Most private health insurance funds in Australia cover chiropractic care, and the federal government funds chiropractic care when the patient is referred by a medical practitioner.",
"In 2014, the chiropractic profession had a registered workforce of 4,684 practitioners in Australia represented by two major organizations – the Chiropractors' Association of Australia (CAA) and the Chiropractic and Osteopathic College of Australasia (COCA).",
"Annual expenditure on chiropractic care (alone or combined with osteopathy) in Australia is estimated to be between AUD$750–988 million with musculoskeletal complaints such as back and neck pain making up the bulk of consultations; and proportional expenditure is similar to that found in other countries.",
"While Medicare (the Australian publicly funded universal health care system) coverage of chiropractic services is limited to only those directed by a medical referral to assist chronic disease management, most private health insurers in Australia do provide partial reimbursement for a wider range of chiropractic services in addition to limited third party payments for workers compensation and motor vehicle accidents.Of the 2,005 chiropractors who participated in a 2015 survey, 62.4% were male and the average age was 42.1 (SD = 12.1) years.",
"Nearly all chiropractors (97.1%) had a bachelor's degree or higher, with the majority of chiropractor's highest professional qualification being a bachelor or double bachelor's degree (34.6%), followed by a master's degree (32.7%), Doctor of Chiropractic (28.9%) or PhD (0.9%).",
"Only a small number of chiropractor's highest professional qualification was a diploma (2.1%) or advanced diploma (0.8%).=== Germany ===In Germany, chiropractic may be offered by medical doctors and alternative practitioners.",
"Chiropractors qualified abroad must obtain a German non-medical practitioner license.",
"Authorities have routinely required a comprehensive knowledge test for this, but in the recent past, some administrative courts have ruled that training abroad should be recognised.=== Switzerland ===In Switzerland, only trained medical professionals are allowed to offer chiropractic.",
"There are 300 chiropractors in Switzerland.=== United Kingdom ===In the United Kingdom, there are over 2,000 chiropractors, representing one chiropractor per 29,206 people.",
"Chiropractic is available on the National Health Service in some areas, such as Cornwall, where the treatment is only available for neck or back pain.A 2010 study by questionnaire presented to UK chiropractors indicated only 45% of chiropractors disclosed to patients the serious risk associated with manipulation of the cervical spine and that 46% believed there was possibility patients would refuse treatment if the risks were correctly explained.",
"However 80% acknowledged the ethical/moral responsibility to disclose risk to patients.=== United States and Canada ===The percentage of the population that utilizes chiropractic care at any given time generally falls into a range from 6% to 12% in the U.S. and Canada, with a global high of 20% in Alberta in 2006.In 2008, chiropractors were reported to be the most common CAM providers for children and adolescents, these patients representing up to 14% of all visits to chiropractors.There were around 50,330 chiropractors practicing in North America in 2000.In 2008, this has increased by almost 20% to around 60,000 chiropractors.",
"In 2002–03, the majority of those who sought chiropractic did so for relief from back and neck pain and other neuromusculoskeletal complaints; most do so specifically for low back pain.",
"The majority of U.S. chiropractors participate in some form of managed care.",
"Although the majority of U.S. chiropractors view themselves as specialists in neuromusculoskeletal conditions, many also consider chiropractic as a type of primary care.",
"In the majority of cases, the care that chiropractors and physicians provide divides the market, however for some, their care is complementary.In the U.S., chiropractors perform over 90% of all manipulative treatments.",
"Satisfaction rates are typically higher for chiropractic care compared to medical care, with a 1998 U.S. survey reporting 83% of respondents satisfied or very satisfied with their care; quality of communication seems to be a consistent predictor of patient satisfaction with chiropractors.Utilization of chiropractic care is sensitive to the costs incurred by the co-payment by the patient.",
"The use of chiropractic declined from 9.9% of U.S. adults in 1997 to 7.4% in 2002; this was the largest relative decrease among CAM professions, which overall had a stable use rate.",
"As of 2007 7% of the U.S. population is being reached by chiropractic.",
"They were the third largest medical profession in the US in 2002, following physicians and dentists.",
"Employment of U.S. chiropractors was expected to increase 14% between 2006 and 2016, faster than the average for all occupations.In the U.S., most states require insurers to cover chiropractic care, and most HMOs cover these services."
],
[
"History",
"Daniel David (D. D.) Palmer, founder of chiropracticChiropractic's origins lie in the folk medicine practice of bonesetting, in which untrained practitioners engaged in joint manipulation or resetting fractured bones.",
"Chiropractic was founded in 1895 by Daniel David (D. D.) Palmer in Davenport, Iowa.",
"Palmer, a magnetic healer, hypothesized that manual manipulation of the spine could cure disease.",
"The first chiropractic patient of D. D. Palmer was Harvey Lillard, a worker in the building where Palmer's office was located.",
"He claimed that he had severely reduced hearing for 17 years, which started shortly following a \"pop\" in his spine.",
"A few days following his adjustment, Lillard claimed his hearing was almost completely restored.",
"Another of Palmer's patients, Samuel Weed, coined the term ''chiropractic'', from Greek 'hand' (itself from 'hand') and 'practical'.",
"Chiropractic is classified as a field of pseudomedicine on account of its esoteric origins.Chiropractic competed with its predecessor osteopathy, another medical system based on magnetic healing; both systems were founded by charismatic midwesterners in opposition to the conventional medicine of the day, and both postulated that manipulation improved health.",
"Although initially keeping chiropractic a family secret, in 1898 Palmer began teaching it to a few students at his new Palmer School of Chiropractic.",
"One student, his son Bartlett Joshua (B.",
"J.)",
"Palmer, became committed to promoting chiropractic, took over the Palmer School in 1906, and rapidly expanded its enrollment.Early chiropractors believed that all disease was caused by interruptions in the flow of innate intelligence, a vitalistic nervous energy or life force that represented God's presence in man; chiropractic leaders often invoked religious imagery and moral traditions.",
"D. D. Palmer said he \"received chiropractic from the other world\".",
"D. D. and B. J. both seriously considered declaring chiropractic a religion, which might have provided legal protection under the U.S. constitution, but decided against it partly to avoid confusion with Christian Science.",
"Early chiropractors also tapped into the Populist movement, emphasizing craft, hard work, competition, and advertisement, aligning themselves with the common man against intellectuals and trusts, among which they included the American Medical Association (AMA).B.",
"J. Palmer, early developer of chiropracticChiropractic has seen considerable controversy and criticism.",
"Although D. D. and B. J. were \"straight\" and disdained the use of instruments, some early chiropractors, whom B. J. scornfully called \"mixers\", advocated the use of instruments.",
"In 1910, B. J. changed course and endorsed X-rays as necessary for diagnosis; this resulted in a significant exodus from the Palmer School of the more conservative faculty and students.",
"The mixer camp grew until by 1924 B. J. estimated that only 3,000 of the United States' 25,000 chiropractors remained straight.",
"That year, B.",
"J.",
"'s invention and promotion of the neurocalometer, a temperature-sensing device, was highly controversial among B.",
"J.",
"'s fellow straights.",
"By the 1930s, chiropractic was the largest alternative healing profession in the U.S.Harvey Lillard, first chiropractic patientChiropractors faced heavy opposition from organized medicine.",
"D. D. Palmer was jailed in 1907 for practicing medicine without a license.",
"Thousands of chiropractors were prosecuted for practicing medicine without a license, and D. D. and many other chiropractors were jailed.",
"To defend against medical statutes, B. J. argued that chiropractic was separate and distinct from medicine, asserting that chiropractors \"analyzed\" rather than \"diagnosed\", and \"adjusted\" subluxations rather than \"treated\" disease.",
"B. J. cofounded the Universal Chiropractors' Association (UCA) to provide legal services to arrested chiropractors.",
"Although the UCA won their first test case in Wisconsin in 1907, prosecutions instigated by state medical boards became increasingly common and in many cases were successful.",
"In response, chiropractors conducted political campaigns to secure separate licensing statutes, eventually succeeding in all fifty states, from Kansas in 1913 through Louisiana in 1974.The longstanding feud between chiropractors and medical doctors continued for decades.",
"The AMA labeled chiropractic an \"unscientific cult\" in 1966, and until 1980 advised its members that it was unethical for medical doctors to associate with \"unscientific practitioners\".",
"This culminated in a landmark 1987 decision, ''Wilk v. AMA'', in which the court found that the AMA had engaged in unreasonable restraint of trade and conspiracy, and which ended the AMA's de facto boycott of chiropractic.Serious research to test chiropractic theories did not begin until the 1970s, and is continuing to be hampered by antiscientific and pseudoscientific ideas that sustained the profession in its long battle with organized medicine.",
"By the mid-1990s there was a growing scholarly interest in chiropractic, which helped efforts to improve service quality and establish clinical guidelines that recommended manual therapies for acute low back pain.",
"In recent decades chiropractic gained legitimacy and greater acceptance by medical physicians and health plans, and enjoyed a strong political base and sustained demand for services.",
"However, its future seemed uncertain: as the number of practitioners grew, evidence-based medicine insisted on treatments with demonstrated value, managed care restricted payment, and competition grew from massage therapists and other health professions.",
"The profession responded by marketing natural products and devices more aggressively, and by reaching deeper into alternative medicine and primary care."
],
[
"Public health",
"Some chiropractors oppose vaccination and water fluoridation, which are common public health practices.",
"Within the chiropractic community there are significant disagreements about vaccination, one of the most cost-effective public health interventions available.",
"Most chiropractic writings on vaccination focus on its negative aspects, claiming that it is hazardous, ineffective, and unnecessary.",
"Some chiropractors have embraced vaccination, but a significant portion of the profession rejects it, as original chiropractic philosophy traces diseases to causes in the spine and states that vaccines interfere with healing.",
"The extent to which anti-vaccination views perpetuate the current chiropractic profession is uncertain.",
"The American Chiropractic Association and the International Chiropractors Association support individual exemptions to compulsory vaccination laws, and a 1995 survey of U.S. chiropractors found that about a third believed there was no scientific proof that immunization prevents disease.",
"The Canadian Chiropractic Association supports vaccination; a survey in Alberta in 2002 found that 25% of chiropractors advised patients for, and 27% against, vaccinating themselves or their children.Early opposition to water fluoridation included chiropractors, some of whom continue to oppose it as being incompatible with chiropractic philosophy and an infringement of personal freedom.",
"Other chiropractors have actively promoted fluoridation, and several chiropractic organizations have endorsed scientific principles of public health.",
"In addition to traditional chiropractic opposition to water fluoridation and vaccination, chiropractors' attempts to establish a positive reputation for their public health role are also compromised by their reputation for recommending repetitive lifelong chiropractic treatment."
],
[
"Controversy",
"Throughout its history chiropractic has been the subject of internal and external controversy and criticism.",
"According to Daniel D. Palmer, the founder of chiropractic, subluxation is the sole cause of disease and manipulation is the cure for all diseases of the human race.",
"A 2003 profession-wide survey found \"most chiropractors (whether 'straights' or 'mixers') still hold views of innate intelligence and of the cause and cure of disease (not just back pain) consistent with those of the Palmers.\"",
"A critical evaluation stated \"Chiropractic is rooted in mystical concepts.",
"This led to an internal conflict within the chiropractic profession, which continues today.\"",
"Chiropractors, including D. D. Palmer, were jailed for practicing medicine without a license.",
"For most of its existence, chiropractic has battled with mainstream medicine, sustained by antiscientific and pseudoscientific ideas such as subluxation.",
"Collectively, systematic reviews have not demonstrated that spinal manipulation, the main treatment method employed by chiropractors, is effective for any medical condition, with the possible exception of treatment for back pain.",
"Chiropractic remains controversial, though to a lesser extent than in past years."
],
[
"See also",
"* Chiropractic education* Chiropractic schools* Councils on Chiropractic Education International* List of topics characterized as pseudoscience* Toftness device* World Federation of Chiropractic"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* World Federation of Chiropractic - website"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Carbide"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Lattice structure of titanium carbideIn chemistry, a '''carbide''' usually describes a compound composed of carbon and a metal.",
"In metallurgy, '''carbiding''' or carburizing is the process for producing carbide coatings on a metal piece."
],
[
"Interstitial / Metallic carbides",
"Tungsten carbide end millsThe carbides of the group 4, 5 and 6 transition metals (with the exception of chromium) are often described as interstitial compounds.",
"These carbides have metallic properties and are refractory.",
"Some exhibit a range of stoichiometries, being a non-stoichiometric mixture of various carbides arising due to crystal defects.",
"Some of them, including titanium carbide and tungsten carbide, are important industrially and are used to coat metals in cutting tools.The long-held view is that the carbon atoms fit into octahedral interstices in a close-packed metal lattice when the metal atom radius is greater than approximately 135 pm:*When the metal atoms are cubic close-packed, (ccp), then filling all of the octahedral interstices with carbon achieves 1:1 stoichiometry with the rock salt structure.",
"*When the metal atoms are hexagonal close-packed, (hcp), as the octahedral interstices lie directly opposite each other on either side of the layer of metal atoms, filling only one of these with carbon achieves 2:1 stoichiometry with the CdI2 structure.The following table shows structures of the metals and their carbides.",
"(N.B.",
"the body centered cubic structure adopted by vanadium, niobium, tantalum, chromium, molybdenum and tungsten is not a close-packed lattice.)",
"The notation \"h/2\" refers to the M2C type structure described above, which is only an approximate description of the actual structures.",
"The simple view that the lattice of the pure metal \"absorbs\" carbon atoms can be seen to be untrue as the packing of the metal atom lattice in the carbides is different from the packing in the pure metal, although it is technically correct that the carbon atoms fit into the octahedral interstices of a close-packed metal lattice.",
"Metal Structure of pure metal Metallic radius (pm) MC metal atom packing MC structure M2C metal atom packing M2C structure Other carbides titanium hcp 147 ccp rock salt zirconium hcp 160 ccp rock salt hafnium hcp 159 ccp rock salt vanadium bcc 134 ccp rock salt hcp h/2 V4C3 niobium bcc 146 ccp rock salt hcp h/2 Nb4C3 tantalum bcc 146 ccp rock salt hcp h/2 Ta4C3 chromium bcc 128 Cr23C6, Cr3C, Cr7C3, Cr3C2 molybdenum bcc 139 hexagonal hcp h/2 Mo3C2 tungsten bcc 139 hexagonal hcp h/2 For a long time the non-stoichiometric phases were believed to be disordered with a random filling of the interstices, however short and longer range ordering has been detected.Iron forms a number of carbides, , and .",
"The best known is cementite, Fe3C, which is present in steels.",
"These carbides are more reactive than the interstitial carbides; for example, the carbides of Cr, Mn, Fe, Co and Ni are all hydrolysed by dilute acids and sometimes by water, to give a mixture of hydrogen and hydrocarbons.",
"These compounds share features with both the inert interstitials and the more reactive salt-like carbides.Some metals, such as lead and tin, are believed not to form carbides under any circumstances.",
"There exists however a mixed titanium-tin carbide, which is a two-dimensional conductor.==Chemical classification of carbides== Carbides can be generally classified by the chemical bonds type as follows: # salt-like (ionic),# covalent compounds,# interstitial compounds, and# \"intermediate\" transition metal carbides.Examples include calcium carbide (CaC2), silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten carbide (WC; often called, simply, ''carbide'' when referring to machine tooling), and cementite (Fe3C), each used in key industrial applications.",
"The naming of ionic carbides is not systematic.===Salt-like / saline / ionic carbides===Salt-like carbides are composed of highly electropositive elements such as the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, lanthanides, actinides, and group 3 metals (scandium, yttrium, and lutetium).",
"Aluminium from group 13 forms carbides, but gallium, indium, and thallium do not.",
"These materials feature isolated carbon centers, often described as \"C4−\", in the methanides or methides; two-atom units, \"\", in the acetylides; and three-atom units, \"\", in the allylides.",
"The graphite intercalation compound KC8, prepared from vapour of potassium and graphite, and the alkali metal derivatives of C60 are not usually classified as carbides.====Methanides====Methanides are a subset of carbides distinguished by their tendency to decompose in water producing methane.",
"Three examples are aluminium carbide , magnesium carbide and beryllium carbide .Transition metal carbides are not saline: their reaction with water is very slow and is usually neglected.",
"For example, depending on surface porosity, 5–30 atomic layers of titanium carbide are hydrolyzed, forming methane within 5 minutes at ambient conditions, following by saturation of the reaction.Note that methanide in this context is a trivial historical name.",
"According to the IUPAC systematic naming conventions, a compound such as NaCH3 would be termed a \"methanide\", although this compound is often called methylsodium.",
"See Methyl group#Methyl anion for more information about the anion.====Acetylides/ethynides====Calcium carbideSeveral carbides are assumed to be salts of the acetylide anion (also called percarbide, by analogy with peroxide), which has a triple bond between the two carbon atoms.",
"Alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and lanthanoid metals form acetylides, for example, sodium carbide Na2C2, calcium carbide CaC2, and LaC2.Lanthanides also form carbides (sesquicarbides, see below) with formula M2C3.Metals from group 11 also tend to form acetylides, such as copper(I) acetylide and silver acetylide.",
"Carbides of the actinide elements, which have stoichiometry MC2 and M2C3, are also described as salt-like derivatives of .The C–C triple bond length ranges from 119.2 pm in CaC2 (similar to ethyne), to 130.3 pm in LaC2 and 134 pm in UC2.The bonding in LaC2 has been described in terms of LaIII with the extra electron delocalised into the antibonding orbital on , explaining the metallic conduction.====Allylides====The polyatomic ion , sometimes called '''allylide''', is found in and .",
"The ion is linear and is isoelectronic with .",
"The C–C distance in Mg2C3 is 133.2 pm.",
"yields methylacetylene, CH3CCH, and propadiene, CH2CCH2, on hydrolysis, which was the first indication that it contains .===Covalent carbides===The carbides of silicon and boron are described as \"covalent carbides\", although virtually all compounds of carbon exhibit some covalent character.",
"Silicon carbide has two similar crystalline forms, which are both related to the diamond structure.",
"Boron carbide, B4C, on the other hand, has an unusual structure which includes icosahedral boron units linked by carbon atoms.",
"In this respect boron carbide is similar to the boron rich borides.",
"Both silicon carbide (also known as ''carborundum'') and boron carbide are very hard materials and refractory.",
"Both materials are important industrially.",
"Boron also forms other covalent carbides, such as B25C.===Molecular carbides===The complex , containing a carbon-gold coreMetal complexes containing C are known as metal carbido complexes.",
"Most common are carbon-centered octahedral clusters, such as (where \"Ph\" represents a phenyl group) and Fe6C(CO)62−.",
"Similar species are known for the metal carbonyls and the early metal halides.",
"A few terminal carbides have been isolated, such as .Metallocarbohedrynes (or \"met-cars\") are stable clusters with the general formula where M is a transition metal (Ti, Zr, V, etc.",
")."
],
[
"Related materials",
"In addition to the carbides, other groups of related carbon compounds exist:*graphite intercalation compounds*alkali metal fullerides*endohedral fullerenes, where the metal atom is encapsulated within a fullerene molecule*metallacarbohedrenes (met-cars) which are cluster compounds containing C2 units.",
"*tunable nanoporous carbon, where gas chlorination of metallic carbides removes metal molecules to form a highly porous, near-pure carbon material capable of high-density energy storage.",
"*transition metal carbene complexes.",
"* two-dimensional transition metal carbides: MXenes"
],
[
"See also",
"*Kappa-carbides"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Charles C. Krulak"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Charles Chandler Krulak''' (born March 4, 1942) is a retired United States Marine Corps four-star general who served as the 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps from July 1, 1995 to June 30, 1999.He is the son of Lieutenant General Victor H. \"Brute\" Krulak, who served in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam.",
"He was the 13th President of Birmingham-Southern College after his stint as a non-executive director of English association football club Aston Villa."
],
[
"Early life and education",
"Krulak was born in Quantico, Virginia, on March 4, 1942, the son of Amy ( Chandler) and Victor H. Krulak.",
"He graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1960, where he was classmates with novelist John Irving.",
"Krulak then attended the United States Naval Academy, graduating in 1964 with a bachelor's degree.",
"Krulak also holds a master's degree in labor relations from George Washington University (1973).",
"He is a graduate of the Amphibious Warfare School (1968); the Army Command and General Staff College (1976); and the National War College (1982)."
],
[
"Marine career",
"After his commissioning and graduation from The Basic School at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Krulak held a variety of command and staff positions.",
"His command positions included: commanding officer of a platoon and two rifle companies during two tours of duty in Vietnam; commanding officer of Special Training Branch and Recruit Series at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego, California (1966–1968); commanding officer of Counter-Guerilla Warfare School, Northern Training Area on Okinawa (1970), Company officer at the United States Naval Academy (1970–1973); commanding officer of the Marine Barracks at Naval Air Station North Island, California (1973–1976), and commanding officer, 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines (1983–1985).Krulak's staff assignments included: operations officer, 2nd Battalion, 9th Marines (1977–1978); chief of the Combat Arms Monitor Section at Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, D.C. (1978–1979); executive assistant to the Director of Personnel Management, Headquarters Marine Corps (1979–1981); Plans Office, Fleet Marine Forces Pacific, Camp H.M. Smith, Hawaii (1982–1983); executive officer, 3rd Marine Regiment, 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade; assistant chief of staff, maritime pre-positioning ships, 1st MEB; assistant chief of staff for operations, 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade; and the military assistant to the assistant secretary of defense for command, control, communications and intelligence, Office of the Secretary of Defense.Krulak was assigned duty as the deputy director of the White House Military Office in September 1987.While serving in this capacity, he was selected for promotion to brigadier general in November 1988.He was advanced to that grade on June 5, 1989, and assigned duties as the commanding general, 10th division commander, 2nd Marine Division, Fleet Marine Force Atlantic, at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina on July 10, 1989.On June 1, 1990, he assumed duties as the commanding general, 2nd Force Service Support Group general, 6th Marine Expeditionary Brigade, Fleet Marine Force Atlantic and commanded the 2d FSSG during the Gulf War.",
"He served in this capacity until July 12, 1991, and was assigned duty as assistant deputy chief of staff for manpower and reserve affairs (personnel Procurement), Headquarters Marine Corps on August 5, 1991.He was advanced to major general on March 20, 1992.Krulak was assigned as commanding general, Marine Corps Combat Development Command, Quantico, on August 24, 1992, and was promoted to lieutenant general on September 1, 1992.On July 22, 1994, he was assigned as commander of Marine Forces general, Fleet Marine Force Pacific, and in March 1995 he was nominated to serve as the Commandant of the Marine Corps.",
"On June, 29, he was promoted to general and assumed duties as the 31st commandant on June 30, 1995.He was relieved on June 30, 1999, by General James L. Jones.In 1997, Krulak became a Life Member of the Sons of the Revolution in the State of California.===Silver Star citation==='''Citation:'''The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Silver Star to Captain Charles Chandler Krulak, United States Marine Corps, for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity in action while serving as Commanding Officer of Company L, Third Battalion, Third Marines, Third Marine Division, during combat operations against the enemy in the Republic of Vietnam.",
"On 3 June 1969, during Operation Virginia Ridge, Company L was occupying ambush positions near the Demilitarized Zone west of Con Thien when the Marines came under a heavy volume of mortar fire and sustained several casualties.",
"Although seriously wounded himself, Captain Krulak unhesitatingly left his covered position and, thinking only of the welfare of his men, fearlessly maneuvered across the fire-swept terrain to ensure that his Marines were in effective defensive locations and capable of repelling an expected ground attack.",
"Shortly after the initial mortar attack, the Company was subjected to a second intense mortar barrage.",
"Realizing that the determined enemy soldiers had accurate range on the Marine emplacements, and unwilling to incur additional casualties, he commenced maneuvering his men to an alternate location.",
"Simultaneously, undaunted by the fierce barrage, Captain Krulak fearlessly moved to a dangerously exposed vantage point from which he pinpointed the principal sources of hostile fire and skillfully coordinated fixed-wing air strikes and supporting artillery fire on the enemy positions, silencing the fire.",
"By this time, both the platoon commander and a platoon sergeant of one of his platoons had been seriously wounded.",
"After repeatedly exposing himself to the relentless fire to supervise the evacuation of the casualties, he then personally led the platoon back to the main body of his Company across 3,000 meters of rugged mountain terrain to another patrol base and, although weak from loss of blood and the pain of his injuries, steadfastly refused medical evacuation until the arrival of another officer on the following morning.",
"By his courage, dynamic leadership, and inspiring devotion to duty in the face of grave personal danger, Captain Krulak minimized Marine casualties and upheld the highest traditions of the Marine Corps and of the United States Naval Service."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Krulak received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1996.The Golden Plate was presented by Awards Council member and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General John M. Shalikashvili, USA.Krulak joined MBNA America in September 1999 as chief administrative officer, responsible for personnel, benefits, compensation, education, and other administrative services.",
"Krulak has served as the Senior Vice Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of MBNA Europe (2001–2005) and was based at the Chester campus in the UK.",
"He was the executive vice chairman and chief administration officer of MBNA Corporation (2004–2005).",
"He retired from MBNA in 2005.Following the takeover of English football club Aston Villa by MBNA Chairman Randy Lerner in August 2006 and as of September 19, 2006, Krulak joined the board of Aston Villa as non-executive director where he posted on several fans forums.",
"Krulak was generally referred to as \"The General\" by fans on these boards.Krulak also serves on the boards of ConocoPhillips, Freeport-McMoran (formerly known as Phelps Dodge Corporation) and Union Pacific Corporation.",
"In addition, he serves on the advisory council of Hope For The Warriors, a national non-profit dedicated to provide a full cycle of non-medical care to combat wounded service members, their families, and families of the fallen from each military branch.Krulak was elected as the 13th President of Birmingham–Southern College in Birmingham, Alabama on March 21, 2011, and retired June 1, 2015.He received an honorary doctorate of Humane Letters from Birmingham-Southern College.",
"The Krulak Institute Institute for Leadership, Experiential Learning, and Civic Engagement at Birmingham-Southern College is named for him.Krulak was the Vice Chair of the Sweet Briar College Board of Directors.",
"He joined the Board in the Summer of 2015."
],
[
"Awards and decorations",
"General Krulak's decorations and medals include: 18px18px18px18px18px18px18px22px22px106px150px150px135px 140px 125pxDefense Distinguished Service Medal w/ 1 bronze oak leaf clusterNavy Distinguished Service Medal w/ 1 gold award starArmy Distinguished Service MedalAir Force Distinguished Service MedalCoast Guard Distinguished Service MedalSilver StarBronze Star Medal w/ valor device & 2 award starsPurple Heart with gold starMeritorious Service MedalNavy Commendation MedalCombat Action RibbonPresidential Unit Citation w/ 1 service starNavy Unit CommendationMeritorious Unit CommendationNational Defense Service Medal w/ 1 service starVietnam Service Medal w/ 6 service starsSouthwest Asia Service Medal w/ 3 service starsSea Service Deployment Ribbon w/ 2 service starsRepublic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with palm, silver star, & bronze starFrench Legion of Honor, CommanderRepublic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit CitationRepublic of Vietnam Civil Actions Unit CitationRepublic of Vietnam Campaign MedalKuwait Liberation Medal (Saudi Arabia)Kuwait Liberation Medal (Kuwait)Presidential Service BadgeOffice of the Secretary of Defense Identification BadgeOffice of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge"
],
[
"Legacy",
"Krulak famously referred to the \"Strategic Corporal\" and the Three Block War as two of the key lessons identified from the deployments in Somalia, Haiti and Bosnia.",
"These concepts are still considered vital in understanding the increasing complexity of modern battlefields.Krulak explained some of his warfighting philosophy in an interview with Tom Clancy in Clancy's nonfiction book ''Marine''.",
"Clancy referred to Krulak as \"Warrior Prince of the Corps.\"",
"Krulak also rewrote the Marine Corps' basic combat study text, ''MCDP 1: Warfighting'', incorporating his theories on operations in the modern battlefield."
],
[
"Family",
"Krulak is married to Zandi Meyers from Annapolis.",
"They have two sons: CAPT David C. Krulak, the former Commanding Officer for Naval Hospital Okinawa, Japan and Dr. Todd C. Krulak, PhD., a retired freelance rave DJ who is now a professor at Samford University; and five grandchildren: Capt Brian Krulak (USMC), Katie, Mary, Matthew, and Charles.He is the son of Lieutenant General Victor H. Krulak Sr., and the younger brother of Commander Victor H. Krulak Jr, Navy Chaplain Corps and Colonel William Krulak, United States Marine Corps Reserve.",
"Krulak's godfather was USMC general Holland McTyeire \"Howlin' Mad\" Smith."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"** Editorial on the use of torture.",
"*** Interview on April 2007 Discusses about leadership"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Compaq"
],
[
"Introduction",
" '''Compaq Computer Corporation''' (sometimes abbreviated to '''CQ''' prior to the 2007 rebranding) was an American information technology company founded in 1982 that developed, sold, and supported computers and related products and services.",
"Compaq produced some of the first IBM PC compatible computers, being the second company after Columbia Data Products to legally reverse engineer the BIOS of the IBM Personal Computer.",
"It rose to become the largest supplier of PC systems during the 1990s before being overtaken by Dell in 2001.Struggling to keep up in the price wars against Dell, as well as with a risky acquisition of DEC, Compaq was acquired for US$25 billion by HP in 2002.The Compaq brand remained in use by HP for lower-end systems until 2013 when it was discontinued.",
"Since 2013, the brand is currently licensed to third parties for use on electronics in Brazil and India.The company was formed by Rod Canion, Jim Harris, and Bill Murto, all of whom were former Texas Instruments senior managers.",
"Murto (SVP of sales) departed Compaq in 1987, while Canion (president and CEO) and Harris (SVP of engineering) left under a shakeup in 1991, which saw Eckhard Pfeiffer appointed president and CEO.",
"Pfeiffer served through the 1990s.",
"Ben Rosen provided the venture capital financing for the fledgling company and served as chairman of the board for 17 years from 1983 until September 28, 2000, when he retired and was succeeded by Michael Capellas, who served as the last chairman and CEO until its merger with HP.Prior to its merger, the company was headquartered in northwest unincorporated Harris County, Texas, which now continues as HP's largest United States facility."
],
[
"History",
"===Founding===Compaq co-founder Rod Canion, pictured in 2016Compaq was founded in February 1982 by Rod Canion, Jim Harris, and Bill Murto, three senior managers from semiconductor manufacturer Texas Instruments.",
"The three of them had left due to lack of faith and loss of confidence in TI's management, and initially considered but ultimately decided against starting a chain of Mexican restaurants.",
"Each invested $1,000 to form the company, which was founded with the temporary name Gateway Technology.",
"The name \"COMPAQ\" was said to be derived from \"Compatibility and Quality\" but this explanation was an afterthought.",
"The name was chosen from many suggested by Ogilvy & Mather, it being the name least rejected.",
"The first Compaq PC was sketched out on a placemat by Ted Papajohn while dining with the founders in a pie shop, (named House of Pies in Houston).",
"Their first venture capital came from Benjamin M. Rosen and Sevin Rosen Funds, who helped the fledgling company secure to produce their initial computer.",
"Overall, the founders managed to raise $25 million from venture capitalists, as this gave stability to the new company as well as providing assurances to the dealers or middlemen.Unlike many startups, Compaq differentiated its offerings from the many other IBM PC clones by not focusing mainly on price, but instead concentrating on new features, such as portability and better graphics displays as well as performance—and all at prices comparable to those of IBM's PCs.",
"In contrast to Dell and Gateway 2000, Compaq hired veteran engineers with an average of 15 years experience, which lent credibility to Compaq's reputation of reliability among customers.",
"Due to its partnership with Intel, Compaq was able to maintain a technological lead in the market place as it was the first one to come out with computers containing the next generation of each Intel processor.Under Canion's direction, Compaq sold computers only through dealers to avoid potential competition that a direct sales channel would foster, which helped foster loyalty among resellers.",
"By giving dealers considerable leeway in pricing Compaq's offerings, either a significant markup for more profits or discount for more sales, dealers had a major incentive to advertise Compaq.During its first year of sales (second year of operation), the company sold 53,000 PCs for sales of , the first start-up to hit the mark that fast.",
"Compaq went public in 1983 on the NYSE and raised .",
"In 1986, it enjoyed record sales of from 150,000 PCs, and became the youngest-ever firm to make the Fortune 500.In 1985, sales reached $504 million.",
"In 1987, Compaq hit the revenue mark, taking the least amount of time to reach that milestone.",
"By 1991, Compaq held the fifth place spot in the PC market with in sales that year.",
"Two key marketing executives in Compaq's early years, Jim D'Arezzo and Sparky Sparks, had come from IBM's PC Group.",
"Other key executives responsible for the company's meteoric growth in the late 1980s and early 1990s were Ross A. Cooley, another former IBM associate, who served for many years as SVP of GM North America; Michael Swavely, who was the company's chief marketing officer in the early years, and eventually ran the North America organization, later passing along that responsibility to Cooley when Swavely retired.",
"In the United States, Brendan A.",
"\"Mac\" McLoughlin (another long time IBM executive) led the company's field sales organization after starting up the Western U.S. Area of Operations.",
"These executives, along with other key contributors, including Kevin Ellington, Douglas Johns, Steven Flannigan, and Gary Stimac, helped the company compete against the IBM Corporation in all personal computer sales categories, after many predicted that none could compete with the behemoth.The soft-spoken Canion was popular with employees and the culture that he built helped Compaq to attract the best talent.",
"Instead of headquartering the company in a downtown Houston skyscraper, Canion chose a West Coast-style campus surrounded by forests, where every employee had similar offices and no-one (not even the CEO) had a reserved parking spot.",
"At semi-annual meetings, turnout was high as any employee could ask questions to senior managers.In 1987, company co-founder Bill Murto resigned to study at a religious education program at the University of St. Thomas.",
"Murto had helped to organize the company's marketing and authorized-dealer distribution strategy, and held the post of senior vice president of sales since June 1985.Murto was succeeded by Ross A. Cooley, director of corporate sales.",
"Cooley would report to Michael S. Swavely, vice president for marketing, who was given increased responsibility and the title of vice president for sales and marketing.====Introduction of Compaq Portable====Compaq Portable (1983)In November 1982, Compaq announced their first product, the Compaq Portable, a portable IBM PC compatible personal computer.",
"It was released in March 1983 at .",
"The Compaq Portable was one of the progenitors of today's laptop; some called it a \"suitcase computer\" for its size and the look of its case.",
"It was the second IBM PC compatible, being capable of running all software that would run on an IBM PC.",
"It was a commercial success, selling 53,000 units in its first year and generating in sales revenue.",
"The Compaq Portable was the first in the range of the Compaq Portable series.",
"Compaq was able to market a legal IBM clone because IBM mostly used \"off the shelf\" parts for their PC.",
"Furthermore, Microsoft had kept the right to license MS-DOS, the most popular and de facto standard operating system for the IBM PC, to other computer manufacturers.",
"The only part which had to be duplicated was the BIOS, which Compaq did legally by using clean room design at a cost of .Unlike other companies, Compaq did not bundle application software with its computers.",
"Vice President of Sales and Service H. L. Sparks said in early 1984:Compaq instead emphasized PC compatibility, of which Future Computing in May 1983 ranked Compaq as among the \"Best\" examples.",
"\"Many industry observers think Compaq is poised for meteoric growth\", ''The New York Times'' reported in March of that year.",
"By October, when the company announced the Compaq Plus with a hard drive, ''PC Magazine'' wrote of \"the reputation for compatibility it built with its highly regarded floppy disk portable\".",
"Compaq computers remained the most compatible PC clones into 1984, and maintained its reputation for compatibility for years, even as clone BIOSes became available from Phoenix Technologies and other companies that also reverse engineered IBM's design, then sold their version to clone manufacturers.====Compaq Deskpro====On June 28, 1984, Compaq released the Deskpro, a 16-bit desktop computer using an Intel 8086 microprocessor running at .",
"It was considerably faster than an IBM PC and was, like the original Compaq Portable, also capable of running IBM software.",
"It was Compaq's first non-portable computer and began the Deskpro line of computers.====Compaq DeskPro 386====In 1986, Compaq introduced the Deskpro 386, the first PC based on Intel's new 80386 microprocessor.",
"Bill Gates of Microsoft later saidThe Compaq 386 computer marked the first CPU change to the PC platform that was not initiated by IBM.",
"An IBM-made 386 machine reached the market almost a year later, but by that time Compaq was the 386 supplier of choice and IBM had lost some of its prestige.For the first three months after announcement, the Deskpro 386 shipped with Windows/386.This was a version of Windows 2.1 adapted for the 80386 processor.",
"Support for the virtual 8086 mode was added by Compaq engineers.",
"(Windows, running on top of the MS-DOS operating system, would not become a popular \"operating environment\" until at least the release of Windows 3.0 in 1990.",
")====Compaq SystemPro====Compaq's technical leadership and the rivalry with IBM was emphasized when the SystemPro server was launched in late 1989 – this was a true server product with standard support for a second CPU and RAID, but also the first product to feature the EISA bus, designed in reaction to IBM's MCA (Micro Channel Architecture) which was incompatible with the original AT bus.Although Compaq had become successful by being 100 percent IBM-compatible, it decided to continue with the original AT bus—which it renamed ISA—instead of licensing IBM's MCA.",
"Prior to developing EISA Compaq had invested significant resources into reverse engineering MCA, but its executives correctly calculated that the $80 billion already spent by corporations on IBM-compatible technology would make it difficult for even IBM to force manufacturers to adopt the new MCA design.",
"Instead of cloning MCA, Compaq led an alliance with Hewlett Packard and seven other major manufacturers, known collectively as the \"Gang of Nine\", to develop EISA.====Compaq SLT and LTE====Development of a truly mobile successor to the Portable line began in 1986, the company releasing two stopgap products in the meantime, the SLT (Compaq's first laptop) and the Compaq Portable III (a lighter-weight, lunchbox-sized entry in the Portable line).",
"In 1989, they introduced the LTE, their first notebook-sized laptop which competed with NEC's UltraLite and Zenith Data Systems's MinisPort.",
"However, whereas the UltraLite and MinisPort failed to gain much uptake due to their novel but nonstandard data storage technologies, the LTE succeeded on account of its use of the conventional floppy drive and spinning hard drive, allowing users to transfer data to and from their desktop computers without any hassle.",
"As well, Compaq began offering docking stations with the release of the LTE/386s in 1990, providing performance comparable to then-current desktop machines.",
"Thus, the LTE was the first commercially successful notebook computer, helping launch the burgeoning industry.",
"It was a direct influence on both Apple and IBM for the development of their own notebook computers, the PowerBook and ThinkPad, respectively.===1990s===By 1989, ''The New York Times'' wrote that being the first to release a 80386-based personal computer made Compaq the leader of the industry and \"hurt no company more - in prestige as well as dollars - than\" IBM.",
"The company was so influential that observers and its executives spoke of \"Compaq compatible\".",
"''InfoWorld'' reported that \"In the ISA market Compaq is already IBM's equal in being seen as a safe bet\", quoting a sell-side analyst describing it as \"now ''the'' safe choice in personal computers\".",
"Even rival Tandy Corporation acknowledged Compaq's leadership, stating that within the Gang of Nine \"when you have 10 people sit down before a table to write a letter to the president, someone has to write the letter.",
"Compaq is sitting down at the typewriter\".====Ouster of co-founders====Michael S. Swavely, president of Compaq's North American division since May 1989, took a six-month sabbatical in January 1991 (which would eventually become retirement effective on July 12, 1991).",
"Eckhard Pfeiffer, then president of Compaq International, was named to succeed him.",
"Pfeiffer also received the title of chief operating officer, with responsibility for the company's operations on a worldwide basis, so that Canion could devote more time to strategy.",
"Swavely's abrupt departure in January led to rumors of turmoil in Compaq's executive suite, including friction between Canion and Swavely, likely as Swavely's rival Pfeiffer had received the number two leadership position.",
"Swavely's U.S. marketing organization was losing ground with only 4% growth for Compaq versus 7% in the market, likely due to short supplies of the LTE 386s from component shortages, rivals that undercut Compaq's prices by as much as 35%, and large customers who did not like Compaq's dealer-only policy.",
"Pfeiffer became president and CEO of Compaq later that year, as a result of a boardroom coup led by board chairman Ben Rosen that forced co-founder Rod Canion to resign as president and CEO.Pfeiffer had joined Compaq from Texas Instruments, and established operations from scratch in both Europe and Asia.",
"Pfeiffer was given US$20,000 to start up Compaq Europe He started up Compaq's first overseas office in Munich in 1984.By 1990, Compaq Europe was a $2 billion business and number two behind IBM in that region, and foreign sales contributed 54 percent of Compaq's revenues.",
"Pfeiffer, while transplanting Compaq's U.S. strategy of dealer-only distribution to Europe, was more selective in signing up dealers than Compaq had been in the U. S. such that European dealers were more qualified to handle its increasingly complex products.During the 1980s, under Canion's direction Compaq had focused on engineering, research, and quality control, producing high-end, high-performance machines with high profit margins that allowed Compaq to continue investing in engineering and next-generation technology.",
"This strategy was successful as Compaq was considered a trusted brand, while many other IBM clones were untrusted due to being plagued by poor reliability.",
"However, by the end of the eighties many manufacturers had improved their quality and were able to produce inexpensive PCs with off-the-shelf components, incurring none of the R&D costs which allowed them to undercut Compaq's expensive computers.",
"Faced with lower-cost rivals such as Dell, AST Research, and Gateway 2000, Compaq suffered a $71 million loss for that quarter, their first loss as a company, while the stock had dropped by over two-thirds.",
"An analyst stated that \"Compaq has made a lot of tactical errors in the last year and a half.",
"They were trend-setters, now they are lagging\".",
"Canion initially believed that the 1990s recession was responsible for Compaq's declining sales but insisted that they would recover once the economy improved, however Pfeiffer's observation of the European market noted that it was competition as rivals could match Compaq at a fraction of the cost.",
"Under pressure from Compaq's board to control costs as staff was ballooning at their Houston headquarters despite falling U.S. sales, while the number of non-U.S. employees had stayed constant, Compaq made its first-ever layoffs (1400 employees which was 12% of its workforce) while Pfeiffer was promoted to EVP and COO.Rosen and Canion had disagreed about how to counter the cheaper Asian PC imports, as Canion wanted Compaq to build lower cost PCs with components developed in-house in order to preserve Compaq's reputation for engineering and quality, while Rosen believed that Compaq needed to buy standard components from suppliers and reach the market faster.",
"While Canion developed an 18-month plan to create a line of low-priced computers, Rosen sent his own Compaq engineering team to Comdex without Canion's knowledge and discovered that a low-priced PC could be made in half the time and at lower cost than Canion's initiative.",
"It was also believed that Canion's consensus-style management slowed the company's ability to react in the market, whereas Pfeiffer's autocratic style would be suited to price and product competition.Rosen initiated a 14-hour board meeting, and the directors also interviewed Pfeiffer for several hours without informing Canion.",
"At the conclusion, the board was unanimous in picking Pfeiffer over Canion.",
"As Canion was popular with company workers, 150 employees staged an impromptu protest with signs stating \"We love you, Rod.\"",
"and taking out a newspaper ad saying \"Rod, you are the wind beneath our wings.",
"We love you.\"",
"Canion declined an offer to remain on Compaq's board and was bitter about his ouster as he did not speak to Rosen for years, although their relationship became cordial again.",
"In 1999, Canion admitted that his ouster was justified, saying \"I was burned out.",
"I needed to leave.",
"He Rosen felt I didn't have a strong sense of urgency\".",
"Two weeks after Canion's ouster, five other senior executives resigned, including remaining company founder James Harris as SVP of Engineering.",
"These departures were motivated by an enhanced severance or early retirement, as well as an imminent demotion as their functions were to be shifted to vice presidents.====Market ascension====An early-1990s Compaq Presario all-in-oneUnder Pfeiffer's tenure as chief executive, Compaq entered the retail computer market with the Compaq Presario as one of the first manufacturers in the mid-1990s to market a sub-$1000 PC.",
"In order to maintain the prices it wanted, Compaq became the first first-tier computer manufacturer to utilize CPUs from AMD and Cyrix.",
"The two price wars resulting from Compaq's actions ultimately drove numerous competitors from the market, such as Packard Bell and AST Research.",
"From third place in 1993, Compaq had overtaken Apple Computer and even surpassed IBM as the top PC manufacturer in 1994, as both IBM and Apple were struggling considerably during that time.",
"Compaq's inventory and gross margins were better than that of its rivals which enabled it to wage the price wars.Compaq had decided to make a foray into printers in 1989, and the first models were released to positive reviews in 1992.However, Pfeiffer saw that the prospects of taking on market leader Hewlett-Packard (who had 60% market share) was tough, as that would force Compaq to devote more funds and people to that project than originally budgeted.",
"Compaq ended up selling the printer business to Xerox and took a charge of $50 million.On June 26, 1995, Compaq reached an agreement with Cisco Systems Inc. in order to get into networking, including digital modems, routers, and switches favored by small businesses and corporate departments, which was now a $4 billion business and the fastest-growing part of the computer hardware market.",
"Compaq also built up a network engineering and marketing staff.====Management shuffle====In 1996, despite record sales and profits at Compaq, Pfeiffer initiated a major management shakeup in the senior ranks.",
"John T. Rose, who previously ran Compaq's desktop PC division, took over the corporate server business from SVP Gary Stimac who had resigned.",
"Rose had joined Compaq in 1993 from Digital Equipment Corporation where he oversaw the personal computer division and worldwide engineering, while Stimac had been with Compaq since 1982 and was one of the longest-serving executives.",
"Senior Vice-president for North America Ross Cooley announced his resignation effective at the end of 1996.CFO Daryl J.",
"White, who joined the company in January, 1983 resigned in May, 1996 after 8 years as CFO.",
"Michael Winkler, who joined Compaq in 1995 to run its portable computer division, was promoted to general manager of the new PC products group.",
"Earl Mason, hired from Inland Steel effective in May 1996, immediately made an impact as the new CFO.",
"Under Mason's guidance, Compaq utilized its assets more efficiently instead of focusing just on income and profits, which increased Compaq's cash from to nearly in one year.",
"Additionally, Compaq's return on invested capital (after-tax operating profit divided by operating assets) doubled to 50 percent from 25 percent in that period.Compaq had been producing the PC chassis at its plant in Shenzhen, China to cut costs.",
"In 1996, instead of expanding its own plant, Compaq asked a Taiwanese supplier to set up a new factory nearby to produce the mechanicals, with the Taiwanese supplier owning the inventory until it reached Compaq in Houston.",
"Pfeiffer also introduced a new distribution strategy, to build PCs made-to-order which would eliminate the stockpile of computers in warehouses and cut the components inventory down to two weeks, with the supply chain from supplier to dealer linked by complex software.Vice-president for Corporate Development Kenneth E. Kurtzman assembled five teams to examine Compaq's businesses and assess each unit's strategy and that of key rivals.",
"Kurtzman's teams recommended to Pfeiffer that each business unit had to be first or second in its market within three years—or else Compaq should exit that line.",
"Also, the company should no longer use profits from high-margin businesses to carry marginally profitable ones, as instead each unit must show a return on investment.",
"Pfeiffer's vision was to make Compaq a full-fledged computer company, moving beyond its main business of manufacturing retail PCs and into the more lucrative business services and solutions that IBM did well at, such as computer servers which would also require more \"customer handholding\" from either the dealers or Compaq staff themselves.",
"Unlike IBM and HP, Compaq would not build up field technicians and programmers in-house as those could be costly assets, instead Compaq would leverage its partnerships (including those with Andersen Consulting and software maker SAP) to install and maintain corporate systems.",
"This allowed Compaq to compete in the \"big-iron market\" without incurring the costs of running its own services or software businesses.Promotional baseball cap showcasing the alliance between Compaq and SCOMost of Compaq's server sales were for systems that would be running Microsoft's Windows NT operating system, and indeed Compaq was the largest hardware supplier for Windows NT.",
"However, some 20 percent of Compaq servers went for systems that would be running the Unix operating system.",
"This was exemplified by a strategic alliance formed in 1997 between Compaq and the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO), which was known for its server Unix operating system products on Intel-architecture-based hardware.",
"Compaq was also the largest hardware supplier for SCO's Unix products, and some 10 percent of Compaq's ProLiant servers ran SCO's UnixWare.In January 1998, Compaq was at its height.",
"CEO Pfeiffer boldly predicted that the Microsoft/Intel \"Wintel\" duopoly would be replaced by \"Wintelpaq\".====Acquisitions====Pfeiffer also made several major and some minor acquisitions.",
"In 1997, Compaq bought Tandem Computers, known for their NonStop server line.",
"This acquisition instantly gave Compaq a presence in the higher end business computing market.",
"The alliance between Compaq and SCO took advantage of this to put out the UnixWare NonStop Clusters product in 1998.Minor acquisitions centered around building a networking arm and included NetWorth (1998) based in Irving, Texas and Thomas-Conrad (1998) based in Austin, Texas.",
"In 1997, Microcom was also acquired, based in Norwood, MA, which brought a line of modems, Remote Access Servers (RAS) and the popular Carbon Copy software.Former headquarters of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in Maynard, Massachusetts.",
"Compaq acquired DEC in 1998.In 1998, Compaq acquired Digital Equipment Corporation for a then-industry record of $9.6 billion.",
"The merger made Compaq, at the time, the world's second largest computer maker in the world in terms of revenue behind IBM.",
"Digital Equipment, which had nearly twice as many employees as Compaq while generating half the revenue, had been a leading computer company during the 1970s and early 1980s.",
"However, Digital had struggled during the 1990s, with high operating costs.",
"For nine years the company had lost money or barely broke even, and had recently refocused itself as a \"network solutions company\".",
"In 1995, Compaq had considered a bid for Digital but only became seriously interested in 1997 after Digital's major divestments and refocusing on the Internet.",
"At the time of the acquisition, services accounted for 45 percent of Digital's revenues (about $6 billion) and their gross margins on services averaged 34 percent, considerably higher than Compaq's 25% margins on PC sales and also satisfying customers who had demanded more services from Compaq for years.",
"Compaq had originally wanted to purchase only Digital's services business but that was turned down.",
"When the announcement was made, it was initially viewed as a master stroke as it immediately gave Compaq a 22,000 person global service operation to help corporations handle major technological purchases (by 2001 services made up over 20% of Compaq's revenues, largely due to the Digital employees inherited from the merger), in order to compete with IBM.",
"However it was also risky merger, as the combined company would have to lay off 2,000 employees from Compaq and 15,000 from Digital which would potentially hurt morale.",
"Furthermore, Compaq fell behind schedule in integrating Digital's operations, which also distracted the company from its strength in low-end PCs where it used to lead the market in rolling out next-generation systems which let rival Dell grab market share.",
"Reportedly Compaq had three consulting firms working to integrate Digital alone.However, Pfeiffer had little vision for what the combined companies should do, or indeed how the three dramatically different cultures could work as a single entity, and Compaq struggled from strategy indecisiveness and lost focus, as a result being caught in between the low end and high end of the market.",
"Mark Anderson, president of Strategic News Service, a research firm based in Friday Harbor, Wash. was quoted as saying, \"The kind of goals he had sounded good to shareholders – like being a $50 billion company by the year 2000, or to beat I.B.M.",
"– but they didn't have anything to do with customers.",
"The new C.E.O.",
"should look at everything Eckhard acquired and ask: did the customer benefit from that.",
"If the answer isn't yes, they should get rid of it.\"",
"On one hand, Compaq had previously dominated the PC market with its price war but was now struggling against Dell, which sold directly to buyers, avoiding the dealer channel and its markup, and built each machine to order to keep inventories and costs at a minimum.",
"At the same time, Compaq, through its acquisitions of the Digital Equipment Corporation in 1998 and Tandem Computers in 1997, had tried to become a major systems company, like IBM and Hewlett-Packard.",
"While IBM and HP were able generate repeat business from corporate customers to drive sales of their different divisions, Compaq had not yet managed to make its newly acquired sales and services organizations work as seamlessly.====Ouster of Pfeiffer====In early 1998, Compaq had the problem of bloated PC inventories.",
"By summer 1998, Compaq was suffering from product-quality problems.",
"Robert W. Stearns, SVP of Business Development, said \"In Pfeiffer's quest for bigness, he lost an understanding of the customer and built what I call empty market share—large but not profitable\", while Jim Moore, a technology strategy consultant with GeoPartners Research in Cambridge, Mass., says Pfeiffer \"raced to scale without having economies of scale.\"",
"The \"colossus\" that Pfeiffer built up was not nimble enough to adapt to the fast-changing computer industry.",
"That year Compaq forecast demand poorly and shipped too many PCs, causing resellers to dump them at fire sale prices, and since Compaq protected resellers from heavy losses it cost them two quarters of operating profits.Pfeiffer also refused to develop a potential successor, rebuffing Rosen's suggestion to recruit a few executives to create the separate position of Compaq president.",
"The board complained that Pfeiffer was too removed from management and the rank-and-file, as he surrounded himself with a \"clique\" of Chief Financial Officer Earl Mason, Senior Vice-President John T. Rose, and Senior Vice-President of Human Resources Hans Gutsch.",
"Current and former Compaq employees complained that Gutsch was part of a group of senior executives, dubbed the \"A team\", who controlled access to Pfeiffer.",
"Gutsch was said to be a \"master of corporate politics, pitting senior vice presidents against each other and inserting himself into parts of the company that normally would not be under his purview\".",
"Gutsch, who oversaw security, had an extensive security system and guard station installed on the eight floor of CCA-11, where the company's senior vice presidents worked.",
"There were accusations that Gutsch and others sought to divide top management, although this was regarded by others as sour grapes on the part of executives who were shut out of planning that involved the acquisitions of Tandem Computers and Digital Equipment Corp. Pfeiffer reduced the size of the group working on the deal due to news leaks, saying \"We cut the team down to the minimum number of people—those who would have to be directly involved, and not one person more\".",
"Robert W. Stearns, Compaq's senior vice president for business development, with responsibility for mergers and acquisitions, had opposed the acquisition of Digital as the cultural differences between both companies were too great, and complained that he was placed on the \"B team\" as a result.Compaq entered 1999 with strong expectations.",
"Fourth-quarter 1998 earnings reported in January 1999 beat expectations by six cents a share with record 48 percent growth.",
"The company launched ''Compaq.com'' as the key for its new direct sales strategy, and planned an IPO for AltaVista toward the end of 1999 in order to capitalize on the dotcom bubble.",
"However, by February 1999, analysts were sceptical of Compaq's plan to sell both direct and to resellers.",
"Compaq was hit with two class-action lawsuits, as a result of CFO Earl Mason, SVP John Rose, and other executives selling of stock before a conference call with analysts, where they noted that demand for PCs was slowing down.On April 17, 1999, just nine days after Compaq reported first-quarter profit being at half of what analysts had expected, the latest in a string of earnings disappointments, Pfeiffer was forced to resign as CEO in a coup led by board chairman Ben Rosen.",
"Reportedly, at the special board meeting held on April 15, 1999, the directors were unanimous in dismissing Pfeiffer.",
"The company's stock had fallen 50 percent since its all-time high in January 1999.Compaq shares, which traded as high as early in 1999, dropped 23 percent on April 12, 1999, the first day of trading after the first-quarter announcement and closed the following Friday at .",
"During three out of the last six quarters of Pfeiffer's tenure, the company's revenues or earnings had missed expectations.",
"While rival Dell had 55% growth in U.S. PC sales in the first quarter of 1999, Compaq could only manage 10%.",
"Rosen suggested that the accelerating change brought about by the Internet had overtaken Compaq's management team, saying \"As a company engaged in transforming its industry for the Internet era, we must have the organizational flexibility necessary to move at Internet speed.\"",
"In a statement, Pfeiffer said \"Compaq has come a long way since I joined the company in 1983\" and \"under Ben's guidance, I know this company will realize its potential.\"",
"Rosen's priority was to have Compaq catchup as an E-commerce competitor, and he also moved to streamline operations and reduce the indecision that plagued the company.Roger Kay, an analyst at International Data Corporation, observed that Compaq's behavior at times seemed like a personal vendetta, noting that \"Eckhard has been so obsessed with staying ahead of Dell that they focused too hard on market share and stopped paying attention to profitability and liquidity.",
"They got whacked in a price war that they started.\"",
"Subsequent earnings releases from Compaq's rivals, Dell, Gateway, IBM, and Hewlett-Packard suggested that the problems were not affecting the whole PC industry as Pfeiffer had suggested.",
"Dell and Gateway sold direct, which helped them to avoid Compaq's inventory problems and compete on price without dealer markups, plus Gateway sold web access and a broad range of software tailored to small businesses.",
"Hewlett-Packard's PC business had similar challenges like Compaq but this was offset by HP's extremely lucrative printer business, while IBM sold PCs at a loss but used them to lock in multi-year services contracts with customers.After Pfeiffer's resignation, the board established an office of the CEO with a triumvirate of directors; Rosen as interim CEO and vice chairmen Frank P. Doyle and Robert Ted Enloe III.",
"They began \"cleaning house\", as shortly afterward many of Pfeiffer's top executives resigned or were pushed out, including John J. Rando, Earl L. Mason, and John T. Rose.",
"Rando, senior vice president and general manager of Compaq Services, was a key player during the merger discussions and the most senior executive from Digital to remain with Compaq after the acquisition closed and had been touted by some as the heir-apparent to Pfeiffer.",
"Rando's division had performed strongly as it had sales of for the first quarter compared to in 1998, which met expectations and was anticipated to post accelerated and profitable growth going forward.",
"At the time of Rando's departure, Compaq Services ranked third behind those of IBM and EDS, while slightly ahead of Hewlett-Packard's and Andersen Consulting, however customers switched from Digital technology-based workstations to those of HP, IBM, and Sun Microsystems.",
"Mason, senior vice president and chief financial officer, had previously been offered the job of chief executive of Alliant Foodservice, Inc., a foodservice distributor based in Chicago, and he informed Compaq's board that he accepted the offer.",
"Rose, senior vice president and general manager of Compaq's Enterprise Computing group, resigned effective as of June 3 and was succeeded by Tandem veteran Enrico Pesatori.",
"Rose was reportedly upset that he was not considered for the CEO vacancy, which became apparent once Michael Capellas was named COO.",
"While Enterprise Computing, responsible for engineering and marketing of network servers, workstations and data-storage products, reportedly accounted for one third of Compaq's revenues and likely the largest part of its profits, it was responsible for the earnings shortfall in Q1 of 1999.In addition, Rose was part of the \"old guard\" close to former CEO Pfeiffer, and he and other Compaq executives had been criticized at the company's annual meeting for selling stock before reporting the sales slowdown.",
"Rose was succeeded by SVP Enrico Pesatori, who had previously worked as a senior executive at Olivetti, Zenith Data Systems, Digital Equipment Corporation, and Tandem Computers.",
"Capellas was appointed COO after pressure mounted on Rosen to find a permanent CEO, however it was reported that potential candidates did not want to work under Rosen as chairman.",
"Around the same time Pesatori was placed in charge of the newly created Enterprise Solutions and Services Group, making him Compaq's second most powerful executive in operational responsibility after Capellas.Pfeiffer's permanent replacement was Michael Capellas, who had been serving as Compaq's SVP and CIO for under a year.",
"A couple months after Pfeiffer's ouster, Capellas was elevated to interim chief operating officer on June 2, 2000, and was soon appointed president and CEO.",
"Capellas also assumed the title of chairman on September 28, 2000, when Rosen stepped down from the board of directors.",
"At his retirement, Rosen proclaimed \"These are great achievements—to create 65,000 jobs, in sales and in market value, all starting with a sketch and a dream\".===Late 1990s–2000s===In 1998, Compaq signed new sales and equipment alliance with NaviSite.",
"Under the pact, Compaq agreed to promote and sell NaviSite Web hosting services.",
"In return, NaviSite took Compaq as a preferred provider for its storage and Intel-based servers.During November 1999, Compaq began to work with Microsoft to create the first in a line of small-scale, web-based computer systems called MSN Companions.====Struggles====iPAQ H3950Capellas was able to restore some of the luster lost in the latter part of the Pfeiffer era and he repaired the relationship with Microsoft which had deteriorated under his predecessor's tenure.However Compaq still struggled against lower-cost competitors with direct sales channels such as Dell who took over the top spot of PC manufacturer from Compaq in 2001.Compaq relied significantly on reseller channels, so their criticism caused Compaq to retreat from its proposed direct sales plan, although Capellas maintained that he would use the middlemen to provide value-added services.",
"Despite falling to No.",
"2 among PC manufacturers, Capellas proclaimed \"We are No.",
"2 in the traditional PC market, but we're focused on industry leadership in the next generation of Internet access devices and wireless mobility.",
"That's where the growth and the profitability will be.\"",
"The company's longer-term strategy involved extending its services to servers and storage products, as well as handheld computers such as the iPAQ PocketPC which accounted for 11 percent of total unit volume.Compaq struggled as a result of the collapse of the dot-com bubble, which hurt sales of their high-end systems in 2001 and 2002, and they managed only a small profit in a few quarters during these years.",
"They also accumulated $1.7 billion in short-term debt around this time.",
"The stock price of Compaq, which was around $25 when Capellas became CEO, was trading at half that by 2002.===Acquisition by Hewlett-Packard===In 2002, Compaq signed a merger agreement with Hewlett-Packard for , including for goodwill, where each Compaq share would be exchanged for 0.6325 of a Hewlett-Packard share.",
"There would be a termination fee of that either company would have to pay the other to break the merger.",
"Compaq shareholders would own 36% of the combined company while HP's would have 64%.",
"Hewlett-Packard had reported yearly revenues of , while Compaq's was , and the combined company would have been close to IBM's revenues.",
"It was projected to have in annual cost savings by mid-2004.The expected layoffs at Compaq and HP, 8500 and 9000 jobs respectively, would leave the combined company with a workforce of 145,000.The companies would dole out a combined in bonuses to prevent key employees from leaving if shareholders approve the proposed merger, with for HP employees and for Compaq employees.Both companies had to seek approval from their shareholders through separate special meetings.",
"While Compaq shareholders unanimously approved the deal, there was a public proxy battle within HP as the deal was strongly opposed by numerous large HP shareholders, including the sons of the company founders, Walter Hewlett and David W. Packard, as well as the California Public Employees’ Retirement System (CalPERS) and the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan.",
"Walter Hewlett only reluctantly approved the merger, in his duty as a member of the board of directors, since the merger agreement \"called for unanimous board approval in order to ensure the best possible shareholder reception\".",
"While supporters of the merger argued that there would be economies of scale and that the sales of PCs would drive sales of printers and cameras, Walter Hewlett was convinced that PCs were a low-margin but risky business that would not contribute and would likely dilute the old HP's traditionally profitable Imaging and Printing division.",
"David W. Packard in his opposition to the deal \"cited massive layoffs as an example of this departure from HP’s core values...arguing that although the founders never guaranteed job security, 'Bill and Dave never developed a premeditated business strategy that treated HP employees as expendable.'\"",
"Packard further stated that \"Carly_Fiorina|Carly Fiorina’s high-handed management and her efforts to reinvent the company ran counter to the company’s core values as established by the founders\".",
"The founders' families who controlled a significant amount of HP shares were further irked because Fiorina had made no attempt to reach out to them and consult about the merger, instead they received the same standard roadshow presentation as other investors.Analysts on Wall Street were generally critical of the merger, as both companies had been struggling before the announcement, and the stock prices of both companies dropped in the months after the merger agreement was made public.",
"Particularly rival Dell made gains from defecting HP and Compaq customers who were wary of the merger.",
"Carly Fiorina, initially seen as HP's savior when she was hired as CEO back in 1999, had seen the company's stock price drop to less than half since she assumed the position, and her job was said to be on shaky ground before the merger announcement.",
"HP's offer was regarded by analysts to be overvaluing Compaq, due to Compaq's shaky financial performance in the past recent years (there were rumors that it could run out of money in 12 months and be forced to cease business operations had it stayed independent), as well as Compaq's own more conservative valuation of its assets.",
"Detractors of the deal noted that buying Compaq was a \"distraction\" that would not directly help HP take on IBM's breadth or Dell Computer's direct sales model.",
"Plus there were significant cultural differences between HP and Compaq; which made decisions by consensus and rapid autocratic styles, respectively.",
"One of Compaq's few bright spots was its services business, which was outperforming HP's own services division.The merger was approved by HP shareholders only after the narrowest of margins, and allegations of vote buying (primarily involving an alleged last-second back-room deal with Deutsche Bank) haunted the new company.",
"It was subsequently disclosed that HP had retained Deutsche Bank's investment banking division in January 2002 to assist in the merger.",
"HP had agreed to pay Deutsche Bank guaranteed, and another contingent upon approval of the merger.",
"On August 19, 2003, the U.S. SEC charged Deutsche Bank with failing to disclose a material conflict of interest in its voting of client proxies for the merger and imposed a civil penalty of .",
"Deutsche Bank consented without admitting or denying the findings.Hewlett-Packard announced the completion of merger on May 3, 2002, and the merged HP-Compaq company was officially launched on May 7.Compaq's pre-merger ticker symbol was CPQ.",
"This was combined with Hewlett-Packard's ticker symbol (HWP) to create the current ticker symbol (HPQ), which was announced on May 6.===Post-merger===Capellas, Compaq's last chairman and CEO, became president of the post-merger Hewlett-Packard, under chairman and CEO Carly Fiorina, to ease the integration of the two companies.",
"However, Capellas was reported not to be happy with his role, being said not to be utilized and being unlikely to become CEO as the board supported Fiorina.",
"Capellas stepped down as HP president on November 12, 2002, after just six months on the job, to become CEO of MCI Worldcom where he would lead its acquisition by Verizon.",
"Capellas' former role of president was not filled as the executives who reported to him then reported directly to the CEO.Fiorina helmed the post-merger HP for nearly three years after Capellas left.",
"HP laid off thousands of former Compaq, DEC, HP, and Tandem employees, its stock price generally declined and profits did not perk up.",
"Several senior executives from the Compaq side including Jeff Clarke and Peter Blackmore would resign or be ousted from the post-merger HP.",
"Though the combination of both companies' PC manufacturing capacity initially made the post-merger HP number one, it soon lost the lead and further market share to Dell which squeezed HP on low end PCs.",
"HP was also unable to compete effectively with IBM in the high-end server market.",
"In addition, the merging of the stagnant Compaq computer assembly business with HP's lucrative printing and imaging division was criticized for obstructing the profitability of the printing/imaging segment.",
"Overall, it has been suggested that the purchase of Compaq was not a good move for HP, due to the narrow profit margins in the commoditized PC business, especially in light of IBM's 2004 announcement to sell its PC division to Lenovo.",
"''The Inquirer'' noted that the continued low return on investment and small margins of HP's personal computer manufacturing business, now named the Personal Systems Group, \"continues to be what it was in the individual companies, not much more than a job creation scheme for its employees\".",
"One of the few positives was Compaq's sales approach and enterprise focus that influenced the newly combined company's strategy and philosophy.In February 2005, the board of directors ousted Fiorina, with CFO Robert Wayman being named interim CEO.",
"Former Compaq CEO Capellas was mentioned by some as a potential successor, but several months afterwards, Mark Hurd was hired as president and CEO of HP.",
"Hurd separated the PC division from the imaging and printing division and renamed it the Personal Systems Group, placing it under the leadership of EVP Todd R. Bradley.",
"Hewlett Packard's PC business has since been reinvigorated by Hurd's restructuring and now generates more revenue than the traditionally more profitable printers.",
"By late 2006, HP had retaken the #1 sales position of PCs from Dell, which struggled with missed estimates and poor quality, and held that rank until supplanted in the mid-2010s by Lenovo.Most Compaq products have been re-branded with the HP nameplate, such as the company's market leading ProLiant server line (now owned by Hewlett Packard Enterprise, which spun off from HP in 2015), while the Compaq brand was repurposed for some of HP's consumer-oriented and budget products, notably Compaq Presario PCs.",
"HP's business computers line was discontinued in favour of the Compaq Evo line, which was initially rebranded HP Compaq but now use brands such as EliteBook and ProBook, among others.",
"HP's Jornada PDAs were replaced by Compaq iPAQ PDAs, which were renamed HP iPAQ.",
"Following the merger, all Compaq computers were shipped with HP software.In May 2007, HP announced in a press release a new logo for their Compaq Division to be placed on the new model Compaq Presarios.In 2008, HP reshuffled its business line notebooks.",
"The \"Compaq\" name from its \"HP Compaq\" series was originally used for all of HP's business and budget notebooks.",
"However, the HP EliteBook line became the top of the business notebook lineup while the HP Compaq B series became its middle business line.",
"As of early 2009, the \"HP ProBook\" filled out HP's low end business lineup.An example of a HP CompaqIn 2009, HP sold part of Compaq's former headquarters to the Lone Star College System.On August 18, 2011, then-CEO of HP Léo Apotheker announced plans for a partial or full spinoff of the Personal Systems Group.",
"The PC unit had the lowest profit margin although it accounted for nearly a third of HP's overall revenues in 2010.HP was still selling more PCs than any other vendor, shipping 14.9 million PCs in the second quarter of 2011 (17.5% of the market according to Gartner), while Dell and Lenovo were tied for second place, each with more than a 12% share of the market and shipments of over 10 million units.",
"However, the announcement of the PC spinoff (concurrent with the discontinuation of WebOS, and the purchase of Autonomy Corp. for $10 billion) was poorly received by the market, and after Apotheker's ouster, plans for a divestiture were cancelled.",
"In March 2012, the printing and imaging division was merged into the PC unit.",
"In October 2012, according to Gartner, Lenovo took the lead as the number one PC manufacturer from HP, while IDC ranked Lenovo just right behind HP.",
"In Q2 2013, ''Forbes'' reported that Lenovo ranked ahead of HP as the world's number-one PC supplier.HP discontinued the Compaq brand name in the United States in 2013.Around that same year, Globalk (a Brazilian-based retailer and licensing management firm) started a partnership with HP to re-introduce the brand with a new line of desktop and laptop computers.In 2015, Grupo Newsan (an Argentinian-based company) acquired the brand's license, along with a $3 million investment, and developed two new lines of Presario notebooks for the local market over the course of the year.",
"However, Compaq's Argentine web site went offline in March 2019.The last archived copy of the site was made in October 2018, which featured the same models introduced in 2016.In 2018, Ossify Industries (an Indian-based company) entered a licensing agreement with HP to use the Compaq brand name for the distribution and manufacturing of Smart TV sets."
],
[
"Headquarters",
"The Compaq World Headquarters (now HP United States) campus consisted of of land which contained 15 office buildings, 7 manufacturing buildings, a product conference center, an employee cafeteria, mechanical laboratories, warehouses, and chemical handling facilities.Instead of headquartering the company in a downtown Houston skyscraper, then-CEO Rod Canion chose a West Coast-style campus surrounded by forests, where every employee had similar offices and no-one (not even the CEO) had a reserved parking spot.",
"As it grew, Compaq became so important to Houston that it negotiated the expansion of Highway 249 in the late 1980s, and many other technology companies appeared in what became known as the \"249 Corridor\".After Canion's ouster, senior vice-president of human resources, Hans W. Gutsch, oversaw the company's facilities and security.",
"Gutsch had an extensive security system and guard station installed on the eight floor of CCA-1, where the company's senior vice presidents had their offices.",
"Eckhard Pfeiffer, president and CEO, introduced a whole series of executive perks to a company that had always had an egalitarian culture; for instance, he oversaw the construction of an executive parking garage, previously parking places had never been reserved.On August 31, 1998, the Compaq Commons was opened in the headquarters campus, which featured a conference center, an employee convenience store, a wellness center, and an employee cafeteria.In 2009, HP sold part of Compaq's former headquarters to the Lone Star College System.",
"Hewlett Packard Buildings #7 & #8, two eight-story reinforced concrete buildings totaling 450,000 square feet, plus a 1,200-car parking garage and a central chiller plant, were all deemed by the college to be too robust and costly to maintain, and so they were demolished by implosion on September 18, 2011., the site is one of HP's largest campuses, with 7,000 employees in all six of HP's divisions.",
"The campus was inherited by Hewlett Packard Enterprise, one of the successor companies when HP split into two.",
"In 2018, Hewlett Packard Enterprise announced the sale of the entire former Compaq HQ campus to Mexican beverage distributor Mexcor."
],
[
"Competitors",
"Compaq originally competed directly against IBM, manufacturing computer systems equivalent with the IBM PC, as well as Apple Computer.",
"In the 1990s, as IBM's own PC division declined, Compaq faced other IBM PC Compatible manufacturers like Dell, Packard Bell, AST Research, and Gateway 2000.By the mid-1990s, Compaq's price war had enabled it to overtake IBM and Apple, while other IBM PC Compatible manufacturers such as Packard Bell and AST were driven out from the market.Dell overtook Compaq and became the number-one supplier of PCs in 2001.At the time of their 2002 merger, Compaq and HP were the second and third largest PC manufacturers, so their combination made them number one.",
"However, the combined HP-Compaq struggled and fell to second place behind Dell from 2003 to 2006.Due to Dell's struggles in late 2006, HP has led all PC vendors from 2007 to 2012.During its existence as a division of HP, Compaq primarily competed against other budget-oriented personal computer series from manufacturers including Acer, Lenovo, and Toshiba.",
"Most of Compaq's competitors except Dell were later acquired by bigger rivals like Acer (Gateway 2000 and Packard Bell) and Lenovo absorbing IBM's PC division.",
"From 2013 onwards, Lenovo has been the world leader for PCs."
],
[
"Sponsorship",
"Before its merger with HP, Compaq sponsored the Williams Formula One team when it was still powered by BMW engines.",
"HP inherited and continued the sponsorship deal for a few years.Compaq sponsored Queens Park Rangers F.C.",
"for the 1994–95 and 1995–96 seasons."
],
[
"See also",
"* Compaq Portable series* List of computer system manufacturers* Market share of personal computer vendors"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Silicon Cowboys (2016) Documentary* – How Compaq Ended IBM's PC Domination and Helped Invent Modern Computing book* Compaq Alumni Group"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"CPSU (disambiguation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''CPSU''' is the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the sole governing party of the Soviet Union until 1990.",
"'''CPSU''' may also refer to:"
],
[
"Schools",
"* California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, California, USA* Central Philippines State University, Negros Occidental, Philippines* Coventry Polytechnic Students Union, England"
],
[
"Organizations",
"* Central Public Sector Undertaking, a state-owned enterprise in India* Civil and Public Services Union, an Irish trade union* Commonwealth Policy Studies Unit, a think tank in London* Communist Party of Social Justice, political party in Russia established in 2012* Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1992)* Communist Party of the Soviet Union (2001)* Community and Public Sector Union, an Australian trade union* Union of Communist Parties – Communist Party of the Soviet Union"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cluny"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cluny''' () is a commune in the eastern French department of Saône-et-Loire, in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté.",
"It is northwest of Mâcon.The town grew up around the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, founded by Duke William I of Aquitaine in 910.The height of Cluniac influence was from the second half of the 10th century through the early 12th.",
"The abbey was sacked by the Huguenots in 1562, and many of its valuable manuscripts were destroyed or removed."
],
[
"Geography",
"The river Grosne flows northward through the commune and crosses the town."
],
[
"Population"
],
[
"See also",
"* Cluniac Reforms* Communes of the Saône-et-Loire department"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official website (in French)*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chet Atkins"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Chester Burton Atkins''' (June 20, 1924 – June 30, 2001), also known as \"'''Mr.",
"Guitar'''\" and \"'''The Country Gentleman'''\", was an American musician who, along with Owen Bradley and Bob Ferguson, helped create the Nashville sound, the country music style which expanded its appeal to adult pop music fans.",
"He was primarily a guitarist, but he also played the mandolin, fiddle, banjo, and ukulele, and occasionally sang.Atkins's signature picking style was inspired by Merle Travis.",
"Other major guitar influences were Django Reinhardt, George Barnes, Les Paul, and, later, Jerry Reed.",
"His distinctive picking style and musicianship brought him admirers inside and outside the country scene, both in the United States and abroad.",
"Atkins spent most of his career at RCA Victor and produced records for the Browns, Hank Snow, Porter Wagoner, Norma Jean, Dolly Parton, Dottie West, Perry Como, Floyd Cramer, Elvis Presley, the Everly Brothers, Eddy Arnold, Don Gibson, Jim Reeves, Jerry Reed, Skeeter Davis, Waylon Jennings, Roger Whittaker, Ann-Margret and many others.",
"''Rolling Stone'' credited Atkins with inventing the \"popwise 'Nashville sound' that rescued country music from a commercial slump\" and ranked him number 21 on their list of \"The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\".",
"In 2023, Atkins was named the 39th best guitarist of all time.",
"Among many other honors, Atkins received 14 Grammy Awards and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.",
"He also received nine Country Music Association awards for Instrumentalist of the Year.",
"He was inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame, the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum, and the Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum.",
"George Harrison was also inspired by Chet Atkins; early Beatles songs such as \"All My Loving\" show the influence."
],
[
"Biography",
"===Childhood and early life===Atkins was born on June 20, 1924, in Luttrell, Tennessee, near Clinch Mountain.",
"His parents divorced when he was six years old, after which he was raised by his mother.",
"He was the youngest of three boys and a girl.",
"He started out on the ukulele, later moving on to the fiddle, but he made a swap with his brother Lowell when he was nine: an old pistol and some chores for a guitar.",
"He stated in his 1974 autobiography, \"We were so poor and everybody around us was so poor that it was the forties before anyone even knew there had been a depression.\"",
"Forced to relocate to Fortson, Georgia, outside of Columbus to live with his father because of a critical asthma condition, Atkins was a sensitive youth who became obsessed with music.",
"Because of his illness, he was forced to sleep in a straight-back chair to breathe comfortably.",
"On those nights, he played his guitar until he fell asleep holding it, a habit that lasted his whole life.",
"While living in Fortson, Atkins attended the historic Mountain Hill School.",
"He returned in the 1990s to play a series of charity concerts to save the school from demolition.Stories have been told about the very young Chet who, when a friend or relative would come to visit and play guitar, crowded the musician and put his ear so close to the instrument that it became difficult for the visitor to play.Atkins became an accomplished guitarist while he was in high school.",
"He used the restroom in the school to practice because it had good acoustics.",
"His first guitar had a nail for a nut and was so bowed that only the first few frets could be used.",
"He later purchased a semi-acoustic electric guitar and amp, but he had to travel many miles to find an electrical outlet, since his home didn't have electricity.Later in life, he lightheartedly gave himself (along with John Knowles, Tommy Emmanuel, Steve Wariner, and Jerry Reed) the honorary degree CGP (\"Certified Guitar Player\").In 2011, his daughter Merle Atkins Russell bestowed the CGP degree on his longtime sideman Paul Yandell.",
"She then declared no more CGPs would be allowed by the Atkins estate.His half-brother Jim was a successful guitarist who worked with the Les Paul Trio in New York.Atkins did not have a strong style of his own until 1939 when (while still living in Georgia) he heard Merle Travis picking over WLW radio.",
"This early influence dramatically shaped his unique playing style.",
"Whereas Travis used his index finger on his right hand for the melody and his thumb for the bass notes, Atkins expanded his right-hand style to include picking with his first three fingers, with the thumb on bass.",
"He also listened closely to the single-string playing of George Barnes and Les Paul.Chet Atkins was an amateur radio general class licensee.",
"Formerly using the call sign WA4CZD, he obtained the vanity call sign W4CGP in 1998 to include the CGP designation, which supposedly stood for \"Certified Guitar Picker\".",
"He was a member of the American Radio Relay League.===Early musical career===After dropping out of high school in 1942, Atkins landed a job at WNOX (AM) (now WNML) radio in Knoxville, where he played fiddle and guitar with the singer Bill Carlisle and the comic Archie Campbell and became a member of the station's Dixieland Swingsters, a small swing instrumental combo.",
"After three years, he moved to WLW-AM in Cincinnati, Ohio, where Merle Travis had formerly worked.After six months, he moved to Raleigh and worked with Johnnie and Jack before heading for Richmond, Virginia, where he performed with Sunshine Sue Workman.",
"Atkins's shy personality worked against him, as did the fact that his sophisticated style led many to doubt he was truly \"country\".",
"He was fired often but was soon able to land another job at another radio station on account of his unique playing ability.Atkins and Jethro Burns (of Homer and Jethro) married twin sisters Leona and Lois Johnson, who sang as Laverne and Fern Johnson, the Johnson Sisters.",
"Leona Atkins outlived her husband by eight years, dying in 2009 at the age of 85.Travelling to Chicago, Atkins auditioned for Red Foley, who was leaving his star position on WLS-AM's ''National Barn Dance'' to join the Grand Ole Opry.",
"Atkins made his first appearance at the Opry in 1946 as a member of Foley's band.",
"He also recorded a single for Nashville-based Bullet Records that year.",
"That single, \"Guitar Blues\", was fairly progressive, including a clarinet solo by the Nashville dance band musician Dutch McMillan, with Owen Bradley on piano.",
"He had a solo spot on the Opry, but when that was cut, Atkins moved on to KWTO in Springfield, Missouri.",
"Despite the support of executive Si Siman, however, he soon was fired for not sounding \"country enough\".===Signing with RCA Victor===While working with a Western band in Denver, Colorado, Atkins came to the attention of RCA Victor.",
"Siman had been encouraging Steve Sholes to sign Atkins, as his style (with the success of Merle Travis as a hit recording artist) was suddenly in vogue.",
"Sholes, A&R director of country music at RCA, tracked Atkins down in Denver.He made his first RCA Victor recordings in Chicago in 1947, but they did not sell.",
"He did some studio work for RCA that year, but had relocated to Knoxville again where he worked with Homer and Jethro on WNOX's new Saturday night radio show ''The Tennessee Barn Dance'' and the popular ''Midday Merry Go Round''.In 1949, he left WNOX to join June Carter with Mother Maybelle and the Carter Sisters on KWTO.",
"This incarnation of the Carter Family featured Maybelle Carter and daughters June, Helen, and Anita.",
"Their work soon attracted attention from the Grand Ole Opry.",
"The group relocated to Nashville in the mid-1950s.",
"Atkins began working on recording sessions and performing on WSM-AM and the Opry.",
"Atkins became a member of the Opry in the 1950s.While he had not yet had a hit record for RCA Victor, his stature was growing.",
"He began assisting Sholes as a session leader when the New York–based producer needed help organizing Nashville sessions for RCA Victor artists.",
"Atkins's first hit single was \"Mr. Sandman\", followed by \"Silver Bell\", which he recorded as a duet with Hank Snow.",
"His albums also became more popular.",
"He was featured on ABC-TV's ''The Eddy Arnold Show'' in the summer of 1956 and on ''Country Music Jubilee'' in 1957 and 1958 (by then renamed ''Jubilee USA'').Atkins's Gretsch Country Gentleman, model G6122, 1962In addition to recording, Atkins was a design consultant for Gretsch, which manufactured a popular Chet Atkins line of electric guitars from 1955 to 1980.He became manager of RCA Victor's Nashville studios, eventually inspiring and seeing the completion of the legendary RCA Studio B, the first studio built specifically for the purpose of recording on the now-famous Music Row.",
"Also later on, Chet and Owen Bradley would become instrumental in the creation of studio B's adjacent building RCA Studio A as well.===Performer and producer===When Sholes took over pop production in 1957—a result of his success with Elvis Presley—he put Atkins in charge of RCA Victor's Nashville division.",
"With country music record sales declining as rock and roll became more popular, Atkins took his cue from Owen Bradley and eliminated fiddles and steel guitar from many recordings, though not all, as a means of making country singers appeal to pop fans, many of whom disliked the \"twang\" elements of country.",
"This became known as the Nashville Sound, which Atkins said was a label created by the media for a style of recording during that period intended to keep country (and their jobs) viable.Atkins used the Jordanaires and a rhythm section on hits such as Jim Reeves's \"Four Walls\" and \"He'll Have to Go\" and Don Gibson's \"Oh Lonesome Me\" and \"Blue Blue Day\".",
"The once-rare phenomenon of having a country hit cross over to pop success became more common.",
"He and Bradley had essentially put the producer in the driver's seat, guiding an artist's choice of material and the musical background.",
"Other Nashville producers quickly copied this successful formula, which resulted in certain country hits \"crossing over\" to find success in the pop field.Atkins made his own records, which usually visited pop standards and jazz, in a sophisticated home studio, often recording the rhythm tracks at RCA and adding his solo parts at home, refining the tracks until the results satisfied him.",
"Guitarists of all styles came to admire various Atkins albums for their unique musical ideas and in some cases experimental electronic ideas.",
"In this period, he became known internationally as \"Mister Guitar\", inspiring an album, ''Mister Guitar'', engineered by both Bob Ferris and Bill Porter, Ferris's replacement.Bill Porter adjusts a mix in RCA's Nashville studioAt the end of March 1959, Porter took over as chief engineer at what was at the time RCA Victor's only Nashville studio, in the space that would become known as Studio B after the opening of a second studio in 1960.",
"(At the time, RCA's sole Nashville studio had no letter designation.)",
"Porter soon helped Atkins get a better reverberation sound from the studio's German effects device, an EMT plate reverb.",
"With his golden ear, Porter found the studio's acoustics to be problematic, and he devised a set of acoustic baffles to hang from the ceiling, then selected positions for microphones based on resonant room modes.",
"The sound of the recordings improved significantly, and the studio achieved a string of successes.",
"The Nashville sound became more dynamic.",
"In later years, when Bradley asked how he achieved his sound, Atkins told him \"it was Porter.\"",
"Porter described Atkins as respectful of musicians when recording—if someone was out of tune, he would not single that person out by name.",
"Instead, he would say something like, \"we got a little tuning problem ... Everybody check and see what's going on.\"",
"If that did not work, Atkins would instruct Porter to turn the offending player down in the mix.",
"When Porter left RCA in late-1964, Atkins said, \"the sound was never the same, never as great.",
"\"Atkins's trademark \"Atkins style\" of playing uses the thumb and first two or sometimes three fingers of the right hand.",
"He developed this style from listening to Merle Travis, occasionally on a primitive radio.",
"He was sure no one could play that articulately with just the thumb and index finger (which was exactly how Travis played), and he assumed it required the thumb and two fingers—and that was the style he pioneered and mastered.He enjoyed jamming with fellow studio musicians, and they were asked to perform at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1960.That performance was cancelled because of rioting, but a live recording of the group (''After the Riot at Newport'') was released.",
"Atkins performed by invitation at the White House for every U.S. president from John F. Kennedy through to George H. W. Bush.",
"Atkins was a member of the Million Dollar Band during the 1980s.",
"He is also well known for his song \"Yankee Doodle Dixie\", in which he played \"Yankee Doodle\" and \"Dixie\" simultaneously, on the same guitar.Before his mentor Sholes died in 1968, Atkins had become vice president of RCA's country division.",
"In 1987, he told ''Nine-O-One Network'' magazine that he was \"ashamed\" of his promotion: \"I wanted to be known as a guitarist and I know, too, that they give you titles like that in lieu of money.",
"So beware when they want to make you vice president.\"",
"He had brought Waylon Jennings, Willie Nelson, Connie Smith, Bobby Bare, Dolly Parton, Jerry Reed, and John Hartford to the label in the 1960s and inspired and helped countless others.",
"He took a considerable risk during the mid-1960s, when the civil rights movement sparked violence throughout the South, by signing country music's first African-American singer, Charley Pride, who sang rawer country than the smoother music Atkins had pioneered.Atkins's biggest hit single came in 1965, with \"Yakety Axe\", an adaptation of \"Yakety Sax\", by his friend, the saxophonist Boots Randolph.",
"He rarely performed in those days and eventually hired other RCA producers, such as Bob Ferguson and Felton Jarvis, to lessen his workload.===Later career===In the 1970s, Atkins became increasingly stressed by his executive duties.",
"He produced fewer records, but could still turn out hits such as Perry Como's 1973 pop hit \"And I Love You So\".",
"He recorded extensively with close friend and fellow picker Jerry Reed, who had become a hit artist in his own right.",
"A 1973 diagnosis of colon cancer, however, led Atkins to redefine his role at RCA Records, to allow others to handle administration while he went back to his first love, the guitar, often recording with Reed or even Jethro Burns from Homer and Jethro (his brother-in-law) after Homer died in 1971.Atkins would turn over his administrative duties to Jerry Bradley, son of Owen, in 1973 at RCA.Atkins did little production work at RCA after stepping down and in fact, had hired producers at the label in the 1960s, among them Bob Ferguson and Felton Jarvis.",
"As a recording artist, Atkins grew disillusioned with RCA in the late 1970s.",
"He felt stifled because the record company would not let him branch into jazz.",
"He had also produced late '60s jazz recordings by Canadian guitarist Lenny Breau, a friend and protege.",
"His mid-1970s collaborations with one of his influences, Les Paul, ''Chester & Lester'' and ''Guitar Monsters'', had already reflected that interest; ''Chester & Lester'' was one of the best-selling recordings of Atkins's career.",
"At the same time, he grew dissatisfied with the direction Gretsch (no longer family-owned) was going and withdrew his authorization for them to use his name and began designing guitars with Gibson.",
"In 1982, Atkins ended his 35-year association with RCA Records and signed with rival Columbia Records.",
"He produced his first album for Columbia in 1983.Atkins had always been an ardent lover of jazz and throughout his career he was often criticized by \"pure\" country musicians for his jazz influences.",
"He also said on many occasions that he did not like being referred to as a \"country guitarist\", insisting that he was \"a guitarist, period.\"",
"Although he played by ear and was a masterful improviser, he was able to read music and even performed some classical guitar pieces.",
"When Roger C. Field, a friend, suggested to him in 1991 that he record and perform with a female singer, he did so with Suzy Bogguss.Atkins returned to his country roots for albums he recorded with Mark Knopfler and Jerry Reed.",
"Knopfler had long mentioned Atkins as one of his earliest influences.",
"Atkins also collaborated with Australian guitar legend Tommy Emmanuel.",
"On being asked to name the ten most influential guitarists of the twentieth century, he named Django Reinhardt to the first position, and also placed himself on the list.In later years, he returned to radio, appearing on Garrison Keillor's ''Prairie Home Companion'' program, on American Public Media radio, even picking up a fiddle from time to time, and performing songs such as Bob Wills's \"Corrina, Corrina\" and Willie Nelson's \"Seven Spanish Angels\" with Nelson on a 1985 broadcast of the show at the Bridges Auditorium on the campus of Pomona College."
],
[
"Death and legacy",
"Atkins received numerous awards, including 14 Grammy awards and nine Country Music Association awards for Instrumentalist of the Year.",
"In 1993, he was honored with the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.",
"''Billboard'' magazine awarded him its Century Award, its \"highest honor for distinguished creative achievement\", in December 1997.Atkins is notable for his broad influence.",
"His love for numerous styles of music can be traced from his early recording of the stride pianist James P. Johnson's \"Johnson Rag\", all the way to the rock stylings of Eric Johnson, an invited guest on Atkins's recording sessions, who, when Atkins attempted to copy his influential rocker \"Cliffs of Dover\", led to Atkins's creation of a unique arrangement of \"Londonderry Air (Danny Boy)\".The classical guitar selections included on almost all his albums were, for many American artists working in the field today, the first classical guitar they ever heard.",
"He recorded smooth jazz guitar still played on American airwaves today.Atkins continued performing in the 1990s, but his health declined after he was diagnosed again with colon cancer in 1996.He died on June 30, 2001, at his home in Nashville, Tennessee, at the age of 77.His memorial service was held at Ryman Auditorium in Nashville.",
"He was buried at Harpeth Hills Memory Gardens in Nashville.A stretch of Interstate 185 in southwest Georgia (between LaGrange and Columbus) is named \"Chet Atkins Parkway\".",
"This stretch of interstate runs through Fortson, where Atkins spent much of his childhood.In 2002, Atkins was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.",
"His award was presented by Marty Stuart and Brian Setzer and accepted by Atkins's grandson, Jonathan Russell.",
"The following year, Atkins ranked number 28 in Country Music Television's \"40 Greatest Men of Country Music\".At the age of 13, the future jazz guitarist Earl Klugh was captivated watching Atkins's guitar playing on ''The Perry Como Show.''",
"Similarly, he was a big influence on Doyle Dykes.",
"Atkins also inspired Drexl Jonez and Tommy Emmanuel.Johnny Winter's thumb-picking style came from Atkin's playing.Clint Black's album ''Nothin' but the Taillights'' includes the song \"Ode to Chet\", which includes the lyrics \"'Cause I can win her over like Romeo did Juliet, if I can only show her I can almost pick that legato lick like Chet\" and \"It'll take more than Mel Bay 1, 2, & 3 if I'm ever gonna play like CGP.\"",
"Atkins played guitar on the track.",
"At the end of the song, Black and Atkins had a brief conversation.Atkins' song \"Jam Man\" is currently used in commercials for Esurance.In 1967, a tribute song, \"Chet's Tune\", was produced for Atkins' birthday, with contributions by a long list of RCA Victor artists, including Eddy Arnold, Connie Smith, Jerry Reed, Willie Nelson, Hank Snow, and others.",
"The song was written by the Nashville songwriter Cy Coben, a friend of Atkins.",
"The single reached number 38 on the country charts.In 2009, Steve Wariner released an album titled ''My Tribute to Chet Atkins''.",
"One song from that record, \"Producer's Medley\", featured Wariner's recreation of several famous songs that Atkins both produced and performed.",
"\"Producer's Medley\" won the Grammy for Best Country Instrumental Performance in 2010.In November 2011, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked Atkins number 21 on their list of the \"100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\"."
],
[
"Discography"
],
[
"Industry awards",
"'''Country Music Association'''*1967 Instrumentalist of the Year*1968 Instrumentalist of the Year*1969 Instrumentalist of the Year*1981 Instrumentalist of the Year*1982 Instrumentalist of the Year*1983 Instrumentalist of the Year*1984 Instrumentalist of the Year*1985 Instrumentalist of the Year*1988 Musician of the Year'''Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum'''*Inducted in 1973'''Grammy Awards''' Award Year Work/s 1971 Best Country Instrumental Performance with Jerry Reed – 1972 ''Me and Jerry'' Best Country Instrumental Performance 1972 \"Snowbird\" Best Country Instrumental Performance with Merle Travis – 1973 ''The Atkins-Travis Traveling Show'' Best Country Instrumental Performance 1976 \"The Entertainer\" Best Country Instrumental Performance with Les Paul 1977 ''Chester and Lester'' Best Country Instrumental Performance 1982 ''Country After All These Years'' Best Country Instrumental Performance with Mark Knopfler 1986 \"Cosmic Square Dance\" Best Country Instrumental Performance with Mark Knopfler 1991 \"So Soft, Your Goodbye\" 1991 Best Country Vocal Collaboration with Mark Knopfler 1991 \"Poor Boy Blues\" Best Country Instrumental Performance with Jerry Reed 1993 ''Sneakin' Around'' 1993 Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award' 1993 Best Country Instrumental Performance with Asleep at the Wheel, Eldon Shamblin, Johnny Gimble, Marty Stuart, Reuben \"Lucky Oceans\" Gosfield & Vince Gill 1994 \"Red Wing\" Best Country Instrumental Performance 1995 \"Young Thing\" Best Country Instrumental Performance 1996 \"Jam Man\" '''Rock and Roll Hall of Fame'''*Inductees of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Kienzle, Rich (1998).",
"\"Chet Atkins\".",
"''The Encyclopedia of Country Music''.",
"Paul Kingsbury, ed.",
"New York: Oxford University Press.",
"pp.",
"26–27."
],
[
"External links",
"*** Chet Atkins at the Country Music Hall of Fame* Allmusic entry for Chet Atkins* Bob Moore's A-Team Musicians Website**"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cahiers du Cinéma"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''' (, ) is a French film magazine co-founded in 1951 by André Bazin, Jacques Doniol-Valcroze, and Joseph-Marie Lo Duca.",
"It developed from the earlier magazine ''Revue du Cinéma'' ( established in 1928) involving members of two Paris film clubsObjectif 49 (Robert Bresson, Jean Cocteau, and Alexandre Astruc, among others; ) and Ciné-Club du Quartier Latin ().Initially edited by Doniol-Valcroze and, after 1957, by Éric Rohmer (aka, Maurice Scherer), it included amongst its writers Jacques Rivette, Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol, and François Truffaut, who went on to become highly influential filmmakers.",
"It is the oldest French-language film magazine in publication."
],
[
"History",
"The first issue of ''Cahiers'' appeared in April 1951.Much of its head staff, including Bazin, Doniol-Valcroze, Lo Duca, and the various younger, less-established critics, had met and shared their beliefs about film through their involvement in the publication of ''Revue du Cinéma'' from 1946 until its final issue in 1948; ''Cahiers'' was created as a successor to this earlier magazine.Early issues of ''Cahiers'' were small journals of thirty pages which bore minimalist covers, distinctive for their lack of headlines in favor of film stills on a distinctive bright yellow background.",
"Each issue contained four or five articles (with at least one piece by Bazin in most issues), most of which were reviews of specific films or appreciations of directors, supplemented on occasion by longer theoretical essays.",
"The first few years of the magazine's publication were dominated by Bazin, who was the ''de facto'' head of the editorial board.Bazin intended ''Cahiers'' to be a continuation of the intellectual form of criticism that ''Revue'' had printed, which prominently featured his articles advocating for realism as the most valuable quality of cinema.",
"As more issues of ''Cahiers'' were published, however, Bazin found that a group of young proteges and critics serving as editors underneath him were beginning to disagree with him in the pages of the magazine.",
"Godard would voice his discontent with Bazin as early as 1952, when he challenged Bazin's views on editing in an article for the September issue of ''Cahiers.''",
"Gradually, the tastes of these young critics drifted away from those of Bazin, as members of the group began to write critical appreciations of more commercial American filmmakers such as Alfred Hitchcock and Howard Hawks rather than the canonized French and Italian filmmakers that interested Bazin.The younger critics broke completely with Bazin by 1954, when an article in the January issue by Truffaut attacked what he called ''La qualité française'' (, usually translated as \"The Tradition of Quality\"), denouncing many critically respected French films of the time as being unimaginative, oversimplified, and even immoral adaptations of literary works.",
"The article became the manifesto for the ''politique des auteurs'' (), which became the label for ''Cahiers'' younger critics' emphasis on the importance of the director in the creation of a filmas a film's \"author\"and their re-evaluation of Hollywood films and directors such as Hitchcock, Hawks, Jerry Lewis, Robert Aldrich, Nicholas Ray, and Fritz Lang.",
"Subsequently, American critic Andrew Sarris latched onto the word, \"auteur\", and paired it with the English word, \"theory\"; hence coining the phrase the \"auteur theory\" by which this critical approach is known in English-language film criticism.After the publication of Truffaut's article, Doniol-Valcroze and most of the ''Cahiers'' editors besides Bazin and Lo Duca rallied behind the rebellious authors; Lo Duca left ''Cahiers'' a year later, while Bazin, in failing health, gave editorial control of the magazine to Rohmer and largely left Paris, though he continued to write for the magazine.",
"Now with control over the magazine's ideological approaches to film, the younger critics (minus Godard, who had left Paris in 1952, not to return until 1956) changed the format of ''Cahiers'' somewhat, frequently conducting interviews with directors deemed \"auteurs\" and voting on films in a \"Council\" of ten core critics.",
"These critics came to champion non-American directors as well, writing on the ''mise en scène'' (the \"dominant object of study\" at the magazine) of such filmmakers as Jean Renoir, Roberto Rossellini, Kenji Mizoguchi, Max Ophüls, and Jean Cocteau, many of whom Bazin had introduced them to.By the end of the 1950s, many of the remaining editors of ''Cahiers'', however, were becoming increasingly dissatisfied with the mere act of writing film criticism.",
"Spurred on by the return of Godard to Paris in 1956 (who in the interim had made a short film himself), many of the younger critics became interested in making films themselves.",
"Godard, Truffaut, Chabrol, Doniol-Valcroze, and even Rohmer, who had officially succeeded Doniol-Valcroze as head editor in 1958, began to divide their time between making films and writing about them.",
"The films that these critics made were experimental explorations of various theoretical, artistic, and ideological aspects of the film form, and would, along with the films of young French filmmakers outside the ''Cahiers'' circle, form the basis for the cinematic movement known as the French New Wave.",
"Meanwhile, ''Cahiers'' underwent staff changes, as Rohmer hired new editors such as Jean Douchet to fill the roles of those editors who were now making films, while other existing editors, particularly Jacques Rivette, began to write even more for the magazine.",
"Many of the newer critical voices (except for Rivette) largely ignored the films of the New Wave for Hollywood when they were not outright criticizing them, creating friction between much of the directorial side of the younger critics and the head editor Rohmer.",
"A group of five ''Cahiers'' editors, including Godard and Doniol-Valcroze and led by Rivette, urged Rohmer to refocus the magazine's content on newer films such as their own.",
"When he refused, the \"gang of five\" forced Rohmer out and installed Rivette as his replacement in 1963.Rivette shifted political and social concerns farther to the left, and began a trend in the magazine of paying more attention to non-Hollywood films.",
"The style of the journal moved through literary modernism in the early 1960s to radicalism and dialectical materialism by 1970.Moreover, during the mid-1970s the magazine was run by a Maoist editorial collective.",
"In the mid-1970s, a review of the American film ''Jaws'' marked the magazine's return to more commercial perspectives, and an editorial turnover: (Serge Daney, Serge Toubiana, Thierry Jousse, Antoine de Baecque, and Charles Tesson).",
"It led to the rehabilitation of some of the old ''Cahiers'' favourites, as well as some new film makers like Manoel de Oliveira, Raoul Ruiz, Hou Hsiao-hsien, Youssef Chahine, and Maurice Pialat.",
"Recent writers have included Daney, André Téchiné, Léos Carax, Olivier Assayas, Danièle Dubroux, and Serge Le Péron.In 1998, the Editions de l'Etoile (the company publishing ''Cahiers'') was acquired by the press group .",
"Traditionally losing money, the magazine attempted a make-over in 1999 to gain new readers, leading to a first split among writers and resulting in a magazine addressing all visual arts in a post-modernist approach.",
"This version of the magazine printed ill-received opinion pieces on reality TV or video games that confused the traditional readership of the magazine.",
"took full editorial control of the magazine in 2003, appointing Jean-Michel Frodon as editor-in-chief.",
"In February 2009, ''Cahiers'' was acquired from by Richard Schlagman, also owner of Phaidon Press, a worldwide publishing group which specialises in books on the visual arts.",
"In July 2009, Stéphane Delorme and Jean-Philippe Tessé were promoted respectively to the positions of editor-in-chief and deputy chief editor.In February 2020, the magazine was bought by several French entrepreneurs, including Xavier Niel and Alain Weill.",
"The entire editorial staff resigned, saying the change posed a threat to their editorial independence."
],
[
"Annual top 10 films list",
"The magazine has compiled a list of the top 10 films of each year for much of its existence."
],
[
"See also",
"**''Sight & Sound''*''Empire''* List of film periodicals* Cinephilia"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Bickerton, E. (2009).",
"''A Short History of Cahiers du Cinéma''.",
"London: Verso.",
"* Hillier, Jim (1985).",
"''Cahiers du Cinéma the 1950s''.",
"London : RKP/BFI.",
"* Hillier, Jim (1986) ''Cahiers du Cinéma the 1960s''.",
"London: BFI."
],
[
"External links",
"* * Top 10 list (for years 1951, 1955–1968, 1981–2009)* Dave Kehr's Article on the magazine on its fiftieth anniversary* ''Cahiers du Cinema'': Top 10 Lists (1951-2017) on IMDb* Issues of Cahiers du Cinéma on Internet Archive"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Circuit Zandvoort"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Circuit Zandvoort''' (), known for sponsorship reasons as '''CM.com Circuit Zandvoort''', previously known as '''Circuit Park Zandvoort''' until 2017, is a motorsport race track located in the dunes north of Zandvoort, the Netherlands, near the North Sea coast line.",
"It returned to the Formula One calendar in 2021 as the location of the revived Dutch Grand Prix."
],
[
"History",
"===1930s to mid 1980s===1961 Dutch Grand PrixThere were plans for races at Zandvoort before World War II: the first street race was held on 3 June 1939.However, a permanent race track was not constructed until after the war, using communications roads built by the occupying German army.",
"Contrary to popular belief John Hugenholtz cannot be credited with the design of the Zandvoort track, although he was involved as the chairman of the Nederlandse Automobiel Ren Club (Dutch Auto Racing Club) before becoming the first track director in 1949.Instead, it was 1927 Le Mans winner, S. C. H. \"Sammy\" Davis who was brought in as a track design advisor in July 1946 although the layout was partly dictated by the existing roads.The first race on the circuit, the ''Prijs van Zandvoort'', took place on 7 August 1948.The race was renamed the ''Grote Prijs van Zandvoort'' (Zandvoort Grand Prix) in 1949, then the ''Grote Prijs van Nederland'' (Dutch Grand Prix) in 1950.The 1952 race was the first to be run as a round of the World Championship, albeit to Formula Two regulations rather than Formula One regulations like all the European rounds of the championship that year; a similar situation also applied to the 1953.There was no Dutch Grand Prix in 1954, 1956 or 1957, but 1955 saw the first true Formula One race as part of the Drivers' Championship.",
"The Dutch Grand Prix returned in 1958 and remained a permanent fixture on the F1 calendar (with the exception of 1972) through , when it was held for the last time in the 20th century.===Since 1985===To solve a number of problems that had made it impossible to develop and upgrade the circuit, most importantly noise pollution for Zandvoort inhabitants living closest to the track, the track management developed and adopted a plan to move the most southern part of the track away from the nearby housing estate, and rebuild a more compact track in the remaining former 'infield'.",
"In January 1987 this plan got the necessary 'green light' when it was formally approved by the Provincial Council of North Holland.",
"However, only a couple of months later a new problem arose: the company that commercially ran the circuit (CENAV), called in the receiver and went out of business, marking the end of 'Circuit Zandvoort'.",
"Again the track, owned by the municipality of Zandvoort, was in danger of being permanently lost for motorsports.",
"However, a new operating foundation, the \"Stichting Exploitatie Circuit Park\", was formed and started work at the realization of the track's reconstruction plans.",
"Circuit Park Zandvoort was born and in the summer of 1989 the track was remodeled to an interim Club Circuit of , while the disposed southern part of the track was used to build a Vendorado Bungalow Park and new premises for the local football and field-hockey clubs.In 1995, CPZ (''Circuit Park Zandvoort'') got the \"A Status\" of the government of the Netherlands and began building an international Grand Prix Circuit.",
"This project was finished in 2001 when, after the track was redesigned to a long circuit and a new pits building was realized (by HPG, the development company of John Hugenholtz Jr., son of the former director), a new grandstand was situated along the long straight.",
"One of the major events that is held at the circuit, along with DTM and A1GP, is the RTL Masters of Formula 3, where Formula Three cars of several national racing series compete with each other (originally called Marlboro Masters, before tobacco advertising ban).",
"A noise restriction order was responsible for this event moving to the Belgian Circuit Zolder for 2007 and 2008.However, the race returned to its historical home in 2009.2013 DTM race in ZandvoortCircuit Park Zandvoort played host to the first race in the 2006/07 season of A1 Grand Prix from 29 September–1 October 2006.On 21 August 2008, the official A1GP site reported that the 2008/09 season's first race has moved from the Mugello Circuit, Italy to Zandvoort on the 4–5 October 2008 due to the delay in the building the new chassis for the new race cars.",
"The Dutch round moved to TT Circuit Assen in 2010.A1GP bankrupted before its fifth season and the Dutch round was replaced with Superleague Formula.Race track Circuit Zandvoort (2018)In November 2018 reported that Formula One Management (FOM) had invited the owners of the Zandvoort race track to make a proposal to stage a Grand Prix race in 2020.In March 2019, it was confirmed that a letter of intent had been signed between Zandvoort and FOM to stage the Dutch Grand Prix, dependent on private funding being secured to cover the cost of hosting the race.",
"A deadline of 31 March 2019 was set for a final decision to be made.",
"On 14 May 2019 it was confirmed that Zandvoort would host the Dutch Grand Prix for 2020 and beyond for a duration of at least three years, with the option to host another two years beyond that.",
"Several alterations were made to the track by to bring it up to date with F1 standards, including adding banking to turn 14 (Arie Luyendijkbocht) and turn 3 (Hugenholtzbocht), but the layout as a whole remained the same.",
"The municipality of Zandvoort invested four million euros into the infrastructure around the circuit to improve the accessibility to the track.",
"On 29 August 2019, the 2020 Dutch Grand Prix at Zandvoort was included as the fifth race on the provisional schedule, listed on 3 May 2020, between the Chinese Grand Prix and Spanish Grand Prix.",
"The 2020 scheduled appearance was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, however F1 racing did finally return to the circuit on 5 September 2021.On 17 September 2019, it was announced that Zandvoort would host the FIA Formula 2 Championship and FIA Formula 3 Championship, replacing the series' support races at Circuit Paul Ricard."
],
[
"The circuit",
"Aerial image of the circuit (2016)Differences between 1980 and 1999 versions of the circuitThe circuit gained popularity because of its fast, sweeping corners such as Scheivlak as well as the \"Tarzanbocht\" (Tarzan corner) hairpin at the end of the start/finish straight.",
"Tarzanbocht is the most famous corner in the circuit.",
"Since there is a camber in the corner, it provides excellent overtaking opportunities.",
"It is possible to pass around the outside as well as the easier inside lane.",
"This corner is reportedly named after a local character who had earned the nickname of Tarzan and only wanted to give up his vegetable garden in the dunes if the track's designers named a nearby corner after him.",
"On the other hand, many different stories about Tarzan Corner are known.The circuit design has been modified and altered several times:* 1948–1971: length * 1972–1979: length * 1980–1989: length * 1990–1998: length * 1999–2019: length * 2020–present: length ===Track configurations===File:Circuit Park Zandvoort-1948.svg|Grand Prix Circuit (1948–1971)File:Circuit Park Zandvoort-1973.svg|Grand Prix Circuit (1972–1979)File:Circuit Park Zandvoort-1980.svg|Grand Prix Circuit (1980–1989)File:Circuit Park Zandvoort-1989.svg|Grand Prix Circuit (1990–1998)File:Circuit Park Zandvoort-1999.svg|Grand Prix Circuit (1999–2019)File:Zandvoort Circuit.png|Grand Prix Circuit (2020–present)The corners are named as follows (the numbers correspond to the present map, starting at the start/finish line):* Tarzan corner (1)* Gerlach corner (2)* Hugenholtz corner (3)* Hunserug (4)* Slotemaker corner (5)* Nameless corner (6)* Scheivlak (7)* Masters corner (formerly Marlboro corner) (8)* Nameless corner (formerly Renault corner) (9)* CM.com corner (formerly the Vodafone corner) (10)* Hans Ernst corner 1 and Hans Ernst corner 2 (formerly Audi S corners) (11 + 12)* Nameless corner (formerly Kumho corner) (13)* Arie Luyendyk corner (formerly Bos Uit corner) (14)The elevation difference is .Turns 3 and 13/14 are extremely cambered corners; turn 3 has a 19-degree bank while turns 13/14 have an 18-degree bank."
],
[
"Events",
"; Current* April: Supercar Challenge ''Voorjaarsraces'', Fun Cup, Marcel Albers Memorial Trophy* May: Historic Zandvoort Trophy, Pinksterraces* June: Formula Regional European Championship, Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters, ADAC GT Masters, Porsche Carrera Cup Germany, Porsche Carrera Cup Benelux, FIA Masters Historic Formula One Championship ''Zandvoort Historic Grand Prix''* July: Eurocup-3 ''Zandvoort Summer Trophy'', GB3 Championship, F4 British Championship, * August: Formula One ''Dutch Grand Prix'', F1 Academy, Porsche Supercup* September: Supercar Challenge ''BetCity Trophy of the Dunes''; Former* 24H Series** ''12H Zandvoort'' (2014–2016)* ADAC Formel Masters (2012, 2014)* ADAC Formula 4 (2016, 2019, 2021–2022)* ADAC GT4 Germany (2019, 2021–2023)* Alpine Elf Europa Cup (2022)* BMW M1 Procar Championship (1979–1980)* BOSS GP (2002, 2006, 2009–2014, 2017)* European Formula 5000 Championship (1969–1970, 1973–1975)* European Formula Two Championship (1967–1968, 1979–1980)* European Touring Car Championship (1963–1975, 1977–1979)* European Truck Racing Cup (1990)* FIA European Formula 3 Championship (1976–1983)* FIA Formula 2 Championship (2022–2023)* FIA Formula 3 Championship (2021–2022)* FIA Formula 3 European Championship (2011–2013, 2015–2018)* French F4 Championship (2020)* Formula 3 Euro Series (2003–2012)* Formula Renault Eurocup (2020)* GT World Challenge Europe (2015, 2019–2023)* Lamborghini Super Trofeo Europe (2019, 2021)* RTL GP Masters of F3 (1991–2006, 2009–2016)* Porsche Carrera Cup France (2016, 2018, 2022)* SMP F4 Championship (2016)* Super Tourenwagen Cup (1994)* TCR Europe Touring Car Series (2021)* World Touring Car Championship** ''FIA WTCC Race of the Netherlands'' (2007)* World Touring Car Cup** ''FIA WTCR Race of the Netherlands'' (2018–2019)* W Series (2021)"
],
[
"Lap records",
"The official lap record for the current circuit layout is 1:11.097, set by Lewis Hamilton driving for Mercedes in the 2021 Dutch Grand Prix.",
"The all-time fastest official track record set during a race weekend for the current Grand Prix Circuit layout is 1:08.885, set by Max Verstappen during qualifying for the aforementioned Grand Prix.",
"As of October 2023, the official race lap records at the Circuit Zandvoort are listed as:Category Time Driver Vehicle Event Date Grand Prix Circuit: 4.259 km (2020–present) Formula One '''1:11.097''' Lewis Hamilton Mercedes-AMG F1 W12 E Performance 2021 Dutch Grand Prix 5 September 2021 FIA F2 '''1:23.078''' Frederik Vesti Dallara F2 2018 2022 Zandvoort Formula 2 round 4 September 2022 FIA F3 '''1:26.476''' Dennis Hauger Dallara F3 2019 2021 Zandvoort FIA Formula 3 round 5 September 2021 GB3 '''1:30.023''' Alex Dunne Tatuus MSV-022 2023 Zandvoort GB3 round 14 October 2023 Formula Regional '''1:31.980''' Paul Aron Tatuus F.3 T-318 2022 Zandvoort FREC Round 19 June 2022 LMP3 '''1:32.292''' Duqueine D-08 2023 Zandvoort Prototype Cup Germany round 24 June 2023 LMP2 '''1:33.395''' Jack Dex BR Engineering BR01 Historic Grand Prix 2020 (Aston Martin Masters Endurance Legends) 5 September 2020 GT3 '''1:34.111''' Jules Gounon Mercedes-AMG GT3 Evo 2022 Zandvoort GT World Challenge Europe Sprint Cup round 19 June 2022 GT1 (GTS) '''1:35.249''' Nicky Pastorelli Maserati MC12 GT1 Historic Grand Prix 2020 (Aston Martin Masters Endurance Legends) 6 September 2020 Formula 4 '''1:35.349''' Sebastian Montoya Tatuus F4-T014 2021 Zandvoort ADAC F4 round 10 July 2021 Porsche Carrera Cup '''1:37.730''' Loek Hartog Porsche 911 (992) GT3 Cup 2023 2nd Zandvoort Porsche Supercup round 27 August 2023 Group 4 sports car '''1:42.280''' Nicky Pastorelli Lola T70 MkIIIB Historic Grand Prix 2020 (Masters Historic Sports Cars) 6 September 2020 GT4 '''1:43.390''' Gabriele Piana BMW M4 GT4 2023 Zandvoort ADAC GT4 Germany round 25 June 2023 TCR Touring Car '''1:44.520''' Tom Coronel Audi RS 3 LMS TCR 2021 Zandvoort TCR Europe round 19 June 2021 Alpine Elf Europa Cup '''1:45.164''' Nicolas Ciamin Alpine A110 Cup 2022 Zandvoort Alpine Elf Europa Cup round 19 June 2022 Historic Formula 3 '''1:46.993''' Marcel Biehl Ralt RT1 Historic Grand Prix 2020 (Historische Monoposto Racing) 6 September 2020 Group 6 prototype '''1:49.739''' Felix Haas Lola T210 Historic Grand Prix 2020 (Dunlop Historic Endurance Cup) 6 September 2020 Group 2 touring car '''1:52.410''' Heinz Schmersal Ford Escort Mk2 RS1800 Historic Grand Prix 2020 (NKRECO GTTC) 5 September 2020 Group 5 sports car '''1:52.541''' Michael Funke Ford GT40 MkI Historic Grand Prix 2020 (HTGT) 6 September 2020 Renault Clio Cup '''1:54.609''' Anthony Jurado Renault Clio R.S.",
"V 2023 Zandvoort Renault Clio Cup Europe round 14 October 2023 Group 3 GT '''1:56.319''' Martin Greensall Shelby Daytona Coupe Historic Grand Prix 2020 (Masters Gentlemen Drivers) 5 September 2020 Grand Prix Circuit: 4.307 km (1999–2019) Formula One '''1:21.044''' Jaguar R5 F1 2019 BOSS GP Series Zandvoort round 19 May 2019 Formula Three '''1:28.204''' Lando Norris Dallara F317 2017 Zandvoort F3 European Championship round 19 August 2017 A1 GP '''1:28.353''' Adrian Zaugg Lola A1GP 2007–08 A1 Grand Prix of Nations, Netherlands 30 September 2007 DTM '''1:32.411''' Marco Wittmann BMW M4 DTM 2014 Zandvoort DTM round 29 September 2014 GT3 '''1:36.270''' Luca Ludwig Mercedes-AMG GT3 2017 Zandvoort ADAC GT Masters round 22 July 2017 Formula Renault 2.0 '''1:36.688''' Chris van der Drift Tatuus FR2000 2006 Zandvoort Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup round 5 June 2006 Formula 4 '''1:38.385''' Dennis Hauger Tatuus F4-T014 2019 Zandvoort ADAC F4 round 11 August 2019 Porsche Carrera Cup '''1:41.155''' Thomas Preining Porsche 911 (991 II) GT3 Cup 2018 Zandvoort Porsche Carrera Cup Germany round 18 August 2018 GT1 '''1:41.430''' Cor Euser Marcos Mantis LM600 2004 Zandvoort Euro GT round 8 August 2004 ADAC Formel Masters '''1:42.164''' Marvin Kirchhöfer Dallara Formulino 2012 Zandvoort ADAC Formel Masters round 5 May 2012 Formula BMW '''1:43.386''' Michael Christensen Mygale FB02 2009 Zandvoort Formula BMW Europe round 14 June 2009 TCR Touring Car '''1:45.901''' Yann Ehrlacher Honda Civic Type R TCR (FK8) 2018 FIA WTCR Race of the Netherlands 20 May 2018 V8Star Series '''1:46.471''' Thomas Mutsch Audi A6 2004 Zandvoort Euro GT round 8 August 2004 GT4 '''1:46.480''' Ricardo van der Ende BMW M4 GT4 2016 Zandvoort GT4 European Series round 9 October 2016 Super 2000 '''1:48.858''' Luca Rangoni BMW 320si 2007 FIA WTCC Race of the Netherlands 6 May 2007 Club Circuit: 2.526 km (1990–1998) Formula Three '''1:01.043''' Kelvin Burt Reynard 923 1992 Masters of Formula 3 2 August 1992 Super Touring '''1:09.980''' Rinaldo Capello Audi 80 Quattro Competition 1994 Zandvoort STW Cup round 17 July 1994 Group B '''1:10.530''' Porsche 911 (964) Carrera RSR 3.8 1994 Zandvoort ADAC GT Cup round July 17 1994 Group A '''1:18.470''' Michael Widmann Nissan 200SX 1994 Zandvoort ADAC GT Cup round July 17 1994 Grand Prix Circuit: 4.252 km (1980–1989) Formula One '''1:16.538''' Alain Prost McLaren MP4/2B 1985 Dutch Grand Prix 25 August 1985 Formula 3000 '''1:23.645''' Christian Danner March 85B 1985 Zandvoort F3000 round 24 August 1985 Formula Three '''1:31.700''' Alain Ferté Martini MK34 1981 Zandvoort European F3 round 8 June 1981 Formula Two '''1:35.631''' Brian Henton Toleman TG280B 1980 Zandvoort European F2 round 20 July 1980 BMW M1 Procar '''1:36.900''' Jacques Laffite BMW M1 Procar 1980 Zandvoort BMW M1 Procar round 31 August 1980 Grand Prix Circuit: 4.226 km (1972–1979) Formula One '''1:19.438''' Gilles Villeneuve Ferrari 312T4 1979 Dutch Grand Prix 26 August 1979 Formula Two '''1:21.700''' Eddie Cheever Osella FA2/79 1979 Zandvoort European F2 round 15 July 1979 Formula 5000 '''1:23.300''' Bob Evans Lola T332 1974 Zandvoort European F5000 round 3 June 1974 Group 7 '''1:23.600''' Tim Schenken Porsche 917/10 TC 1975 Int.",
"ADAC-Noordzee Cup Zandvoort 24 August 1975 Formula Three '''1:29.020''' Arie Luyendyk Lola T670 1978 Zandvoort European F3 round 27 March 1978 BMW M1 Procar '''1:30.519''' Elio de Angelis BMW M1 Procar 1979 Zandvoort BMW M1 Procar round 26 August 1979 Group 2 '''1:34.100''' Toine Hezemans Ford Capri RS 3100 1974 Zandvoort ETCC round 11 August 1974 Original Grand Prix Circuit: 4.193 km (1948–1971) Formula One '''1:19.230''' Jacky Ickx Ferrari 312B 1970 Dutch Grand Prix 21 June 1970 Formula 5000 '''1:23.900''' Peter Gethin McLaren M10B 1970 Zandvoort European F5000 round 19 April 1970 Formula Two '''1:26.840''' Richard Attwood Tecno TF68 1968 Zandvoort European F2 round 28 July 1968 Formula Three '''1:32.000''' Cyd Williams Brabham BT21B 1969 Zandvoort French F3 round 31 August 1969 Group 2 '''1:38.500''' Helmut Marko Ford Capri RS 2600 1971 Zandvoort ETCC round 28 August 1971 Formula Junior '''1:39.600''' Frank Gardner Brabham BT6 1963 Zandvoort Formula Junior round 1 September 1963 Group 5 '''1:40.600''' Toine Hezemans Porsche 911 1969 Zandvoort ETCC round 31 August 1969"
],
[
"Fatal accidents",
"In the history of the circuit, several fatal accidents have occurred.",
"Name Date Description Hendrik Dik 22 March 1952 Dik's Peugeot did not stop after completing the stage, but went straight on through some fences.",
"The car then hit a small hill and rolled.",
"It was later determined that Dik had suffered a fatal heart attack at the wheel of his car.",
"Wim Gerlach 10 June 1957 Wim Gerlach rolled his Porsche during a sportscar race at Zandvoort on 9 June 1957.The car was not equipped with a rollcage and Gerlach, who was not wearing seatbelts, had his head crushed between the door of the car and the earth bank.",
"The corner where the accident occurred was later named the Gerlachbocht.",
"30 April 1958 Crashed his Mercedes 300SL cabriolet during the final stage of that year's Tulip Rally.",
"As was usual at the time, the Tulip Rally's final stage was run as a race at Zandvoort, but in anti-clockwise direction, so as to counter unfair advantages for drivers with racing experience of the track.",
"Engel's car crashed and overturned on the back-stretch of the track, on the short straight leading away from Tunnel-Oost (in the direction of Scheivlak corner) and came to rest upside down on the track.",
"Ian Raby 7 November 1967 Seriously injured on 5th lap of the Zandvoort Grand Prix, 7th round of the 1967 European Formula 2 Championship.",
"Chris Lambert 28 July 1968 Lambert was killed after he collided with Clay Regazzoni during the Dutch round of the European Formula 2 Championship, launching Lambert's Brabham BT23C over the guardrail and onto the pedestrian path below.",
"Piers Courage 21 June 1970 The suspension or steering in Courage's car broke on the flat out 'Tunnel Oost' section.",
"Instead of rounding the bend, the car went straight on into the steep dunes, disintegrated on impact and caught fire as the engine broke away from the monocoque; automatic fuel-sealing equipment was not yet being used.",
"During the impact one of the front wheels broke loose and hit Courage's head, taking off his helmet (wheel and helmet came rolling out of the cloud of dust simultaneously).",
"It is assumed that Courage was killed instantly (or at least severely wounded and knocked unconscious) when the wheel hit him, rather than dying in the subsequent fire, as the monocoque was upright (not upside down, as is often stated by those who confuse the Courage and Williamson accidents) when it came to rest and did not seem to trap its driver in any way.",
"Roger Williamson 29 July 1973 Williamson lost control of his car due to a suspected tyre failure during the 1973 Dutch Grand Prix and crashed into the barriers, spun upside-down and caught fire.",
"David Purley stopped his own race and tried unsuccessfully to save Williamson.",
"The circuit was poorly prepared and not enough fire extinguishers were on hand.",
"Rob Slotemaker 29 July 1979 Slotemaker was killed when he crashed his Chevrolet Camaro during the \"Trophy of the Dunes\" touring car race.",
"His car spun on a patch of oil and collided with a course car parked alongside the track.",
"Despite the relatively minor force of the accident, he suffered a broken neck and died instantly.",
"A section of the circuit, the left-hander after Hunserug, is named in his memory.",
"Hans-Georg Bürger 20 July 1980 Crashed in his Tiga F280-BMW at Scheivlak corner during the warm-up for the Grote Prijs van Zandvoort, the Dutch round of the European Formula 2 Championship.",
"He succumbed to his head injuries in hospital two days later.",
"Alain Vinckx 29 May 1987 During a World Record Day event Vinckx was killed when he attempted a stunt in which he drove a Chevrolet Camaro through four buses placed back to back.",
"The second bus was positioned too low, the roof of the car was cut from it by the roof of the bus.",
"Vinckx was unable to duck away from danger and was decapitated.",
"Oliver Heimann 30 March 1991 Heimann was unable to avoid the car of another competitor which had come to a standstill.",
"Heimann broke his neck in the accident; he died in a hospital in Haarlem, about one hour after the crash.",
"Henk Schoorstra 29 July 2010 After colliding with another car, Henk Schoorstra's single-seater went out of control and crashed into the guard rail between Hunserug and the Rob Slotemaker bend.",
"The driver was able to drive the car into the run-off area but it caught fire and Schoorstra was killed at the scene.",
"David Ferrer 2 September 2017 During the Historic Grand Prix Zandvoort Ferrer crashed with his March 701 from 1970.The accident happened in the Arie Luyendijkbocht where he lost control of the car and crashed into the barriers.",
"Marshalls got him out of the car and Ferrer was brought to a hospital, where he later died due to his injuries."
],
[
"Cycling and running competitions",
"1960 amateur cycling championshipMotor racer Willy Koppen was the first woman to participate in motor trials in the early fifties on the circuit.",
"In August 1959 the UCI Road World Championships men's race was held at Zandvoort.",
"André Darrigade of France won the race, Tom Simpson (Britain) was 4th.In 1994 a large interregional amateur race cycling race was organised by HSV De Kampioen in Haarlem.",
"Since 2008, the course has been used as the venue for the Runner's World Zandvoort Circuit Run, a 5-kilometre road running competition.",
"The 2010 edition of the race attracted Lornah Kiplagat, a multiple world champion, who won the ladies 5 km race.The Cycling Zandvoort 24h race was first held on 25–26 May 2013.It is open for public for soloists and teams up to 8 riders.",
"A 6-hours was added to the event in 2016.On 13./14.June 2015 (12:00) the Cycling Zandvoort – 24 hour race over 4307-m-laps took place."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Formula One circuits"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official website (in Dutch and English)* RacingCircuits.info's history of Circuit Park Zandvoort* Aerial photo (Google Maps)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Crete Senesi"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Crete Senesi''' refers to an area of the Italian region of Tuscany immediately to the south of Siena.",
"It consists of a range of hills and woods among villages and includes the ''comuni'' of Asciano, Buonconvento, Monteroni d'Arbia, Rapolano Terme and San Giovanni d'Asso, all within the province of Siena.",
"They border to the north with the Chianti Senese area, to the east with Val di Chiana and to the south-west with Val d'Orcia.",
"Nearby is also the semi-arid area known as the Accona Desert.",
"''Crete Senesi'' are literally the \"clays of Siena\": the distinctive grey colouration of the soil gives the landscape an appearance often described as lunar.",
"This characteristic clay, known as ''mattaione'', represents the sediments of the Pliocene sea which covered the area between 2.5 and 4.5 million years ago.",
"The landscape is characterized by barren and gently undulating hills, solitary oaks and cypresses, isolated farms at the top of the heights, stretches of wood and ponds of rainwater (commonly referred as ''fontoni,'' literally \"big springs\") in the valleys''.''",
"Badlands and are typical conformations of the land.",
"Monte Oliveto Maggiore standing out in the hills.Perhaps the most notable edifice of this area is the Abbey of Monte Oliveto Maggiore, located 10 km south of Asciano.The region is known for its production of white truffles, and hosts a festival and a museum dedicated to the rare fungus (genus Tuber)."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:In Val d'Orcia.jpg|Cereal crops are cultivated with the aid of irrigationFile:Crete senesi presso asciano, 09.JPG|Crete Senesi in Asciano areaFile:Cretesenesi panorama.jpg|Panorama with ''fontoni''File:Crete Senesi Calanchi.jpg|Badlands of Accona desertFile:Crete Senesi Sunset - Saltafabbro, Asciano, Siena, Italy - July 4, 2010 01.jpg|Sunset in Saltafabbro, Asciano"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official website* Terre di Siena: Crete Senesi* Videos of the Crete Senesi* Crete Senesi Landscape"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Christmas tree"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Christmas tree decorated with lights, stars, and glass balls by Viggo Johansen (1891)Typical North American family decorating Christmas tree ()A '''Christmas tree''' is a decorated tree, usually an evergreen conifer, such as a spruce, pine or fir, or an artificial tree of similar appearance, associated with the celebration of Christmas.The custom was developed in Central Europe, particularly Germany and Livonia (now Estonia and Latvia), where Protestant Christians brought decorated trees into their homes.",
"The tree was traditionally decorated with \"roses made of colored paper, apples, wafers, tinsel, and sweetmeats\".",
"Moravian Christians began to illuminate Christmas trees with candles, which were often replaced by Christmas lights after the advent of electrification.",
"Today, there is a wide variety of traditional and modern ornaments, such as garlands, baubles, tinsel, and candy canes.",
"An angel or star might be placed at the top of the tree to represent the Angel Gabriel or the Star of Bethlehem, respectively, from the Nativity.",
"Edible items such as gingerbread, chocolate, and other sweets are also popular and are tied to or hung from the tree's branches with ribbons.",
"The Christmas tree has been historically regarded as a custom of the Lutheran Churches and only in 1982 did the Catholic Church erect the Vatican Christmas Tree.In the Western Christian tradition, Christmas trees are variously erected on days such as the first day of Advent or even as late as Christmas Eve depending on the country; customs of the same faith hold that it is unlucky to remove Christmas decorations, such as the Christmas tree, before Twelfth Night and, if they are not taken down on that day, it is appropriate to do so on Candlemas, the latter of which ends the Christmas-Epiphany season in some denominations.The Christmas tree is sometimes compared with the \"Yule-tree\", especially in discussions of its folkloric origins."
],
[
"History",
"===Origin of the modern Christmas tree===Martin Luther is depicted with his family and friends in front of a Christmas tree on Christmas EveModern Christmas trees originated in Central Europe and the Baltic states, particularly Estonia, Germany and Livonia (now Latvia) during the Renaissance in early modern Europe.",
"Its 16th-century origins are sometimes associated with Protestant Christian reformer Martin Luther, who is said to have first added lighted candles to an evergreen tree.",
"The Christmas tree was first recorded to be used by German Lutherans in the 16th century, with records indicating that a Christmas tree was placed in the Cathedral of Strasbourg in 1539, under the leadership of the Protestant Reformer Martin Bucer.",
"The Moravian Christians put lighted candles on those trees.\"",
"The earliest known firmly dated representation of a Christmas tree is on the keystone sculpture of a private home in Turckheim, Alsace (then part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, today France), with the date 1576.===Possible predecessors===Modern Christmas trees have been related to the \"tree of paradise\" of medieval mystery plays that were given on 24 December, the commemoration and name day of Adam and Eve in various countries.",
"In such plays, a tree decorated with apples (representing fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil and thus to the original sin that Christ took away) and round white wafers (to represent the Eucharist and redemption) was used as a setting for the play.",
"Like the Christmas crib, the Paradise tree was later placed in homes.",
"The apples were replaced by round objects such as shiny red balls.At the end of the Middle Ages, an early predecessor appears referred in the 15th century Regiment of the Cistercian Alcobaça Monastery in Portugal.",
"The Regiment of the local ''high-Sacristans'' of the Cistercian Order refers to what may be considered the oldest references to the Christmas tree: \"Note on how to put the Christmas branch, ''scilicet'': On the Christmas eve, you will look for a large Branch of green laurel, and you shall reap many red oranges, and place them on the branches that come of the laurel, specifically as you have seen, and in every orange you shall put a candle, and hang the Branch by a rope in the pole, which shall be by the candle of the high altar.",
"\"Yggdrasil, in Norse cosmology, is an immense and central sacred tree.Other sources have offered a connection between the symbolism of the first documented Christmas trees in Germany around 1600 and the trees of pre-Christian traditions, though this claim has been disputed.",
"According to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', \"The use of evergreen trees, wreaths, and garlands to symbolize eternal life was a custom of the ancient Egyptians, Chinese, and Hebrews.",
"Tree worship was common among the pagan Europeans and survived their conversion to Christianity in the Scandinavian customs of decorating the house and barn with evergreens at the New Year to scare away the devil and of setting up a tree for the birds during Christmas time.",
"\"It is commonly believed that ancient Romans used to decorate their houses with evergreen trees to celebrate Saturnalia, although there are no historical records of that.",
"In the poem ''Epithalamium'' by Catullus, he tells of the gods decorating the home of Peleus with trees, including laurel and cypress.",
"Later Libanius, Tertullian, and Chrysostom speak of the use of evergreen trees to adorn Christian houses.The Vikings and Saxons worshiped trees.",
"The story of Saint Boniface cutting down Donar's Oak illustrates the pagan practices in 8th century among the Germans.",
"A later folk version of the story adds the detail that an evergreen tree grew in place of the felled oak, telling them about how its triangular shape reminds humanity of the Trinity and how it points to heaven.===Historical practices by region=======Estonia, Latvia, and Germany====Customs of erecting decorated trees in winter time can be traced to Christmas celebrations in Renaissance-era guilds in Northern Germany and Livonia.",
"The first evidence of decorated trees associated with Christmas Day are trees in guildhalls decorated with sweets to be enjoyed by the apprentices and children.",
"In Livonia (present-day Estonia and Latvia), in 1441, 1442, 1510, and 1514, the Brotherhood of Blackheads erected a tree for the holidays in their guild houses in Reval (now Tallinn) and Riga.",
"On the last night of the celebrations leading up to the holidays, the tree was taken to the Town Hall Square, where the members of the brotherhood danced around it.A Bremen guild chronicle of 1570 reports that a small tree decorated with \"apples, nuts, dates, pretzels, and paper flowers\" was erected in the guild-house for the benefit of the guild members' children, who collected the dainties on Christmas Day.",
"In 1584, the pastor and chronicler Balthasar Russow in his (1584) wrote of an established tradition of setting up a decorated spruce at the market square, where the young men \"went with a flock of maidens and women, first sang and danced there and then set the tree aflame\".After the Protestant Reformation, such trees are seen in the houses of upper-class Protestant families as a counterpart to the Catholic Christmas cribs.",
"This transition from the guild hall to the bourgeois family homes in the Protestant parts of Germany ultimately gives rise to the modern tradition as it developed in the 18th and 19th centuries.",
"In the present-day, the churches and homes of Protestants and Catholics feature both Christmas cribs and Christmas trees.====Poland====The hanging of a during Christmastide is an old Polish folk custom (2020).In Poland, there is a folk tradition dating back to an old Slavic pre-Christian custom of suspending a branch of fir, spruce, or pine from the ceiling rafters, called , during the time of the Koliada winter festival.",
"The branches were decorated with apples, nuts, acorns, and stars made of straw.",
"In more recent times, the decorations also included colored paper cutouts (), wafers, cookies, and Christmas baubles.",
"According to old pagan beliefs, the branch's powers were linked to good harvest and prosperity.The custom was practiced by the peasants until the early 20th century, particularly in the regions of Lesser Poland and Upper Silesia.",
"Most often the branches were hung above the dinner table on Christmas Eve.",
"Beginning in the mid-19th century, the tradition over time was almost completely replaced by the later German practice of decorating a standing Christmas tree.===18th to early 20th centuries=======Adoption by European nobility====German Christmas tree, book illustration (1888)In the early 19th century, the custom became popular among the nobility and spread to royal courts as far as Russia.",
"Introduced by Fanny von Arnstein and popularized by Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg the Christmas tree reached Vienna in 1814 during the Congress of Vienna, and the custom spread across Austria in the following years.",
"In France, the first Christmas tree was introduced in 1840 by the duchesse d'Orléans.",
"In Denmark, a newspaper company claims that the first attested Christmas tree was lit in 1808 by countess Wilhemine of Holsteinborg.",
"It was the aging countess who told the story of the first Danish Christmas tree to the Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen in 1865.He had published a fairy tale called ''The Fir-Tree'' in 1844, recounting the fate of a fir tree being used as a Christmas tree.====Adoption by country or region=========''Germany''=====A German Christmas tree in a room at Versailles turned into a military hospitalBy the early 18th century, the custom had become common in towns of the upper Rhineland, but it had not yet spread to rural areas.",
"Wax candles, expensive items at the time, are found in attestations from the late 18th century.Along the lower Rhine, an area of Roman Catholic majority, the Christmas tree was largely regarded as a Protestant custom.",
"As a result, it remained confined to the upper Rhineland for a relatively long period of time.",
"The custom did eventually gain wider acceptance beginning around 1815 by way of Prussian officials who emigrated there following the Congress of Vienna.In the 19th century, the Christmas tree was taken to be an expression of German culture and of , especially among emigrants overseas.A decisive factor in winning general popularity was the German army's decision to place Christmas trees in its barracks and military hospitals during the Franco-Prussian War.",
"Only at the start of the 20th century did Christmas trees appear inside churches, this time in a new brightly lit form.=====''Slovenia''=====Early Slovenian custom dating back to around the 17th century was to suspend the tree either upright or upside-down above the well, a corner of the dinner table, in the backyard, or from the fences, modestly decorated with fruits or not decorated at all.",
"German brewer Peter Luelsdorf brought the first Christmas tree of the current tradition to Slovenia in 1845.He set it up in his small brewery inn in Ljubljana, the Slovenian capital.",
"German officials, craftsmen and merchants quickly spread the tradition among the bourgeois population.",
"The trees were typically decorated with walnuts, golden apples, carobs, and candles.",
"At first the Catholic majority rejected this custom because they considered it a typical Protestant tradition.",
"The first decorated Christmas Market was organized in Ljubljana already in 1859.However, this tradition was almost unknown to the rural population until World War I, after which everyone started decorating trees.",
"Spruce trees have a centuries-long tradition in Slovenia.",
"After World War II during Yugoslavia period, trees set in the public places (towns, squares, and markets) were politically replaced with fir trees, a symbol of socialism and Slavic mythology strongly associated with loyalty, courage, and dignity.",
"However, spruce retained its popularity in Slovenian homes during those years and came back to public places after independence.=====''Britain''=====An engraving published in the 1840s of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert created a craze for Christmas trees.Although the tradition of decorating churches and homes with evergreens at Christmas was long established, the custom of decorating an entire small tree was unknown in Britain until some two centuries ago.",
"The German-born Queen Charlotte introduced a Christmas tree at a party she gave for children in 1800.The custom did not at first spread much beyond the royal family.",
"Queen Victoria as a child was familiar with it and a tree was placed in her room every Christmas.",
"In her journal for Christmas Eve 1832, the delighted 13-year-old princess wrote:After Victoria's marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, by 1841 the custom became even more widespread as wealthier middle-class families followed the fashion.",
"In 1842 a newspaper advert for Christmas trees makes clear their smart cachet, German origins and association with children and gift-giving.",
"An illustrated book, ''The Christmas Tree'', describing their use and origins in detail, was on sale in December 1844.On 2January 1846 Elizabeth Fielding (née Fox Strangways) wrote from Lacock Abbey to William Henry Fox-Talbot: \"Constance is extremely busy preparing the Bohemian Xmas Tree.",
"It is made from Caroline's description of those she saw in Germany\".",
"In 1847 Prince Albert wrote: \"I must now seek in the children an echo of what Ernest his brother and I were in the old time, of what we felt and thought; and their delight in the Christmas trees is not less than ours used to be\".",
"A boost to the trend was given in 1848 when ''The Illustrated London News'', in a report picked up by other papers, described the trees in Windsor Castle in detail and showed the main tree, surrounded by the royal family, on its cover.",
"In fewer than ten years their use in better-off homes was widespread.",
"By 1856 a northern provincial newspaper contained an advert alluding casually to them, as well as reporting the accidental death of a woman whose dress caught fire as she lit the tapers on a Christmas tree.",
"They had not yet spread down the social scale though, as a report from Berlin in 1858 contrasts the situation there where \"Every family has its own\" with that of Britain, where Christmas trees were still the preserve of the wealthy or the \"romantic\".Their use at public entertainments, charity bazaars and in hospitals made them increasingly familiar however, and in 1906 a charity was set up specifically to ensure even poor children in London slums \"who had never seen a Christmas tree\" would enjoy one that year.",
"Anti-German sentiment after World WarI briefly reduced their popularity but the effect was short-lived, and by the mid-1920s the use of Christmas trees had spread to all classes.",
"In 1933 a restriction on the importation of foreign trees led to the \"rapid growth of a new industry\" as the growing of Christmas trees within Britain became commercially viable due to the size of demand.",
"By 2013 the number of trees grown in Britain for the Christmas market was approximately eight million and their display in homes, shops and public spaces a normal part of the Christmas season.=====''Georgia''=====Decorated Chichilaki at the Orbeliani PalaceGeorgians have their own traditional Christmas tree called Chichilaki, made from dried up hazelnut or walnut branches that are shaped to form a small coniferous tree.",
"These pale-colored ornaments differ in height from to .",
"Chichilakis are most common in the Guria and Samegrelo regions of Georgia near the Black Sea, but they can also be found in some stores around the capital of Tbilisi.Georgians believe that Chichilaki resembles the famous beard of St.",
"Basil the Great, because Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates St.",
"Basil on 1 January.=====''The Bahamas''=====The earliest reference of Christmas trees being used in The Bahamas dates to January 1864 and is associated with the Anglican Sunday Schools in Nassau, New Providence: \"After prayers and a sermon from the Rev.",
"R. Swann, the teachers and children of St. Agnes', accompanied by those of St. Mary's, marched to the Parsonage of Rev.",
"J. H. Fisher, in front of which a large Christmas tree had been planted for their gratification.",
"The delighted little ones formed a circle around it singing \"Come follow me to the Christmas tree\".\"",
"The gifts decorated the trees as ornaments and the children were given tickets with numbers that matched the gifts.",
"This appears to be the typical way of decorating the trees in the 1860s Bahamas.",
"In the Christmas of 1864, there was a Christmas tree put up in the Ladies Saloon in the Royal Victoria Hotel for the respectable children of the neighbourhood.",
"The tree was ornamented with gifts for the children who formed a circle about it and sung the song \"Oats and Beans\".",
"The gifts were later given to the children in the name of Santa Claus.=====''North America''=====General and Mrs. Riedesel celebrating Christmas.The tradition was introduced to North America in the winter of 1781 by Hessian soldiers stationed in the Province of Québec (1763–1791) to garrison the colony against American attack.",
"General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel and his wife, the Baroness von Riedesel, held a Christmas party for the officers at Sorel, Quebec, delighting their guests with a fir tree decorated with candles and fruits.The Christmas tree became very common in the United States of America in the early nineteenth century.",
"Dating from late 1812 or early 1813, the watercolor sketchbooks of John Lewis Krimmel contain perhaps the earliest depictions of a Christmas tree in American art, representing a family celebrating Christmas Eve in the Moravian tradition.",
"The first published image of a Christmas tree appeared in 1836 as the frontispiece to ''The Stranger's Gift'' by Hermann Bokum.",
"The first mention of the Christmas tree in American literature was in a story in the 1836 edition of ''The Token and Atlantic Souvenir'', titled \"New Year's Day\", by Catherine Maria Sedgwick, where she tells the story of a German maid decorating her mistress's tree.",
"Also, a woodcut of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle, initially published in ''The Illustrated London News'' December 1848, was copied in the United States at Christmas 1850, in ''Godey's Lady's Book''.",
"''Godey's'' copied it exactly, except for the removal of the Queen's tiara and Prince Albert's moustache, to remake the engraving into an American scene.",
"The republished ''Godey's'' image became the first widely circulated picture of a decorated evergreen Christmas tree in America.",
"Art historian Karal Ann Marling called Prince Albert and Queen Victoria, shorn of their royal trappings, \"the first influential American Christmas tree\".",
"Folk-culture historian Alfred Lewis Shoemaker states, \"In all of America there was no more important medium in spreading the Christmas tree in the decade 1850–60 than ''Godey's Lady's Book''\".",
"The image was reprinted in 1860, and by the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become even more common in America.Drawing depicting family with their Christmas tree in 1809.President Benjamin Harrison and his wife Caroline put up the first White House Christmas tree in 1889.Several cities in the United States with German connections lay claim to that country's first Christmas tree: Windsor Locks, Connecticut, claims that a Hessian soldier put up a Christmas tree in 1777 while imprisoned at the Noden-Reed House, while the \"First Christmas Tree in America\" is also claimed by Easton, Pennsylvania, where German settlers purportedly erected a Christmas tree in 1816.In his diary, Matthew Zahm of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, recorded the use of a Christmas tree in 1821, leading Lancaster to also lay claim to the first Christmas tree in America.",
"Other accounts credit Charles Follen, a German immigrant to Boston, for being the first to introduce to America the custom of decorating a Christmas tree.",
"In 1847, August Imgard, a German immigrant living in Wooster, Ohio cut a blue spruce tree from a woods outside town, had the Wooster village tinsmith construct a star, and placed the tree in his house, decorating it with paper ornaments, gilded nuts and Kuchen.",
"German immigrant Charles Minnigerode accepted a position as a professor of humanities at the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1842, where he taught Latin and Greek.",
"Entering into the social life of the Virginia Tidewater, Minnigerode introduced the German custom of decorating an evergreen tree at Christmas at the home of law professor St. George Tucker, thereby becoming another of many influences that prompted Americans to adopt the practice at about that time.",
"An 1853 article on Christmas customs in Pennsylvania defines them as mostly \"German in origin\", including the Christmas tree, which is \"planted in a flower pot filled with earth, and its branches are covered with presents, chiefly of confectionary, for the younger members of the family.\"",
"The article distinguishes between customs in different states however, claiming that in New England generally \"Christmas is not much celebrated\", whereas in Pennsylvania and New York it is.When Edward H. Johnson was vice president of the Edison Electric Light Company, a predecessor of Con Edison, he created the first known electrically illuminated Christmas tree at his home in New York City in 1882.Johnson became the \"Father of Electric Christmas Tree Lights\".The lyrics sung in the United States to the German tune begin \"O Christmas tree...\", giving rise to the mistaken idea that the German word (fir tree) means \"Christmas tree\", the German word for which is instead .File:The Christmas Tree - Godey's Lady's Book, December 1850.jpg|Copy of an 1848 engraving of the British royal family with their tree, modified and widely published in American magazine ''Godey's Lady's Book'', 1850.File:1836-print-of-american-christmas-tree.jpg|First published image of a Christmas tree, frontispiece to Hermann Bokum's 1836 ''The Stranger's Gift''File:The Christmas tree (Boston Public Library).jpg|''The Christmas tree'' by Winslow Homer, 1858File:Gezin bij de kerstboom.jpg|Christmas in the Netherlands, File:1870 ChristmasTree byEhninger HarpersBazaar.jpeg|Illustration for ''Harper's Bazaar'', published 1 January 1870File:Julekort, 1880.jpg|Christmas tree depicted as Christmas card by Prang & Co. (Boston) 1880File:Komissarzhevskaya Nora.jpg|Vera Komissarzhevskaya as Nora in Ibsen's ''A Doll's House'' ( 1904).",
"Photo by Elena Mrozovskaya.File:Lodovico and Maria Angelica Calderara 12800u original.jpg|An Italian-American family on Christmas, 1924===1935 to present===Under the state atheism of the Soviet Union, the Christmas tree, along with the entire celebration of the Christian holiday, was banned in that country after the October Revolution.",
"However, the government then introduced a ''New-year spruce'' () in 1935 for the New Year holiday.",
"It became a fully secular icon of the New Year holiday: for example, the crowning star was regarded not as a symbol of Bethlehem Star, but as the Red star.",
"Decorations, such as figurines of airplanes, bicycles, space rockets, cosmonauts, and characters of Russian fairy tales, were produced.",
"This tradition persists after the fall of the USSR, with the New Year holiday outweighing the Christmas (7 January) for a wide majority of Russian people.The ''Peanuts'' TV special ''A Charlie Brown Christmas'' (1965) was influential on the pop culture surrounding the Christmas tree.",
"Aluminum Christmas trees were popular during the early 1960s in the US.",
"They were satirized in the TV special and came to be seen as symbolizing the commercialization of Christmas.",
"The term ''Charlie Brown Christmas tree'', describing any poor-looking or malformed little tree, also derives from the 1965 TV special, based on the appearance of Charlie Brown's Christmas tree.File:xmas1951.jpg|A Christmas tree from 1951, in a home in New York stateFile:Christmas tree with presents - 2015.JPG|Christmas tree with presentsFile:Governor's Living Room.jpg|Christmas Tree in the cozy room at the Wisconsin Governor's mansion.File:Елочное украшение \"Космонавт\" 1960е.JPG|A Soviet-era (1960s) New Year tree decoration depicting a cosmonautFile:005 Weihnachtsaltar und Krippe in der Sanoker Franziskanerkirche, 2013.jpg|Christmas Trees in churchFile:Chrismon tree stalbans oviedo fl.jpg|A Chrismon tree (St. Alban's Anglican Cathedral, Oviedo, Florida)====Public Christmas trees====An early example of public Christmas tree for the children of unemployed parents in Prague (Czech Republic), 1931Since the early 20th century, it has become common in many cities, towns, and department stores to put up public Christmas trees outdoors, such as the Macy's Great Tree in Atlanta (since 1948), the Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree in New York City, and the large Christmas tree at Victoria Square in Adelaide.The use of fire retardant allows many indoor public areas to place real trees and be compliant with code.",
"Licensed applicants of fire retardant solution spray the tree, tag the tree, and provide a certificate for inspection.The United States' National Christmas Tree has been lit each year since 1923 on the South Lawn of the White House, becoming part of what evolved into a major holiday event at the White House.",
"President Jimmy Carter lit only the crowning star atop the tree in 1979 in honor of the Americans being held hostage in Iran.",
"The same was true in 1980, except the tree was fully lit for 417 seconds, one second for each day the hostages had been in captivity.During most of the 1970s and 1980s, the largest decorated Christmas tree in the world was put up every year on the property of the ''National Enquirer'' in Lantana, Florida.",
"This tradition grew into one of the most spectacular and celebrated events in the history of southern Florida, but was discontinued on the death of the paper's founder in the late 1980s.In some cities, a charity event called the Festival of Trees is organized, in which multiple trees are decorated and displayed.The giving of Christmas trees has also often been associated with the end of hostilities.",
"After the signing of the Armistice in 1918 the city of Manchester sent a tree, and £500 to buy chocolate and cakes, for the children of the much-bombarded town of Lille in northern France.",
"In some cases the trees represent special commemorative gifts, such as in Trafalgar Square in London, where the City of Oslo, Norway presents a tree to the people of London as a token of appreciation for the British support of Norwegian resistance during the Second World War; in Boston, where the tree is a gift from the province of Nova Scotia, in thanks for rapid deployment of supplies and rescuers to the 1917 ammunition ship explosion that leveled the city of Halifax; and in Newcastle upon Tyne, where the main civic Christmas tree is an annual gift from the city of Bergen, in thanks for the part played by soldiers from Newcastle in liberating Bergen from Nazi occupation.",
"Norway also annually gifts a Christmas tree to Washington, D.C. as a symbol of friendship between Norway and the US and as an expression of gratitude from Norway for the help received from the US during World War II.===== Gallery =====File:Vatican Christmas Tree.jpg|Christmas tree in Vatican City.File:Galleria Vittorio Emanuele ii Xmas (J).jpg|Christmas tree at Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan, Italy.File:Piazza Portanova Natale 2008.jpg|Christmas tree in Salerno old town, Italy.File:Natal 2009 em Catania - 1 (4200097689).jpg|Christmas tree in Catania, Italy.File:Vilnius Christmas Tree.jpg|Christmas tree in Vilnius old town, Lithuania.File:Trafalgar Square Christmas tree9.jpg|Trafalgar Square Christmas tree, London, United Kingdom.File:LEDs on a big Christmas Tree 4572.jpg|Christmas tree front of the Turku Cathedral in Turku, Finland.File:Weihnachtsbaum Römerberg.jpg|Christmas tree on the Römerberg in Frankfurt, Germany.File:Budapest, Erzsébet körút 43-49, Corinthia, karácsonyfa, 3.jpg|Christmas tree in Budapest, Corinthia HotelFile:Christmas Lisbon 2005 b.JPG|Lisbon, Portugal, Christmas tree.File:Plaza de San Juan de la Cruz (Madrid) 07.jpg|An illuminated Christmas tree in Madrid.File:Choinka plac Zamkowy 2011.jpg|Christmas tree in Warsaw, Poland.File:Stockholm - NK.jpg|Christmas tree in Stockholm at the NK department storeFile:Christmas tree in Lugano (2018).jpg|Christmas tree in Lugano, Switzerland.File:New Year Tree on the Minin and Pozharsky Square 04.jpg|Christmas tree on Minin and Pozharsky Square.",
"Nizhny Novgorod, RussiaFile:Christmas tree city lights.jpg|Christmas tree, Plaza, Las Cruces, New Mexico, USFile:Christmas Tree at Rockefeller Center IV.jpg|Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree, New York City, New York, USFile:2010 Boston Halifax Christmas tree on Boston Common USA 5273771973.jpg|Official Christmas Tree of Boston Massachusetts, US.File:Christmas tree and Metropolitan Cathedral at Mexico's City zócalo.jpg|Christmas tree and Metropolitan Cathedral at Mexico City's zócalo.File:San Martín Sacatepéquez 25.JPG|Christmas tree in San Martín Sacatepéquez, Guatemala.File:Decoração de natal em São Vicente de Minas (3).jpg|Christmas tree in the Praça Governador Valadares, Brazil.File:Árbol de navidad y pesebre en la Casa Rosada - 2014.jpg|Christmas tree above Nativity installed at Casa Rosada, Argentina.File:貴賓樓前聖誕樹 - panoramio.jpg|Christmas tree in Beijing, China.File:HK TST night Harbour City front entrance indoor stairs interior Xmas trees Nov-2013.JPG|Christmas trees in Ocean Terminal, Harbour City, Hong KongFile:Christmas tree, Bethlehem.jpg|Christmas tree in Bethlehem, Palestine, behind it Church of the Nativity.File:ET Bahir Dar asv2018-02 img01 Christmas tree.jpg|Christmas tree in Bahir Dar, EthiopiaFile:2018 Christmas at the Vank Cathedral 08.jpg|Christmas tree at the Vank Cathedral, Iran.File:Christmas tree on display in Delray Beach, Florida on Atlantic Avenue.jpg|'''Christmas tree in Delray Beach, Florida on Atlantic Avenue in 2023'''"
],
[
"Customs and traditions",
"===Setting up and taking down===Adding decorations to treeBoth setting up and taking down a Christmas tree are associated with specific dates; liturgically, this is done through the hanging of the greens ceremony.",
"In many areas, it has become customary to set up one's Christmas tree on Advent Sunday, the first day of the Advent season.",
"Traditionally, however, Christmas trees were not brought in and decorated until the evening of Christmas Eve (24 December), the end of the Advent season and the start of the twelve days of Christmastide.",
"It is customary for Christians in many localities to remove their Christmas decorations on the last day of the twelve days of Christmastide that falls on 5 January—Epiphany Eve (Twelfth Night), although those in other Christian countries remove them on Candlemas, the conclusion of the extended Christmas-Epiphany season (Epiphanytide).",
"According to the first tradition, those who fail to remember to remove their Christmas decorations on Epiphany Eve must leave them untouched until Candlemas, the second opportunity to remove them; failure to observe this custom is considered inauspicious.===Decorations===Christmas ornaments at the Christmas market, StrasbourgChristmas ornaments are decorations (usually made of glass, metal, wood, or ceramics) that are used to decorate a Christmas tree.",
"The first decorated trees were adorned with apples, white candy canes and pastries in the shapes of stars, hearts and flowers.",
"Glass baubles were first made in Lauscha, Germany, and also garlands of glass beads and tin figures that could be hung on trees.",
"The popularity of these decorations fueled the production of glass figures made by highly skilled artisans with clay molds.Tinsel and several types of garland or ribbon are commonly used as Christmas tree decorations.",
"Silvered saran-based tinsel was introduced later.",
"Delicate mold-blown and painted colored glass Christmas ornaments were a specialty of the glass factories in the Thuringian Forest, especially in Lauscha in the late 19th century, and have since become a large industry, complete with famous-name designers.",
"Baubles are another common decoration, consisting of small hollow glass or plastic spheres coated with a thin metallic layer to make them reflective, with a further coating of a thin pigmented polymer in order to provide coloration.Lighting with electric lights (Christmas lights or, in the United Kingdom, fairy lights) is commonly done.",
"A tree-topper, sometimes an angel but more frequently a star, completes the decoration.In the late 1800s, home-made white Christmas trees were made by wrapping strips of cotton batting around leafless branches creating the appearance of a snow-laden tree.In the 1940s and 1950s, popularized by Hollywood films in the late 1930s, flocking was very popular on the West Coast of the United States.",
"There were home flocking kits that could be used with vacuum cleaners.",
"In the 1980s some trees were sprayed with fluffy white flocking to simulate snow.File:Christmas tree bauble.jpg|Golden glass ball/baubleFile:A baseball-shaped snowman decoration.jpg|Snowman/baseball novelty ornamentFile:Christmas Tree Bear Decoration.png|Toy bear decorationFile:Christmas baubles 08 - 01.JPG|Egg shaped glass ornamentFile:Christmas baubles 08 - 12.JPG|Cloth cotton batting ornamentFile:2006 Blue Room Christmas tree - closeup of ornamentation.jpg|Imitation tree snowFile:Christmas tree decorations, Brisbane, 2020, 02.jpg|Straw ornamentsFile:Crochet Xmas ornaments.jpg|Crochet ornamentsFile:Bombki ze wstazek.jpg|Polish baublesFile:Ornament, Christmas Tree (USA), 1850–99 (CH 18409303).jpg|Swaddled babies, 1850–1899File:Nostalgischer Weihnachtsbaumschmuck Pappmaché Weihnachtsmann (cropped).jpg|Paper maché ornamentFile:Weihnachten 2020 Christbaumschmuck 10.jpg|Faceted indented glass ornamentFile:Weihnachten 2020 Christbaumschmuck 28.jpg|Ceramic ornamentFile:Weihnachten 2020 Christbaumschmuck 22.jpg|Gablonz ornamentFile:Glass icicle ornaments - clear and blue.jpg|Glass icicle ornamentsFile:String of tinsel on Christmas tree.jpg|String of tinselFile:Stringing lights on Christmas tree.jpg|Stringing lights on treeFile:Squirrel eating popcorn and cranberry garland off Christmas tree.jpg|Squirrel eating popcorn and cranberry garland off Christmas tree"
],
[
"Symbolism and interpretations",
"The earliest legend of the origin of a fir tree becoming a Christian symbol dates back to 723 AD, involving Saint Boniface as he was evangelizing Germany.",
"It is said that at a pagan gathering in Geismar where a group of people dancing under a decorated oak tree were about to sacrifice a baby in the name of Thor, Saint Boniface took an axe and called on the name of Jesus.",
"In one swipe, he managed to take down the entire oak tree, to the crowd's astonishment.",
"Behind the fallen tree was a baby fir tree.",
"Boniface said, \"let this tree be the symbol of the true God, its leaves are ever green and will not die.\"",
"The tree's needles pointed to heaven and it was shaped triangularly to represent the Holy Trinity.When decorating the Christmas tree, many individuals place a star at the top of the tree symbolizing the Star of Bethlehem.",
"It became popular for people to also use an angel to top the Christmas tree in order to symbolize the angels mentioned in the accounts of the Nativity of Jesus.",
"Additionally, in the context of a Christian celebration of Christmas, the evergreen Christmas tree symbolizes eternal life; the candles or lights on the tree represent Christ as the light of the world."
],
[
"Production",
"A large scale Christmas tree farm in the United StatesUndecorated Christmas trees for saleBaling a treeA grower in Waterloo, Nova Scotia, prunes balsam fir trees in October.",
"The tree must experience three frosts to stabilize the needles before cutting.Trees on sale at a Christmas market in Vienna, painting by Carl Wenzel Zajicek (1908)Each year, 33 to 36 million Christmas trees are produced in America, and 50 to 60 million are produced in Europe.",
"In 1998, there were about 15,000 growers in America (a third of them \"choose and cut\" farms).",
"In that same year, it was estimated that Americans spent $1.5billion on Christmas trees.",
"By 2016 that had climbed to $2.04billion for natural trees and a further $1.86billion for artificial trees.",
"In Europe, 75 million trees worth €2.4billion ($3.2 billion) are harvested annually.===Natural trees===The most commonly used species are fir (''Abies''), which have the benefit of not shedding their needles when they dry out, as well as retaining good foliage color and scent; but species in other genera are also used.In northern Europe most commonly used are:* Norway spruce ''Picea abies'' (the original tree, generally the cheapest)* Silver fir ''Abies alba''* Nordmann fir ''Abies nordmanniana''* Noble fir ''Abies procera''* Serbian spruce ''Picea omorika''* Scots pine ''Pinus sylvestris''* Stone pine ''Pinus pinea'' (as small table-top trees)* Swiss pine ''Pinus cembra''In North America, Central America, South America and Australia most commonly used are:* Douglas fir ''Pseudotsuga menziesii''* Balsam fir ''Abies balsamea''* Fraser Fir ''Abies fraseri''* Grand fir ''Abies grandis''* Guatemalan fir ''Abies guatemalensis''* Noble fir ''Abies procera''* Nordmann fir ''Abies nordmanniana''* Red fir ''Abies magnifica''* White fir ''Abies concolor''* Pinyon pine ''Pinus edulis''* Jeffrey pine ''Pinus jeffreyi''* Scots pine ''Pinus sylvestris''* Stone pine ''Pinus pinea'' (as small table-top trees)* Norfolk Island pine ''Araucaria heterophylla''*Paraná pine ''Araucaria angustifolia'' (when young, resembles a Pine tree)Several other species are used to a lesser extent.",
"Less-traditional conifers are sometimes used, such as giant sequoia, Leyland cypress, Monterey cypress, and eastern juniper.",
"Various types of spruce tree are also used for Christmas trees (including the blue spruce and, less commonly, the white spruce); but spruces begin to lose their needles rapidly upon being cut, and spruce needles are often sharp, making decorating uncomfortable.",
"Virginia pine is still available on some tree farms in the southeastern United States; however, its winter color is faded.",
"The long-needled eastern white pine is also used there, though it is an unpopular Christmas tree in most parts of the country, owing also to its faded winter coloration and limp branches, making decorating difficult with all but the lightest ornaments.",
"Norfolk Island pine is sometimes used, particularly in Oceania, and in Australia, some species of the genera ''Casuarina'' and ''Allocasuarina'' are also occasionally used as Christmas trees.",
"But, by far, the most common tree is the Pinus radiata Monterey pine.",
"''Adenanthos sericeus'' or Albany woolly bush is commonly sold in southern Australia as a potted living Christmas tree.",
"Hemlock species are generally considered unsuitable as Christmas trees due to their poor needle retention and inability to support the weight of lights and ornaments.Some trees, frequently referred to as \"living Christmas trees\", are sold live with roots and soil, often from a plant nursery, to be stored at nurseries in planters or planted later outdoors and enjoyed (and often decorated) for years or decades.",
"Others are produced in a container and sometimes as topiary for a porch or patio.",
"However, when done improperly, the combination of root loss caused by digging, and the indoor environment of high temperature and low humidity is very detrimental to the tree's health; additionally, the warmth of an indoor climate will bring the tree out of its natural winter dormancy, leaving it little protection when put back outside into a cold outdoor climate.",
"Often Christmas trees are a large attraction for living animals, including mice and spiders.",
"Thus, the survival rate of these trees is low.",
"However, when done properly, replanting provides higher survival rates.European tradition prefers the open aspect of naturally grown, unsheared trees, while in North America (outside western areas where trees are often wild-harvested on public lands) there is a preference for close-sheared trees with denser foliage, but less space to hang decorations.In the past, Christmas trees were often harvested from wild forests, but now almost all are commercially grown on tree farms.",
"Almost all Christmas trees in the United States are grown on Christmas tree farms where they are cut after about ten years of growth and new trees planted.",
"According to the United States Department of Agriculture's agriculture census for 2007, 21,537 farms were producing conifers for the cut Christmas tree market in America, were planted in Christmas trees.The life cycle of a Christmas tree from the seed to a tree takes, depending on species and treatment in cultivation, between eight and twelve years.",
"First, the seed is extracted from cones harvested from older trees.",
"These seeds are then usually grown in nurseries and then sold to Christmas tree farms at an age of three to four years.",
"The remaining development of the tree greatly depends on the climate, soil quality, as well as the cultivation and how the trees are tended by the Christmas tree farmer.===Artificial trees===An artificial Christmas treeThe first artificial Christmas trees were developed in Germany during the 19th century, though earlier examples exist.",
"These \"trees\" were made using goose feathers that were dyed green, as one response by Germans to continued deforestation.",
"Feather Christmas trees ranged widely in size, from a small tree to a large tree sold in department stores during the 1920s.",
"Often, the tree branches were tipped with artificial red berries which acted as candle holders.Over the years, other styles of artificial Christmas trees have evolved and become popular.",
"In 1930, the U.S.-based Addis Brush Company created the first artificial Christmas tree made from brush bristles.",
"Another type of artificial tree is the aluminum Christmas tree, first manufactured in Chicago in 1958, and later in Manitowoc, Wisconsin, where the majority of the trees were produced.",
"Most modern artificial Christmas trees are made from plastic recycled from used packaging materials, such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC).",
"Approximately 10% of artificial Christmas trees are using virgin suspension PVC resin; despite being plastic most artificial trees are not recyclable or biodegradable.Other trends developed also in the early 2000s.",
"Optical fiber Christmas trees come in two major varieties; one resembles a traditional Christmas tree.",
"One Dallas-based company offers \"holographic mylar\" trees in many hues.",
"Tree-shaped objects made from such materials as cardboard, glass, ceramic or other materials can be found in use as tabletop decorations.",
"Upside-down artificial Christmas trees became popular for a short time and were originally introduced as a marketing gimmick; they allowed consumers to get closer to ornaments for sale in retail stores and opened up floor space for more products.Artificial trees became increasingly popular during the late 20th century.",
"Users of artificial Christmas trees assert that they are more convenient, and, because they are reusable, much cheaper than their natural alternative.",
"They are also considered much safer, as natural trees can be a significant fire hazard.",
"Between 2001 and 2007, artificial Christmas tree sales in the U.S. jumped from 7.3 million to 17.4 million.",
"Currently, it is estimated that around 58% of Christmas trees used in the United States are artificial, while numbers in the United Kingdom are indicated to be around 66%.File:Fiber-optic Christmas tree.jpg|A tree with fibre optic lightsFile:White christmas tree.jpg|White Christmas treeFile:Arbol Navidad 02.jpg|Spanish artificial Christmas treeFile:The Childrens Museum of Indianapolis - Aluminum Christmas tree.jpg|An artificial Aluminum Christmas treeFile:Y Christmas Tree 2.jpg|Artificial treeFile:Aluminum Christmas tree2.jpg|An aluminum Christmas tree"
],
[
"Environmental issues",
"The debate about the environmental impact of artificial trees is ongoing.",
"Generally, natural tree growers contend that artificial trees are more environmentally harmful than their natural counterparts.",
"However, trade groups such as the American Christmas Tree Association, claim that the PVC used in Christmas trees is chemically and mechanically stable and does not affect human health and has excellent recyclable properties.Live trees are typically grown as a crop and replanted in rotation after cutting, often providing suitable habitat for wildlife.",
"Alternately, live trees can be donated to livestock farmers who find that such trees uncontaminated by chemical additives are excellent fodder.",
"In some cases management of Christmas tree crops can result in poor habitat since it sometimes involves heavy input of pesticides.Concerns have been raised by arborists about people cutting down old and rare conifers, such as the ''Keteleeria evelyniana'' for Christmas trees.Real or cut trees are used only for a short time, but can be recycled and used as mulch, wildlife habitat, or used to prevent erosion.",
"Real trees are carbon-neutral, they emit no more carbon dioxide by being cut down and disposed of than they absorb while growing.",
"However, emissions can occur from farming activities and transportation.",
"An independent life-cycle assessment study, conducted by a firm of experts in sustainable development, states that a natural tree will generate of greenhouse gases every year (based on purchasing from home) whereas the artificial tree will produce over its lifetime.",
"Some people use living Christmas or potted trees for several seasons, providing a longer life cycle for each tree.",
"Living Christmas trees can be purchased or rented from local market growers.",
"Rentals are picked up after the holidays, while purchased trees can be planted by the owner after use or donated to local tree adoption or urban reforestation services.",
"Smaller and younger trees may be replanted after each season, with the following year running up to the next Christmas allowing the tree to carry out further growth.The use of lead stabilizer in Chinese imported trees has been an issue of concern among politicians and scientists over recent years.",
"A 2004 study found that while in general artificial trees pose little health risk from lead contamination, there do exist \"worst-case scenarios\" where major health risks to young children exist.",
"A 2008 United States Environmental Protection Agency report found that as the PVC in artificial Christmas trees aged it began to degrade.",
"The report determined that of the fifty million artificial trees in the United States approximately twenty million were nine or more years old, the point where dangerous lead contamination levels are reached.",
"A professional study on the life-cycle assessment of both real and artificial Christmas trees revealed that one must use an artificial Christmas tree at least twenty years to leave an environmental footprint as small as the natural Christmas tree.File:Discarded Christmas Trees in London, UK.jpg|Discarded trees by garbage dumpstersFile:Recycletree.jpg|Christmas tree recycling point ()File:Woodchipping Christmas trees in Stuyvesant Town, New York.jpg|Woodchipping Christmas trees"
],
[
"Religious issues",
"Under the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of state atheism in the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations—along with other religious holidays—were prohibited as a result of the Soviet anti-religious campaign.",
"The League of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, among them being the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including Easter; the League established an anti-religious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement.",
"With the Christmas tree being prohibited in accordance with Soviet anti-religious legislation, people supplanted the former Christmas custom with New Year's trees.",
"In 1935, the tree was brought back as New Year tree and became a secular, not a religious holiday.Pope John Paul II introduced the Christmas tree custom to the Vatican in 1982.Although at first disapproved of by some as out of place at the centre of the Roman Catholic Church, the Vatican Christmas Tree has become an integral part of the Vatican Christmas celebrations, and in 2005 Pope Benedict XVI spoke of it as part of the normal Christmas decorations in Catholic homes.",
"In 2004, Pope John Paul called the Christmas tree a symbol of Christ.",
"This very ancient custom, he said, exalts the value of life, as in winter what is evergreen becomes a sign of undying life, and it reminds Christians of the \"tree of life\", an image of Christ, the supreme gift of God to humanity.",
"In the previous year he said: \"Beside the crib, the Christmas tree, with its twinkling lights, reminds us that with the birth of Jesus the tree of life has blossomed anew in the desert of humanity.",
"The crib and the tree: precious symbols, which hand down in time the true meaning of Christmas.\"",
"The Catholic Church's official ''Book of Blessings'' has a service for the blessing of the Christmas tree in a home.",
"The Episcopal Church in ''The Anglican Family Prayer Book'', which has the imprimatur of The Rt.",
"Rev.",
"Catherine S. Roskam of the Anglican Communion, has long had a ritual titled ''Blessing of a Christmas Tree'', as well as ''Blessing of a Crèche'', for use in the church and the home; family services and public liturgies for the blessing of Christmas trees are common in other Christian denominations as well.Chrismon trees, which find their origin in the Lutheran Christian tradition though now used in many Christian denominations such as the Catholic Church and Methodist Church, are used to decorate churches during the liturgical season of Advent; during the period of Christmastide, Christian churches display the traditional Christmas tree in their sanctuaries.In 2005, the city of Boston renamed the spruce tree used to decorate the Boston Common a \"Holiday Tree\" rather than a \"Christmas Tree\".",
"The name change was reversed after the city was threatened with several lawsuits.File:Bonifatius Donareiche.jpg|St Boniface felling the Donar OakFile:Bezbozhnik u stanka - Run along, Lord, 1931, n. 22.jpg|A 1931 edition of the Soviet magazine , distributed by the League of Militant Atheists, depicting an Orthodox Christian priest being forbidden to cut down a tree for Christmas"
],
[
"See also",
"* * Christmas traditions* Christmas tree controversies* Eiresione* Festive ecology* Festivus pole* Hanging of the greens* Hanukkah bush* * Legend of the Christmas Spider* Nardoqan* New Year tree* Tree worship* * Yule log"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Carrier battle group"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The carrier battle group during the 2000 RIMPAC exerciseA '''carrier battle group''' ('''CVBG''') is a naval fleet consisting of an aircraft carrier capital ship and its large number of escorts, together defining the group.",
"The ''CV'' in ''CVBG'' is the United States Navy hull classification code for an aircraft carrier.The first naval task forces built around carriers appeared just prior to and during World War II.",
"The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) was the first to assemble many carriers into a single task force, known as the ''Kido Butai''.",
"This task force was used with devastating effect in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.",
"The Kido Butai operated as the IJN's main carrier battle group until four of its carriers were sunk at the Battle of Midway.",
"In contrast, the United States Navy deployed its large carriers in separate formations, with each carrier assigned its own cruiser and destroyer escorts.",
"These single-carrier formations would often be paired or grouped together for certain assignments, most notably the Battle of the Coral Sea and Midway.",
"By 1943, however, large numbers of fleet and light carriers became available, which required larger formations of three or four carriers.",
"These groups eventually formed the Fast Carrier Task Force, which became the primary battle unit of the U.S. Third and Fifth Fleets.With the construction of the large \"supercarriers\" of the Cold War era, the practice of operating each carrier in a single formation was revived.",
"During the Cold War, the main role of the CVBG in case of conflict with the Soviet Union would have been to protect Atlantic supply routes between the United States and its NATO allies in Europe, while the role of the Soviet Navy would have been to interrupt these sea lanes, a fundamentally easier task.",
"Because the Soviet Union had no large carriers of its own, a situation of dueling aircraft carriers would have been unlikely.",
"However, a primary mission of the Soviet Navy's attack submarines was to track every allied battle group and, on the outbreak of hostilities, sink the carriers.",
"Understanding this threat, the CVBG expended enormous resources in its own anti-submarine warfare mission."
],
[
"Carrier battle groups in crises",
"In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, most uses of carrier battle groups by the United States as well as that of other Western nations have been in situations where their use has been uncontested by other comparable forces.",
"During the Cold War, an important battle scenario was an attack against a CVBG using numerous antiship missiles.===1956 Suez Crisis===British and French carrier battle groups were involved in the 1956 Suez Crisis.===1971 Indo-Pakistan war===During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, India used its carrier strike group centered on to impose a naval blockade on East Pakistan.",
"Air strikes were carried out initially on shipping in the harbors of Chittagong and Cox's Bazar, sinking or incapacitating most ships there.",
"Further strikes were carried out on Cox's Bazar from 60 nautical miles (110 km) offshore.",
"On the evening of 4 December, the air group again struck Chittagong harbor.",
"Later strikes targeted Khulna and the Port of Mongla.",
"Air strikes continued until 10 December 1971.===1982 Falklands War===The first attempted use of anti-ship missiles against a carrier battle group was part of Argentina's efforts against British armed forces during the Falklands War.",
"This was the last conflict so far in which opposing belligerents employed aircraft carriers, although Argentina made little use of its sole carrier, , which was originally built in the United Kingdom as HMS ''Venerable'' and later served with the Royal Netherlands Navy (1948–1968).===Lebanon===The United States Sixth Fleet assembled a force of three carrier battle groups and a battleship during the Lebanese Civil War in 1983.Daily reconnaissance flights were flown over the Bekaa Valley and a strike was flown against targets in the area resulting in loss of an A-6 Intruder and an A-7 Corsair.===Gulf of Sidra===Carrier battle groups routinely operated in the Gulf of Sidra inside the \"Line of Death\" proclaimed by Libya resulting in aerial engagements in 1981, 1986 and 1989 between U.S. Navy Tomcats and Libyan Su-22 aircraft, SA-5 surface-to-air missiles and MiG-23 fighters.",
"During the 1986 clashes, three carrier battle groups deployed to the Gulf of Sidra and ultimately two of them conducted strikes against Libya in Operation El Dorado Canyon.===2011 military intervention in Libya===During the international military intervention in the 2011 Libyan civil war, the French Navy deployed its aircraft carrier, , off Libya.",
"The ''Charles de Gaulle'' was accompanied by several frigates as , , , the replenishment tanker ''Meuse'' and two nuclear attack submarines."
],
[
"Applications",
"===China===China plans to set up several carrier battle groups in the future.",
"At present China's two aircraft carriers, the ''Liaoning'' and ''Shandong'', use Type 055 destroyers for area air defence with anti-submarine warfare, Type 052C or Type 052D destroyers for air defense, Type 054A frigates for anti-submarine and anti-ship warfare, 1–2 Type 093 nuclear attack submarines, and 1 Type 901 supply ship.",
"China is currently building a third carrier, expected to be launched in 2020 and enter active service in 2023, as well as a nuclear-powered fourth carrier planned for construction and expected to be completed by the late 2020s.",
"China is also building a new larger class of air defense destroyers, the Type 055.===France===The only serving French carrier is the , which also serves as the flagship of the Marine Nationale.",
"The carrier battle group of the Force d'Action Navale is known as the ''Groupe Aéronaval'' (GAN) and is usually composed, in addition to the aircraft carrier, of:*a carrier air wing (Groupe Aérien Embarqué, GAE, in French), a complement composed of about 40 aircraft:**Rafale F3 (up to 30)**E-2C Hawkeye (2)**SA365 Dauphin (3) for RESCO and EC725 Caracal for CSAR (2)*one *two anti-submarine destroyers (currently FREMM ASM or )*one or two anti-air destroyers ( or )*one stealth frigate in forward patrol (usually a )*one supply ship (currently a )This group is commanded by a rear admiral (contre-amiral, in French) on board the aircraft carrier.",
"The commanding officer of the air group (usually a —equivalent to commander) is subordinate to the commanding officer of the aircraft carrier, a senior captain.",
"The escort destroyers (called frigates in the French denomination) are commanded by more junior captains.France also operates three s. While incapable of operating fixed-winged aircraft, they function as helicopter carriers and form the backbone of France's amphibious force.",
"These ships are typically escorted by the same escorts the ''Charles De Gaulle'' uses.===India===Western Fleet escorts the aircraft carriers INS ''Viraat'' and INS ''Vikramaditya'' through the Arabian Sea in 2014.Indian Navy has operated all types of aircraft carriers including CATOBAR configured Vikrant, STOVL configured Viraat and STOBAR configured Vikramaditya and Vikrant (2013) and CBGs centered on it.",
"The Indian Navy has been operating carrier battle groups since 1961, with its first carrier battle group formed around the now decommissioned .",
"INS ''Viraat'' was an updated ''Centaur''-class light carrier originally built for the Royal Navy as , which was laid down in 1944 and commissioned in 1959.It was purchased by India in May 1987, and was decommissioned in March 2017.India commissioned in 2013 followed by the new INS ''Vikrant'' in 2022.INS ''Vikramaditya'' is the modified , INS ''Vikrant'' is the first indigenous aircraft carrier built in India.",
"India plans to have three carrier battle groups by 2035, each centered on ''Vikrant'', ''Vikramaditya'' and ''Vishal'', another planned carrier.",
"As of 2023, the Indian Navy operates two carrier battle groups centered on INS Vikramaditya and INS Vikrant.The Indian Navy's carrier battle group centered on ''Viraat'' consisted of two destroyers, usually of the (previously s were used), two or more frigates, usually of the , Godavari or Nilgiri classes, and one support ship.The navy's new carrier battle group centered on ''Vikramaditya and Vikrant'' consists of the modern ''Kolkata'' class guided missile destroyers, ''Shivalik'' and ''Talwar''-class guided missile frigates, ''Kamorta''-class anti-submarine warfare corvettes and new tankers.",
"INS ''Chakra'' is expected to fill the sub-surface component.===Italy===The CVS–ASW (Aircraft Carrier with Anti-Submarine Warfare) is Italy's first carrier.",
"The battle group based in Taranto called COMFORAL is formed by the carrier ''Giuseppe Garibaldi'', two s, two support ships ''Etna'' and ''Elettra'', and three amphibious/support ships (''San Giusto'', ''San Marco'' and ''San Giorgio'').After 2010, the Italian battle group will be formed by the new , 5–6 new warships (including destroyers ''Horizon'' and frigates FREMM), one new support ship, some minehunters and new submarines (the COMFORAL will be a reserve group).===Russia===''Admiral Kuznetsov'' has been observed sailing together with a (CBGN), (CG), (ASuW), (ASW) and ''Krivak'' I/II FFG (ASW).",
"These escorts, especially the heavily armed ''Kirov''-class battlecruiser, use advanced sensors and carry a variety of weaponry.",
"During ''Admiral Kuznetsov''s deployment to Syria in November 2016 on her first combat tour, the carrier was escorted by a pair of Udaloy-class destroyers and a Kirov-class battlecruiser en route, while additional Russian Navy warships met her off Syria.",
"''Admiral Kuznetsov'' is designed specifically to sail alone and carries greater firepower than her U.S. counterparts.",
"This includes 12x SS-N-19 'Shipwreck' (long range, high speed, sea-skimming) SSMs, 24x VLS units loaded with 192 SA-N-9 'Gauntlet' SAMs, and 8x Kashtan CIWS with dual 30 mm guns, and 8x AK-630 CIWS.",
"Compared to the 4x Phalanx CIWS and 4x Sea Sparrow launchers, each with 8 missiles carried by the ''Nimitz''-class, ''Admiral Kuznetsov'' is well armed for both air-defence and offensive operations against hostile shipping.===United Kingdom===HMS Queen Elizabeth (R08) and her Carrier Strike Group during Exercise Westlant 19.As one of the pioneers of aircraft carriers, the Royal Navy has maintained a carrier strike capability since the commissioning of in 1918.However, the capability was temporarily lost between 2010 and 2018, following the retirement of the and Harrier GR9s.",
"During this period, the Royal Navy worked to regenerate its carrier strike capability based on the Carrier-Enabled Power Projection (CEPP) concept by ordering two ''Queen Elizabeth''-class aircraft carriers and the F-35B Lightning to operate from them.",
"To maintain its skills and experience, the Royal Navy embedded personnel and ships with partner navies, in particular the United States Navy.In 2017, the first ''Queen Elizabeth''-class aircraft carrier entered service followed by her sister ship in 2019.The first carrier strike group took to sea in September 2019 as part of an exercise known as ''Westlant 19''.",
"HMS ''Queen Elizabeth'' and her air group of F-35B Lightning jets operated alongside two surface escorts and a fleet tanker off the east coast of the United States.",
"The deployment was in preparation for the first operational deployment in 2021, which is expected to involve HMS ''Queen Elizabeth'' alongside four Royal Navy escorts, two support ships and a submarine.Under current plans, a Royal Navy carrier strike group will typically comprise a ''Queen Elizabeth''-class aircraft carrier, two air defence destroyers, two anti-submarine frigates, a submarine, solid stores ship and a fleet tanker, however the composition varies depending on the operational tasking.",
"While ''Queen Elizabeth'''s initial deployment will be as part of an all-British carrier group, it is envisaged in the longer term that the UK's carriers will usually form the centre of a multi-national operation – in 2018, it was announced that the British and Dutch governments had come to an agreement that would see escort vessels of the Royal Netherlands Navy operating as part of the UK Carrier Strike Group.",
"Command of the UK carrier strike group is the responsibility of Commander United Kingdom Carrier Strike Group.",
"A June 2020 National Audit Office report however provided a critical review of the forthcoming Carrier Strike Group, especially noting the delay to the Crowsnest system.===United States=======Carrier strike group====USS ''George Washington'' Carrier Strike Group sails in formation for a strike group photo in the Caribbean Sea 29 April 2006.Such a formation, referred to derisively as the \"bullseye\" formation, would not be used in combat.In modern United States Navy carrier air operations, a carrier strike group (CSG) normally consists of 1 aircraft carrier, 1 guided missile cruiser (for air defense), 2 LAMPS-capable warships (focusing on anti-submarine and surface warfare), and 1–2 anti-submarine destroyers or frigates.",
"The large number of CSGs used by the United States reflects, in part, a division of roles and missions allotted during the Cold War, in which the United States assumed primary responsibility for blue-water operations and for safeguarding supply lines between the United States and Europe, while the NATO allies assumed responsibility for less costly brown- and green-water operations.",
"The CSG has replaced the old term of carrier battle group (CVBG or CARBATGRU).",
"The US Navy maintains 11 carrier strike groups, 9 of which are based in the United States and one that is forward deployed in Yokosuka, Japan.====Expeditionary strike group====An expeditionary strike group is composed of an amphibious assault ship (LHA/LHD), a dock landing ship (LSD), an amphibious transport dock (LPD), a Marine expeditionary unit, AV-8B Harrier II or, more recently Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II aircraft, CH-53E Super Stallion and CH-46E Sea Knight helicopters or, more recently, MV-22B tiltrotors.",
"Cruisers, destroyers and attack submarines are deployed with either an Expeditionary Strike Group or a Carrier Strike Group.====Battleship battle group====During the period when the American navy recommissioned all four of its s, it sometimes used a similar formation centered on a battleship, referred to as a battleship battle group.",
"It was alternately referred to as a surface action group.The battleship battle group typically consisted of one modernized battleship, one , one or , one , three s and one auxiliary ship such as a replenishment oiler.====Surface action group====A surface action group is \"a temporary or standing organization of combatant ships, other than carriers, tailored for a specific tactical mission\"."
],
[
"Underway replenishment",
"Since its origins, the viability of the carrier battle group has been dependent on its ability to remain at sea for extended periods.",
"Specialized ships were developed to provide underway replenishment of fuel (for the carrier and its aircraft), ordnance, and other supplies necessary to sustain operations.",
"Carrier battle groups devote a great deal of planning to efficiently conduct underway replenishment to minimize the time spent conducting replenishment.",
"The carrier can also provide replenishment on a limited basis to its escorts, but typically a replenishment ship such as a fast combat support ship (AOE) or replenishment oiler (AOR) pulls alongside a carrier and conducts simultaneous operations with the carrier on its port side and one of the escorts on its starboard side.",
"The advent of the helicopter provides the ability to speed replenishment by lifting supplies at the same time that fueling hoses and lines are delivering other goods."
],
[
"Debate on future viability",
"There is debate in naval warfare circles as to the viability of carrier battle groups in 21st century naval warfare.",
"Proponents of the CVBG argue that it provides unmatched firepower and force projection capabilities.",
"Opponents argue that CVBGs are increasingly vulnerable to arsenal ships and cruise missiles, especially those with supersonic or even hypersonic flight and the ability to perform radical trajectory changes to avoid anti-missile systems.",
"It is also noted that CVBGs were designed for Cold War scenarios, and are less useful in establishing control of areas close to shore.",
"It is argued however that such missiles and arsenal ships pose no serious threat as they would be eliminated due to increasing improvement in ship defenses such as Cooperative Engagement Capability (CEC), DEW technology and missile technology.Additionally, carrier battle groups proved to be vulnerable to diesel-electric submarines owned by many smaller naval forces.",
"Examples are the German ''U24'' of the conventional 206 class which in 2001 \"sank\" USS ''Enterprise'' during the exercise JTFEX 01-2 in the Caribbean Sea by firing flares and taking a photograph through its periscope or the Swedish ''Gotland'' which managed the same feat in 2006 during JTFEX 06-2 by penetrating the defensive measures of Carrier Strike Group 7 undetected and snap several pictures of .However, carriers have been called upon to be first responders even when conventional land-based aircraft were employed.",
"During Desert Shield, the U.S. Navy sortied additional carriers to augment the on-station assets, eventually maintaining six carriers for Desert Storm.",
"Although the U.S. Air Force sent fighters such as the F-16 to theater in Desert Shield, they had to carry bombs with them as no stores were in place for sustained operations, whereas the carriers arrived on scene with full magazines and had support ships to allow them to conduct strikes indefinitely.The Global War on Terror has shown the flexibility and responsiveness of the carrier on multiple occasions when land-based air was not feasible or able to respond in a timely fashion.",
"After the 11 September terrorist attacks on the U.S., carriers immediately headed to the Arabian Sea to support Operation Enduring Freedom and took up station, building to a force of three carriers.",
"Their steaming location was closer to the targets in Afghanistan than any land-based assets and thereby more responsive.",
"The was adapted to be a support base for special operations helicopters.",
"Carriers were used again in Operation Iraqi Freedom and even provided aircraft to be based ashore on occasion and have done so periodically when special capabilities are needed.",
"This precedent was established during World War II in the Battle of Guadalcanal.Regardless of the debate over viability, the United States has made a major investment in the development of a new carrier class—the s (formerly designated CVN-X, or the X Carrier)—to replace the existing s. The new ''Ford''-class carriers are designed to be modular and are easily adaptable as technology and equipment needed on board changes."
],
[
"See also",
"* Amphibious ready group* Naval tactics* U.S. Carrier Group tactics"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Carrier Battle Group – GlobalSecurity.org* Current global location of active, proposed, and decommissioned carriers"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight''' is an American medium-lift tandem-rotor transport helicopter powered by twin turboshaft engines.",
"It was designed by Vertol and manufactured by Boeing Vertol following Vertol's acquisition by Boeing.Development of the Sea Knight, which was originally designated by the firm as the '''Vertol Model 107''', commenced during 1956.It was envisioned as a successor to the first generation of rotorcraft, such as the H-21 \"Flying Banana\", that had been powered by piston engines; in its place, the '''V-107''' made use of the emergent turboshaft engine.",
"On 22 April 1958, the V-107 prototype performed its maiden flight.",
"During June 1958, the US Army awarded a contract for the construction of ten production-standard aircraft, designated as the '''YHC-1A''', based on the V-107; this initial order was later cut down to three YHC-1As.",
"During 1961, the US Marine Corps (USMC), which had been studying its requirements for a medium-lift, twin-turbine cargo/troop assault helicopter, selected Boeing Vertol's '''Model 107M''' as the basis from which to manufacture a suitable rotorcraft to meet their needs.",
"Known colloquially as the \"Phrog\" and formally as the \"Sea Knight\", it was operated across all US Marine Corps' operational environments between its introduction during the Vietnam War and its frontline retirement during 2014.The Sea Knight was operated by the USMC to provide all-weather, day-or-night assault transport of combat troops, supplies and equipment until it was replaced by the MV-22 Osprey during the 2010s.",
"The USMC also used the helicopter for combat support, search and rescue (SAR), casualty evacuation and Tactical Recovery of Aircraft and Personnel (TRAP).",
"The Sea Knight also functioned as the US Navy's standard medium-lift utility helicopter prior to the type being phased out of service in favor of the MH-60S Knighthawk during the early 2000s.",
"Several overseas operators acquired the rotorcraft as well.",
"Canada operated the Sea Knight, designated as '''CH-113'''; the type was used predominantly in the SAR role until 2004.Other export customers for the type included Japan, Sweden, and Saudi Arabia.",
"The commercial version of the rotorcraft is the '''BV 107-II''', commonly referred to simply as the \"Vertol\"."
],
[
"Development",
"===Origins===During the 1940s and 1950s, American rotorcraft manufacturer Piasecki Helicopter emerged as a pioneering developer of tandem-rotor helicopters; perhaps the most famous of these being the piston-powered H-21 \"Flying Banana\", an early utility and transport helicopter.",
"During 1955, Piasecki was officially renamed as Vertol Corporation (standing for vertical take-off and landing); it was around this time that work commenced on the development of a new generation of tandem rotor helicopter.",
"During 1956, the new design received the internal company designation of ''Vertol Model 107'', or simply ''V-107''; this rotorcraft differed from its predecessors by harnessing the newly developed turboshaft engine instead of piston-based counterparts.",
"During that year, construction of a prototype, powered by a pair of Lycoming T53 turboshaft engines, each one being capable of producing 877 shp (640 kW), commenced.V-107 prototype in 1961On 22 April 1958, the V-107 prototype performed its maiden flight.",
"In order to garner publicity for the newly developed rotorcraft, it was decided to use the prototype to conduct a series of publicised flight demonstrations during a tour across the United States and several overseas nations.",
"During June 1958, it was announced that the U.S. Army had awarded a contract to Vertol for the construction of ten production-standard aircraft based on the V-107, which were designated ''YHC-1A''.",
"However, this order was later decreased to three helicopters; according to aviation author Jay P. Spenser, the cutback had been enacted in order that the U.S. Army would be able to divert funds for the development of the rival ''V-114'' helicopter, which was also a turbine-powered tandem rotor design but substantially larger than the V-107.All of the U.S. Army's three YHC-1As were powered by pairs of GE-T-58 engines.",
"During August 1959, the first YHC-1A-model rotorcraft conducted its first flight; independently, it was shortly followed by the maiden flight of an improved model intended for the commercial and export markets, designated ''107-II''.During 1960, the U.S. Marine Corps evolved a requirement for a medium-lift, twin-turbine troop/cargo assault helicopter to replace the various piston-engined types that were then in widespread use with the service.",
"That same year, American aviation company Boeing acquired Vertol, after which the group was consequently renamed Boeing Vertol.",
"Following a competition between several competing designs, during early 1961, it was announced that Boeing Vertol had been selected to manufacture its model 107M for the U.S. Marine Corps, where it was designated ''HRB-1''.",
"During 1962, the U.S. Air Force placed its own order for 12 ''XCH-46B Sea Knight'' helicopters, which used the ''XH-49A'' designation; however, the service later decided to cancel the order due to delays in its delivery; instead, the U.S. Air Force opted to procure the rival Sikorsky S-61R in its place.Following the Sea Knight's first flight in August 1962, the military designation was changed to ''CH-46A''.",
"During November 1964, the introduction of the Marines' CH-46A and the Navy's UH-46As commenced.",
"The UH-46A variant was a modified version of the rotorcraft to perform the vertical replenishment mission.",
"The CH-46A was equipped with a pair of T58-GE8-8B turboshaft engines, each being rated at 1,250 shp (930 kW); these allowed the Sea Knight to carry up to 17 passengers or a maximum of 4,000 pounds (1,815 kg) of cargo.===Further developments===VERTREP mission with .During 1966, production of the improved ''CH-46D'' commenced with deliveries following shortly thereafter.",
"This model featured various improvements, including modified rotor blades and the adoption of more powerful T58-GE-10 turboshaft engines, rated at each.",
"The increased power of these new engines allowed the CH-46D to carry an increased payload, such as up to 25 troops or a maximum of of cargo.",
"During late 1967, the improved model was introduced to the Vietnam theater, where it supplemented the U.S. Marine Corps' existing CH-46A fleet, which had proven to be relatively unreliable and problematic in service.",
"Along with the USMC's CH-46Ds, the U.S. Navy also acquired a small number of UH-46Ds for ship resupply purposes.",
"In addition, approximately 33 CH-46As were progressively re-manufactured to the CH-46D standard.Between 1968 and 1971, the U.S. Marine Corps received a number of CH-46F standard rotorcraft.",
"This model retained the T58-GE-10 engines used on the CH-46D while featuring revised avionics and featured a number of other modifications.",
"The CH-46F was the final production model of the type.",
"During its service life, the Sea Knight received a variety of upgrades and modifications.",
"Over time, the majority of the U.S. Marine Corps' Sea Knights were upgraded to the improved CH-46E standard.",
"This model featured fiberglass rotor blades, reinforcement measures throughout the airframe, along with the refitting of further uprated T58-GE-16 engines, capable of producing each; in addition, several CH-46Es were modified to double their maximum fuel capacity.",
"Starting in the mid-1990s, the Dynamic Component Upgrade (DCU) programmes was enacted, focusing on the implementation of strengthened drive systems and modified rotor controls.The commercial variant, the ''BV 107-II'', was first ordered by New York Airways during 1960.During July 1962, they took delivery of their first three aircraft, which was configured to seat up to 25 passengers.",
"During 1965, Boeing Vertol sold the manufacturing rights of the 107 to Japanese conglomerate Kawasaki Heavy Industries.",
"Under this arrangement, all Model 107 civilian and military aircraft built in Japan were referred to by the ''KV 107'' designation.",
"On 15 December 2006, Columbia Helicopters, Inc acquired the type certificate for the BV 107-II; at the time, the company was reportedly in the process of acquiring a Production Certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).",
"Plans for actual production of the aircraft were not announced."
],
[
"Design",
"The ''Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight'' is a medium-lift tandem-rotor transport helicopter, furnished with a set of counter-rotating main rotors in a tandem-rotor configuration.",
"It was typically powered by a pair of General Electric T58 turboshaft engines, which were mounted on each side of the rear rotor pedestal; power to the forward rotor was transferred from the rear-mounted engines via a drive shaft.",
"For redundancy, both engines are coupled so that either one would be capable of powering both of the main rotors in the event of a single engine failure or a similar emergency situation.",
"Each of the rotors feature three blades, which can be folded to better facilitate storage and naval operations.",
"The CH-46 features a fixed tricycle landing gear, complete with twin wheels on all three legs of the landing gear; this configuration results in a nose-up stance, helping to facilitate cargo loading and unloading.",
"Two of the main landing gear were installed within protruding rear sponsons; the free interior space of the sponsons are also used to house fuel tanks, possessing a total capacity of 350 US gallons (1,438 L)..50-caliber M2 machine gun aboard a Marine CH-46, August 2006The interior of the CH-46 was largely taken up by its cargo bay, complete with a rear loading ramp that could be removed or left open in flight for the carriage of extended cargoes or for parachute drops.",
"Various furnishings were normally provided to aid in its use as a utility rotorcraft, such as an internal winch mounted within the forward cabin, which can be used to assisting loading by pulling external cargo on pallets into the aircraft via the ramp and rollers, and an optionally-attached belly-mounted cargo hook, which would be usually rated at for carrying cargoes externally underneath the Sea Knight; despite the hook having been rated at , this was safety restricted to less payload as they got older.",
"When operated in a typical configuration, the CH-46 would usually be operated by a crew of three; a larger crew could be accommodated when required, which would be dependent upon mission specifics.",
"For example, a search and rescue (SAR) variant would usually carry a crew of five (Pilot, Co-Pilot, Crew Chief, Swimmer, and Medic) to facilitate all aspects of such operations.",
"For self-defense, a pintle-mounted 0.50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine gun could be mounted on each side of the helicopter.",
"Service in southeast Asia resulted in the addition of armor along with the machine guns."
],
[
"Operational history",
"===United States===Known colloquially as the \"Phrog\", the Sea Knight was used in all U.S. Marine operational environments between its introduction during the Vietnam War and its frontline retirement in 2014.The type's longevity and reputation for reliability led to mantras such as \"phrogs phorever\" and \"never trust a helicopter under 30\".",
"CH-46s transported personnel, evacuated wounded, supplied forward arming and refueling points (FARP), performed vertical replenishment, search and rescue, recovered downed aircraft and crews and other tasks.====Vietnam War====A flaming Marine CH-46 of HMM-265, after being hit by enemy AAA fire in \"Helicopter Valley\", 15 July 1966During the Vietnam War, the CH-46 was one of the prime US Marine troop transport helicopters in the theater, slotting between the smaller Bell UH-1 Iroquois and larger Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion.",
"CH-46 operations were plagued by major technical problems; the engines, being prone to foreign object damage (FOD) from debris being ingested when hovering close to the ground and subsequently suffering a compressor stall, had a lifespan as low as 85 flight hours; on 21 July 1966, all CH-46s were grounded until more efficient filters had been fitted.On 3 May 1967, a CH-46D at Marine Corps Air Facility Santa Ana crashed, killing all four members of the crew.",
"Within three days the accident investigators had determined that the mounting brackets of the main transmission had failed, allowing the front and rear overlapping rotors to intermesh.",
"All CH-46s were temporarily grounded for inspection.",
"On 13 May, a CH-46A crashed off the coast of Vietnam when the tail pylon containing the engines, main transmission and aft rotors broke off in flight.",
"All four crew members were killed.",
"On 20 June, another CH-46A crashed, though two of the four-man crew survived.",
"Once again, even though the aircraft was not recovered from the water, failure of some sort in the rear pylon was suspected.",
"On 30 June a CH-46D at Santa Ana crashed when a rotor blade separated from the aircraft, all three of the crew survived.",
"As a result of this latest accident, all CH-46Ds were immediately grounded, but the CH-46As continued flying.",
"On 3 July another CH-46A crashed in Vietnam, killing all four Marines of its crew.",
"The cause of the crash again was traced to failure of the main transmission.On 31 August 1967, a CH-46A on a medical evacuation mission to disintegrated in midair killing all its occupants.",
"The following day another CH-46A experienced a similar incident at Marble Mountain Air Facility leading to the type being grounded for all except emergency situations and cutting Marine airlift capacity in half.",
"An investigation conducted by a joint Naval Air Systems Command/Boeing Vertol accident investigation team revealed that structural failures were occurring in the area of the rear pylon resulting in the rear rotor tearing off in flight and may have been the cause of several earlier losses.",
"The team recommended structural and systems modifications to reinforce the rear rotor mount as well as installation of an indicator to detect excessive strain on critical parts of the aircraft.",
"80 CH-46As were shipped to Marine Corps Air Station Futenma, Okinawa where they received the necessary modifications by a combined force of Marine and Boeing Vertol personnel.",
"The modified CH-46As began returning to service in December 1967 and all had been returned to service by February 1968.During the 1972 Easter Offensive, Sea Knights saw heavy use to convey US and South Vietnamese ground forces to and around the front lines.",
"By the end of US military operations in Vietnam, over a hundred Sea Knights had been lost to enemy fire.====Post-Vietnam====A CH-46 departing after dropping off Marines of the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit in South Central Afghanistan, 2004A CH-46E of VMM-268 deploying its onboard countermeasures during Operation Iraqi Freedom, 2008In February 1968 the Marine Corps Development and Education Command obtained several CH-46s to perform herbicide dissemination tests using HIDAL (Helicopter, Insecticide Dispersal Apparatus, Liquid) systems; testing indicated the need for redesign and further study.",
"Tandem-rotor helicopters were often used to transport nuclear warheads; the CH-46A was evaluated to deploy Naval Special Forces with the Special Atomic Demolition Munition (SADM).",
"Nuclear Weapon Accident Exercise 1983 (NUWAX-83), simulating the crash of a Navy CH-46E carrying 3 nuclear warheads, was conducted at the Nevada Test Site on behalf of several federal agencies; the exercise, which used real radiological agents, was depicted in a Defense Nuclear Agency-produced documentary.U.S.",
"Marine CH-46s were used to deploy the 8th Marine Regiment into Grenada during Operation Urgent Fury, evacuated the surviving crewmember of a downed AH-1 Cobra, and then carried infantry from the 75th Ranger Regiment to secure and evacuate U.S. students at the Grand Anse campus of St. George's University, though one crashed after colliding with a palm tree.CH-46E Sea Knights were also used by the U.S. Marine Corps during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.",
"In one incident on 1 April 2003, Marine CH-46Es and CH-53Es carried U.S. Army Rangers and Special Operations troops on an extraction mission for captured Army Private Jessica Lynch from an Iraqi hospital.",
"During the subsequent occupation of Iraq and counter-insurgency operations, the CH-46E was heavily used in the CASEVAC role, being required to maintain 24/7 availability regardless of conditions.",
"According to authors Williamson Murray and Robert H Scales, the Sea Knight displayed serious reliability and maintenance problems during its deployment to Iraq, as well as \"limited lift capabilities\".",
"Following the loss of numerous US helicopters in the Iraqi theatre, the Marines opted to equip their CH-46s with more advanced anti-missile countermeasures.The U.S. Navy retired the type on 24 September 2004, replacing it with the MH-60S Seahawk; the Marine Corps maintained its fleet as the MV-22 Osprey was fielded.",
"In March 2006 Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 263 (HMM-263) was deactivated and redesignated VMM-263 to serve as the first MV-22 squadron.",
"The replacement process continued through the other medium helicopter squadrons into 2014.On 5 October 2014, the Sea Knight performed its final service flight with the U.S. Marine Corps at Marine Corps Air Station Miramar.",
"HMM-364 was the last squadron to use it outside the United States, landing it aboard on her maiden transit.",
"On 9 April 2015, the CH-46 was retired by the Marine Medium Helicopter Training Squadron 164, the last Marine Corps squadron to transition to the MV-22.The USMC retired the CH-46 on 1 August 2015 in a ceremony at the Udvar-Hazy Center near Washington DC.Beginning in April 2011 the Navy's Fleet Readiness Center East began refurbishing retired USMC CH-46Es for service with the United States Department of State Air Wing.",
"A number of CH-46s from HMX-1 were transferred to the Air Wing in late 2014.In Afghanistan the CH-46s were used by Embassy Air for secure transport of State Department personnel.",
"The CH-46s were equipped with missile warning sensors and flare dispensers and could be armed with M240D or M2 Browning machine guns.",
"A report in September 2019 by the State Department Inspector General found that a seat on a CH-46 for a seven-minute flight cost US$1,500 (~$ in ).",
"Seven of the CH-46s were rendered unusable and abandoned at Kabul Airport following the 2021 evacuation from Afghanistan.====Evacuation of Afghanistan====Seven of the former U.S. Marine Corps CH-46s that were refurbished by the U.S. State Department Air Wing took part in the 2021 Kabul Airlift.",
"Prior to the complete withdrawal of U.S. forces, all seven of the helicopters were rendered unusable and abandoned at Kabul International Airport and are seen in many videos and pictures online.",
"One of the CH-46s that was abandoned (BuNo 154038, c/n 2389) also took part in Operation Frequent Wind with the evacuation of the Embassy of Saigon in South Vietnam exactly forty-six years prior.",
"The U.S. State Department drew criticism for leaving behind the aircraft.",
"Commenting on the issue, the U.S. State Department claimed that the helicopters were already being phased out of State Department Air Wing due to their age and the inability to support them.",
"The seven CH-46s left behind were the only U.S. State Department aircraft left behind at Kabul International Airport.===Canada===CH-113 Labrador landing on \"The Clapper\", a sea stack off the tip of Bell Island in NewfoundlandThe Royal Canadian Air Force procured six CH-113 Labrador helicopters for the SAR role and the Canadian Army acquired 12 of the similar CH-113A Voyageur for the medium-lift transport role.",
"The RCAF Labradors were delivered first with the first one entering service on 11 October 1963.When the larger CH-147 Chinook was procured by the Canadian Forces in the mid-1970s, the Voyageur fleet was converted to Labrador specifications to undertake SAR missions.",
"The refurbished Voyageurs were re-designated as CH-113A Labradors, thus a total of 15 Labradors were ultimately in service.The Labrador was fitted with a watertight hull for marine landings, a 5,000 kilogram cargo hook and an external rescue hoist mounted over the right front door.",
"It featured a 1,110 kilometer flying range, emergency medical equipment and an 18-person passenger capacity.",
"In multiple instances throughout the 1970s and 1980s, this increased range provided the capability of the CH-113 to provide assistance to U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) missions or perform long range medevacs over distances the USCG helicopters at the time simply could not reach.In 1981, a mid-life upgrade of the fleet was carried out by Boeing Canada in Arnprior, Ontario.",
"Known as the SAR-CUP (Search and Rescue Capability Upgrade Program), the refit scheme included new instrumentation, a nose-mounted weather radar, a tail-mounted auxiliary power unit, a new high-speed rescue hoist mounted over the side door and front-mounted searchlights.",
"A total of six CH-113s and five CH-113As were upgraded with the last delivered in 1984.Nonetheless, as a search and rescue helicopter it endured heavy use and hostile weather conditions; which had begun to take their toll on the Labrador fleet by the 1990s, resulting in increasing maintenance costs and the need for prompt replacement.In 1992, it was announced that the Labradors were to be replaced by 15 new helicopters, a variant of the AgustaWestland EH101, designated ''CH-149 Chimo''.",
"The order was subsequently cancelled by the Jean Chrétien Liberal government in 1993, resulting in cancellation penalties, as well as extending the service life of the Labrador fleet.",
"However, in 1998, a CH-113 from CFB Greenwood crashed on Quebec's Gaspé Peninsula while returning from a SAR mission, resulting in the deaths of all crewmembers on board.",
"The crash placed pressure upon the government to procure a replacement, thus an order was placed with the manufacturers of the EH101 for 15 aircraft to perform the search-and-rescue mission, designated ''CH-149 Cormorant''.",
"CH-149 deliveries began in 2003, allowing the last CH-113 to be retired in 2004.In October 2005 Columbia Helicopters of Aurora, Oregon purchased eight of the retired CH-113 Labradors to add to their fleet of 15 Vertol 107-II helicopters.=== Sweden ===In 1963, Sweden procured ten UH-46Bs from the US as a transport and anti-submarine helicopter for the Swedish Armed Forces, designated Hkp 4A.",
"In 1973, a further eight Kawasaki-built KV-107s, which were accordingly designated Hkp 4B, were acquired to replace the older Piasecki H-21.During the Cold War, the fleet's primary missions were anti-submarine warfare and troop transportation.",
"They were also frequently employed in the search and rescue role, most famously during the rescue operation of the MS ''Estonia'' after it sank in the Baltic Sea on 28 September 1994.In the 1980s, the Hkp 4A was phased out, having been replaced by the Eurocopter AS332 Super Puma; the later Kawasaki-built Sea Knights continued in operational service until 2011, they were replaced by the UH-60 Black Hawk and NH90.===Argentina===On 15 September 2023, Argentina's Air Force chief Gen. Xavier Issac briefed the media that Argentina had sent a letter requesting the US to approve the refurbishment of surplus CH-46s currently stored with the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group in Arizona.",
"The availability of civilian-operated CH-46s was also being explored.",
"They would be used to support Argentina's Antarctic bases.",
"The CH-46s would replace two Mil Mi-171E helicopters acquired in 2010, but now not able to be repaired by Russia due to sanctions from the Russian invasion of Ukraine.===Civilian and others===Columbia Helicopters BV 107-II in Papua New GuineaThe civilian version, designated as the BV 107-II ''Vertol'', was developed prior to the military CH-46.It was operated commercially by New York Airways, Pan American World Airways and later on by Columbia Helicopters.",
"Among the diversity of tasks was commuter service in the mid-1960s from the roof of the Pan Am skyscraper in Manhattan to JFK Airport in Queens, pulling a hover barge, and constructing transmission towers for overhead power lines.In December 2006, Columbia Helicopters purchased the type certificate of the Model 107 from Boeing, with the aim of eventually producing new-build aircraft themselves."
],
[
"Variants",
"===American versions===;Model 107: Company model number for basic prototype, one built.",
";Model 107-II: Commercial airline helicopter.",
"All subsequent commercial aircraft were produced as BV 107-II-2, two built as Boeing Vertol prototypes, five sold to New York Airways, ten supplied to Kawasaki as sub-assemblies or as parts.",
"The second prototype was later rebuilt into a Sea Knight replacement for a lost unit in the Swedish navy she was named Y64 in Swedish service.",
";Model 107M: Company model number for military transport of BV-107/II-2 for the U.S. Marine Corps.",
";YHC-1A: Vertol Model 107 for test and evaluation by the United States Army.",
"Adopted by the U.S. Marine Corps as the HRB-1.Later redesignated '''YCH-46C''', three built.",
";HRB-1: Original designation before being renamed as CH-46A before delivery under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system.",
";CH-46A: Medium-lift assault and cargo transport and SAR helicopter for the USMC, fitted with two 1,250 shp (935 kW) General Electric T58-GE-8 turboshaft engines.",
"Previously designated HRB-1.160 built for USMC, one static airframe.",
";UH-46A: Medium-lift utility transport helicopter for the United States Navy.",
"Similar to the CH-46A.",
"14 built.",
";HH-46A: Approximately 50 CH-46As were converted into SAR helicopters for the United States Navy base rescue role.",
";RH-46A: Planned conversion of CH-46As into minesweeping helicopters for the US Navy, none converted.",
"Nine SH-3As were converted to the RH-3A configuration instead.",
";UH-46B: Development of the CH-46A to specification HX/H2 for the United States Air Force; 12 ordered in 1962, cancelled and Sikorsky S-61R / CH-3C ordered instead.",
";YCH-46C: YHC-1A redesignated in 1962.United States Army retained two, NASA used one for vertical autonomous landing trials (VALT).A HMX-1 CH-46D departs Santa Barbara Municipal Airport.",
";CH-46D: Medium-lift assault and cargo transport helicopter for the USMC, fitted with two 1,400 shp (1,044 kW) General Electric T58-GE-10 turboshaft engines.",
"266 built.",
";HH-46D: Surviving HH-46A were upgraded and a small number of UH-46Ds were converted into SAR helicopters.",
"SAR upgrades included the addition of an external rescue hoist near the front crew door and an 18-inch X 18-inch Doppler RADAR system located behind the nose landing gear, which provided for automatic, day/night, over-water hovering capability for at sea rescue.",
"Additionally a \"Loud Hailer\" was installed opposite the crew entrance door for communicating with downed aviators on the ground or in the water.USS ''Decatur''.",
";UH-46D: Medium-lift utility transport helicopter for the US Navy combat supply role.",
"Similar to the CH-46D.",
"Ten built and one conversion from CH-46D.",
";CH-46E: Approximately 275 -A, -D, and -F airframes were updated to CH-46E standards with improved avionics, hydraulics, drive train and upgraded T58-GE-16 and T58-GE-16/A engines.State Department Air Wing CH-46E in 2012;HH-46E: Three CH-46Es were converted into SAR helicopters for Marine Transport Squadron One (VMR-1) at MCAS Cherry Point.",
";CH-46F: Improved version of CH-46D, electrical distribution, com/nav update BUNO 154845-157726.Last production model in the United States.",
"174 built, later reverted to CH-46E.",
";VH-46F: Unofficial designation of standard CH-46F used by HMX-1 as VIP support transport helicopter.",
";CH-46X: Replacement helicopter based on the Boeing Model 360, this Advance Technology Demonstrator from the 1980s never entered production.",
"The aircraft relied heavily on composites for its construction and had a beefier drive train to handle the twin Avco-Lycoming AL5512 engines (4,200 shp).",
";XH-49: Original designation of UH-46B.===Canadian versions===;CH-113 Labrador: Search and rescue version of the Model 107-II-9 for the Royal Canadian Air Force;CH-113A Voyageur: Assault and utility transport version of the Model 107-II-28 for the Canadian Army.",
"Later converted to CH-113A Labrador when the Canadian Forces acquired the CH-47 Chinook===Japanese versions===CHI Kawasaki Vertol KV-107II slinging a bucket during the Yellowstone fires of 1988The cockpit of a 107II manufactured by Kawasaki;KV-107II-1 (CT58-110-1):Utility transport version, one built from Boeing-supplied kits.",
";KV-107II-2 (CT58-110-1):Commercial airline version, nine built from Boeing-supplied kits.",
";KV-107IIA-2 (CT58-140-1):Improved version of the KV-107/II-2, three built.",
";KV-107II-3 (CT58-110-1):Minesweeping version for the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF), two built.",
";KV-107IIA-3 (CT58-IHI-10-M1):Uprated version of the KV-107/II-3, seven built.",
";KV-107II-4 (CT58-IHI-110-1):Assault and utility transport version for the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), 41 built.",
";KV-107II-4A (CT58-IHI-110-1):VIP version of the KV-107/II-4, one built.",
";KV-107IIA-4 (CT58-IHI-140-1):Uprated version of the KV-107/II-4, 18 built.",
";KV-107II-5 (CT58-IHI-110-1):Long-range SAR version for the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF), 17 built.",
";KV-107IIA-5 (CT58-IHI-104-1):Uprated version of the KV-107II-5, 35 built.",
";KV-107II-7 (CT58-110-1):VIP transport version, one built.",
";KV-107II-16:HKP 4C for Swedish Navy.",
"Powered by Rolls-Royce Gnome H.1200 turboshaft engines, eight built.",
";KV-107IIA-17 (CT58-140-1):Long-range transport version for the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department, one built.",
";KV-107IIA-SM-1 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1):Firefighting helicopter for Saudi Arabia, seven built.",
";KV-107IIA-SM-2 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1):Aeromedical and rescue helicopter for Saudi Arabia, four built.",
";KV-107IIA-SM-3 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1):VIP transport helicopter for Saudi Arabia, two built.",
";KV-107IIA-SM-4 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1):Air ambulance helicopter for Saudi Arabia, three built.===Swedish versions===Boeing-Vertol civil prototype in service with the Swedish Navy as an HKP 4B;HKP 4A: Boeing Vertol 107-II-14, used originally by Air Force for search and rescue, ten built;HKP 4B: Boeing Vertol 107-II-15, mine-layer/antisubmarine warfare/search and rescue helicopter for Navy, three built and one conversion from Boeing-Vertol civil prototype;HKP 4C: Kawasaki KV-107-II-16, advanced mine-layer/ASW/SAR helicopter for Navy, eight built;HKP 4D: Rebuilt HKP 4A for Navy as SAR/ASW helicopter, four conversions"
],
[
"Operators",
"===Military and government===;* United States Department of State** State Department Air Wing===Civil===;* Helifor Canada;* Columbia Helicopters* Sky Aviation Corp===Former operators===;* Canadian Army - Voyageur variant (later as CH-113A)* Royal Canadian Air Force - both CH-113 and CH-113A** 103 Search and Rescue Squadron** 413 Transport and Rescue Squadron** 102 Composite Unit / 424 Transport and Rescue Squadron** 442 Transport and Rescue Squadron** 450 Transport Helicopter Squadron;* Japan Air Self-Defense Force* Japan Ground Self-Defense Force* Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force* Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department;* Ministry of InteriorA HKP 4A variant with the Swedish Air Force;* Swedish Air Force* Swedish Navy* Royal Thai Army;* New York Airways* Pan American Airways* United States Marine Corps** HMX-1** HMM-262** HMM-265** HMM-268** HMM-364** HMM-764** HMM-774** HMMT-164** VMR-1* United States Navy"
],
[
"Notable accidents and incidents",
"*On 14 October 1963 New York Airways Flight 600, a Boeing Vertol 107, registration N6673D, crashed shortly after takeoff from Idlewild Airport (now JFK) en route to Newark via Wall Street.",
"All three passengers and all three crew members died.",
"The accident was caused by mechanical failure due to contaminated lubricants.",
"* On 15 July 1966 in the Vietnam War during Operation Hastings, two CH-46As of HMM-164 collided at Landing Zone Crow while another, crashed into a tree avoiding the first two, resulting in 2 Marines killed.",
"Another CH-46 of HMM-265 was shot down at the LZ later that day resulting in a further 13 Marine deaths.",
"* On 4 June 1968, CH-46D BuNo 152533 of HMM-165 was hit by anti-aircraft fire at Landing Zone Loon and crashed killing 13 Marines.",
"* On 14 March 1969, CH-46D BuNo 154841 of HMM-161 was hit by a B-40 rocket as it conducted a resupply and medevac mission at Landing Zone Sierra, killing 12 Marines and 1 Navy corpsman.",
"* On 10 May 1996, a CH-46E collided in mid-air with an Bell AH-1W attack helicopter, killing fourteen (twelve Marines, one Navy sailor, and one Army soldier) aboard the two helicopters.",
"The pilots of the CH-46E were injured.",
"Both helicopters, of HMM-266, were operating from USS ''Saipan'' and were participating in Operation Purple Star, a joint exercise involving troops from the U.S. and the UK at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina.",
"* On 2 October 1998, a CH-113 Labrador crashed near Marsoui, Quebec, after an inflight fire.",
"All six crewmembers were killed.",
"* On 9 December 1999, a CH-46D Sea Knight BuNo 154790 of HMM-166 crashed during a boarding exercise off the coast of San Diego, California, killing seven U.S. Marines.",
"The pilot landed the CH-46 short on the deck of the USNS ''Pecos'', causing the left rear tire and strut to become entangled in the safety netting at the back of the ship, which caused it to plunge into the ocean."
],
[
"Aircraft on display",
"Mike Clausen's CH-46 on display at the Carolinas Aviation Museum, 2006JGSDF on display at the Kakamigahara Aerospace MuseumHKP 4B of the Swedish Armed Forces on display at the Swedish Air Force Museum, Malmen, Sweden Last CH-46 of Marine Corps HMM-774 at Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center;Canada* Canada Aviation and Space Museum – Labrador 11301* Comox Air Force Museum – Labrador 11310* National Air Force Museum of Canada – Labrador 11315* Greenwood Military Aviation Museum – Labrador 11308;Japan* Japan Air Self Defense Force Hamamatsu Air Base Publication Center, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan* Kakamigahara Aerospace Science Museum, Kakamigahara, Gifu, Japan* Kawasaki Vertol 107-II – Kawasaki Good Times World, within Kobe Maritime Museum, Kobe, Hyōgo, Japan.",
";Sweden* Aeroseum, Gothenburg, Sweden – Boeing Vertol/Kawasaki KV-107-II (CH-46), Hkp 4C, c/n 4093, Fv 04072 \"72\"* Swedish Air Force Museum, Linköping Sweden.",
"Prototype BV-107-II N6679D.",
"Bought used from Boeing in 1970.;United States* 153962, 154853, 155316, 154810, 157678, 157682 – National United States Armed Forces Museum in Houston, Texas displays four Marine Corps CH-46Es in various configurations including an HMX-1 aircraft and an HH-46E \"Pedro\" configured for search and rescue '01' from VMR-1 Cherry Point MCAS, NC.",
"* 150954 – USS ''Midway'' Museum in San Diego, California displays HH-46A (c/n 2040) as U.S. Navy SA-46 of HC-3 on one side and VR-46 of HC-11 on the other.",
"* 151952 – National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, FL displays HH-46D (c/n 2102) as U.S. Navy HW-00 of HC-6.",
"* 153389 – Carolinas Aviation Museum, Charlotte, North Carolina, has Raymond Clausen's Medal of Honor mission CH-46E (c/n 2287) as HMM-263 EG-16.The rear fuselage of BuNo 153335 was used in restoration.",
"* 153986 – National Museum of the Marine Corps Quantico, Virginia has a walk-through exhibit containing the rear half of a CH-46D displayed as the former BuNo 153986 (c/n 2337) YK-13 from HMM-364 with their logo, The Purple Fox.",
"The front half of the aircraft was used as a training aid display for HMX-1.",
"* 153402 – New River Aviation Memorial at the front gate of Marine Corps Air Station New River, (part of Camp Lejeune) in Jacksonville, North Carolina – CH-46E (c/n 2300) as YS-02 of HMM-162 on one side and HMM-261 on the other.",
"* 153369 – National Air and Space Museum at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia has CH-46D (c/n 2265) displayed as MQ-400 of HMM-774.This aircraft is on loan from National Museum of the Marine Corps, Quantico, Virginia.",
"The aircraft was last flown on 1 August 2015 at the Marine Corps' formal sunset ceremony for the type which was the last public showing of an airworthy Marine Corps CH-46.",
"* 154009 – Patriots Point Naval and Maritime Museum in Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, has CH-46E (c/n 2360) of HMM-164.",
"* 154803 – Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum, San Diego, California, USA has CH-46E (c/n 2410) as YS-09 ''Lady Ace 09'' of HMM-165.The CH-46 took part in Operation Frequent Wind and was used to evacuate Ambassador Graham Martin, the last United States Ambassador to South Vietnam from the United States Embassy, Saigon on 30 April 1975.",
"* 156427 – Veterans Museum Dyersburg Army Air Base in Halls, Tennessee has YP-05, a CH-46E wearing the Evileyes of HMM-163.",
"* 156469 – Pima Air and Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona.",
"Started life as a CH-46F, and was converted to the CH-46E standard sometime between 1975 and 1979.It is displayed as YP-12 of HMM-163 \"Evileyes\" Scheme; accurate to this airframe.",
"(On loan from the National Museum of the Marine Corps.)",
"* 157688 – Classic Rotors Rotorcraft Museum in Ramona, CA.",
"displays HH-46E '02' from VMR-1 Cherry Point MCAS N.C."
],
[
"Specifications (CH-46E)",
"upright=1.5"
],
[
"See also"
],
[
"References",
";Citations;Bibliography* Andrade, John ''U.S.Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909''.",
"Midland Counties Publications, 1979..* Andrade, John.",
"''Militair 1982''.",
"London: Aviation Press Limited, 1982..* Dunstan, Simon.",
"''Vietnam Choppers: Helicopters in Battle 1950–1975'', Osprey Publishing, 2003..* Murray, Williamson and Robert H. Scales.",
"''The Iraq War''.",
"Harvard University Press, 2005..* Rottman, Gordon and Adam Hook.",
"''Vietnam Airmobile Warfare Tactics''.",
"Osprey Publishing, 2007.."
],
[
"External links",
"* CH-46D/E Sea Knight and CH-46 history pages on U.S. Navy site; CH-46 page on USMC site* CH-46 product page and CH-46 history page on Boeing.com* Columbia Helicopters — Largest Civilian Operator of BV/KV Model 107* Detail List of CH-113 Labradors & Voyageurs* Kawasaki Helicopter Services (S.A.) Ltd."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chief of Naval Operations"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''chief of naval operations''' ('''CNO''') is the highest-ranking officer of the United States Navy.",
"The position is a statutory office () held by an admiral who is a military adviser and deputy to the secretary of the Navy.",
"The CNO is also a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff () and in this capacity, a military adviser to the National Security Council, the Homeland Security Council, the secretary of defense, and the president.Despite the title, the CNO does not have operational command authority over naval forces.",
"The CNO is an administrative position based in the Pentagon, and exercises supervision of Navy organizations as the designee of the secretary of the Navy.",
"Operational command of naval forces falls within the purview of the combatant commanders who report to the secretary of defense.The current chief of naval operations is Lisa Franchetti, who was sworn in on November 2, 2023."
],
[
"Appointment, rank, and responsibilities",
"Mullen (CNO in December 2006) with some of his predecessors: Clark, Watkins, Hayward and Johnson.The chief of naval operations (CNO) is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty in the U.S. Navy unless the chairman and/or the vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are naval officers.",
"The CNO is nominated for appointment by the president, for a four-year term of office, and must be confirmed by the Senate.",
"A requirement for being Chief of Naval Operations is having significant experience in joint duty assignments, which includes at least one full tour of duty in a joint duty assignment as a flag officer.",
"However, the president may waive those requirements if he determines that appointing the officer is necessary for the national interest.",
"The chief can be reappointed to serve one additional term, but only during times of war or national emergency declared by Congress.",
"By statute, the CNO is appointed as a four-star admiral.As per , whenever there is a vacancy for the chief of naval operations or during the absence or disability of the chief of naval operations, and unless the president directs otherwise, the vice chief of naval operations performs the duties of the chief of naval operations until a successor is appointed or the absence or disability ceases.===Department of the Navy===The CNO also performs all other functions prescribed under , such as presiding over the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (OPNAV), exercising supervision of Navy organizations, and other duties assigned by the secretary or higher lawful authority, or the CNO delegates those duties and responsibilities to other officers in OPNAV or in organizations below.Acting for the secretary of the Navy, the CNO also designates naval personnel and naval forces available to the commanders of unified combatant commands, subject to the approval of the secretary of defense.===Joint Chiefs of Staff===The CNO is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff as prescribed by and .",
"Like the other members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the CNO is an administrative position, with no operational command authority over the United States Navy forces.Members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, individually or collectively, in their capacity as military advisers, shall provide advice to the president, the National Security Council (NSC), or the secretary of defense (SECDEF) on a particular matter when the president, the NSC, or SECDEF requests such advice.",
"Members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (other than the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff) may submit to the chairman advice or an opinion in disagreement with, or advice or an opinion in addition to, the advice presented by the chairman to the president, NSC, or SECDEF.When performing her JCS duties, the CNO is responsible directly to the SECDEF, but keeps SECNAV fully informed of significant military operations affecting the duties and responsibilities of the SECNAV, unless SECDEF orders otherwise."
],
[
"History",
"===Early attempts and the Aide for Naval Operations (1900–1915)===William SimsIn 1900, administrative and operational authority over the Navy was concentrated in the secretary of the Navy and bureau chiefs, with the General Board holding only advisory powers.",
"Critics of the lack of military command authority included Charles J. Bonaparte, Navy secretary from 1905 to 1906, then-Captain Reginald R. Belknap and future admiral William Sims.Rear Admiral George A. Converse, commander of the Bureau of Navigation (BuNav) from 1905 to 1906, reported:Rear Admiral Charles Johnston Badger with Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske, .However, reorganization attempts were opposed by Congress due to fears of a Prussian-style general staff and inadvertently increasing the powers of the Navy secretary, which risked infringing on legislative authority.",
"Senator Eugene Hale, chairman of the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs, disliked reformers like Sims and persistently blocked attempts to bring such ideas to debate.To circumvent the opposition, George von Lengerke Meyer, Secretary of the Navy under William Howard Taft implemented a system of \"aides\" on 18 November 1909.These aides lacked command authority and instead served as principal advisors to the Navy secretary.",
"The aide for operations was deemed by Meyer to be the most important one, responsible for devoting \"his entire attention and study to the operations of the fleet,\" and drafting orders for the movement of ships on the advice of the General Board and approval of the secretary in times of war or emergency.The successes of Meyer's first operations aide, Rear Admiral Richard Wainwright, factored into Meyer's decision to make his third operations aide, Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske his ''de facto'' principal advisor on 10 February 1913.Fiske retained his post under Meyer's successor, Josephus Daniels, becoming the most prominent advocate for what would become the office of CNO.===Creating the position of Chief of Naval Operations (1915)===Secretary of the Navy Josephus DanielsIn 1914, Fiske, frustrated at Daniels' ambivalence towards his opinion that the Navy was unprepared for the possibility of entry into World War I, bypassed the secretary to collaborate with Representative Richmond P. Hobson, a retired Navy admiral, to draft legislation providing for the office of \"a chief of naval operations\".",
"The preliminary proposal (passed off as Hobson's own to mask Fiske's involvement), in spite of Daniels' opposition, passed Hobson's subcommittee unanimously on 4 January 1915, and passed the full House Committee on Naval Affairs on 6 January.Fiske's younger supporters expected him to be named the first chief of naval operations, and his versions of the bill provided for the minimum rank of the officeholder to be a two-star rear admiral.In contrast, Daniels' version, included in the final bill, emphasized the office's subordination to the Navy secretary, allowed for the selection of the CNO from officers of the rank of captain, and denied it authority over the Navy's general direction:Fiske's \"end-running\" of Daniels eliminated any possibility of him being named the first CNO.",
"Nevertheless, satisfied with the change he had helped enact, Fiske made a final contribution: elevating the statutory rank of the CNO to admiral with commensurate pay.",
"The Senate passed the appropriations bill creating the CNO position and its accompanying office on 3 March 1915, simultaneously abolishing the aides system promulgated under Meyer.===Benson, the first CNO (1915–1919)===Admiral William S. Benson, chief of naval operations (''seated''), relaxes at Pruyn's Home, Lower Saranac Lake, New York, .",
"With him are Commander Charles Belknap Jr. (''left''), and his aide, Commander Worral R. Carter (''right'').Captain William S. Benson was promoted to the temporary rank of rear admiral and became the first CNO on 11 May 1915.He further assumed the rank of admiral after the passage of the 1916 Naval Appropriations Bill with Fiske's amendments, second only to Admiral of the Navy George Dewey and explicitly senior to the commanders-in-chief of the Atlantic, Pacific and Asiatic Fleets.Unlike Fiske, who had campaigned for a powerful, aggressive CNO sharing authority with the Navy secretary, Benson demonstrated personal loyalty to Secretary Daniels and subordinated himself to civilian control, yet maintained the CNO's autonomy where necessary.",
"While alienating reformers like Sims and Fiske (who retired in 1916), Benson's conduct gave Daniels immense trust in his new CNO, and Benson was delegated greater resources and authority.====Achievements====Among the organizational efforts initiated or recommended by Benson included an advisory council to coordinate high-level staff activities, composed of himself, the SECNAV and the bureau chiefs which \"worked out to the great satisfaction\" of Daniels and Benson; the reestablishment of the Joint Army and Navy Board in 1918 with Benson as its Navy member; and the consolidation of all matters of naval aviation under the authority of the CNO.Benson also revamped the structure of the naval districts, transferring authority for them from SECNAV to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations under the Operations, Plans, Naval Districts division.",
"This enabled closer cooperation between naval district commanders and the uniformed leadership, who could more easily handle communications between the former and the Navy's fleet commanders.In the waning years of his tenure, Benson set regulations for officers on shore duty to have temporary assignments with the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations to maintain cohesion between the higher-level staff and the fleet.====Establishing OPNAV====Organization of the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, January 1916Until 1916, the CNO's office was chronically understaffed.",
"The formal establishment of the CNO's \"general staff\", the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (OPNAV), originally called the Office for Operations, was exacerbated by Eugene Hale's retirement from politics in 1911, and skepticism of whether the CNO's small staff could implement President Wilson's policy of \"preparedness\" without violating American neutrality in World War I.By June 1916, OPNAV was organized into eight divisions: Operations, Plans, Naval Districts; Regulations; Ship Movements; Communications; Publicity; and Materiel.",
"Operations provided a link between fleet commanders and the General Board, Ship Movements coordinated the movement of Navy vessels and oversaw navy yard overhauls, Communications accounted for the Navy's developing radio network, Publicity conducted the Navy's public affairs, and the Materiel section coordinated the work of the naval bureaus.Numbering only 75 staffers in January 1917, OPNAV increased in size following the American entry into World War I, as it was deemed of great importance to manage the rapid mobilization of forces to fight in the war.",
"By war's end, OPNAV employed over 1462 people.",
"The CNO and OPNAV thus gained influence over Navy administration but at the expense of the Navy secretary and bureau chiefs.====Advisor to the president====Edward M. House, aka Colonel House, was a close advisor to President Woodrow Wilson and alongside him elevated the stature of the CNO.In 1918, Benson became a military advisor to Edward M. House, an advisor and confidant of President Wilson, joining him on a trip to Europe as the 1918 armistice with Germany was signed.",
"His stance that the United States remain equal to Great Britain in naval power was very useful to House and Wilson, enough for Wilson to insist Benson remain in Europe until after the Treaty of Versailles was signed in July 1919.====End of tenure====Benson's tenure as CNO was slated to end on 10 May 1919, but this was delayed by the president at Secretary Daniels' insistence; Benson instead retired on 25 September 1919.Admiral Robert Coontz replaced Benson as CNO on 1 November 1919.===Interwar period (1919–1939)===The CNO's office faced no significant changes in authority during the interwar period, largely due to the Navy secretaries opting to keep executive authority within their own office.",
"Innovations during this period included encouraging coordination in war planning process, and compliance with the Washington Naval Treaty while still keeping to the shipbuilding plan authorized by the Naval Act of 1916.and implementing the concept of naval aviation into naval doctrine.====CNO Pratt, relationship with the General Board and Army-Navy relations====Frank H. Schofield ''(left)'' aboard the ''Tennessee-class'' battleship , February 1931.William V. Pratt became the fifth Chief of Naval Operations on 17 September 1930, after the resignation of Charles F. Hughes.",
"He had previously served as assistant chief of naval operations under CNO Benson.",
"A premier naval policymaker and supporter of arms control under the Washington Naval Treaty, Pratt, despite otherwise good relations, clashed with President Herbert Hoover over building up naval force strength to treaty levels, with Hoover favoring restrictions in spending due to financial difficulties caused by the Great Depression.",
"Under Pratt, such a \"treaty system\" was needed to maintain a compliant peacetime navy.Pratt opposed centralized management of the Navy, and encouraged diversity of opinion between the offices of the Navy secretary, CNO and the Navy's General Board.",
"To this effect, Pratt removed the CNO as an ''ex officio'' member of the General Board, concerned that the office's association with the Board could hamper diversities of opinion between the former and counterparts within the offices of the Navy secretary and OPNAV.",
"Pratt's vision of a less powerful CNO also clashed with Representative Carl Vinson of Georgia, chair of the House Naval Affairs Committee from 1931 to 1947, a proponent of centralizing power within OPNAV.",
"Vinson deliberately delayed many of his planned reorganization proposals until Pratt's replacement by William H. Standley to avoid the unnecessary delays that would otherwise have happened with Pratt.Pratt also enjoyed a good working relationship with Army chief of staff Douglas MacArthur, and negotiated several key agreements with him over coordinating their services' radio communications networks, mutual interests in coastal defense, and authority over Army and Navy aviation.====CNO Standley and the Vinson-Trammell act====William H. Standley (''sitting'') poses for his last photograph as Chief of Naval Operations on the day of his retirement, 29 December 1936.William H. Standley, who succeeded Pratt in 1933, had a weaker relationship with President Franklin D. Roosevelt than Pratt enjoyed with Hoover.",
"Often in direct conflict with Navy secretary Claude A. Swanson and assistant secretary Henry L. Roosevelt, Standley's hostility to the latter was described as \"poisonous\".Conversely, Standley successfully improved relations with Congress, streamlining communications between the Department of the Navy and the naval oversight committees by appointing the first naval legislative liaisons, the highest-ranked of which reported to the judge advocate general.",
"Standley also worked with Representative Vinson to pass the Vinson-Trammell Act, considered by Standley to be his most important achievement as CNO.",
"The Act authorized the President:This effectively provided security for all Navy vessels under construction; even if new shipbuilding projects could not be initiated, shipbuilders with new classes under construction could not legally be obliged to cease operations, allowing the Navy to prepare for World War II without breaking potential limits from future arms control conferences.",
"The Act also granted the CNO \"soft oversight power\" of the naval bureaus which nominally lay with the secretary of the Navy, as Standley gradually inserted OPNAV into the ship design process.",
"Under Standley, the \"treaty system\" created by Pratt was abandoned.====CNO Leahy====New CNO Leahy and outgoing CNO Standley shake hands after Leahy is sworn in on 2 January 1937.Outgoing commander, Battle Force William D. Leahy succeeded Standley as CNO on 2 January 1937.Leahy's close personal friendship with President Roosevelt since his days as Navy assistant secretary, as well as good relationships with Representative Vinson and Secretary Swanson brought him to the forefront of potential candidates for the post.",
"Unlike Standley, who tried to dominate the bureaus, Leahy preferred to let the bureau chiefs function autonomously as per convention, with the CNO acting as a ''primus inter pares''.",
"Leahy's views of the CNO's authority led to clashes with his predecessor; Standley even attempted to block Leahy from being assigned a fleet command in retaliation.",
"Leahy, on his part, continued Standley's efforts to insert the CNO into the ship design process.Swanson's ill health and assistant secretary Henry Roosevelt's death on 22 February 1936 gave Leahy unprecedented influence.",
"Leahy had private lunches with the President frequently; during his tenure as CNO, Roosevelt had 52 meetings with him, compared with 12 with his Army counterpart, General Malin Craig, none of which were private lunches.Leahy retired from the Navy on 1 August 1939 to become Governor of Puerto Rico, a month before the invasion of Poland."
],
[
"Official residence",
"Number One Observatory Circle, located on the northeast grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, DC, was built in 1893 for its superintendent.",
"The chief of naval operations liked the house so much that in 1923 he took over the house as his own official residence.",
"It remained the residence of the CNO until 1974, when Congress authorized its transformation to an official residence for the vice president.",
"The chief of naval operations currently resides in Quarters A in the Washington Naval Yard."
],
[
"Office of the Chief of Naval Operations",
"Organizational chart of the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (OPNAV).The chief of naval operations presides over the '''Navy Staff''', formally known as the '''Office of the Chief of Naval Operations''' ('''OPNAV''').",
"The Office of the Chief of Naval Operations is a statutory organization within the executive part of the Department of the Navy, and its purpose is to furnish professional assistance to the secretary of the Navy (SECNAV) and the CNO in carrying out their responsibilities.Under the authority of the CNO, the '''director of the Navy Staff''' ('''DNS''') is responsible for day-to-day administration of the Navy Staff and coordination of the activities of the deputy chiefs of naval operations, who report directly to the CNO.",
"The office was previously known as the assistant vice chief of naval operations (AVCNO) until 1996, when CNO Jeremy Boorda ordered its redesignation to its current name.",
"Previously held by a three-star vice admiral, the position became a civilian's billet in 2018.The present DNS is Andrew S. Haueptle, a retired Marine Corps colonel."
],
[
"List of chiefs of naval operations",
"(† - ''died in office'')===Aide for Naval Operations (historical predecessor office)======Chiefs of Naval Operations=== Portrait Name Term Background Secretaries served under: Took office Left office Duration Navy Defense ''Vacant''(25 September 1919 – 1 November 1919) – 100px Admiral'''Jay L. Johnson ''' 16 May 1996 2 August 1996 Aviation John H. DaltonRichard Danzig William J. PerryWilliam Cohen 26 2 August 1996 21 July 2000 – 100px Admiral'''Lisa M. Franchetti ''' 14 August 2023 2 November 2023 Cruisers-Destroyers Carlos Del Toro Lloyd Austin 33 2 November 2023 ''Incumbent'' ===Timeline==="
],
[
"See also",
"*Vice Chief of Naval Operations*Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy*Organization of the US Marine Corps – Relationship with other uniformed services*United States Fleet*Structure of the United States Navy"
],
[
"Notes",
"===Non-footnotes==="
],
[
"References",
"**** **"
],
[
"External links",
"* – Chief Naval Operations* Office of the Chief of Naval Operations organization"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Clara Petacci"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Clara''' \"'''Claretta'''\" '''Petacci''' (; 28 February 1912 – 28 April 1945) was a mistress of the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini.",
"She was killed by Italian partisans during Mussolini's execution."
],
[
"Early life",
"Daughter of Giuseppina Persichetti (1888–1962) and the physician Francesco Saverio Petacci (1883–1970), Clara Petacci was born into a privileged and religious family in Rome in 1912.Her father, a physician of the Holy Apostolic Palaces, became a supporter of fascism.",
"A child when Mussolini rose to power in the 1920s, Clara Petacci idolised him from an early age.",
"After Violet Gibson attempted to assassinate the dictator in April 1926, the 14-year-old Petacci wrote to him commenting \"O, Duce, why was I not with you? ...",
"Could I not have strangled that murderous woman?\""
],
[
"Relationship with Mussolini",
"Petacci had a long-standing relationship with Mussolini while he was married to Rachele Mussolini.",
"Petacci was 28 years younger than Mussolini.",
"They met for the first time in April 1932 when Mussolini, driving with an aide to Ostia, overtook a car occupied by the twenty-year-old Petacci and family members.",
"She called out, \"Duce!",
"Duce!\"",
"and when he stopped, told him that she had been writing to him since her early teens.",
"In 1934, Petacci married Italian Air Force officer Riccardo Federici, but she parted ways with her husband when he was sent to Tokyo as Air Attaché in 1936.Petacci then became the mistress of the fifty-three-year-old Mussolini, visiting his headquarters in the , where a small apartment was reserved for her.",
"Her infatuation with Mussolini appears to have been genuine and permanent.",
"The affair became widely known and members of the Petacci family, notably her brother, Marcello, were able to benefit financially and professionally by influence-selling.",
"Part of Petacci and Mussolini's correspondence has not been released on the grounds of privacy."
],
[
"Death",
"The corpses of Nicola Bombacci, Mussolini, Petacci, Alessandro Pavolini and Achille Starace in Piazzale Loreto, 1945On 27 April 1945, Mussolini and Petacci were captured by partisans while traveling with a ''Luftwaffe'' convoy retreating to Germany.",
"The German column included a number of Italian Social Republic members.On 28 April, she and Mussolini were taken to Mezzegra and executed.",
"One source alleges Petacci's execution was not planned and that she died throwing herself on Mussolini in a vain attempt to protect him from the bullets.",
"On the following day, the bodies of Mussolini and Petacci were taken to Piazzale Loreto in Milan and hung upside down in front of an Esso petrol station.",
"The bodies were photographed as a crowd vented their rage upon them.",
"On the same day, Clara's brother, Marcello Petacci, was also killed in Dongo by the partisans, along with fifteen other people complicit in Mussolini's escape.",
"After the war, the family of Petacci began civil and criminal court cases against Walter Audisio for Petacci's unlawful killing.",
"After a lengthy legal process, an investigating judge eventually closed the case in 1967.Audisio was acquitted of murder and embezzlement on the grounds that the actions complained of occurred as an act of war against the Germans and the fascists during a period of enemy occupation."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"*\"Caesar and Claretta\", a 1975 episode of the BBC-TV program ''Private Affairs'', starring Helen Mirren*''Claretta'', 1984 film starring Claudia Cardinale*''Mussolini: The Untold Story'', 1985 TV-miniseries featured Virginia Madsen as Petacci* ''Mussolini and I'', in which she is played by Barbara De Rossi* ''The Dictator's Playbook'', 2019 PBS documentary"
],
[
"See also",
"*Eva Braun – Adolf Hitler's mistress*Margherita Sarfatti – one of Mussolini's earlier mistresses*Grand Hotel Rimini – Petacci's residence in Rimini during Mussolini's summer holidays in Riccione"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Bosworth, R.J.B.",
"(2017). ''",
"Claretta: Mussolini's Last Lover'', Yale University Press * Farrell, Nicholas (2003).",
"''Mussolini: A New Life'', Phoenix Press: London * Garibaldi, Luciano (2004).",
"''Mussolini: The Secrets of His Death'', Enigma Books, New York * Moseley, Ray (2004).",
"''Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce'', Taylor Trade Publishing, Dallas"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Costa Smeralda"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A view of the ''Costa Smeralda''A regional map of Gallura with the location of the ''Costa Smeralda''Sardegna's Costa Smeralda Drone ViewsThree luxury yachts—''Lady Anne'', ''Lady Moura'', and ''Pelorus'', within the port of Porto Cervo.",
"They are among the 100 largest luxury yachts in the world.The '''Costa Smeralda''' (, ; ; ) is a coastal area and tourist destination in northern Sardinia, Italy, with a length of some 20 km, although the term originally designated only a small stretch in the commune of Arzachena.",
"With white sand beaches, golf clubs, private jet and helicopter services, and exclusive hotels, the area has drawn celebrities, business and political leaders, and other affluent visitors.Costa Smeralda is one of the most expensive locations in Europe.",
"House prices reach up to 300,000 euros ($392,200) per square meter.The main towns and villages in the area, built according to a detailed urban plan, are Porto Cervo, Liscia di Vacca, Capriccioli, and Romazzino.",
"Archaeological sites include the Li Muri Giants' graves.Each September the Sardinia Cup sailing regatta is held off the coast.",
"Polo matches are held between April and October at Gershan near Arzachena.",
"Development of the area started in 1961, and was financed by a consortium of companies led by Prince Karim Aga Khan.",
"Spiaggia del Principe, one of the beaches along the Costa Smeralda, was named after this Ishmaelite prince.",
"Architects involved in the project included Michele Busiri Vici, Jacques Couëlle, Savin Couëlle, and Vietti."
],
[
"See also",
"*Tourist destinations of Sardinia"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chianti"
],
[
"Introduction",
"fiasco'' formerly used for Chianti'''Chianti''' is an Italian red wine produced in the Chianti region of central Tuscany, principally from the Sangiovese grape.",
"It was historically associated with a squat bottle enclosed in a straw basket, called a ''fiasco'' (\"flask\"; : ''fiaschi'').",
"However, the ''fiasco'' is now only used by a few makers of the wine; most Chianti is bottled in more standard-shaped wine bottles.",
"In the latter nineteenth century, Baron Bettino Ricasoli (later Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Italy) helped establish Sangiovese as the blend's dominant grape variety, creating the blueprint for today's Chianti wines.The first definition of a wine area called ''Chianti'' was made in 1716.It described the area near the villages of Gaiole, Castellina and Radda; the so-called ''Lega del Chianti'' and later ''Provincia del Chianti'' (Chianti province).",
"In 1932 the Chianti area was completely redrawn and divided into seven sub-areas: Classico, Colli Aretini, Colli Fiorentini, Colline Pisane, Colli Senesi, Montalbano and Rùfina.",
"Most of the villages that in 1932 were added to the newly defined Chianti Classico region added ''in Chianti'' to their names, for example Greve in Chianti, which amended its name in 1972.Wines labelled Chianti Classico come from the largest sub-area of Chianti, which includes the original Chianti heartland.",
"Only Chianti from this sub-zone may display the black rooster (''gallo nero'') seal on the neck of the bottle, which indicates that the producer of the wine is a member of the Chianti Classico Consortium, the local association of producers.",
"Other variants, with the exception of Rufina north-east of Florence and Montalbano south of Pistoia, originate in the named provinces: Siena for the Colli Senesi, Florence for the Colli Fiorentini, Arezzo for the Colli Aretini and Pisa for the Colline Pisane.",
"In 1996 part of the Colli Fiorentini sub-area was renamed ''Montespertoli''.During the 1970s producers started to reduce the quantity of white grapes in Chianti.",
"In 1995 it became legal to produce a Chianti with 100% Sangiovese.",
"For a wine to retain the name of Chianti it must be produced with at least 80% Sangiovese grapes.",
"Aged Chianti (at least 6 months in barrel and 3 more in bottle before release, instead of 6 months aging without barreling necessary) may be labelled as Riserva.",
"Chianti that meets more stringent requirements (lower yield, higher alcohol content and dry extract) may be labelled as Chianti Superiore, although Chianti from the Classico sub-area is not allowed in any event to be labelled as Superiore."
],
[
"History",
"Cosimo III de' Medici, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, legislated the first official boundaries of the Chianti region in what is today part of the Chianti Classico DOCG.The earliest documentation of a \"Chianti wine\" dates back to the 14th century, when viticulture was known to flourish in the ''\"Chianti Mountains\"'' around Florence.",
"A military league called ''Lega del Chianti'' (League of Chianti) was formed around 1250 between the townships of Castellina, Gaiole and Radda, which would lead to the wine from this area taking on a similar name.",
"In 1398 the earliest-known record notes Chianti as a white wine, though the red wines of Chianti were also discussed around the same time in similar documents.",
"The first attempt to classify Chianti wine in any way came in 1427, when Florence developed a tariff system for the wines of the surrounding countryside, including an area referred to as \"Chianti and its entire province\".",
"In 1716 Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, issued an edict legislating that the three villages of the ''Lega del Chianti'' (Castellina in Chianti, Gaiole in Chianti and Radda in Chianti) as well as the village of Greve and a of hillside north of Greve near Spedaluzzo as the only officially recognised producers of Chianti.",
"This delineation existed until July 1932, when the Italian government expanded the Chianti zone to include the outlying areas of Barberino Val d'Elsa, Chiocchio, Robbiano, San Casciano in Val di Pesa and Strada.",
"Subsequent expansions in 1967 would eventually result in the Chianti zone covering a very large area all over central Tuscany.Baron Bettino Ricasoli developed the first \"modern\" Chianti recipe that was Sangiovese based.By the 18th century Chianti was widely recognised as a red wine, but the exact composition and grape varieties used to make Chianti at this point is unknown.",
"Ampelographers find clues about which grape varieties were popular at the time in the writings of Italian writer Cosimo Villifranchi, who noted that Canaiolo was a widely planted variety in the area along with Sangiovese, Mammolo and Marzemino.",
"It was not until the work of the Italian statesman Bettino Ricasoli that the modern Chianti recipe as a Sangiovese-based wine would take shape.",
"Prior to Ricasoli, Canaiolo was emerging as the dominant variety in the Chianti blend with Sangiovese and Malvasia Bianca Lunga playing supporting roles.",
"In the mid-19th century, Ricasoli developed a recipe for Chianti that was based primarily on Sangiovese.",
"Though he is often credited with creating and disseminating a specific formula (typically reported as 70% Sangiovese, 20% Canaiolo, 10% Malvasia Bianca Lunga), a review of his correspondence of the time does not corroborate this.",
"In addition, his efforts were quickly corrupted by other local winemakers (for example, replacing Malvasia with Trebbiano Toscano, or relying too heavily on the latter), leading to further misunderstanding of the \"Ricasoli formula\".",
"In 1967, the ''Denominazione di origine controllata'' (DOC) regulation set by the Italian government was based on a loose interpretation of Ricasoli's \"recipe\", calling for a Sangiovese-based blend with 10–30% Malvasia and Trebbiano.The late 19th century saw a period of economic and political upheaval.",
"First came oidium and then the phylloxera epidemic would take its toll on the vineyards of Chianti just as they had ravaged vineyards across the rest of Europe.",
"The chaos and poverty following the ''Risorgimento'' heralded the beginning of the Italian diaspora that would take Italian vineyard workers and winemakers abroad as immigrants to new lands.",
"Those that stayed behind and replanted choose high-yielding varieties like Trebbiano and Sangiovese clones such as the ''Sangiovese di Romagna'' from the nearby Romagna region.",
"Following the Second World War, the general trend in the world wine market for cheap, easy-drinking wine saw a brief boom for the region.",
"With over-cropping and an emphasis on quantity over quality, the reputation of Chianti among consumers eventually plummeted.",
"By the 1950s, Trebbiano (which is known for its neutral flavours) made up to 30% of many mass-market Chiantis.",
"By the late 20th century, Chianti was often associated with basic Chianti sold in a squat bottle enclosed in a straw basket, called a ''fiasco''.",
"However, during the same period, a group of ambitious producers began working outside the boundaries of DOC regulations to make what they believed would be a higher-quality wine.",
"These wines eventually became known as the \"Super Tuscans\".The Italian DOCG Chianti labelMany of the producers behind the Super Tuscan movement were originally Chianti producers who were rebelling against what they felt were antiquated DOC regulations.",
"Some of these producers wanted to make Chiantis that were 100% varietal Sangiovese.",
"Others wanted the flexibility to experiment with blending French grape varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot or to not be required to blend in any white grape varieties.",
"The late 20th century saw a flurry of creativity and innovation in the Chianti zones as producers experimented with new grape varieties and introduced modern wine-making techniques such as the use of new oak barrels.",
"The prices and wine ratings of some Super Tuscans would regularly eclipse those of DOC-sanctioned Chiantis.",
"The success of the Super Tuscans encouraged government officials to reconsider the DOC regulations in order to bring some of these wines back into the fold labelled as Chianti."
],
[
"Chianti subregions",
"Chianti wine area within TuscanyThe Chianti region covers a vast area of Tuscany and includes within its boundaries several overlapping ''Denominazione di origine controllata'' (DOC) and ''Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita'' (DOCG) regions.",
"Other well known Sangiovese-based Tuscan wines such as Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano could be bottled and labelled under the most basic designation of \"Chianti\" if their producers chose to do so.",
"Within the collective Chianti region more than 8 million cases of wines classified as DOC-level or above are produced each year.",
"Today, most Chianti falls under two major designations of Chianti DOCG, which includes basic level Chianti, as well as that from seven designated sub-zones, and Chianti Classico DOCG.",
"Together, these two Chianti zones produce the largest volume of DOC/G wines in Italy.The Chianti DOCG covers all the Chianti wine and includes a large stretch of land encompassing the western reaches of the province of Pisa near the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Florentine hills in the province of Florence to the north, to the province of Arezzo in the east and the Siena hills to the south.",
"Within this regions are vineyards that overlap the DOCG regions of Brunello di Montalcino, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano and Vernaccia di San Gimignano.",
"Any Sangiovese-based wine made according to the Chianti guidelines from these vineyards can be labelled and marked under the basic Chianti DOCG should the producer wish to use the designation.Within the Chianti DOCG there are eight defined sub-zones that are permitted to affix their name to the wine label.",
"Wines that are labelled as simply Chianti are made either from a blend from these sub-zones or include grapes from peripheral areas not within the boundaries of a sub-zone.",
"The sub-zones are (clockwise from the north): the Colli Fiorentini which is located south of the city of Florence; Chianti Rufina in the northeastern part of the zone located around the commune of Rufina; Classico in the centre of Chianti, across the provinces of Florence and Siena; Colli Aretini in the Arezzo province to the east; Colli Senesi south of Chianti Classico in the Siena hills, which is the largest of the sub-zones and includes the Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano areas; Colline Pisane, the westernmost sub-zone in the province of Pisa; Montespertoli located within the Colli Fiorentini around the commune of Montespertoli; Montalbano in the north-west part of the zone which includes the Carmignano DOCG.",
", there were under production in Montalbano, in the Colli Fiorentini, in Montespertoli, in Rufina, in the Colli Senesi, in Colline Pisane, in the Colli Aretini, and an additional in the peripheral areas that do not fall within one of the sub-zone classifications.",
"Wines produced from these vineyards are labelled simply \"Chianti\".===Chianti Classico===Chianti Classico premium wineThe original area dictated by the edict of Cosimo III de' Medici would eventually be considered the heart of the modern \"Chianti Classico\" subregion.",
", there were of vineyards in the Chianti Classico subregion.",
"The Chianti Classico subregion covers an area of approximate between the city of Florence to the north and Siena to the south.",
"The four communes of Castellina in Chianti, Gaiole in Chianti, Greve in Chianti and Radda in Chianti are located entirely within the boundaries of the Classico area with parts of Barberino Val d'Elsa, San Casciano in Val di Pesa and Tavarnelle Val di Pesa in the province of Florence as well as Castelnuovo Berardenga and Poggibonsi in the province of Siena included within the permitted boundaries of Chianti Classico.The soil and geography of this subregion can be quite varied, with altitudes ranging from , and rolling hills producing differing macroclimates.",
"There are two main soil types in the area: a weathered sandstone known as ''alberese'' and a bluish-gray chalky marlstone known as ''galestro''.",
"The soil in the north is richer and more fertile with more ''galestro'', with the soil gradually becoming harder and stonier with more ''albarese'' in the south.",
"In the north, the Arno River can have an influence on the climate, keeping the temperatures slightly cooler, an influence that diminishes further south in the warmer Classico territory towards Castelnuovo Berardenga.Vineyards in Gaiole in Chianti in the Chianti Classico areaChianti Classico are premium Chianti wines that tend to be medium-bodied with firm tannins and medium-high to high acidity.",
"Floral, cherry and light nutty notes are characteristic aromas with the wines expressing more notes on the mid-palate and finish than at the front of the mouth.",
"As with Bordeaux, the different zones of Chianti Classico have unique characteristics that can be exemplified and perceived in some wines from those areas.",
"According to Master of Wine Mary Ewing-Mulligan, Chianti Classico wines from the Castellina area tend to have a very delicate aroma and flavour, Castelnuovo Berardegna wines tend to be the most ripe and richest tasting, wines from Gaiole tend to have been characterised by their structure and firm tannins while wines from the Greve area tend to have very concentrated flavours.Black rooster seal of the Consorzio Chianti ClassicoThe production of Chianti Classico is realised under the supervision of Consorzio del Vino Chianti Classico, a union of producers in the Chianti Classico subregion.",
"The Consorzio was founded with the aim of promoting the wines of the subregion, improving quality and preventing wine fraud.",
"Since the 1980s, the foundation has sponsored extensive research into the viticultural and winemaking practice of the Chianti Classico area, particularly in the area of clonal research.",
"In the last three decades, more than 50% of the vineyards in the Chianti Classico subregion have been replanted with improved Sangiovese clones and modern vineyard techniques as part of the Consorzio Chianti Classico's project \"Chianti 2000\".In 2014, a new category of Chianti Classico was introduced: Chianti Classico Gran Selezione.",
"Gran Selezione is made exclusively from a winery's own grapes grown according to stricter regulations compared to regular Chianti Classico.",
"Gran Selezione is granted to a Chianti Classico after it passes a suitability test conducted by authorised laboratories, and after it is approved by a special tasting committee.",
"The creation of the Chianti Classico Gran Selezione DOCG has been criticized, with some describing it as being \"Needless; an extra layer of confusion created by marketing people hoping to help Chianti Classico out of a sales crisis.",
"\"=== Greater Chianti region ===''Fiaschi'' of basic Chianti that does not specify any sub-zone on the label.",
"This wine may be a blend from several zones.Outside of the Chianti Classico area, the wines of the Chianti sub-zone of Rufina are among the most widely recognised and exported from the Chianti region.",
"Located in the Arno valley near the town of Pontassieve, the Rufina region includes much area in the Pomino region, an area that has a long history of wine production.",
"The area is noted for the cool climate of its elevated vineyards located up to .",
"The vineyard soils of the area are predominantly marl and chalk.",
"The Florentine merchant families of the Antinori and Frescobaldi own the majority of the vineyards in Rufina.",
"Chianti from the Rufina area is characterised by its multi-layered complexity and elegance.The Colli Fiorentini subregion has seen an influx of activity and new vineyard development in recent years as wealthy Florentine business people move to the country to plant vineyards and open wineries.",
"Many foreign \"flying winemakers\" have had a hand in this development, bringing global viticulture and wine-making techniques to the Colli Fiorentini.",
"Located in the hills between the Chianti Classico area and Arno valley, the wines of the Colli Fiorentini vary widely depending on producer, but tend to have a simple structure with strong character and fruit notes.",
"The Montespertoli sub-zone was part of the Colli Fiorentini sub-zone until 2002 when it became its own tiny enclave.The Montalbano subregion is located in the shadow of the Carmignano DOCG, with much of the best Sangiovese going to that wine.",
"A similar situation exists in the Colli Senesi which includes the well known DOCG region of Vino Nobile di Montepulciano.",
"Both regions rarely appear on wine labels that are exported out of Tuscany.",
"The Colli Pisane area produces typical Chiantis with the lightest body and color.",
"The Colli Aretini is a relatively new and emerging area that has seen an influx of investment and new winemaking in recent years."
],
[
"Grapes and classification",
"Since 1996 the blend for Chianti and Chianti Classico has been 75–100% Sangiovese, up to 10% Canaiolo and up to 20% of any other approved red grape variety such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot or Syrah.",
"Since 2006, the use of white grape varieties such as Malvasia and Trebbiano have been prohibited in Chianti Classico.",
"Chianti Classico must have a minimum alcohol level of at least 12% with a minimum of 7 months aging in oak, while Chianti Classicos labeled ''riserva'' must be aged at least 24 months at the winery, with a minimum alcohol level of at least 12.5%.",
"The harvest yields for Chianti Classico are restricted to no more than .",
"For basic Chianti, the minimum alcohol level is 11.5% with yields restricted to .The aging for basic Chianti DOCG is much less stringent with most varieties allowed to be released to the market on 1 March following the vintage year.",
"The sub-zones of Colli Fiorentini, Montespertoli and Rufina must be aged for a further three months and not released until 1 June.",
"All Chianti Classicos must be held back until 1 October in the year following the vintage.+ Comparative table of Chianti ''laws of production'' normal Classico Colli Aretini Colli Fiorentini Colli Senesi Colline Pisane Montalbano Montespertoli Rùfina Superiore Max.",
"grape prod.",
"(t/ha) 9.0 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.5 Max.",
"grape prod.",
"(kg/vine) 4.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 2.2 Min.",
"vines/ha 3,300 3,350 3,300 3,300 3,300 3,300 3,300 3,300 3,300 4,000 Min.",
"age of vineyards (years) 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Min.",
"wine dry extract (g/L) 19 23 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 22 Min.",
"alcohol cont.",
"(%) 11.5 12.0 11.5 12.0 11.5 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.0 Min.",
"aging (months) 3 10 3 9 3 3 3 6 9 9Sangiovese grapes used to make Chianti wineJancis Robinson notes that Chianti is sometimes called the \"Bordeaux of Italy\" but the structure of the wines is very different from any French wine.",
"The flexibility in the blending recipe for Chianti accounts for some of the variability in styles among Chiantis.",
"Lighter-bodied styles will generally have a higher proportion of white grape varieties blended in, while Chiantis that have only red grape varieties will be fuller and richer.",
"While only 15% of Cabernet Sauvignon is permitted in the blend, the nature of the grape variety can have a dominant personality in the Chianti blend and be a strong influence in the wine.Chianti Classico wines are characterised in their youth by their predominantly floral and cinnamon spicy bouquet.",
"As the wine ages, aromas of tobacco and leather can emerge.",
"Chiantis tend to have medium-high acidity and medium tannins.",
"Basic level Chianti is often characterised by its juicy fruit notes of cherry, plum and raspberry and can range from simple quaffing wines to those approaching the level of Chianti Classico.",
"Wine expert Tom Stevenson notes that these basic everyday-drinking Chiantis are at their peak drinking qualities often between three and five years after vintage, with premium examples having the potential to age for four to eight years.",
"Well-made examples of Chianti Classico often have the potential to age and improve in the bottle for six to twenty years.===Chianti Superiore===Chianti Superiore is an Italian DOCG wine produced in the provinces of Arezzo, Florence, Pisa, Pistoia, Prato and Siena, in Tuscany.",
"Superiore is a specification for wines produced with a stricter rule of production than other Chianti wines.",
"Chianti Superiore has been authorised since 1996.Chianti Superiore wines can be produced only from grapes cultivated in the Chianti wine areas except from those vineyards that are registered in the Chianti Classico sub-zone.",
"Vineyards registered in Chianti sub-zones other than Classico can produce Chianti Superiore wines but must omit the sub-zone name on the label.",
"Aging is calculated from 1 January after the picking.",
"Chianti Superiore cannot be sold to the consumer before nine months of aging, of which three must be in the bottle.",
"Therefore, it cannot be bottled before the June after picking or sold to consumers before the next September.+ 2004 production Chianti Superiore Other Chianti % Ch.",
"Superiore Registered vineyards (ha) 297.98 25,333.67 1.18% Grape production (t) 1,808.51 184,023.10 0.98% Wine production (L) 1,166,169 106,124,871 1.09%"
],
[
"Special editions",
"Chianti Classico was promoted as the \"Official wine of the 2013 UCI Road World Championships” and sold bottles dedicated to the Championships with special labels."
],
[
"See also",
"* Chiantishire* Foods containing tyramine"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Chianti Classico Wine Producers Association* Chianti Superiore Wine Producers Association"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Coriolis force"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In the inertial frame of reference (upper part of the picture), the black ball moves in a straight line.",
"However, the observer (red dot) who is standing in the rotating/non-inertial frame of reference (lower part of the picture) sees the object as following a curved path due to the Coriolis and centrifugal forces present in this frame.In physics, the '''Coriolis force''' is an inertial (or fictitious) force that acts on objects in motion within a frame of reference that rotates with respect to an inertial frame.",
"In a reference frame with clockwise rotation, the force acts to the left of the motion of the object.",
"In one with anticlockwise (or counterclockwise) rotation, the force acts to the right.",
"Deflection of an object due to the Coriolis force is called the '''Coriolis effect'''.",
"Though recognized previously by others, the mathematical expression for the Coriolis force appeared in an 1835 paper by French scientist Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis, in connection with the theory of water wheels.",
"Early in the 20th century, the term ''Coriolis force'' began to be used in connection with meteorology.Newton's laws of motion describe the motion of an object in an inertial (non-accelerating) frame of reference.",
"When Newton's laws are transformed to a rotating frame of reference, the Coriolis and centrifugal accelerations appear.",
"When applied to objects with masses, the respective forces are proportional to their masses.",
"The magnitude of the Coriolis force is proportional to the rotation rate, and the magnitude of the centrifugal force is proportional to the square of the rotation rate.",
"The Coriolis force acts in a direction perpendicular to two quantities: the angular velocity of the rotating frame relative to the inertial frame and the velocity of the body relative to the rotating frame, and its magnitude is proportional to the object's speed in the rotating frame (more precisely, to the component of its velocity that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation).",
"The centrifugal force acts outwards in the radial direction and is proportional to the distance of the body from the axis of the rotating frame.",
"These additional forces are termed inertial forces, fictitious forces, or ''pseudo forces''.",
"By introducing these fictitious forces to a rotating frame of reference, Newton's laws of motion can be applied to the rotating system as though it were an inertial system; these forces are correction factors that are not required in a non-rotating system.In popular (non-technical) usage of the term \"Coriolis effect\", the rotating reference frame implied is almost always the Earth.",
"Because the Earth spins, Earth-bound observers need to account for the Coriolis force to correctly analyze the motion of objects.",
"The Earth completes one rotation for each day/night cycle, so for motions of everyday objects the Coriolis force is imperceptible; its effects become noticeable only for motions occurring over large distances and long periods of time, such as large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere or water in the ocean; or where high precision is important, such as long-range artillery or missile trajectories.",
"Such motions are constrained by the surface of the Earth, so only the horizontal component of the Coriolis force is generally important.",
"This force causes moving objects on the surface of the Earth to be deflected to the right (with respect to the direction of travel) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.",
"The horizontal deflection effect is greater near the poles, since the effective rotation rate about a local vertical axis is largest there, and decreases to zero at the equator.",
"Rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would in a non-rotating system, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator (\"clockwise\") and to the left of this direction south of it (\"anticlockwise\").",
"This effect is responsible for the rotation and thus formation of cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology)."
],
[
"History",
"Image from ''Cursus seu Mundus Mathematicus'' (1674) of C.F.M.",
"Dechales, showing how a cannonball should deflect to the right of its target on a rotating Earth, because the rightward motion of the ball is faster than that of the tower.Image from ''Cursus seu Mundus Mathematicus'' (1674) of C.F.M.",
"Dechales, showing how a ball should fall from a tower on a rotating Earth.",
"The ball is released from ''F''.",
"The top of the tower moves faster than its base, so while the ball falls, the base of the tower moves to ''I'', but the ball, which has the eastward speed of the tower's top, outruns the tower's base and lands further to the east at ''L''.Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Riccioli and his assistant Francesco Maria Grimaldi described the effect in connection with artillery in the 1651 ''Almagestum Novum'', writing that rotation of the Earth should cause a cannonball fired to the north to deflect to the east.",
"In 1674, Claude François Milliet Dechales described in his ''Cursus seu Mundus Mathematicus'' how the rotation of the Earth should cause a deflection in the trajectories of both falling bodies and projectiles aimed toward one of the planet's poles.",
"Riccioli, Grimaldi, and Dechales all described the effect as part of an argument against the heliocentric system of Copernicus.",
"In other words, they argued that the Earth's rotation should create the effect, and so failure to detect the effect was evidence for an immobile Earth.",
"The Coriolis acceleration equation was derived by Euler in 1749, and the effect was described in the tidal equations of Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1778.Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels.",
"That paper considered the supplementary forces that are detected in a rotating frame of reference.",
"Coriolis divided these supplementary forces into two categories.",
"The second category contained a force that arises from the cross product of the angular velocity of a coordinate system and the projection of a particle's velocity into a plane perpendicular to the system's axis of rotation.",
"Coriolis referred to this force as the \"compound centrifugal force\" due to its analogies with the centrifugal force already considered in category one.",
"The effect was known in the early 20th century as the \"acceleration of Coriolis\", and by 1920 as \"Coriolis force\".In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid-latitudes with air being deflected by the Coriolis force to create the prevailing westerly winds.The understanding of the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first.",
"Late in the 19th century, the full extent of the large scale interaction of pressure-gradient force and deflecting force that in the end causes air masses to move along isobars was understood."
],
[
"Formula",
"In Newtonian mechanics, the equation of motion for an object in an inertial reference frame is:: where is the vector sum of the physical forces acting on the object, is the mass of the object, and is the acceleration of the object relative to the inertial reference frame.Transforming this equation to a reference frame rotating about a fixed axis through the origin with angular velocity having variable rotation rate, the equation takes the form:: where* is the vector sum of the physical forces acting on the object* is the angular velocity, of the rotating reference frame relative to the inertial frame* is the position vector of the object relative to the rotating reference frame* is the velocity of the object relative to the rotating reference frame* is the acceleration of the object relative to the rotating reference frameThe fictitious forces as they are perceived in the rotating frame act as additional forces that contribute to the apparent acceleration just like the real external forces.",
"The fictitious force terms of the equation are, reading from left to right:* Euler force, * Coriolis force, * centrifugal force, As seen in these formulas the Euler and centrifugal forces depend on the position vector of the object, while the Coriolis force depends on the object's velocity as measured in the rotating reference frame.",
"As expected, for a non-rotating inertial frame of reference the Coriolis force and all other fictitious forces disappear.===Corollaries===As the Coriolis force is proportional to a cross product of two vectors, it is perpendicular to both vectors, in this case the object's velocity and the frame's rotation vector.",
"It therefore follows that:* if the velocity is parallel to the rotation axis, the Coriolis force is zero.",
"For example, on Earth, this situation occurs for a body at the equator moving north or south relative to the Earth's surface.",
"* if the velocity is straight inward to the axis, the Coriolis force is in the direction of local rotation.",
"For example, on Earth, this situation occurs for a body at the equator falling downward, as in the Dechales illustration above, where the falling ball travels further to the east than does the tower.",
"* if the velocity is straight outward from the axis, the Coriolis force is against the direction of local rotation.",
"In the tower example, a ball launched upward would move toward the west.",
"* if the velocity is in the direction of rotation, the Coriolis force is outward from the axis.",
"For example, on Earth, this situation occurs for a body at the equator moving east relative to Earth's surface.",
"It would move upward as seen by an observer on the surface.",
"This effect (see Eötvös effect below) was discussed by Galileo Galilei in 1632 and by Riccioli in 1651.",
"* if the velocity is against the direction of rotation, the Coriolis force is inward to the axis.",
"For example, on Earth, this situation occurs for a body at the equator moving west, which would deflect downward as seen by an observer."
],
[
"Intuitive explanation",
"For an intuitive explanation of the origin of the Coriolis force, consider an object, constrained to follow the Earth's surface and moving northward in the Northern Hemisphere.",
"Viewed from outer space, the object does not appear to go due north, but has an eastward motion (it rotates around toward the right along with the surface of the Earth).",
"The further north it travels, the smaller the \"radius of its parallel (latitude)\" (the minimum distance from the surface point to the axis of rotation, which is in a plane orthogonal to the axis), and so the slower the eastward motion of its surface.",
"As the object moves north, to higher latitudes, it has a tendency to maintain the eastward speed it started with (rather than slowing down to match the reduced eastward speed of local objects on the Earth's surface), so it veers east (i.e.",
"to the right of its initial motion).Though not obvious from this example, which considers northward motion, the horizontal deflection occurs equally for objects moving eastward or westward (or in any other direction).",
"However, the theory that the effect determines the rotation of draining water in a typical size household bathtub, sink or toilet has been repeatedly disproven by modern-day scientists; the force is negligibly small compared to the many other influences on the rotation."
],
[
"Length scales and the Rossby number",
"The time, space, and velocity scales are important in determining the importance of the Coriolis force.",
"Whether rotation is important in a system can be determined by its Rossby number, which is the ratio of the velocity, ''U'', of a system to the product of the Coriolis parameter, , and the length scale, ''L'', of the motion::Hence, it is the ratio of inertial to Coriolis forces; a small Rossby number indicates a system is strongly affected by Coriolis forces, and a large Rossby number indicates a system in which inertial forces dominate.",
"For example, in tornadoes, the Rossby number is large, so in them the Coriolis force is negligible, and balance is between pressure and centrifugal forces.",
"In low-pressure systems the Rossby number is low, as the centrifugal force is negligible; there, the balance is between Coriolis and pressure forces.",
"In oceanic systems the Rossby number is often around 1, with all three forces comparable.An atmospheric system moving at ''U'' = occupying a spatial distance of ''L'' = , has a Rossby number of approximately 0.1.A baseball pitcher may throw the ball at ''U'' = for a distance of ''L'' = .",
"The Rossby number in this case would be 32,000 ''(at latitude 31°47'46.382\")''.Baseball players don't care about which hemisphere they're playing in.",
"However, an unguided missile obeys exactly the same physics as a baseball, but can travel far enough and be in the air long enough to experience the effect of Coriolis force.",
"Long-range shells in the Northern Hemisphere landed close to, but to the right of, where they were aimed until this was noted.",
"(Those fired in the Southern Hemisphere landed to the left.)",
"In fact, it was this effect that first got the attention of Coriolis himself."
],
[
"Simple cases",
"===Tossed ball on a rotating carousel===A carousel is rotating counter-clockwise.",
"''Left panel'': a ball is tossed by a thrower at 12:00 o'clock and travels in a straight line to the center of the carousel.",
"While it travels, the thrower circles in a counter-clockwise direction.",
"''Right panel'': The ball's motion as seen by the thrower, who now remains at 12:00 o'clock, because there is no rotation from their viewpoint.The figure illustrates a ball tossed from 12:00 o'clock toward the center of a counter-clockwise rotating carousel.",
"On the left, the ball is seen by a stationary observer above the carousel, and the ball travels in a straight line to the center, while the ball-thrower rotates counter-clockwise with the carousel.",
"On the right, the ball is seen by an observer rotating with the carousel, so the ball-thrower appears to stay at 12:00 o'clock.",
"The figure shows how the trajectory of the ball as seen by the rotating observer can be constructed.On the left, two arrows locate the ball relative to the ball-thrower.",
"One of these arrows is from the thrower to the center of the carousel (providing the ball-thrower's line of sight), and the other points from the center of the carousel to the ball.",
"(This arrow gets shorter as the ball approaches the center.)",
"A shifted version of the two arrows is shown dotted.On the right is shown this same dotted pair of arrows, but now the pair are rigidly rotated so the arrow corresponding to the line of sight of the ball-thrower toward the center of the carousel is aligned with 12:00 o'clock.",
"The other arrow of the pair locates the ball relative to the center of the carousel, providing the position of the ball as seen by the rotating observer.",
"By following this procedure for several positions, the trajectory in the rotating frame of reference is established as shown by the curved path in the right-hand panel.The ball travels in the air, and there is no net force upon it.",
"To the stationary observer, the ball follows a straight-line path, so there is no problem squaring this trajectory with zero net force.",
"However, the rotating observer sees a ''curved'' path.",
"Kinematics insists that a force (pushing to the ''right'' of the instantaneous direction of travel for a ''counter-clockwise'' rotation) must be present to cause this curvature, so the rotating observer is forced to invoke a combination of centrifugal and Coriolis forces to provide the net force required to cause the curved trajectory.===Bounced ball===Bird's-eye view of carousel.",
"The carousel rotates clockwise.",
"Two viewpoints are illustrated: that of the camera at the center of rotation rotating with the carousel (left panel) and that of the inertial (stationary) observer (right panel).",
"Both observers agree at any given time just how far the ball is from the center of the carousel, but not on its orientation.",
"Time intervals are 1/10 of time from launch to bounce.The figure describes a more complex situation where the tossed ball on a turntable bounces off the edge of the carousel and then returns to the tosser, who catches the ball.",
"The effect of Coriolis force on its trajectory is shown again as seen by two observers: an observer (referred to as the \"camera\") that rotates with the carousel, and an inertial observer.",
"The figure shows a bird's-eye view based upon the same ball speed on forward and return paths.",
"Within each circle, plotted dots show the same time points.",
"In the left panel, from the camera's viewpoint at the center of rotation, the tosser (smiley face) and the rail both are at fixed locations, and the ball makes a very considerable arc on its travel toward the rail, and takes a more direct route on the way back.",
"From the ball tosser's viewpoint, the ball seems to return more quickly than it went (because the tosser is rotating toward the ball on the return flight).On the carousel, instead of tossing the ball straight at a rail to bounce back, the tosser must throw the ball toward the right of the target and the ball then seems to the camera to bear continuously to the left of its direction of travel to hit the rail (''left'' because the carousel is turning ''clockwise'').",
"The ball appears to bear to the left from direction of travel on both inward and return trajectories.",
"The curved path demands this observer to recognize a leftward net force on the ball.",
"(This force is \"fictitious\" because it disappears for a stationary observer, as is discussed shortly.)",
"For some angles of launch, a path has portions where the trajectory is approximately radial, and Coriolis force is primarily responsible for the apparent deflection of the ball (centrifugal force is radial from the center of rotation, and causes little deflection on these segments).",
"When a path curves away from radial, however, centrifugal force contributes significantly to deflection.The ball's path through the air is straight when viewed by observers standing on the ground (right panel).",
"In the right panel (stationary observer), the ball tosser (smiley face) is at 12 o'clock and the rail the ball bounces from is at position 1.From the inertial viewer's standpoint, positions 1, 2, and 3 are occupied in sequence.",
"At position 2, the ball strikes the rail, and at position 3, the ball returns to the tosser.",
"Straight-line paths are followed because the ball is in free flight, so this observer requires that no net force is applied."
],
[
"Applied to the Earth",
"The acceleration affecting the motion of air \"sliding\" over the Earth's surface is the horizontal component of the Coriolis term:This component is orthogonal to the velocity over the Earth surface and is given by the expression:where* is the spin rate of the Earth* is the latitude, positive in the northern hemisphere and negative in the southern hemisphereIn the northern hemisphere, where the latitude is positive, this acceleration, as viewed from above, is to the right of the direction of motion.",
"Conversely, it is to the left in the southern hemisphere.===Rotating sphere===Coordinate system at latitude φ with ''x''-axis east, ''y''-axis north, and ''z''-axis upward (i.e.",
"radially outward from center of sphere)Consider a location with latitude ''φ'' on a sphere that is rotating around the north–south axis.",
"A local coordinate system is set up with the ''x'' axis horizontally due east, the ''y'' axis horizontally due north and the ''z'' axis vertically upwards.",
"The rotation vector, velocity of movement and Coriolis acceleration expressed in this local coordinate system (listing components in the order east (''e''), north (''n'') and upward (''u'')) are:: :When considering atmospheric or oceanic dynamics, the vertical velocity is small, and the vertical component of the Coriolis acceleration () is small compared with the acceleration due to gravity (g, approximately near Earth's surface).",
"For such cases, only the horizontal (east and north) components matter.",
"The restriction of the above to the horizontal plane is (setting ''vu'' = 0):: where is called the Coriolis parameter.By setting ''vn'' = 0, it can be seen immediately that (for positive φ and ω) a movement due east results in an acceleration due south; similarly, setting ''ve'' = 0, it is seen that a movement due north results in an acceleration due east.",
"In general, observed horizontally, looking along the direction of the movement causing the acceleration, the acceleration always is turned 90° to the right (for positive φ) and of the same size regardless of the horizontal orientation.In the case of equatorial motion, setting φ = 0° yields:: '''Ω''' in this case is parallel to the north axis.Accordingly, an eastward motion (that is, in the same direction as the rotation of the sphere) provides an upward acceleration known as the Eötvös effect, and an upward motion produces an acceleration due west.===Meteorology and oceanography===Typhoon Nanmadol (left), rotate counterclockwise, and in the Southern hemisphere, low-pressure systems like Cyclone Darian (right) rotate clockwise.Schematic representation of flow around a '''low'''-pressure area in the Northern Hemisphere.",
"The Rossby number is low, so the centrifugal force is virtually negligible.",
"The pressure-gradient force is represented by blue arrows, the Coriolis acceleration (always perpendicular to the velocity) by red arrowsSchematic representation of inertial circles of air masses in the absence of other forces, calculated for a wind speed of approximately .Cloud formations in a famous image of Earth from Apollo 17, makes similar circulation directly visiblePerhaps the most important impact of the Coriolis effect is in the large-scale dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere.",
"In meteorology and oceanography, it is convenient to postulate a rotating frame of reference wherein the Earth is stationary.",
"In accommodation of that provisional postulation, the centrifugal and Coriolis forces are introduced.",
"Their relative importance is determined by the applicable Rossby numbers.",
"Tornadoes have high Rossby numbers, so, while tornado-associated centrifugal forces are quite substantial, Coriolis forces associated with tornadoes are for practical purposes negligible.Because surface ocean currents are driven by the movement of wind over the water's surface, the Coriolis force also affects the movement of ocean currents and cyclones as well.",
"Many of the ocean's largest currents circulate around warm, high-pressure areas called gyres.",
"Though the circulation is not as significant as that in the air, the deflection caused by the Coriolis effect is what creates the spiralling pattern in these gyres.",
"The spiralling wind pattern helps the hurricane form.",
"The stronger the force from the Coriolis effect, the faster the wind spins and picks up additional energy, increasing the strength of the hurricane.Air within high-pressure systems rotates in a direction such that the Coriolis force is directed radially inwards, and nearly balanced by the outwardly radial pressure gradient.",
"As a result, air travels clockwise around high pressure in the Northern Hemisphere and anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.",
"Air around low-pressure rotates in the opposite direction, so that the Coriolis force is directed radially outward and nearly balances an inwardly radial pressure gradient.====Flow around a low-pressure area====If a low-pressure area forms in the atmosphere, air tends to flow in towards it, but is deflected perpendicular to its velocity by the Coriolis force.",
"A system of equilibrium can then establish itself creating circular movement, or a cyclonic flow.",
"Because the Rossby number is low, the force balance is largely between the pressure-gradient force acting towards the low-pressure area and the Coriolis force acting away from the center of the low pressure.Instead of flowing down the gradient, large scale motions in the atmosphere and ocean tend to occur perpendicular to the pressure gradient.",
"This is known as geostrophic flow.",
"On a non-rotating planet, fluid would flow along the straightest possible line, quickly eliminating pressure gradients.",
"The geostrophic balance is thus very different from the case of \"inertial motions\" (see below), which explains why mid-latitude cyclones are larger by an order of magnitude than inertial circle flow would be.This pattern of deflection, and the direction of movement, is called Buys-Ballot's law.",
"In the atmosphere, the pattern of flow is called a cyclone.",
"In the Northern Hemisphere the direction of movement around a low-pressure area is anticlockwise.",
"In the Southern Hemisphere, the direction of movement is clockwise because the rotational dynamics is a mirror image there.",
"At high altitudes, outward-spreading air rotates in the opposite direction.",
"Cyclones rarely form along the equator due to the weak Coriolis effect present in this region.====Inertial circles====An air or water mass moving with speed subject only to the Coriolis force travels in a circular trajectory called an ''inertial circle''.",
"Since the force is directed at right angles to the motion of the particle, it moves with a constant speed around a circle whose radius is given by:: where is the Coriolis parameter , introduced above (where is the latitude).",
"The time taken for the mass to complete a full circle is therefore .",
"The Coriolis parameter typically has a mid-latitude value of about 10−4 s−1; hence for a typical atmospheric speed of , the radius is with a period of about 17 hours.",
"For an ocean current with a typical speed of , the radius of an inertial circle is .",
"These inertial circles are clockwise in the northern hemisphere (where trajectories are bent to the right) and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere.If the rotating system is a parabolic turntable, then is constant and the trajectories are exact circles.",
"On a rotating planet, varies with latitude and the paths of particles do not form exact circles.",
"Since the parameter varies as the sine of the latitude, the radius of the oscillations associated with a given speed are smallest at the poles (latitude of ±90°), and increase toward the equator.====Other terrestrial effects====The Coriolis effect strongly affects the large-scale oceanic and atmospheric circulation, leading to the formation of robust features like jet streams and western boundary currents.",
"Such features are in geostrophic balance, meaning that the Coriolis and ''pressure gradient'' forces balance each other.",
"Coriolis acceleration is also responsible for the propagation of many types of waves in the ocean and atmosphere, including Rossby waves and Kelvin waves.",
"It is also instrumental in the so-called Ekman dynamics in the ocean, and in the establishment of the large-scale ocean flow pattern called the Sverdrup balance.===Eötvös effect===The practical impact of the \"Coriolis effect\" is mostly caused by the horizontal acceleration component produced by horizontal motion.There are other components of the Coriolis effect.",
"Westward-traveling objects are deflected downwards, while eastward-traveling objects are deflected upwards.",
"This is known as the Eötvös effect.",
"This aspect of the Coriolis effect is greatest near the equator.",
"The force produced by the Eötvös effect is similar to the horizontal component, but the much larger vertical forces due to gravity and pressure suggest that it is unimportant in the hydrostatic equilibrium.",
"However, in the atmosphere, winds are associated with small deviations of pressure from the hydrostatic equilibrium.",
"In the tropical atmosphere, the order of magnitude of the pressure deviations is so small that the contribution of the Eötvös effect to the pressure deviations is considerable.In addition, objects traveling upwards (i.e.",
"''out'') or downwards (i.e.",
"''in'') are deflected to the west or east respectively.",
"This effect is also the greatest near the equator.",
"Since vertical movement is usually of limited extent and duration, the size of the effect is smaller and requires precise instruments to detect.",
"For example, idealized numerical modeling studies suggest that this effect can directly affect tropical large-scale wind field by roughly 10% given long-duration (2 weeks or more) heating or cooling in the atmosphere.",
"Moreover, in the case of large changes of momentum, such as a spacecraft being launched into orbit, the effect becomes significant.",
"The fastest and most fuel-efficient path to orbit is a launch from the equator that curves to a directly eastward heading.====Intuitive example====Imagine a train that travels through a frictionless railway line along the equator.",
"Assume that, when in motion, it moves at the necessary speed to complete a trip around the world in one day (465 m/s).",
"The Coriolis effect can be considered in three cases: when the train travels west, when it is at rest, and when it travels east.",
"In each case, the Coriolis effect can be calculated from the rotating frame of reference on Earth first, and then checked against a fixed inertial frame.",
"The image below illustrates the three cases as viewed by an observer at rest in a (near) inertial frame from a fixed point above the North Pole along the Earth's axis of rotation; the train is denoted by a few red pixels, fixed at the left side in the leftmost picture, moving in the others Earth and train# The train travels toward the west: In that case, it moves against the direction of rotation.",
"Therefore, on the Earth's rotating frame the Coriolis term is pointed inwards towards the axis of rotation (down).",
"This additional force downwards should cause the train to be heavier while moving in that direction.If one looks at this train from the fixed non-rotating frame on top of the center of the Earth, at that speed it remains stationary as the Earth spins beneath it.",
"Hence, the only force acting on it is gravity and the reaction from the track.",
"This force is greater (by 0.34%) than the force that the passengers and the train experience when at rest (rotating along with Earth).",
"This difference is what the Coriolis effect accounts for in the rotating frame of reference.# The train comes to a stop: From the point of view on the Earth's rotating frame, the velocity of the train is zero, thus the Coriolis force is also zero and the train and its passengers recuperate their usual weight.From the fixed inertial frame of reference above Earth, the train now rotates along with the rest of the Earth.",
"0.34% of the force of gravity provides the centripetal force needed to achieve the circular motion on that frame of reference.",
"The remaining force, as measured by a scale, makes the train and passengers \"lighter\" than in the previous case.# The train travels east.",
"In this case, because it moves in the direction of Earth's rotating frame, the Coriolis term is directed outward from the axis of rotation (up).",
"This upward force makes the train seem lighter still than when at rest.Graph of the force experienced by a object as a function of its speed moving along Earth's equator (as measured within the rotating frame).",
"(Positive force in the graph is directed upward.",
"Positive speed is directed eastward and negative speed is directed westward).",
"From the fixed inertial frame of reference above Earth, the train traveling east now rotates at twice the rate as when it was at rest—so the amount of centripetal force needed to cause that circular path increases leaving less force from gravity to act on the track.",
"This is what the Coriolis term accounts for on the previous paragraph.As a final check one can imagine a frame of reference rotating along with the train.",
"Such frame would be rotating at twice the angular velocity as Earth's rotating frame.",
"The resulting centrifugal force component for that imaginary frame would be greater.",
"Since the train and its passengers are at rest, that would be the only component in that frame explaining again why the train and the passengers are lighter than in the previous two cases.This also explains why high-speed projectiles that travel west are deflected down, and those that travel east are deflected up.",
"This vertical component of the Coriolis effect is called the Eötvös effect.The above example can be used to explain why the Eötvös effect starts diminishing when an object is traveling westward as its tangential speed increases above Earth's rotation (465 m/s).",
"If the westward train in the above example increases speed, part of the force of gravity that pushes against the track accounts for the centripetal force needed to keep it in circular motion on the inertial frame.",
"Once the train doubles its westward speed at that centripetal force becomes equal to the force the train experiences when it stops.",
"From the inertial frame, in both cases it rotates at the same speed but in the opposite directions.",
"Thus, the force is the same cancelling completely the Eötvös effect.",
"Any object that moves westward at a speed above experiences an upward force instead.",
"In the figure, the Eötvös effect is illustrated for a object on the train at different speeds.",
"The parabolic shape is because the centripetal force is proportional to the square of the tangential speed.",
"On the inertial frame, the bottom of the parabola is centered at the origin.",
"The offset is because this argument uses the Earth's rotating frame of reference.",
"The graph shows that the Eötvös effect is not symmetrical, and that the resulting downward force experienced by an object that travels west at high velocity is less than the resulting upward force when it travels east at the same speed.===Draining in bathtubs and toilets===Contrary to popular misconception, bathtubs, toilets, and other water receptacles do not drain in opposite directions in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.",
"This is because the magnitude of the Coriolis force is negligible at this scale.",
"Forces determined by the initial conditions of the water (e.g.",
"the geometry of the drain, the geometry of the receptacle, preexisting momentum of the water, etc.)",
"are likely to be orders of magnitude greater than the Coriolis force and hence will determine the direction of water rotation, if any.",
"For example, identical toilets flushed in both hemispheres drain in the same direction, and this direction is determined mostly by the shape of the toilet bowl.Under real-world conditions, the Coriolis force does not influence the direction of water flow perceptibly.",
"Only if the water is so still that the effective rotation rate of the Earth is faster than that of the water relative to its container, and if externally applied torques (such as might be caused by flow over an uneven bottom surface) are small enough, the Coriolis effect may indeed determine the direction of the vortex.",
"Without such careful preparation, the Coriolis effect will be much smaller than various other influences on drain direction such as any residual rotation of the water and the geometry of the container.====Laboratory testing of draining water under atypical conditions====In 1962, Ascher Shapiro performed an experiment at MIT to test the Coriolis force on a large basin of water, across, with a small wooden cross above the plug hole to display the direction of rotation, covering it and waiting for at least 24 hours for the water to settle.",
"Under these precise laboratory conditions, he demonstrated the effect and consistent counterclockwise rotation.",
"The experiment required extreme precision, since the acceleration due to Coriolis effect is only that of gravity.",
"The vortex was measured by a cross made of two slivers of wood pinned above the draining hole.",
"It takes 20 minutes to drain, and the cross starts turning only around 15 minutes.",
"At the end it is turning at 1 rotation every 3 to 4 seconds.He reported that,Lloyd Trefethen reported clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere at the University of Sydney in five tests with settling times of 18 h or more.===Ballistic trajectories===The Coriolis force is important in external ballistics for calculating the trajectories of very long-range artillery shells.",
"The most famous historical example was the Paris gun, used by the Germans during World War I to bombard Paris from a range of about .",
"The Coriolis force minutely changes the trajectory of a bullet, affecting accuracy at extremely long distances.",
"It is adjusted for by accurate long-distance shooters, such as snipers.",
"At the latitude of Sacramento, California, a northward shot would be deflected to the right.",
"There is also a vertical component, explained in the Eötvös effect section above, which causes westward shots to hit low, and eastward shots to hit high.The effects of the Coriolis force on ballistic trajectories should not be confused with the curvature of the paths of missiles, satellites, and similar objects when the paths are plotted on two-dimensional (flat) maps, such as the Mercator projection.",
"The projections of the three-dimensional curved surface of the Earth to a two-dimensional surface (the map) necessarily results in distorted features.",
"The apparent curvature of the path is a consequence of the sphericity of the Earth and would occur even in a non-rotating frame.Trajectory, ground track, and drift of a typical projectile.",
"The axes are not to scale.The Coriolis force on a moving projectile depends on velocity components in all three directions, latitude, and azimuth.",
"The directions are typically downrange (the direction that the gun is initially pointing), vertical, and cross-range.",
":::where* , down-range acceleration.",
"* , vertical acceleration with positive indicating acceleration upward.",
"* , cross-range acceleration with positive indicating acceleration to the right.",
"* , down-range velocity.",
"* , vertical velocity with positive indicating upward.",
"* , cross-range velocity with positive indicating velocity to the right.",
"* = 0.00007292 rad/sec, angular velocity of the earth (based on a sidereal day).",
"* , latitude with positive indicating Northern hemisphere.",
"* , azimuth measured clockwise from due North."
],
[
"Visualization of the Coriolis effect",
"Fluid assuming a parabolic shape as it is rotatingObject moving frictionlessly over the surface of a very shallow parabolic dish.",
"The object has been released in such a way that it follows an elliptical trajectory.",
"''Left'': The inertial point of view.",
"''Right'': The co-rotating point of view.The forces at play in the case of a curved surface.",
"''Red'': gravity''Green'': the normal force''Blue'': the net resultant centripetal force.To demonstrate the Coriolis effect, a parabolic turntable can be used.On a flat turntable, the inertia of a co-rotating object forces it off the edge.",
"However, if the turntable surface has the correct paraboloid (parabolic bowl) shape (see the figure) and rotates at the corresponding rate, the force components shown in the figure make the component of gravity tangential to the bowl surface exactly equal to the centripetal force necessary to keep the object rotating at its velocity and radius of curvature (assuming no friction).",
"(See banked turn.)",
"This carefully contoured surface allows the Coriolis force to be displayed in isolation.Discs cut from cylinders of dry ice can be used as pucks, moving around almost frictionlessly over the surface of the parabolic turntable, allowing effects of Coriolis on dynamic phenomena to show themselves.",
"To get a view of the motions as seen from the reference frame rotating with the turntable, a video camera is attached to the turntable so as to co-rotate with the turntable, with results as shown in the figure.",
"In the left panel of the figure, which is the viewpoint of a stationary observer, the gravitational force in the inertial frame pulling the object toward the center (bottom ) of the dish is proportional to the distance of the object from the center.",
"A centripetal force of this form causes the elliptical motion.",
"In the right panel, which shows the viewpoint of the rotating frame, the inward gravitational force in the rotating frame (the same force as in the inertial frame) is balanced by the outward centrifugal force (present only in the rotating frame).",
"With these two forces balanced, in the rotating frame the only unbalanced force is Coriolis (also present only in the rotating frame), and the motion is an ''inertial circle''.",
"Analysis and observation of circular motion in the rotating frame is a simplification compared with analysis and observation of elliptical motion in the inertial frame.Because this reference frame rotates several times a minute rather than only once a day like the Earth, the Coriolis acceleration produced is many times larger and so easier to observe on small time and spatial scales than is the Coriolis acceleration caused by the rotation of the Earth.In a manner of speaking, the Earth is analogous to such a turntable.",
"The rotation has caused the planet to settle on a spheroid shape, such that the normal force, the gravitational force and the centrifugal force exactly balance each other on a \"horizontal\" surface.",
"(See equatorial bulge.",
")The Coriolis effect caused by the rotation of the Earth can be seen indirectly through the motion of a Foucault pendulum."
],
[
"Coriolis effects in other areas",
"===Coriolis flow meter===A practical application of the Coriolis effect is the mass flow meter, an instrument that measures the mass flow rate and density of a fluid flowing through a tube.",
"The operating principle involves inducing a vibration of the tube through which the fluid passes.",
"The vibration, though not completely circular, provides the rotating reference frame that gives rise to the Coriolis effect.",
"While specific methods vary according to the design of the flow meter, sensors monitor and analyze changes in frequency, phase shift, and amplitude of the vibrating flow tubes.",
"The changes observed represent the mass flow rate and density of the fluid.===Molecular physics===In polyatomic molecules, the molecule motion can be described by a rigid body rotation and internal vibration of atoms about their equilibrium position.",
"As a result of the vibrations of the atoms, the atoms are in motion relative to the rotating coordinate system of the molecule.",
"Coriolis effects are therefore present, and make the atoms move in a direction perpendicular to the original oscillations.",
"This leads to a mixing in molecular spectra between the rotational and vibrational levels, from which Coriolis coupling constants can be determined.===Gyroscopic precession===When an external torque is applied to a spinning gyroscope along an axis that is at right angles to the spin axis, the rim velocity that is associated with the spin becomes radially directed in relation to the external torque axis.",
"This causes a ''torque-induced'' force to act on the rim in such a way as to tilt the gyroscope at right angles to the direction that the external torque would have tilted it.",
"This tendency has the effect of keeping spinning bodies in their rotational frame.=== Insect flight ===Flies (Diptera) and some moths (Lepidoptera) exploit the Coriolis effect in flight with specialized appendages and organs that relay information about the angular velocity of their bodies.",
"Coriolis forces resulting from linear motion of these appendages are detected within the rotating frame of reference of the insects' bodies.",
"In the case of flies, their specialized appendages are dumbbell shaped organs located just behind their wings called \"halteres\".The fly's halteres oscillate in a plane at the same beat frequency as the main wings so that any body rotation results in lateral deviation of the halteres from their plane of motion.In moths, their antennae are known to be responsible for the ''sensing'' of Coriolis forces in the similar manner as with the halteres in flies.",
"In both flies and moths, a collection of mechanosensors at the base of the appendage are sensitive to deviations at the beat frequency, correlating to rotation in the pitch and roll planes, and at twice the beat frequency, correlating to rotation in the yaw plane.===Lagrangian point stability===In astronomy, Lagrangian points are five positions in the orbital plane of two large orbiting bodies where a small object affected only by gravity can maintain a stable position relative to the two large bodies.",
"The first three Lagrangian points (L1, L2, L3) lie along the line connecting the two large bodies, while the last two points (L4 and L5) each form an equilateral triangle with the two large bodies.",
"The L4 and L5 points, although they correspond to maxima of the effective potential in the coordinate frame that rotates with the two large bodies, are stable due to the Coriolis effect.",
"The stability can result in orbits around just L4 or L5, known as tadpole orbits, where trojans can be found.",
"It can also result in orbits that encircle L3, L4, and L5, known as horseshoe orbits."
],
[
"See also",
"* Analytical mechanics* Applied mechanics* Classical mechanics* Dynamics (mechanics)* Earth's rotation* Equatorial Rossby wave* Frenet–Serret formulas* Gyroscope* Kinetics (physics)* Mechanics of planar particle motion* Reactive centrifugal force* Secondary flow* Statics* Uniform circular motion* Whirlpool"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"=== Physics and meteorology ===* Riccioli, G. B., 1651: ''Almagestum Novum'', Bologna, pp.",
"425–427 ( Original book in Latin, scanned images of complete pages.",
")* Coriolis, G. G., 1832: \"Mémoire sur le principe des forces vives dans les mouvements relatifs des machines.\"",
"''Journal de l'école Polytechnique'', Vol 13, pp. 268–302.",
"( Original article in French, PDF file, 1.6 MB, scanned images of complete pages.",
")* Coriolis, G. G., 1835: \"Mémoire sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps.\"",
"''Journal de l'école Polytechnique'', Vol 15, pp.",
"142–154 ( Original article in French PDF file, 400 KB, scanned images of complete pages.",
")* Gill, A. E. ''Atmosphere-Ocean dynamics'', Academic Press, 1982.",
"* * Durran, D. R., 1993: '' Is the Coriolis force really responsible for the inertial oscillation?",
"'', Bull.",
"Amer.",
"Meteor.",
"Soc., 74, pp.",
"2179–2184; Corrigenda.",
"Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 75, p. 261* Durran, D. R., and S. K. Domonkos, 1996: '' An apparatus for demonstrating the inertial oscillation'', Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77, pp. 557–559.",
"* Marion, Jerry B.",
"1970, ''Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems'', Academic Press.",
"* Persson, A., 1998 '' How do we Understand the Coriolis Force?''",
"Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 79, pp. 1373–1385.",
"* Symon, Keith.",
"1971, ''Mechanics'', Addison–Wesley* Akira Kageyama & Mamoru Hyodo: ''Eulerian derivation of the Coriolis force''* James F. Price: ''A Coriolis tutorial'' Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (2003)* .",
"Elementary, non-mathematical; but well written.=== Historical ===* Grattan-Guinness, I., Ed., 1994: ''Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences''.",
"Vols.",
"I and II.",
"Routledge, 1840 pp.",
"1997: ''The Fontana History of the Mathematical Sciences''.",
"Fontana, 817 pp.",
"710 pp.",
"* Khrgian, A., 1970: ''Meteorology: A Historical Survey''.",
"Vol.",
"1.Keter Press, 387 pp.",
"* Kuhn, T. S., 1977: Energy conservation as an example of simultaneous discovery.",
"''The Essential Tension, Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change'', University of Chicago Press, 66–104.",
"* Kutzbach, G., 1979: ''The Thermal Theory of Cyclones.",
"A History of Meteorological Thought in the Nineteenth Century''.",
"Amer.",
"Meteor.",
"Soc., 254 pp."
],
[
"External links",
"* The definition of the Coriolis effect from the Glossary of Meteorology* The Coriolis Effect — a conflict between common sense and mathematics PDF-file.",
"20 pages.",
"A general discussion by Anders Persson of various aspects of the coriolis effect, including Foucault's Pendulum and Taylor columns.",
"* The coriolis effect in meteorology PDF-file.",
"5 pages.",
"A detailed explanation by Mats Rosengren of how the gravitational force and the rotation of the Earth affect the atmospheric motion over the Earth surface.",
"2 figures* 10 Coriolis Effect Videos and Games- from the About.com Weather Page* Coriolis Force – from ScienceWorld* ''Coriolis Effect and Drains'' An article from the NEWTON web site hosted by the Argonne National Laboratory.",
"* Catalog of Coriolis videos* ''Coriolis Effect: A graphical animation'', a visual Earth animation with precise explanation* ''An introduction to fluid dynamics'' SPINLab Educational Film explains the Coriolis effect with the aid of lab experiments* ''Do bathtubs drain counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere?''",
"by Cecil Adams.",
"* ''Bad Coriolis.''",
"An article uncovering misinformation about the Coriolis effect.",
"By Alistair B. Fraser, emeritus professor of meteorology at Pennsylvania State University* ''The Coriolis Effect: A (Fairly) Simple Explanation'', an explanation for the layperson* Observe an animation of the Coriolis effect over Earth's surface* Animation clip showing scenes as viewed from both an inertial frame and a rotating frame of reference, visualizing the Coriolis and centrifugal forces.",
"* Vincent Mallette ''The Coriolis Force'' @ INWIT* NASA notes* Interactive Coriolis Fountain lets you control rotation speed, droplet speed and frame of reference to explore the Coriolis effect.",
"* Rotating Co-ordinating Systems , transformation from inertial systems"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Challenger Deep"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Location of Challenger Deep within the Mariana Trench and western Pacific OceanThe '''Challenger Deep''' is the deepest known point of the seabed of Earth, located in the western Pacific Ocean at the southern end of the Mariana Trench, in the ocean territory of the Federated States of Micronesia.",
"According to the GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names the depression's depth is at ,although its exact geodetic location remains inconclusive and its depth has been measured at by deep-diving submersibles, remotely operated underwater vehicles, benthic landers, and sonar bathymetry.",
"The differences in depth estimates and their geodetic positions are scientifically explainable by the difficulty of researching such deep locations.The depression is named after the British Royal Navy survey ships , whose expedition of 1872–1876 first located it, and HMS ''Challenger'' II, whose expedition of 1950-1952 established its record-setting depth.",
"The first descent by any vehicle was by the bathyscaphe ''Trieste'' in January 1960.In March 2012, a solo descent was made by film director James Cameron in the deep-submergence vehicle ''Deepsea Challenger''.",
"As of July 2022, 27 people have descended to Challenger Deep."
],
[
"Topography",
"DSSV ''Pressure Drop'' employing a Kongsberg SIMRAD EM124 multibeam echosounder system (26 April – 4 May 2019)The Challenger Deep is a relatively small slot-shaped depression in the bottom of a considerably larger crescent-shaped oceanic trench, which itself is an unusually deep feature in the ocean floor.",
"The Challenger Deep consists of three basins, each long, wide, and over in depth, oriented in echelon from west to east, separated by mounds between the basins higher.",
"The three basins feature extends about west to east if measured at the isobath.",
"Both the western and eastern basins have recorded depths (by sonar bathymetry) in excess of , while the center basin is slightly less deep.",
"The closest land to the Challenger Deep is Fais Island (one of the outer islands of Yap), southwest, and Guam, to the northeast.Detailed sonar mapping of the western, center and eastern basins in June 2020 by the DSSV ''Pressure Drop'' combined with manned descents revealed that they undulate with slopes and piles of rocks above a bed of pelagic ooze.",
"This conforms with the description of Challenger Deep as consisting of an elongated seabed section with distinct sub-basins or sediment-filled pools."
],
[
"Surveys and bathymetry",
"Over many years, the search for, and investigation of, the location of the maximum depth of the world's oceans has involved many different vessels, and continues into the twenty-first century.The accuracy of determining geographical location, and the beamwidth of (multibeam) echosounder systems, limits the horizontal and vertical bathymetric sensor resolution that hydrographers can obtain from onsite data.",
"This is especially important when sounding in deep water, as the resulting footprint of an acoustic pulse gets large once it reaches a distant sea floor.",
"Further, sonar operation is affected by variations in sound speed, particularly in the vertical plane.",
"The speed is determined by the water's bulk modulus, mass, and density.",
"The bulk modulus is affected by temperature, pressure, and dissolved impurities (usually salinity).===1875 – HMS ''Challenger''===In 1875, during her transit from the Admiralty Islands in the Bismarck Archipelago to Yokohama in Japan, the three-masted sailing corvette HMS ''''Challenger'' ''attempted to make landfall at Spanish Marianas (now Guam), but was set to the west by \"baffling winds\" preventing her crew from \"visiting either the Carolines or the Ladrones.\"",
"Their altered path took them over the undersea canyon which later became known as the Challenger Deep.",
"Depth soundings were taken by Baillie-weighted marked rope, and geographical locations were determined by celestial navigation (to an estimated accuracy of two nautical miles).",
"One of their samples was taken within fifteen miles of the deepest spot in all of Earth's oceans.",
"On 23 March 1875, at sample station number #225, HMS ''Challenger'' recorded the bottom at deep, (the deepest sounding of her three-plus-year eastward circumnavigation of the Earth) at – and confirmed it with a second sounding at the same location.",
"The serendipitous discovery of Earth's deepest depression by history's first major scientific expedition devoted entirely to the emerging science of oceanography, was incredibly good fortune, and especially notable when compared to the Earth's third deepest site (the Sirena Deep only 150 nautical miles east of the Challenger Deep), which would remain undiscovered for another 122 years.===1951 – SV HMS ''Challenger II''===Chief Scientist Tom Gaskell, left, aboard HMS Challenger II, 1951Seventy-five years later, the 1,140-ton British survey vessel ''HMS Challenger II'', on her three-year westward circumnavigation of Earth, investigated the extreme depths southwest of Guam reported in 1875 by her predecessor, HMS ''Challenger''.",
"On her southbound track from Japan to New Zealand (May–July 1951), ''Challenger II'' conducted a survey of the Marianas Trench between Guam and Ulithi atoll, using seismic-sized bomb-soundings and recorded a maximum depth of .",
"The depth was beyond ''Challenger II'' echo sounder capability to verify, so they resorted to using a taut wire with \"140 lbs of scrap iron\", and documented a depth of .",
"The Senior Scientist aboard ''Challenger II'', Thomas Gaskell, recalled: It took from ten past five in the evening until twenty to seven, that is an hour and a half, for the iron weight to fall to the sea-bottom.",
"It was almost dark by the time the weight struck, but great excitement greeted the reading...In New Zealand, the ''Challenger II'' team gained the assistance of the Royal New Zealand Dockyard, \"who managed to boost the echo sounder to record at the greatest depths\".",
"They returned to the \"Marianas Deep\" (sic) in October 1951.Using their newly improved echo sounder, they ran survey lines at right angles to the axis of the trench and discovered \"a considerable area of a depth greater than \" – later identified as the Challenger Deep's ''western'' basin.",
"The greatest depth recorded was , at .",
"Navigational accuracy of several hundred meters was attained by celestial navigation and LORAN-A.",
"As Gaskell explained, the measurement was not more than 50 miles from the spot where the nineteenth-century ''Challenger'' found her deepest depth ... and it may be thought fitting that a ship with the name ''Challenger'' should put the seal on the work of that great pioneering expedition of oceanography.The term \"Challenger Deep\" came into use after this 1951–52 ''Challenger'' circumnavigation, and commemorates both British ships of that name involved with the discovery of the deepest basin of the world's oceans.Research vessel ''Vityaz'' in Kaliningrad \"Museum of world ocean\"===1957–1958 – RV ''Vityaz''===In August 1957, the Soviet 3,248-ton Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry research vessel recorded a maximum depth of at in the western basin of the Challenger Deep during a brief transit of the area on Cruise #25.She returned in 1958, Cruise #27, to conduct a detailed single beam bathymetry survey involving over a dozen transects of the Deep, with an extensive examination of the western basin and a quick peek into the eastern basin.",
"Fisher records a total of three ''Vityaz'' sounding locations on Fig.2 \"Trenches\" (1963), one within yards of the 142°11.5' E location, and a third at , all with depth.",
"The depths were considered statistical outliers, and a depth greater than 11,000 m has never been proven.",
"Taira reports that if ''Vityaz'' depth was corrected with the same methodology used by the Japanese RV ''Hakuho Maru'' expedition of December 1992, it would be presented as , as opposed to modern depths from multibeam echosounder systems greater than with the NOAA accepted maximum of in the western basin.===1959 – RV ''Stranger''===The first definitive verification of both the depth and location of the Challenger Deep (western basin) was determined by Dr. R. L. Fisher from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, aboard the 325-ton research vessel ''Stranger''.",
"Using explosive soundings, they recorded at/near in July 1959.",
"''Stranger'' used celestial and LORAN-C for navigation.",
"LORAN-C navigation provided geographical accuracy of or better.",
"According to another source RV ''Stranger'' using bomb-sounding surveyed a maximum depth of at .",
"Discrepancies between the geographical location (lat/long) of ''Stranger'' deepest depths and those from earlier expeditions (''Challenger II'' 1951; ''Vityaz'' 1957 and 1958) \"are probably due to uncertainties in fixing the ships' positions\".",
"''Stranger'' north-south zig-zag survey passed well to the east of the eastern basin southbound, and well to the west of the eastern basin northbound, thus failed to discover the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep.",
"The maximum depth measured near longitude 142°30'E was , about 10 km west of the eastern basin's deepest point.",
"This was an important gap in information, as the eastern basin was later reported as deeper than the other two basins.",
"''Stranger'' crossed the center basin twice, measuring a maximum depth of in the vicinity of 142°22'E.",
"At the western end of the central basin (approximately 142°18'E), they recorded a depth of .The western basin received four transects by ''Stranger'', recording depths of toward the central basin, near where ''Trieste'' dived in 1960 (vicinity , and where ''Challenger II'', in 1950, recorded .",
"At the far western end of the ''western'' basin (about 142°11'E), the ''Stranger'' recorded , some 6 km south of the location where ''Vityaz'' recorded in 1957–1958.Fisher stated: \"differences in the ''Vitiaz'' sic and ''Stranger''–''Challenger II'' depths can be attributed to the sound velocity correction function used\".",
"After investigating the Challenger Deep, ''Stranger'' proceeded to the Philippine Trench and transected the trench over twenty times in August 1959, finding a maximum depth of , and thus established that the Challenger Deep was about deeper than the Philippine Trench.",
"The 1959 ''Stranger'' surveys of the Challenger Deep and of the Philippine Trench informed the U.S. Navy as to the appropriate site for ''Trieste'' record dive in 1960.===1962 – RV ''Spencer F. Baird''===The ''Proa Expedition, Leg 2'', returned Fisher to the Challenger Deep on 12–13 April 1962 aboard the Scripps research vessel ''Spencer F. Baird'' (formerly the steel-hulled US Army large tug ''LT-581'') and employed a Precision Depth Recorder (PDR) to verify the extreme depths previously reported.",
"They recorded a maximum depth of (location not available).",
"Additionally, at location \"H-4\" in the Challenger Deep, the expedition cast three taut-wire soundings: on 12 April, the first cast was to 5,078 fathoms (corrected for wire angle) at in the central basin (Up until 1965, US research vessels recorded soundings in fathoms).",
"The second cast, also on 12 April, was to 5,000+ fathoms at in the central basin.",
"On 13 April, the final cast recorded 5,297 fathoms (corrected for wire angle) at (the western basin).",
"They were chased off by a hurricane after only two days on-site.",
"Once again, Fisher entirely missed the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep, which later proved to contain the deepest depths.===1975–1980 – RV ''Thomas Washington''===The Scripps Institution of Oceanography deployed the 1,490-ton Navy-owned, civilian-crewed research vessel ''Thomas Washington'' (AGOR-10) to the Mariana Trench on several expeditions from 1975 to 1986.The first of these was the ''Eurydice Expedition, Leg 8'' which brought Fisher back to the Challenger Deep's western basin from 28–31 March 1975.",
"''Thomas Washington'' established geodetic positioning by (SATNAV) with Autolog Gyro and EM Log.",
"Bathymetrics were by a 12 kHz Precision Depth Recorder (PDR) with a single 60° beam.",
"They mapped one, \"possibly two\", axial basins with a depth of .",
"Five dredges were hauled 27–31 March, all into or slightly north of the deepest depths of the western basin.",
"Fisher noted that this survey of the Challenger Deep (western basin) had \"provided nothing to support and much to refute recent claims of depths there greater than .\"",
"While Fisher missed the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep (for the third time), he did report a deep depression about 150 nautical miles east of the western basin.",
"The 25 March dredge haul at encountered , which pre-shadowed by 22 years the discovery of HMRG Deep/Sirena Deep in 1997.The deepest waters of the HMRG Deep/Serina Deep at are centered at/near , approximately 2.65 km from Fisher's 25 March 1975 dredge haul.On Scripps Institution of Oceanography's ''INDOPAC Expedition Leg 3'', the chief scientist, Dr. Joseph L. Reid, and oceanographer Arnold W. Mantyla made a hydrocast of a free vehicle (a special-purpose benthic lander (or \"baited camera\") for measurements of water temperature and salinity) on 27 May 1976 into the western basin of the Challenger Deep, \"Station 21\", at at about depth.",
"On ''INDOPAC Expedition Leg 9'', under chief scientist A. Aristides Yayanos, ''Thomas Washington'' spent nine days from 13–21 January 1977 conducting an extensive and detailed investigation of the Challenger Deep, mainly with biological objectives.",
"\"Echo soundings were carried out primarily with a 3.5 kHz single-beam system, with a 12 kHz echosounder operated in addition some of the time\" (the 12 kHz system was activated for testing on 16 January).",
"A benthic lander was put into the western basin () on 13 January, bottoming at and recovered 50 hours later in damaged condition.",
"Quickly repaired, it was again put down on the 15th to depth at .",
"It was recovered on the 17th with excellent photography of amphipods (shrimp) from the Challenger Deep's western basin.",
"The benthic lander was put down for the third and last time on the 17th, at , in the central basin at a depth of .",
"The benthic lander was not recovered and may remain on the bottom in the vicinity of .",
"Free traps and pressure-retaining traps were put down at eight locations from 13 to 19 January into the western basin, at depths ranging from .",
"Both the free traps and the pressure-retaining traps brought up good sample amphipods for study.",
"While the ship briefly visited the area of the eastern basin, the expedition did not recognize it as potentially the deepest of the three Challenger Deep basins.",
"''Thomas Washington'' returned briefly to the Challenger Deep on 17–19 October 1978 during ''Mariana Expedition Leg 5'' under chief scientist James W. Hawkins.",
"The ship tracked to the south and west of the eastern basin, and recorded depths between .",
"Another miss.",
"On ''Mariana Expedition Leg 8'', under chief scientist Yayanos, ''Thomas Washington'' was again involved, from 12–21 December 1978, with an intensive biological study of the western and central basins of the Challenger Deep.",
"Fourteen traps and pressure-retaining traps were put down to depths ranging from ; the greatest depth was at .",
"All of the 10,900-plus m recordings were in the western basin.",
"The depth was furthest east at 142°26.4' E (in the central basin), about 17 km west of the eastern basin.",
"Again, focused efforts on the known areas of extreme depths (the western and central basins) were so tight that the eastern basin again was missed by this expedition.From 20 to 30 November 1980, ''Thomas Washington'' was on site at the western basin of the Challenger Deep, as part of ''Rama Expedition Leg 7'', again with chief-scientist Dr. A.",
"A. Yayanos.",
"Yayanos directed ''Thomas Washington'' in arguably the most extensive and wide-ranging of all single-beam bathymetric examinations of the Challenger Deep ever undertaken, with dozens of transits of the western basin, and ranging far into the backarc of the Challenger Deep (northward), with significant excursions into the Pacific Plate (southward) and along the trench axis to the east.",
"They hauled eight dredges in the western basin to depths ranging from , and between hauls, cast thirteen free vertical traps.",
"The dredging and traps were for biological investigation of the bottom.",
"In the first successful retrieval of a live animal from the Challenger Deep, on 21 November 1980 in the western basin at , Yayanos recovered a live amphipod from about 10,900 meters depth with a pressurized trap.",
"Once again, other than a brief look into the eastern basin, all bathymetric and biological investigations were into the western basin.===1976–1977 – RV ''Kana Keoki''===Pacific plate subduction at the Challenger DeepOn Leg 3 of the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics' (HIG) expedition 76010303, the research vessel ''Kana Keoki'' departed Guam primarily for a seismic investigation of the Challenger Deep area, under chief scientist Donald M. Hussong.",
"The ship was equipped with air guns (for seismic reflection soundings deep into the Earth's mantle), magnetometer, gravimeter, 3.5 kHz and 12 kHz sonar transducers, and precision depth recorders.",
"They ran the Deep from east to west, collecting single beam bathymetry, magnetic and gravity measurements, and employed the air guns along the trench axis, and well into the backarc and forearc, from 13 to 15 March 1976.Thence they proceeded south to the Ontong Java Plateau.",
"All three deep basins of the Challenger Deep were covered, but ''Kana Keoki'' recorded a maximum depth of .",
"Seismic information developed from this survey was instrumental in gaining an understanding of the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Philippine Sea Plate.",
"In 1977, ''Kana Keoki'' returned to the Challenger Deep area for wider coverage of the forearc and backarc.===1984 – SV ''Takuyo''===The Hydrographic Department, Maritime Safety Agency, Japan (JHOD) deployed the newly commissioned 2,600-ton survey vessel ''Takuyo'' (HL 02) to the Challenger Deep 17–19 February 1984.",
"''Takuyo'' was the first Japanese ship to be equipped with the new narrowbeam SeaBeam multi-beam sonar echosounder, and was the first survey ship with multi-beam capability to survey the Challenger Deep.",
"The system was so new that JHOD had to develop their own software for drawing bathymetric charts based on the SeaBeam digital data.",
"In just three days, they tracked 500 miles of sounding lines, and covered about 140 km of the Challenger Deep with multibeam ensonification.",
"Under chief scientist Hideo Nishida, they used CTD temperature and salinity data from the top of the water column to correct depth measurements, and later conferred with Scripps Institution of Oceanography (including Fisher), and other GEBCO experts to confirm their depth correction methodology.",
"They employed a combination of NAVSAT, LORAN-C and OMEGA systems for geodetic positioning with accuracy better than .",
"The deepest location recorded was at ; for the first time documenting the eastern basin as the deepest of the three en echelon pools.",
"In 1993, GEBCO recognized the report as the deepest depth of the world's oceans.",
"Technological advances such as improved multi-beam sonar would be the driving force in uncovering the mysteries of the Challenger Deep into the future.===1986 – RV ''Thomas Washington''===The Scripps research vessel ''Thomas Washington'' returned to the Challenger Deep in 1986 during the ''Papatua Expedition, Leg 8'', mounting one of the first commercial multi-beam echosounders capable of reaching into the deepest trenches, i.e.",
"the 16-beam Seabeam \"Classic\".",
"This allowed chief scientist Yayanos an opportunity to transit the Challenger Deep with the most modern depth-sounding equipment available.",
"During the pre-midnight hours of 21 April 1986, the multibeam echosounder produced a map of the Challenger Deep bottom with a swath of about 5–7 miles wide.",
"The maximum depth recorded was (location of depth is not available).",
"Yayanos noted: \"The lasting impression from this cruise comes from the thoughts of the revolutionary things that Seabeam data can do for deep biology.",
"\"===1988 – RV ''Moana Wave''===On 22 August 1988, the U.S. Navy-owned 1,000-ton research vessel ''Moana Wave'' (AGOR-22), operated by the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics (HIG), University of Hawaii, under the direction of chief scientist Robert C. Thunell from the University of South Carolina, transited northwesterly across the central basin of the Challenger Deep, conducting a single-beam bathymetry track by their 3.5 kHz narrow (30-degs) beam echosounder with a Precision Depth Recorder.",
"In addition to sonar bathymetry, they took 44 gravity cores and 21 box cores of bottom sediments.",
"The deepest echosoundings recorded were , with the greatest depth at 11°22′N 142°25′E in the central basin.",
"This was the first indication that all three basins contained depths in excess of .The RV ''Hakuhō Maru''===1992 – RV ''Hakuhō Maru''===The 3,987-ton Japanese research vessel ''Hakuhō Maru'', an Ocean Research Institute – University of Tokyo sponsored ship, on cruise KH-92-5 cast three Sea-Bird SBE-9 ultra-deep CTD (conductivity-temperature-depth) profilers in a transverse line across the Challenger Deep on 1 December 1992.The center CTD was located at , in the eastern basin, at by the SeaBeam depth recorder and by the CTD.",
"The other two CTDs were cast 19.9 km to the north and 16.1 km to the south.",
"''Hakuhō Maru'' was equipped with a narrow beam SeaBeam 500 multi-beam echosounder for depth determination, and had an Auto-Nav system with inputs from NAVSAT/NNSS, GPS, Doppler Log, EM log and track display, with a geodetic positioning accuracy approaching .",
"When conducting CTD operations in the Challenger deep, they used the SeaBeam as a single beam depth recorder.",
"At the corrected depth was , and at the depth was ; both in the ''eastern'' basin.",
"This may demonstrate that the basins might not be flat sedimentary pools but rather undulate with a difference of or more.",
"Taira revealed, \"We considered that a trough deeper that ''Vitiaz'' record by was detected.",
"There is a possibility that a depth exceeding with a horizontal scale less than the beam width of measurements exists in the Challenger Deep.",
"Since each SeaBeam 2.7-degree beam width sonar ping expands to cover a circular area about in diameter at depth, dips in the bottom that are less than that size would be difficult to detect from a sonar-emitting platform seven miles above.RV ''Yokosuka'' was used as the support ship for ROV ''Kaikō''.===1996 – RV ''Yokosuka''===For most of 1995 and into 1996, the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) employed the 4,439-ton Research Vessel ''Yokosuka'' to conduct the testing and workup of the 11,000-meter remotely-operated vehicle (ROV) ''Kaikō'', and the 6,500 meter ROV ''Shinkai.''",
"It was not until February 1996, during ''Yokosuka'' cruise Y96-06, that ''Kaikō'' was ready for its first full depth dives.",
"On this cruise, JAMSTEC established an area of the Challenger Deep (11°10'N to 11°30'N, by 141°50'E to 143°00'Ewhich later was recognized as containing three separate pools/basins en echelon, each with depths in excess of ) toward which JAMSTEC expeditions would concentrate their investigations for the next two decades.",
"The Yokosuka employed a 151-beam SeaBeam 2112 12 kHz multibeam echosounder, allowing search swaths 12–15 km in width at depth.",
"The depth accuracy of ''Yokosuka'' Seabeam was about 0.1% of water depth (i.e.",
"± for depth).",
"The ship's dual GPS systems attained geodetic positioning within double digit meter ( or better) accuracy.===1998, 1999 and 2002 – RV ''Kairei''===Cruise KR98-01 sent JAMSTEC's two-year-old 4,517-ton Deep Sea Research Vessel RV ''Kairei'' south for a quick but thorough depth survey of the Challenger Deep, 11–13 January 1998, under chief scientist Kantaro Fujioka.",
"Tracking largely along the trench axis of 070–250° they made five 80-km bathymetric survey tracks, spaced about 15 km apart, overlapping their SeaBeam 2112-004 (which now allowed sub-bottom profiling penetrating as much as 75 m below the bottom) while gaining gravity and magnetic data covering the entire Challenger Deep: western, central, and eastern basins.The Deep Sea Research Vessel RV ''Kairei'' was also used as the support ship for the ROV ''Kaikō''.",
"''Kairei'' returned in May 1998, cruise KR98-05, with ROV ''Kaikō'', under the direction of chief scientist Jun Hashimoto with both geophysical and biological goals.",
"Their bathymetric survey from 14–26 May was the most intensive and thorough depth and seismic survey of the Challenger Deep performed to date.",
"Each evening, ''Kaikō'' deployed for about four hours of bottom time for biological-related sampling, plus about seven hours of vertical transit time.",
"When ''Kaikō'' was onboard for servicing, ''Kairei'' conducted bathymetric surveys and observations.",
"''Kairei'' gridded a survey area about 130 km N–S by 110 km E–W.",
"''Kaikō'' made six dives (#71–75) all to the same location, (11°20.8' N, 142°12.35' E), near the bottom contour line in the western basin.The regional bathymetric map made from the data obtained in 1998 shows that the greatest depths in the eastern, central, and western depressions are , , and , respectively, making the eastern depression the deepest of the three.In 1999, ''Kairei'' revisited the Challenger Deep during cruise KR99-06.The results of the 1998–1999 surveys include the first recognition that the Challenger Deep consists of three \"right-stepping en echelon individual basins bounded by the depth contour line.",
"The size of each of the deeps are almost identical, 14–20 km long, 4 km wide\".",
"They concluded with the proposal \"that these three individual elongated deeps constitute the 'Challenger Deep', and we identify them as the East, Central and West Deep.",
"The deepest depth we obtained during the swath mapping is in the West Deep (11°20.34' N, 142°13.20 E).\"",
"The depth was \"obtained during swath mapping ... confirmed in both N–S and E-W swaths.\"",
"Speed of sound corrections were from XBT to , and CTD below .The cross track survey of the 1999 ''Kairei'' cruise shows that the greatest depths in the eastern, central, and western depressions are , , and , respectively, which supports the results of the previous survey.In 2002 ''Kairei'' revisited the Challenger Deep 16–25 October 2002, as cruise KR02-13 (a cooperative Japan-US-South Korea research program) with chief scientist Jun Hashimoto in charge; again with Kazuyoshi Hirata managing the ROV ''Kaikō'' team.",
"On this survey, the size of each of the three basins was refined to 6–10 km long by about 2 km wide and in excess of deep.",
"In marked contrast to the ''Kairei'' surveys of 1998 and 1999, the detailed survey in 2002 determined that the deepest point in the Challenger Deep is located in the eastern basin around , with a depth of , located about southeast of the deepest site determined by the survey vessel ''Takuyo'' in 1984.The 2002 surveys of both the western and eastern basins were tight, with especially meticulous cross-gridding of the eastern basin with ten parallel tracks N–S and E–W less than 250 meters apart.",
"On the morning of 17 October, ROV ''Kaikō'' dive #272 began and recovered over 33 hours later, with the ROV working at the bottom of the western basin for 26 hours (vicinity of 11°20.148' N, 142°11.774 E at ).",
"Five ''Kaikō'' dives followed on a daily basis into the same area to service benthic landers and other scientific equipment, with dive #277 recovered on 25 October.",
"Traps brought up large numbers of amphipods (sea fleas), and cameras recorded holothurians (sea cucumbers), White polychaetes (bristle worms), tube worms, and other biological species.",
"During its 1998, 1999 surveys, ''Kairei'' was equipped with a GPS satellite-based radionavigation system.",
"The United States government lifted the GPS selective availability in 2000, so during its 2002 survey, ''Kairei'' had access to non-degraded GPS positional services and achieved single-digit meter accuracy in geodetic positioning.===2001 – RV ''Melville''===The RV ''Melville'' was operated by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography.The 2.516-ton research vessel ''Melville'', at the time operated by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, took the Cook Expedition, Leg 6 with chief scientist Patricia Fryer of the University of Hawaii from Guam on 10 February 2001 to the Challenger Deep for a survey titled \"Subduction Factory Studies in the Southern Mariana\", including HMR-1 sonar mapping, magnetics, gravity measurements, and dredging in the Mariana arc region.",
"They covered all three basins, then tracked lines of bathymetry East-West, stepping northward from the Challenger Deep in sidesteps, covering more than north into the backarc with overlapping swaths from their SeaBeam 2000 12 kHz multi-beam echosounder and MR1 towed system.",
"They also gathered magnetic and gravity information, but no seismic data.",
"Their primary survey instrument was the MR1 towed sonar, a shallow-towed 11/12 kHz bathymetric sidescan sonar developed and operated by the Hawaii Mapping Research Group (HMRG), a research and operational group within University of Hawaii's School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) and the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP).",
"The MR1 is full-ocean-depth capable, providing both bathymetry and sidescan data.Leg 7 of the Cook Expedition continued the MR-1 survey of the Mariana Trench backarc from 4 March to 12 April 2001 under chief scientist Sherman Bloomer of Oregon State University.===2009 – RV ''Kilo Moana''===Nereus''.In May/June 2009, the US Navy-owned 3,064-ton twin-hulled research vessel ''Kilo Moana'' (T-AGOR 26) was sent to the Challenger Deep area to conduct research.",
"''Kilo Moana'' is civilian-crewed and operated by SOEST.",
"It is equipped with two multibeam echosounders with sub-bottom profiler add-ons (the 191-beam 12 kHz Kongsberg Simrad EM120 with SBP-1200, capable of accuracies of 0.2–0.5% of water depth across the entire swath), gravimeter, and magnetometer.",
"The EM-120 uses 1 by 1 degree sonar-emissions at the sea surface.",
"Each 1 degree beam width sonar ping expands to cover a circular area about in diameter at depth.",
"Whilst mapping the Challenger Deep the sonar equipment indicated a maximum depth of at an undisclosed position.",
"Navigation equipment includes the Applanix POS MV320 V4, rated at accuracies of 0.5–2 m. RV ''Kilo Moana'' was also used as the support ship of the hybrid remotely operated underwater vehicle (HROV) ''Nereus'' that dived three times to the Challenger Deep bottom during the May/June 2009 cruise and did not confirm the sonar established maximum depth by its support ship.===2009 – RV ''Yokosuka''===Cruise YK09-08 brought the JAMSTEC 4,429-ton research vessel ''Yokosuka'' back to the Mariana Trough and to the Challenger Deep June–July 2009.Their mission was a two-part program: surveying three hydrothermal vent sites in the southern Mariana Trough backarc basin near 12°57'N, 143°37'E about 130 nmi northeast of the central basin of the Challenger Deep, using the autonomous underwater vehicle ''Urashima''.",
"AUV ''Urashima'' dives #90–94, were to a maximum depth of 3500 meters, and were successful in surveying all three sites with a Reson SEABAT7125AUV multibeam echosounder for bathymetry, and multiple water testers to detect and map trace elements spewed into the water from hydrothermal vents, white smokers, and hot spots.",
"Kyoko OKINO from the Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo, was principal investigator for this aspect of the cruise.The second goal of the cruise was to deploy a new \"10K free fall camera system\" called ''Ashura'', to sample sediments and biologics at the bottom of the Challenger Deep.",
"The principal investigator at the Challenger Deep was Taishi Tsubouchi of JAMSTEC.",
"The lander ''Ashura'' made two descents: on the first, 6 July 2009, ''Ashura'' bottomed at at .",
"The second descent (on 10 July 2009) was to at .",
"The 270 kg ''Ashura'' was equipped with multiple baited traps, a HTDV video camera, and devices to recover sediment, water, and biological samples (mostly amphipods at the bait, and bacteria and fungus from the sediment and water samples).===2010 – USNS ''Sumner''===On 7 October 2010, further sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep area was conducted by the US Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping/Joint Hydrographic Center (CCOM/JHC) aboard the 4.762-ton ''Sumner''.",
"The results were reported in December 2011 at the annual American Geophysical Union fall meeting.",
"Using a Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 multi-beam echosounder system coupled to positioning equipment that can determine latitude and longitude up to accuracy, from thousands of individual soundings around the deepest part the CCOM/JHC team preliminary determined that the Challenger Deep has a maximum depth of at , with an estimated vertical uncertainty of ± at two standard deviations (i.e.",
"≈ 95.4%) confidence level.",
"A secondary deep with a depth of was located at approximately to the east at in the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep.===2010 – RV ''Yokosuka''===JAMSTEC returned ''Yokosuka'' to the Challenger Deep with cruise YK10-16, 21–28 November 2010.The chief scientist of this joint Japanese-Danish expedition was Hiroshi Kitazato of the Institute of Biogeosciences, JAMSTEC.",
"The cruise was titled \"Biogeosciences at the Challenger Deep: relict organisms and their relations to biogeochemical cycles\".",
"The Japanese teams made five deployments of their 11,000-meter camera system (three to 6,000 meters – two into the central basin of the Challenger Deep) which returned with 15 sediment cores, video records and 140 scavenging amphipod specimens.",
"The Danish Ultra Deep Lander System was employed by Ronnie Glud et al on four casts, two into the central basin of the Challenger Deep and two to 6,000 m some 34 nmi west of the central basin.",
"The deepest depth recorded was on 28 November 2010 – camera cast CS5 – }, at a corrected depth of (the central basin).===2013 – RV ''Yokosuka''===With JAMSTEC Cruises YK13-09 and YK13-12, ''Yokosuka'' hosted chief scientist Hidetaka Nomaki for a trip to New Zealand waters (YK13-09), with the return cruise identified as YK13-12.The project name was QUELLE2013; and the cruise title was: \"In situ experimental & sampling study to understand abyssal biodiversity and biogeochemical cycles\".",
"They spent one day on the return trip at the Challenger Deep to obtain DNA/RNA on the large amphipods inhabiting the Deep (''Hirondellea gigas'').",
"Hideki Kobayashi (Biogeos, JAMSTEC) and the team deployed a benthic lander on 23 November 2013 with eleven baited traps (three bald, five covered by insulating materials, and three automatically sealed after nine hours) into the central basin of the Challenger Deep at , depth .",
"After an eight-hour, 46-minute stay at the bottom, they recovered some 90 individual ''Hirondellea gigas''.RV ''Kairei'' is used as the support ship for deep-diving ROVs.===2014 – RV ''Kairei''===JAMSTEC deployed ''Kairei'' to the Challenger Deep again 11–17 January 2014, under the leadership of chief scientist Takuro Nunora.",
"The cruise identifier was KR14-01, titled: \"Trench biosphere expedition for the Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench\".",
"The expedition sampled at six stations transecting the central basin, with only two deployments of the \"11-K camera system\" lander for sediment cores and water samples to \"Station C\" at the deepest depth, i.e.",
", at .",
"The other stations were investigated with the \"Multi-core\" lander, both to the backarc northward, and to the Pacific Plate southward.",
"The 11,000-meter capable crawler-driven ROV ''ABIMSO'' was sent to 7,646 m depth about 20 nmi due north of the central basin (ABISMO dive #21) specifically to identify possible hydrothermal activity on the north slope of the Challenger Deep, as suggested by findings from ''Kairei'' cruise KR08-05 in 2008.",
"''AMISMO'' dives #20 and #22 were to 7,900 meters about 15 nmi north of the deepest waters of the central basin.",
"Italian researchers under the leadership of Laura Carugati from the Polytechnic University of Marche, Italy (UNIVPM) were investigating the dynamics in virus/prokaryotes interactions in the Mariana Trench.===2014 – RV ''Falkor''===From 16–19 December 2014, the Schmidt Ocean Institute's 2,024-ton research vessel ''Falkor'', under chief scientist Douglas Bartlett from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, deployed four different untethered instruments into the Challenger Deep for seven total releases.",
"Four landers were deployed on 16 December into the central basin: the baited video-equipped lander ''Leggo'' for biologics; the lander ''ARI'' to for water chemistry; and the probes ''Deep Sound 3'' and ''Deep Sound 2''.",
"Both Deep Sound probes recorded acoustics floating at depth, until ''Deep Sound 3'' imploded at the depth of (about above the bottom) at .",
"The ''Deep Sound 2'' recorded the implosion of ''Deep Sound 3'', providing a unique recording of an implosion within the Challenger Deep depression.",
"In addition to the loss of the ''Deep Sound 3'' by implosion, the lander ''ARI'' failed to respond upon receiving its instruction to drop weights, and was never recovered.",
"On 16/17 December, ''Leggo'' was returned to the central basin baited for amphipods.",
"On the 17th, RV ''Falkor'' relocated 17 nms eastward to the eastern basin, where they again deployed both the ''Leggo'' (baited and with its full camera load), and the ''Deep Sound 2''.",
"''Deep Sound 2'' was programmed to drop to and remain at that depth during its recording of sounds within the trench.",
"On 19 December ''Leggo'' landed at at a uncorrected depth of according to its pressure sensor readings.",
"This reading was corrected to depth.",
"''Leggo'' returned with good photography of amphipods feeding on the lander's mackerel bait and with sample amphipods.",
"''Falknor'' departed the Challenger Deep on 19 December en route the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument to the Sirena Deep.",
"RV ''Falkor'' had both a Kongsberg EM302 and EM710 multibeam echosounder for bathymetry, and an Oceaneering C-Nav 3050 global navigation satellite system receiver, capable of calculating geodetic positioning with an accuracy better than horizontally and vertically.===2015 – USCGC ''Sequoia''===US Coast Guard Cutter ''Sequoia'' (WLB 215)From 10 to 13 July 2015, the Guam-based 1,930-ton US Coast Guard Cutter ''Sequoia'' (WLB 215) hosted a team of researchers, under chief scientist Robert P. Dziak, from the NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL), the University of Washington, and Oregon State University, in deploying PMEL's \"Full-Ocean Depth Mooring\", a 45-meter-long moored deep-ocean hydrophone and pressure sensor array into the western basin of the Challenger Deep.",
"A 6-hour descent into the western basin anchored the array at of water depth, at , about 1 km northeast of ''Sumner'' deepest depth, recorded in 2010.After 16 weeks, the moored array was recovered on 2–4 November 2015.",
"\"Observed sound sources included earthquake signals (T phases), baleen and odontocete cetacean vocalizations, ship propeller sounds, airguns, active sonar and the passing of a Category 4 typhoon.\"",
"The science team described their results as \"the first multiday, broadband record of ambient sound at Challenger Deep, as well as only the fifth direct depth measurement\".===2016 – RV ''Xiangyanghong 09''===The 3,536-ton research vessel ''Xiangyanghong 09'' deployed on Leg II of the 37th China Cruise Dayang (DY37II) sponsored by the National Deep Sea Center, Qingdao and the Institute of Deep-Sea Science and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences (Sanya, Hainan), to the Challenger Deep western basin area (11°22' N, 142°25' E) 4 June – 12 July 2016.As the mother ship for China's manned deep submersible ''Jiaolong'', the expedition carried out an exploration of the Challenger Deep to investigate the geological, biological, and chemical characteristics of the hadal zone.",
"The diving area for this leg was on the southern slope of the Challenger Deep, at depths from about .",
"The submersible completed nine piloted dives on the northern backarc and south area (Pacific plate) of the Challenger Deep to depths from .",
"During the cruise, ''Jiaolong'' regularly deployed gas-tight samplers to collect water near the sea bottom.",
"In a test of navigational proficiency, ''Jiaolong'' used an Ultra-Short Base Line (USBL) positioning system at a depth more than to retrieve sampling bottles.===2016 – RV ''Tansuo 01''===From 22 June to 12 August 2016 (cruises 2016S1 and 2016S2), the Chinese Academy of Sciences' 6,250-ton submersible support ship ''Tansuo 1'' (meaning: to explore) on her maiden voyage deployed to the Challenger Deep from her home port of Sanya, Hainan Island.",
"On 12 July 2016, the ROV ''Haidou-1'' dived to a depth of in the Challenger Deep area.",
"They also cast a free-drop lander, rated free-drop ocean-floor seismic instruments (deployed to ), obtained sediment core samples, and collected over 2000 biological samples from depths ranging from .",
"The ''Tansuo 01'' operated along the 142°30.00' longitude line, about 30 nmi east of the earlier DY37II cruise survey (see ''Xiangyanghong 09'' above).===2016 – RV ''Sonne''===German maritime research vessel ''Sonne''In November 2016 sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep area was conducted by the Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ)/GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel aboard the 8,554-ton Deep Ocean Research Vessel ''Sonne''.",
"The results were reported in 2017.Using a Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 multi-beam echosounder system coupled to positioning equipment that can determine latitude and longitude the team determined that the Challenger Deep has a maximum depth of at (), with an estimated vertical uncertainty of ± at one standard deviation (≈ 68.3%) confidence level.",
"The analysis of the sonar survey offered a grid resolution at bottom depth, so small dips in the bottom that are less than that size would be difficult to detect from the 0.5 by 1 degree sonar-emissions at the sea surface.",
"Each 0.5-degree beam width sonar ping expands to cover a circular area about in diameter at depth.",
"The horizontal position of the grid point has an uncertainty of ±, depending on along-track or across-track direction.",
"This depth () and position (about to the northeast) measurements differ significantly from the deepest point determined by the Gardner et al.",
"(2014) study.",
"The observed depth discrepancy with the 2010 sonar mapping and Gardner et al 2014 study are related to the application of differing sound velocity profiles, which are essential for accurate depth determination.",
"''Sonne'' used CTD casts about 1.6 km west of the deepest sounding to near the bottom of the Challenger Deep that were used for sound velocity profile calibration and optimization.",
"Likewise, the impact of using different projections, datum and ellipsoids during data acquisition can cause positional discrepancies between surveys.===2016 – RV ''Shyian 3''===In December 2016, the CAS 3,300-ton research vessel ''Shiyan 3'' deployed 33 broadband seismometers onto both the backarc northwest of the Challenger Deep, and onto the near southern Pacific Plate to the southeast, at depths of up to .",
"This cruise was part of a $12 million Chinese-U.S. initiative, led by co-leader Jian Lin of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; a 5-year effort (2017–2021) to image in fine detail the rock layers in and around the Challenger Deep.===2016 – RV ''Zhang Jian''===The newly launched 4,800-ton research vessel (and mothership for the ''Rainbow Fish'' series of deep submersibles), the ''Zhang Jian'' departed Shanghai on 3 December.",
"Their cruise was to test three new deep-sea landers, one uncrewed search submersible and the new ''Rainbow Fish'' 11,000-meter manned deep submersible, all capable of diving to 10,000 meters.",
"From 25 to 27 December, three deep-sea landing devices descended into the trench.",
"The first Rainbow Fish lander took photographs, the second took sediment samples, and the third took biological samples.",
"All three landers reached over 10,000 meters, and the third device brought back 103 amphipods.",
"Cui Weicheng, director of Hadal Life Science Research Center at Shanghai Ocean University, led the team of scientists to carry out research at the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench.",
"The ship is part of China's national marine research fleet but is owned by a Shanghai marine technology company.===2017 – RV ''Tansuo-1''===CAS' Institute of Deep-sea Science and Engineering sponsored ''Tansuo-1'' return to the Challenger Deep 20 January – 5 February 2017 (cruise TS03) with baited traps for the capture of fish and other macrobiology near the Challenger and Sirena Deeps.",
"On 29 January they recovered photography and samples of a new species of snailfish from the Northern slope of the Challenger Deep at , newly designated ''Pseudoliparis swirei''.",
"They also placed four or more CTD casts into the ''central'' and ''eastern'' basins of the Challenger Deep, as part of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE).===2017 – RV ''Shinyo Maru''===Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology dispatched the research vessel ''Shinyo Maru'' to the Mariana Trench from 20 January to 5 February 2017 with baited traps for the capture of fish and other macrobiology near the Challenger and Sirena Deeps.",
"On 29 January they recovered photography and samples of a new species of snailfish from the Northern slope of the Challenger Deep at , which has been newly designated ''Pseudoliparis swirei''.===2017 – RV ''Kexue 3''===Water samples were collected at Challenger Deep from 11 layers of the Mariana Trench in March 2017.Seawater samples from 4 to 4,000 m were collected by Niskin bottles mounted to a Seabird SBE25 CTDs; whereas water samples at depths from 6,050 m to 8,320 m were collected by a self-designed acoustic-controlled full ocean depth water samplers.",
"In this study, scientists studied the RNA of pico- and nano-plankton from the surface to the hadal zone.===2017 – RV ''Kairei''===JAMSTEC deployed ''Kairei'' to the Challenger Deep in May 2017 for the express purpose of testing the new full-ocean depth ROV ''UROV11K'' (Underwater ROV 11,000-meter-capable), as cruise KR 17-08C, under chief scientist Takashi Murashima.",
"The cruise title was: \"Sea trial of a full depth ROV ''UROV11K'' system in the Mariana Trench\".",
"''UROV11K'' carried a new 4K High Definition video camera system, and new sensors to monitor the hydrogen-sulfide, methane, oxygen, and hydrogen content of the water.",
"Unfortunately, on ''UROV11K'' ascent from (at about 11°22.30'N 142°35.8 E, in the ''eastern'' basin) on 14 May 2017, the ROV's buoyancy failed at depth, and all efforts to retrieve the ROV were unsuccessful.",
"The rate of descent and drift is not available, but the ROV bottomed to the east of the deepest waters of the eastern basin as revealed by the ship's maneuvering on 14 May.",
"Murashima then directed the Kairei to a location about 35 nmi east of the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep to test a new \"Compact Hadal Lander\" which made three descents to depths from 7,498 to 8,178 m for testing the Sony 4K camera and for photography of fish and other macro-biologics.===2018 – RV ''Shen Kuo''===On its maiden voyage, the 2,150-ton twin-hulled scientific research vessel ''Shen Kuo'' (also ''Shengkuo'', ''Shen Ko'', or ''Shen Quo''), departed Shanghai on 25 November 2018 and returned on 8 January 2019.They operated in the Mariana Trench area, and on 13 December tested a system of underwater navigation at a depth exceeding 10,000 metres, during a field trial of the ''Tsaihungyuy'' (ultra-short baseline) system.",
"Project leader Tsui Veichen stated that, with the Tsaihungyuy equipment at depth, it was possible to obtain a signal and determine exact geolocations.",
"The research team from Shanghai Ocean University and Westlake University was led by Cui Weicheng, director of Shanghai Ocean University's Hadal Science and Technology Research Center (HSRC).The equipment to be tested included a piloted submersible (not full ocean depth – depth achieved not available) and two deep-sea landers, all capable of diving to depths of 10,000 meters, as well as an ROV that can go to 4,500 meters.",
"They took photographs and obtained samples from the trench, including water, sediment, macro-organisms and micro-organisms.",
"Cui says, \"If we can take photos of fish more than 8,145 meters under water, ... we will break the current world record.",
"We will test our new equipment including the landing devices.",
"They are second generation.",
"The first generation could only take samples in one spot per dive, but this new second generation can take samples at different depths in one dive.",
"We also tested the ultra short baseline acoustic positioning system on the manned submersible, the future of underwater navigation.",
"\"===2019 – RV ''Sally Ride''===General Oceanographic RV ''Sally Ride''In November 2019, as cruise SR1916, a NIOZ team led by chief scientist Hans van Haren, with Scripps technicians, deployed to the Challenger Deep aboard the 2,641-ton research vessel , to recover a mooring line from the western basin of the Challenger Deep.",
"The long mooring line in the Challenger Deep consisted of top-floatation positioned around depth, two sections of Dyneema neutrally buoyant line, two Benthos acoustic releases and two sections of self-contained instrumentation to measure and store current, salinity and temperature.",
"Around the depth position two current meters were mounted below a long array of 100 high-resolution temperature sensors.",
"In the lower position starting above the sea floor 295 specially designed high-resolution temperature sensors were mounted, the lowest of which was above the trench floor.",
"The mooring line was deployed and left by the NIOZ team during the November 2016 RV ''Sonne'' expedition with the intention to be recovered in late 2018 by ''Sonne''.",
"The acoustic commanded release mechanism near the bottom of the Challenger Deep failed at the 2018 attempt.",
"RV ''Sally Ride'' was made available exclusively for a final attempt to retrieve the mooring line before the release mechanism batteries expired.",
"''Sally Ride'' arrived at the Challenger Deep on 2 November.",
"This time a 'deep release unit' lowered by one of ''Sally Ride'' winch-cables to around 1,000 m depth pinged release commands and managed to contact the near-bottom releases.",
"After being submerged for nearly three years, mechanical problems occurred in 15 of the 395 temperature sensors.",
"The first results indicate the occurrence of internal waves in the Challenger Deep."
],
[
"Study of the depth and location of the Challenger Deep",
"Since May 2000, with the help of non-degraded signal satellite navigation, civilian surface vessels equipped with professional dual-frequency capable satellite navigation equipment can measure and establish their geodetic position with an accuracy in the order of meters to tens of meters whilst the western, central and eastern basins are kilometers apart.GEBCO 2019 bathymetry of the Challenger Deep and Sirena Deep.",
"(a) Mariana Trench multibeam bathymetry data gridded at 75 m acquired on‐board the DSSV Pressure Drop overtop the GEBCO 2019 source grid (as shown in Figure 1) and the complete GEBCO 2019 grid with hillshade.",
"EM 124 black contours at 500 m intervals, GEBCO 2019 grey contours at 1,000 m intervals.",
"The white circle indicates the deepest point and submersible dive location, the white triangle indicates the submersible dive location from Sirena Deep, the red spot was the deepest point derived by van Haren et al., (2017).",
"(b) Challenger Deep.",
"(c) Sirena Deep.Bathymetric cross sections A'–A” and B'–B” over Challenger Deep and Sirena Deep displayed in (d) and (e), respectively.In 2014, a study was conducted regarding the determination of the depth and location of the Challenger Deep based on data collected previous to and during the 2010 sonar mapping of the Mariana Trench with a Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 multibeam echosounder system aboard USNS ''Sumner''.",
"This study by James.",
"V. Gardner et al.",
"of the Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping-Joint Hydrographic Center (CCOM/JHC), Chase Ocean Engineering Laboratory of the University of New Hampshire splits the measurement attempt history into three main groups: early single-beam echo sounders (1950s–1970s), early multibeam echo sounders (1980s – 21st century), and modern (i.e., post-GPS, high-resolution) multibeam echo sounders.",
"Taking uncertainties in depth measurements and position estimation into account, the raw data of the 2010 bathymetry of the Challenger Deep vicinity consisting of 2,051,371 soundings from eight survey lines was analyzed.",
"The study concludes that with the best of 2010 multibeam echosounder technologies after the analysis a depth uncertainty of ± (95% confidence level) on 9 degrees of freedom and a positional uncertainty of ± (2drms) remain and the location of the deepest depth recorded in the 2010 mapping is at .",
"The depth measurement uncertainty is a composite of measured uncertainties in the spatial variations in sound-speed through the water volume, the ray-tracing and bottom-detection algorithms of the multibeam system, the accuracies and calibration of the motion sensor and navigation systems, estimates of spherical spreading, attenuation throughout the water volume, and so forth.Both the RV ''Sonne'' expedition in 2016, and the RV ''Sally Ride'' expedition in 2019 expressed strong reservations concerning the depth corrections applied by the Gardner et al.",
"study of 2014, and serious doubt concerning the accuracy of the deepest depth calculated by Gardner (in the ''western'' basin), of after analysis of their multibeam data on a grid.",
"Dr. Hans van Haren, chief scientist on the RV ''Sally Ride'' cruise SR1916, indicated that Gardner's calculations were too deep due to the \"sound velocity profiling by Gardner et al.",
"(2014).",
"\"In 2018-2019, the deepest points of each ocean were mapped using a full‐ocean depth Kongsberg EM 124 multibeam echosounder aboard ''DSSV Pressure Drop''.",
"In 2021, a data paper was published by Cassandra Bongiovanni, Heather A. Stewart and Alan J. Jamieson regarding the gathered data donated to GEBCO.",
"The deepest depth recorded in the 2019 Challenger Deep sonar mapping was ± at in the eastern basin.",
"This depth closely agrees with the deepest point ( ±) determined by the Van Haren et al.",
"sonar bathymetry.",
"The geodetic position of the deepest depth according to the Van Haren et al.",
"significantly differs (about to the west) with the 2021 paper.",
"After post-processing the initial depth estimates by application of a full-ocean depth sound velocity profile Bongiovanni et al.",
"report an (almost) as deep point at in the western basin that geodetically differs about with the deepest point position determined by Van Haren et al.",
"( in the western basin).",
"After analysis of their multibeam data on a grid, the Bongiovanni et al.",
"2021 paper states the technological accuracy does not currently exist on low-frequency ship-mounted sonars required to determine which location was truly the deepest, nor does it currently exist on deep-sea pressure sensors.In 2021, a study by Samuel F. Greenaway, Kathryn D. Sullivan, Samuel H. Umfress, Alice B. Beittel and Karl D. Wagner was published presenting a revised estimate of the maximum depth of the Challenger Deep based on a series of submersible dives conducted in June 2020.These depth estimates are derived from acoustic echo sounding profiles referenced to in-situ direct pressure measurements and corrected for observed oceanographic properties of the water-column, atmospheric pressure, gravity and gravity-gradient anomalies, and water-level effects.",
"The study concludes according to their calculations the deepest observed seafloor depth was ± below mean sea level at a 95% confidence level at in the eastern basin.",
"For this estimate, the error term is dominated by the uncertainty of the employed pressure sensor, but Greenaway et al.",
"show that the gravity correction is also substantial.",
"The Greenaway et al.",
"study compares its results with other recent acoustic and pressure-based measurements for the Challenger Deep and concludes the deepest depth in the western basin is very nearly as deep as the eastern basin.",
"The disagreement between the maximum depth estimates and their geodetic positions between post-2000 published depths however exceed the accompanying margins of uncertainty, raising questions regarding the measurements or the reported uncertainties.Another 2021 paper by Scott Loranger, David Barclay and Michael Buckingham, besides a December 2014 implosion shock wave based depth estimate of , which is among the deepest estimated depths, also treatises the differences between various maximum depth estimates and their geodetic positions.===Direct measurements===The 2010 maximal sonar mapping depths reported by Gardner et.al.",
"in 2014 and Greenaway et al.",
"study in 2021 have not been confirmed by direct descent (pressure gauge/manometer) measurements at full-ocean depth.Expeditions have reported direct measured maximal depths in a narrow range.For the '''''western'' basin''' deepest depths were reported as by in 1960 and ± by ''DSV Limiting Factor'' in June 2020.For the '''''central'' basin''' the greatest reported depth is ± by ''DSV Limiting Factor'' in June 2020.For the '''''eastern'' basin''' deepest depths were reported as by ROV in 1995, by ROV ''Nereus'' in 2009, by in 2012, by benthic lander \"Leggo\" in May 2019, and ± by ''DSV Limiting Factor'' in May 2019."
],
[
"Descents",
"===Manned descents=======1960 – ''Trieste''====On 23 January 1960, the Swiss-designed ''Trieste'', originally built in Italy and acquired by the U.S. Navy, supported by the USS ''Wandank'' (ATF 204) and escorted by the USS ''Lewis'' (DE 535), descended to the ocean floor in the trench piloted by Jacques Piccard (who co-designed the submersible along with his father, Auguste Piccard) and USN Lieutenant Don Walsh.",
"Their crew compartment was inside a spherical pressure vessel – measuring 2.16 metres in diameter suspended beneath a buoyancy tank 18.4 metres in length – which was a heavy-duty replacement (of the Italian original) built by Krupp Steel Works of Essen, Germany.",
"The steel walls were thick and designed to withstand pressure of up to .Their descent took almost five hours and the two men spent barely twenty minutes on the ocean floor before undertaking the three-hour-and-fifteen-minute ascent.",
"Their early departure from the ocean floor was due to their concern over a crack in the outer window caused by the temperature differences during their descent.",
"''Trieste'' dived at/near , bottoming at ± into the Challenger Deep's ''western'' basin, as measured by an onboard manometer.",
"Another source states the measured depth at the bottom was measured with a manometer at ±.Navigation of the support ships was by celestial and LORAN-C with an accuracy of or less.",
"Fisher noted that the ''Trieste'''s reported depth \"agrees well with the sonic sounding.",
"\"====2012 – ''Deepsea Challenger''====DSV ''Deepsea Challenger''On 26 March 2012 (local time), Canadian film director James Cameron made a solo descent in the DSV ''Deepsea Challenger'' to the bottom of the Challenger Deep.At approximately 05:15 ChST on 26 March (19:15 UTC on 25 March), the descent began.At 07:52 ChST (21:52 UTC), ''Deepsea Challenger'' arrived at the bottom.",
"The descent lasted 2 hours and 36 minutes and the recorded depth was when ''Deepsea Challenger'' touched down.Cameron had planned to spend about six hours near the ocean floor exploring but decided to start the ascent to the surface after only 2 hours and 34 minutes.",
"The time on the bottom was shortened because a hydraulic fluid leak in the lines controlling the manipulator arm obscured the visibility out the only viewing port.",
"It also caused the loss of the submersible's starboard thrusters.",
"At around 12:00 ChST (02:00 UTC on 26 March), the Deepsea Challenger website says the sub resurfaced after a 90-minute ascent, although Paul Allen's tweets indicate the ascent took only about 67 minutes.",
"During a post-dive press conference Cameron said: \"I landed on a very soft, almost gelatinous flat plain.",
"Once I got my bearings, I drove across it for quite a distance ... and finally worked my way up the slope.\"",
"The whole time, Cameron said, he didn't see any fish, or any living creatures more than an inch (2.54 cm) long: \"The only free swimmers I saw were small amphipods\" – shrimplike bottom-feeders.====2019 – ''Five Deeps Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor''====DSSV ''Pressure Drop'' and DSV ''Limiting Factor'' at its sternalt=The Five Deeps Expedition's objective was to thoroughly map and visit the deepest points of all five of the world's oceans by the end of September 2019.On 28 April 2019, explorer Victor Vescovo descended to the \"Eastern Pool\" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle ''Limiting Factor'' (a Triton 36000/2 model submersible).",
"Between 28 April and 4 May 2019, the ''Limiting Factor'' completed four dives to the bottom of Challenger Deep.",
"The fourth dive descended to the slightly less deep \"Central Pool\" of the Challenger Deep (crew: Patrick Lahey, Pilot; John Ramsay, Sub Designer).",
"The Five Deeps Expedition estimated maximum depths of ± and ± at () by direct CTD pressure measurements and a survey of the operating area by the support ship, the Deep Submersible Support Vessel ''DSSV ''Pressure Drop'''', with a Kongsberg SIMRAD EM124 multibeam echosounder system.",
"The CTD measured pressure at of seawater depth was .",
"Due to a technical problem the (uncrewed) ultra-deep-sea lander ''Skaff'' used by the Five Deeps Expedition stayed on the bottom for two and half days before it was salvaged by the ''Limiting Factor'' (crew: Patrick Lahey, Pilot; Jonathan Struwe, DNV GL Specialist) from an estimated depth of .",
"The gathered data was published with the caveat that it was subject to further analysis and could possibly be revised in the future.",
"The data will be donated to the GEBCO Seabed 2030 initiative.",
"Later in 2019, following a review of bathymetric data, and multiple sensor recordings taken by the DSV ''Limiting Factor'' and the ultra-deep-sea landers ''Closp'', ''Flere'' and ''Skaff'', the Five Deeps Expedition revised the maximum depth to ±.====2020 – ''Ring of Fire Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor''====DSV ''Limiting Factor'' floating on the water surfaceCaladan Oceanic's \"Ring of Fire\" expedition in the Pacific included six manned descents and twenty-five lander deployments into all three basins of the Challenger Deep all piloted by Victor Vescovo and further topographical and marine life survey of the entire Challenger Deep.",
"The expedition craft used are the Deep Submersible Support Vessel DSSV ''Pressure Drop'', Deep-Submergence Vehicle DSV ''Limiting Factor'' and the ultra-deep-sea landers ''Closp'', ''Flere'' and ''Skaff''.During the first manned dive on 7 June 2020 Victor Vescovo and former US astronaut (and former NOAA Administrator) Kathryn D. Sullivan descended to the \"Eastern Pool\" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle ''Limiting Factor''.On 12 June 2020, Victor Vescovo and mountaineer and explorer Vanessa O'Brien descended to the \"Eastern Pool\" of the Challenger Deep spending three hours mapping the bottom.",
"O'Brien said her dive scanned about a mile of desolate bottom terrain, finding that the surface is not flat, as once was thought, but sloping by about per mile, subject to verification.On 14 June 2020, Victor Vescovo and John Rost descended to the \"Eastern Pool\" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle ''Limiting Factor'' spending four hours at depth and transiting the bottom for nearly 2 miles.On 20 June 2020, Victor Vescovo and Kelly Walsh descended to the \"Western Pool\" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle ''Limiting Factor'' spending four hours at the bottom.",
"They reached a maximum depth of .",
"Kelly Walsh is the son of the ''Trieste's'' captain Don Walsh who descended there in 1960 with Jacques Piccard.On 21 June 2020, Victor Vescovo and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution researcher Ying-Tsong Lin descended to the \"Central Pool\" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle ''Limiting Factor''.",
"They reached a maximum depth of ±.On 26 June 2020 Victor Vescovo and Jim Wigginton descended to the \"Eastern Pool\" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle ''Limiting Factor''.====2020 – ''Fendouzhe''====''Fendouzhe'' aboard its mother ship ''Tan Suo Yi Hao''''Fendouzhe'' (奋斗者, ''Striver'') is a manned Chinese deep-sea submersible developed by the China Ship Scientific Research Center (CSSRC).",
"Between 10 October and 28 November, 2020, it carried out thirteen dives in the Mariana Trench as part of a test programme.",
"Of these, eight led to depths of more than .",
"On 10 November 2020, the bottom of the Challenger Deep was reached by ''Fendouzhe'' with three Chinese scientists (Zhāng Wěi 张伟 pilot, Zhào Yáng 赵洋, and Wáng Zhìqiáng 王治强) onboard whilst live-streaming the descent to a reported depth of .",
"This makes the '' Fendouzhe '' the fourth manned submersible vehicle achieving a successful descent.",
"The pressure hull of ''Fendouzhe'', made from a newly developed titanium alloy, offers space for three people in addition to technical equipment.",
"''Fendouzhe'' is equipped with cameras made by the Norwegian manufacturer Imenco.According to Ye Cong 叶聪, the chief designer of the submersible, China's goals for the dive aren't just scientific investigation but also the future use of deep-sea seabed resources.====2021 – ''Ring of Fire 2 Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor''====On 28 February 2021 Caladan Oceanic's \"Ring of Fire 2\" expedition arrived over the Challenger Deep and conducted manned descents and lander deployments into the Challenger Deep.",
"At the start the (uncrewed) ultra-deep-sea lander ''Skaff'' was deployed to collect water column data by CTD for the expedition.",
"The effects of the Pacific subducting plate crashing into the Philippine Plate was among the things researched onsite.On 1 March 2021, the first manned descent to the eastern pool was made by Victor Vescovo and Richard Garriott.",
"Garriott became the 17th person to descend to the bottom.On 2 March 2021, a descent to the eastern pool was made by Victor Vescovo and Michael Dubno.On 5 March a descent to the eastern pool was made by Victor Vescovo and Hamish Harding.",
"They traversed the bottom of Challenger Deep.On 11 March 2021 a descent to the Western Pool was made by Victor Vescovo and marine botanist Nicole Yamase.On 13 April 2021 a descent was made by deep water submersible operations expert Rob McCallum and Tim Macdonald who piloted the dive.A 2021 descent with a Japanese citizen is planned.All manned descents were conducted in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle ''DSV Limiting Factor''.====2022 - ''Ring of Fire 3 Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor''====In July 2022 for the fourth consecutive year, Caladan Oceanic's deep submergence system, consisting of the deep submersible DSV ''Limiting Factor'' supported by the mother ship DSSV ''Pressure Drop'', returned to the Challenger Deep for dives into the Challenger Deep.In early July 2022, Victor Vescovo was joined by Aaron Newman as a mission specialist for a dive into the Central pool.",
"On 5 July 2022, Tim Macdonald as pilot and Jim Kitchen as mission specialist for a dive into the Eastern pool.",
"On 8 July 2022 Victor Vescovo was joined by Dylan Taylor as mission specialist for a dive into the Eastern pool.Victor Vescovo (for his 15th dive into the Challenger Deep) was joined by geographer and oceanographer Dawn Wright as mission specialist on the 12 July 2022 dive to in the Western Pool.",
"Wright operated the world's first sidescan sonar to ever operate at full-ocean depth to capture detailed imagery along short transects of the southern wall of the Western Pool.===Uncrewed descents by ROVs=======1996 and 1998 – ''Kaikō''====The remotely operated vehicle (ROV) ''Kaikō'' made many uncrewed descents to the Mariana Trench from its support ship RV ''Yokosuka'' during two expeditions in 1996 and 1998.From 29 February to 4 March the ROV ''Kaiko'' made three dives into the ''central'' basin, ''Kaiko'' #21 – ''Kaiko'' #23, .",
"Depths ranged from at , to at ; dives #22 & #23 to the north, and dive #21 northeast of the deepest waters of the ''central'' basin.",
"During the 1996 measurements the temperature (water temperature increases at great depth due to adiabatic compression), salinity and water pressure at the sampling station was , 34.7‰ and , respectively at depth.",
"The Japanese robotic deep-sea probe ''Kaikō'' broke the depth record for uncrewed probes when it reached close to the surveyed bottom of the Challenger Deep.",
"Created by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), it was one of the few uncrewed deep-sea probes in operation that could dive deeper than .",
"The manometer measured depth of ± at for the Challenger Deep is believed to be the most accurate measurement taken up to then.Another source states the greatest depth measured by ''Kaikō'' in 1996 was at and at in 1998.The ROV ''Kaiko'' was the first vehicle to visit to the bottom of the Challenger Deep since the bathyscaph ''Trieste'''s dive in 1960, and the first success in sampling the trench bottom sediment/mud, from which ''Kaiko'' obtained over 360 samples.",
"Approximately 3,000 different microbes were identified in the samples.",
"''Kaikō'' was lost at sea off Shikoku Island during Typhoon Chan-Hom on 29 May 2003.====2009 – ''Nereus''====HROV NereusFrom 2 May to 5 June 2009, the RV ''Kilo Moana'' hosted the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) hybrid remotely operated vehicle (HROV) ''Nereus'' team for the first operational test of the '''' in its 3-ton tethered ROV mode.",
"The ''Nereus'' team was headed by the Expedition Leader Andy Bowen of WHOI, Louis Whitcomb of Johns Hopkins University, and Dana Yoerger, also of WHOI.",
"The expedition had co-chief scientists: biologist Tim Shank of WHOI, and geologist Patricia Fryer of the University of Hawaii, to head the science team exploiting the ship's bathymetry and organizing the science experiments deployed by the ''Nereus''.",
"From ''Nereus'' dive #007ROV to just south of Guam, to dive #010ROV into the Nero Deep at , the testing gradually increased depths and complexities of activities at the bottom.Dive #011ROV, on 31 May 2009, saw the ''Nereus'' piloted on a 27.8-hour underwater mission, with about ten hours transversing the ''eastern'' basin of the Challenger Deep – from the south wall, northwest to the north wall – streaming live video and data back to its mothership.",
"A maximum depth of was registered at .",
"The '''' then relocated to the ''western'' basin, where a 19.3-hour underwater dive found a maximum depth of on dive #012ROV, and on dive #014ROV in the same area (11°19.59 N, 142°12.99 E) encountered a maximum depth of .",
"The ''Nereus'' was successful in recovering both sediment and rock samples from the ''eastern'' and the ''western'' basins with its manipulator arm for further scientific analysis.",
"The HROV's final dive was about to the north of the Challenger Deep, in the backarc, where they dived at the TOTO Caldera (12°42.00 N, 143°31.5 E).",
"Nereus thus became the first vehicle to reach the Mariana Trench since 1998 and the deepest-diving vehicle then in operation.",
"Project manager and developer Andy Bowen heralded the achievement as \"the start of a new era in ocean exploration\".",
"''Nereus'', unlike ''Kaikō'', did not need to be powered or controlled by a cable connected to a ship on the ocean surface.The HROV ''Nereus'' was lost on 10 May 2014 while conducting a dive at in depth in the Kermadec Trench.===Uncrewed descents near the Challenger Deep=======2008 – ''ABISMO''====In June 2008, the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) deployed the research vessel ''Kairei'' to the area of Guam for cruise KR08-05 Leg 1 and Leg 2.On 1–3 June 2008, during Leg 1, the Japanese robotic deep-sea probe ''ABISMO'' (Automatic Bottom Inspection and Sampling Mobile) on dives 11–13 almost reached the bottom about east of the Challenger Deep: \"Unfortunately, we were unable to dive to the sea floor because the legacy primary cable of the Kaiko system was a little bit short.",
"The 2-m long gravity core sampler was dropped in free fall, and sediment samples of 1.6m length were obtained.",
"Twelve bottles of water samples were also obtained at various depths...\" ABISMO's dive #14 was into the TOTO caldera (12°42.7777 N, 143°32.4055 E), about 60 nmi northeast of the deepest waters of the ''central'' basin of the Challenger Deep, where they obtained videos of the hydrothermal plume.",
"Upon successful testing to , JAMSTEC' ROV ''ABISMO'' became, briefly, the only full-ocean-depth rated ROV in existence.",
"On 31 May 2009, the ABISMO was joined by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's HROV ''Nereus'' as the only two operational full ocean depth capable remotely operated vehicles in existence.",
"During the ROV ''ABISMO's'' deepest sea trails dive its manometer measured a depth of ± in \"Area 1\" (vicinity of 12°43' N, 143°33' E).Leg 2, under chief scientist Takashi Murashima, operated at the Challenger Deep 8–9 June 2008, testing JAMSTEC's new full ocean depth \"Free Fall Mooring System,\" i.e.",
"a lander.",
"The lander was successfully tested twice to depth, taking video images and sediment samplings at , in the ''central'' basin of the Challenger Deep.====2016 – ''Haidou-1''====On 23 May 2016, the Chinese submersible ''Haidou-1'' dived to a depth of at an undisclosed position in the Mariana Trench, making China the third country after Japan (ROV ''Kaikō''), and the US (HROV ''Nereus''), to deploy a full-ocean-depth ROV.",
"This autonomous and remotely operated vehicle has a design depth of .====2020 – ''Vityaz-D''====On 8 May 2020, the Russian submersible ''Vityaz-D'' dived to a depth of at an undisclosed position in the Mariana Trench."
],
[
"Lifeforms",
"The summary report of the expedition lists radiolaria from the two dredged samples taken when the Challenger Deep was first discovered.",
"These (''Nassellaria'' and ''Spumellaria'') were reported in the Report on Radiolaria (1887) written by Ernst Haeckel.On their 1960 descent, the crew of the ''Trieste'' noted that the floor consisted of diatomaceous ooze and reported observing \"some type of flatfish\" lying on the seabed.Many marine biologists are now skeptical of this supposed sighting, and it is suggested that the creature may instead have been a sea cucumber.",
"The video camera on board the ''Kaiko'' probe spotted a sea cucumber, a scale worm and a shrimp at the bottom.",
"At the bottom of the Challenger Deep, the ''Nereus'' probe spotted one polychaete worm (a multi-legged predator) about an inch long.An analysis of the sediment samples collected by ''Kaiko'' found large numbers of simple organisms at .",
"While similar lifeforms have been known to exist in shallower ocean trenches (> 7,000 m) and on the abyssal plain, the lifeforms discovered in the Challenger Deep possibly represent taxa distinct from those in shallower ecosystems.Most of the organisms collected were simple, soft-shelled foraminifera (432 species according to National Geographic), with four of the others representing species of the complex, multi-chambered genera ''Leptohalysis'' and ''Reophax''.",
"Eighty-five per cent of the specimens were organic, soft-shelled allogromiids, which is unusual compared to samples of sediment-dwelling organisms from other deep-sea environments, where the percentage of organic-walled foraminifera ranges from 5% to 20%.",
"As small organisms with hard, calcareous shells have trouble growing at extreme depths because of the high solubility of calcium carbonate in the pressurized water, scientists theorize that the preponderance of soft-shelled organisms in the Challenger Deep may have resulted from the typical biosphere present when the Challenger Deep was shallower than it is now.",
"Over the course of six to nine million years, as the Challenger Deep grew to its present depth, many of the species present in the sediment died out or were unable to adapt to the increasing water pressure and changing environment.On 17 March 2013, researchers reported data that suggested piezophilic microorganisms thrive in the Challenger Deep.",
"Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to below the sea floor under of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States.",
"According to one of the researchers, \"You can find microbes everywherethey're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are.\""
],
[
"See also",
"* Emden Deep* Horizon Deep* Litke Deep, closest point to Earth's center* Sirena Deep (formerly HMRG Deep)* List of people who descended to Challenger Deep"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Mariana Trench* Mariana Trench: Seven miles deep, the ocean is still a noisy place"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Claude Louis Berthollet"
],
[
"Introduction",
" Lavoisier and Berthollet, Chimistes Celebres, Liebig's Extract of Meat Company Trading Card, 1929Claude Louis Berthollet statue in Annecy, France'''Claude Louis Berthollet''' (, 9 December 1748 – 6 November 1822) was a Savoyard-French chemist who became vice president of the French Senate in 1804.He is known for his scientific contributions to theory of chemical equilibria via the mechanism of reverse chemical reactions, and for his contribution to modern chemical nomenclature.",
"On a practical basis, Berthollet was the first to demonstrate the bleaching action of chlorine gas, and was first to develop a solution of sodium hypochlorite as a modern bleaching agent."
],
[
"Biography",
"Claude Louis Berthollet was born in Talloires, near Annecy, then part of the Duchy of Savoy, in 1749.He started his studies at Chambéry and then in Turin where he graduated in medicine.",
"Berthollet's great new developments in works regarding chemistry made him, in a short period of time, an active participant of the Academy of Science in 1780.Berthollet, along with Antoine Lavoisier and others, devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names, which serves as the basis of the modern system of naming chemical compounds.He also carried out research into dyes and bleaches, being first to introduce the use of chlorine gas as a commercial bleach in 1785.He first produced a modern bleaching liquid in 1789 in his laboratory on the quay Javel in Paris, France, by passing chlorine gas through a solution of sodium carbonate.",
"The resulting liquid, known as \"''Eau de Javel''\" (\"Javel water\"), was a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite.",
"Another strong chlorine oxidant and bleach which he investigated and was the first to produce, potassium chlorate (KClO3), is known as ''Berthollet's Salt''.Berthollet first determined the elemental composition of the gas ammonia, in 1785.Berthollet was one of the first chemists to recognize the characteristics of a reverse reaction, and hence, chemical equilibrium.Berthollet was engaged in a long-term battle with another French chemist, Joseph Proust, on the validity of the law of definite proportions.",
"While Proust believed that chemical compounds are composed of a fixed ratio of their constituent elements irrespective of the methods of production, Berthollet believed that this ratio can change according to the ratio of the reactants initially taken.",
"Although Proust proved his theory by accurate measurements, his theory was not immediately accepted partially due to Berthollet's authority.",
"His law was finally accepted when Berzelius confirmed it in 1811, but it was found later that Berthollet was not completely wrong because there exists a class of compounds that do not obey the law of definite proportions.",
"These non-stoichiometric compounds are also named ''berthollides'' in his honor.Berthollet was one of several scientists who went with Napoleon to Egypt and was a member of the physics and natural history section of the Institut d'Égypte."
],
[
"Awards and honours",
"In April, 1789 Berthollet was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London.",
"In 1801, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.",
"In 1809, Berthollet was elected an associate member first class of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, predecessor of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.",
"He was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1820 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.Claude-Louis Berthollet's 1788 publication entitled ''Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique'', published with colleagues Antoine Lavoisier, Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented at the Académie des Sciences (Paris) in 2015.A French High School located in Annecy is named after him (Lycée Claude Louis Berthollet).File:Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique-1.jpg|1787 copy of \"Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique\"File:Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique-2.jpg|Title page of \"Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique\"File:Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique-3.jpg|Table of contents for \"Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique\""
],
[
"Personal life",
"Berthollet married Marie Marguerite Baur in 1788.Their son, Amédée-Barthélémy Berthollet, died in 1811 of carbon monoxide poisoning via charcoal-burning suicide in which he had recorded his physiological and psychological experiences as a final scientific contribution before losing consciousness and succumbing to the fumes.Berthollet was accused of being an atheist.He died in Arcueil, France in 1822."
],
[
"See also",
"*Society of the Friends of Truth"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* ** * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chilean Constitution of 1980"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile of 1980''' () is the fundamental law in force in Chile.",
"It was approved and promulgated under the military dictatorship headed by Augusto Pinochet, being ratified by the Chilean citizenry through a referendum on September 11, 1980, although being held under restrictions and without electoral registers.",
"While 69% of the population was reported to have voted yes, the vote was questioned by hundreds of denunciations of irregularities and fraud.",
"The constitutional text took effect, in a transitory regime, on March 11, 1981, and then entered into full force on March 11, 1990, with the return to electoral democracy.",
"It was amended for the first time in 1989 (through a referendum), and afterward in 1991, 1994, 1997, each year from 1999 to 2001, 2003, each year from 2007 to 2015, and each year from 2017 to 2021, with the last three amendments concerning the constituent process of 2020–2022.In September 2005, under Ricardo Lagos's presidency, a large amendment of the Constitution was approved by parliamentarians, removing from the text some of the less democratic dispositions coming from Pinochet's regime, such as senators-for-life and appointed senators, as well as the armed forces' warranty of the democratic regime.On November 15, 2019, following a series of popular protests in October 2019, a political agreement between parties with parliamentary representation called for a national referendum on the proposal of writing a new Constitution and on the mechanism to draft it.",
"A plebiscite held on October 25, 2020, approved drafting a new fundamental charter, as well as choosing by popular vote delegates to a Constitutional Convention which was to fulfill this objective.",
"The members of the convention were elected in May, 2021, and first convened on July 4, 2021.However, on 4 September 2022, voters rejected the new constitution in the constitutional referendum."
],
[
"Legitimacy",
"According to the law professor Camel Cazor Aliste, the Constitution of 1980 has problems of legitimacy stemming from two facts.",
"First, the constitutional commission was not representative of the political spectrum of Chile: its members had been handpicked by the Pinochet dictatorship, and opponents of the regime had been deliberately excluded.",
"Secondly, the constitution's approval was achieved by the government in a controversial and tightly controlled referendum in 1980.Campaigning for the referendum was irregular, with the government calling people to vote positively on the reform, and also using radio and television commercial spots, while the opposition urging people to vote negatively were only able of doing small public demonstrations, without access to television time and limited radio access.",
"There was no electoral roll for this vote, as the register had been burned during the dictatorship.",
"There were multiple cases of double voting, with at least 3000 CNI agents doing so.Since the return to democracy, the constitution has been amended nearly 60 times.A document from September 13, 1973, shows that Jaime Guzmán had by then already been tasked by the Junta to study the creation of a new constitution.It has been argued the 1980 Constitution was designed to favor the election of right-wing legislative majorities.",
"Several rounds of constitutional amendments have been enacted since 1989 to address this concern."
],
[
"Replacement",
"In July 2022, a proposed replacement constitution was submitted for national debate and general referendum, but it was rejected on September 4 despite having had the support of left-leaning President Gabriel Boric.",
"The document had faced intense criticism that it was \"too long, too left-wing and too radical\", and was rejected by a margin of 62% to 38%.On March 6, 2023, a group of experts appointed by Congress began a second attempt to prepare a preliminary draft of a new constitution.",
"The group, with lawyer Veronica Undurraga serving as its president, was scheduled to work for three months on 12 institutional bases agreed to by lawmakers, after which the draft would be given to an elected Constitutional Council, whose members would be voted upon on May 7, 2023.At the same time, a 14-member Technical Admissibility Committee began serving as arbitrator.On December 17, 2023, Chileans voted 55.8% to 44.2% against the second proposed constitution.",
"President Boric stated that he would not seek a third referendum; this outcome effectively guaranteed the 1980 charter would remain in effect."
],
[
"See also",
"* Chilean transition to democracy* 2021 Chilean Constitutional Convention election* 2023 Chilean Constitutional Council election* Constitutionalism"
],
[
"References",
"===General references===*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * ''Untying the knot'' (The Economist, Oct 21st 2004) * www.constitutionnet.org"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Crystallography"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A crystalline solid: atomic resolution image of strontium titanate.",
"Brighter spots are columns of strontium atoms and darker ones are titanium-oxygen columns.Octahedral and tetrahedral interstitial sites in a face centered cubic structureKikuchi lines in an electron backscatter diffraction pattern of monocrystalline silicon, taken at 20 kV with a field-emission electron source'''Crystallography''' is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids.",
"Crystallography is a fundamental subject in the fields of materials science and solid-state physics (condensed matter physics).",
"The word ''crystallography'' is derived from the Ancient Greek word (; \"clear ice, rock-crystal\"), with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, and (; \"to write\").",
"In July 2012, the United Nations recognised the importance of the science of crystallography by proclaiming that 2014 would be the International Year of Crystallography.",
"Before the development of X-ray diffraction crystallography (see below), the study of crystals was based on physical measurements of their geometry using a goniometer.",
"This involved measuring the angles of crystal faces relative to each other and to theoretical reference axes (crystallographic axes), and establishing the symmetry of the crystal in question.",
"The position in 3D space of each crystal face is plotted on a stereographic net such as a Wulff net or Lambert net.",
"The pole to each face is plotted on the net.",
"Each point is labelled with its Miller index.",
"The final plot allows the symmetry of the crystal to be established.Crystallographic methods depend mainly on analysis of the diffraction patterns of a sample targeted by a beam of some type.",
"X-rays are most commonly used; other beams used include electrons or neutrons.",
"Crystallographers often explicitly state the type of beam used, as in the terms ''X-ray crystallography, neutron diffraction'' and ''electron diffraction''.",
"These three types of radiation interact with the specimen in different ways.",
"* X-rays interact with the spatial distribution of electrons in the sample.",
"* Neutrons are scattered by the atomic nuclei through the strong nuclear forces, but in addition, the magnetic moment of neutrons is non-zero.",
"They are therefore also scattered by magnetic fields.",
"When neutrons are scattered from hydrogen-containing materials, they produce diffraction patterns with high noise levels.",
"However, the material can sometimes be treated to substitute deuterium for hydrogen.",
"Because of these different forms of interaction, the three types of radiation are suitable for different crystallographic studies.",
"* Electrons are charged particles and therefore interact with the total charge distribution of both the atomic nuclei and the electrons of the sample.It is hard to focus x-rays or neutrons, but since electrons are charged they can be focused and are used in electron microscope to produce magnified images.",
"There are many ways that transmission electron microscopy and related techniques such as scanning transmission electron microscopy, high-resolution electron microscopy can be used to obtain images with in many cases atomic resolution from which crystallographic information can be obtained.",
"There are also other methods such as low-energy electron diffraction, low-energy electron microscopy and reflection high-energy electron diffraction which can be used to obtain crystallographic information about surfaces."
],
[
"Applications in various areas",
"=== Materials science ===Crystallography is used by materials scientists to characterize different materials.",
"In single crystals, the effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically because the natural shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure.",
"In addition, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects.",
"The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding crystallographic defects.",
"Most materials do not occur as a single crystal, but are poly-crystalline in nature (they exist as an aggregate of small crystals with different orientations).",
"As such, powder diffraction techniques, which take diffraction patterns of samples with a large number of crystals, play an important role in structural determination.Other physical properties are also linked to crystallography.",
"For example, the minerals in clay form small, flat, platelike structures.",
"Clay can be easily deformed because the platelike particles can slip along each other in the plane of the plates, yet remain strongly connected in the direction perpendicular to the plates.",
"Such mechanisms can be studied by crystallographic texture measurements.In another example, iron transforms from a body-centered cubic (bcc) structure called ferrite to a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure called austenite when it is heated.",
"The fcc structure is a close-packed structure unlike the bcc structure; thus the volume of the iron decreases when this transformation occurs.Crystallography is useful in phase identification.",
"When manufacturing or using a material, it is generally desirable to know what compounds and what phases are present in the material, as their composition, structure and proportions will influence the material's properties.",
"Each phase has a characteristic arrangement of atoms.",
"X-ray or neutron diffraction can be used to identify which structures are present in the material, and thus which compounds are present.",
"Crystallography covers the enumeration of the symmetry patterns which can be formed by atoms in a crystal and for this reason is related to group theory.=== Biology ===X-ray crystallography is the primary method for determining the molecular conformations of biological macromolecules, particularly protein and nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA.",
"The double-helical structure of DNA was deduced from crystallographic data.",
"The first crystal structure of a macromolecule was solved in 1958, a three-dimensional model of the myoglobin molecule obtained by X-ray analysis.",
"The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a freely accessible repository for the structures of proteins and other biological macromolecules.",
"Computer programs such as RasMol, Pymol or VMD can be used to visualize biological molecular structures.Neutron crystallography is often used to help refine structures obtained by X-ray methods or to solve a specific bond; the methods are often viewed as complementary, as X-rays are sensitive to electron positions and scatter most strongly off heavy atoms, while neutrons are sensitive to nucleus positions and scatter strongly even off many light isotopes, including hydrogen and deuterium.Electron crystallography has been used to determine some protein structures, most notably membrane proteins and viral capsids.==Notation==* Coordinates in ''square brackets'' such as '''''' denote a direction vector (in real space).",
"* Coordinates in ''angle brackets'' or ''chevrons'' such as '''''' denote a ''family'' of directions which are related by symmetry operations.",
"In the cubic crystal system for example, '''''' would mean or the negative of any of those directions.",
"* Miller indices in ''parentheses'' such as '''(100)''' denote a plane of the crystal structure, and regular repetitions of that plane with a particular spacing.",
"In the cubic system, the normal to the (hkl) plane is the direction hkl, but in lower-symmetry cases, the normal to (hkl) is not parallel to hkl.",
"* Indices in ''curly brackets'' or ''braces'' such as '''''' denote a family of planes and their normals.",
"In cubic materials the symmetry makes them equivalent, just as the way angle brackets denote a family of directions.",
"In non-cubic materials, is not necessarily perpendicular to {hkl}."
],
[
"Reference literature",
"The ''International Tables for Crystallography'' is an eight-book series that outlines the standard notations for formatting, describing and testing crystals.",
"The series contains books that covers analysis methods and the mathematical procedures for determining organic structure through x-ray crystallography, electron diffraction, and neutron diffraction.",
"The International tables are focused on procedures, techniques and descriptions and do not list the physical properties of individual crystals themselves.",
"Each book is about 1000 pages and the titles of the books are::Vol A - ''Space Group Symmetry'',:Vol A1 - ''Symmetry Relations Between Space Groups'',:Vol B - ''Reciprocal Space'',:Vol C - ''Mathematical, Physical, and Chemical Tables'',:Vol D - ''Physical Properties of Crystals'',:Vol E - ''Subperiodic Groups'',:Vol F - ''Crystallography of Biological Macromolecules'', and:Vol G - ''Definition and Exchange of Crystallographic Data''."
],
[
"Notable scientists"
],
[
"See also",
"* Atomic packing factor* Crystal structure* Crystallographic database* Crystallographic point group* Crystallographic group* Electron crystallography* Electron diffraction* Fractional coordinates* Low-energy electron diffraction* Neutron crystallography* Neutron diffraction at OPAL* Neutron diffraction at the ILL* NMR crystallography* Point group* Precession electron diffraction* Quasicrystal* Reflection high-energy electron diffraction* Space group* Symmetric group* Timeline of crystallography* Transmission electron microscopy* X-ray crystallography"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* American Crystallographic Association* Learning Crystallography* Web Course on Crystallography* Crystallographic Space Groups"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Claude Auchinleck"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Field Marshal '''Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck''', ( ), (21 June 1884 – 23 March 1981), was a British Indian Army commander who saw active service during the world wars.",
"A career soldier who spent much of his military career in India, he rose to become commander-in-chief of the Indian Army by early 1941 during the Second World War.",
"In July 1941 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Middle East Theatre, but after initial successes, the war in North Africa turned against the British-led forces under his command, and he was relieved of the post in August 1942 during the North African campaign.In June 1943, he was once again appointed Commander-in-Chief, India, where his support through the organisation of supply, maintenance and training for General William Slim's Fourteenth Army played an important role in its success.",
"He served as Commander-in-Chief, India, until the Partition in 1947, when he assumed the role of Supreme Commander of all British forces in India and Pakistan until late 1948."
],
[
"Early life and career",
"Born at 89 Victoria Road in Aldershot, Hampshire, the son of John Claud Alexander Auchinleck and Mary Eleanor (Eyre) Auchinleck.",
"His father, a colonel in the Royal Horse Artillery of the British Army, was posted to Bangalore in British India, with his family accompanying him, while Claude was very young.",
"It was from here that he developed a love for the country that would last for most of his life.",
"Returning to England after the death of his father in 1892, Auchinleck attended Eagle House School at Crowthorne and then Wellington College on scholarships.",
"From there he went on to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and was commissioned as an unattached second lieutenant in the Indian Army on 21 January 1903, and joined the 62nd Punjabis in April 1904.He soon learned several Indian languages, and, able to speak fluently with his soldiers, he absorbed a knowledge of local dialects and customs: this familiarity engendered a lasting mutual respect, enhanced by his own personality.He was promoted to lieutenant on 21 April 1905, and then spent the next two years in Tibet and Sikkim before moving to Benares in 1907 where he caught diphtheria.",
"After briefly serving with the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers at Aldershot he returned to Benares in 1909 and became adjutant of the 62nd Punjabis with promotion to captain on 21 January 1912.Auchinleck was an active freemason.Officers of the 62nd Punjabis in Ismailia, Egypt, 1914.Captain Claude Auchinleck is standing on the far right."
],
[
"First World War",
"Auchinleck saw active service in the First World War and was deployed with his regiment to defend the Suez Canal: in February 1915 he was in action against the Turks at Ismaïlia.",
"His regiment moved into Aden to counter the Turkish threat there in July 1915.The 6th Indian Division, of which the 62nd Punjabis were a part, was landed at Basra on 31 December 1915 for the Mesopotamian campaign.",
"In July 1916 Auchinleck was promoted acting major and made second in command of his battalion.",
"He took part in a series of fruitless attacks on the Turks at the Battle of Hanna in January 1916 and was one of the few British officers in his regiment to survive these actions.He became acting commanding officer of his battalion in February 1917 and led his regiment at the Second Battle of Kut in February 1917 and the Fall of Baghdad in March 1917.Having been mentioned in despatches and having received the Distinguished Service Order in 1917 for his service in Mesopotamia, he was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 21 January 1918, to temporary lieutenant-colonel on 23 May 1919 and to brevet lieutenant-colonel on 15 November 1919 for his \"distinguished service in Southern and Central Kurdistan\" on the recommendation of the Commander-in-Chief of the Mesopotamia Expeditionary Force."
],
[
"Between the world wars",
"Auchinleck attended the Staff College, Quetta, between 1920 and 1921.As a lieutenant colonel, he outranked most of his fellow students and even some members of the staff.",
"Despite performing well there – passing the course and being among the top ten students – he was critical of many aspects of the college, which he believed to be too theoretical and with little emphasis being placed on matters such as supply and administration, both of which he thought had been mishandled in the campaign in Mesopotamia.",
"He married Jessie Stewart in 1921.Jessie had been born in 1900 in Tacoma, Washington, to Alexander Stewart, head of the Blue Funnel Line that plied the west coast of the United States.",
"When he died about 1919, their mother took her, her twin brother Alan and her younger brother Hepburne back to Bun Rannoch, the family estate at Innerhadden in Perthshire.",
"Holidaying at Grasse on the French Riviera, Auchinleck, who was on leave from India at the time, met Jessie on the tennis courts.",
"She was a high-spirited, blue-eyed beauty.",
"Things moved quickly, and they were married within five months.",
"Sixteen years younger than Auchinleck, Jessie became known as 'the little American girl' in India, but adapted readily to life there.",
"They had no children.Auchinleck became temporary Deputy Assistant Quartermaster-General at Army Headquarters in February 1923 and then second-in-command of his regiment, which in the 1923 reorganisation of the Indian Army had become the 1st Punjab Regiment, in September 1925.He attended the Imperial Defence College in 1927 and, having been promoted to the permanent rank of lieutenant-colonel on 21 January 1929 he was appointed to command his regiment.",
"Promoted to full colonel on 1 February 1930 with seniority from 15 November 1923, he became an instructor at the Staff College, Quetta in February 1930 where he remained until April 1933.He was promoted to temporary brigadier on 1 July 1933 and given command of the Peshawar Brigade, which was active in the pacification of the adjacent tribal areas during the Mohmand and Bajaur Operations between July and October 1933: during his period of command he was mentioned in despatches.",
"He led a second punitive expedition during the Second Mohmand Campaign in August 1935 for which he was again mentioned in despatches, promoted to major-general on 30 November 1935 and appointed a Companion of the Order of the Star of India on 8 May 1936.On leaving his brigade command in April 1936, Auchinleck was on the unemployed list (on half pay) until September 1936 when he was appointed Deputy Chief of the General Staff and Director of Staff Duties in Delhi.",
"He was then appointed to command the Meerut District in India in July 1938.In 1938 Auchinleck was appointed to chair a committee to consider the modernisation, composition and re-equipment of the British Indian Army: the committee's recommendations formed the basis of the 1939 Chatfield Report which outlined the transformation of the Indian Army – it grew from 183,000 in 1939 to over 2,250,000 men by the end of the war."
],
[
"Second World War",
"A 1940 portrait of Auchinleck by Reginald Grenville Eves.===Norway 1940===On the outbreak of war, Auchinleck was appointed to command the Indian 3rd Infantry Division, but in January 1940 was summoned to the United Kingdom to command IV Corps, the only time in the war that a wholly British corps was commanded by an Indian Army officer.",
"He received promotion to acting lieutenant general on 1 February 1940 and to the substantive rank of lieutenant general on 16 March 1940.In May 1940 Auchinleck took over command of the Anglo-French ground forces during the Norwegian campaign, a military operation that was doomed to fail.Lieutenant General Claude Auchinleck, the C-in-C of the North Western Expeditionary Force, and Group Captain Moor looking over maps on board the Polish Navy troopship MS ''Chrobry'' before docking in Harstad.Auchinleck arrived in Greenock, after the fall of Norway, on 12 June, by which time the Battle of France was nearing its end, with the majority of the BEF in France having been evacuated from the port of Dunkirk, with the French surrender only a few days away.",
"Due to these reasons, all attention was now given to the defence of the UK which many believed would soon be invaded by the Germans (see Operation Sea Lion).",
"In mid-June he was given command of the recently established V Corps, then serving in Southern Command under Lieutenant General Sir Alan Brooke.",
"His stay was not to be for very long, however, as, just a few weeks later, Brooke succeeded General Sir Edmund Ironside as Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces, with Auchinleck succeeding Brooke as GOC-in-C of Southern Command, responsible for the defence of Southern England, where the expected invasion would come from.",
"The recently vacated V Corps was taken over by Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery, who disliked Auchinleck intensely, possibly due to his disdain for the Indian Army and its officers.",
"The relationship between the two future field marshals was not easy, with Montgomery later writing:Many of Montgomery's actions in the next few weeks and months could be considered as insubordination, with one incident in particular standing out, when Montgomery went over Auchinleck's head directly to the Adjutant-General on issues related to officers and men being transferred to and from Montgomery's V Corps.",
"Auchinleck was not to deal with this behaviour for long as in December he was ordered to succeed his friend, General Sir Robert Cassels, as Commander-in-Chief, India.",
"By now known throughout the army as \"the Auk\", he was destined to encounter Montgomery again, although the circumstances there would not be at all pleasant.===India and Iraq January–May 1941===Promoted to full general on 26 December, Auchinleck returned to India in January 1941 to assume his new appointment, in which position he was also appointed to the Executive Council of the Viceroy of India and appointed ADC General to the King, a ceremonial position he was to hold until after the end of the war.In April 1941, RAF Habbaniya was threatened by the new pro-Axis regime of Rashid Ali.",
"This large Royal Air Force station was west of Baghdad in Iraq and General Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief Middle East Command, was reluctant to intervene, despite the urgings of Winston Churchill, because of his pressing commitments in the Western Desert and Greece.",
"Auchinleck, however, acted decisively, sending the 1st Battalion of the King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster) by air to Habbaniya and shipping the 10th Indian Infantry Division by sea to Basra.",
"Wavell was prevailed upon by London to send ''Habforce'', a relief column, from the British Mandate of Palestine but by the time it arrived in Habbaniya on 18 May the Anglo-Iraqi War was virtually over.===North Africa July 1941 – August 1942===Sir Claude Auchinleck as Commander-in-Chief of the British forces in the Middle East.Following the see-saw of Allied and Axis successes and reverses in North Africa, Auchinleck was appointed to succeed General Sir Archibald Wavell as Commander-in-Chief Middle East Command in July 1941; Wavell took up Auchinleck's post as Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, swapping jobs with him.General Sir Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief, India, and General Sir Claude Auchinleck, Commander-in-Chief Middle East, 8 September 1941.As Commander-in-Chief Middle East, Auchinleck, based in Cairo, held responsibility not just for North Africa but also for Persia and the Middle East.",
"He launched an offensive in the Western Desert, Operation Crusader, in November 1941: despite some tactical reverses during the fighting which resulted in Auchinleck replacing the Eighth Army commander Alan Cunningham with Neil Ritchie, by the end of December the besieged garrison of Tobruk had been relieved and Rommel obliged to withdraw to El Agheila.",
"Auchinleck appears to have believed that the enemy had been defeated, writing on 12 January 1942 that the Axis forces were \"beginning to feel the strain\" and were \"hard pressed\".In fact the Axis forces had managed to withdraw in good order and a few days after Auchinleck's optimistic appreciation, having reorganised and been reinforced, struck at the dispersed and weakened British forces, driving them back to the Gazala positions near Tobruk.",
"The British Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), General Sir Alan Brooke, wrote in his diary that it was \"nothing less than bad generalship on the part of Auchinleck.",
"He has been overconfident and has believed everything his overoptimistic DMI Shearer has told him\".",
"Brooke commented that Auchinleck \"could have been one of the finest of commanders\" but lacked the ability to select the men to serve him.",
"Brooke sent him one of his best armoured division commanders Richard McCreery, whose advice was ignored in favour of that of Auchinleck's controversial chief of operations, Major-General Dorman-Smith.John \"Jock\" Campbell and General Sir Claude Auchinleck, Commander-in-Chief Middle East, in the Western Desert.Rommel's attack at the Battle of Gazala of 26 May 1942 resulted in a significant defeat for the British.",
"Auchinleck's appreciation of the situation written to Ritchie on 20 May had suggested that the armoured reserves be concentrated in a position suitable to meet both a flanking attack around the south of the front or a direct attack through the centre (which was the likelihood more favoured by Auchinleck).",
"In the event, Ritchie chose a more dispersed and rearward positioning of his two armoured divisions and when the attack in the centre came, it proved to be a diversion and the main attack, by Rommel's armoured formations, came round the southern flank.",
"Poor initial positioning and subsequent handling and coordination of Allied formations by Ritchie and his corps commanders resulted in their heavy defeat and the Eighth Army retreating into Egypt; Tobruk fell to the Axis on 21 June 1942.On 24 June Auchinleck stepped in to take direct command of the Eighth Army, having lost confidence in Neil Ritchie's ability to control and direct his forces.",
"Auchinleck discarded Ritchie's plan to stand at Mersa Matruh, deciding to fight only a delaying action there, while withdrawing to the more easily defendable position at El Alamein.",
"Here Auchinleck tailored a defence that took advantage of the terrain and the fresh troops at his disposal, stopping the exhausted German/Italian advance in the First Battle of El Alamein.",
"Enjoying a considerable superiority of material and men over the weak German/Italian forces, Auchinleck organised a series of counter-attacks.",
"Poorly conceived and badly coordinated, these attacks achieved little.",
"\"The Auk\", as he was known, appointed a number of senior commanders who proved to be unsuitable for their positions, and command arrangements were often characterised by bitter personality clashes.",
"Auchinleck was an Indian Army officer and was criticised for apparently having little direct experience or understanding of British and Dominion troops.",
"Dorman-Smith was regarded with considerable distrust by many of the senior commanders in Eighth Army.",
"By July 1942 Auchinleck had lost the confidence of Dominion commanders and relations with his British commanders had become strained.Like his foe Rommel (and his predecessor Wavell and successor Montgomery), Auchinleck was subjected to constant political interference, having to weather a barrage of hectoring telegrams and instructions from Prime Minister Churchill throughout late 1941 and the spring and summer of 1942.Churchill constantly sought an offensive from Auchinleck, and was downcast at the military reverses in Egypt and Cyrenaica.",
"Churchill was desperate for some sort of British victory before the planned Allied landings in North Africa, Operation Torch, scheduled for November 1942.He badgered Auchinleck immediately after the Eighth Army had all but exhausted itself after the first battle of El Alamein.",
"Churchill and the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Sir Alan Brooke, flew to Cairo in early August 1942 to meet Auchinleck, where it emerged he had lost the confidence of both men.",
"He was replaced as Commander-in-Chief Middle East Command by General Sir Harold Alexander (later Field Marshal The Earl Alexander of Tunis).Joseph M. Horodyski and Maurice Remy both praise Auchinleck as an underrated military leader who contributed the most to the successful defence of El Alamein and consequently the final defeat of Rommel in Africa.",
"The two historians also criticize Churchill for the unreasonable decision to put the blame on Auchinleck and to relieve him.===India 1942–1945===Auchinleck receiving the Star of Nepal in October 1945 from the King of Nepal, Tribhubana Bir Vikram SahChurchill offered Auchinleck command of the newly created Persia and Iraq Command (this having been separated from Alexander's command), but Auchinleck declined this post, as he believed that separating the area from the Middle East Command was not good policy and the new arrangements would not be workable.",
"He set his reasons out in his letter to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff dated 14 August 1942.Instead he returned to India, where he spent almost a year \"unemployed\" before in June 1943 being again appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army,Naik Narayan Sinde, 5th Mahratta Light Infantry, receiving the Indian Distinguished Service Medal from Auchinleck, 1945.General Wavell meanwhile having been appointed Viceroy, on this appointment it was announced that responsibility for the prosecution of the war with Japan would move from the Commander-in-Chief India to a newly created South East Asia Command.",
"However, the appointment of the new command's Supreme Commander, Acting Vice Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten, was not announced until August 1943 and until Mountbatten could set up his headquarters and assume control (in November), Auchinleck retained responsibility for operations in India and Burma while conducting a review and revision of Allied plans based on the decisions taken by the Allied Combined Chiefs of Staff at the Quadrant Conference, which ended in August.Following Mountbatten's arrival, Auchinleck's India Command (which had equal status with South East Asia Command in the military hierarchy) was responsible for the internal security of India, the defence of the North West Frontier and the buildup of India as a base, including most importantly the reorganisation of the Indian Army, the training of forces destined for SEAC and the lines of communication carrying men and material to the forward areas and to China.",
"Auchinleck made the supply of Fourteenth Army, with probably the worst lines of communication of the war, his immediate priority; as Sir William Slim, commander of the Fourteenth Army, was later to write:===Divorce===Auchinleck suffered a personal disappointment when his wife Jessie left him for his friend, Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Peirse.",
"Peirse and Auchinleck had been students together at the Imperial Defence College, but that was long before.",
"Peirse was now Allied Air Commander-in-Chief, South-East Asia, and also based in India.",
"The affair became known to Mountbatten in early 1944, and he passed the information to the Chief of the RAF, Sir Charles Portal, hoping that Peirse would be recalled.",
"The affair was common knowledge by September 1944, and Peirse was neglecting his duties.",
"Mountbatten sent Peirse and Lady Auchinleck back to England on 28 November 1944, where they lived together at a Brighton hotel.",
"Peirse had his marriage dissolved, and Auchinleck obtained a divorce in 1946.Auchinleck was reportedly very badly affected.",
"According to his sister, he was never the same after the break-up.",
"He always carried a photograph of Jessie in his wallet even after the divorce.There is scholarly dispute whether Auchinleck was homosexual.",
"His biographer, Philip Warner, addressed the rumours but dismissed them; however historian Ronald Hyam has alleged that \"sexually based moral-revulsion\" was the reason for Montgomery's inability to get on with Auchinleck, and further, that Auchinleck was \"let off with a high-level warning\" over his relationships with Indian boys."
],
[
"Partition of India and later years",
"Sir Claude Auchinleck as the last Commander in Chief of British IndiaAuchinleck continued as Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army after the end of the war helping, though much against his own convictions, to prepare the future Indian and Pakistani armies for the Partition of India: in November 1945 he was forced to commute the more serious judicial sentences awarded against officers of the Indian National Army in face of growing unease and unrest both within the Indian population, and the British Indian Army.",
"On 1 June 1946 he was promoted to field marshal, but he refused to accept a peerage, lest he be thought associated with a policy (i.e.",
"Partition) that he thought fundamentally dishonourable.Viceroy Wavell (centre) and Montgomery (left)Sending a report to the British Government on 28 September 1947, Field Marshal Auchinleck wrote: \"I have no hesitation, whatever, in affirming that the present Indian Cabinet are implacably determined to do all in their power to prevent the establishment of the Dominion of Pakistan on firm basis.\"",
"He stated in the second, political part of his assessment, \"Since 15th August, the situation has steadily deteriorated and the Indian leaders, cabinet ministers, civil officials and others have persistently tried to obstruct the work of partition of the armed forces.",
"\"When partition was effected in August 1947, Auchinleck was appointed Supreme Commander of all British forces remaining in India and Pakistan and remained in this role until the winding up and closure of the Supreme H.Q.",
"at the end of November 1947.This marked his effective retirement from the army (although technically field marshals in the British Army never retire, remaining on the active list on half pay).",
"He left India on 1 December.After a brief period in Italy in connection with an unsuccessful business project, Auchinleck retired to London, where he occupied himself with a number of charitable and business interests and became a respectably skilled watercolour painter.",
"In 1960 he settled in Beccles in the county of Suffolk, remaining there for seven years until, at the age of eighty-four, he decided to emigrate and set up home in Marrakesh, where he died on 23 March 1981."
],
[
"Memorials",
"Statue of Auchinleck in BirminghamAuchinleck is buried in Ben M'Sik European Cemetery, Casablanca, in the Commonwealth War Graves Commission plot in the cemetery, next to the grave of Raymond Steed who was the second youngest non-civilian Commonwealth casualty of the Second World War.A memorial plaque was erected in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral.",
"A bronze statue of Auchinleck can be seen on Broad Street adjacent to Auchinleck House, Five Ways, Birmingham."
],
[
"Awards and decorations",
"* Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (1 January 1945)* Companion of the Order of the Bath (3 July 1934) Mohmand operations 7 October 1933* Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (20 December 1940)* Companion of the Order of the Star of India (8 May 1936) Mohmand operations 8 October 1935* Distinguished Service Order (3 June 1917)* Officer of the Order of the British Empire (Military Division) (3 June 1919)* Mention in Despatches, twice (World War I and 3 July 1934 – Mohmand operations)* Croix de Guerre with Palm (France, 1918 and 1949)* Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit (United States, 23 July 1948)* Virtuti Militari, 5th class (Poland, 15 May 1942)* Member First Class Order of the Star of Nepal (Nepal)* War Cross (Czechoslovakia, 1944)* Order of the Star of Nepal (Nepal, 1945)* Knight Grand Cross of Order of St Olav (Norway, 19 March 1948)"
],
[
"Publications",
"*.",
"*:(Auchinleck's Official Middle East Despatch published after the war in )*.",
"*:(Auchinleck's Official Middle East Despatch published after the war in )*.",
"*:(Auchinleck's Official Indo-Burma Despatch published after the war in )"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"*******************"
],
[
"Further reading",
"***"
],
[
"External links",
"** Auchinleck Papers at John Rylands Library, Manchester** Indian Army Officers 1939−1945* Generals of World War II"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Camilla Hall"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Camilla Christine Hall''' (March 24, 1945 – May 17, 1974) was a member of the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA), a small, far-left militant group that committed violent acts between 1973 and 1975.They assassinated Marcus Foster, Superintendent of the Oakland Public Schools and the first black superintendent of any major school system, kidnapped white heiress Patty Hearst, and committed armed robbery of banks.",
"Hall, one of the majority of white members in the group, died on May 17, 1974, with five other SLA members in a shootout with the Los Angeles Police Department in that city.",
"During this, the house where the SLA members were making their stand caught fire.",
"Police fatally shot both Hall and Nancy Ling Perry as they left the house, firing their own pistols."
],
[
"Early life",
" On March 24, 1945, Camilla Christine Hall was born in Saint Peter, Minnesota.",
"Both her parents, George Fridolph Hall (1908-2000) and Lorena (Daeschner) Hall (1911-1995), were academics with positions at Gustavus Adolphus College in Saint Peter from 1938 to 1952.In addition, her father was a minister in the Augustana Evangelical Lutheran Church and later the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.",
"Her mother, Lorena (Daeschner) Hall, helped found Gustavus Adolphus College's Art Department and served as the department head.",
"Camilla Hall was the only surviving child of four.",
"Firstborn son Terry died of congenital heart disease in 1948; Peter died in 1951, and Nan died in 1962, both of a congenital kidney disease.",
"The family seemed burdened by grief.In 1952, the Hall family moved to what is now Tanzania in East Africa.",
"George and Lorena Hall taught in schools and did mission work, while Camilla and Nan played with the native children.",
"In 1954, when Camilla was nine, the family returned to Saint Peter because of seven-year-old Nan's poor health.",
"While Camilla attended elementary school in Minnesota and lived with relatives, her birth family moved to Montclair, New Jersey.",
"In Minnesota, Hall attended Washburn High School in Minneapolis, where she was involved in many activities.",
"The 1963 Washburn Yearbook states, \"Candy was a member of Blue Tri, Class Play, Poplars Staff, Quill Club, Forensics, Pep Club, and Hall of Fame\".",
"Blue Tri club was an organization that encouraged Christian ideals and put together service projects.",
"In addition, Camilla Hall was voted class clown in high school.",
"In 1963, she graduated from Washburn High School."
],
[
"Education",
"Hall attended Gustavus Adolphus College in St. Peter, Minnesota.",
"She transferred to the University of Minnesota after her freshman year.",
"On June 10, 1967, Hall graduated with a humanities degree."
],
[
"Post-college",
"After graduation, Hall moved to Duluth, Minnesota, where she started as a caseworker for social services in St. Louis County.",
"She also began to participate in Democratic Party activities.",
"In early 1968, she was elected to carry the Eugene McCarthy banner for the St. Louis County precinct, in support of McCarthy's presidential campaign that year.",
"Although Hall enjoyed helping people in her work, she found it difficult to keep distance from some of their problems while being a caseworker.",
"For her job in Duluth, Hall used her musical and poetic talents in an advertising campaign.In June 1968, Hall returned to Minneapolis, where she was a caseworker for the Hennepin County, Minnesota welfare office.",
"Co-workers and friends of Hall described her as witty, sympathetic, helpful, and compassionate.",
"She had an outgoing personality and had a passion for literature.",
"At the same time, Hall frequently talked with family and friends about philosophy and how she was disappointed with the state of welfare.",
"In 1968, Hall was 23 years old.",
"She carefully monitored the political situation in America, including the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago where there was so much violence.",
"She was active in the peace movement and food boycotts, including the Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam.",
"Despite Hall's participating in political activities, urging social change, and working to aid individuals and families, her mother could see that Camilla became dissatisfied with her work."
],
[
"Move to California",
" In November 1969, Hall moved to Topanga, a northern suburb of Los Angeles, California.",
"In March, she moved into Los Angeles proper in west Los Angeles.",
"According to Rachael Hanel, \"She lived off her savings, interest income from a trust, money from her parents, and selling her simple, Rubenesque line drawings.\"",
"Although Hall didn't express dissatisfaction at being an artist, she decided to move again.Hall moved to Berkeley in northern California in February 1971, which had become a center of political activism and social movements.",
"In May 1971, Hall moved into an apartment complex on Channing Way where she met Patricia Soltysik.",
"The two women began a lesbian relationship, which was the first time Hall had done so publicly.",
"Hall wrote about Soltysik in a love poem named \"Mizmoon\", and nicknamed her that.In Berkeley, Hall continued being politically active.",
"She participated in the People's Park reoccupation during the summer of 1972, following the shootings there the year before.",
"She and Soltysik became involved with the Venceremos prison outreach project, through which they became associates of two white men, Russ Little and Willie Wolfe, who were also assisting in prisoner outreach.",
"In October 1972, Hall traveled to Europe.",
"She stayed with friends while she traveled for three months.",
"Once she returned to California, she continued being politically active.",
"Through her association with Soltysik, Little, and Wolfe, she became a founding member of the Symbionese Liberation Army, a small, radical leftist group.",
"Joe Remiro and Thero Wheeler trained the other members in handling weapons and explosives.",
"Remiro was a veteran of Vietnam.The SLA gained notoriety in November 1973 by claiming credit for the assassination of Marcus Foster, Superintendent of the Oakland Public Schools and the first black to be superintendent of any major city's school district.",
"Three \"soldiers\" also wounded his deputy.",
"In January 1974 the SLA base was moved to Concord, California, where Nancy Ling Perry rented a house under an assumed name.",
"Russ Little and Joe Remiro were arrested after a police stop and confrontation, convicted and sentenced to prison.In February 1974 the SLA kidnapped heiress Patty Hearst.",
"They indoctrinated her and she said she chose to join them.",
"Hall and Hearst were identified from security camera images as participants in the April 15, 1974, armed robbery of the Hibernia Bank in San Francisco.",
"Two civilians were shot during the robbery."
],
[
"LA shootout",
"The police kept up pressure on the group, which moved to a house in Los Angeles.",
"There Hall died in a shootout (May 17, 1974) with police in which five other SLA members also died.",
"As their hideout burned, Hall and Nancy Ling Perry exited from the back door.",
"Police claimed that Perry came out firing a revolver and Hall was firing an automatic pistol.",
"Police shot them immediately, killing both.",
"Perry was shot twice.",
"One shot hit her right lung, the other shot severed her spine.",
"Hall was shot once in the forehead.",
"Angela Atwood, another SLA member, pulled Hall's body back into the burning house.",
"Atwood died in the fire.",
"Investigators working for Hall's parents claimed that Perry had walked out of the house intending to surrender."
],
[
"Funeral",
"Hall's parents held a funeral for their daughter on May 23, 1974, at St. John's Lutheran Church, in Lincolnwood, Illinois, a Chicago suburb, where he was pastor.",
"Seven of his fellow Lutheran ministers conducted the service.",
"Camilla Hall's name was not mentioned.",
"Her ashes were buried on August 19, 1974, in a small country graveyard where her late siblings were buried, who each died before she was 16.Her parents also have plots there."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Papers Concerning Camilla Hall and George F. and Lorena Hall and Research Files on Camilla Hall are available for research use at the Gustavus Adolphus College and Lutheran Church Archives"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Clone"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Clone''' or '''Clones''' or '''Cloning''' or '''Cloned''' or '''The Clone''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Places",
"* Clones, County Fermanagh, Ireland* Clones, County Monaghan, a town in Ireland* Clones railway station, Ireland"
],
[
"Biology",
"* Clone (B-cell), a lymphocyte clone, the massive presence of which may indicate a pathological condition* Clone (cell biology), a group of identical cells that share a common ancestry* Clonal plant, the result of asexual, vegetative reproduction when a new plant grows from a fragment of the parent plant* Cloning, the production of any organism whose genetic information is identical to that of a parent organism from which it was created"
],
[
"Computing and technology",
"* Clone (computing), computer hardware or software designed to function in the same way as an original** Video game clone, a software game or game franchise heavily inspired by another** ''Clones'' (video game), a video game clone ''Lemmings''* Clone (Java method), a method in the Java programming language for object duplication* Clone (Linux system call), in C, whereby a process creates a copy of itself* Clone, a popular term for a replica, particularly when referring to \"recreations\" of rare and desirable variants of collector cars* Clone, a popular term for an unlicensed, reverse engineered copy of a firearm produced in another nation (although the term can also apply to a simple direct copy, created under license)* Clone tool, a tool used in image manipulation programs* Phone cloning, the copying of identity from one cellular device to another* Quantum cloning, the replication of a quantum state"
],
[
"Mathematics",
"* Clone (algebra), a collection of functions with certain properties* Clone (voting), in voting systems analysis, a candidate identical to one already present in an election"
],
[
"Arts, entertainment, and media",
"===Comics===* ''Clone'' (comic), a 2012–2014 comic book series* \"Clone Saga\", a storyline from Marvel Comics' Spider-Man comic books===Films===* ''Cloned'' (film), a 1997 made-for-television film* ''Clone'' (2010 film), a 2010 film originally released as ''Womb''* ''The Clones'', 1973 American film directed by Lamar Card, featuring Michael Greene, Gregory Sierra and Otis Young===Television===* '''', a 2001–2002 Brazilian telenovela* ''Clone'' (TV series), a 2008 BBC comedy series* '''', a 2010 Spanish-language telenovela* ''Clone High'', a 2002 American animated TV show* Clone Wars, a war set in the Star Wars universe that takes place during the prequel trilogy and some of its related media ===Literature===* ''Clones'' (anthology), a 1998 short-story anthology edited by Jack Dann and Gardner Dozois*\"The Clone\", a 1959 short story by Theodore L. Thomas*''The Clone'', a 1965 novel by Theodore L. Thomas and Kate Wilhelm===Music=======Albums====* ''Clone'' (Leo Kottke and Mike Gordon album), 2002* ''Clone'' (Threshold album), 1998* ''Clones'' (album), a 2003 album by The Neptunes====Songs====* \"Clone\", a song by Gojira from their album ''Terra Incognita''* \"Clone\", a song by Metric from their album ''Synthetica''* \"Clone\", a song by Vision of Disorder from their album ''Imprint''* \"Clones\" (Ash song), a 2004 single from Irish alternative rock band Ash* \"Clones\", a song by Chevelle from their album ''Hats Off to the Bull''* \"Clones\", a song by Cult of Luna from their album ''The Beyond''* \"Clones\", a song by The Roots on the album ''Illadelph Halflife''* \"Clones (We're All)\", a song recorded by Alice Cooper on his ''Flush the Fashion'' album===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===* Clone Wars (disambiguation)* ''Clones'' (video game), a 2010 video game"
],
[
"See also",
"* Clon (disambiguation)* Clonal (disambiguation)* Cloning (disambiguation)* List of animals that have been cloned"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Critical psychology"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Critical psychology''' is a perspective on psychology that draws extensively on critical theory.",
"Critical psychology challenges the assumptions, theories and methods of mainstream psychology and attempts to apply psychological understandings in different ways, often looking towards social change as a means of preventing and treating psychopathology.Critical psychologists believe that mainstream psychology fails to consider how power differences and discrimination between social classes and groups can impact an individual's or a group's mental and physical well-being.",
"Mainstream psychology does this only in part by attempting to explain behavior at the individual level.",
"However, it largely ignores institutional racism, postcolonialism and deficits in social justice for minority groups based on differences in observable characteristics such as gender, ethnicity, religion religious minority, sexual orientation, LGBTQ+ or disability."
],
[
"Origins",
"Criticisms of mainstream psychology consistent with current critical psychology usage have existed since psychology's modern development in the late 19th century.",
"Use of the term ''critical psychology'' started in the 1970s at the Freie Universität Berlin.",
"The German branch of critical psychology predates and has developed largely separately from the rest of the field.",
"As of May 2007, only a few works have been translated into English.",
"The German Critical Psychology movement is rooted in the post-war student revolt of the late 1960s; see German student movement.",
"Marx's ''Critique of Political Economy'' played an important role in the German branch of the student revolt, which was centered in West Berlin.",
"At that time, the capitalist city of West Berlin was surrounded by communist-ruled East Germany, and represented a \"hot spot\" of political and ideological controversy for the revolutionary German students.",
"The sociological foundations of critical psychology are decidedly Marxist.===Klaus Holzkamp===Klaus HolzkampOne of the most important and sophisticated books in the German development of the field is the (''Foundations of Psychology'') by Klaus Holzkamp, who might be considered the theoretical founder of German critical psychology.",
"Holzkamp wrote two books on theory of science and one on sensory perception before publishing the in 1983.Holzkamp believed his work provided a solid paradigm for psychological research because viewed psychology as a pre-paradigmatic scientific discipline (T.S.",
"Kuhn had used the term \"pre-paradigmatic\" for social science).Holzkamp mostly based his sophisticated attempt to provide a comprehensive and integrated set of categories defining the field of psychological research on Aleksey Leontyev's approach to cultural–historical psychology and activity theory.",
"Leontyev had seen human action as a result of biological as well as cultural evolution and, drawing on Marx's materialist conception of culture, stressed that individual cognition is always part of social action which in turn is mediated by man-made tools (cultural artifacts), language and other man-made systems of symbols, which he viewed as a major distinguishing feature of human culture and, thus, human cognition.",
"Another important source was Lucien Séve's theory of personality, which provided the concept of \"social activity matrices\" as mediating structure between individual and social reproduction.",
"At the same time, the systematically integrated previous specialized work done at Free University of Berlin in the 1970s by critical psychologists who also had been influenced by Marx, Leontyev, and Seve.",
"This included books on animal behavior/ethology, sensory perception, motivation and cognition.",
"He also incorporated ideas from Freud's psychoanalysis and Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology into his approach.One core result of Holzkamp's historical and comparative analysis of human reproductive action, perception and cognition is a very specific concept of meaning that identifies symbolic meaning as historically and culturally constructed, purposeful conceptual structures that humans create in close relationship to material culture and within the context of historically specific formations of social reproduction.Coming from this phenomenological perspective on culturally mediated and socially situated action, Holzkamp launched a methodological attack on behaviorism (which he termed S–R (stimulus–response) psychology) based on linguistic analysis, showing in minute detail the rhetorical patterns by which this approach to psychology creates the illusion of \"scientific objectivity\" while at the same time losing relevance for understanding culturally situated, intentional human actions.",
"Against this approach, he developed his own approach to generalization and objectivity, drawing on ideas from Kurt Lewin in Chapter 9 of ''''.His last major publication before his death in 1995 was about learning.",
"It appeared in 1993 and contained a phenomenological theory of learning from the standpoint of the subject.",
"One important concept Holzkamp developed was \"reinterpretation\" of theories developed by conventional psychology.",
"This meant to look at these concepts from the standpoint of the paradigm of critical psychology, thereby integrating their useful insights into critical psychology while at the same time identifying and criticizing their limiting implications, which in the case of S–R psychology were the rhetorical elimination of the subject and intentional action, and in the case of cognitive psychology which did take into account subjective motives and intentional actions, methodological individualism.The first part of the book thus contains an extensive look at the history of psychological theories of learning and a minute re-interpretation of those concepts from the perspective of critical psychology, which focuses on intentional action situated in specific socio-historical/cultural contexts.",
"The conceptions of learning he found most useful in his own detailed analysis of \"classroom learning\" came from cognitive anthropologists Jean Lave (situated learning) and Edwin Hutchins (distributed cognition).The book's second part contained an extensive analysis on the modern state's institutionalized forms of \"classroom learning\" as the cultural–historical context that shapes much of modern learning and socialization.",
"In this analysis, he heavily drew upon Michel Foucault's ''Discipline and Punish''.",
"Holzkamp felt that classroom learning as the historically specific form of learning does not make full use of student's potentials, but rather limits her or his learning potentials by a number of \"teaching strategies.\"",
"Part of his motivation for the book was to look for alternative forms of learning that made use of the enormous potential of the human psyche in more fruitful ways.",
"Consequently, in the last section of the book, Holzkamp discusses forms of \"expansive learning\" that seem to avoid the limitations of classroom learning, such as apprenticeship and learning in contexts other than classrooms.This search culminated in plans to write a major work on ''life leadership'' in the specific historical context of modern (capitalist) society.",
"Due to his death in 1995, this work never got past the stage of early (and premature) conceptualizations, some of which were published in the journals ''Forum Kritische Psychologie'' and ''Argument''.===1960s–1970s===In the 1960s and 1970s the term ''radical psychology'' was used by psychologists internationally to denote a branch of the field which rejected mainstream psychology's focus on the individual as the basic unit of analysis and sole source of psychopathology.",
"Instead, radical psychologists examined the role of society in causing and treating problems and looked towards social change as an alternative to therapy to treat mental illness and as a means of preventing psychopathology.",
"Within psychiatry the term ''anti-psychiatry'' was often used and now British activists prefer the term ''critical psychiatry''.",
"''Critical psychology'' is currently the preferred term for the discipline of psychology keen to find alternatives to the way the discipline of psychology reduces human experience to the level of the individual and thereby strips away possibilities for radical social change.===1990s===Starting in the 1990s a new wave of books started to appear on critical psychology, the most influential being the edited book ''Critical Psychology'' by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky.",
"Various introductory texts to critical psychology written in the United Kingdom have tended to focus on discourse, but this has been seen by some proponents of critical psychology as a reduction of human experience to language which is as politically dangerous as the way mainstream psychology reduces experience to the individual mind.",
"Attention to language and ideological processes, others would argue, is essential to effective critical psychology – it is not simply a matter of applying mainstream psychological concepts to issues of social change.===Ian Parker===In 1999 Ian Parker published an influential manifesto in both the online journal ''Radical Psychology'' and the ''Annual Review of Critical Psychology''.",
"This manifesto argues that critical psychology should include the following four components:# Systematic examination of how some varieties of psychological action and experience are privileged over others, how dominant accounts of \"psychology\" operate ideologically and in the service of power;# Study of the ways in which all varieties of psychology are culturally historically constructed, and how alternative varieties of psychology may confirm or resist ideological assumptions in mainstream models;# Study of forms of surveillance and self-regulation in everyday life and the ways in which psychological culture operates beyond the boundaries of academic and professional practice; and# Exploration of the way everyday \"ordinary psychology\" structures academic and professional work in psychology and how everyday activities might provide the basis for resistance to contemporary disciplinary practices.===Critical psychology today===There are a few international journals devoted to critical psychology, including the no longer published ''International Journal of Critical Psychology'' (continued in the journal ''Subjectivity'') and the ''Annual Review of Critical Psychology''.",
"The journals still tend to be directed to an academic audience, though the ''Annual Review of Critical Psychology'' runs as an open-access online journal.",
"There are close links between critical psychologists and critical psychiatrists in Britain through the Asylum Collective.",
"David Smail was one of the founders of The Midlands Psychology Group, a critical psychology collective who produced a manifesto for a social materialist psychology of distress.",
"Critical psychology courses and research concentrations are available at Manchester Metropolitan University, York St John University, the University of East London, the University of Edinburgh, the University of KwaZulu Natal, the City University of New York Graduate Center, the University of West Georgia, Point Park University, University of Guelph, York University, and Prescott College.",
"Undergraduate concentrations can also be found at the California Institute of Integral Studies and Prescott College."
],
[
"Extensions",
"Like many critical applications, critical psychology has expanded beyond Marxist and feminist roots to benefit from other critical approaches.",
"Consider ecopsychology and transpersonal psychology.",
"Critical psychology and related work has also sometimes been labelled ''radical psychology'' and ''liberation psychology''.",
"In the field of developmental psychology, the work of Erica Burman has been influential.Various sub-disciplines within psychology have begun to establish their own critical orientations.",
"Perhaps the most extensive are critical health psychology, community psychology, and social psychology."
],
[
"Internationally",
"An early international overview of critical psychology perspectives can be found in ''Critical Psychology: Voices for Change'', edited by Tod Sloan (Macmillan, 2000).",
"In 2015, Ian Parker edited the ''Handbook of Critical Psychology''.===Germany===At FU-Berlin, critical psychology was not really seen as a division of psychology and followed its own methodology, trying to reformulate traditional psychology on an unorthodox Marxist base and drawing from Soviet ideas of cultural–historical psychology, particularly Aleksey Leontyev.",
"Some years ago the department of critical psychology at FU-Berlin was merged into the traditional psychology department.An April 2009 issue of the journal ''Theory & Psychology'' (edited by Desmond Painter, Athanasios Marvakis, and Leendert Mos) is devoted to an examination of German critical psychology.===South Africa===The complex sociopolitical history of South Africa, and its relationship with mainstream psychology, created a setting in which critical psychology could be impactful.",
"South Africa is a good example of a context in which mainstream psychology positioned itself alongside neo-colonialism, racism, and capitalist exploitation - during the country's Apartheid era - which led to the need for critical alternatives within the field that could challenge ideological complicities.",
"During apartheid, mainstream psychology supported the oppressive political system - some psychologists actively and others passively.",
"In the early 1980s, at the height of apartheid, progressive white psychologists and a growing number of black psychologists began to research and practice alternative programmes to critique and resist mainstream psychology's role in perpetuating apartheid in South Africa.",
"In this way, critical psychology started to develop in South Africa.As is the case in other parts of the world, critical psychology in South Africa was born from interrogating psychology in relation to politics.",
"Firstly, psychology was accused of being a product of, and supporter of, an oppressive political system in which its supposed neutrality and scientific objectivity were informed by the sectors of society that benefited from the ideological and economic dominance that it upheld.",
"Secondly, once critical psychologists in South Africa revealed the ideological flaws in mainstream psychology within the country's context, work began to reconfigure the field as a progressive and socially relevant practice with theoretical and methodological approaches that could benefit all members of South African society.The establishment of critical psychology in South Africa took various forms between 1980 and 1994.Although the field was not necessarily fully formalised during this time, spaces and organisations were created for its ideas to be expressed and developed: such as in the University of Cape Town's (UCT) psychology department, the formation of the Organisation for Appropriate Social Services in South Africa (OASSSA), Psychologists Against Apartheid, the South African Health and Social Services Organisation (SAHSSO), and the establishment of the academic journal ''Psychology in Society (PINS)''.",
"Some of the main theoretical and practical achievements of these developments were: the forging of a way to critique the categories of class, race, gender, and other structural factors impacting the discipline of psychology, the encouragement of students to think critically about the politics of psychology, and rebuilding international links as well as relationships with other social and health sciences in South Africa.",
"However, not all these initiatives continued after the end of political struggle and the transition to democracy.",
"After 1994, professional psychology in South Africa was reorganised through the establishment of the Professional Board for Psychology that exists within the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA).",
"This statutory body regulates the profession with its systems of licensing and certification.",
"Within these systems, critical psychology is more of an approach to the field than it is a professional category on its own.",
"From the 2000s until recent times, critical psychology moved more toward studying certain domains, such as gender or race, and in the process, the overarching project of establishing a formalised field of critical psychology has either been discarded or broadened to refer to anything that is 'non-mainstream' in psychology.",
"Critical psychology in South Africa is therefore mostly applied as a theoretical approach.",
"===United States and Canada===The doctoral program in Critical Social/Personality Psychology and Environmental Psychology at the CUNY Graduate Center and the doctoral program in Critical Psychology at Point Park University, in Pittsburgh, PA are the only critical psychology specific doctoral programs in the United States.",
"Prescott College in Prescott, Arizona offers an online Master's program in Critical Psychology and Human Services and has a critically oriented undergraduate program.",
"The California Institute of Integral Studies in San Francisco also offers the Bachelor's Completion Program with a minor in Critical Psychology, and critical perspectives are sometimes encountered in traditional universities, perhaps especially within community psychology programs.",
"The University of West Georgia offers a Ph.D. in Consciousness and Society with critical psychology being one of the main three theoretical orientations.",
"North American efforts include the 1993 founding of RadPsyNet, the 1997 publication of ''Critical Psychology: An Introduction'' (edited by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky; expanded 2009 edition edited by Dennis Fox, Isaac Prilleltensky, and Stephanie Austin), the 2001 Monterey Conference on Critical Psychology, and in underlying themes of many contributions to the ''Journal of Social Action in Counseling and Psychology''."
],
[
"See also",
"* Cultural-historical activity theory* Positive psychology* Psychopolitical validity* Rhetoric of therapy===Societies===* International Society of Critical Health Psychology* Radical Psychology Network"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"===Books===* Fox, D. & Prilleltensky, I.",
"(eds.)",
"(1997).",
"''Critical Psychology: An Introduction.''",
"Sage.",
"on-line* Gough, B.",
"(ed.)",
"(2017).",
"''The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Social Psychology.''",
"London: Palgrave Macmillan.",
"* Harwood, V. (2006) ''Diagnosing 'Disorderly' Children''.",
"London & New York: Routledge.",
"* Ibañez, T. & Íñiguez-Rueda, L.",
"(eds.)",
"(1997).",
"''Critical Social Psychology''.",
"Sage Books.",
"on-line* Kincheloe, J.",
"& Horn, R. (2006).",
"''The Praeger Handbook of Education and Psychology.''",
"4 vols.",
"Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Press.",
"* Parker, I.",
"(ed.)",
"(2015).",
"''Handbook of Critical Psychology''.",
"London: Routledge.",
"* Prilleltensky, I.",
"& Nelson, G. (2002).",
"''Doing psychology critically: Making a difference in diverse settings''.",
"New York: Palgrave–Macmillan.",
"* Sloan, T.",
"(ed.)",
"(2000).",
"''Critical Psychology: Voices for Change.''",
"London: Macmillan.===Papers===* Kincheloe, J.",
"& Steinberg, S. (1993).",
"A Tentative Description of Post-Formal Thinking: The Critical Confrontation with Cognitive Thinking.",
"''Harvard Educational Review'', 63 (2), 296–320.",
"* Prilleltensky, I.",
"(1997).",
"Values, assumptions and practices: Assessing the moral implications of psychological discourse and action.",
"''American Psychologist'', 52(5), 517–35.",
"* Parker, I.",
"(1999) Critical Psychology: Critical Links, ''Radical Psychology: A Journal of Psychology, Politics and Radicalism'' ( on-line)* Parker, I.",
"(2003) \"Psychology is so critical, only Marxism can save us now,\" ( on-line)"
],
[
"External links",
"* * (open access journal)* (open access journal in Spanish)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Crossfire"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Depiction of crossfireA '''crossfire''' (also known as '''interlocking fire''') is a military term for the siting of weapons (often automatic weapons such as assault rifles or sub-machine guns) so that their arcs of fire overlap.",
"This tactic came to prominence in World War I.Siting weapons this way is an example of the application of the defensive principle of ''mutual support''.",
"The advantage of siting weapons that mutually support one another is that it is difficult for an attacker to find a covered approach to any one defensive position.",
"Use of armour, air support, indirect fire support, and stealth are tactics that may be used to assault a defensive position.",
"However, when combined with land mines, snipers, barbed wire, and air cover, crossfire became a difficult tactic to counter in the early 20th century."
],
[
"Trench warfare",
"The tactic of using overlapping arcs of fire came to prominence during World War I where it was a feature of trench warfare.",
"Machine guns were placed in groups, called machine-gun nests, and they protected the front of the trenches.",
"Many people died in futile attempts to charge across the no man's land where these crossfires were set up.",
"After these attacks many bodies could be found in the no man's land."
],
[
"\"Caught in the crossfire\"",
"To be \"caught in the crossfire\" is an expression that often refers to unintended casualties (bystanders, etc.)",
"who were killed or wounded by being exposed to the gunfire of a battle or gun fight, such as in a position to be hit by bullets of either side.",
"The phrase has come to mean any injury, damage or harm (physical or otherwise) caused to a third party due to the action of belligerents (collateral damage)."
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cruising (maritime)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A cruising sailboat anchored in the San Blas Islands, in Panama.",
"'''Cruising''' is a maritime activity that involves staying aboard a watercraft for extended periods of time when the vessel is traveling on water at a steady speed.",
"Cruising generally refers to leisurely trips on yachts and luxury cruiseships, with durations varying from day-trips to months-long round-the-world voyages."
],
[
"History",
"Boats were almost exclusively used for working purposes prior to the nineteenth century.",
"In 1857, the philosopher Henry David Thoreau, with his book ''Canoeing in Wilderness'' chronicling his canoe voyaging in the wilderness of Maine, is considered the first to convey the enjoyment of spiritual and lifestyle aspects of cruising.",
"'Canal barges in Belgium', an image from Robert Louis Stevenson's book, ''An Inland Voyage''.The modern conception of cruising for pleasure was first popularised by the Scottish explorer and sportsman John MacGregor.",
"He was introduced to the canoes and kayaks of the Native Americans on a camping trip in 1858, and on his return to the United Kingdom constructed his own 'double-ended' canoe in Lambeth.",
"The boat, nicknamed 'Rob Roy' after a famous relative of his, was built of lapstrake oak planking, decked in cedar covered with rubberized canvas with an open cockpit in the center.",
"He cruised around the waterways of Britain, Europe and the Middle East and wrote a popular book about his experiences, ''A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe''.In 1866, Macgregor was a moving force behind the establishment of the Royal Canoe Club, the first club in the world to promote pleasure cruising.",
"The first recorded regatta was held on April 27, 1867, and it received Royal patronage in 1873.The latter part of the century saw cruising for leisure being enthusiastically taken up by the middle class.",
"The author Robert Louis Stevenson wrote ''An Inland Voyage'' in 1877 as a travelogue on his canoeing trip through France and Belgium.",
"Stevenson and his companion, Sir Walter Grindlay Simpson travelled in two 'Rob Roys' along the Oise River and witnessed the Romantic beauty of rural Europe.The Canadian-American Joshua Slocum was one of the first people to carry out a long-distance sailing voyage for pleasure, circumnavigating the world between 1895 and 1898.Despite opinion that such a voyage was impossible, Slocum rebuilt a derelict sloop ''Spray'' and sailed her single-handed around the world.",
"His book ''Sailing Alone Around the World'' was a classic adventure, and inspired many others to take to the seas.Kuna paddles a dugout canoe in the San Blas Islands.Other cruising authors have provided both inspiration and instruction to prospective cruisers.",
"Key among these during the post World War II period are Electa and Irving Johnson, Miles and Beryl Smeeton, Bernard Moitessier, Peter Pye, and Eric and Susan Hiscock.",
"During the 1970s - 1990s Robin Lee Graham, Lin and Larry Pardey, Annie Hill, Herb Payson, Linda and Steve Dashew, Margaret and Hal Roth, and Beth Leonard & Evans Starzinger have provided inspiration for people to set off voyaging.The development of ocean crossing rallies, most notably the ARC (Atlantic Rally for Cruisers), have encouraged less experienced sailors to undertake ocean crossings.",
"These rallies provide a group of sailors crossing the same ocean at the same time with safety inspections, weather information and social functions."
],
[
"Types of boats used",
"A motor yacht in Lorient, Bretagne, FranceCruising is done on both sail and power boats, monohulls and multihulls although sail predominates over longer distances, as ocean-going power boats are considerably more expensive to purchase and operate.",
"The size of the typical cruising boat has increased over the years and is currently in the range of 10 to 15 metres (33 to 50 feet) although smaller boats have been used in around-the-world trips, but are generally not recommended given the dangers involved.",
"Many cruisers are \"long term\" and travel for many years, the most adventurous among them circle the globe over a period of three to ten years.",
"Many others take a year or two off from work and school for shorter trips and the chance to experience the cruising lifestyle."
],
[
"Types",
"=== Blue-water and coastal cruising ===Size of Ocean Sea for SailingBlue-water cruising which is defined as long term open sea cruising is more involved and inherently more dangerous than coastal cruising.",
"Before embarking on an open-ocean voyage, planning and preparation will include studying charts, weather reports/warnings, almanacs and navigation books of the route to be followed.",
"In addition, supplies need to be stocked (including fresh water and fuel), navigation instruments checked and the ship itself needs to be inspected and the crew needs to be given exact instruction on the jobs are expected to perform (e.g.",
"the watch, which is generally 4 hours on and 4 hours off, navigation, steering, rigging sails, ...).",
"In addition, the crew needs to be well trained at working together and with the ship in question.",
"Finally, the sailor must be mentally prepared for dealing with harsh situations.",
"There have been many well-documented cases where sailors had to be rescued simply because they were not sufficiently prepared (the sailors as well as the ship) or lacked experience for their venture and ran into serious trouble.Sailing near the coast (coastal cruising) gives a certain amount of safety.",
"A ship is always granted 'innocent passage' through the country (most countries usually claim up to off the coast).",
"When this method is practiced however, if the ship needs to stop (e.g.",
"for repairs), a trip to a customs checkpoint to have passports checked would be required.=== River cruising ===River cruise ships docked along on the Danube in BudapestVoyage along inland waterways are called river cruises, which often involved stopping at multiple ports along the way.",
"As many cities and towns are built around rivers and historically have relied on maritime transport, river cruise docks are frequently located in the center of cities and towns.According to Douglas Ward, \"A river cruise represents life in the slow lane, sailing along at a gentle pace, soaking up the scenery, with plentiful opportunities to explore riverside towns and cities en route.",
"It is a supremely calming experience, an antidote to the pressures of life in a fast-paced world, in surroundings that are comfortable without being fussy or pretentious, with good food and enjoyable company.",
"\"River cruising is a major component of the tourist industry in many parts of the world."
],
[
"Equipment",
"Cruisers use a variety of equipment and techniques to make their voyages possible, or simply more comfortable.",
"The use of wind vane self-steering was common on long distance cruising yachts but is increasingly being supplemented or replaced by electrical auto-pilots.The solar panels on this yacht can keep her self-sufficient in electrical power.Though in the past many cruisers had no means of generating electricity on board and depended on kerosene and dry-cell batteries, today electrical demands are much higher and nearly all cruisers have electrical devices such as lights, communications equipment and refrigeration.",
"Although most boats can generate power from their inboard engines, an increasing number carry auxiliary generators.",
"Carrying sufficient fuel to power engine and generator over a long voyage can be a problem, so many cruising boats are equipped with other ancillary generating devices such as solar panels, wind turbines and towed turbines.",
"Cruisers choosing to spend extended time in very remote locations with minimal access to marinas can opt to equip their vessels with watermakers (reverse-osmosis seawater desalination units) used to convert sea water to potable fresh water.Satellite communications are becoming more common on cruising boats.",
"Many boats are now equipped with satellite telephone systems; however, these systems can be expensive to use, and may operate only in certain areas.",
"Many cruisers still use short wave maritime SSB and amateur radio, which has no running costs.",
"These radios provide two-way voice communications, can receive weather fax graphics or GRIB files via a laptop computer, and with a compatible modem (e.g.",
"PACTOR) can send and receive email at very slow speed.",
"Such emails are usually limited to basic communication using plain text, without HTML formatting or attachments.Awareness of impending weather conditions is particularly important to cruising sailors who are often far from safe harbours and need to steer clear of dangerous weather conditions.",
"Most cruising boats are equipped with a barometer or a weather station that records barometric pressure as well as temperature and provides rudimentary forecasting.",
"For more sophisticated weather forecasting, cruisers rely on their ability to receive forecasts by radio, phone or satellite.In order to avoid collisions with other vessels, cruisers rely on a maintaining a regular watch schedule.",
"At night, color-coded running lights help determine the position and orientation of vessels.",
"Radar and AIS systems are often employed to detect vessels positions and movement in all conditions (day, night, rain and fog).Cruisers navigate using paper charts and radar.",
"Modern yachts are often also equipped with a chartplotter which enables the use of electronic charts and is linked to GPS satellites that provide position reports.",
"Some chartplotters have the ability to interface charts and radar images.",
"Those that still wish to work with traditional charts as well as with GPS may do so using a Yeoman Plotter.",
"Certain advanced sailing vessels have a completely automated sailing system which includes a plotter, as well as course correcting through a link with the ship's steering organs (e.g.",
"sails, propeller).",
"One such device can be found at the Maltese Falcon."
],
[
"Expense",
"Purchasing and maintaining a yacht can be costly.",
"Most cruising sailors do not own a house and consider their boat their home during the duration of their cruise.",
"Many cruisers find they spend, on average, 4% of their boat's purchase price annually on boat maintenance.Like living a conventional life on land, the cost of cruising is variable.",
"How much a person ends up spending depends largely on their spending habits (for example, eating out a lot and frequenting marinas vs. preparing local foods aboard and anchoring out) and the type of boat (fancy modern production boats are very expensive to purchase and maintain, while low-key cruising boats often involve much lower expenses).",
"Most long-term cruisers prefer to live a simple life, usually with far lower expenses than people who live ashore.An alternative solution is to sail on someone else's yacht.",
"Those who know how to sail can sometimes find boats looking for an extra crewmember for a long trip, while some non-sailors are also able to find boats willing to carry a hitch-hiker.",
"Crew-finding websites exist to help match-up people looking for a crossing with yachts with a berth available or looking for a temporary crewmember, Find a Crew for example.",
"Another common tactic for finding a yacht is to visit local yacht clubs and marinas and get to know the sailors there, in the hope that one of them will be able to provide a berth."
],
[
"Safety",
"Travel by water brings hazards: collision, weather, and equipment failure can lead to dangerous situations such as a sinking or severely disabled and dangerous vessel.",
"For this reason many long distance cruising yachts carry with them emergency equipment such as SARTs, EPIRBs and liferafts or proactive lifeboats.",
"Medical emergencies are also of concern, as a medical emergency can occur on a long passage when the closest port is over a week away.",
"For this reason before going cruising many people go through first aid training and carry medical kits.",
"In some parts of the world (e.g., near the Horn of Africa) piracy can be a problem."
],
[
"Other kinds of maritime cruising",
"*A '''booze cruise''' is a pleasure outing on a ship or boat involving a significant amount of drinking.",
"It may have originated during Prohibition, when Americans would take \"cruises to nowhere\" to enjoy alcohol, which could legally be served on board once outside American territorial waters.",
"*'''Camp cruising''', also known as '''beach cruising''' or '''gunkhole cruising''', is a form of cruising in which sailors sail from point to point in an open or semi-enclosed boat, generally remaining within sight of land.",
"Camp cruisers either camp ashore (\"camp cruising\" or \"beach cruising\"), or aboard the boat at anchor.",
"The boats used may be specialized cruising dinghies, small keelboats, trailer sailers or general purpose daysailing or racing boats pressed into service for the purpose.",
"*''' Commute cruising''', also known as '''seasonal cruising''', is becoming increasingly popular.",
"Commute cruisers live aboard and sail for a few months at a time, exploring new or favorite areas, then leave the vessel in a new location or maybe return it to the same location, travel home for a few months, and return to the vessel to continue cruising during favorable seasons.",
"This type of cruising is somewhat akin to owning a second home that travels by sea and allows for a dual lifestyle.",
"*'''Daysailing''' is recreational sailing that does not involve racing or cruising.",
"Many racers refer to all non-racers as \"cruisers\", including dinghy and small keelboat sailors who primarily focus on daysailing.",
"* '''LGBT sailing cruising''' is a type of specialized recreational boat cruising tour organized by cruising operators in many regions of the world.",
"Trips are organized for the LGBT community to provide a unique experience within a \"safe space\" where travelers can explore new places.",
"*'''Expedition cruising''', where the trips can be a combination of scientists working and tourists along for the adventure, or where scientists lead a group of tourists in order for the tourists to observe animals, plants or natural phenomena.",
"*Travel on '''cruise ships''' may be referred to as ''cruising''.",
"Those who take frequent cruise ship vacations may be called ''cruisers''."
],
[
"See also",
"* Boat building* Cabin cruiser* Electric boat* Gunkholing* Maritime mobile amateur radio* River cruise* Sailboat* The Cruising Association"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Alan Villiers, ''Cruise of the Conrad''.",
"Scribner's, 1937.Reprinted, Seafarer Books, 2006.",
"* Beth A. Leonard, ''The Voyager's Handbook''* Don Casey, ''Dragged Aboard: a Cruising Guide for the Reluctant Mate''* Elbert Maloney, ''Dutton's Navigation and Piloting'' - a classic, professional reference, continuously updated.",
"* Follow the Horizon Cruising Blog* - just the facts, a classic.",
"** Jeff & Raine Williams ''Around the World in Eighty Megabytes''* Lawrence and Lin Pardey, ''The Self-Sufficient Sailor'' -* Lin and Larry Pardey, \"Storm Tactics Handbook.",
"\"* Lin Pardey, 'Care and Feeding of Sailing Crew'* Linda and Steve Dashew, ''Mariner's Weather Handbook''* Linda and Steve Dashew, ''Offshore Cruisers' Encyclopedia''* Merle Turner, ''Celestial Navigation for the Cruising Navigator'' - some theory.",
"* Michael Carr, \"Weather Prediction Simplified\"* Robin Lee Graham, ''Dove'' - The story of a 16-year-old boy who sails around the world in a sloop in the nineteen-sixties* William F. Buckley Jr., ''Atlantic High'' - an account of an Atlantic passage.",
"* William F. Buckley, Jr., ''Racing Through Paradise'' - etc.",
"about a Pacific passage."
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cavitation"
],
[
"Introduction",
"water tunnel experimentaxial piston hydraulic pumpThis video shows cavitation in a gear pump.Cavitation damage evident on the propeller of a personal watercraft'''Cavitation''' in fluid mechanics and engineering normally refers to the phenomenon in which the static pressure of a liquid reduces to below the liquid's vapour pressure, leading to the formation of small vapor-filled cavities in the liquid.",
"When subjected to higher pressure, these cavities, called \"bubbles\" or \"voids\", collapse and can generate shock waves that may damage machinery.",
"These shock waves are strong when they are very close to the imploded bubble, but rapidly weaken as they propagate away from the implosion.",
"Cavitation is a significant cause of wear in some engineering contexts.",
"Collapsing voids that implode near to a metal surface cause cyclic stress through repeated implosion.",
"This results in surface fatigue of the metal, causing a type of wear also called \"cavitation\".",
"The most common examples of this kind of wear are to pump impellers, and bends where a sudden change in the direction of liquid occurs.",
"Cavitation is usually divided into two classes of behavior: inertial (or transient) cavitation and non-inertial cavitation.The process in which a void or bubble in a liquid rapidly collapses, producing a shock wave, is called inertial cavitation.",
"Inertial cavitation occurs in nature in the strikes of mantis shrimp and pistol shrimp, as well as in the vascular tissues of plants.",
"In manufactured objects, it can occur in control valves, pumps, propellers and impellers.Non-inertial cavitation is the process in which a bubble in a fluid is forced to oscillate in size or shape due to some form of energy input, such as an acoustic field.",
"The gas in the bubble may contain a portion of a different gas than the vapor phase of the liquid.",
"Such cavitation is often employed in ultrasonic cleaning baths and can also be observed in pumps, propellers, etc.Since the shock waves formed by collapse of the voids are strong enough to cause significant damage to parts, cavitation is typically an undesirable phenomenon in machinery (although desirable if intentionally used, for example, to sterilize contaminated surgical instruments, break down pollutants in water purification systems, emulsify tissue for cataract surgery or kidney stone lithotripsy, or homogenize fluids).",
"It is very often specifically prevented in the design of machines such as turbines or propellers, and eliminating cavitation is a major field in the study of fluid dynamics.",
"However, it is sometimes useful and does not cause damage when the bubbles collapse away from machinery, such as in supercavitation."
],
[
"Physics",
"=== Inertial cavitation ===Inertial cavitation was first observed in the late 19th century, considering the collapse of a spherical void within a liquid.",
"When a volume of liquid is subjected to a sufficiently low pressure, it may rupture and form a cavity.",
"This phenomenon is coined ''cavitation inception'' and may occur behind the blade of a rapidly rotating propeller or on any surface vibrating in the liquid with sufficient amplitude and acceleration.",
"A fast-flowing river can cause cavitation on rock surfaces, particularly when there is a drop-off, such as on a waterfall.Vapor gases evaporate into the cavity from the surrounding medium; thus, the cavity is not a vacuum at all, but rather a low-pressure vapor (gas) bubble.",
"Once the conditions which caused the bubble to form are no longer present, such as when the bubble moves downstream, the surrounding liquid begins to implode due its higher pressure, building up momentum as it moves inward.",
"As the bubble finally collapses, the inward momentum of the surrounding liquid causes a sharp increase of pressure and temperature of the vapor within.",
"The bubble eventually collapses to a minute fraction of its original size, at which point the gas within dissipates into the surrounding liquid via a rather violent mechanism which releases a significant amount of energy in the form of an acoustic shock wave and as visible light.",
"At the point of total collapse, the temperature of the vapor within the bubble may be several thousand Kelvin, and the pressure several hundred atmospheres.The physical process of cavitation inception is similar to boiling.",
"The major difference between the two is the thermodynamic paths that precede the formation of the vapor.",
"Boiling occurs when the local temperature of the liquid reaches the saturation temperature, and further heat is supplied to allow the liquid to sufficiently phase change into a gas.",
"Cavitation inception occurs when the local pressure falls sufficiently far below the saturated vapor pressure, a value given by the tensile strength of the liquid at a certain temperature.In order for cavitation inception to occur, the cavitation \"bubbles\" generally need a surface on which they can nucleate.",
"This surface can be provided by the sides of a container, by impurities in the liquid, or by small undissolved microbubbles within the liquid.",
"It is generally accepted that hydrophobic surfaces stabilize small bubbles.",
"These pre-existing bubbles start to grow unbounded when they are exposed to a pressure below the threshold pressure, termed Blake's threshold.",
"The presence of an incompressible core inside a cavitation nucleus substantially lowers the cavitation threshold below the Blake threshold.The vapor pressure here differs from the meteorological definition of vapor pressure, which describes the partial pressure of water in the atmosphere at some value less than 100% saturation.",
"Vapor pressure as relating to cavitation refers to the vapor pressure in equilibrium conditions and can therefore be more accurately defined as the equilibrium (or saturated) vapor pressure.Non-inertial cavitation is the process in which small bubbles in a liquid are forced to oscillate in the presence of an acoustic field, when the intensity of the acoustic field is insufficient to cause total bubble collapse.",
"This form of cavitation causes significantly less erosion than inertial cavitation, and is often used for the cleaning of delicate materials, such as silicon wafers.Other ways of generating cavitation voids involve the local deposition of energy, such as an intense focused laser pulse (optic cavitation) or with an electrical discharge through a spark.",
"These techniques have been used to study the evolution of the bubble that is actually created by locally boiling the liquid with a local increment of temperature.===Hydrodynamic cavitation===Hydrodynamic cavitation is the process of vaporisation, bubble generation and bubble implosion which occurs in a flowing liquid as a result of a decrease and subsequent increase in local pressure.",
"Cavitation will only occur if the local pressure declines to some point below the saturated vapor pressure of the liquid and subsequent recovery above the vapor pressure.",
"If the recovery pressure is not above the vapor pressure then flashing is said to have occurred.",
"In pipe systems, cavitation typically occurs either as the result of an increase in the kinetic energy (through an area constriction) or an increase in the pipe elevation.Hydrodynamic cavitation can be produced by passing a liquid through a constricted channel at a specific flow velocity or by mechanical rotation of an object through a liquid.",
"In the case of the constricted channel and based on the specific (or unique) geometry of the system, the combination of pressure and kinetic energy can create the hydrodynamic cavitation cavern downstream of the local constriction generating high energy cavitation bubbles.Based on the thermodynamic phase change diagram, an increase in temperature could initiate a known phase change mechanism known as boiling.",
"However, a decrease in static pressure could also help one pass the multi-phase diagram and initiate another phase change mechanism known as cavitation.",
"On the other hand, a local increase in flow velocity could lead to a static pressure drop to the critical point at which cavitation could be initiated (based on Bernoulli's principle).",
"The critical pressure point is vapor saturated pressure.",
"In a closed fluidic system where no flow leakage is detected, a decrease in cross-sectional area would lead to velocity increment and hence static pressure drop.",
"This is the working principle of many hydrodynamic cavitation based reactors for different applications such as water treatment, energy harvesting, heat transfer enhancement, food processing, etc.There are different flow patterns detected as a cavitation flow progresses: inception, developed flow, supercavitation, and choked flow.",
"Inception is the first moment that the second phase (gas phase) appears in the system.",
"This is the weakest cavitating flow captured in a system corresponding to the highest cavitation number.",
"When the cavities grow and becomes larger in size in the orifice or venturi structures, developed flow is recorded.",
"The most intense cavitating flow is known as supercavitation where theoretically all the nozzle area of an orifice is filled with gas bubbles.",
"This flow regime corresponds to the lowest cavitation number in a system.",
"After supercavitation, the system is not capable of passing more flow.",
"Hence, velocity does not change while the upstream pressure increase.",
"This would lead to an increase in cavitation number which shows that choked flow occurred.The process of bubble generation, and the subsequent growth and collapse of the cavitation bubbles, results in very high energy densities and in very high local temperatures and local pressures at the surface of the bubbles for a very short time.",
"The overall liquid medium environment, therefore, remains at ambient conditions.",
"When uncontrolled, cavitation is damaging; by controlling the flow of the cavitation, however, the power can be harnessed and non-destructive.",
"Controlled cavitation can be used to enhance chemical reactions or propagate certain unexpected reactions because free radicals are generated in the process due to disassociation of vapors trapped in the cavitating bubbles.Orifices and venturi are reported to be widely used for generating cavitation.",
"A venturi has an inherent advantage over an orifice because of its smooth converging and diverging sections, such that it can generate a higher flow velocity at the throat for a given pressure drop across it.",
"On the other hand, an orifice has an advantage that it can accommodate a greater number of holes (larger perimeter of holes) in a given cross sectional area of the pipe.The cavitation phenomenon can be controlled to enhance the performance of high-speed marine vessels and projectiles, as well as in material processing technologies, in medicine, etc.",
"Controlling the cavitating flows in liquids can be achieved only by advancing the mathematical foundation of the cavitation processes.",
"These processes are manifested in different ways, the most common ones and promising for control being bubble cavitation and supercavitation.",
"The first exact classical solution should perhaps be credited to the well-known solution by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1868.The earliest distinguished studies of academic type on the theory of a cavitating flow with free boundaries and supercavitation were published in the book ''Jets, wakes and cavities'' followed by ''Theory of jets of ideal fluid''.",
"Widely used in these books was the well-developed theory of conformal mappings of functions of a complex variable, allowing one to derive a large number of exact solutions of plane problems.",
"Another venue combining the existing exact solutions with approximated and heuristic models was explored in the work ''Hydrodynamics of Flows with Free Boundaries'' that refined the applied calculation techniques based on the principle of cavity expansion independence, theory of pulsations and stability of elongated axisymmetric cavities, etc.",
"and in ''Dimensionality and similarity methods in the problems of the hydromechanics of vessels''.A natural continuation of these studies was recently presented in ''The Hydrodynamics of Cavitating Flows'' – an encyclopedic work encompassing all the best advances in this domain for the last three decades, and blending the classical methods of mathematical research with the modern capabilities of computer technologies.",
"These include elaboration of nonlinear numerical methods of solving 3D cavitation problems, refinement of the known plane linear theories, development of asymptotic theories of axisymmetric and nearly axisymmetric flows, etc.",
"As compared to the classical approaches, the new trend is characterized by expansion of the theory into the 3D flows.",
"It also reflects a certain correlation with current works of an applied character on the hydrodynamics of supercavitating bodies.Hydrodynamic cavitation can also improve some industrial processes.",
"For instance, cavitated corn slurry shows higher yields in ethanol production compared to uncavitated corn slurry in dry milling facilities.This is also used in the mineralization of bio-refractory compounds which otherwise would need extremely high temperature and pressure conditions since free radicals are generated in the process due to the dissociation of vapors trapped in the cavitating bubbles, which results in either the intensification of the chemical reaction or may even result in the propagation of certain reactions not possible under otherwise ambient conditions.===Acoustic cavitation and ultrasonic cavitation===Inertial cavitation can also occur in the presence of an acoustic field.",
"Microscopic gas bubbles that are generally present in a liquid will be forced to oscillate due to an applied acoustic field.",
"If the acoustic intensity is sufficiently high, the bubbles will first grow in size and then rapidly collapse.",
"Hence, inertial cavitation can occur even if the rarefaction in the liquid is insufficient for a Rayleigh-like void to occur.Ultrasonic cavitation inception will occur when the acceleration of the ultrasound source is enough to produce the needed pressure drop.",
"This pressure drop depends on the value of the acceleration and the size of the affected volume by the pressure wave.",
"The dimensionless number that predicts ultrasonic cavitation is the Garcia-Atance number.",
"High power ultrasonic horns produce accelerations high enough to create a cavitating region that can be used for homogenization, dispersion, deagglomeration, erosion, cleaning, milling, emulsification, extraction, disintegration, and sonochemistry."
],
[
"Applications",
"===Chemical engineering===In industry, cavitation is often used to homogenize, or mix and break down, suspended particles in a colloidal liquid compound such as paint mixtures or milk.",
"Many industrial mixing machines are based upon this design principle.",
"It is usually achieved through impeller design or by forcing the mixture through an annular opening that has a narrow entrance orifice with a much larger exit orifice.",
"In the latter case, the drastic decrease in pressure as the liquid accelerates into a larger volume induces cavitation.",
"This method can be controlled with hydraulic devices that control inlet orifice size, allowing for dynamic adjustment during the process, or modification for different substances.",
"The surface of this type of mixing valve, against which surface the cavitation bubbles are driven causing their implosion, undergoes tremendous mechanical and thermal localized stress; they are therefore often constructed of extremely strong and hard materials such as stainless steel, Stellite, or even polycrystalline diamond (PCD).Cavitating water purification devices have also been designed, in which the extreme conditions of cavitation can break down pollutants and organic molecules.",
"Spectral analysis of light emitted in sonochemical reactions reveal chemical and plasma-based mechanisms of energy transfer.",
"The light emitted from cavitation bubbles is termed sonoluminescence.Use of this technology has been tried successfully in alkali refining of vegetable oils.Hydrophobic chemicals are attracted underwater by cavitation as the pressure difference between the bubbles and the liquid water forces them to join.",
"This effect may assist in protein folding.===Biomedical===Cavitation plays an important role for the destruction of kidney stones in shock wave lithotripsy.",
"Currently, tests are being conducted as to whether cavitation can be used to transfer large molecules into biological cells (sonoporation).",
"Nitrogen cavitation is a method used in research to lyse cell membranes while leaving organelles intact.Cavitation plays a key role in non-thermal, non-invasive fractionation of tissue for treatment of a variety of diseases and can be used to open the blood-brain barrier to increase uptake of neurological drugs in the brain.Cavitation also plays a role in HIFU, a thermal non-invasive treatment methodology for cancer.In wounds caused by high velocity impacts (like for example bullet wounds) there are also effects due to cavitation.",
"The exact wounding mechanisms are not completely understood yet as there is temporary cavitation, and permanent cavitation together with crushing, tearing and stretching.",
"Also the high variance in density within the body makes it hard to determine its effects.Ultrasound sometimes is used to increase bone formation, for instance in post-surgical applications.It has been suggested that the sound of \"cracking\" knuckles derives from the collapse of cavitation in the synovial fluid within the joint.Cavitation can also form Ozone micro-nanobubbles which shows promise in dental applications.===Cleaning===In industrial cleaning applications, cavitation has sufficient power to overcome the particle-to-substrate adhesion forces, loosening contaminants.",
"The threshold pressure required to initiate cavitation is a strong function of the pulse width and the power input.",
"This method works by generating acoustic cavitation in the cleaning fluid, picking up and carrying contaminant particles away in the hope that they do not reattach to the material being cleaned (which is a possibility when the object is immersed, for example in an ultrasonic cleaning bath).",
"The same physical forces that remove contaminants also have the potential to damage the target being cleaned.=== Food and beverage ======= Eggs ====Cavitation has been applied to egg pasteurization.",
"A hole-filled rotor produces cavitation bubbles, heating the liquid from within.",
"Equipment surfaces stay cooler than the passing liquid, so eggs do not harden as they did on the hot surfaces of older equipment.",
"The intensity of cavitation can be adjusted, making it possible to tune the process for minimum protein damage.==== Vegetable oil production ====Cavitation has been applied to vegetable oil degumming and refining since 2011 and is considered a proven and standard technology in this application.",
"The implementation of hydrodynamic cavitation in the degumming and refining process allows for a significant reduction in process aid, such as chemicals, water and bleaching clay, use.=== Biofuels ======= Biodiesel ====Cavitation has been applied to Biodiesel production since 2011 and is considered a proven and standard technology in this application.",
"The implementation of hydrodynamic cavitation in the transesterification process allows for a significant reduction in catalyst use, quality improvement and production capacity increase."
],
[
"Cavitation damage{{anchor|Cavitation erosion}}",
"Cavitation damage to a Francis turbineCavitation is usually an undesirable occurrence.",
"In devices such as propellers and pumps, cavitation causes a great deal of noise, damage to components, vibrations, and a loss of efficiency.",
"Noise caused by cavitation can be particularly undesirable in naval vessels where such noise may render them more easily detectable by passive sonar.",
"Cavitation has also become a concern in the renewable energy sector as it may occur on the blade surface of tidal stream turbines.When the cavitation bubbles collapse, they force energetic liquid into very small volumes, thereby creating spots of high temperature and emitting shock waves, the latter of which are a source of noise.",
"The noise created by cavitation is a particular problem for military submarines, as it increases the chances of being detected by passive sonar.Although the collapse of a small cavity is a relatively low-energy event, highly localized collapses can erode metals, such as steel, over time.",
"The pitting caused by the collapse of cavities produces great wear on components and can dramatically shorten a propeller's or pump's lifetime.After a surface is initially affected by cavitation, it tends to erode at an accelerating pace.",
"The cavitation pits increase the turbulence of the fluid flow and create crevices that act as nucleation sites for additional cavitation bubbles.",
"The pits also increase the components' surface area and leave behind residual stresses.",
"This makes the surface more prone to stress corrosion.===Pumps and propellers===Major places where cavitation occurs are in pumps, on propellers, or at restrictions in a flowing liquid.As an impeller's (in a pump) or propeller's (as in the case of a ship or submarine) blades move through a fluid, low-pressure areas are formed as the fluid accelerates around and moves past the blades.",
"The faster the blade moves, the lower the pressure can become around it.",
"As it reaches vapor pressure, the fluid vaporizes and forms small bubbles of gas.",
"This is cavitation.",
"When the bubbles collapse later, they typically cause very strong local shock waves in the fluid, which may be audible and may even damage the blades.Cavitation in pumps may occur in two different forms:====Suction cavitation====Suction cavitation occurs when the pump suction is under a low-pressure/high-vacuum condition where the liquid turns into a vapor at the eye of the pump impeller.",
"This vapor is carried over to the discharge side of the pump, where it no longer sees vacuum and is compressed back into a liquid by the discharge pressure.",
"This imploding action occurs violently and attacks the face of the impeller.",
"An impeller that has been operating under a suction cavitation condition can have large chunks of material removed from its face or very small bits of material removed, causing the impeller to look spongelike.",
"Both cases will cause premature failure of the pump, often due to bearing failure.",
"Suction cavitation is often identified by a sound like gravel or marbles in the pump casing.Common causes of suction cavitation can include clogged filters, pipe blockage on the suction side, poor piping design, pump running too far right on the pump curve, or conditions not meeting NPSH (net positive suction head) requirements.In automotive applications, a clogged filter in a hydraulic system (power steering, power brakes) can cause suction cavitation making a noise that rises and falls in synch with engine RPM.",
"It is fairly often a high pitched whine, like set of nylon gears not quite meshing correctly.====Discharge cavitation====Discharge cavitation occurs when the pump discharge pressure is extremely high, normally occurring in a pump that is running at less than 10% of its best efficiency point.",
"The high discharge pressure causes the majority of the fluid to circulate inside the pump instead of being allowed to flow out the discharge.",
"As the liquid flows around the impeller, it must pass through the small clearance between the impeller and the pump housing at extremely high flow velocity.",
"This flow velocity causes a vacuum to develop at the housing wall (similar to what occurs in a venturi), which turns the liquid into a vapor.",
"A pump that has been operating under these conditions shows premature wear of the impeller vane tips and the pump housing.",
"In addition, due to the high pressure conditions, premature failure of the pump's mechanical seal and bearings can be expected.",
"Under extreme conditions, this can break the impeller shaft.Discharge cavitation in joint fluid is thought to cause the popping sound produced by bone joint cracking, for example by deliberately cracking one's knuckles.====Cavitation solutions====Since all pumps require well-developed inlet flow to meet their potential, a pump may not perform or be as reliable as expected due to a faulty suction piping layout such as a close-coupled elbow on the inlet flange.",
"When poorly developed flow enters the pump impeller, it strikes the vanes and is unable to follow the impeller passage.",
"The liquid then separates from the vanes causing mechanical problems due to cavitation, vibration and performance problems due to turbulence and poor filling of the impeller.",
"This results in premature seal, bearing and impeller failure, high maintenance costs, high power consumption, and less-than-specified head and/or flow.To have a well-developed flow pattern, pump manufacturer's manuals recommend about (10 diameters?)",
"of straight pipe run upstream of the pump inlet flange.",
"Unfortunately, piping designers and plant personnel must contend with space and equipment layout constraints and usually cannot comply with this recommendation.",
"Instead, it is common to use an elbow close-coupled to the pump suction which creates a poorly developed flow pattern at the pump suction.With a double-suction pump tied to a close-coupled elbow, flow distribution to the impeller is poor and causes reliability and performance shortfalls.",
"The elbow divides the flow unevenly with more channeled to the outside of the elbow.",
"Consequently, one side of the double-suction impeller receives more flow at a higher flow velocity and pressure while the starved side receives a highly turbulent and potentially damaging flow.",
"This degrades overall pump performance (delivered head, flow and power consumption) and causes axial imbalance which shortens seal, bearing and impeller life.To overcome cavitation:Increase suction pressure if possible.Decrease liquid temperature if possible.Throttle back on the discharge valve to decrease flow-rate.Vent gases off the pump casing.===Control valves===Cavitation can occur in control valves.",
"If the actual pressure drop across the valve as defined by the upstream and downstream pressures in the system is greater than the sizing calculations allow, pressure drop flashing or cavitation may occur.",
"The change from a liquid state to a vapor state results from the increase in flow velocity at or just downstream of the greatest flow restriction which is normally the valve port.",
"To maintain a steady flow of liquid through a valve the flow velocity must be greatest at the vena contracta or the point where the cross sectional area is the smallest.",
"This increase in flow velocity is accompanied by a substantial decrease in the fluid pressure which is partially recovered downstream as the area increases and flow velocity decreases.",
"This pressure recovery is never completely to the level of the upstream pressure.",
"If the pressure at the vena contracta drops below the vapor pressure of the fluid bubbles will form in the flow stream.",
"If the pressure recovers after the valve to a pressure that is once again above the vapor pressure, then the vapor bubbles will collapse and cavitation will occur.===Spillways===When water flows over a dam spillway, the irregularities on the spillway surface will cause small areas of flow separation in a high-speed flow, and, in these regions, the pressure will be lowered.",
"If the flow velocities are high enough the pressure may fall to below the local vapor pressure of the water and vapor bubbles will form.",
"When these are carried downstream into a high pressure region the bubbles collapse giving rise to high pressures and possible cavitation damage.Experimental investigations show that the damage on concrete chute and tunnel spillways can start at clear water flow velocities of between , and, up to flow velocities of , it may be possible to protect the surface by streamlining the boundaries, improving the surface finishes or using resistant materials.When some air is present in the water the resulting mixture is compressible and this damps the high pressure caused by the bubble collapses.",
"If the flow velocities near the spillway invert are sufficiently high, aerators (or aeration devices) must be introduced to prevent cavitation.",
"Although these have been installed for some years, the mechanisms of air entrainment at the aerators and the slow movement of the air away from the spillway surface are still challenging.The spillway aeration device design is based upon a small deflection of the spillway bed (or sidewall) such as a ramp and offset to deflect the high flow velocity flow away from the spillway surface.",
"In the cavity formed below the nappe, a local subpressure beneath the nappe is produced by which air is sucked into the flow.",
"The complete design includes the deflection device (ramp, offset) and the air supply system.===Engines===Some larger diesel engines suffer from cavitation due to high compression and undersized cylinder walls.",
"Vibrations of the cylinder wall induce alternating low and high pressure in the coolant against the cylinder wall.",
"The result is pitting of the cylinder wall, which will eventually let cooling fluid leak into the cylinder and combustion gases to leak into the coolant.It is possible to prevent this from happening with the use of chemical additives in the cooling fluid that form a protective layer on the cylinder wall.",
"This layer will be exposed to the same cavitation, but rebuilds itself.",
"Additionally a regulated overpressure in the cooling system (regulated and maintained by the coolant filler cap spring pressure) prevents the forming of cavitation.From about the 1980s, new designs of smaller gasoline engines also displayed cavitation phenomena.",
"One answer to the need for smaller and lighter engines was a smaller coolant volume and a correspondingly higher coolant flow velocity.",
"This gave rise to rapid changes in flow velocity and therefore rapid changes of static pressure in areas of high heat transfer.",
"Where resulting vapor bubbles collapsed against a surface, they had the effect of first disrupting protective oxide layers (of cast aluminium materials) and then repeatedly damaging the newly formed surface, preventing the action of some types of corrosion inhibitor (such as silicate based inhibitors).",
"A final problem was the effect that increased material temperature had on the relative electrochemical reactivity of the base metal and its alloying constituents.",
"The result was deep pits that could form and penetrate the engine head in a matter of hours when the engine was running at high load and high speed.",
"These effects could largely be avoided by the use of organic corrosion inhibitors or (preferably) by designing the engine head in such a way as to avoid certain cavitation inducing conditions."
],
[
"In nature",
"===Geology===Some hypotheses relating to diamond formation posit a possible role for cavitation—namely cavitation in the kimberlite pipes providing the extreme pressure needed to change pure carbon into the rare allotrope that is diamond.",
"The loudest three sounds ever recorded, during the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, are now understood as the bursts of three huge cavitation bubbles, each larger than the last, formed in the volcano's throat.",
"Rising magma, filled with dissolved gasses and under immense pressure, encountered a different magma that compressed easily, allowing bubbles to grow and combine.===Vascular plants===Cavitation can occur in the xylem of vascular plants.",
"The sap vaporizes locally so that either the vessel elements or tracheids are filled with water vapor.",
"Plants are able to repair cavitated xylem in a number of ways.",
"For plants less than 50 cm tall, root pressure can be sufficient to redissolve the vapor.",
"Larger plants direct solutes into the xylem via ''ray cells'', or in tracheids, via osmosis through bordered pits.",
"Solutes attract water, the pressure rises and vapor can redissolve.",
"In some trees, the sound of the cavitation is audible, particularly in summer, when the rate of evapotranspiration is highest.",
"Some deciduous trees have to shed leaves in the autumn partly because cavitation increases as temperatures decrease.===Spore dispersal in plants===Cavitation plays a role in the spore dispersal mechanisms of certain plants.",
"In ferns, for example, the fern sporangium acts as a catapult that launches spores into the air.",
"The charging phase of the catapult is driven by water evaporation from the annulus cells, which triggers a pressure decrease.",
"When the compressive pressure reaches approximately 9MPa, cavitation occurs.",
"This rapid event triggers spore dispersal due to the elastic energy released by the annulus structure.",
"The initial spore acceleration is extremely large – up to 10 times the gravitational acceleration.===Marine life===Just as cavitation bubbles form on a fast-spinning boat propeller, they may also form on the tails and fins of aquatic animals.",
"This primarily occurs near the surface of the ocean, where the ambient water pressure is low.Cavitation may limit the maximum swimming speed of powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna.",
"Dolphins may have to restrict their speed because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are painful.",
"Tuna have bony fins without nerve endings and do not feel pain from cavitation.",
"They are slowed down when cavitation bubbles create a vapor film around their fins.",
"Lesions have been found on tuna that are consistent with cavitation damage.Some sea animals have found ways to use cavitation to their advantage when hunting prey.",
"The pistol shrimp snaps a specialized claw to create cavitation, which can kill small fish.",
"The mantis shrimp (of the ''smasher'' variety) uses cavitation as well in order to stun, smash open, or kill the shellfish that it feasts upon.Thresher sharks use 'tail slaps' to debilitate their small fish prey and cavitation bubbles have been seen rising from the apex of the tail arc.===Coastal erosion===In the last half-decade, coastal erosion in the form of inertial cavitation has been generally accepted.",
"Bubbles in an incoming wave are forced into cracks in the cliff being eroded.",
"Varying pressure decompresses some vapor pockets which subsequently implode.",
"The resulting pressure peaks can blast apart fractions of the rock."
],
[
"History",
"As early as 1754, the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) speculated about the possibility of cavitation.",
"In 1859, the English mathematician William Henry Besant (1828–1917) published a solution to the problem of the dynamics of the collapse of a spherical cavity in a fluid, which had been presented by the Anglo-Irish mathematician George Stokes (1819–1903) as one of the Cambridge University Senate-house problems and riders for the year 1847.In 1894, Irish fluid dynamicist Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) studied the formation and collapse of vapor bubbles in boiling liquids and in constricted tubes.The term ''cavitation'' first appeared in 1895 in a paper by John Isaac Thornycroft (1843–1928) and Sydney Walker Barnaby (1855–1925)—son of Sir Nathaniel Barnaby (1829 – 1915), who had been Chief Constructor of the Royal Navy—to whom it had been suggested by the British engineer Robert Edmund Froude (1846–1924), third son of the English hydrodynamicist William Froude (1810–1879).",
"Early experimental studies of cavitation were conducted in 1894-5 by Thornycroft and Barnaby and by the Anglo-Irish engineer Charles Algernon Parsons (1854-1931), who constructed a stroboscopic apparatus to study the phenomenon.",
"Thornycroft and Barnaby were the first researchers to observe cavitation on the back sides of propeller blades.In 1917, the British physicist Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919) extended Besant's work, publishing a mathematical model of cavitation in an incompressible fluid (ignoring surface tension and viscosity), in which he also determined the pressure in the fluid.",
"The mathematical models of cavitation which were developed by British engineer Stanley Smith Cook (1875–1952) and by Lord Rayleigh revealed that collapsing bubbles of vapor could generate very high pressures, which were capable of causing the damage that had been observed on ships' propellers.",
"Experimental evidence of cavitation causing such high pressures was initially collected in 1952 by Mark Harrison (a fluid dynamicist and acoustician at the U.S. Navy's David Taylor Model Basin at Carderock, Maryland, USA) who used acoustic methods and in 1956 by Wernfried Güth (a physicist and acoustician of Göttigen University, Germany) who used optical Schlieren photography.The implosion of a cavitation bubble causes a high-speed jet of fluid to impact a fixed surface.In 1944, Soviet scientists Mark Iosifovich Kornfeld (1908–1993) and L. Suvorov of the Leningrad Physico-Technical Institute (now: the Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia) proposed that during cavitation, bubbles in the vicinity of a solid surface do not collapse symmetrically; instead, a dimple forms on the bubble at a point opposite the solid surface and this dimple evolves into a jet of liquid.",
"This jet of liquid damages the solid surface.",
"This hypothesis was supported in 1951 by theoretical studies by Maurice Rattray Jr., a doctoral student at the California Institute of Technology.",
"Kornfeld and Suvorov's hypothesis was confirmed experimentally in 1961 by Charles F. Naudé and Albert T. Ellis, fluid dynamicists at the California Institute of Technology.A series of experimental investigations of the propagation of strong shock wave (SW) in a liquid with gas bubbles, which made it possible to establish the basic laws governing the process, the mechanism for the transformation of the energy of the SW, attenuation of the SW, and the formation of the structure, and experiments on the analysis of the attenuation of waves in bubble screens with different acoustic properties were begun by pioneer works of Soviet scientist prof.V.F.",
"Minin at the Institute of Hydrodynamics (Novosibirsk, Russia) in 1957–1960, who examined also the first convenient model of a screen - a sequence of alternating flat one-dimensional liquid and gas layers.",
"In an experimental investigations of the dynamics of the form of pulsating gaseous cavities and interaction of SW with bubble clouds in 1957–1960 V.F.",
"Minin discovered that under the action of SW a bubble collapses asymmetrically with the formation of a cumulative jet, which forms in the process of collapse and causes fragmentation of the bubble."
],
[
"See also",
"* * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* For cavitation in plants, see ''Plant Physiology'' by Taiz and Zeiger.",
"* For cavitation in the engineering field, visit * * For hydrodynamic cavitation in the ethanol field, visit and Ethanol Producer Magazine: \"Tiny Bubbles to Make You Happy\" * * For Cavitation on tidal stream turbines, see"
],
[
"External links",
"* Cavitation and Bubbly Flows, Saint Anthony Falls Laboratory, University of Minnesota* Cavitation and Bubble Dynamics by Christopher E. Brennen* Fundamentals of Multiphase Flow by Christopher E. Brennen* van der Waals-type CFD Modeling of Cavitation* Cavitation bubble in varying gravitational fields, jet-formation* Cavitation limits the speed of dolphins* Tiny Bubbles to Make You Happy* Pump Cavitation"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cyprinodontiformes"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Cyprinodontiformes''' is an order of ray-finned fish, comprising mostly small, freshwater fish.",
"Many popular aquarium fish, such as killifish and live-bearers, are included.",
"They are closely related to the Atheriniformes and are occasionally included with them.",
"A colloquial term for the order as a whole is '''toothcarps''', though they are not actually close relatives of the true carps – the latter belong to the superorder Ostariophysi, while the toothcarps are Acanthopterygii.The families of Cyprinodontiformes can be informally divided into three groups based on reproductive strategy: viviparous and ovoviviparous (all species give live birth), and oviparous (all species are egg-laying).",
"The live-bearing groups differ in whether the young are carried to term within (ovoviviparous) or without (viviparous) an enclosing eggshell.",
"Phylogenetically however, one of the two suborders – the Aplocheiloidei – contains oviparous species exclusively, as do two of the four superfamilies of the other suborder (the Cyprinodontoidea and Valencioidea of the Cyprinodontoidei).",
"Vivipary and ovovivipary have evolved independently from oviparous ancestors, the latter possibly twice."
],
[
"Description",
"''Fundulopanchax scheeli'', a killifish of the family Nothobranchiidae.Some members of this order are notable for inhabiting extreme environments, such as saline or very warm waters, heavily polluted waters, rain water pools devoid of minerals and made acidic by decaying vegetation, or isolated situations where no other types of fish occur.They are typically carnivores, and often live near the surface, where the oxygen-rich water compensates for environmental disadvantages.",
"Scheel (1968) observed the gut contents were invariably ants, others have reported insects, worms and aquatic crustaceans.",
"Aquarium specimens are invariably seen eating protozoans from the water column and the surfaces of leaves, however these are not apparent as stomach contents.",
"Many members of the family Cyprinodontidae (the pupfishes) eat plant material as well and some have adapted to a diet very high in algae to the point where one, the American Flag Fish, is a renowned algae eater in the aquarium, in spite of belonging to an order of fishes that do not generally consume any plant material.",
"In addition, killifish derive some of the carotenoids and other chemicals required to make their body pigments from pollen grains on the surface of and in the gut of insects they eat from the surface of the water; this can be simulated in culture by the use of special color enhancing foods that contain these compounds.Although the Cyprinodontiformes are a diverse group, most species contained within are small to medium-sized fish, with small mouths, large eyes, a single dorsal fin, and a rounded caudal fin.",
"The largest species is the ''cuatro ojos'' (''Anableps dowei''), which measures in length, while the smallest, the least killifish (''Heterandria formosa''), is just long as an adult."
],
[
"Systematics",
"Guppy, a live-bearer of the Poeciliidae'''CYPRINODONTIFORMES'''* Suborder Aplocheiloidei (all oviparous)** Family Aplocheilidae Asian killifishes** Family Nothobranchiidae African killifishes** Family Rivulidae New World killifishes* Suborder Cyprinodontoidei** Superfamily Funduloidea*** Family Profundulidae – Central American killifishes (oviparous)*** Family Goodeidae – splitfins (largely viviparous)*** Family Fundulidae – topminnows and North American killifishes (oviparous)** Superfamily Valencioidea (oviparous)*** Family Valenciidae – Mediterranean killifishes** Superfamily Cyprinodontoidea (oviparous)*** Family Cyprinodontidae – pupfishes** Superfamily Poecilioidea*** Family Anablepidae – four-eyed fishes and relatives (largely ovoviviparous)*** Family Poeciliidae – livebearers and relatives (some oviparous, some ovoviviparous)The family Aplocheilidae has been expanded by some authorities to include all the killifishes with three subfamilies, Aplocheilinae, Cynolebiinae and Nothobranchiinae, but this is not the classification adopted in the 5th Edition of ''Fishes of the World''."
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Church of the Holy Sepulchre"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Church of the Holy Sepulchre''', also known as the '''Church of the Resurrection''', is a fourth-century church in the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem.",
"It is considered to be the holiest site for Christians in the world, as it has been the most important pilgrimage site for Christianity since the fourth century.According to traditions dating back to the fourth century, it contains two sites considered holy in Christianity: the site where Jesus was crucified, at a place known as Calvary or Golgotha, and Jesus's empty tomb, which is where he was buried and resurrected.",
"In earlier times, the site was used as a Jewish burial ground, upon which a pagan temple was built.",
"The church and rotunda, built under Constantine in the 4th century and destroyed by al-Hakim in 1009, were later reconstructed with modifications by Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos and the Crusaders, resulting in a significant departure from the original structure.",
"The tomb itself is enclosed by a 19th-century shrine called the Aedicule.Within the church proper are the last four stations of the Cross of the Via Dolorosa, representing the final episodes of the Passion of Jesus.",
"The church has been a major Christian pilgrimage destination since its creation in the fourth century, as the traditional site of the resurrection of Christ, thus its original Greek name, Church of the Anastasis ('Resurrection').The Status Quo, an understanding between religious communities dating to 1757, applies to the site.",
"Control of the church itself is shared among several Christian denominations and secular entities in complicated arrangements essentially unchanged for over 160 years, and some for much longer.",
"The main denominations sharing property over parts of the church are the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic, and to a lesser degree the Coptic, Syriac, and Ethiopian Orthodox churches."
],
[
"Name",
"The church was historically named either for the Resurrection of Jesus, or for his tomb, which is located at its focal point.The '''Church of the Holy Sepulchre''' is also known as the '''Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre''', or simply the '''Holy Sepulchre'''.Eastern Christians also call it the '''Church of the Resurrection''' or '''Church of the Anastasis''', Anastasis being Greek for Resurrection."
],
[
"History",
"===Background (1st–4th centuries)===Following the siege of Jerusalem in AD 70 during the First Jewish–Roman War, Jerusalem had been reduced to ruins.",
"In AD 130, the Roman emperor Hadrian began the building of a Roman colony, the new city of , on the site.",
"Circa AD 135, he ordered that a cave containing a rock-cut tomb be filled in to create a flat foundation for a temple dedicated to Jupiter or Venus.",
"The temple remained until the early fourth century.===Constantine and Macarius: context for the first sanctuary===After seeing a vision of a cross in the sky in 312, Constantine the Great began to favor Christianity and signed the Edict of Milan legalising the religion.",
"The Bishop of Jerusalem Macarius asked Constantine for permission to start an excavation to search for the tomb.",
"With the help of Bishop of Caesarea Eusebius and Bishop of Jerusalem Macarius, three crosses were found near a tomb; one which allegedly cured people of death was presumed to be the True Cross Jesus was crucified on, leading the Romans to believe that they had found Calvary.Constantine ordered in about 326 that the temple to Jupiter/Venus be replaced by a church.",
"After the temple was torn down and its ruins removed, the soil was removed from the cave, revealing a rock-cut tomb that Macarius identified as the burial site of Jesus.===First sanctuary (4th century)===A shrine was built on the site of the tomb Macarius had identified as that of Jesus, enclosing the rock tomb walls within its own.The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, planned by the architect Zenobius, was built as separate constructs over two holy sites:# a rotunda called the ('Resurrection'), where Macarius believed Jesus to have been buried, and;# the great basilica (also known as ), across a courtyard to the east (an enclosed colonnaded atrium, known as the ''Triportico'') with the traditional site of Calvary in one corner.Diagram of a possible church layout (facing west) published in 1956 by Kenneth John ConantThe Church of the Holy Sepulchre site has been recognized since early in the fourth century as the place where Jesus was crucified, buried, and rose from the dead.",
"The church was consecrated on 13 September 335.In 327, Constantine and Helena separately commissioned the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem to commemorate the birth of Jesus.===Damage and destruction (614–1009)===The Constantinian sanctuary in Jerusalem was destroyed by a fire in May of 614, when the Sassanid Empire, under Khosrau II, invaded Jerusalem and captured the True Cross.",
"In 630, the Emperor Heraclius rebuilt the church after recapturing the city.After Jerusalem came under Islamic rule, it remained a Christian church, with the early Muslim rulers protecting the city's Christian sites, prohibiting their destruction or use as living quarters.",
"A story reports that the caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab visited the church and stopped to pray on the balcony, but at the time of prayer, turned away from the church and prayed outside.",
"He feared that future generations would misinterpret this gesture, taking it as a pretext to turn the church into a mosque.",
"Eutychius of Alexandria adds that Umar wrote a decree saying that Muslims would not inhabit this location.",
"The building suffered severe damage from an earthquake in 746.Early in the ninth century, another earthquake damaged the dome of the Anastasis.",
"The damage was repaired in 810 by Patriarch Thomas I.",
"In 841, the church suffered a fire.",
"In 935, the Christians prevented the construction of a Muslim mosque adjacent to the Church.",
"In 938, a new fire damaged the inside of the basilica and came close to the rotunda.",
"In 966, due to a defeat of Muslim armies in the region of Syria, a riot broke out, which was followed by reprisals.",
"The basilica was burned again.",
"The doors and roof were burnt, and Patriarch John VII was murdered.On 18 October 1009, Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the complete destruction of the church as part of a more general campaign against Christian places of worship in Palestine and Egypt.",
"The damage was extensive, with few parts of the early church remaining, and the roof of the rock-cut tomb damaged; the original shrine was destroyed.",
"Some partial repairs followed.",
"Christian Europe reacted with shock: it was a spur to expulsions of Jews and, later on, the Crusades.===Reconstruction (11th century)===In wide-ranging negotiations between the Fatimids and the Byzantine Empire in 1027–1028, an agreement was reached whereby the new Caliph Ali az-Zahir (al-Hakim's son) agreed to allow the rebuilding and redecoration of the church.",
"The rebuilding was finally completed during the tenures of Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos and Patriarch Nicephorus of Jerusalem in 1048.As a concession, the mosque in Constantinople was reopened and the khutba sermons were to be pronounced in az-Zahir's name.",
"Muslim sources say a by-product of the agreement was the renunciation of Islam by many Christians who had been forced to convert under al-Hakim's persecutions.",
"In addition, the Byzantines, while releasing 5,000 Muslim prisoners, made demands for the restoration of other churches destroyed by al-Hakim and the reestablishment of a patriarch in Jerusalem.",
"Contemporary sources credit the emperor with spending vast sums in an effort to restore the Church of the Holy Sepulchre after this agreement was made.",
"Still, \"a total replacement was far beyond available resources.",
"The new construction was concentrated on the rotunda and its surrounding buildings: the great basilica remained in ruins.",
"\"The rebuilt church site consisted of \"a court open to the sky, with five small chapels attached to it.\"",
"The chapels were east of the court of resurrection (when reconstructed, the location of the tomb was under open sky), where the western wall of the great basilica had been.",
"They commemorated scenes from the passion, such as the location of the prison of Christ and his flagellation, and presumably were so placed because of the difficulties of free movement among shrines in the city streets.",
"The dedication of these chapels indicates the importance of the pilgrims' devotion to the suffering of Christ.",
"They have been described as \"a sort of Via Dolorosa in miniature\" since little or no rebuilding took place on the site of the great basilica.",
"Western pilgrims to Jerusalem during the 11th century found much of the sacred site in ruins.",
"Control of Jerusalem, and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, continued to change hands several times between the Fatimids and the Seljuk Turks (loyal to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad) until the Crusaders' arrival in 1099.===Crusader period (1099–1244)=======Background====Many historians maintain that the main concern of Pope Urban II, when calling for the First Crusade, was the threat to Constantinople from the Seljuk invasion of Asia Minor in response to the appeal of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos.",
"Historians agree that the fate of Jerusalem and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was also of concern, if not the immediate goal of papal policy in 1095.The idea of taking Jerusalem gained more focus as the Crusade was underway.",
"The rebuilt church site was taken from the Fatimids (who had recently taken it from the Abbasids) by the knights of the First Crusade on 15 July 1099.The First Crusade was envisioned as an armed pilgrimage, and no crusader could consider his journey complete unless he had prayed as a pilgrim at the Holy Sepulchre.",
"The classical theory is that Crusader leader Godfrey of Bouillon, who became the first Latin ruler of Jerusalem, decided not to use the title \"king\" during his lifetime, and declared himself ('Protector or Defender of the Holy Sepulchre').According to the German priest and pilgrim Ludolf von Sudheim, the keys of the Chapel of the Holy Sepulchre were in hands of the \"ancient Georgians\", and the food, alms, candles and oil for lamps were given to them by the pilgrims at the south door of the church.====Crusaders: reconstruction (12th century) and ownership====By the Crusader period, a cistern under the former basilica was rumoured to have been where Helena had found the True Cross, and began to be venerated as such; the cistern later became the Chapel of the Invention of the Cross, but there is no evidence of the site's identification before the 11th century, and modern archaeological investigation has now dated the cistern to 11th-century repairs by Monomachos.William of Tyre, chronicler of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, reports on the rebuilding of the church in the mid-12th century.",
"The Crusaders investigated the eastern ruins on the site, occasionally excavating through the rubble, and while attempting to reach the cistern, they discovered part of the original ground level of Hadrian's temple enclosure; they transformed this space into a chapel dedicated to Helena, widening their original excavation tunnel into a proper staircase.Crusader graffiti in the church: crosses engraved in the staircase leading down to the Chapel of Saint HelenaThe Crusaders began to refurnish the church in Romanesque style and added a bell tower.",
"These renovations unified the small chapels on the site and were completed during the reign of Queen Melisende in 1149, placing all the holy places under one roof for the first time.The church became the seat of the first Latin patriarchs and the site of the kingdom's scriptorium.Eight 11th- and 12th-century Crusader leaders (Godfrey, Baldwin I, Baldwin II, Fulk, Baldwin III, Amalric, Baldwin IV and Baldwin V — the first eight rulers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem) were buried in the south transept and inside the Chapel of Adam.",
"The royal tombs were looted during the Khwarizmian sack of Jerusalem in 1244 but probably remained mostly intact until 1808 when a fire damaged the church.",
"The tombs may have been destroyed by the fire, or during renovations by the Greek Orthodox custodians of the church in 1809-1810.The remains of the kings may still be in unmarked pits under the church's pavement.The church was lost to Saladin, along with the rest of the city, in 1187, although the treaty established after the Third Crusade allowed Christian pilgrims to visit the site.",
"Emperor Frederick II (r. 1220–50) regained the city and the church by treaty in the 13th century while under a ban of excommunication, with the consequence that the holiest church in Christianity was laid under interdict.",
"The church seems to have been largely in the hands of Greek Orthodox patriarch Athanasius II of Jerusalem (c. 1231–47) during the last period of Latin control over Jerusalem.",
"Both city and church were captured by the Khwarezmians in 1244.===Ottoman period===There was certainly a recognisable Nestorian (Church of the East) presence at the Holy Sepulchre from the years 1348 through 1575, as contemporary Franciscan accounts indicate.",
"The Franciscan friars renovated the church in 1555, as it had been neglected despite increased numbers of pilgrims.",
"The Franciscans rebuilt the Aedicule, extending the structure to create an antechamber.",
"A marble shrine commissioned by Friar Boniface of Ragusa was placed to envelop the remains of Christ's tomb, probably to prevent pilgrims from touching the original rock or taking small pieces as souvenirs.",
"A marble slab was placed over the limestone burial bed where Jesus's body is believed to have lain.Eastern Orthodox icon (c. 1600) commemorating a church renovationAfter the renovation of 1555, control of the church oscillated between the Franciscans and the Orthodox, depending on which community could obtain a favorable ''firman'' from the \"Sublime Porte\" at a particular time, often through outright bribery.",
"Violent clashes were not uncommon.",
"There was no agreement about this question, although it was discussed at the negotiations to the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699.During the Holy Week of 1757, Orthodox Christians reportedly took over some of the Franciscan-controlled church.",
"This may have been the cause of the sultan's ''firman'' (decree) later developed into the Status Quo.A fire severely damaged the structure again in 1808, causing the dome of the Rotunda to collapse and smashing the Aedicule's exterior decoration.",
"The Rotunda and the Aedicule's exterior were rebuilt in 1809–10 by architect Nikolaos Ch.",
"Komnenos of Mytilene in the contemporary Ottoman Baroque style.",
"The interior of the antechamber, now known as the Chapel of the Angel, was partly rebuilt to a square ground plan in place of the previously semicircular western end.Another decree in 1853 from the sultan solidified the existing territorial division among the communities and solidified the Status Quo for arrangements to \"remain in their present state\", requiring consensus to make even minor changes.A much-expanded floorplan, illustrated by Conrad Schick (1863)The dome was restored by Catholics, Greeks, and Turks in 1868, being made of iron ever since.===British Mandate period===By the time of the British Mandate for Palestine following the end of World War I, the cladding of red limestone applied to the Aedicule by Komnenos had deteriorated badly and was detaching from the underlying structure; from 1947 until restoration work in 2016–17, it was held in place with an exterior scaffolding of iron girders installed by the British authorities.After the care of the British Empire, the Church of England had an important role in the appropriation of the Holy Sepulcher, such as funds for the maintenance of external infrastructures, and the abolition of territorial claims near the Temple of the Holy Sepulcher, the Protestant Church allowed to carry out the elimination of taxes from the Holy Sepulcher, currently the Anglican and Lutheran dioceses of Jerusalem are allowed to attend Armenian cults.===Jordanian and Israeli periods===A diagram of the modern church showing the traditional site of Calvary and the Tomb of JesusIn 1948, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan and the Old City with the church were made part of Jordan.",
"In 1967, Israeli forces captured East Jerusalem in the Six Day War, and that area has remained under Israeli control ever since.",
"Under Israeli rule, legal arrangements relating to the churches of East Jerusalem were maintained in coordination with the Jordanian government.",
"The dome at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was restored again in 1994–97 as part of extensive modern renovations that have been ongoing since 1959.During the 1970–78 restoration works and excavations inside the building, and under the nearby Muristan bazaar, it was found that the area was originally a quarry, from which white ''meleke'' limestone was struck.====Chapel of St. Vartan====East of the Chapel of Saint Helena, the excavators discovered a void containing a second-century drawing of a Roman pilgrim ship, two low walls supporting the platform of Hadrian's second-century temple, and a higher fourth-century wall built to support Constantine's basilica.",
"After the excavations of the early 1970s, the Armenian authorities converted this archaeological space into the Chapel of Saint Vartan, and created an artificial walkway over the quarry on the north of the chapel, so that the new chapel could be accessed (by permission) from the Chapel of Saint Helena.====Aedicule restoration====After seven decades of being held together by steel girders, the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) declared the visibly deteriorating Aedicule structure unsafe.",
"A restoration of the Aedicule was agreed upon and executed from May 2016 to March 2017.Much of the $4 million project was funded by the World Monuments Fund, as well as $1.3 million from Mica Ertegun and a significant sum from King Abdullah II of Jordan.",
"The existence of the original limestone cave walls within the Aedicule was confirmed, and a window was created to view this from the inside.",
"The presence of moisture led to the discovery of an underground shaft resembling an escape tunnel carved into the bedrock, seeming to lead from the tomb.",
"For the first time since at least 1555, on 26 October 2016, marble cladding that protects the supposed burial bed of Jesus was removed.",
"Members of the National Technical University of Athens were present.",
"Initially, only a layer of debris was visible.",
"This was cleared in the next day, and a partially broken marble slab with a Crusader-style cross carved was revealed.",
"By the night of 28 October, the original limestone burial bed was shown to be intact.",
"The tomb was resealed shortly thereafter.",
"Mortar from just above the burial bed was later dated to the mid-fourth century.====2020 pandemic====On 25 March 2020, Israeli health officials ordered the site closed to the public due to the COVID-19 pandemic.",
"According to the keeper of the keys, it was the first such closure since 1349, during the Black Death.",
"Clerics continued regular prayers inside the building, and it reopened to visitors two months later, on 24 May.====Crusader altar slab discovered (2022)====During church renovations in 2022, a stone slab covered in modern graffiti was moved from a wall, revealing Cosmatesque-style decoration on one face.",
"According to an IAA archaeologist, the decoration was once inlaid with pieces of glass and fine marble; it indicates that the relic was the front of the church's high altar from the Crusader era (c. 1149), which was later used by the Greek Orthodox until being damaged in the 1808 fire."
],
[
"Description",
"===Parvis (courtyard)===Tourists, pilgrims and locals at one of two access gates to the courtyard; photo by Félix Bonfils, 1870s The northeast of the courtyard (parvis), with the immovable ladder under a window, and the Chapel of the Franks (right).The courtyard facing the entrance to the church is known as the parvis.",
"Two streets open into the parvis: St Helena Road (west) and Suq ed-Dabbagha (east).",
"Around the parvis are a few smaller structures.South of the parvis, opposite the church:* Broken columns—once forming part of an arcade—stand opposite the church, at the top of a short descending staircase stretching over the entire breadth of the parvis.",
"In the 13th century, the tops of the columns were removed and sent to Mecca by the Khwarezmids.",
"* The Gethsemane Metochion, a small Greek Orthodox monastery (metochion).On the eastern side of the parvis, south to north:* The Monastery of St Abraham (Greek Orthodox), next to the Suq ed-Dabbagha entrance to the parvis.",
"* The Chapel of St John the Evangelist (Armenian Orthodox)* The Chapel of St Michael and the Chapel of the Four Living Creatures (both are disputed between the Copts and Ethiopians), giving access to Deir es-Sultan (also disputed), a rooftop monastery surrounding the dome of the Chapel of St Helena.North of the parvis, in front of the church façade or against it:* Chapel of the Franks (Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows): a blue-domed Roman Catholic Crusader chapel dedicated to Our Lady of Sorrows, which once provided exclusive access to Calvary.",
"The chapel marks the 10th Station of the Cross (the stripping of Jesus's garments).",
"* Oratory of St. Mary of Egypt: a Greek Orthodox oratory and chapel, directly beneath the Chapel of the Franks, dedicated to St. Mary of Egypt.",
"* The tomb (including a ledgerstone) of Philip d'Aubigny aka Philip Daubeney (died 1236), a knight, tutor, and royal councilor to Henry III of England and signer of the Magna Carta—is placed in front of, and between, the church's two original entrance doors, of which the eastern one is walled up.",
"It is one of the few tombs of crusaders and other Europeans not removed from the Church after the Khwarizmian capture of Jerusalem in 1244.In the 1900s, during a fight between the Greeks and Latins, some monks damaged the tomb by throwing stones from the roof.",
"A stone marker was placed on his tomb in 1925, sheltered by a wooden trapdoor that hides it from view.A group of three chapels borders the parvis on its west side.",
"They originally formed the baptistery complex of the Constantinian church.",
"The southernmost chapel was the vestibule, the middle chapel the baptistery, and the north chapel the chamber in which the patriarch chrismated the newly baptized before leading them into the rotunda north of this complex.",
"Now they are dedicated as (from south to north)* The Chapel of St. James the Just (Greek Orthodox),* The Chapel of St. John the Baptist (Greek Orthodox),* The Chapel of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste (Greek Orthodox; at the base of the bell tower).===Bell tower===The 12th-century Crusader bell tower is just south of the Rotunda, to the left of the entrance.",
"Its upper level was lost in a 1545 collapse.",
"In 1719, another two storeys were lost.===Façade and entrance===The wooden doors that compose the main entrance are the original, highly carved arched doors.",
"Today, only the left-hand entrance is currently accessible, as the right doorway has long since been bricked up.",
"The entrance to the church leads to the south transept, through the crusader façade in the parvis of a larger courtyard.",
"This is found past a group of streets winding through the outer Via Dolorosa by way of a souq in the Muristan.",
"This narrow way of access to such a large structure has proven to be hazardous at times.",
"For example, when a fire broke out in 1840, dozens of pilgrims were trampled to death.According to their own family lore, the Muslim Nuseibeh family has been responsible for opening the door as an impartial party to the church's denominations already since the seventh century.",
"However, they themselves admit that the documents held by various Christian denominations only mention their role since the 12th century, in the time of Saladin, which is the date more generally accepted.",
"After retaking Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187, Saladin entrusted the Joudeh family with the key to the church, which is made of iron and long; the Nuseibehs either became or remained its doorkeepers.The 'immovable ladder' stands beneath a window on the façade.===Calvary (Golgotha)===The Altar of the Crucifixion, where The Rock of Calvary (bottom) is encased in glassJust inside the church entrance is a stairway leading up to Calvary (Golgotha), traditionally regarded as the site of Jesus's crucifixion and the most lavishly decorated part of the church.",
"The exit is via another stairway opposite the first, leading down to the ambulatory.",
"Golgotha and its chapels are just south of the main altar of the catholicon.Calvary is split into two chapels: one Greek Orthodox and one Catholic, each with its own altar.",
"On the left (north) side, the Greek Orthodox chapel's altar is placed over the supposed rock of Calvary (the 12th Station of the Cross), which can be touched through a hole in the floor beneath the altar.",
"The rock can be seen under protective glass on both sides of the altar.",
"The softer surrounding stone was removed when the church was built.",
"The Roman Catholic (Franciscan) Chapel of the Nailing of the Cross (the 11th Station of the Cross) stretches to the south.",
"Between the Catholic Altar of the Nailing to the Cross and the Orthodox altar is the Catholic Altar of the Stabat Mater, which has a statue of Mary with an 18th-century bust; this middle altar marks the 13th Station of the Cross.On the ground floor, just underneath the Golgotha chapel, is the Chapel of Adam.",
"According to tradition, Jesus was crucified over the place where Adam's skull was buried.",
"According to some, the blood of Christ ran down the cross and through the rocks to fill Adam's skull.",
"Through a window at the back of the 11th-century apse, the rock of Calvary can be seen with a crack traditionally held to be caused by the earthquake that followed Jesus's death; some scholars claim it is the result of quarrying against a natural flaw in the rock.Behind the Chapel of Adam is the Greek Treasury (Treasury of the Greek Patriarch).",
"Some of its relics, such as a 12th-century crystal mitre, were transferred to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate Museum (the Patriarchal Museum) on Greek Orthodox Patriarchate Street.===Stone of Anointing===Just inside the entrance to the church is the Stone of Anointing (also Stone of the Anointing or Stone of Unction), which tradition holds to be where Jesus's body was prepared for burial by Joseph of Arimathea, though this tradition is only attested since the crusader era (notably by the Italian Dominican pilgrim Riccoldo da Monte di Croce in 1288), and the present stone was only added in the 1810 reconstruction.The wall behind the stone is defined by its striking blue balconies and taphos symbol-bearing red banners (depicting the insignia of the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre), and is decorated with lamps.",
"The modern mosaic along the wall depicts the anointing of Jesus's body, preceded on the right by the Descent from the Cross, and succeeded on the left by the Burial of Jesus.The wall was a temporary addition to support the arch above it, which had been weakened after the damage in the 1808 fire; it blocks the view of the rotunda, separates the entrance from the catholicon, sits on top of four of the now empty and desecrated Crusader graves and is no longer structurally necessary.",
"Opinions differ as to whether it is to be seen as the 13th Station of the Cross, which others identify as the lowering of Jesus from the cross and located between the 11th and 12th stations on Calvary.The lamps that hang over the Stone of Unction, adorned with cross-bearing chain links, are contributed by Armenians, Copts, Greeks and Latins.Immediately inside and to the left of the entrance is a bench (formerly a divan) that has traditionally been used by the church's Muslim doorkeepers, along with some Christian clergy, as well as electrical wiring.",
"To the right of the entrance is a wall along the ambulatory containing the staircase leading to Golgotha.",
"Further along the same wall is the entrance to the Chapel of Adam.===Rotunda and Aedicule===The rotunda is the building of the larger dome located on the far west side.",
"In the centre of the rotunda is a small chapel called the Aedicule in English, from the Latin , in reference to a small shrine.",
"The Aedicule has two rooms: the first holds a relic called the Angel's Stone, which is believed to be a fragment of the large stone that sealed the tomb; the second, smaller room contains the tomb of Jesus.",
"Possibly to prevent pilgrims from removing bits of the original rock as souvenirs, by 1555, a surface of marble cladding was placed on the tomb to prevent further damage to the tomb.",
"In October 2016, the top slab was pulled back to reveal an older, partially broken marble slab with a Crusader-style cross carved in it.",
"Beneath it, the limestone burial bed was revealed to be intact.Under the Status Quo, the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Armenian Apostolic Churches all have rights to the interior of the tomb, and all three communities celebrate the Divine Liturgy or Holy Mass there daily.",
"It is also used for other ceremonies on special occasions, such as the Holy Saturday ceremony of the Holy Fire led by the Greek Orthodox patriarch (with the participation of the Coptic and Armenian patriarchs).",
"To its rear, in the Coptic Chapel, constructed of iron latticework, lies the altar used by the Coptic Orthodox.",
"Historically, the Georgians also retained the key to the Aedicule.To the right of the sepulchre on the northwestern edge of the Rotunda is the Chapel of the Apparition, which is reserved for Roman Catholic use.===Catholicon===catholicon, with its iconostasis In the central nave of the Crusader-era church, just east of the larger rotunda, is the Crusader structure housing the main altar of the Church, today the Greek Orthodox ''catholicon''.",
"Its dome is in diameter, and is set directly over the centre of the transept crossing of the choir where the ''compas'' is situated, an omphalos (\"navel\") stone once thought to be the center of the world and still venerated as such by Orthodox Christians (associated with the site of the Crucifixion and the Resurrection).Since 1996 this dome is topped by the monumental Golgotha Crucifix, which the Greek Patriarch Diodoros I of Jerusalem consecrated.",
"It was at the initiative of Israeli professor Gustav Kühnel to erect a new crucifix at the church that would not only be worthy of the singularity of the site, but that would also become a symbol of the efforts of unity in the community of Christian faith.The catholicon's iconostasis demarcates the Orthodox sanctuary behind it, to its east.The iconostasis is flanked to the front by two episcopal thrones: the southern seat (cathedra) is the patriarchal throne of the Greek Orthodox patriarch of Jerusalem, and the northern seat is for an archbishop or bishop.",
"(There is also a popular claim that both are patriarchal thrones, with the northern one being for the patriarch of Antioch — which has been described as a misstatement, however.",
")===Armenian monastery south of the Aedicule===South of the Aedicule is the \"Place of the Three Marys\", marked by a stone canopy (the Station of the Holy Women) and a large modern wall mosaic.",
"From here one can enter the Armenian monastery, which stretches over the ground and first upper floor of the church's southeastern part.Altar in the Syriac chapel===Syriac Chapel with Tomb of Joseph of Arimathea===West of the Aedicule, to the rear of the Rotunda, is the Syriac Chapel with the Tomb of Joseph of Arimathea, located in a Constantinian apse and containing an opening to an ancient Jewish rock-cut tomb.",
"This chapel is where the Syriac Orthodox celebrate their Liturgy on Sundays.The Syriac Orthodox Chapel of Saint Joseph of Arimathea and Saint Nicodemus.",
"On Sundays and feast days it is furnished for the celebration of Mass.",
"It is accessed from the Rotunda, by a door west of the Aedicule.====First-century tomb====On the far side of the chapel is the low entrance to an almost complete first-century Jewish tomb, initially holding six ''kokh''-type funeral shafts radiating from a central chamber, two of which are still exposed.",
"Although this space was discovered relatively recently and contains no identifying marks, some believe that Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus were buried here.",
"Since Jews always buried their dead outside the city, the presence of this tomb seems to prove that the Holy Sepulchre site was outside the city walls at the time of the crucifixion.Chapel of the Apparition===Franciscan area north of the Aedicule===* The Franciscan Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene – The chapel, an open area, indicates the place where Mary Magdalene met Jesus after his resurrection.",
"* The Franciscan Chapel of the Apparition (Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament), directly north of the above – in memory of Jesus's meeting with his mother after the Resurrection, a non-scriptural tradition.",
"Here stands a piece of an ancient column, allegedly part of the one Jesus was tied to during his scourging.===Arches of the Virgin===The Arches of the Virgin are seven arches (an arcade) at the northern end of the north transept, which is to the catholicon's north.",
"Disputed by the Orthodox and the Latin, the area is used to store ladders.Prison of Christ before renovation===Prison of Christ===In the northeast side of the complex, there is the Prison of Christ, alleged to be where Jesus was held.",
"The Greek Orthodox are showing pilgrims yet another place where Jesus was allegedly held, the similarly named Prison of Christ in their , located near the Church of Ecce Homo, between the Second and Third Stations of the Via Dolorosa.",
"The Armenians regard a recess in the Monastery of the Flagellation at the Second Station of the Via Dolorosa as the Prison of Christ.",
"A cistern among the ruins beneath the Church of St. Peter in Gallicantu on Mount Zion is also alleged to have been the Prison of Christ.",
"To reconcile the traditions, some allege that Jesus was held in the Mount Zion cell in connection with his trial by the Jewish high priest, at the Praetorium in connection with his trial by the Roman governor Pilate, and near the Golgotha before crucifixion.===Ambulatory===The Chapel of the Parting of the Raiment, in the Church of Holy SepulchreThe chapels in the ambulatory are, from north to south: the Greek Chapel of Saint Longinus (named after Longinus), the Armenian Chapel of the Division of Robes, the entrance to the Chapel of Saint Helena, and the Greek Chapel of the Derision.===Chapel of Saint Helena===Chapel of Saint Helena* Chapel of Saint Helena – between the Chapel of the Division of Robes and the Greek Chapel of the Derision are stairs descending to the Chapel of Saint Helena.",
"The Armenians, who own it, call it the Chapel of St. Gregory the Illuminator, after the saint who brought Christianity to the Armenians.===Chapel of Saint Vartan===* Chapel of St Vartan (or Vardan) Mamikonian – on the north side of the Chapel of Saint Helena is an ornate wrought iron door, beyond which a raised artificial platform affords views of the quarry, and which leads to the Chapel of Saint Vartan.",
"The latter chapel contains archaeological remains from Hadrian's temple and Constantine's basilica.",
"These areas are open only on request.===Chapel of the Invention of the Holy Cross===* Chapel of the Invention of the Cross (named for the Invention (Finding) of the Holy Cross) – another set of 22 stairs from the Chapel of Saint Helena leads down to the Roman Catholic Chapel of the Invention of the Holy Cross, believed to be the place where the True Cross was found."
],
[
"Status Quo",
"===Ottoman decrees===Status Quo, a ladder placed before 1757 remains in place to this day.An Ottoman decree of 1757 helped establish a ''status quo'' upholding the state of affairs for various Holy Land sites.The ''status quo'' was upheld in Sultan Abdülmecid I's ''firman'' (decree) of 1852/3, which pinned down the now-permanent statutes of property and the regulations concerning the roles of the different denominations and other custodians.The primary custodians are the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic churches.",
"The Greek Orthodox act through the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate as well as through the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre.",
"Roman Catholics act through the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land.",
"In the 19th century, the Coptic Orthodox, the Ethiopian Orthodox and the Syriac Orthodox also acquired lesser responsibilities, which include shrines and other structures in and around the building.None of these controls the main entrance.",
"In 1192, Saladin assigned door-keeping responsibilities to the Muslim Nusaybah family.",
"The wooden doors that compose the main entrance are the original, highly carved doors.",
"The Joudeh al-Goudia (al-Ghodayya) family were entrusted as custodian to the keys of the Holy Sepulchre by Saladin in 1187.Despite occasional disagreements, religious services take place in the Church with regularity and coexistence is generally peaceful.",
"An example of concord between the Church custodians is the full restoration of the Aedicule from 2016 to 2017.===Interdenominational issues===The establishment of the modern Status Quo in 1853 did not halt controversy and occasional violence.",
"In 1902, 18 friars were hospitalized and some monks were jailed after the Franciscans and Greeks disagreed over who could clean the lowest step of the Chapel of the Franks.",
"In the aftermath, the Greek patriarch, Franciscan custos, Ottoman governor and French consul general signed a convention that both denominations could sweep it.On a hot summer day in 2002, a Coptic monk moved his chair from its agreed spot into the shade.",
"This was interpreted as a hostile move by the Ethiopians and eleven were hospitalized after the resulting fight.",
"In another incident in 2004, during Orthodox celebrations of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, a door to the Franciscan chapel was left open.",
"This was taken as a sign of disrespect by the Orthodox and a fistfight broke out.",
"Some people were arrested, but no one was seriously injured.On Palm Sunday, in April 2008, a brawl broke out when a Greek monk was ejected from the building by a rival faction.",
"Police were called to the scene but were also attacked by the enraged brawlers.",
"On Sunday, 9 November 2008, a clash erupted between Armenian and Greek monks during celebrations for the Feast of the Cross.===Issues with Israeli authorities (2018-)=======Tax and land disputes====In February 2018, the church was closed following a '''tax dispute''' over 152 million euros of uncollected taxes on church properties.",
"The city hall stressed that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and all other churches are exempt from the taxes, with the changes only affecting establishments like \"hotels, halls and businesses\" owned by the churches.",
"NPR had reported that the Greek Orthodox Church calls itself the second-largest landowner in Israel, after the Israeli government.There was a lock-in protest against an Israeli legislative proposal which would expropriate church '''lands that had been sold to private companies since 2010''', a measure which church leaders assert constitutes a serious violation of their property rights and the Status Quo.",
"In a joint official statement the church authorities protested what they considered to be the peak of a systematic campaign in:The '''2018 taxation affair''' does not cover any church buildings or religious related facilities (because they are exempt by law), but commercial facilities such as the Notre Dame Hotel which was not paying the municipal property tax, and any land which is owned and used as a commercial land.",
"The church holds the rights to land where private homes have been constructed, and some of the disagreement had been raised after the Knesset had proposed a bill that will make it harder for a private company not to extend a lease for land used by homeowners.",
"The church leaders have said that such a bill will make it harder for them to sell church-owned lands.",
"According to ''The Jerusalem Post'':====Land sale to Jewish org.====In June 2019, a number of Christian denominations in Jerusalem raised their voice against the Supreme Court's decision to uphold the sale of three properties by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate to Ateret Cohanim – an organization that seeks to increase the number of Jews living in the Old City and East Jerusalem.",
"The church leaders warned that if the organization gets to control the sites, Christians could lose access to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.",
"In June 2022, the Supreme Court upheld the sale and ended the legal battle."
],
[
"Connection to Roman temple",
"east–west roads were built rather than the typical one, due to the awkward location of the Temple Mount, blocking the central east–west route.The site of the church had been a temple to Jupiter or Venus built by Hadrian before Constantine's edifice was built.",
"Hadrian's temple had been located there because it was the junction of the main north–south road with one of the two main east–west roads and directly adjacent to the forum (now the location of the Muristan, which is smaller than the former forum).",
"The forum itself had been placed, as is traditional in Roman towns, at the junction of the main north–south road with the other main east–west road (which is now El-Bazar/David Street).",
"The temple and forum together took up the entire space between the two main east–west roads (a few above-ground remains of the east end of the temple precinct still survive in the Alexander Nevsky Church complex of the ''Russian Mission in Exile'').From the archaeological excavations in the 1970s, it is clear that construction took over most of the site of the earlier temple enclosure and that the ''Triportico'' and ''Rotunda'' roughly overlapped with the temple building itself; the excavations indicate that the temple extended at least as far back as the Aedicule, and the temple enclosure would have reached back slightly further.",
"Virgilio Canio Corbo, a Franciscan priest and archaeologist, who was present at the excavations, estimated from the archaeological evidence that the western retaining wall of the temple itself would have passed extremely close to the east side of the supposed tomb; if the wall had been any further west any tomb would have been crushed under the weight of the wall (which would be immediately above it) if it had not already been destroyed when foundations for the wall were made.Other archaeologists have criticized Corbo's reconstructions.",
"Dan Bahat, the former city archaeologist of Jerusalem, regards them as unsatisfactory, as there is no known temple of Aphrodite (Venus) matching Corbo's design, and no archaeological evidence for Corbo's suggestion that the temple building was on a platform raised high enough to avoid including anything sited where the Aedicule is now; indeed Bahat notes that many temples to Aphrodite have a rotunda-like design, and argues that there is no archaeological reason to assume that the present rotunda was not based on a rotunda in the temple previously on the site."
],
[
"Location",
"David Roberts, in ''The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia''The New Testament describes Jesus's tomb as being outside the city wall, as was normal for burials across the ancient world, which were regarded as unclean.",
"Today, the site of the Church is within the current walls of the old city of Jerusalem.",
"It has been well documented by archaeologists that in the time of Jesus, the walled city was smaller and the wall then was to the east of the current site of the Church.",
"In other words, the city had been much narrower in Jesus's time, with the site then having been outside the walls; since Herod Agrippa (41–44) is recorded by history as extending the city to the north (beyond the present northern walls), the required repositioning of the western wall is traditionally attributed to him as well.The area immediately to the south and east of the sepulchre was a quarry and outside the city during the early first century as excavations under the Lutheran Church of the Redeemer across the street demonstrated.The church is a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Old City of Jerusalem.The Christian Quarter and the (also Christian) Armenian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem are both located in the northwestern and western part of the Old City, due to the fact that the Holy Sepulchre is located close to the northwestern corner of the walled city.",
"The adjacent neighbourhood within the Christian Quarter is called the Muristan, a term derived from the Persian word for hospital – Christian pilgrim hospices have been maintained in this area near the Holy Sepulchre since at least the time of Charlemagne."
],
[
"Influence",
"From the ninth century onward, the construction of churches inspired by the Anastasis was extended across Europe.",
"One example is Santo Stefano in Bologna, Italy, an agglomeration of seven churches recreating shrines of Jerusalem.Several churches and monasteries in Europe, for instance, in Germany and Russia, and at least one church in the United States have been wholly or partially modeled on the Church of the Resurrection, some even reproducing other holy places for the benefit of pilgrims who could not travel to the Holy Land.",
"They include the (\"Holy Tomb\") of Görlitz, constructed between 1481 and 1504, the New Jerusalem Monastery in Moscow Oblast, constructed by Patriarch Nikon between 1656 and 1666, and Mount St. Sepulchre Franciscan Monastery built by the Franciscans in Washington, DC in 1898.Author Andrew Holt writes that the church is the most important in all Christendom."
],
[
"See also",
"* Burial places of founders of world religions* Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre* , head of the 1961–1977 excavations* Christianity in Israel* Early Christian art and architecture* Fathers of the Holy Sepulchre* The Garden Tomb* Hashemite custodianship of Jerusalem holy sites* History of Roman and Byzantine domes* History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes* List of oldest church buildings* Monza ampullae* Mosque of Omar (Jerusalem)* Palestinian Christians* Rock-cut tombs in ancient Israel* Talpiot Tomb"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Citations======Sources===* *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * This also contains a detailed summary of the then-current theories as to the location of the tomb, with an extensive bibliography.",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, dedicated website with text and photos* Homily of John Paul II in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre* Sacred Destinations (article, interactive plan, photo gallery)* Map of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 1715, by Nicolas de Fer.",
"Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, National Library of Israel* Photos of the church, legends in Polish with some English'''Custodians'''* The Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre (Greek Orthodox custodians)* Franciscan Custody in the Holy Land (Roman Catholic custodians)* The Joudeh family (Muslim custodian of the keys of the Holy Sepulchre)* Nuseibeh family (Muslim Holy Sepulchre door keepers)* St. James Brotherhood (Armenian custodians)'''Virtual tours'''* Church of the Holy Sepulchre Virtual Tour* The Holy Sepulchre Virtual Tour"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cernunnos"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The Cernunnos-type antlered figure or horned god, on the Gundestrup Cauldron, on display, at the National Museum of Denmark in CopenhagenIn ancient Celtic and Gallo-Roman religion, '''Cernunnos''' or '''Carnonos''' is a god depicted with antlers, seated cross-legged, and is associated with stags, horned serpents, dogs and bulls.",
"He is usually shown holding or wearing a torc and sometimes holding a bag of coins (or grain) and a cornucopia.",
"He is believed to have originally been a Proto-Celtic God.",
"There are more than fifty depictions and inscriptions referring to him, mainly in the north-eastern region of Gaul."
],
[
"Name and etymology",
"The Gaulish form of the name Cernunnos is , from the stem which means \"horn\" or \"antler,\" suffixed with the augmentative ''-no-'' is characteristic of theonyms.",
"Karnon is cognate with Latin '''' and Germanic '''', ultimately from Proto-Indo-European ''''The etymon ''karn-'' \"horn\" appears in both Gaulish and Galatian branches of Continental Celtic.",
"Hesychius of Alexandria glosses the Galatian word (κάρνον) as \"Gallic trumpet\", that is, the Celtic military horn listed as the carnyx (κάρνυξ) by Eustathius of Thessalonica, who notes the instrument's animal-shaped bell.",
"The root also appears in the names of Celtic polities, most prominent among them the Carnutes, meaning something like \"the Horned Ones\", and in several personal names found in inscriptions.Maier (2010) states that the etymology of ''Cernunnos'' is unclear, but seems to be rooted in the Celtic word for \"horn\" or \"antler\" (as in ''Carnonos'').",
"\"Cernunnos\" is believed by some Celticists to be an obscure epithet of a better attested Gaulish deity; perhaps the god described in the interpretatio Romana as Mercury or Dis Pater, which are considered to share Cernunnos's psychopomp or chthonic associations.",
"The name has only appeared once with an image, when it was inscribed on the ''Nautae Parisiaci'' (the sailors of the Parisii, who were a tribe of Gauls).",
"Otherwise, variations of the name Cernunnos has also been found in a Celtic inscription written in Greek characters at Montagnac, Hérault (as καρνονου, ''karnonou'', in the dative case).",
"A Gallo-Latin adjective ''carnuātus'', \"horned\", is also found."
],
[
"Epigraphic evidence",
"Due to the lack of surviving Gaulish literature regarding mythologies about Cernunnos, stories with various possible epithets he might have had, or information regarding religious practices and followers, his overall significance in Gaulish religious traditions is unknown.",
"Interpretations of his role within Gaulish culture vary from a god of animals, nature, fertility and prosperity to a symbol of authority, strength, unyielding endurance and virility; he has also been portrayed as a god of travel, commerce and bi-directionality; or associated with crossroads, the underworld and reincarnation, symbolizing the cycle of life and death.",
"The only evidence that has survived are inscriptions found on various artifacts.The ''Nautae Parisiaci'' monument was probably constructed by Gaulish sailors in 14 CE.",
"It was discovered in 1710 within the foundations of the cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris, site of ancient Lutetia, the ''civitas'' capital of the Celtic Parisii.",
"It is now displayed in the Musée National du Moyen Age in Paris.",
"The distinctive stone pillar is an important monument of Gallo-Roman religion.",
"Its low reliefs depict and label by name several Roman deities such as Jupiter, Vulcan, and Castor and Pollux, along with Gallic deities such as Esus, Smertrios, and Tarvos Trigaranus.",
"The name ''Cernunnos'' can be read clearly on 18th century drawings of the inscriptions, but the initial letter has been obscured since, so that today only a reading \"''_ernunnos\"'' can be verified.Additional evidence is given by one inscription on a metal plaque from Steinsel-Rëlent in Luxembourg, in the territory of the Celtic Treveri.",
"This inscription read ''Deo Ceruninco'', \"to the God Cerunincos\", assumed to be the same deity.",
"The Gaulish inscription from Montagnac reads αλλετεινος καρνονου αλισοντεας (''Alletinos dedicated this to Carnonos of Alisontea''), with the last word possibly a place name based on ''Alisia'', \"service-tree\" or \"rock\" (compare Alesia, Gaulish ''Alisiia'')."
],
[
"Iconography",
"Cernunnos on the Pillar of the Boatmen, from the Musée national du Moyen Âge (Museum of the Middle Ages), in Paris, France.On the Pillar of the Boatmen, we find an image depicted with stag's antlers, both having torcs hanging from them with the inscription of \"Cernunnos\" with it.",
"The lower part of the relief is lost, but the dimensions suggest that the god was sitting cross-legged, in the depiction traditionally called \"Buddhic posture\", providing a direct parallel to the antlered figure on the Gundestrup cauldron.Iconography associated with Cernunnos is often portrayed with a stag and the ram-horned serpent.",
"Less frequently, there are bulls (at Rheims), dogs and rats.",
"Because of the image of him on the Gundestrup Cauldron, some scholars describe Cernunnos as the Lord of the Animals or the Lord of Wild Things, and Miranda Green describes him as a \"peaceful god of nature and fruitfulness\" who seems to be seated in a manner that suggests traditional shamans who were often depicted surrounded by animals.",
"Other academics such as Ceisiwr Serith describes Cernunnos as a god of bi-directionality and mediator between opposites, seeing the animal symbolism in the artwork reflecting this idea.The ''Pilier des nautes'' links him with sailors and with commerce, suggesting that he was also associated with material wealth as does the coin pouch from the Cernunnos of Rheims (Marne, Champagne, France)—in antiquity, Durocortorum, the ''civitas'' capital of the Remi tribe—and the stag vomiting coins from Niedercorn-Turbelslach (Luxembourg) in the lands of the Treveri.",
"The god may have symbolized the fecundity of the stag-inhabited forest.Other examples of Cernunnos imagery include a petroglyph in Val Camonica in Cisalpine Gaul.",
"The antlered human figure has been dated as early as the 7th century BCE or as late as the 4th.",
"Two goddesses with antlers appear at Besançon and Clermont-Ferrand, France.",
"An antlered god appears on a relief in Cirencester, Britain dated to Roman times and appears depicted on a coin from Petersfield, Hampshire.",
"An antlered child appears on a relief from Vendeuvres, flanked by serpents and holding a purse and a torc.",
"The best known image appears on the Gundestrup cauldron found on Jutland, dating to the 1st century BCE, thought to depict Celtic subject matter though usually regarded as of Thracian workmanship.Among the Celtiberians, horned or antlered figures of the Cernunnos type include a \"Janus-like\" god from Candelario (Salamanca) with two faces and two small horns; a horned god from the hills of Ríotinto (Huelva); and a possible representation of the deity Vestius Aloniecus near his altars in Lourizán (Pontevedra).",
"The horns are taken to represent \"aggressive power, genetic vigor and fecundity.",
"\"Divine representations of the Cernunnos type are exceptions to the often-expressed view that the Celts only began to picture their gods in human form after the Roman conquest of Gaul.The Celtic \"horned god\", while well attested in iconography, cannot be identified in description of Celtic religion in Roman ethnography and does not appear to have been given any ''interpretatio romana'', perhaps due to being too distinctive to be translatable into the Roman pantheon.While Cernunnos was never assimilated, scholars have sometimes compared him functionally to Greek and Roman divine figures such as Mercury, Actaeon, specialized forms of Jupiter, and Dis Pater, the latter of whom Julius Caesar said was considered the ancestor of the Gauls.Depiction of Cernunnos in the Stuttgart PsalterAn image of Cernunnos survives in the Stuttgart Psalter, a 9th century Christian manuscript.",
"The god is recognizably depicted with cross-legged posture, horns, and a ram-headed serpent.",
"He sits in an arcaded niche of hades within the Descent into Limbo scene.",
"This later image is a representation of Cernunnos as lord of the underworld, firmly planted in the funerary sphere."
],
[
"Possible reflexes in Insular Celtic",
"There have been attempts to find the ''cern'' root in the name of Conall Cernach, the foster brother of the Irish hero Cuchulainn in the Ulster Cycle.",
"In this line of interpretation, ''Cernach'' is taken as an epithet with a wide semantic field—\"angular; victorious; prominent,\" though there is little evidence that the figures of Conall and Cernunnos are related.A brief passage involving Conall in an eighth-century story entitled ''Táin Bó Fraích'' (\"The Cattle Raid on Fraech\") has been taken as evidence that Conall bore attributes of a \"master of beasts.\"",
"In this passage Conall Cernach is portrayed as a hero and mighty warrior who assists the protagonist Fraech in rescuing his wife and son, and reclaiming his cattle.",
"The fort that Conall must penetrate is guarded by a mighty serpent.",
"The supposed anti-climax of this tale is when the fearsome serpent, instead of attacking Conall, darts to Conall's waist and girdles him as a belt.",
"Rather than killing the serpent, Conall allows it to live, and then proceeds to attack and rob the fort of its great treasures the serpent previously protected.The figure of Conall Cernach is not associated with animals or forestry elsewhere; and the epithet \"Cernach\" has historically been explained as a description of Conall's impenetrable \"horn-like\" skin which protected him from injury."
],
[
"Possible connection to Saint Ciarán",
"God of Etang-sur-Arroux, a possible depiction of Cernunnos.",
"He wears a torc at the neck and on the chest.",
"Two snakes with ram heads encircle him at the waist.",
"Two cavities at the top of his head are probably designed to receive deer antlers.",
"Two small human faces at the back of his head indicate that he is tricephalic.",
"Musée d'Archéologie Nationale (National Archaeological Museum), in France.National park of Naquane, Italy.Some see the qualities of Cernunnos subsumed into the ''life'' of Saint Ciarán of Saighir, one of the Twelve Apostles of Ireland.",
"When he was building his first tiny cell, as his hagiography goes, his first disciple and monk was a boar that had been rendered gentle by God.",
"This was followed by a fox, a badger, a wolf and a stag."
],
[
"Neopaganism and Wicca",
"Within Neopaganism, specifically the Wiccan tradition, the Horned God is a deity that is believed to be the consort of the Great Goddess and syncretizes various horned or antlered gods from various cultures.",
"The name Cernunnos became associated with the Wiccan Horned God through the adoption of the writings of Margaret Murray, an Egyptologist and folklorist of the early 20th century.",
"Murray, through her Witch-cult hypothesis, believed that the various horned deities found in Europe were expressions of a \"proto-horned god\" and in 1931 published her theory in ''The God of the Witches''.",
"Her work was considered highly controversial at the time, but was adopted by Gerald Gardner in his development of the religious movement of Wicca.Within the Wiccan tradition, the Horned God reflects the seasons of the year in an annual cycle of life, death and rebirth and his imagery is a blend of the Gaulish god Cernunnos, the Greek god Pan, The Green Man motif, and various other horned spirit imagery."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"*Cernunnos is featured in both Marvel Comics and DC Comics as a member of the Celtic pantheon.",
"*Cernunnos is a playable hunter as the second of the Celtic gods to arrive in Smite.",
"*In the French production Black Spot Cernunnos is referred to frequently as the woodsman.",
"* The antagonist in the video game ''Perennial'' is an antlered forest monster, based on Cernunnos, who is turning park visitors into trees.",
"*Cernunnos is listed as the first playable god in the prologue chapter of the computer game \"These Doomed Isles\".",
"*Cernunnos can be seen dancing during the end credits of season 2 episode 2 of Nathan Head's series Apparitions, here he is played by Benjamin Reilly.",
"*Cernunnos is featured in the mobile game Fate/Grand Order as a boss enemy.",
"*In the SCP Foundation, Cernunnos class objects are objects which \"can be functionally contained, but the Foundation cannot achieve this for logistical and/or ethical reasons.",
"\"*In The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel series by Michael Scott (Irish author), Cernunnos appears in the second book as an Archon, one of many kinds of elder deities."
],
[
"See also",
"* Abbots Bromley Horn Dance* Celtic polytheism* Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism* Green Man* Herne the Hunter* Horned God"
],
[
"References",
"* ''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' (CIL) volume 13, number 03026* Delmarre, Xavier (2003).",
"''Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise'' (2nd ed.).",
"Paris: Editions Errance.",
".",
"* Lejeune, Michel (1995).",
"''Recueil des inscriptions gauloises'' (RIG) volume 1, ''Textes gallo-grecs''.",
"Paris: Editions du CNRS.",
"* Nussbaum, Alan J.",
"(1986).",
"''Head and Horn in Indo-European''.",
"Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter.",
".",
"* Porkorny, Julius (1959).",
"''Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch''.",
"Berlin: Franke Verlag."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"External links",
"* \"Is the Gundestrup Cauldron an Authentic Celtic Artifact?",
"\": A possibly ancient depiction of the Horned God"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Click consonant"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Click consonants''', or '''clicks''', are speech sounds that occur as consonants in many languages of Southern Africa and in three languages of East Africa.",
"Examples familiar to English-speakers are the ''tut-tut'' (British spelling) or ''tsk!",
"tsk!''",
"(American spelling) used to express disapproval or pity (IPA ), the ''tchick!''",
"used to spur on a horse (IPA ), and the ''clip-clop!''",
"sound children make with their tongue to imitate a horse trotting (IPA ).",
"However, these paralinguistic sounds in English are not full click consonants, as they only involve the front of the tongue, without the release of the back of the tongue that is required for clicks to combine with vowels and form syllables.Anatomically, clicks are obstruents articulated with two closures (points of contact) in the mouth, one forward and one at the back.",
"The enclosed pocket of air is rarefied by a sucking action of the tongue (in technical terminology, clicks have a lingual ingressive airstream mechanism).",
"The forward closure is then released, producing what may be the loudest consonants in the language, although in some languages such as Hadza and Sandawe, clicks can be more subtle and may even be mistaken for ejectives."
],
[
"Phonetics and IPA notation",
"Click consonants occur at six principal places of articulation.",
"The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) provides five letters for these places (there is as yet no dedicated symbol for the sixth).",
"* The easiest clicks for English speakers are the dental clicks written with a single pipe, .",
"These are sharp (high-pitched) squeaky sounds made by sucking on the front teeth.",
"A simple dental click is used in English to express pity or to shame someone, or to call a cat or other animal, and is written ''tut!''",
"in British English and ''tsk!''",
"in American English.",
"In many cultures around the Mediterranean a simple dental click is used for \"no\" in answer to a direct question.",
"They are written with the letter ''c'' in Zulu and Xhosa.",
"* Next most familiar to English speakers are the lateral clicks, which are written with a double pipe, .",
"They are also squeaky sounds, though less sharp than , made by sucking on the molars on either side (or both sides) of the mouth.",
"A simple lateral click is made in English to get a horse moving, and is conventionally written ''tchick!''.",
"They are written with the letter ''x'' in Zulu and Xhosa.",
"* Then there are the labial clicks, written with a bull's eye, .",
"These are lip-smacking sounds, but often without the pursing of the lips found in a kiss, that occur in words in only a few languages.The above clicks sound like affricates, in that they involve a lot of friction.",
"The next two families of clicks are more abrupt sounds that do not have this friction.",
"* With the alveolar clicks, written with an exclamation mark, , the tip of the tongue is pulled down abruptly and forcefully from the roof of the mouth, sometimes using a lot of jaw motion, and making a hollow ''pop!''",
"like a cork being pulled from an empty bottle.",
"Something like these sounds may be used for a 'clip-clop' sound as noted above.",
"These sounds can be quite loud.",
"They are written with the letter ''q'' in Zulu and Xhosa.",
"* The palatal clicks, , are made with a flat tongue that is pulled backward rather than downward, and are sharper cracking sounds than the clicks, like sharply snapped fingers.",
"They are not found in Zulu but are very common in the San languages of southern Africa.",
"* Finally, the retroflex clicks are poorly known, being attested from only a single language, Central !Kung.",
"The tongue is curled back in the mouth, and they are both fricative and hollow sounding, but descriptions of these sounds vary between sources.",
"This may reflect dialect differences.",
"They are perhaps most commonly written , but that is an ''ad hoc'' transcription.",
"The expected IPA letter is ( with retroflex tail), and the IPA supported the addition of that letter to Unicode.Technically, these IPA letters transcribe only the forward articulation of the click, not the entire consonant.",
"As the ''Handbook'' states, Thus technically is not a consonant, but only one part of the articulation of a consonant, and one may speak of \"ǂ-clicks\" to mean any of the various click consonants that share the place of articulation.",
"In practice, however, the simple letter has long been used as an abbreviation for , and in that role it is sometimes seen combined with diacritics for voicing (e.g.",
"for ), nasalization (e.g.",
"for ), etc.",
"These differing transcription conventions may reflect differing theoretical analyses of the nature of click consonants, or attempts to address common misunderstandings of clicks."
],
[
"Languages with clicks",
"=== Southern Africa ===Clicks occur in all three Khoisan language families of southern Africa, where they may be the most numerous consonants.",
"To a lesser extent they occur in three neighbouring groups of Bantu languages—which borrowed them, directly or indirectly, from Khoisan.",
"In the southeast, in eastern South Africa, Eswatini, Lesotho, Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique, they were adopted from a Tuu language (or languages) by the languages of the Nguni cluster (especially Zulu, Xhosa and Phuthi, but also to a lesser extent Swazi and Ndebele), and spread from them in a reduced fashion to the Zulu-based pidgin Fanagalo, Sesotho, Tsonga, Ronga, the Mzimba dialect of Tumbuka and more recently to Ndau and urban varieties of Pedi, where the spread of clicks continues.",
"The second point of transfer was near the Caprivi Strip and the Okavango River where, apparently, the Yeyi language borrowed the clicks from a West Kalahari Khoe language; a separate development led to a smaller click inventory in the neighbouring Mbukushu, Kwangali, Gciriku, Kuhane and Fwe languages in Angola, Namibia, Botswana and Zambia.",
"These sounds occur not only in borrowed vocabulary, but have spread to native Bantu words as well, in the case of Nguni at least partially due to a type of word taboo called hlonipha.",
"Some creolised varieties of Afrikaans, such as Oorlams, retain clicks in Khoekhoe words.=== East Africa ===Three languages in East Africa use clicks: Sandawe and Hadza of Tanzania, and Dahalo, an endangered South Cushitic language of Kenya that has clicks in only a few dozen words.",
"It is thought the latter may remain from an episode of language shift.=== Damin ===The only non-African language known to have clicks as regular speech sounds is Damin, a ritual code once used by speakers of Lardil in Australia.",
"In addition, one consonant in Damin is the egressive equivalent of a click, using the tongue to compress the air in the mouth for an outward (egressive) \"spurt\"."
],
[
"Use",
"===Spread of clicks from loanwords===Once clicks are borrowed into a language as regular speech sounds, they may spread to native words, as has happened due to ''hlonipa'' word-taboo in the Nguni languages.",
"In Gciriku, for example, the European loanword ''tomate'' (tomato) appears as ''cumáte'' with a click , though it begins with a ''t'' in all neighbouring languages.",
"It has also been argued that click phonemes have been adopted into some languages through the process of ''hlonipha'', women refraining from saying certain words and sounds that were similar to the name of their husband, sometimes replacing local sounds by borrowing clicks from a nearby language.=== Marginal usage of clicks ===Scattered clicks are found in ideophones and mimesis in other languages, such as Kongo , Mijikenda and Hadza (Hadza does not otherwise have labial clicks).",
"Ideophones often use phonemic distinctions not found in normal vocabulary.English and many other languages may use bare click releases in interjections, without an accompanying rear release or transition into a vowel, such as the dental \"tsk-tsk\" sound used to express disapproval, or the lateral ''tchick'' used with horses.",
"In a number of languages ranging from the central Mediterranean to Iran, a bare dental click release accompanied by tipping the head upwards signifies \"no\".",
"Libyan Arabic apparently has three such sounds.",
"A voiceless nasal back-released velar click is used throughout Africa for backchanneling.",
"This sound starts off as a typical click, but the action is reversed and it is the rear velar or uvular closure that is released, drawing in air from the throat and nasal passages.",
"Clicks occasionally turn up elsewhere, as in the special registers twins sometimes develop with each other.",
"In West Africa, clicks have been reported allophonically, and similarly in French and German, faint clicks have been recorded in rapid speech where consonants such as and overlap between words.",
"In Rwanda, the sequence may be pronounced either with an epenthetic vowel, , or with a light bilabial click, —often by the same speaker.Speakers of Gan Chinese from Ningdu county, as well as speakers of Mandarin from Beijing and Jilin and presumably people from other parts of the country, produce flapped nasal clicks in nursery rhymes with varying degrees of competence, in the words for 'goose' and 'duck', both of which begin with in Gan and until recently began with in Mandarin as well.",
"In Gan, the nursery rhyme is,: 天一隻鵝 'a goose in the sky': 地下一隻鴨 'a duck on the ground': 鵝生鵝蛋鵝孵鵝 'a goose lays a goose egg, a goose hatches a goose': 鴨生鴨蛋鴨孵鴨 'a duck lays a duck egg, a duck hatches a duck'where the onsets are all pronounced .Occasionally other languages are claimed to have click sounds in general vocabulary.",
"This is usually a misnomer for ejective consonants, which are found across much of the world.=== Position in word ===For the most part, the Southern African Khoisan languages only use root-initial clicks.",
"Hadza, Sandawe and several Bantu languages also allow syllable-initial clicks within roots.",
"In no language does a click close a syllable or end a word, but since the languages of the world that happen to have clicks consist mostly of CV syllables and allow at most only a limited set of consonants (such as a nasal or a glottal stop) to close a syllable or end a word, ''most'' consonants share the distribution of clicks in these languages.=== Number of click-types in languages ===Most languages of the Khoesan families (Tuu, Kxʼa and Khoe) have four click types: or variants thereof, though a few have three or five, the last supplemented with either bilabial or retroflex .",
"Hadza and Sandawe in Tanzania have three, .",
"Yeyi is the only Bantu language with four, , while Xhosa and Zulu have three, , and most other Bantu languages with clicks have fewer."
],
[
"Types of clicks",
"Like other consonants, clicks can be described using four parameters: place of articulation, manner of articulation, phonation (including glottalisation) and airstream mechanism.",
"As noted above, clicks necessarily involve at least two closures, which in some cases operate partially independently: an anterior articulation traditionally represented by the special click symbol in the IPA—and a posterior articulation traditionally transcribed for convenience as oral or nasal, voiced or voiceless, though such features actually apply to the entire consonant.",
"The literature also describes a contrast between velar and uvular rear articulations for some languages.In some languages that have been reported to make this distinction, such as Nǁng, all clicks have a uvular rear closure, and the clicks explicitly described as uvular are in fact cases where the uvular closure is independently audible: contours of a click into a pulmonic or ejective component, in which the click has two release bursts, the forward (click-type) and then the rearward (uvular) component.",
"\"Velar\" clicks in these languages have only a single release burst, that of the forward release, and the release of the rear articulation isn't audible.",
"However, in other languages all clicks are velar, and a few languages, such as Taa, have a true velar–uvular distinction that depends on the place rather than the timing of rear articulation and that is audible in the quality of the vowel.Regardless, in most of the literature the stated place of the click is the anterior articulation (called the ''release'' or ''influx),'' whereas the manner is ascribed to the posterior articulation (called the ''accompaniment'' or ''efflux).''",
"The anterior articulation defines the ''click type'' and is written with the IPA letter for the click (dental , alveolar , etc.",
"), whereas the traditional term 'accompaniment' conflates the categories of manner (nasal, affricated), phonation (voiced, aspirated, breathy voiced, glottalised), as well as any change in the airstream with the release of the posterior articulation (pulmonic, ejective), all of which are transcribed with additional letters or diacritics, as in the ''nasal alveolar click'', or or—to take an extreme example—the ''voiced (uvular) ejective alveolar click'', .The size of click inventories ranges from as few as three (in Sesotho) or four (in Dahalo), to dozens in the Kxʼa and Tuu (Northern and Southern Khoisan) languages.",
"Taa, the last vibrant language in the latter family, has 45 to 115 click phonemes, depending on analysis (clusters vs. contours), and over 70% of words in the dictionary of this language begin with a click.Clicks appear more stop-like (sharp/abrupt) or affricate-like (noisy) depending on their place of articulation: In southern Africa, clicks involving an apical alveolar or laminal postalveolar closure are acoustically abrupt and sharp, like stops, whereas labial, dental and lateral clicks typically have longer and acoustically noisier click types that are superficially more like affricates.",
"In East Africa, however, the alveolar clicks tend to be flapped, whereas the lateral clicks tend to be more sharp."
],
[
"Transcription",
"The five click places of articulation with dedicated symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are labial , dental , palatal (\"palato-alveolar\") , (post)alveolar (\"retroflex\") and lateral .",
"In most languages, the alveolar and palatal types are abrupt; that is, they are sharp popping sounds with little frication (turbulent airflow).",
"The labial, dental and lateral types, on the other hand, are typically noisy: they are longer, lip- or tooth-sucking sounds with turbulent airflow, and are sometimes called affricates.",
"(This applies to the forward articulation; both may also have either an affricate or non-affricate rear articulation as well.)",
"The apical places, and , are sometimes called \"grave\", because their pitch is dominated by low frequencies; whereas the laminal places, and , are sometimes called \"acute\", because they are dominated by high frequencies.",
"(At least in the Nǁng language and Juǀʼhoan, this is associated with a difference in the placement of the rear articulation: \"grave\" clicks are uvular, whereas \"acute\" clicks are pharyngeal.)",
"Thus the alveolar click sounds something like a cork pulled from a bottle (a low-pitch pop), at least in Xhosa; whereas the dental click is like English ''tsk!",
"tsk!,'' a high-pitched sucking on the incisors.",
"The lateral clicks are pronounced by sucking on the molars of one or both sides.",
"The labial click is different from what many people associate with a kiss: the lips are pressed more-or-less flat together, as they are for a or an , not rounded as they are for a .The most populous languages with clicks, Zulu and Xhosa, use the letters ''c, q, x,'' by themselves and in digraphs, to write click consonants.",
"Most Khoisan languages, on the other hand (with the notable exceptions of Naro and Sandawe), use a more iconic system based on the pipe .",
"(The exclamation point for the \"retroflex\" click was originally a pipe with a subscript dot, along the lines of ''ṭ, ḍ, ṇ'' used to transcribe the retroflex consonants of India.)",
"There are also two main conventions for the second letter of the digraph as well: voicing may be written with ''g'' and uvular affrication with ''x'', or voicing with ''d'' and affrication with ''g'' (a convention of Afrikaans).",
"In two orthographies of Juǀʼhoan, for example, voiced is written ''g!''",
"or ''dq'', and ''!x'' or ''qg''.",
"In languages without , such as Zulu, may be written ''gq''.+ Competing orthographies labiallaminalapical subapicaldentalpalatalalveolarlateralretroflex Lepsius (1855) Doke (1926) Beach (1938) Bantuist IPA# was proposed by Clement Doke, and by Beach, but did not catch on.",
"The former is not supported by Unicode, and the latter was proposed only in 2020.",
"(Doke's character resembles a down arrow and is here represented by the old Roman numeral for 50; Beach is a double-barred esh.)",
"Three of these, , and , were adopted into the IPA, though eventually abandoned.",
"Doke and Beach used additional or modified letters for voiced and nasal clicks, but they did not catch on.# The labial and palatal clicks do not occur in written Bantu languages.",
"However, the palatal clicks have been romanised in Naron, Juǀʼhõasi and !Xun, where they have been written , and , respectively.",
"In the 19th century, they were sometimes written , which might be source of the Doke letter .There are a few less-well-attested articulations.",
"A reported subapical retroflex articulation in Grootfontein !Kung turns out to be alveolar with lateral release, ; Ekoka !Kung has a fricated alveolar click with an s-like release, provisionally transcribed ; and Sandawe has a \"slapped\" alveolar click, provisionally transcribed (in turn, the lateral clicks in Sandawe are more abrupt and less noisy than in southern Africa).",
"However, the Khoisan languages are poorly attested, and it is quite possible that, as they become better described, more click articulations will be found.Formerly when a click consonant was transcribed, two symbols were used, one for each articulation, and connected with a tie bar.",
"This is because a click such as was analysed as a voiced uvular rear articulation pronounced simultaneously with the forward ingressive release .",
"The symbols may be written in either order, depending on the analysis: or .",
"However, a tie bar was not often used in practice, and when the manner is tenuis (a simple ), it was often omitted as well.",
"That is, = = = = .",
"Regardless, elements that do not overlap with the forward release are usually written according to their temporal order: Prenasalisation is always written first ( = = ), and the non-lingual part of a contour is always written second ( = = ).However, it is common to analyse clicks as simplex segments, despite the fact that the front and rear articulations are independent, and to use diacritics to indicate the rear articulation and the accompaniment.",
"At first this tended to be for , based on the belief that the rear articulation was velar; but as it has become clear that the rear articulation is often uvular or even pharyngeal even when there is no velar–uvular contrast, voicing and nasalisation diacritics more in keeping with the IPA have started to appear: for .+Variation in the transcription of accompaniments Tenuis Aspirated Voiced Nasal Delayed (\"uvular\") True uvular Tie bars etc.",
"Digraphs etc.",
"Superscripts etc.",
"Diacritics NA NAIn practical orthography, the voicing or nasalisation is sometimes given the anterior place of articulation: ''dc'' for and ''mʘ'' for , for example.In the literature on Damin, the clicks are transcribed by adding to the homorganic nasal: ."
],
[
"Places of articulation",
"Places of articulation are often called click ''types, releases,'' or ''influxes,'' though 'release' is also used for the accompaniment/efflux.",
"There are seven or eight known places of articulation, not counting slapped or egressive clicks.",
"These are ''(bi)labial affricated'' , or \"bilabial\"; ''laminal denti-alveolar affricated'' , or \"dental\"; ''apical (post)alveolar plosive'' , or \"alveolar\"; ''laminal palatal plosive'' , or \"palatal\"; ''laminal palatal affricated'' (known only from Ekoka !Kung); ''subapical postalveolar'' , or \"retroflex\" (only known from Central !Kung and possibly Damin); and ''apical (post)alveolar lateral'' , or \"lateral\".+Place of articulation of initial releaseLabialDentalAlveolarSlappedRetroflexDomedPalatalLateralLinguolabialVelar ()(allophonic)(paralexical only)Languages illustrating each of these articulations are listed below.",
"Given the poor state of documentation of Khoisan languages, it is quite possible that additional places of articulation will turn up.",
"No language is known to contrast more than five.",
"Click placeinventory Languages Notes 1 release, variable Dahalo Various nasal clicks only.",
"1 release, variable Sotho, Swazi In Sotho the clicks tend to be alveolar, in Swazi dental.",
"1 release, variable Fwe, Gciriku Tend to be dental.",
"3 releases, , , Kwadi and not found with all manners, but these may be accidental gaps, as Kwadi is poorly attested 3 releases, , , Sandawe, Hadza, Xhosa, Zulu In Sandawe, is often \"slapped\" .",
"3–4 releases, , , (,) ǁXegwi reacquired in loans 4 releases, , , , Korana, Khoekhoe, Yeyi, Juǀʼhoan 4 releases, , , , Ekoka !Kung 5 releases, , , , , ǂHõã, Nǀu, ǀXam, Taa 5 releases, , , , , Grootfontein !Kung 5 releases, , , , , Damin Aside from , which is not technically a click, all are nasal.Extra-linguistically, Coatlán Zapotec of Mexico uses a linguolabial click, , as mimesis for a pig drinking water, and several languages, such as Wolof, use a velar click , long judged to be physically impossible, for backchanneling and to express approval.",
"An extended dental click with lip pursing or compression (\"sucking-teeth\"), variable in sound and sometimes described as intermediate between and , is found across West Africa, the Caribbean and into the United States.The exact place of the alveolar clicks varies between languages.",
"The lateral, for example, is alveolar in Khoekhoe but postalveolar or even palatal in Sandawe; the central is alveolar in Nǀuu but postalveolar in Juǀʼhoan.===Names found in the literature===The terms for the click types were originally developed by Bleek in 1862.Since then there has been some conflicting variation.",
"However, apart from \"cerebral\" (retroflex), which was found to be an inaccurate label when true retroflex clicks were discovered, Bleek's terms are still considered normative today.",
"Here are the terms used in some of the main references.+ Names in the literature Click type Bleek (1862) Doke (1926) IPA (1928) Beach (1938) IPA (1949) IPA (1989) Unicode Miller et al.",
"(2009) Vossen (2013) other dental dental dental dental affricative dental dental dental denti-pharyngeal dental alveolar affricated; denti-alveolar; apico-lamino-dental cerebral palato-alveolar cerebral alveolar implosive retroflex (post-)alveolar retroflex central alveo-uvular alveolar palatal; palatal retroflex; apico-palatal lateral lateral alveolar lateral lateral affricative lateral (alveolar) lateral lateral lateral alveo-uvular lateral-alveolar post-alveolar lateral; lateral apico-alveo-palatal palatal alveolar velar denti-alveolar implosive velar palatoalveolar alveolar palato-pharyngeal palatal alveolar instantaneous; dental bilabial bilabial labio-uvular bilabial labialThe dental, lateral and bilabial clicks are rarely confused, but the palatal and alveolar clicks frequently have conflicting names in older literature, and non-standard terminology is fossilized in Unicode.",
"However, since Ladefoged & Traill (1984) clarified the places of articulation, the terms listed under Vosser (2013) in the table above have become standard, apart from such details as whether in a particular language and are alveolar or postalveolar, or whether the rear articulation is velar, uvular or pharyngeal, which again varies between languages (or may even be contrastive within a language)."
],
[
"Manners of articulation",
"Click manners are often called click ''accompaniments'' or ''effluxes'', but both terms have met with objections on theoretical grounds.There is a great variety of click manners, both simplex and complex, the latter variously analysed as consonant clusters or contours.",
"With so few click languages, and so little study of them, it is also unclear to what extent clicks in different languages are equivalent.",
"For example, the of Khoekhoe, of Sandawe and of Hadza may be essentially the same phone; no language distinguishes them, and the differences in transcription may have more to do with the approach of the linguist than with actual differences in the sounds.",
"Such suspected allophones/allographs are listed on a common row in the table below.Some Khoisan languages are typologically unusual in allowing mixed voicing in non-click consonant clusters/contours, such as , so it is not surprising that they would allow mixed voicing in clicks as well.",
"This may be an effect of epiglottalised voiced consonants, because voicing is incompatible with epiglottalisation.===Phonation===As do other consonants, clicks vary in phonation.",
"Oral clicks are attested with four phonations: tenuis, aspirated, voiced and breathy voiced (murmured).",
"Nasal clicks may also vary, with plain voiced, breathy voiced / murmured nasal, aspirated and unaspirated voiceless clicks attested (the last only in Taa).",
"The aspirated nasal clicks are often said to have 'delayed aspiration'; there is nasal airflow throughout the click, which may become voiced between vowels, though the aspiration itself is voiceless.",
"A few languages also have pre-glottalised nasal clicks, which have very brief prenasalisation but have not been phonetically analysed to the extent that other types of clicks have.All languages have nasal clicks, and all but Dahalo and Damin also have oral clicks.",
"All languages but Damin have at least one phonation contrast as well.===Complex clicks===Clicks may be pronounced with a third place of articulation, glottal.",
"A glottal stop is made during the hold of the click; the (necessarily voiceless) click is released, and then the glottal hold is released into the vowel.",
"Glottalised clicks are very common, and they are generally nasalised as well.",
"The nasalisation cannot be heard during the click release, as there is no pulmonic airflow, and generally not at all when the click occurs at the beginning of an utterance, but it has the effect of nasalising preceding vowels, to the extent that the glottalised clicks of Sandawe and Hadza are often described as prenasalised when in medial position.",
"Two languages, Gǀwi and Yeyi, contrast plain and nasal glottalised clicks, but in languages without such a contrast, the glottalised click is nasal.",
"Miller (2011) analyses the glottalisation as phonation, and so considers these to be simple clicks.Various languages also have prenasalised clicks, which may be analysed as consonant sequences.",
"Sotho, for example, allows a syllabic nasal before its three clicks, as in ''nnqane'' 'the other side' (prenasalised nasal) and ''seqhenqha'' 'hunk'.There is ongoing discussion as to how the distinction between what were historically described as 'velar' and 'uvular' clicks is best described.",
"The 'uvular' clicks are only found in some languages, and have an extended pronunciation that suggests that they are more complex than the simple ('velar') clicks, which are found in all.",
"Nakagawa (1996) describes the extended clicks in Gǀwi as consonant clusters, sequences equivalent to English ''st'' or ''pl'', whereas Miller (2011) analyses similar sounds in several languages as click–non-click contours, where a click transitions into a pulmonic or ejective articulation within a single segment, analogous to how English ''ch'' and ''j'' transition from occlusive to fricative but still behave as unitary sounds.",
"With ejective clicks, for example, Miller finds that although the ejective release follows the click release, it is the rear closure of the click that is ejective, not an independently articulated consonant.",
"That is, in a simple click, the release of the rear articulation is not audible, whereas in a contour click, the rear (uvular) articulation is audibly released after the front (click) articulation, resulting in a double release.These contour clicks may be ''linguo-pulmonic'', that is, they may transition from a click (lingual) articulation to a normal pulmonic consonant like (e.g.",
"); or ''linguo-glottalic'' and transition from lingual to an ejective consonant like (e.g.",
"): that is, a sequence of ingressive (lingual) release + egressive (pulmonic or glottalic) release.",
"In some cases there is a shift in place of articulation as well, and instead of a uvular release, the uvular click transitions to a velar or epiglottal release (depending on the description, or ).",
"Although homorganic does not contrast with heterorganic in any known language, they are phonetically quite distinct (Miller 2011).Implosive clicks, i.e.",
"velar , uvular , and ''de facto'' front-closed palatal are not only possible but easier to produce than modally voiced clicks.",
"However, they are not attested in any language.Apart from Dahalo, Damin and many of the Bantu languages (Yeyi and Xhosa being exceptions), 'click' languages have glottalized nasal clicks.",
"Contour clicks are restricted to southern Africa, but are very common there: they are found in all members of the Tuu, Kxʼa and Khoe families, as well as in the Bantu language Yeyi.===Variation among languages===In a comparative study of clicks across various languages, using her own field work as well as phonetic descriptions and data by other field researchers, Miller (2011) posits 21 types of clicks that contrast in manner or airstream.",
"The homorganic and heterorganic affricated ejective clicks do not contrast in any known language, but are judged dissimilar enough to keep separate.",
"Miller's conclusions differ from those of the primary researcher of a language; see the individual languages for details.",
"* Taa (ǃXóõ) and Nǁng (Nǀuu) are Tuu languages, from the two branches of that family.",
"* ǂʼAmkoe (ǂHoan) and Juǀʼhoan (ǃKung) are Kxʼa languages, from the two branches of that family.",
"* Korana and Gǀui (Gǁana) are Khoe languages, from the two branches of that family.",
"(all spoken primarily in South Africa, Namibia and Botswana; Khoekhoe is similar to Korana except it has lost ejective )* Sandawe and Hadza are language isolates spoken in Tanzania* Dahalo is a Cushitic language of Kenya* Xhosa and Yeyi are Bantu languages, from the two geographic areas of that family that have acquired clicks.",
"(Zulu is similar to Xhosa apart from not having )* Damin was an initiation jargon in northern Australia.Each language below is illustrated with Ʞ as a placeholder for the different click types.",
"Under each language are the orthography (in italics, with old forms in parentheses), the researchers' transcription (in ), or allophonic variation (in brackets).",
"Some languages also have labialised or prenasalised clicks as well as those listed below.",
"Language Tuu Kxʼa Khoe Sandawe Hadza Cushitic Bantu Australian Taa Nǁng ǂʼAmkoe Juǀʼhoan Korana Gǀui Dahalo Xhosa Yeyi Damin Manner Simpleoralclick ''Tenuis'' * ''Ʞ (c, ç, q, x)'' ''Ʞg'' ''c, q, x'' ''c, q, x (Ʞ)'' ''c, q, x'' ''Voiced'' * ''gꞰ (dq etc.)''",
"''gq etc.''",
"~ ''Aspirated'' * ''Ʞh (qh etc.)''",
"''Ʞkh'' ''qh etc.''",
"''qh etc.",
"(Ʞh)'' ''qh etc.''",
"(= Ʞx ?)",
"''Breathy-voiced'' * ''gꞰh (dqh etc.)''",
"''gq etc.''",
"Simplenasalclick ''Voiceless'' * ''Voiced'' * ''nꞰ (nq etc.)''",
"''Ʞn'' ''nq etc.''",
"''nq etc.",
"(nꞰ)'' ''nq etc.''",
"''(Delayed) aspiration(prenasalised between vowels)'' ''Ʞʼh (qʼh etc.)''",
"''Ʞh'' ''Breathy-voiced'' ''nꞰh (nqh etc.)''",
"''ngq etc.''",
"''Preglottalised nasal click'' * (in Ekoka) Glottalisedclick ''Oral / velar ejective'' * ''Creaky-voiced oral'' * ''Nasal (silent initially,prenasalised after vowels)'' ''Ʞʼ (qʼ etc.",
")''(w/ nasal vowels) ''Ʞ'' () ''qʼ etc.''",
"~ ''qq etc.",
"''''(Ʞʼ ~ nꞰʼ)'' ''nkq etc.''",
"?",
"''Nasal (prenasalised initially) '' Pulmoniccontour''Tenuis stop'' ''Voiced (and prenasalised)'' () ''Aspirated stop'' ''Breathy-voiced '' ''Voiceless fricative '' ''Ʞx (qg etc.)''",
"(?",
")''Voiced fricative (prenasalised) '' ''gꞰx (dqg etc.)''",
"Ejectivecontour''Ejective stop'' ''Voiced ejective stop'' ''Ejective fricative'' ''Ʞkhʼ'' ''Heterorganic affricate / epiglottalised'' ''Ʞk (qgʼ etc.)''",
"''Voiced heterorganic affricate / epiglottalised'' ''gꞰk (dqgʼ etc.)''",
"Egressive ''(Voiceless \"spurt\"; labial only)'' IPA Taa Nǁng ǂʼAmkoe Juǀʼhoan Korana Gǀui Sandawe Hadza Dahalo Xhosa Yeyi DaminYeyi also has prenasalised .",
"The original researchers believe that and are allophones.A DoBeS (2008) study of the Western ǃXoo dialect of Taa found several new manners: creaky voiced (the voiced equivalent of glottalised oral), breathy-voiced nasal, prenasalised glottalised (the voiced equivalent of glottalised) and a (pre)voiced ejective.",
"These extra voiced clicks reflect Western ǃXoo morphology, where many nouns form their plural by voicing their initial consonant.",
"DoBeS analyses most Taa clicks as clusters, leaving nine basic manners (marked with asterisks in the table).",
"This comes close to Miller's distinction between simple and contour clicks, shaded light and medium grey in the table."
],
[
"Phonotactics",
"Languages of the southern African Khoisan families only permit clicks at the beginning of a word root.",
"However, they also restrict other classes of consonant, such as ejectives and affricates, to root-initial position.",
"The Bantu languages, Hadza and Sandawe allow clicks within roots.In some languages, all click consonants within known roots are the same phoneme, as in Hadza ''cikiringcingca'' 'pinkie finger', which has three tenuis dental clicks.",
"Other languages are known to have the occasional root with different clicks, as in Xhosa ''ugqwanxa'' 'black ironwood', which has a slack-voiced alveolar click and a nasal lateral click.No natural language allows clicks at the ends of syllables or words, but then no languages with clicks allows many consonants at all in those positions.",
"Similarly, clicks are not found in underlying consonant clusters apart from /Cw/ (and, depending on the analysis, /Cχ/), as languages with clicks do not have other consonant clusters than that.",
"Due to vowel elision, however, there are cases where clicks are pronounced in cross-linguistically common types of consonant clusters, such as Xhosa ''Snqobile'', from ''Sinqobile'' (a name), and ''isXhosa'', from ''isiXhosa'' (the Xhosa language).Like other articulatorily complex consonants, clicks tend to be found in lexical words rather than in grammatical words, but this is only a tendency.",
"In Nǁng, for example, there are two sets of personal pronouns, a full one without clicks and a partial set with clicks (''ńg'' 'I', ''á'' 'thou', ''í'' 'we all', ''ú'' 'you', vs. ''nǀǹg'' 'I', ''gǀà'' 'thou', ''gǀì'' 'we all', ''gǀù'' 'you'), as well as other grammatical words with clicks such as ''ǁu'' 'not' and ''nǀa'' 'with, and'.===The back-vowel constraint===Image:Clicks and the BVC.svg|thumb|The shape of the tongue in Nama when articulating an alveolar click (blue) and a palatal click (red) throat to the right.",
"The articulation of the vowel is slightly forward of the red line, with its peak coinciding with the dip of the blue line.In several languages, including Nama and Juǀʼhoan, the alveolar click types and only occur, or preferentially occur, before back vowels, whereas the dental and palatal clicks occur before any vowel.",
"The effect is most noticeable with the high front vowel .",
"In Nama, for example, the diphthong is common but is rare after alveolar clicks, whereas the opposite is true after dental and palatal clicks.",
"This is a common effect of uvular or uvularised consonants on vowels in both click and non-click languages.",
"In Taa, for example, the back-vowel constraint is triggered by both alveolar clicks and uvular stops, but not by palatal clicks or velar stops: sequences such as and are rare to non-existent, whereas sequences such as and are common.",
"The back-vowel constraint is also triggered by labial clicks, though not by labial stops.",
"Clicks subject to this constraint involve a sharp retraction of the tongue during release.",
"Abrupt releaseNoisy releaseballistic tongue retraction& back-vowel constraintno retraction, no constraintMiller and colleagues (2003) used ultrasound imaging to show that the rear articulation of the alveolar clicks () in Nama is substantially different from that of palatal and dental clicks.",
"Specifically, the shape of the body of the tongue in palatal clicks is very similar to that of the vowel , and involves the same tongue muscles, so that sequences such as involved a simple and quick transition.",
"The rear articulation of the alveolar clicks, however, is several centimetres further back, and involves a different set of muscles in the uvular region.",
"The part of the tongue required to approach the palate for the vowel is deeply retracted in , as it lies at the bottom of the air pocket used to create the vacuum required for click airstream.",
"This makes the transition required for much more complex and the timing more difficult than the shallower and more forward tongue position of the palatal clicks.",
"Consequently, takes 50 ms longer to pronounce than , the same amount of time required to pronounce .Languages do not all behave alike.",
"In Nǀuu, the simple clicks trigger the and allophones of and , whereas do not.",
"All of the affricated contour clicks, such as , do as well, as do the uvular stops .",
"However, the occlusive contour clicks pattern like the simple clicks, and does not trigger the back-vowel constraint.",
"This is because they involve tongue-root raising rather than tongue-root retraction in the uvular-pharyngeal region.",
"However, in Gǀwi, which is otherwise largely similar, both and trigger the back-vowel constraint (Miller 2009)."
],
[
"Click genesis and click loss",
"One genetic study concluded that clicks, which occur in the languages of the genetically divergent populations Hadza and !Kung, may be an ancient element of human language.",
"However, this conclusion relies on several dubious assumptions (see Hadza language), and most linguists assume that clicks, being quite complex consonants, arose relatively late in human history.",
"How they arose is not known, but it is generally assumed that they developed from sequences of non-click consonants, as they are found allophonically for doubly articulated consonants in West Africa, for sequences that overlap at word boundaries in German, and for the sequence in Ndau and Tonga.",
"Such developments have also been posited in historical reconstruction.",
"For example, the Sandawe word for 'horn', , with a lateral affricate, may be a cognate with the root found throughout the Khoe family, which has a lateral click.",
"This and other words suggests that at least some Khoe clicks may have formed from consonant clusters when the first vowel of a word was lost; in this instance * > * > .On the other side of the equation, several non-endangered languages in vigorous use demonstrate click loss.",
"For example, the East Kalahari languages have lost clicks from a large percentage of their vocabulary, presumably due to Bantu influence.",
"As a rule, a click is replaced by a consonant with close to the manner of articulation of the click and the place of articulation of the forward release: alveolar click releases (the family) tend to mutate into a velar stop or affricate, such as ; palatal clicks ( ''etc.'')",
"tend to mutate into a palatal stop such as , or a post-alveolar affricate ; and dental clicks ( ''etc.'')",
"tend to mutate into an alveolar affricate ."
],
[
"Difficulty",
"Clicks are often presented as difficult sounds to articulate within words.",
"However, children acquire them readily; a two-year-old, for example, may be able to pronounce a word with a lateral click with no problem, but still be unable to pronounce .",
"Lucy Lloyd reported that after long contact with the Khoi and San, it was difficult for her to refrain from using clicks when speaking English."
],
[
"See also",
"* Dental clicks* Alveolar clicks* Fricated alveolar clicks* Retroflex clicks* Lateral clicks* Palatal clicks* Labial clicks* Nasal clicks* Glottalised clicks* Pulmonic-contour clicks* Ejective-contour clicks* Click letters* List of phonetics topics* Sublaminal lower alveolar click* Clicking noise"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * Amanda Miller, Levi Namaseb, Khalil Iskarous.",
"2003.",
"''Tongue Body constriction differences in click types.",
"''* Amanda Miller, 2011.",
"\"The Representation of Clicks\".",
"In Oostendorp et al.",
"eds., ''The Blackwell Companion to Phonology.",
"''* Traill, Anthony & Rainer Vossen.",
"1997.",
"''Sound change in the Khoisan languages: new data on click loss and click replacement''.",
"J African Languages and Linguistics 18:21–56."
],
[
"External links",
"* Collection of click-language links and audio samples.",
"* Hartmut Traunmüller (2003) \"Clicks and the idea of a human protolanguage\", ''Phonum 9:'' 1 – 4 (Umeå University, Dept.",
"of Philosophy and Linguistics) * Classifying clicks"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"The Cider House Rules"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''The Cider House Rules''''' (1985) is a novel by American writer John Irving, a ''Bildungsroman'' that was later adapted into a 1999 film and a stage play by Peter Parnell.",
"The story, set in the pre– and post–World War II era, tells of a young man, Homer Wells, growing up under the guidance of Dr. Wilbur Larch, an obstetrician and abortion provider.",
"The story relates his early life at Larch's orphanage in Maine and follows Homer as he eventually leaves the nest and comes of age."
],
[
"Plot",
"Homer Wells is shown growing up in an orphanage where he spends his childhood trying to be \"of use\" as a medical assistant to director Dr. Wilbur Larch, whose history is told in flashbacks: After a traumatic misadventure with a prostitute as a young man, Wilbur turns his back on sex and love, choosing instead to help women with unwanted pregnancies give birth and then keeping the babies in an orphanage.",
"He makes a point of maintaining an emotional distance from the orphans, so that they can more easily make the transition into an adoptive family, but when it becomes clear that Homer is going to spend his childhood at the orphanage, Wilbur trains the orphan as an obstetrician and comes to love him like a son.Wilbur's and Homer's lives are complicated by the abortions Wilbur provides.",
"Wilbur came to this work reluctantly, but is driven by having seen the horrors of back-alley operations.",
"Homer, upon learning Wilbur's secret, considers it morally wrong.As a young man, Homer befriends a young couple, Candy Kendall and Wally Worthington, who come to St.",
"Cloud's for an abortion.",
"Homer leaves the orphanage, and returns with them to Wally's family's orchard in Heart's Rock, near the Maine coast.",
"Wally and Homer become best friends and Homer develops a secret love for Candy.",
"Wally goes off to serve in the Second World War and his plane is shot down over Burma.",
"He is declared missing by the military, but Homer and Candy both believe he is dead and move on with their lives, which includes beginning a romantic relationship.",
"When Candy becomes pregnant, they go back to St.",
"Cloud's Orphanage, where their son is born and named Angel.Subsequently, Wally is found in Burma and returns home, paralyzed from the waist down.",
"He is still able to have sexual intercourse but is sterile due to an infection caught in Burma.",
"Homer and Candy lie to the family about Angel's parentage, claiming that Homer had adopted him.",
"Wally and Candy marry shortly afterward, but Candy and Homer maintain a secret affair that lasts some 15 years.Many years later, teenaged Angel falls in love with Rose, the daughter of the head migrant worker at the apple orchard.",
"Rose becomes pregnant by her father, and Homer aborts her fetus.",
"Homer decides to return to the orphanage after Wilbur's death, to work as the new director.",
"Though he maintains his distaste for abortions, he continues Dr. Larch's legacy of performing the procedure for those in need, and he dreams of the day when abortions are legal.The name \"The Cider House Rules\" refers to the list of rules that migrant workers are supposed to follow at the Ocean View Orchards.",
"However, none of them can read, and they are completely unaware of the rules – which have been posted for years.A subplot follows the character Melony, who grew up alongside Homer in the orphanage.",
"She was Homer's first girlfriend.",
"After Homer leaves the orphanage, so does she in an effort to find him.",
"She eventually becomes an electrician and takes a female lover, Lorna.",
"Melony is stoic, who refuses to press charges against a man who brutally broke her nose and arm.",
"She intends to later take revenge.",
"She is the catalyst that transforms Homer from his comfortable, but not entirely admirable position, at the apple orchard into Dr. Larch's replacement."
],
[
"Background",
"Wally's experience getting shot down over Burma was based in part on that of Irving's biological father (whom he never met), who was shot down over Burma and survived."
],
[
"Film adaptation",
"The novel was adapted into a film of the same name released in 1999 directed by Lasse Hallström.",
"It starred Tobey Maguire as Homer Wells."
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Consumer"
],
[
"Introduction",
"ConsumerA '''consumer''' is a person or a group who intends to order, or use purchased goods, products, or services primarily for personal, social, family, household and similar needs, who is not directly related to entrepreneurial or business activities.",
"The term most commonly refers to a person who purchases goods and services for personal use."
],
[
"Rights",
"\"Consumers, by definition, include us all\", said President John F. Kennedy, offering his definition to the United States Congress on March 15, 1962.This speech became the basis for the creation of World Consumer Rights Day, now celebrated on March 15.In his speech, John Fitzgerald Kennedy outlined the integral responsibility to consumers from their respective governments to help exercise consumers' rights, including:*The right to safety: To be protected against the marketing of goods that are hazardous to health or life.",
"*The right to be informed: To be protected against fraudulent, deceitful, or grossly misleading information, advertising, labeling, or other practices, and to be given the facts he needs to make an informed choice.",
"*The right to choose: To be assured, wherever possible, access to a variety of products and services at competitive prices; and in those industries in which competition is not workable and Government regulation is substituted, an assurance of satisfactory quality and service at fair prices.",
"*The right to seek redressal: Consumers have the right to seek redressal against unfair trade practices and exploitation.",
"If any damage is done to a consumer, he has the right to get compensation depending on the degree of damage.",
"* The right to represent : Thus, the Act has enabled us as consumers to have the right to represent in the consumer courts."
],
[
"Economics and marketing",
"In an economy, a consumer buys goods or services primarily for consumption and not for resale or for commercial purposes.",
"Consumers pay some amount of money (or equivalent) for goods or services.)",
"then consume (use up).",
"As such, consumers play a vital role in the economic system of a capitalist systemand form a fundamental part of any economy.Without consumer demand, producers would lack one of the key motivations to produce: to sell to consumers.",
"The consumer also forms one end of the chain of distribution.Recently in marketing, instead of marketers generating broad demographic profiles and Fisio-graphic profiles of market segments, marketers have started to engage in personalized marketing, permission marketing, and mass customization to target potential consumers.Largely due to the rise of the Internet, consumers are shifting more and more toward becoming prosumers, consumers who are also producers (often of information and media on the social web) - they influence the products created (e.g.",
"by customization, crowdfunding or publishing their preferences), actively participate in the production process, or use interactive products."
],
[
"Law and politics",
"The law primarily uses a notion of the consumer in relation to consumer protection laws, and the definition of consumer is often restricted to living persons (not corporations or businesses) and excludes commercial users.",
"A typical legal rationale for protecting the consumer is based on the notion of policing market failures and inefficiencies, such as inequalities of bargaining power between a consumer and a business.",
"As all potential voters are also consumers, consumer protection has a clear political significance.Concern over the interests of consumers has spawned consumer activism, where organized activists do research, education and advocacy to improve the offer of products and services.",
"Consumer education has been incorporated into some school curricula.",
"There are also various non-profit publications, such as ''Which?",
"'', ''Consumer Reports'' and ''Choice magazine'', dedicated to assist in consumer education and decision making.In India, the Consumer Protection Act 1986 differentiates the consumption of a commodity or service for personal use or to earn a livelihood.",
"Only consumers are protected per this act and any person, entity or organization purchasing a commodity for commercial reasons are exempted from any benefits of this act."
],
[
"See also",
"* Alpha consumer* Customer* Consumer behaviour* Consumer debt* Consumer leverage ratio* Consumer organization* Consumer reporting agency* Consumer choice* Consumerism* Consumers' co-operative* Consumption* Informed consumer* Consumer rights"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Cactus"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''cactus''' (: '''cacti''', '''cactuses''', or less commonly, '''cactus''') is a member of the plant family '''Cactaceae''' (), a family comprising about 127 genera with some 1,750 known species of the order Caryophyllales.",
"The word ''cactus'' derives, through Latin, from the Ancient Greek word (''káktos''), a name originally used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant whose identity is now not certain.",
"Cacti occur in a wide range of shapes and sizes.",
"They are native to the Americas, ranging from Patagonia in the south to parts of western Canada in the north, with the exception of ''Rhipsalis baccifera'', which is also found in Africa and Sri Lanka.",
"Cacti are adapted to live in very dry environments, including the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places on Earth.",
"Because of this, cacti show many adaptations to conserve water.",
"For example, almost all cacti are succulents, meaning they have thickened, fleshy parts adapted to store water.",
"Unlike many other succulents, the stem is the only part of most cacti where this vital process takes place.",
"Most species of cacti have lost true leaves, retaining only spines, which are highly modified leaves.",
"As well as defending against herbivores, spines help prevent water loss by reducing air flow close to the cactus and providing some shade.",
"In the absence of true leaves, cacti's enlarged stems carry out photosynthesis.Cactus spines are produced from specialized structures called areoles, a kind of highly reduced branch.",
"Areoles are an identifying feature of cacti.",
"As well as spines, areoles give rise to flowers, which are usually tubular and multipetaled.",
"Many cacti have short growing seasons and long dormancies and are able to react quickly to any rainfall, helped by an extensive but relatively shallow root system that quickly absorbs any water reaching the ground surface.",
"Cactus stems are often ribbed or fluted with a number of ribs which corresponds to a number in the Fibonacci numbers (2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34 etc.).",
"This allows them to expand and contract easily for quick water absorption after rain, followed by retention over long drought periods.",
"Like other succulent plants, most cacti employ a special mechanism called \"crassulacean acid metabolism\" (CAM) as part of photosynthesis.",
"Transpiration, during which carbon dioxide enters the plant and water escapes, does not take place during the day at the same time as photosynthesis, but instead occurs at night.",
"The plant stores the carbon dioxide it takes in as malic acid, retaining it until daylight returns, and only then using it in photosynthesis.",
"Because transpiration takes place during the cooler, more humid night hours, water loss is significantly reduced.Many smaller cacti have globe-shaped stems, combining the highest possible volume for water storage with the lowest possible surface area for water loss from transpiration.",
"The tallest free-standing cactus is ''Pachycereus pringlei'', with a maximum recorded height of , and the smallest is ''Blossfeldia liliputiana'', only about in diameter at maturity.",
"A fully grown saguaro (''Carnegiea gigantea'') is said to be able to absorb as much as of water during a rainstorm.",
"A few species differ significantly in appearance from most of the family.",
"At least superficially, plants of the genera ''Leuenbergeria'', ''Rhodocactus'' and ''Pereskia'' resemble other trees and shrubs growing around them.",
"They have persistent leaves, and when older, bark-covered stems.",
"Their areoles identify them as cacti, and in spite of their appearance, they, too, have many adaptations for water conservation.",
"''Leuenbergeria'' is considered close to the ancestral species from which all cacti evolved.",
"In tropical regions, other cacti grow as forest climbers and epiphytes (plants that grow on trees).",
"Their stems are typically flattened, almost leaf-like in appearance, with fewer or even no spines, such as the well-known Christmas cactus or Thanksgiving cactus (in the genus ''Schlumbergera'').Cacti have a variety of uses: many species are used as ornamental plants, others are grown for fodder or forage, and others for food (particularly their fruit).",
"Cochineal is the product of an insect that lives on some cacti.Many succulent plants in both the Old and New World – such as some Euphorbiaceae (euphorbias) – are also spiny stem succulents and because of this are sometimes incorrectly referred to as \"cactus\"."
],
[
"Morphology",
"''Ferocactus'' species, a cactoid, in its native Arizona habitatThe 1,500 to 1,800 species of cacti mostly fall into one of two groups of \"core cacti\": opuntias (subfamily Opuntioideae) and \"cactoids\" (subfamily Cactoideae).",
"Most members of these two groups are easily recognizable as cacti.",
"They have fleshy succulent stems that are major organs of photosynthesis.",
"They have absent, small, or transient leaves.",
"They have flowers with ovaries that lie below the sepals and petals, often deeply sunken into a fleshy receptacle (the part of the stem from which the flower parts grow).",
"All cacti have areoles—highly specialized short shoots with extremely short internodes that produce spines, normal shoots, and flowers.The remaining cacti fall into only two groups: three tree-like genera, ''Leuenbergeria'', ''Pereskia'' and ''Rhodocactus'' (all formerly placed in ''Pereskia''), and the much smaller ''Maihuenia''.",
"These two groups are rather different from other cacti, which means any description of cacti as a whole must frequently make exceptions for them.",
"Species of the first three genera superficially resemble other tropical forest trees.",
"When mature, they have woody stems that may be covered with bark and long-lasting leaves that provide the main means of photosynthesis.",
"Their flowers may have superior ovaries (i.e., above the points of attachment of the sepals and petals) and areoles that produce further leaves.",
"The two species of ''Maihuenia'' have succulent but non-photosynthetic stems and prominent succulent leaves.===Growth habit===Cacti show a wide variety of growth habits, which are difficult to divide into clear, simple categories.",
"; Cacti can be tree-like (arborescent), meaning they typically have a single more-or-less woody trunk topped by several to many branches.",
"In the genera ''Leuenbergeria'', ''Pereskia'' and ''Rhodocactus'', the branches are covered with leaves, so the species of these genera may not be recognized as cacti.",
"In most other cacti, the branches are more typically cactus-like, bare of leaves and bark and covered with spines, as in ''Pachycereus pringlei'' or the larger opuntias.",
"Some cacti may become tree-sized but without branches, such as larger specimens of ''Echinocactus platyacanthus''.",
"Cacti may also be described as shrubby, with several stems coming from the ground or from branches very low down, such as in ''Stenocereus thurberi''.",
"; Smaller cacti may be described as columnar.",
"They consist of erect, cylinder-shaped stems, which may or may not branch, without a very clear division into trunk and branches.",
"The boundary between columnar forms and tree-like or shrubby forms is difficult to define.",
"Smaller and younger specimens of ''Cephalocereus senilis'', for example, are columnar, whereas older and larger specimens may become tree-like.",
"In some cases, the \"columns\" may be horizontal rather than vertical.",
"Thus, ''Stenocereus eruca'' can be described as columnar even though it has stems growing along the ground, rooting at intervals.",
"; Cacti whose stems are even smaller may be described as globular (or globose).",
"They consist of shorter, more ball-shaped stems than columnar cacti.",
"Globular cacti may be solitary, such as ''Ferocactus latispinus'', or their stems may form clusters that can create large mounds.",
"All or some stems in a cluster may share a common root.",
"; Other formsOther cacti have a quite different appearance.",
"In tropical regions, some grow as forest climbers and epiphytes.",
"Their stems are typically flattened and almost leaf-like in appearance, with few or even no spines.",
"Climbing cacti can be very large; a specimen of ''Hylocereus'' was reported as long from root to the most distant stem.",
"Epiphytic cacti, such as species of ''Rhipsalis'' or ''Schlumbergera'', often hang downwards, forming dense clumps where they grow in trees high above the ground.Pereskia aculeata5.jpg|Treelike habit (''Pereskia aculeata'')Cardon Pachycereus pringlei.jpg|Tall treelike habit (''Pachycereus pringlei'')Cephalocereus columna-trajani rev.jpg|Tall unbranched columnar habit (''Cephalocereus'')Ferocactus1.jpg|Shorter clustered columnar habit (''Ferocactus pilosus'')Ferocactus echidne var victoriensis 1.jpg|Solitary globular habit (''Ferocactus echidne'')Rebutia flavistylus 2 rev.jpg|Clustered globular habit (''Rebutia'' species)Rhipsalis paradoxa.jpg|Epiphytic cactus (''Rhipsalis paradoxa'')===Stems===Stem of ''Mammillaria longimamma'', showing tuberclesThe leafless, spiny stem is the characteristic feature of the majority of cacti (all belonging to the largest subfamily, the Cactoideae).",
"The stem is typically succulent, meaning it is adapted to store water.",
"The surface of the stem may be smooth (as in some species of ''Opuntia'') or covered with protuberances of various kinds, which are usually called tubercles.",
"These vary from small \"bumps\" to prominent, nipple-like shapes in the genus ''Mammillaria'' and outgrowths almost like leaves in ''Ariocarpus'' species.",
"The stem may also be ribbed or fluted in shape.",
"The prominence of these ribs depends on how much water the stem is storing: when full (up to 90% of the mass of a cactus may be water), the ribs may be almost invisible on the swollen stem, whereas when the cactus is short of water and the stems shrink, the ribs may be very visible.The stems of most cacti are some shade of green, often bluish or brownish green.",
"Such stems contain chlorophyll and are able to carry out photosynthesis; they also have stomata (small structures that can open and close to allow passage of gases).",
"Cactus stems are often visibly waxy.===Areoles===Areoles are structures unique to cacti.",
"Although variable, they typically appear as woolly or hairy areas on the stems from which spines emerge.",
"Flowers are also produced from areoles.",
"In the genus ''Leuenbergeria'', believed similar to the ancestor of all cacti, the areoles occur in the axils of leaves (i.e.",
"in the angle between the leaf stalk and the stem).",
"In leafless cacti, areoles are often borne on raised areas on the stem where leaf bases would have been.Areoles are highly specialized and very condensed shoots or branches.",
"In a normal shoot, nodes bearing leaves or flowers would be separated by lengths of stem (internodes).",
"In an areole, the nodes are so close together, they form a single structure.",
"The areole may be circular, elongated into an oval shape, or even separated into two parts; the two parts may be visibly connected in some way (e.g.",
"by a groove in the stem) or appear entirely separate (a dimorphic areole).",
"The part nearer the top of the stem then produces flowers, the other part spines.",
"Areoles often have multicellular hairs (trichomes) that give the areole a hairy or woolly appearance, sometimes of a distinct color such as yellow or brown.In most cacti, the areoles produce new spines or flowers only for a few years and then become inactive.",
"This results in a relatively fixed number of spines, with flowers being produced only from the ends of stems, which are still growing and forming new areoles.",
"In ''Pereskia'', a genus close to the ancestor of cacti, areoles remain active for much longer; this is also the case in ''Opuntia'' and ''Neoraimondia''.===Leaves===The great majority of cacti have no visible leaves; photosynthesis takes place in the stems (which may be flattened and leaflike in some species).",
"Exceptions occur in three (taxonomically, four) groups of cacti.",
"All the species of ''Leuenbergeria'', ''Pereskia'' and ''Rhodocactus'' are superficially like normal trees or shrubs and have numerous leaves with a midrib and a flattened blade (lamina) on either side.",
"This group is paraphyletic, forming two taxonomic clades.",
"Many cacti in the opuntia group (subfamily Opuntioideae) also have visible leaves, which may be long-lasting (as in ''Pereskiopsis'' species) or produced only during the growing season and then lost (as in many species of ''Opuntia'').",
"The small genus ''Maihuenia'' also relies on leaves for photosynthesis.",
"The structure of the leaves varies somewhat between these groups.",
"Opuntioids and ''Maihuenia'' have leaves that appear to consist only of a midrib.Even those cacti without visible photosynthetic leaves do usually have very small leaves, less than long in about half of the species studied and almost always less than long.",
"The function of such leaves cannot be photosynthesis; a role in the production of plant hormones, such as auxin, and in defining axillary buds has been suggested.===Spines===Botanically, \"spines\" are distinguished from \"thorns\": spines are modified leaves, and thorns are modified branches.",
"Cacti produce spines, always from areoles as noted above.",
"Spines are present even in those cacti with leaves, such as ''Pereskia'', ''Pereskiopsis'' and ''Maihuenia'', so they clearly evolved before complete leaflessness.",
"Some cacti only have spines when young, possibly only when seedlings.",
"This is particularly true of tree-living cacti, such as ''Rhipsalis'' and ''Schlumbergera'', but also of some ground-living cacti, such as ''Ariocarpus''.The spines of cacti are often useful in identification, since they vary greatly between species in number, color, size, shape and hardness, as well as in whether all the spines produced by an areole are similar or whether they are of distinct kinds.",
"Most spines are straight or at most slightly curved, and are described as hair-like, bristle-like, needle-like or awl-like, depending on their length and thickness.",
"Some cacti have flattened spines (e.g.",
"''Sclerocactus papyracanthus'').",
"Other cacti have hooked spines.",
"Sometimes, one or more central spines are hooked, while outer spines are straight (e.g., ''Mammillaria rekoi'').In addition to normal-length spines, members of the subfamily Opuntioideae have relatively short spines, called glochids, that are barbed along their length and easily shed.",
"These enter the skin and are difficult to remove due to being very fine and easily broken, causing long-lasting irritation.Ferocactus1001.jpg|Varied spines of a ''Ferocactus''Hakendornen IMGP7026 WP.jpg|Hooked central spine (cf.",
"''Mammillaria rekoi'')Toumeya papyracantha fh 087 3 AZ BB.jpg|Unusual flattened spines of ''Sclerocactus papyracanthus''Opuntia microdasys 01 ies cropped.jpg|Glochids of ''Opuntia microdasys''===Roots===Most ground-living cacti have only fine roots, which spread out around the base of the plant for varying distances, close to the surface.",
"Some cacti have taproots; in genera such as ''Ariocarpus'', these are considerably larger and of a greater volume than the body.",
"Taproots may aid in stabilizing the larger columnar cacti.",
"Climbing, creeping and epiphytic cacti may have only adventitious roots, produced along the stems where these come into contact with a rooting medium.===Flowers===Large flowers of an ''Echinopsis''Style and stamens of ''Mammillaria beneckei'' flowerLike their spines, cactus flowers are variable.",
"Typically, the ovary is surrounded by material derived from stem or receptacle tissue, forming a structure called a pericarpel.",
"Tissue derived from the petals and sepals continues the pericarpel, forming a composite tube—the whole may be called a floral tube, although strictly speaking only the part furthest from the base is floral in origin.",
"The outside of the tubular structure often has areoles that produce wool and spines.",
"Typically, the tube also has small scale-like bracts, which gradually change into sepal-like and then petal-like structures, so the sepals and petals cannot be clearly differentiated (and hence are often called \"tepals\").",
"Some cacti produce floral tubes without wool or spines (e.g.",
"''Gymnocalycium'') or completely devoid of any external structures (e.g.",
"''Mammillaria'').",
"Unlike the flowers of most other cacti, ''Pereskia'' flowers may be borne in clusters.Cactus flowers usually have many stamens, but only a single style, which may branch at the end into more than one stigma.",
"The stamens usually arise from all over the inner surface of the upper part of the floral tube, although in some cacti, the stamens are produced in one or more distinct \"series\" in more specific areas of the inside of the floral tube.The flower as a whole is usually radially symmetrical (actinomorphic), but may be bilaterally symmetrical (zygomorphic) in some species.",
"Flower colors range from white through yellow and red to magenta."
],
[
"Adaptations for water conservation",
" All cacti have some adaptations to promote efficient water use.",
"Most cacti—opuntias and cactoids—specialize in surviving in hot and dry environments (i.e.",
"are xerophytes), but the first ancestors of modern cacti were already adapted to periods of intermittent drought.",
"A small number of cactus species in the tribes Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae have become adapted to life as climbers or epiphytes, often in tropical forests, where water conservation is less important.===Leaves and spines===The absence of visible leaves is one of the most striking features of most cacti.",
"''Pereskia'' (which is close to the ancestral species from which all cacti evolved) does have long-lasting leaves, which are, however, thickened and succulent in many species.",
"Other species of cactus with long-lasting leaves, such as the opuntioid ''Pereskiopsis'', also have succulent leaves.",
"A key issue in retaining water is the ratio of surface area to volume.",
"Water loss is proportional to surface area, whereas the amount of water present is proportional to volume.",
"Structures with a high surface area-to-volume ratio, such as thin leaves, necessarily lose water at a higher rate than structures with a low area-to-volume ratio, such as thickened stems.Spines, which are modified leaves, are present on even those cacti with true leaves, showing the evolution of spines preceded the loss of leaves.",
"Although spines have a high surface area-to-volume ratio, at maturity they contain little or no water, being composed of fibers made up of dead cells.",
"Spines provide protection from herbivores and camouflage in some species, and assist in water conservation in several ways.",
"They trap air near the surface of the cactus, creating a moister layer that reduces evaporation and transpiration.",
"They can provide some shade, which lowers the temperature of the surface of the cactus, also reducing water loss.",
"When sufficiently moist air is present, such as during fog or early morning mist, spines can condense moisture, which then drips onto the ground and is absorbed by the roots.===Stems===Stem of young ''Cereus hildmannianus'' subsp.",
"''uruguayanus'', showing ribbing and waxy coatingThe majority of cacti are stem succulents, i.e., plants in which the stem is the main organ used to store water.",
"Water may form up to 90% of the total mass of a cactus.",
"Stem shapes vary considerably among cacti.",
"The cylindrical shape of columnar cacti and the spherical shape of globular cacti produce a low surface area-to-volume ratio, thus reducing water loss, as well as minimizing the heating effects of sunlight.",
"The ribbed or fluted stems of many cacti allow the stem to shrink during periods of drought and then swell as it fills with water during periods of availability.",
"A mature saguaro (''Carnegiea gigantea'') is said to be able to absorb as much as of water during a rainstorm.",
"The outer layer of the stem usually has a tough cuticle, reinforced with waxy layers, which reduce water loss.",
"These layers are responsible for the grayish or bluish tinge to the stem color of many cacti.The stems of most cacti have adaptations to allow them to conduct photosynthesis in the absence of leaves.",
"This is discussed further below under Metabolism.===Roots===Many cacti have roots that spread out widely, but only penetrate a short distance into the soil.",
"In one case, a young saguaro only tall had a root system with a diameter of , but no more than deep.",
"Cacti can also form new roots quickly when rain falls after a drought.",
"The concentration of salts in the root cells of cacti is relatively high.",
"All these adaptations enable cacti to absorb water rapidly during periods of brief or light rainfall.",
"Thus, ''Ferocactus cylindraceus'' reportedly can take up a significant amount of water within 12 hours from as little as of rainfall, becoming fully hydrated in a few days.Although in most cacti, the stem acts as the main organ for storing water, some cacti have in addition large taproots.",
"These may be several times the length of the above-ground body in the case of species such as ''Copiapoa atacamensis'', which grows in one of the driest places in the world, the Atacama Desert in northern Chile.===Metabolism===Photosynthesis requires plants to take in carbon dioxide gas ().",
"As they do so, they lose water through transpiration.",
"Like other types of succulents, cacti reduce this water loss by the way in which they carry out photosynthesis.",
"\"Normal\" leafy plants use the C3 mechanism: during daylight hours, is continually drawn out of the air present in spaces inside leaves and converted first into a compound containing three carbon atoms (3-phosphoglycerate) and then into products such as carbohydrates.",
"The access of air to internal spaces within a plant is controlled by stomata, which are able to open and close.",
"The need for a continuous supply of during photosynthesis means the stomata must be open, so water vapor is continuously being lost.",
"Plants using the C3 mechanism lose as much as 97% of the water taken up through their roots in this way.",
"A further problem is that as temperatures rise, the enzyme that captures starts to capture more and more oxygen instead, reducing the efficiency of photosynthesis by up to 25%.Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) is a mechanism adopted by cacti and other succulents to avoid the problems of the C3 mechanism.",
"In full CAM, the stomata open only at night, when temperatures and water loss are lowest.",
"enters the plant and is captured in the form of organic acids stored inside cells (in vacuoles).",
"The stomata remain closed throughout the day, and photosynthesis uses only this stored .",
"CAM uses water much more efficiently at the price of limiting the amount of carbon fixed from the atmosphere and thus available for growth.",
"CAM-cycling is a less water-efficient system whereby stomata open in the day, just as in plants using the C3 mechanism.",
"At night, or when the plant is short of water, the stomata close and the CAM mechanism is used to store produced by respiration for use later in photosynthesis.",
"CAM-cycling is present in ''Pereskia'' species.By studying the ratio of 14C to 13C incorporated into a plant—its isotopic signature—it is possible to deduce how much is taken up at night and how much in the daytime.",
"Using this approach, most of the ''Pereskia'' species investigated exhibit some degree of CAM-cycling, suggesting this ability was present in the ancestor of all cacti.",
"''Pereskia'' leaves are claimed to only have the C3 mechanism with CAM restricted to stems.",
"More recent studies show that \"it is highly unlikely that significant carbon assimilation occurs in the stem\"; ''Pereskia'' species are described as having \"C3 with inducible CAM.\"",
"Leafless cacti carry out all their photosynthesis in the stem, using full CAM.",
", it is not clear whether stem-based CAM evolved once only in the core cacti, or separately in the opuntias and cactoids; CAM is known to have evolved convergently many times.To carry out photosynthesis, cactus stems have undergone many adaptations.",
"Early in their evolutionary history, the ancestors of modern cacti (other than ''Leuenbergeria'' species) developed stomata on their stems and began to delay developing bark.",
"However, this alone was not sufficient; cacti with only these adaptations appear to do very little photosynthesis in their stems.",
"Stems needed to develop structures similar to those normally found only in leaves.",
"Immediately below the outer epidermis, a hypodermal layer developed made up of cells with thickened walls, offering mechanical support.",
"Air spaces were needed between the cells to allow carbon dioxide to diffuse inwards.",
"The center of the stem, the cortex, developed \"chlorenchyma\" – a plant tissue made up of relatively unspecialized cells containing chloroplasts, arranged into a \"spongy layer\" and a \"palisade layer\" where most of the photosynthesis occurs."
],
[
"Taxonomy and classification",
"Naming and classifying cacti has been both difficult and controversial since the first cacti were discovered for science.",
"The difficulties began with Carl Linnaeus.",
"In 1737, he placed the cacti he knew into two genera, ''Cactus'' and ''Pereskia''.",
"However, when he published ''Species Plantarum'' in 1753—the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature—he relegated them all to one genus, ''Cactus''.",
"The word \"cactus\" is derived through Latin from the Ancient Greek (''kaktos''), a name used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant, which may have been the cardoon (''Cynara cardunculus'').Later botanists, such as Philip Miller in 1754, divided cacti into several genera, which, in 1789, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu placed in his newly created family Cactaceae.",
"By the early 20th century, botanists came to feel Linnaeus's name ''Cactus'' had become so confused as to its meaning (was it the genus or the family?)",
"that it should not be used as a genus name.",
"The 1905 Vienna botanical congress rejected the name ''Cactus'' and instead declared ''Mammillaria'' was the type genus of the family Cactaceae.",
"It did, however, conserve the name Cactaceae, leading to the unusual situation in which the family Cactaceae no longer contains the genus after which it was named.The difficulties continued, partly because giving plants scientific names relies on \"type specimens\".",
"Ultimately, if botanists want to know whether a particular plant is an example of, say, ''Mammillaria mammillaris'', they should be able to compare it with the type specimen to which this name is permanently attached.",
"Type specimens are normally prepared by compression and drying, after which they are stored in herbaria to act as definitive references.",
"However, cacti are very difficult to preserve in this way; they have evolved to resist drying and their bodies do not easily compress.",
"A further difficulty is that many cacti were given names by growers and horticulturalists rather than botanists; as a result, the provisions of the ''International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants'' (which governs the names of cacti, as well as other plants) were often ignored.",
"Curt Backeberg, in particular, is said to have named or renamed 1,200 species without one of his names ever being attached to a specimen, which, according to David Hunt, ensured he \"left a trail of nomenclatural chaos that will probably vex cactus taxonomists for centuries.",
"\"===Classification===In 1984, it was decided that the Cactaceae Section of the International Organization for Succulent Plant Study should set up a working party, now called the International Cactaceae Systematics Group (ICSG), to produce consensus classifications down to the level of genera.",
"Their system has been used as the basis of subsequent classifications.",
"Detailed treatments published in the 21st century have divided the family into around 125–130 genera and 1,400–1,500 species, which are then arranged into a number of tribes and subfamilies.",
"The ICSG classification of the cactus family recognized four subfamilies, the largest of which was divided into nine tribes.",
"The subfamilies were:* Subfamily Pereskioideae K. Schumann:The only genus in the ICSG classification was ''Pereskia''.",
"It has features considered closest to the ancestors of the Cactaceae.",
"Plants are trees or shrubs with leaves; their stems are smoothly round in cross section, rather than being ribbed or having tubercles.",
"Two systems may be used in photosynthesis, both the \"normal\" C3 mechanism and crassulean acid metabolism (CAM)—an \"advanced\" feature of cacti and other succulents that conserves water.",
":Molecular phylogenetic studies showed that when broadly circumscribed, ''Pereskia'' was not monophyletic, and it has been split into three genera, ''Leuenbergeria'', ''Rhodocactus'' and a narrowly circumscribed ''Pereskia''.",
"''Leuenbergeria'' is then placed on its own in a separate monogeneric subfamily, Leuenbergerioideae.",
"* Subfamily Opuntioideae K. Schumann:Some 15 genera are included in this subfamily.",
"They may have leaves when they are young, but these are lost later.",
"Their stems are usually divided into distinct \"joints\" or \"pads\" (cladodes).",
"Plants vary in size from the small cushions of ''Maihueniopsis'' to treelike species of ''Opuntia'', rising to or more.",
"* Subfamily Maihuenioideae P. Fearn:The only genus is ''Maihuenia'', with two species, both of which form low-growing mats.",
"It has some features that are primitive within the cacti.",
"Plants have leaves, and crassulean acid metabolism is wholly absent.",
"* Subfamily Cactoideae:Divided into nine tribes, this is the largest subfamily, including all the \"typical\" cacti.",
"Members are highly variable in habit, varying from tree-like to epiphytic.",
"Leaves are normally absent, although sometimes very reduced leaves are produced by young plants.",
"Stems are usually not divided into segments, and are ribbed or tuberculate.",
"Two of the tribes, Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae, contain climbing or epiphytic forms with a rather different appearance; their stems are flattened and may be divided into segments.Molecular phylogenetic studies have supported the monophyly of three of these subfamilies (not Pereskioideae), but have not supported all of the tribes or even genera below this level; indeed, a 2011 study found only 39% of the genera in the subfamily Cactoideae sampled in the research were monophyletic.",
"Classification of the cacti currently remains uncertain and is likely to change."
],
[
"Phylogeny and evolution",
"===Phylogeny===''Rhodocactus grandifolius'' is weakly succulent, possesses leaves, and is thought similar to the ancestor of all cacti.A 2005 study suggested the genus ''Pereskia'' as then circumscribed (''Pereskia'' sensu lato) was basal within the Cactaceae, but confirmed earlier suggestions it was not monophyletic, i.e., did not include all the descendants of a common ancestor.",
"The Bayesian consensus cladogram from this study is shown below with subsequent generic changes added.A 2011 study using fewer genes but more species also found that ''Pereskia'' s.l.",
"was divided into the same clades, but was unable to resolve the members of the \"core cacti\" clade.",
"It was accepted that the relationships shown above are \"the most robust to date.",
"\"''Leuenbergeria'' species (''Pereskia'' s.l.",
"Clade A) always lack two key features of the stem present in most of the remaining \"caulocacti\": like most non-cacti, their stems begin to form bark early in the plants' life and also lack stomata—structures that control admission of air into a plant and hence control photosynthesis.",
"By contrast, caulocacti, including species of ''Rhodocactus'' and the remaining species of ''Pereskia'' s.s., typically delay forming bark and have stomata on their stems, thus giving the stem the potential to become a major organ for photosynthesis.",
"(The two highly specialized species of ''Maihuenia'' are something of an exception.",
")The first cacti are thought to have been only slightly succulent shrubs or small trees whose leaves carried out photosynthesis.",
"They lived in tropical areas that experienced periodic drought.",
"If ''Leuenbergeria'' is a good model of these early cacti, then, although they would have appeared superficially similar to other trees growing nearby, they had already evolved strategies to conserve water (some of which are present in members of other families in the order Caryophyllales).",
"These strategies included being able to respond rapidly to periods of rain, and keeping transpiration low by using water very efficiently during photosynthesis.",
"The latter was achieved by tightly controlling the opening of stomata.",
"Like ''Pereskia'' species today, early ancestors may have been able to switch from the normal C3 mechanism, where carbon dioxide is used continuously in photosynthesis, to CAM cycling, in which when the stomata are closed, carbon dioxide produced by respiration is stored for later use in photosynthesis.The clade containing ''Rhodocactus'' and ''Pereskia'' s.s. marks the beginnings of an evolutionary switch to using stems as photosynthetic organs.",
"Stems have stomata and the formation of bark takes place later than in normal trees.",
"The \"core cacti\" show a steady increase in both stem succulence and photosynthesis accompanied by multiple losses of leaves, more-or-less complete in the Cactoideae.",
"One evolutionary question at present unanswered is whether the switch to full CAM photosynthesis in stems occurred only once in the core cacti, in which case it has been lost in ''Maihuenia'', or separately in Opuntioideae and Cactoideae, in which case it never evolved in ''Maihuenia''.Understanding evolution within the core cacti clade is difficult , since phylogenetic relationships are still uncertain and not well related to current classifications.",
"Thus, a 2011 study found \"an extraordinarily high proportion of genera\" were not monophyletic, so were not all descendants of a single common ancestor.",
"For example, of the 36 genera in the subfamily Cactoideae sampled in the research, 22 (61%) were found not monophyletic.",
"Nine tribes are recognized within Cactoideae in the International Cactaceae Systematics Group (ICSG) classification; one, Calymmantheae, comprises a single genus, ''Calymmanthium''.",
"Only two of the remaining eight – Cacteae and Rhipsalideae – were shown to be monophyletic in a 2011 study by Hernández-Hernández et al.",
"For a more detailed discussion of the phylogeny of the cacti, see Classification of the Cactaceae.===Evolutionary history===No known fossils of cacti exist to throw light on their evolutionary history.",
"However, the geographical distribution of cacti offers some evidence.",
"Except for a relatively recent spread of ''Rhipsalis baccifera'' to parts of the Old World, cacti are plants of South America and mainly southern regions of North America.",
"This suggests the family must have evolved after the ancient continent of Gondwana split into South America and Africa, which occurred during the Early Cretaceous, around .",
"Precisely when after this split cacti evolved is less clear.",
"Older sources suggest an early origin around 90 – 66 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous.",
"More recent molecular studies suggest a much younger origin, perhaps in very Late Eocene to early Oligocene periods, around 35–30 million years ago.",
"Based on the phylogeny of the cacti, the earliest diverging group (''Leuenbergeria'') may have originated in Central America and northern South America, whereas the caulocacti, those with more-or-less succulent stems, evolved later in the southern part of South America, and then moved northwards.",
"Core cacti, those with strongly succulent stems, are estimated to have evolved around 25 million years ago.",
"A possible stimulus to their evolution may have been uplifting in the central Andes, some 25–20 million years ago, which was associated with increasing and varying aridity.",
"However, the current species diversity of cacti is thought to have arisen only in the last 10–5 million years (from the late Miocene into the Pliocene).",
"Other succulent plants, such as the Aizoaceae in South Africa, the Didiereaceae in Madagascar and the genus ''Agave'' in the Americas, appear to have diversified at the same time, which coincided with a global expansion of arid environments."
],
[
"Distribution",
"Native distribution of cacti; Opuntia ficus-indica in Behbahan, IranCacti inhabit diverse regions, from coastal plains to high mountain areas.",
"With one exception, they are native to the Americas, where their range extends from Patagonia to British Columbia and Alberta in western Canada.",
"A number of centers of diversity exist.",
"For cacti adapted to drought, the three main centers are Mexico and the southwestern United States; the southwestern Andes, where they are found in Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina; and eastern Brazil, away from the Amazon Basin.",
"Tree-living epiphytic and climbing cacti necessarily have different centers of diversity, as they require moister environments.",
"They are mainly found in the coastal mountains and Atlantic forests of southeastern Brazil; in Bolivia, which is the center of diversity for the subfamily Rhipsalideae; and in forested regions of Central America, where the climbing Hylocereeae are most diverse.",
"''Rhipsalis baccifera'' is the exception; it is native to both the Americas and the Old World, where it is found in tropical Africa, Madagascar, and Sri Lanka.",
"One theory is it was spread by being carried as seeds in the digestive tracts of migratory birds; the seeds of ''Rhipsalis'' are adapted for bird distribution.",
"Old World populations are polyploid, and regarded as distinct subspecies, supporting the idea that the spread was not recent.",
"The alternative theory is the species initially crossed the Atlantic on European ships trading between South America and Africa, after which birds may have spread it more widely.===Naturalized species===Many other species have become naturalized outside the Americas after having been introduced by people, especially in Australia, Hawaii, and the Mediterranean region.",
"In Australia, species of ''Opuntia'', particularly ''Opuntia stricta'', were introduced in the 19th century for use as natural agricultural fences and in an attempt to establish a cochineal industry.",
"They rapidly became a major weed problem, but are now controlled by biological agents, particularly the moth ''Cactoblastis cactorum''.",
"The weed potential of Opuntia species in Australia continues however, leading to all opuntioid cacti except ''O.",
"ficus-indica'' being declared Weeds of National Significance by the Australian Weeds Committee in April 2012.The Arabian Peninsula has a wide variety of ever-increasing, introduced cactus populations.",
"Some of these are cultivated, some are escapes from cultivation, and some are invasives that are presumed to be ornamental escapes."
],
[
"Reproductive ecology",
"Flower of ''Schlumbergera'' cut in half, showing typical adaptations to bird pollination|alt=Flower cut in half vertically with the base to the left; the bases of the tepals form a kind of tube, the upper parts bending away from the tube; the stamens run the full length of the flower from left to right and emerge from the end; some start at the very base of the flower, others start from further along to the right, being joined to a tepal.Flowers of saguaro showing flattish white flowers adapted for bat pollinationCactus flowers are pollinated by insects, birds and bats.",
"None are known to be wind-pollinated and self-pollination occurs in only a very few species; for example the flowers of some species of ''Frailea'' do not open (cleistogamy).",
"The need to attract pollinators has led to the evolution of pollination syndromes, which are defined as groups of \"floral traits, including rewards, associated with the attraction and utilization of a specific group of animals as pollinators.",
"\"Bees are the most common pollinators of cacti; bee-pollination is considered to have been the first to evolve.",
"Day-flying butterflies and nocturnal moths are associated with different pollination syndromes.",
"Butterfly-pollinated flowers are usually brightly colored, opening during the day, whereas moth-pollinated flowers are often white or pale in color, opening only in the evening and at night.",
"As an example, ''Lophocereus schottii'' is pollinated by a particular species of moth, ''Upiga virescens'', which also lays its eggs among the developing seeds its caterpillars later consume.",
"The flowers of this cactus are funnel-shaped, white to deep pink, up to long, and open at night.Hummingbirds are significant pollinators of cacti.",
"Species showing the typical hummingbird-pollination syndrome have flowers with colors towards the red end of the spectrum, anthers and stamens that protrude from the flower, and a shape that is not radially symmetrical, with a lower lip that bends downwards; they produce large amounts of nectar with a relatively low sugar content.",
"''Schlumbergera'' species, such as ''S.",
"truncata'', have flowers that correspond closely to this syndrome.",
"Other hummingbird-pollinated genera include ''Cleistocactus'' and ''Disocactus''.Bat-pollination is relatively uncommon in flowering plants, but about a quarter of the genera of cacti are known to be pollinated by bats—an unusually high proportion, exceeded among eudicots by only two other families, both with very few genera.",
"Columnar cacti growing in semidesert areas are among those most likely to be bat-pollinated; this may be because bats are able to travel considerable distances, so are effective pollinators of plants growing widely separated from one another.",
"The pollination syndrome associated with bats includes a tendency for flowers to open in the evening and at night, when bats are active.",
"Other features include a relatively dull color, often white or green; a radially symmetrical shape, often tubular; a smell described as \"musty\"; and the production of a large amount of sugar-rich nectar.",
"''Carnegiea gigantea'' is an example of a bat-pollinated cactus, as are many species of ''Pachycereus'' and ''Pilosocereus''.Fruit of ''alt=Green fruit of Schlumbergera cut in half, lying on a cutting board.The fruits produced by cacti after the flowers have been fertilized vary considerably; many are fleshy, although some are dry.",
"All contain a large number of seeds.",
"Fleshy, colorful and sweet-tasting fruits are associated with seed dispersal by birds.",
"The seeds pass through their digestive systems and are deposited in their droppings.",
"Fruit that falls to the ground may be eaten by other animals; giant tortoises are reported to distribute ''Opuntia'' seeds in the Galápagos Islands.",
"Ants appear to disperse the seeds of a few genera, such as ''Blossfeldia''.",
"Drier spiny fruits may cling to the fur of mammals or be moved around by the wind."
],
[
"Uses",
"===Early history===, there is still controversy as to the precise dates when humans first entered those areas of the New World where cacti are commonly found, and hence when they might first have used them.",
"An archaeological site in Chile has been dated to around 15,000 years ago, suggesting cacti would have been encountered before then.",
"Early evidence of the use of cacti includes cave paintings in the Serra da Capivara in Brazil, and seeds found in ancient middens (waste dumps) in Mexico and Peru, with dates estimated at 12,000–9,000 years ago.",
"Hunter-gatherers likely collected cactus fruits in the wild and brought them back to their camps.It is not known when cacti were first cultivated.",
"Opuntias (prickly pears) were used for a variety of purposes by the Aztecs, whose empire, lasting from the 14th to the 16th century, had a complex system of horticulture.",
"Their capital from the 15th century was Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City); one explanation for the origin of the name is that it includes the Nahuatl word ''nōchtli'', referring to the fruit of an opuntia.",
"The coat of arms of Mexico shows an eagle perched on a cactus while holding a snake, an image at the center of the myth of the founding of Tenochtitlan.",
"The Aztecs symbolically linked the ripe red fruits of an opuntia to human hearts; just as the fruit quenches thirst, so offering human hearts to the sun god ensured the sun would keep moving.Europeans first encountered cacti when they arrived in the New World late in the 15th century.",
"Their first landfalls were in the West Indies, where relatively few cactus genera are found; one of the most common is the genus ''Melocactus''.",
"Thus, melocacti were possibly among the first cacti seen by Europeans.",
"''Melocactus'' species were present in English collections of cacti before the end of the 16th century (by 1570 according to one source,) where they were called ''Echinomelocactus'', later shortened to ''Melocactus'' by Joseph Pitton de Tourneville in the early 18th century.",
"Cacti, both purely ornamental species and those with edible fruit, continued to arrive in Europe, so Carl Linnaeus was able to name 22 species by 1753.One of these, his ''Cactus opuntia'' (now part of ''Opuntia ficus-indica''), was described as \"\" (with larger fruit ... now in Spain and Portugal), indicative of its early use in Europe.===Food===Peeled fruits of the Indian fig cactus of different varieties on sale in MexicoThe plant now known as ''Opuntia ficus-indica'', or the Indian fig cactus, has long been an important source of food.",
"The original species is thought to have come from central Mexico, although this is now obscure because the indigenous people of southern North America developed and distributed a range of horticultural varieties (cultivars), including forms of the species and hybrids with other opuntias.",
"Both the fruit and pads are eaten, the former often under the Spanish name ''tuna'', the latter under the name ''nopal''.",
"Cultivated forms are often significantly less spiny or even spineless.",
"The nopal industry in Mexico was said to be worth US$150 million in 2007.The Indian fig cactus was probably already present in the Caribbean when the Spanish arrived, and was soon after brought to Europe.",
"It spread rapidly in the Mediterranean area, both naturally and by being introduced—so much so, early botanists assumed it was native to the area.",
"Outside the Americas, the Indian fig cactus is an important commercial crop in Sicily, Algeria and other North African countries.",
"Fruits of other opuntias are also eaten, generally under the same name, ''tuna''.",
"Flower buds, particularly of ''Cylindropuntia'' species, are also consumed.Almost any fleshy cactus fruit is edible.",
"The word ''pitaya'' or ''pitahaya'' (usually considered to have been taken into Spanish from Haitian creole) can be applied to a range of \"scaly fruit\", particularly those of columnar cacti.",
"The fruit of the saguaro (''Carnegiea gigantea'') has long been important to the indigenous peoples of northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States, including the Sonoran Desert.",
"It can be preserved by boiling to produce syrup and by drying.",
"The syrup can also be fermented to produce an alcoholic drink.",
"Fruits of ''Stenocereus'' species have also been important food sources in similar parts of North America; ''Stenocereus queretaroensis'' is cultivated for its fruit.",
"In more tropical southern areas, the climber ''Selenicereus undatus'' provides ''pitahaya orejona'', now widely grown in Asia under the name dragon fruit.",
"Other cacti providing edible fruit include species of ''Echinocereus'', ''Ferocactus'', ''Mammillaria'', ''Myrtillocactus'', ''Pachycereus'', ''Peniocereus'' and ''Selenicereus''.",
"The bodies of cacti other than opuntias are less often eaten, although Anderson reported that ''Neowerdermannia vorwerkii'' is prepared and eaten like potatoes in upland Bolivia.Saguaro gatherers2.jpg|Gathering saguaro fruit in 1907Saguaro fruit.jpg|Edible fruit of the saguaroBarrel Cactus Fruit cropped.jpg|Fruits of some ''Ferocactus'' are edible.Dragonfruit Chiayi market.jpg|Dragon fruit for sale in TaiwanFruto de Stenocereus queretaroensis.jpg|Fruit prepared from ''Stenocereus queretaroensis''Nopal11.jpg|Salad including sliced ''nopales'' (opuntia pads)===Psychoactive agents===''Lophophora williamsii'' in the wildStone carving from Chavín de Huantar, dated to ''circa'' 1000 BC, showing a figure carrying what is thought to be the San Pedro cactus, ''Trichocereus macrogonus'' var.",
"''pachanoi''.A number of species of cacti have been shown to contain psychoactive agents, chemical compounds that can cause changes in mood, perception and cognition through their effects on the brain.",
"Two species have a long history of use by the indigenous peoples of the Americas: peyote, ''Lophophora williamsii'', in North America, and the San Pedro cactus, ''Trichocereus macrogonus'' var.",
"''pachanoi'', in South America.",
"Both contain mescaline.''L.",
"williamsii'' is native to northern Mexico and southern Texas.",
"Individual stems are about high with a diameter of , and may be found in clumps up to wide.",
"A large part of the stem is usually below ground.",
"Mescaline is concentrated in the photosynthetic portion of the stem above ground.",
"The center of the stem, which contains the growing point (the apical meristem), is sunken.",
"Experienced collectors of peyote remove a thin slice from the top of the plant, leaving the growing point intact, thus allowing the plant to regenerate.",
"Evidence indicates peyote was in use more than 5,500 years ago; dried peyote buttons presumed to be from a site on the Rio Grande, Texas, were radiocarbon dated to around 3780–3660 BC.",
"Peyote is perceived as a means of accessing the spirit world.",
"Attempts by the Roman Catholic church to suppress its use after the Spanish conquest were largely unsuccessful, and by the middle of the 20th century, peyote was more widely used than ever by indigenous peoples as far north as Canada.",
"It is now used formally by the Native American Church.",
"''Trichocereus macrogonus'' var.",
"''pachanoi'' (syn.",
"''Echinopsis pachanoi'') is native to Ecuador and Peru.",
"It is very different in appearance from ''L. williamsii''.",
"It has tall stems, up to high, with a diameter of , which branch from the base, giving the whole plant a shrubby or tree-like appearance.",
"Archaeological evidence of the use of this cactus appears to date back to 2,000–2,300 years ago, with carvings and ceramic objects showing columnar cacti.",
"Although church authorities under the Spanish attempted to suppress its use, this failed, as shown by the Christian element in the common name \"San Pedro cactus\"—Saint Peter cactus.",
"Anderson attributes the name to the belief that just as St Peter holds the keys to heaven, the effects of the cactus allow users \"to reach heaven while still on earth.\"",
"It continues to be used for its psychoactive effects, both for spiritual and for healing purposes, often combined with other psychoactive agents, such as ''Datura ferox'' and tobacco.",
"Several other species of ''Echinopsis'', including ''E.",
"peruviana'', also contain mescaline.===Ornamental plants===Cacti and other succulents growing in the Huntington Desert GardenCacti at the Mission San Juan Capistrano in CaliforniaCacti were cultivated as ornamental plants from the time they were first brought from the New World.",
"By the early 1800s, enthusiasts in Europe had large collections (often including other succulents alongside cacti).",
"Rare plants were sold for very high prices.",
"Suppliers of cacti and other succulents employed collectors to obtain plants from the wild, in addition to growing their own.",
"In the late 1800s, collectors turned to orchids, and cacti became less popular, although never disappearing from cultivation.Cacti are often grown in greenhouses, particularly in regions unsuited to the cultivation of cacti outdoors, such the northern parts of Europe and North America.",
"Here, they may be kept in pots or grown in the ground.",
"Cacti are also grown as houseplants, many being tolerant of the often dry atmosphere.",
"Cacti in pots may be placed outside in the summer to ornament gardens or patios, and then kept under cover during the winter.",
"Less drought-resistant epiphytes, such as epiphyllum hybrids, ''Schlumbergera'' (the Thanksgiving or Christmas cactus) and ''Hatiora'' (the Easter cactus), are widely cultivated as houseplants.A planted cactus in Gibraltar.",
"The hot and relatively dry climate of the territory allows cacti to thrive.Cacti may also be planted outdoors in regions with suitable climates.",
"Concern for water conservation in arid regions has led to the promotion of gardens requiring less watering (xeriscaping).",
"For example, in California, the East Bay Municipal Utility District sponsored the publication of a book on plants and landscapes for summer-dry climates.",
"Cacti are one group of drought-resistant plants recommended for dry landscape gardening.===Other uses===Cacti have many other uses.",
"They are used for human food and as fodder for animals, usually after burning off their spines.",
"In addition to their use as psychoactive agents, some cacti are employed in herbal medicine.",
"The practice of using various species of ''Opuntia'' in this way has spread from the Americas, where they naturally occur, to other regions where they grow, such as India.Cochineal is a red dye produced by a scale insect that lives on species of ''Opuntia''.",
"Long used by the peoples of Central and North America, demand fell rapidly when European manufacturers began to produce synthetic dyes in the middle of the 19th century.",
"Commercial production has now increased following a rise in demand for natural dyes.Cacti are used as construction materials.",
"Living cactus fences are employed as barricades around buildings to prevent people breaking in.",
"They also used to corral animals.",
"The woody parts of cacti, such as ''Cereus repandus'' and ''Echinopsis atacamensis'', are used in buildings and in furniture.",
"The frames of wattle and daub houses built by the Seri people of Mexico may use parts of the saguaro (''Carnegiea gigantea'').",
"The very fine spines and hairs (trichomes) of some cacti were used as a source of fiber for filling pillows and in weaving."
],
[
"Conservation",
"''Ariocarpus kotschoubeyanus'', an endangered species protected under Appendix I of CITESAll cacti are included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which \"lists species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled.\"",
"Control is exercised by making international trade in most specimens of cacti illegal unless permits have been issued, at least for exports.",
"Some exceptions are allowed, e.g., for \"naturalized or artificially propagated plants\".",
"Some cacti, such as all ''Ariocarpus'' and ''Discocactus'' species, are included in the more restrictive Appendix I, used for the \"most endangered\" species.",
"These may only be moved between countries for non-commercial purposes, and only then when accompanied by both export and import permits.The three main threats to cacti in the wild are development, grazing and over-collection.",
"Development takes many forms.",
"The construction of a dam near Zimapan, Mexico, caused the destruction of a large part of the natural habitat of ''Echinocactus grusonii''.",
"Urban development and highways have destroyed cactus habitats in parts of Mexico, New Mexico and Arizona, including the Sonoran Desert.",
"The conversion of land to agriculture has affected populations of ''Ariocarpus kotschoubeyanus'' in Mexico, where dry plains were plowed for maize cultivation, and of ''Copiapoa'' and ''Eulychnia'' in Chile, where valley slopes were planted with vines.",
"Grazing, in many areas by introduced animals, such as goats, has caused serious damage to populations of cacti (as well as other plants); two examples cited by Anderson are the Galápagos Islands generally and the effect on ''Browningia candelaris'' in Peru.",
"Over-collection of cacti for sale has greatly affected some species.",
"For example, the type locality of ''Pelecyphora strobiliformis'' near Miquihuana, Mexico, was virtually denuded of plants, which were dug up for sale in Europe.",
"Illegal collecting of cacti from the wild continues to pose a threat.Conservation of cacti can be ''in situ'' or ''ex situ''.",
"''In situ'' conservation involves preserving habits through enforcement of legal protection and the creation of specially protected areas such as national parks and reserves.",
"Examples of such protected areas in the United States include Big Bend National Park, Texas; Joshua Tree National Park, California; and Saguaro National Park, Arizona.",
"Latin American examples include Parque Nacional del Pinacate, Sonora, Mexico and Pan de Azúcar National Park, Chile.",
"''Ex situ'' conservation aims to preserve plants and seeds outside their natural habitats, often with the intention of later reintroduction.",
"Botanical gardens play an important role in ''ex situ'' conservation; for example, seeds of cacti and other succulents are kept in long-term storage at the Desert Botanical Garden, Arizona."
],
[
"Cultivation",
"Cultivated ''Notocactus warasii'' at the San Diego County Fair, CaliforniaThe popularity of cacti means many books are devoted to their cultivation.",
"Cacti naturally occur in a wide range of habitats and are then grown in many countries with different climates, so precisely replicating the conditions in which a species normally grows is usually not practical.",
"A broad distinction can be made between semidesert cacti and epiphytic cacti, which need different conditions and are best grown separately.",
"This section is primarily concerned with the cultivation of semidesert cacti in containers and under protection, such as in a greenhouse or in the home, rather than cultivation outside in the ground in those climates that permit it.",
"For the cultivation of epiphytic cacti, see Cultivation of ''Schlumbergera'' (Christmas or Thanksgiving cacti), and Cultivation of epiphyllum hybrids.===Growing medium===Cacti in a greenhouse in Darjeeling, India The purpose of the growing medium is to provide support and to store water, oxygen and dissolved minerals to feed the plant.",
"In the case of cacti, there is general agreement that an open medium with a high air content is important.",
"When cacti are grown in containers, recommendations as to how this should be achieved vary greatly; Miles Anderson says that if asked to describe a perfect growing medium, \"ten growers would give 20 different answers\".",
"Roger Brown suggests a mixture of two parts commercial soilless growing medium, one part hydroponic clay and one part coarse pumice or perlite, with the addition of soil from earthworm castings.",
"The general recommendation of 25–75% organic-based material, the rest being inorganic such as pumice, perlite or grit, is supported by other sources.",
"However, the use of organic material is rejected altogether by others; Hecht says that cacti (other than epiphytes) \"want soil that is low in or free of humus\", and recommends coarse sand as the basis of a growing medium.===Watering===Semi-desert cacti need careful watering.",
"General advice is hard to give, since the frequency of watering required depends on where the cacti are being grown, the nature of the growing medium, and the original habitat of the cacti.",
"Brown says that more cacti are lost through the \"untimely application of water than for any other reason\" and that even during the dormant winter season, cacti need some water.",
"Other sources say that water can be withheld during winter (November to March in the Northern Hemisphere).",
"Another issue is the hardness of the water; where it is necessary to use hard water, regular re-potting is recommended to avoid the build up of salts.",
"The general advice given is that during the growing season, cacti should be allowed to dry out between thorough waterings.",
"A water meter can help in determining when the soil is dry.===Light and temperature===Although semi-desert cacti may be exposed to high light levels in the wild, they may still need some shading when subjected to the higher light levels and temperatures of a greenhouse in summer.",
"Allowing the temperature to rise above is not recommended.",
"The minimum winter temperature required depends very much on the species of cactus involved.",
"For a mixed collection, a minimum temperature of between and is often suggested, except for cold-sensitive genera such as ''Melocactus'' and ''Discocactus''.",
"Some cacti, particularly those from the high Andes, are fully frost-hardy when kept dry (e.g.",
"''Rebutia minuscula'' survives temperatures down to in cultivation) and may flower better when exposed to a period of cold.===Propagation===Cacti can be propagated by seed, cuttings or grafting.",
"Seed sown early in the year produces seedlings that benefit from a longer growing period.",
"Seed is sown in a moist growing medium and then kept in a covered environment, until 7–10 days after germination, to avoid drying out.",
"A very wet growing medium can cause both seeds and seedlings to rot.",
"A temperature range of is suggested for germination; soil temperatures of around promote the best root growth.",
"Low light levels are sufficient during germination, but afterwards semi-desert cacti need higher light levels to produce strong growth, although acclimatization is needed to conditions in a greenhouse, such as higher temperatures and strong sunlight.Grafted forms of ''Gymnocalycium mihanovichii'' grown in IsraelReproduction by cuttings makes use of parts of a plant that can grow roots.",
"Some cacti produce \"pads\" or \"joints\" that can be detached or cleanly cut off.",
"Other cacti produce offsets that can be removed.",
"Otherwise, stem cuttings can be made, ideally from relatively new growth.",
"It is recommended that any cut surfaces be allowed to dry for a period of several days to several weeks until a callus forms over the cut surface.",
"Rooting can then take place in an appropriate growing medium at a temperature of around .Grafting is used for species difficult to grow well in cultivation or that cannot grow independently, such as some chlorophyll-free forms with white, yellow or red bodies, or some forms that show abnormal growth (e.g., cristate or forms).",
"For the host plant (the stock), growers choose one that grows strongly in cultivation and is compatible with the plant to be propagated: the scion.",
"The grower makes cuts on both stock and scion and joins the two, binding them together while they unite.",
"Various kinds of graft are used—flat grafts, where both scion and stock are of similar diameters, and cleft grafts, where a smaller scion is inserted into a cleft made in the stock.Commercially, huge numbers of cacti are produced annually.",
"For example, in 2002 in Korea alone, 49 million plants were propagated, with a value of almost US$9 million.",
"Most of them (31 million plants) were propagated by grafting.===Pests and diseases===A range of pests attack cacti in cultivation.",
"Those that feed on sap include mealybugs, living on both stems and roots; scale insects, generally only found on stems; whiteflies, which are said to be an \"infrequent\" pest of cacti; red spider mites, which are very small but can occur in large numbers, constructing a fine web around themselves and badly marking the cactus via their sap sucking, even if they do not kill it; and thrips, which particularly attack flowers.",
"Some of these pests are resistant to many insecticides, although there are biological controls available.",
"Roots of cacti can be eaten by the larvae of sciarid flies and fungus gnats.",
"Slugs and snails also eat cacti.Fungi, bacteria and viruses attack cacti, the first two particularly when plants are over-watered.",
"Fusarium rot can gain entry through a wound and cause rotting accompanied by red-violet mold.",
"\"''Helminosporium'' rot\" is caused by ''Bipolaris cactivora'' ( ''Helminosporium cactivorum''); ''Phytophthora'' species also cause similar rotting in cacti.",
"Fungicides may be of limited value in combating these diseases.",
"Several viruses have been found in cacti, including cactus virus X.",
"These appear to cause only limited visible symptoms, such as chlorotic (pale green) spots and mosaic effects (streaks and patches of paler color).",
"However, in an ''Agave'' species, cactus virus X has been shown to reduce growth, particularly when the roots are dry.",
"There are no treatments for virus diseases."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"CCC"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''CCC''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Arts and entertainment",
"* CCC, the production code for the 1970 ''Doctor Who'' serial ''The Ambassadors of Death''* Color Climax Corporation, a Danish pornography producer=== Music ===* Canadian Chamber Choir"
],
[
"Christianity",
"* Calvinist Cadet Corps, mentoring organization* Campus Crusade for Christ, later Cru (Christian organization), interdenominational* ''Catechism of the Catholic Church''* Celestial Church of Christ, an African Church* China Christian Council, Protestant organization* Christian Cultural Center, non-denominational, New York City, US* Clearwater Christian College, Florida, US* Colorado Community Church, interdenominational, U.S.* Community Christian College, Redlands, California, U.S."
],
[
"Companies",
"* Canadian Commercial Corporation, supporting exporters* Canterbury of New Zealand, a sports apparel company* CCC Film, a film production company in Germany* Color Climax Corporation, a Danish pornography company* Commodity Credit Corporation, US corporation supporting farmers* Consolidated Contractors Company, Middle East* Cooper Cameron Corporation, later Cameron International* Copyright Clearance Center, a U.S. company* Crane Carrier Company, a U.S. truck manufacturer* Cwmni Cyfyngedig Cyhoeddus, a Welsh form of public limited company"
],
[
"Education",
"=== In the U.S. ===* California Community Colleges System* Camden County College, New Jersey* Cayuga Community College, New York* City Colleges of Chicago* Clackamas Community College, Oregon City, Oregon* Clatsop Community College, Clatsop County, Oregon* Clearwater Central Catholic High School, Florida* Clinton Community College (Iowa), Clinton, Iowa* Clovis Community College (New Mexico), Clovis, New Mexico*Club Coordination Council, University of Notre Dame, Indiana student union* Coahoma Community College, Mississippi* Coconino County Community College, Flagstaff, Arizona* Cuyahoga Community College, Ohio=== In other places ===* Canadian Computing Competition* Castleknock Community College, Carpenterstown, Dublin, Ireland* Cebu Central Colleges, later University of Cebu, Philippines* Centro de Capacitación Cinematográfica, film school in Mexico City* City College of Calamba, Philippines* Cooloola Christian College, Gympie, Queensland, Australia* Corpus Christi College (disambiguation), several colleges"
],
[
"Law",
"* California Coastal Commission* China Compulsory Certificate, a safety mark* Citizens' Committee for Children* Corruption and Crime Commission of Western Australia* Cox's Criminal Cases, law reports* Crime and Corruption Commission, Queensland, Australia=== Civil authorities ===* Chittagong City Corporation, Bangladesh"
],
[
"Organizations and organizing",
"=== Conservation ===* California Conservation Corps* Cetacean Conservation Center, Chile* Civilian Conservation Corps, US work program 1933–42* Climate Change Committee, UK=== Politics ===* Center for Community Change, US* Citizens Coalition For Change, a Zimbabwean political party* Climate Change Coalition, Australian political party* Command for Hunting Communists, 1960s Brazilian paramilitary terrorist group* Communist Combatant Cells, a 1980s Belgian terrorist organization* Communist Committee of Cabinda, a separatist group in the Cabinda exclave of Angola* Council of Conservative Citizens, a US white separatist organization* Customs Cooperation Council, an intergovernmental organization"
],
[
"Science and technology",
"* Comb ceramic culture* Conformal cyclic cosmology, a cosmological model* Countercurrent chromatography, a chromatographic technique* Cryogenic current comparator, precision ammeter* CCC, a codon for the amino acid proline=== Computing ===* Chaos Computer Club, hacker organisation* Citizen Cyberscience Centre, based in Switzerland* Computational Complexity Conference, academic conference* Corsham Computer Centre, UK Royal Navy* Color Cell Compression, an algorithm=== Mathematics ===* Cartesian closed category, a concept in category theory* CCC, Roman numeral for 300* Countable chain condition, in order theory* CCCn, cube-connected cycles of order ''n'' in graph theory=== Medicine ===* Continuous curvilinear capsulorhexis, a type of cataract surgery* Clinical Care Classification System, US standardized nursing terminology"
],
[
"Sport",
"* Annual California Coast Classic Bike Tour* Cascade Collegiate Conference, US* Annual Cascade Cycling Classic, US race* CCC Pro Team, cycling team, Poland* Central Connecticut Conference, U.S.* Colombo Cricket Club, Sri Lanka* Commonwealth Coast Conference, US* Compton Cricket Club, a California exhibition cricket club* County cricket club* Courmayeur - Champex - Chamonix, a 101 km running race along the Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc* Cross Country Canada, skiing governing body"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* California Correctional Center, a US state prison* Carly Colón or Carlito Caribbean Cool (born 1979), Puerto Rican wrestler* Cash Conversion Cycle, in management accounting* Colorado Convention Center, US* Crescent City Connection, twin cantilever bridges* Jardines del Rey Airport, Cuba, by IATA code"
],
[
"See also",
"* Triple C's, popular nickname for the rap group Carol City Cartel* CC (disambiguation)* C3 (disambiguation)* CCCC (disambiguation)* 300*Fate/Extra CCC"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Civilian Conservation Corps"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Illinois WPA Art Project Chicago in 1935 for the CCCCCC boys leaving camp in Lassen National Forest for homeThe '''Civilian Conservation Corps''' ('''CCC''') was a voluntary government work relief program that ran from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men ages 18–25 and eventually expanded to ages 17–28.The CCC was a major part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal that supplied manual labor jobs related to the conservation and development of natural resources in rural lands owned by federal, state, and local governments.",
"The CCC was designed to supply jobs for young men and to relieve families who had difficulty finding jobs during the Great Depression in the United States.",
"There was eventually a smaller counterpart program for unemployed women called the She-She-She Camps, which were championed by Eleanor Roosevelt.Robert Fechner was the first director of this agency, succeeded by James McEntee following Fechner's death.",
"The largest enrollment at any one time was 300,000.Through the course of its nine years in operation, three million young men took part in the CCC, which provided them with shelter, clothing, and food, together with a wage of $30 (equivalent to $ in current dollars) per month ($25 of which had to be sent home to their families).A CCC-built bridge across Rock Creek in Little Rock, ArkansasThe American public made the CCC the most popular of all the New Deal programs.",
"Sources written at the time claimed an individual's enrollment in the CCC led to improved physical condition, heightened morale, and increased employability.",
"The CCC also led to a greater public awareness and appreciation of the outdoors and the nation's natural resources, and the continued need for a carefully planned, comprehensive national program for the protection and development of natural resources.CCC workers constructing a road in what is now Cuyahoga Valley National Park, 1933154th Co.. CCC, Eagle Lake Camp NP-1-Me.",
"Bar harbor Maine, February 1940CCC camps in Michigan; the tents were soon replaced by barracks built by Army contractors for the enrollees.The CCC operated separate programs for veterans and Native Americans.",
"Approximately 15,000 Native Americans took part in the program, helping them weather the Great Depression.By 1942, with World War II raging and the draft in effect, the need for work relief declined, and Congress voted to close the program."
],
[
"Founding",
"As governor of New York, Franklin D. Roosevelt had run a similar program on a much smaller scale, known as the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration (TERA).",
"It was started in early 1932 to \"use men from the lists of the unemployed to improve our existing reforestation areas.\"",
"In its first year alone, more than 25,000 unemployed New Yorkers were active in its paid conservation work.",
"Long interested in conservation, as president Roosevelt proposed a full-scale national program to Congress on March 21, 1933:He promised this law would provide 250,000 young men with meals, housing, workwear, and medical care in exchange for their work in the national forests and other government properties.",
"The Emergency Conservation Work (ECW) Act was introduced to Congress the same day and enacted by voice vote on March 31.Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6101 on April 5, 1933, which established the CCC organization and appointed a director, Robert Fechner, a former labor union official who served until 1939.The organization and administration of the CCC was a new experiment in operations for a federal government agency.",
"The order directed that the program be supervised jointly by four government departments: Labor, which recruited the young men; War, which operated the camps; the Agriculture; and Interior, which organized and supervised the work projects.",
"A CCC Advisory Council was composed of a representative from each of those departments.",
"In addition, the Office of Education and Veterans Administration participated in the program.",
"To overcome opposition from labor unions, which wanted no training programs started when so many of their members were unemployed, Roosevelt chose Robert Fechner, vice president of the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, as director of the Corps.",
"William Green, head of the American Federation of Labor, was taken to the first camp to see that there was no job training involved beyond simple manual labor."
],
[
"U.S. Army",
"Reserve officers from the U.S. Army were in charge of the camps, but there was no military training.",
"General Douglas MacArthur was placed in charge of the program, but said that the number of army officers and soldiers assigned to the camps was affecting the readiness of the regular army.",
"However, the army also found numerous benefits in the program.",
"When the draft began in 1940, the policy was to make CCC alumni corporals and sergeants.",
"The CCC also provided command experience to Organized Reserve Corps officers.",
"George Marshall \"embraced\" the CCC, unlike many of his brother officers.Through the CCC, the regular army could assess the leadership performance of both regular and reserve officers.",
"The CCC provided lessons which the army used in developing its wartime mobilization plans for training camps."
],
[
"History",
"An implicit goal of the CCC was to restore morale in an era of 25% unemployment for all men and much higher rates for poorly educated teenagers.",
"Jeffrey Suzik argues in \"'Building Better Men':The CCC Boy and the Changing Social Ideal of Manliness\" that the CCC provided an ideology of manly outdoor work to counter the Depression, as well as cash to help the family budget.",
"Through a regime of heavy manual labor, civic and political education, and an all-male living and working environment, the CCC tried to build \"better men\" who would be economically independent and self-reliant.",
"By 1939, there was a shift in the ideal from the hardy manual worker to the highly trained citizen soldier ready for war.===Early years, 1933–1937===alt=A blue-grey map of a road, covered with assorted linesThe legislation and mobilization of the program occurred quite rapidly.",
"Roosevelt made his request to Congress on March 21, 1933; the legislation was submitted to Congress the same day; Congress passed it by voice vote on March 31; Roosevelt signed it the same day, then issued an executive order on April 5 creating the agency, appointing Fechner its director, and assigning War Department corps area commanders to begin enrollment.",
"The first CCC enrollee was selected April 8, and lists of unemployed men were subsequently supplied by state and local welfare and relief agencies for immediate enrollment.",
"On April 17, the first camp, NF-1, Camp Roosevelt, was established at George Washington National Forest near Luray, Virginia.",
"On June 18, the first of 161 soil erosion control camps was opened in Clayton, Alabama.",
"By July 1, 1933, there were 1,463 working camps with 250,000 junior enrollees 18–25 years of age; 28,000 veterans; 14,000 Native Americans; and 25,000 adults in the Local Experienced Men (LEM) program.===Enrollees===The typical CCC enrollee was a U.S. citizen, unmarried, unemployed male, 18–25 years of age.",
"Normally his family was on local relief.",
"Each enrollee volunteered and, upon passing a physical exam and/or a period of conditioning, was required to serve a minimum six-month period, with the option to serve as many as four periods, or up to two years if employment outside the Corps was not possible.",
"Enrollees worked 40 hours per week over five days, sometimes including Saturdays if poor weather dictated.",
"In return they received $30 per month () with a compulsory allotment of $25 (about ) sent to a family dependent, as well as housing, food, clothing, and medical care.====Veterans Conservation Corps====Following the second Bonus Army march on Washington, D.C., President Roosevelt amended the CCC program on May 11, 1933, to include work opportunities for veterans.",
"Veteran qualifications differed from the junior enrollee; one needed to be certified by the Veterans Administration by an application.",
"They could be any age, and married or single as long as they were in need of work.",
"Veterans were generally assigned to entire veteran camps.",
"Enrollees were eligible for the following \"rated\" positions to help with camp administration: senior leader, mess steward, storekeeper and two cooks; assistant leader, company clerk, assistant educational advisor and three second cooks.",
"These men received additional pay ranging from $36 to $45 per month depending on their rating.===Camps===Each CCC camp was located in the area of particular conservation work to be performed and organized around a complement of up to 200 civilian enrollees in a designated numbered \"company\" unit.",
"The CCC camp was a temporary community in itself, structured to have barracks (initially Army tents) for 50 enrollees each, officer/technical staff quarters, medical dispensary, mess hall, recreation hall, educational building, lavatory and showers, technical/administrative offices, tool room/blacksmith shop and motor pool garages.CCC Camp recreational hall or educational building (unidentified location)The company organization of each camp had a dual-authority supervisory staff: firstly, Department of War personnel or Reserve officers (until July 1, 1939), a \"company commander\" and junior officer, who were responsible for overall camp operation, logistics, education and training; and secondly, ten to fourteen technical service civilians, including a camp \"superintendent\" and \"foreman\", employed by either the Departments of Interior or Agriculture, responsible for the particular fieldwork.",
"Also included in camp operation were several non-technical supervisor LEMs, who provided knowledge of the work at hand, \"lay of the land,\" and paternal guidance for inexperienced enrollees.",
"Enrollees were organized into work detail units called \"sections\" of 25 men each, according to the barracks they resided in.",
"Each section had an enrollee \"senior leader\" and \"assistant leader\" who were accountable for the men at work and in the barracks.===Work classifications===The CCC performed 300 types of work projects in nine approved general classifications:#Structural improvements: bridges, fire lookout towers, service buildings#Transportation: truck trails, minor roads, foot trails and airfields#Erosion control: check dams, terracing, and vegetable covering#Flood control: irrigation, drainage, dams, ditching, channel work, riprapping#Forest culture: tree planting, fire prevention, fire pre-suppression, firefighting, insect and disease control#Landscape and recreation: public camp and picnic ground development, lake and pond site clearing and development#Range: stock driveways, elimination of predatory animals#Wildlife: stream improvement, fish stocking, food and cover planting#Miscellaneous: emergency work, surveys, mosquito controlThe responses to this seven-month experimental conservation program were enthusiastic.",
"On October 1, 1933, Director Fechner was directed to arrange for the second period of enrollment.",
"By January 1934, 300,000 men were enrolled.",
"In July 1934, this cap was increased by 50,000 to include men from Midwest states that had been affected by drought.",
"The temporary tent camps had also developed to include wooden barracks.",
"An education program had been established, emphasizing job training and literacy.Approximately 55% of enrollees were from rural communities, a majority of which were non-farm; 45% came from urban areas.",
"Level of education for the enrollee averaged 3% illiterate; 38% had less than eight years of school; 48% did not complete high school; and 11% were high school graduates.",
"At the time of entry, 70% of enrollees were malnourished and poorly clothed.",
"Few had work experience beyond occasional odd jobs.",
"Peace was maintained by the threat of \"dishonorable discharge\".",
"\"This is a training station; we're going to leave morally and physically fit to lick 'Old Man Depression,'\" boasted the newsletter, ''Happy Days,'' of a North Carolina camp.===Minorities===Because of the power of conservative Solid South white Democrats in Congress, who insisted on racial segregation, most New Deal programs were racially segregated; blacks and whites rarely worked alongside each other.",
"At this time, all the states of the South had passed legislation imposing racial segregation and, since the turn of the century, laws and constitutional provisions that disenfranchised most blacks; they were excluded from formal politics.",
"Because of discrimination by white officials at the local and state levels, blacks in the South did not receive as many benefits as whites from New Deal programs.In the first few weeks of operation, CCC camps in the North were integrated.",
"By July 1935, however, all camps in the United States were segregated.",
"Enrollment peaked at the end of 1935, when there were 500,000 men in 2,600 camps in operation in every state.",
"All received equal pay and housing.",
"Black leaders lobbied to secure leadership roles.",
"Adult white men held the major leadership roles in all the camps.",
"Director Fechner refused to appoint black adults to any supervisory positions except that of education director in the all-black camps.===Indian Division===The CCC operated a separate division for members of federally recognized tribes: the \"Indian Emergency Conservation Work Division\" (IECW or CCC-ID).",
"Native men from reservations worked on roads, bridges, clinics, shelters, and other public works near their reservations.",
"Although they were organized as groups classified as camps, no permanent camps were established for Native Americans.",
"Instead, organized groups moved with their families from project to project and were provided with an additional rental allowance.",
"The CCC often provided the only paid work, as many reservations were in remote rural areas.",
"Enrollees had to be between the ages of 17 and 35.During 1933, about half the male heads of households on the Sioux reservations in South Dakota were employed by the CCC-ID.",
"With grants from the Public Works Administration (PWA), the Indian Division built schools and conducted a road-building program in and around many reservations to improve infrastructure.",
"The mission was to reduce erosion and improve the value of Indian lands.",
"Crews built dams of many types on creeks, then sowed grass on the eroded areas from which the damming material had been taken.",
"They built roads and planted shelter-belts on federal lands.",
"The steady income helped participants regain self-respect, and many used the funds to improve their lives.",
"John Collier, the federal Commissioner of Indian Affairs and Daniel Murphy, the director of the CCC-ID, both based the program on Indian self-rule and the restoration of tribal lands, governments, and cultures.",
"The next year, Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which ended allotments and helped preserve tribal lands, and encouraged tribes to re-establish self-government.Collier said of the CCC-Indian Division, \"no previous undertaking in Indian Service has so largely been the Indians' own undertaking\".",
"Educational programs trained participants in gardening, stock raising, safety, native arts, and some academic subjects.",
"IECW differed from other CCC activities in that it explicitly trained men in skills to be carpenters, truck drivers, radio operators, mechanics, surveyors, and technicians.",
"With the passage of the National Defense Vocational Training Act of 1941, enrollees began participating in defense-oriented training.",
"The government paid for the classes and after students completed courses and passed a competency test, guaranteed automatic employment in defense work.",
"A total of 85,000 Native Americans were enrolled in this training.",
"This proved valuable social capital for the 24,000 alumni who later served in the military and the 40,000 who left the reservations for city jobs supporting the war effort.===Expansion, 1935–1936===Responding to public demand to alleviate unemployment, Congress approved the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935, on April 8, 1935, which included continued funding for the CCC program through March 31, 1937.The age limit was expanded to 17–28 to include more men.",
"April 1, 1935, to March 31, 1936, was the period of greatest activity and work accomplished by the CCC program.",
"Enrollment peaked at 505,782 in about 2,900 camps by August 31, 1935, followed by a reduction to 350,000 enrollees in 2,019 camps by June 30, 1936.During this period the public response to the CCC program was overwhelmingly popular.",
"A Gallup poll of April 18, 1936, asked: \"Are you in favor of the CCC camps?",
"\"; 82% of respondents said \"yes\", including 92% of Democrats and 67% of Republicans.===Change of purpose, 1937–1938===On June 28, 1937, the Civilian Conservation Corps was legally established and transferred from its original designation as the Emergency Conservation Work program.",
"Funding was extended for three more years by Public Law No.",
"163, 75th Congress, effective July 1, 1937.Congress changed the age limits to 17–23 years old and changed the requirement that enrollees be on relief to \"not regularly in attendance at school, or possessing full-time employment.\"",
"The 1937 law mandated the inclusion of vocational and academic training for a minimum of 10 hours per week.",
"Students in school were allowed to enroll during summer vacation.",
"During this period, the CCC forces contributed to disaster relief following 1937 floods in New York, Vermont, and the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys, and response and clean-up after the 1938 hurricane in New England.===From conservation to defense, 1939–1940===In 1939 Congress ended the independent status of the CCC, transferring it to the control of the Federal Security Agency.",
"The National Youth Administration, U.S. Employment Service, the Office of Education, and the Works Progress Administration also had some responsibilities.",
"About 5,000 reserve officers serving in the camps were affected, as they were transferred to federal Civil Service, and military ranks and titles were eliminated.",
"Despite the loss of overt military leadership in the camps by July 1940, with war underway in Europe and Asia, the government directed an increasing number of CCC projects to resources for national defense.",
"It developed infrastructure for military training facilities and forest protection.",
"By 1940 the CCC was no longer wholly a relief agency, was rapidly losing its non-military character, and it was becoming a system for work-training, as its ranks had become increasingly younger and inexperienced.===Decline and disbandment 1941–1942===Although the CCC was probably the most popular New Deal program, it never was authorized as a permanent agency.",
"The program was reduced in scale as the Depression waned and employment opportunities improved.",
"After conscription began in 1940, fewer eligible young men were available.",
"Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Roosevelt administration directed all federal programs to emphasize the war effort.",
"Most CCC work, except for wildland firefighting, was shifted onto U.S. military bases to help with construction.The CCC disbanded one year earlier than planned, as the 77th United States Congress ceased funding it.",
"Operations were formally concluded at the end of the federal fiscal year on June 30, 1942.The end of the CCC program and closing of the camps involved arrangements to leave the incomplete work projects in the best possible state, the separation of about 1,800 appointed employees, the transfer of CCC property to the War and Navy Departments and other agencies, and the preparation of final accountability records.",
"Liquidation of the CCC was ordered by Congress by the Labor-Federal Security Appropriation Act (56 Stat.",
"569) on July 2, 1942, and virtually completed on June 30, 1943.Liquidation appropriations for the CCC continued through April 20, 1948.Some former CCC sites in good condition were reactivated from 1941 to 1947 as Civilian Public Service camps where conscientious objectors performed \"work of national importance\" as an alternative to military service.",
"Other camps were used to hold Japanese, German and Italian Americans interned under the Western Defense Command's Enemy Alien Control Program, as well as Axis prisoners of war.",
"Most of the Japanese American internment camps were built by the people held there.",
"After the CCC disbanded, the federal agencies responsible for public lands organized their own seasonal fire crews, modeled after the CCC.",
"These have performed a firefighting function formerly done by the CCC and provided the same sort of outdoor work experience for young people.",
"Approximately 47 young men have died while in this line of duty.A CCC pillowcase on display at the CCC Museum in Michigan"
],
[
"Museums",
"* Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at DeSoto State Park, Fort Payne, Alabama* Civilian Conservation Corps Museum and Memorial, at Monte Sano State Park, Huntsville, Alabama* Colossal Cave Mountain Park, Vail, Arizona* Conservation Corps State Museum at Camp San Luis Obispo, San Luis Obispo, California* North East States Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Camp Conner, Stafford, Connecticut* Florida Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Highlands Hammock State Park, Sebring, Florida* Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Vogel State Park, Blairsville, Georgia* Civilian Conservation Corps Camp in Kokeʻe State Park, Waimea, Kauai County, Hawaii* Starved Rock State Park (CCC Section in the visitors' center) Oglesby, Illinois* Iowa Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Backbone State Park, Strawberry Point, Iowa* Houghton's Pond, Blue Hills Reservation, Milton, Massachusetts* Michigan Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Roscommon, Michigan* Bear Brook State Park Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Camp Historic District, Allenstown, New Hampshire* New York State Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Gilbert Lake State Park, New Lisbon, New York* Masker Museum at Promised Land State Park, Greentown, Pennsylvania* Lou and Helen Adams Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Parker Dam State Park, Huston Township, Clearfield County, Pennsylvania* Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Lake Greenwood State Recreation Area, Ninety Six, South Carolina* Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Pocahontas State Park, Chesterfield, Virginia* Civilian Conservation Corps Legacy, Edinburg, Virginia* Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Rhinelander, Wisconsin* West Virginia CCC Museum, Harrison County, West Virginia* Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Guernsey State Park, Guernsey, Wyoming* James F. Justin Civilian Conservation Corps Museum*Civilian Conservation Corps History Center at the Minnesota Discovery Center Museum in Chisholm Minnesota==Notable alumni and administrators==*David \"Stringbean\" Akeman, enrollee, country music singer*Norman Borlaug, leader, agronomist, Nobel Peace Prize recipient*Raymond Burr, enrollee, actor *Borden Deal, enrollee*Hutton Gibson, author*Archie Green, enrollee, folklorist*Henry Gurke, enrollee*Ralph Hauenstein.",
"Army officer in charge of camp*Hubert D. Humphreys, historian*Aldo Leopold, former technical forester, ecologist, environmentalist*Stanley Makowski, enrollee*Walter Matthau, enrollee, actor*Robert Mitchum, enrollee, actor*Archie Moore, enrollee, the Light Heavyweight Boxing Champion of the World*Stan Musial, enrollee, professional baseball player*Edward R. Roybal, enrollee, politician*Red Schoendienst, enrollee, baseball player/manager*Dan White, enrollee, American actor in vaudeville, theater, radio, film and television*Conrad L. Wirth, U.S. administrator, National Park Service supervisor of CCC Program*Chuck Yeager, enrollee, test pilot*Alvin C. York, a project superintendent"
],
[
"Statues",
"Statue of CCC worker in Santa Fe, New MexicoIn several cities where CCC workers worked, statues were erected to commemorate them.In Phalen Park, St. Paul Minnesota, the workers constructed a monument to commemorate their work on this site.Statue of CCC worker in Freetown-Fall River State Forest Freetown, Massachusetts"
],
[
"In media",
"*''Pride of the Bowery'' (1940), the fourth movie in the East Side Kid series, is a movie about friendship, trouble, and boxing at a CCC camp.",
"*''The American Experience'' PBS series showcased documentaries on American history; it portrayed the life in Civilian Conservation Corps in 2009, in the first episode of Season 22.",
"*Jeanette Ingold's novel ''Hitch'' (2012) is a young adult book about a teenager in the CCC."
],
[
"Inspired programs",
"The CCC program was never officially terminated.",
"Congress provided funding for closing the remaining camps in 1942 with the equipment being reallocated.",
"It became a model for conservation programs that were implemented in the period after World War II.",
"Present-day corps are national, state, and local programs that engage primarily youth and young adults (ages 16–25) in community service, training, and educational activities.",
"The nation's approximately 113 corps programs operate in 41 of the 50 states and Washington, D.C. During 2004, they enrolled more than 23,000 young people.",
"The Corps Network, known originally as the National Association of Service and Conservation Corps (NASCC), works to expand and enhance corps-type programs throughout the country.",
"The Corps Network began in 1985 when the nation's first 24 Corps directors banded together to secure an advocate at the federal level and a repository of information on how best to start and manage a corps.",
"Early financial assistance from the Ford, Hewlett and Mott Foundations was critical to establishing the association.Similar active programs in the United States are: the National Civilian Community Corps, part of the AmeriCorps program, a team-based national service program in which young adults ages 18–24 spend 10 months working for non-profit and government organizations; and the Civilian Conservation Corps, USA, (CCCUSA) managed by its president, Thomas Hark, in 2016.Hark, his co-founder Mike Rama, currently the Deputy Director of the Corporate Eco Forum (CEF) founded by M. R. Rangaswami, and their team of strategic advisors have reimagined the federal Civilian Conservation Corps program of the 1930s as a private, locally governed, national social franchise.",
"The goal of this recently established CCCUSA is to enroll a million young people annually, building a core set of values in each enrollee, who will then become the catalyst in their own communities and states to create a more civil society and stronger nation.===Student Conservation Association===The CCC program became a model for the creation of team-based national service youth conservation programs such as the Student Conservation Association (SCA).",
"The SCA, founded in 1959, is a nonprofit organization that offers conservation internships and summer trail crew opportunities to more than 4,000 people each year.===California Conservation Corps===In 1976, Governor of California Jerry Brown established the California Conservation Corps.",
"This program had many similar characteristics - residential centers, high expectations for participation, and emphasis on hard work on public lands.",
"Young adults from different backgrounds were recruited for a term of one year.",
"Corps members attended a training session called the Corpsmember Orientation Motivation Education and Training (COMET) program before being assigned to one of the various centers.",
"Project work is also similar to the original CCC of the 1930s - work on public forests, state and federal parks.=== Nevada Conservation Corps ===The Nevada Conservation Corps is a non-profit organization that partners with public land management agencies such as the Bureau of Land Management, United States Forest Service, National Park Service, and Nevada State Parks to complete conservation and restoration projects throughout Nevada.",
"Conservation work includes fuel reductions through thinning, constructing and maintaining trails, invasive species removal, and performing biological surveys.",
"The Nevada Conservation Corps was created through the Great Basin Institute and is part of the AmeriCorps program.===Minnesota Conservation Corps===Conservation Corps Minnesota & Iowa provides environmental stewardship and service-learning opportunities to youth and young adults while accomplishing conservation, natural resource management projects and emergency response work through its Young Adult Program and the Summer Youth Program.",
"These programs emphasize the development of job and life skills by conservation and community service work.===Montana Conservation Corps===The Montana Conservation Corps (MCC) is a non-profit organization with a mission to equip young people with the skills and values to be vigorous citizens who improve their communities and environment.",
"Collectively, MCC crews contribute more than 90,000 work hours each year.",
"The MCC was established in 1991 by Montana's Human Resource Development Councils in Billings, Bozeman and Kalispell.",
"Originally, it was a summer program for disadvantaged youth, although it has grown into an AmeriCorps-sponsored non-profit organization with six regional offices that serve Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, North Dakota, and South Dakota.",
"All regions also offer Montana YES (Youth Engaged in Service) summer programs for teenagers who are 14 to 17 years old.===Texas Conservation Corps===Established in 1995, Environmental Corps, now Texas Conservation Corps (TxCC), is an American YouthWorks program which allows youth, ages 17 to 28, to contribute to the restoration and preservation of parks and public lands in Texas.",
"The only conservation corps in Texas, TxcC is a nonprofit corporation based in Austin, Texas, which serves the entire state.",
"Their work ranges from disaster relief to trail building to habitat restoration.",
"TxCC has done projects in national, state, and city parks.===Washington Conservation Corps===The Washington Conservation Corps (WCC) is a sub-agency of the Washington State Department of Ecology.",
"It employs men and women 18 to 25 years old in a program to protect and enhance Washington's natural resources.",
"WCC is a part of the AmeriCorps program.===Vermont Youth Conservation Corps===The Vermont Youth Conservation Corps (VYCC) is a non-profit, youth service and education organization that hires Corps Members, aged 16–24, to work on high-priority conservation projects in Vermont.",
"Through these work projects, Corps Members develop a strong work ethic, strengthen their leadership skills, and learn how to take personal responsibility for their actions.",
"VYCC Crews work at VT State Parks, U.S. Forest Service Campgrounds, in local communities, and throughout the state's backcountry.",
"The VYCC has also given aid to a similar program in North Carolina, which is currently in its infancy.===Youth Conservation Corps===The Youth Conservation Corps is a youth conservation program present in federal lands around the country.",
"The program gives youth aged 13–17 the opportunity to participate in conservation projects in a team setting.",
"YCC programs are available in land managed by the National Park Service, the Forest Service, and the Fish and Wildlife Service.",
"Projects can last up to 10 weeks and typically run over the summer.",
"Some YCC programs are residential, meaning the participants are given housing on the land they work on.",
"Projects may necessitate youth to camp in backcountry settings in order to work on trails or campsites.",
"Most require youth to commute daily or house youth for only a few days a week.",
"Youth are typically paid for their work.",
"YCC programs contribute to the maintenance of public lands and instill a value for hard work and the outdoors in those who participate.===Conservation Legacy===Conservation Legacy is a non-profit employment, job training, and education organization with locations across the United States including Arizona Conservation Corps in Tucson and Flagstaff, Arizona; Conservation Corps New Mexico in Las Cruces, New Mexico; Southwest Conservation Corps in Durango and Salida, Colorado; and Southeast Conservation Corps in Chattanooga, Tennessee.",
"Conservation Legacy also operates an AmeriCorps VISTA team serving to improve the environment and economies of historic mining communities in the American West and Appalachia.",
"Conservation Legacy also hosts the Environmental Stewards Program - providing internships with federal, state, municipal and NGO land management agencies nationwide.",
"Conservation Legacy formed as a merger of the Southwest Youth Corps, San Luis Valley Youth Corps, The Youth Corps of Southern Arizona, and Coconino Rural Environmental Corps.Conservation Legacy engages young adults ages 14 to 26 and U.S. military veterans of all ages in personal and professional development experiences involving conservation projects on public lands.",
"Corp members live, work, and learn in teams of six to eight for terms of service ranging from 3 months to 1 year.=== Sea Ranger Service ===The Sea Ranger Service is a social enterprise, based in Netherlands, that has taken its inspiration from the Civilian Conservation Corps in running a permanent youth training program, supported by veterans, to manage ocean areas and carry out underwater landscape restoration.",
"Unemployed youths are trained up as Sea Rangers during a bootcamp and subsequently offered full-time employment to manage and regenerate Marine Protected Areas and aid ocean conservation.",
"The Sea Ranger Service works in close cooperation with the Dutch government and national maritime authorities.=== Aina Corps ===The Aina Corps performed environmental restoration work in Hawaii in 2020, funded by the CARES Act."
],
[
"See also",
"*Camp Petenwell*Camp San Luis Obispo*Rabideau CCC Camp*She-She-She Camps*Table Rock Civilian Conservation Corps Camp Site"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Alexander, Benjamin F. ''The New Deal’s Forest Army: How the Civilian Conservation Corps Worked.''",
"(2018) online review * American Youth Commission.",
"''Youth and the Future: The General Report of the American Youth Commission '' (1942)* Bass, Melissa.",
"''The Politics and Civics of National Service: Lessons from the Civilian Conservation Corps, Vista, and AmeriCorps'' (Brookings Institution Press, 2013)* Brandimarte, Cynthia, and Angela Reed Brown.",
"''Texas State Parks and the CCC: The Legacy of the Civilian Conservation Corps'' (2013)* Clancy, Patrick.",
"\"Conserving the Youth: the Civilian Conservation Corps Experience in the Shenandoah National Park\" ''The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' Volume: 105.Issue: 4.1997.p. 439ff.",
"online* Colen, Olen Jr. ''The African-American Experience in the Civilian Conservation Corps'' (1999)* Heller, Charles E. \"The US Army, the Civilian Conservation Corps, and Leadership for World War II, 1933—1942.\"",
"''Armed Forces & Society'' (2010) 36#3 pp: 439–453.",
"* Helms, Douglas.",
"\"The Civilian Conservation Corps: Demonstrating the Value of Soil Conservation,\" ''Journal of Soil and Water Conservation'' 40 (March–April 1985): 184-188 online * Hendrickson Jr.; Kenneth E. \"Replenishing the Soil and the Soul of Texas: The Civilian Conservation Corps in the Lone Star State as an Example of State-Federal Work Relief during the Great Depression\" ''The Historian'', Vol.",
"65, 2003* Hill, Edwin G. ''In the Shadow of the Mountain: The Spirit of the CCC.''",
"(1990).",
"* Holland, Kenneth, and Frank Ernest Hill.",
"''Youth in the CCC'' (1938) detailed description of all major activities* Jolley, Harley E. ''\"That Magnificent Army of Youth and Peace\": The Civilian Conservation Corps in North Carolina, 1933-1942'' (Raleigh: Office of Archives and History, 2007) 167pp.",
"* Leighninger, Robert D., Jr. ''Long-Range Public Investment: The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal'' (2007), providing a context for American public works programs, and detailing major agencies of the New Deal: CCC, PWA, CWA, WPA, and TVA.",
"* Maher, Neil M. ''Nature's New Deal: The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Roots of the American Environmental Movement'' (2008).",
"excerpt and text search; also online review* Mielnik, Tara Mitchell.",
"''New Deal, New Landscape: The Civilian Conservation Corps and South Carolina's State Parks'' (University of South Carolina Press; 2011) 201 pages; CCC built 16 state parks in SC between 1933 and 1942.",
"* Otis, Alison T., William D. Honey, Thomas C. Hogg, and Kimberly K. Lakin ''The Forest Service and The Civilian Conservation Corps: 1933–42'' (United States Forest Service FS-395, August 1986) online* Paige, John C. ''The Civilian Conservation Corps and the National Park Service, 1933–1942: An Administrative History.''",
"(National Park Service, 1985) online* Pasquill, Jr., Robert.",
"''The Civilian Conservation Corps in Alabama, 1933-1942: A Great and Lasting Good'' (University of Alabama Press, 2008) 242 pp, with cd of oral interviews*Patel, Kiran Klaus.",
"''Soldiers of Labor.",
"Labor Service in Nazi Germany and New Deal America, 1933–1945'', (2005), .",
"online review* (pb 2009) Online free to borrow* Salmond John A.",
"''The Civilian Conservation Corps 1933–1942: a New Deal case study.''",
"(1967), the scholarly history of the entire CCC complete text online* Salmond, John A.",
"\"The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Negro,\" ''The Journal of American History,'' Vol.",
"52, No.",
"1.(Jun.",
"1965), pp.",
"75–88.in JSTOR* Sherraden, Michael W. \"Military Participation in a Youth Employment Program: The Civilian Conservation Corps,\" ''Armed Forces and Society,'' vol.",
"7, no.",
"2, pp.",
"227–245, April 1981, pp.",
"227–245; available online from SAGE Publications* Sommer, Barbara W. ''Hard Work and a Good Deal: The Civilian Conservation Corps in Minnesota'' (2008).",
"* Sommer, Barbara W. \"' We Had This Opportunity': African Americans and the Civilian Conservation Corps in Minnesota\" in ''The State We're In: Reflections on Minnesota History'', Annette Atkins and Deborah L. Millers, eds.",
"(2010) pp 134–157.",
"* Steely, James W. \"Parks for Texas: Enduring Landscapes of the New Deal\" (1999), detailing the interaction of local, state and federal agencies in organizing and guiding CCC work.",
"* Waller, Robert A.",
"\"The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Emergence of South Carolina's State Park System, 1933–1942*''South Carolina Historical Magazine'' Volume: 104#2 2003, p.",
"101ff.",
"* Wilson, James; \"Community, Civility, and Citizenship: Theatre and Indoctrination in the Civilian Conservation Corps of the 1930s\" ''Theatre History Studies'', Vol.",
"23, 2003, pp.",
"77–92===Indian Division===*Gower, Calvin W. \"The CCC Indian Division: Aid for Depressed Americans, 1933–1942,\" ''Minnesota History'' 43 (Spring 1972) 7-12*Parman, Donald L. ''The Navajos and the New Deal'' (1969)*Parman, Donald L. \"The Indian and the CCC,\" ''Pacific Historical Review'' 40#1 (February 1971): 39-56 online===Primary sources===*CCC, \"The Civilian Conservation Corps, What It Is and What It Does\" (June 1940)"
],
[
"External links",
"** Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Legacy A merged non-profit foundation of the former National Association of CCC Alumni (NACCCA) and the Camp Roosevelt CCC Legacy Foundation*National Archives & Records Administration: Records of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)* The Corps Network (formerly known as NASCC)* Wecantakeit.org, grassroots non-profit to reestablish the USCCC, based in St Petersburg, Florida* Bandelier National Monument Virtual Museum Exhibit and Lesson Plans, from National Park Service* Life in the Civilian Conservation Corps Primary Source Adventure, a lesson plan hosted by CCC in Texas* Top 10 New Deal Programs* James F Justin Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Online CCC Biographies Stories Photographs, and Documents* LeRoy, Congerville sites of CCC camps - Pantagraph (Bloomington, Illinois newspaper)* Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): The Arcadia Veteran bulletins from the Rhode Island State Archives* https://web.archive.org/web/20070807170035/http://www.qmmuseum.lee.army.mil/ccc_forest.htm Army Quartermaster support to the Civilian Conservation Corps during the Great Depression===Civilian Conservation Corps by state===* CCC in Idaho Video produced by Idaho Public Television* CCC History Archives in Massachusetts* Rosentreter, Roger L. \"Roosevelt's Tree Army: Michigan's Civilian Conservation Corps\", with photographs* Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, \"Civilian Conservation Corps\"* A New Deal for Texas Parks - interactive web album of CCC activities in Texas* CCC camps map, a guide to projects in Washington State, with rare photographs.",
"Great Depression in Washington State Project* Webster M. Pidgeon Papers: Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) photographs and memorabilia from the Rhode Island State Archives* Built To Last: The Legacy of the Civilian Conservation Corps in Minnesota===Individual camps===* PelMar Publishing Henderson, James D. ''Lost in the Woods–The Legacy of CCC Camp Pelican,'' (2009).",
"*===Images===*Images of the Civilian Conservation Corps on the Oregon State University Archives Flickr Commons page.",
"* CNY Heritage Digital Library, featuring images of Civilian Conservation Corps members constructing Green Lakes State Park in Central New York (1929–1948).===Documentary, feature and TV movies===* \"The Great Depression, Displaced Mountaineers in Shenandoah National Park, and the Civilian Conservation Corps (C.C.C.",
")\", on YouTube* ''Youth Jobs Program (CCC) During Great Depression'', ''The March of Time''* President Visits Foresters (CCC), Roosevelt 1933/08/14, newsreel* Recreation Resources, 1935, West Virginia, available through NARA (National Archives and Records Administration)* A Nationwide System of Parks 1939, NARA* Alabama Highlands 1937 Alabama State Parks, NARA* Down Mobile Way, 1935 Alabama State Parks, NARA* ''The Cradle of the Father of Waters, 1938'' Minnesota State Parks, Lake Itasca State Park, NARA* Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 1936, NARA* ''Land of the Giants, 1935'' California, NARA*The East Side Kids (''Pride of the Bowery,'' 1941), Leo Gorcey - Bobby Jordan* American Experience: ''The Civilian Conservation Corps'', PBS American Experience, 2009* Parks Under the Lone Star, 1933 film detailing Texas CCC projects, Texas Archive of the Moving Image"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Caribbean Sea"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Caribbean Sea''' is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere.",
"It is bounded by Mexico and Central America to the west and southwest, to the north by the Greater Antilles starting with Cuba, to the east by the Lesser Antilles, and to the south by the northern coast of South America.",
"The Gulf of Mexico lies to the northwest.The entire Caribbean Sea area, the West Indies' numerous islands, and adjacent coasts are collectively known as the Caribbean.",
"The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest seas and has an area of about .",
"The sea's deepest point is the Cayman Trough, between the Cayman Islands and Jamaica, at below sea level.",
"The Caribbean coastline has many gulfs and bays: the Gulf of Gonâve, the Gulf of Venezuela, the Gulf of Darién, Golfo de los Mosquitos, the Gulf of Paria and the Gulf of Honduras.Coral reef near Soufrière Quarter, Saint LuciaThe Caribbean Sea has the world's second-largest barrier reef, the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef.",
"It runs along Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras coasts."
],
[
"History",
"Christopher Columbus landing on Hispaniola in 1492The name ''Caribbean'' derives from the Caribs, one of the region's dominant Native American groups at the time of European contact during the late 15th century.",
"After Christopher Columbus landed in the Bahamas in 1492, the Spanish term ''Antillas'' applied to the lands; stemming from this, the ''Sea of the Antilles'' became a common alternative name for the \"Caribbean Sea\" in various European languages.",
"Spanish dominance in the region remained undisputed during the first century of European colonization.From the 16th century, Europeans visiting the Caribbean region distinguished the \"South Sea\" (the Pacific Ocean south of the isthmus of Panama) from the \"North Sea\" (the Caribbean Sea north of the same isthmus).Tulum, a Mayan city on the coast of the Caribbean in the state of Quintana Roo, MexicoThe Caribbean Sea had been unknown to the populations of Eurasia until 1492, when Christopher Columbus sailed into Caribbean waters on a quest to find a sea route to Asia.",
"At that time the Americas were generally unknown to most Europeans, although they had been visited in the 10th century by the Vikings.",
"Following Columbus's discovery of the islands, the area was quickly colonized by several Western cultures (initially Spain, then later England, the Dutch Republic, France, Courland and Denmark).",
"Following the colonization of the Caribbean islands, the Caribbean Sea became a busy area for European-based marine trading and transports, and this commerce eventually attracted pirates such as Samuel Bellamy and Blackbeard.",
"the area is home to 22 island territories and borders 12 continental countries."
],
[
"Extent",
"The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Caribbean Sea as follows:::''On the North.''",
"In the Windward Channel – a line joining Caleta Point (74°15′W) and Pearl Point (19°40′N) in Haiti.",
"In the Mona Passage – a line joining Cape Engaño and the extreme of Agujereada () in Puerto Rico.Coral reefs in the British Virgin Islands::''Eastern limits.''",
"From Point San Diego (Puerto Rico) Northward along the meridian thereof (65°39′W) to the 100-fathom line, thence Eastward and Southward, in such a manner that all islands, shoals and narrow waters of the Lesser Antilles are included in the Caribbean Sea as far as Galera Point (Northeast extremity of the island of Trinidad).",
"From Galera Point through Trinidad to Galeota Point (Southeast extreme) and thence to Baja Point () in Venezuela.Although Barbados is an island on the same continental shelf, it is considered to be in the Atlantic Ocean rather than the Caribbean Sea."
],
[
"Geology",
"The Caribbean Sea is an oceanic sea largely situated on the Caribbean Plate.",
"The Caribbean Sea is separated from the ocean by several island arcs of various ages.",
"The youngest stretches from the Lesser Antilles to the Virgin Islands to the north east of Trinidad and Tobago off the coast of Venezuela.",
"This arc was formed by the collision of the South American Plate with the Caribbean Plate.",
"It included active and extinct volcanoes such as Mount Pelee, the Quill on Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean Netherlands, La Soufrière in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Morne Trois Pitons on Dominica.",
"The larger islands in the northern part of the sea Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico lie on an older island arc.shaded relief map of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico areaThe geological age of the Caribbean Sea is estimated to be between 160 and 180 million years and was formed by a horizontal fracture that split the supercontinent called Pangea in the Mesozoic Era.",
"It is assumed the proto-caribbean basin existed in the Devonian period and in the early Carboniferous movement of Gondwana to the north and its convergence with the Euramerica basin decreased in size.",
"The next stage of the Caribbean Sea's formation began in the Triassic.",
"Powerful rifting led to the formation of narrow troughs, stretching from modern Newfoundland to the Gulf of Mexico's west coast, forming siliciclastic sedimentary rocks.",
"In the early Jurassic due to powerful marine transgression, water broke into the present area of the Gulf of Mexico creating a vast shallow pool.",
"Deep basins emerged in the Caribbean during the Middle Jurassic rifting.",
"The emergence of these basins marked the beginning of the Atlantic Ocean and contributed to the destruction of Pangaea at the end of the late Jurassic.",
"During the Cretaceous the Caribbean acquired a shape close to today.",
"In the early Paleogene due to marine regression the Caribbean became separated from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean by the land of Cuba and Haiti.",
"The Caribbean remained like this for most of the Cenozoic until the Holocene when rising water levels of the oceans restored communication with the Atlantic Ocean.The Caribbean's floor is composed of sub-oceanic sediments of deep red clay in the deep basins and troughs.",
"On continental slopes and ridges calcareous silts are found.",
"Clay minerals have likely been deposited by the mainland river Orinoco and the Magdalena River.",
"Deposits on the bottom of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico have a thickness of about .",
"Upper sedimentary layers relate to the period from the Mesozoic to the Cenozoic (250 million years ago) and the lower layers from the Paleozoic to the Mesozoic.Caribbean plate tectonicsThe Caribbean sea floor is divided into five basins separated from each other by underwater ridges and mountain ranges.",
"Atlantic Ocean water enters the Caribbean through the ''Anegada Passage'' between the Lesser Antilles and the Virgin Islands and the ''Windward Passage'' between Cuba and Haiti.",
"The Yucatán Channel between Mexico and Cuba links the Gulf of Mexico with the Caribbean.",
"The deepest points of the sea lie in Cayman Trough with depths reaching approximately .",
"Despite this, the Caribbean Sea is considered a relatively shallow sea in comparison to other bodies of water.The pressure of the South American Plate to the east of the Caribbean causes the region of the Lesser Antilles to have high volcanic activity.",
"A very serious eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902 caused many casualties.The Caribbean sea floor is also home to two oceanic trenches: the Cayman Trench and the Puerto Rico Trench, which put the area at a high risk of earthquakes.",
"Underwater earthquakes pose a threat of generating tsunamis which could have a devastating effect on the Caribbean islands.",
"Scientific data reveals that over the last 500 years the area has seen a dozen earthquakes above 7.5 magnitude.",
"Most recently, a 7.1 earthquake struck Haiti on January 12, 2010.",
"* List of islands in the Caribbean"
],
[
"Oceanography",
"Sketch of the North Equatorial Current and the Gulf StreamThe hydrology of the sea has a high level of homogeneity.",
"Annual variations in monthly average water temperatures at the surface do not exceed .",
"Over the past 50 years, the Caribbean has gone through three stages: cooling until 1974, a cold phase with peaks during 1974–1976 and 1984–1986, and finally a warming phase with an increase in temperature of per year.",
"Virtually all temperature extremes were associated with the phenomena of El Niño and La Niña.",
"The salinity of the seawater is about 3.6%, and its density is .",
"The surface water colour is blue-green to green.The Caribbean's depth in its wider basins and deep-water temperatures are similar to those of the Atlantic.",
"Atlantic deep water is thought to spill into the Caribbean and contribute to the general deep water of its sea.",
"The surface water (30 m; 100 ft) acts as an extension of the northern Atlantic as the Guiana Current and part of the North Equatorial Current enter the sea on the east.",
"On the western side of the sea, the trade winds influence a northerly current which causes an upwelling and a rich fishery near Yucatán."
],
[
"Ecology",
"The Caribbean is home to about 9% of the world's coral reefs, covering about , most of which are located off the Caribbean Islands and the Central American coast.",
"Among them stands out the Belize Barrier Reef, with an area of , which was declared a World Heritage Site in 1996.It forms part of the Great Mayan Reef (also known as the MBRS) and, being over in length, is the world's second longest.",
"It runs along the Caribbean coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and Honduras.Since 2005 unusually warm Caribbean waters have been increasingly threatening Caribbean coral reefs.",
"Coral reefs support some of the most diverse marine habitats in the world, but they are fragile ecosystems.",
"When tropical waters become unusually warm for extended periods of time, microscopic plants called zooxanthellae, which are symbiotic partners living within the coral polyp tissues, die off.",
"These plants provide food for the corals and give them their color.",
"The result of the death and dispersal of these tiny plants is called coral bleaching, and can lead to the devastation of large areas of reef.",
"Over 42% of corals are completely bleached, and 95% are experiencing some type of whitening.",
"Historically the Caribbean is thought to contain 14% of the world's coral reefs.The Belize Barrier Reef photographed from the International Space Station in 2016The habitats supported by the reefs are critical to such tourist activities as fishing and diving, and provide an annual economic value to Caribbean nations of US$3.1–4.6 billion.",
"Continued destruction of the reefs could severely damage the region's economy.",
"A ''Protocol of the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region'' came in effect in 1986 to protect the various endangered marine life of the Caribbean through forbidding human activities that would advance the continued destruction of such marine life in various areas.",
"Currently this protocol has been ratified by 15 countries.",
"Also, several charitable organisations have been formed to preserve the Caribbean marine life, such as ''Caribbean Conservation Corporation'' which seeks to study and protect sea turtles while educating others about them.Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve, MexicoIn connection with the foregoing, the Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, conducted a regional study, funded by the Department of Technical Cooperation of the International Atomic Energy Agency, in which specialists from 11 Latin American countries (Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Dominican Republic, Venezuela) plus Jamaica participated.",
"The findings indicate that heavy metals such as mercury, arsenic, and lead, have been identified in the coastal zone of the Caribbean Sea.",
"Analysis of toxic metals and hydrocarbons is based on the investigation of coastal sediments that have accumulated less than 50 meters deep during the last hundred and fifty years.",
"The project results were presented in Vienna in the forum \"Water Matters\", and the 2011 General Conference of said multilateral organization.After the Mediterranean, the Caribbean Sea is the second most polluted sea.",
"Pollution (in the form of up to 300,000 tonnes of solid garbage dumped into the Caribbean Sea each year) is progressively endangering marine ecosystems, wiping out species, and harming the livelihoods of the local people, which is primarily reliant on tourism and fishing.KfW took part in a €25.7 million funding agreement to eliminate marine trash and boost the circular economy in the Caribbean's Small Island Developing States.",
"The project \"Sustainable finance methods for marine preservation in the Caribbean\" will assist remove solid waste and keep it out of the marine and coastal environment by establishing a new facility under the Caribbean Biodiversity Fund (CBF).",
"Non-governmental organizations, universities, public institutions, civil society organizations, and the corporate sector are all eligible for financing.",
"The project is estimated to prevent and remove at least 15 000 tonnes of marine trash, benefiting at least 20 000 individuals."
],
[
"Climate",
"Average sea surface temperatures for the Caribbean Atlantic Ocean (25–27 August 2005).",
"Hurricane Katrina is seen just above Cuba.The climate of the Caribbean is driven by the low latitude and tropical ocean currents that run through it.",
"The principal ocean current is the North Equatorial Current, which enters the region from the tropical Atlantic.",
"The climate of the area is tropical, varying from tropical rainforest in some areas to tropical savanna in others.",
"There are also some locations that are arid climates with considerable drought in some years.Rainfall varies with elevation, size, and water currents (cool upwelling keep the ABC islands arid).",
"Warm, moist trade winds blow consistently from the east, creating both rainforest and semi-arid climates across the region.",
"The tropical rainforest climates include lowland areas near the Caribbean Sea from Costa Rica north to Belize, as well as the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, while the more seasonal dry tropical savanna climates are found in Cuba, northern Venezuela, and southern Yucatán, Mexico.",
"Arid climates are found along the extreme northern coast of Venezuela out to the islands including Aruba and Curaçao, as well as the northern tip of YucatánTropical cyclones are a threat to the nations that rim the Caribbean Sea.",
"While landfalls are infrequent, the resulting loss of life and property damage makes them a significant hazard to life in the Caribbean.",
"Tropical cyclones that impact the Caribbean often develop off the West coast of Africa and make their way west across the Atlantic Ocean toward the Caribbean, while other storms develop in the Caribbean itself.",
"The Caribbean hurricane season as a whole lasts from June through November, with the majority of hurricanes occurring during August and September.",
"On average around nine tropical storms form each year, with five reaching hurricane strength.",
"According to the National Hurricane Center 385 hurricanes occurred in the Caribbean between 1494 and 1900."
],
[
"Flora and fauna",
"The region has a high level of biodiversity and many species are endemic to the Caribbean.===Vegetation===The vegetation of the region is mostly tropical but differences in topography, soil and climatic conditions increase species diversity.",
"Where there are porous limestone terraced islands these are generally poor in nutrients.",
"It is estimated that 13,000 species of plants grow in the Caribbean of which 6,500 are endemic.",
"For example, guaiac wood (''Guaiacum officinale''), the flower of which is the national flower of Jamaica and the Bayahibe rose (''Pereskia quisqueyana'') which is the national flower of the Dominican Republic and the ceiba which is the national tree of both Puerto Rico and Guatemala.",
"The mahogany is the national tree of the Dominican Republic and Belize.",
"The caimito (''Chrysophyllum cainito'') grows throughout the Caribbean.",
"In coastal zones there are coconut palms and in lagoons and estuaries are found thick areas of black mangrove and red mangrove (''Rhizophora mangle'').In shallow water flora and fauna is concentrated around coral reefs where there is little variation in water temperature, purity and salinity.",
"Leeward side of lagoons provide areas of growth for sea grasses.",
"Turtle grass (''Thalassia testudinum'') is common in the Caribbean as is manatee grass (''Syringodium filiforme'') which can grow together as well as in fields of single species at depths up to .",
"Another type shoal grass (''Halodule wrightii'') grows on sand and mud surfaces at depths of up to .",
"In brackish water of harbours and estuaries at depths less than widgeongrass (''Ruppia maritima'') grows.",
"Representatives of three species belonging to the genus ''Halophila'', (''Halophila baillonii'', ''Halophila engelmannii'' and ''Halophila decipiens'') are found at depths of up to except for ''Halophila engelmani'' which does not grow below and is confined to the Bahamas, Florida, the Greater Antilles and the western part of the Caribbean.",
"''Halophila baillonii'' has been found only in the Lesser Antilles.===Fauna===Puerto Rican parrotGreen sea turtle, Grand Cayman IslandMarine biota in the region have representatives of both the Indian and Pacific oceans which were caught in the Caribbean before the emergence of the Isthmus of Panama four million years ago.",
"In the Caribbean Sea there are around 1,000 documented species of fish, including sharks (bull shark, tiger shark, silky shark and Caribbean reef shark), flying fish, giant oceanic manta ray, angel fish, spotfin butterflyfish, parrotfish, Atlantic Goliath grouper, tarpon and moray eels.",
"Throughout the Caribbean there is industrial catching of lobster and sardines (off the coast of Yucatán Peninsula).There are 90 species of mammals in the Caribbean including sperm whales, humpback whales and dolphins.",
"The island of Jamaica is home to seals and manatees.",
"The Caribbean monk seal which lived in the Caribbean is considered extinct.",
"Solenodons and hutias are mammals found only in the Caribbean; only one extant species is not endangered.There are 500 species of reptiles (94% of which are endemic).",
"Islands are inhabited by some endemic species such as rock iguanas and American crocodile.",
"The blue iguana, endemic to the island of Grand Cayman, is endangered.",
"The green iguana is invasive to Grand Cayman.",
"The Mona ground iguana which inhabits the island of Mona, Puerto Rico, is endangered.",
"The rhinoceros iguana from the island of Hispaniola which is shared between Haiti and the Dominican Republic is also endangered.",
"The region has several types of sea turtle (loggerhead, green turtle, hawksbill, leatherback turtle, Atlantic ridley and olive ridley).",
"Some species are threatened with extinction.",
"Their populations have been greatly reduced since the 17th century – the number of green turtles has declined from 91 million to 300,000 and hawksbill turtles from 11 million to less than 30,000 by 2006.All 170 species of amphibians that live in the region are endemic.",
"The habitats of almost all members of the toad family, poison dart frogs, tree frogs and leptodactylidae (a type of frog) are limited to only one island.",
"The Golden coqui is in serious threat of extinction.In the Caribbean, 600 species of birds have been recorded, of which 163 are endemic such as todies, Fernandina's flicker and palmchat.",
"The American yellow warbler is found in many areas, as is the green heron.",
"Of the endemic species 48 are threatened with extinction including the Puerto Rican amazon, and the Zapata wren.",
"According to Birdlife International in 2006 in Cuba 29 species of bird are in danger of extinction and two species officially extinct.",
"The black-fronted piping guan is endangered.",
"The Antilles along with Central America lie in the flight path of migrating birds from North America so the size of populations is subject to seasonal fluctuations.",
"Parrots and bananaquits are found in forests.",
"Over the open sea can be seen frigatebirds and tropicbirds."
],
[
"Economy and human activity",
"San Andrés island, ColombiaThe Caribbean region has seen a significant increase in human activity since the colonization period.",
"The sea is one of the largest oil production areas in the world, producing approximately 170 million per year.",
"The area also generates a large fishing industry for the surrounding countries, accounting for of fish a year.Human activity in the area also accounts for a significant amount of pollution.",
"The Pan American Health Organization estimated in 1993 that only about 10% of the sewage from the Central American and Caribbean Island countries is properly treated before being released into the sea.The Caribbean region supports a large tourism industry.",
"The Caribbean Tourism Organization calculates that about 12 million people a year visit the area, including (in 1991–1992) about 8 million cruise ship tourists.",
"Tourism based upon scuba diving and snorkeling on coral reefs of many Caribbean islands makes a major contribution to their economies."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Jamaica sunrise.JPG|Sunrise over the south beach of JamaicaFile:Village Gran Roque.jpg|Los Roques Archipelago, VenezuelaFile:Marie Galante - on the beach (407689602).jpg|Marie Galante, GuadeloupeFile:Strand Auf Klein Curacao (213574363).jpeg|Beach of CuraçaoFile:Mona Island, Puerto Rico.JPG|Mona Island, Puerto RicoFile:Palm Beach, Aruba (4901990402).jpg|Palm Beach, ArubaFile:Beach Of Cayo Coco (108034377).jpeg|Cayo Coco, CubaFile:Grosse Roche Beach in Saint-Marc, Haiti.jpg|Saint-Marc, HaitiFile:Sunset in the Carribean.jpg|Sunset in the Caribbean SeaFile:Aguas extremadamente cristalinas de Roatán Honduras.jpg|Roatán, Honduras"
],
[
"See also",
"* American Mediterranean Sea* Greater Antilles* Hispanic America* Ibero-America* Intra-Americas Sea* Kick 'em Jenny* Latin America* Lesser Antilles* List of Caribbean Countries* List of Caribbean countries by population* Piracy in the Caribbean* Territorial evolution of the Caribbean* West Indies"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Donovan, Stephen K., and Trevor A. Jackson, eds.",
"''Caribbean Geology: An Introduction'' (1994) online* Gallegos, Artemio.",
"\"Descriptive physical oceanography of the Caribbean Sea.\"",
"''Small Islands Marine Science and Sustainable Development'' 51 (1996): 36–55.",
"* Glover K., Linda (2004), '' Defying Ocean's End: An Agenda For Action'', Island Press, p. 9.",
"* Morgan, Philip D. et al.",
"''Sea and Land: An Environmental History of the Caribbean'' (Oxford University Press, 2022) online review* Snyderman, Marty (1996), '' Guide to Marine Life: Caribbean-Bahamas-Florida'', Aqua Quest Publications, pp.",
"13–14, 19.",
"* Wood, Robert E. \"Caribbean cruise tourism: Globalization at sea.\"",
"''Annals of tourism research'' 27.2 (2000): 345–370.",
"* Woodring, Wendell Phillips.",
"\"Caribbean land and sea through the ages.\"",
"''Geological Society of America Bulletin'' 65.8 (1954): 719–732.GSA Bulletin (1954) 65 (8): 719–732.doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1954)65719:CLASTT2.0.CO;* Peters, Philip Dickenson (2003), ''Caribbean WOW 2.0'', Islandguru Media, p. 100^^75;4.",
"* ''Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean: Economic Valuation Methodology'', World Resources Institute 2007."
],
[
"External links",
"* Center For Advanced Study on Puerto Rico and the Caribbean"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Colin Maclaurin"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Colin Maclaurin''' (; ; February 1698 – 14 June 1746) was a Scottish mathematician who made important contributions to geometry and algebra.",
"He is also known for being a child prodigy and holding the record for being the youngest professor.",
"The Maclaurin series, a special case of the Taylor series, is named after him.Owing to changes in orthography since that time (his name was originally rendered as '''M'Laurine'''), his surname is alternatively written '''MacLaurin.'''"
],
[
"Early life",
"Maclaurin was born in Kilmodan, Argyll.",
"His father, John Maclaurin, minister of Glendaruel, died when Maclaurin was in infancy, and his mother died before he reached nine years of age.",
"He was then educated under the care of his uncle, Daniel Maclaurin, minister of Kilfinan.",
"A child prodigy, he entered university at age 11."
],
[
"Academic career",
"At eleven, Maclaurin, a child prodigy at the time, entered the University of Glasgow.",
"He graduated Master of Arts three years later by defending a thesis on ''the Power of Gravity,'' and remained at Glasgow to study divinity until he was 19, when he was elected professor of mathematics in a ten-day competition at Marischal College and University in Aberdeen.",
"This record as the world's youngest professor endured until March 2008, when the record was officially given to Alia Sabur.In the vacations of 1719 and 1721, Maclaurin went to London, where he became acquainted with Isaac Newton, Benjamin Hoadly, Samuel Clarke, Martin Folkes, and other philosophers.",
"He was admitted a member of the Royal Society.In 1722, having provided a locum for his class at Aberdeen, he travelled on the Continent as tutor to George Hume, the son of Alexander Hume, 2nd Earl of Marchmont.",
"During their time in Lorraine, he wrote his essay on the percussion of bodies (''Demonstration des loix du choc des corps''), which gained the prize of the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1724.Upon the death of his pupil at Montpellier, Maclaurin returned to Aberdeen.In 1725, Maclaurin was appointed deputy to the mathematical professor at the University of Edinburgh, James Gregory (brother of David Gregory and nephew of the esteemed James Gregory), upon the recommendation of Isaac Newton.",
"On 3 November of that year Maclaurin succeeded Gregory, and went on to raise the character of that university as a school of science.",
"Newton was so impressed with Maclaurin that he had offered to pay his salary himself."
],
[
"Contributions to mathematics",
"Illustration of critique of ''De fluxionibus libri duo'' published in Acta Eruditorum, 1747Maclaurin used Taylor series to characterize maxima, minima, and points of inflection for infinitely differentiable functions in his ''Treatise of Fluxions''.",
"Maclaurin attributed the series to Brook Taylor, though the series was known before to Newton and Gregory, and in special cases to Madhava of Sangamagrama in fourteenth century India.Nevertheless, Maclaurin received credit for his use of the series, and the Taylor series expanded around 0 is sometimes known as the ''Maclaurin series''.Colin Maclaurin (1698–1746)Maclaurin also made significant contributions to the gravitation attraction of ellipsoids, a subject that furthermore attracted the attention of d'Alembert, A.-C. Clairaut, Euler, Laplace, Legendre, Poisson and Gauss.",
"Maclaurin showed that an oblate spheroid was a possible equilibrium in Newton's theory of gravity.",
"The subject continues to be of scientific interest, and Nobel Laureate Subramanyan Chandrasekhar dedicated a chapter of his book ''Ellipsoidal Figures of Equilibrium'' to Maclaurin spheroids.",
"Maclaurin corresponded extensively with Clairaut, Maupertuis, and d'Ortous de Mairan.Independently from Euler and using the same methods, Maclaurin discovered the Euler–Maclaurin formula.",
"He used it to sum powers of arithmetic progressions, derive Stirling's formula, and to derive the Newton-Cotes numerical integration formulas which includes Simpson's rule as a special case.Maclaurin contributed to the study of elliptic integrals, reducing many intractable integrals to problems of finding arcs for hyperbolas.",
"His work was continued by d'Alembert and Euler, who gave a more concise approach.In his ''Treatise of Algebra'' (Ch.",
"XII, Sect 86), published in 1748 two years after his death, Maclaurin proved a rule for solving square linear systems in the cases of 2 and 3 unknowns, and discussed the case of 4 unknowns.",
"This publication preceded by two years Cramer's publication of a generalization of the rule to ''n'' unknowns, now commonly known as Cramer's rule."
],
[
"Personal life",
"The grave of Colin Maclaurin, Greyfriars KirkyardColin MacLaurin Road, EdinburghIn 1733, Maclaurin married Anne Stewart, the daughter of Walter Stewart, the Solicitor General for Scotland, by whom he had seven children.",
"His eldest son John Maclaurin studied Law, was a Senator of the College of Justice, and became Lord Dreghorn; he was also joint founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.Maclaurin actively opposed the Jacobite rising of 1745 and superintended the operations necessary for the defence of Edinburgh against the Highland army.",
"Maclaurin compiled a diary of his exertions against the Jacobites, both within and without the city.",
"When the Highland army entered the city, however, he fled to York, where he was invited to stay by the Archbishop of York.Memorial, Greyfriars Kirkyard, EdinburghOn his journey south, Maclaurin fell from his horse, and the fatigue, anxiety, and cold to which he was exposed on that occasion laid the foundations of dropsy.",
"He returned to Edinburgh after the Jacobite army marched south, but died soon after his return.He is buried at Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh.",
"The simple table stone is inscribed simply \"C. M. Nat MDCXCVIII Ob MDCCXLVI\" and stands close to the south-west corner of the church but is supplemented by a more wordy memorial on the outer wall of the church.Mathematician and former MIT President Richard Cockburn Maclaurin was from the same family.The Maclaurin Society (MacSoc), the Mathematics and Statistics Society at Glasgow University, is named in his honour.Colin MacLaurin Road within Edinburgh University's King's Buildings complex is named in his honour."
],
[
"Notable works",
"Some of his important works are:*''Geometria Organica'' - 1720*''De Linearum Geometricarum Proprietatibus'' - 1720*''Treatise on Fluxions'' - 1742 (763 pages in two volumes.",
"The first systematic exposition of Newton's methods.",
")*''Treatise of Algebra'' - 1748 (two years after his death.",
")*''Account of Newton's Discoveries'' - Incomplete upon his death and published in 1748* Colin Maclaurin was the name used for the new Mathematics and Actuarial Mathematics and Statistics Building at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh.File:MacLaurin - Treatise of algebra, 1753 - 1429142.jpg|French edition of the ''Treatise of algebra'' (1748)File:MacLaurin, Colin – Account of Sir Isaac Newton's philosophical discoveries, 1749 – BEIC 743185.jpg|French edition of the ''Account of Sir Isaac Newton's philosophical discoveries'' (1749)"
],
[
"See also",
"*Braikenridge–Maclaurin theorem*Trisectrix of Maclaurin*Cayley's sextic*Cramer's paradox*Hesse configuration*Sinusoidal spiral"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* Anderson, William, ''The Scottish Nation'', Edinburgh, 1867, vol.VII, p. 37.",
"* * * * *Sageng, Erik, 2005, \"A treatise on fluxions\" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., ''Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics''.",
"Elsevier: 143–58.",
"*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Bruce A. Hedman, \"Colin Maclaurin's quaint word problems,\" College Mathematics Journal 31 (2000), 286–288.",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Celestial globe"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Celestial globe with clockwork; 1579; partly gilded silver, gilded brass and steel; overall: 27.3 × 20.3 × 19.1 cm, diameter of the globe: 14 cm; from Vienna; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)Celestial globe; after 1621; paper, brass, oak and stained and light-colored wood; overall: 52.1 × 47.3 cm, diameter of the globe: 34 cm; from Amsterdam; Metropolitan Museum of Art'''Celestial globes''' show the apparent positions of the stars in the sky.",
"They omit the Sun, Moon, and planets because the positions of these bodies vary relative to those of the stars, but the ecliptic, along which the Sun moves, is indicated.There is an issue regarding the “handedness” of '''celestial globes'''.",
"If the globe is constructed so that the stars are in the positions they actually occupy on the imaginary celestial sphere, then the star field will appear reversed on the surface of the globe (all the constellations will appear as their mirror images).",
"This is because the view from Earth, positioned at the centre of the celestial sphere, is of the gnomonic projection inside of the celestial sphere, whereas the celestial globe is orthographic projection as viewed from the outside.",
"For this reason, celestial globes are often produced in mirror image, so that at least the constellations appear as viewed from earth.",
"Some modern celestial globes address this problem by making the surface of the globe transparent.",
"The stars can then be placed in their proper positions and viewed through the globe, so that the view is of the inside of the celestial sphere.",
"However, the proper position from which to view the sphere would be from its centre, but the viewer of a transparent globe must be outside it, far from its centre.",
"Viewing the inside of the sphere from the outside, through its transparent surface, produces serious distortions.",
"Opaque celestial globes that are made with the constellations correctly placed, so they appear as mirror images when directly viewed from outside the globe, are often viewed in a mirror, so the constellations have their familiar appearances.",
"Written material on the globe, e.g.",
"constellation names, is printed in reverse, so it can easily be read in the mirror.Before Copernicus’s 16th-century discovery that the solar system is ‘heliocentric rather than geocentric and geostatic’ (that the earth orbits the sun and not the other way around) ‘the stars have been commonly, though perhaps not universally, perceived as though attached to the inside of a hollow sphere enclosing and rotating about the earth’.",
"Working under the incorrect assumption that the cosmos was geocentric the second-century Greek astronomer Ptolemy composed the Almagest in which ‘the movements of the planets could be accurately represented by means of techniques involving the use of epicycles, deferents, eccentrics (whereby planetary motion is conceived as circular with respect to a point displaced from Earth), and equants (a device that posits a constant angular rate of rotation with respect to a point displaced from Earth)’.",
"Guided by these ideas astronomers of the middle ages, Muslim and Christian alike, created celestial globes to ‘represent in a model the arrangement and movement of the stars’.",
"In their most basic form celestial globes represent the stars as if the viewer were looking down upon the sky as a globe that surrounds the earth."
],
[
"History",
"=== Ancient Greece ===The Roman writer Cicero ‘reported the statements of the Roman astronomer Gaius Sulpicius Gallus of the second century BC, the first globe was constructed by Thales of Miletus’.",
"This could indicate that Celestial Globes were in production throughout antiquity however, without any Celestial Globes surviving from this time, it is difficult to say for sure.",
"What is known is that in book VIII, chapter 3 of Ptolemy’s Almagest he outlines ideas for the design and production of a Celestial Globe.",
"This includes some notes on how the globe should be decorated, suggesting ‘the sphere a dark colour resembling the night sky’.The Farnese Atlas, a 2nd-century AD Roman marble sculpture of Atlas which probably copies an earlier work of the Hellenistic era, is holding a celestial globe 65 cm in diameter, which for many years was the only known celestial globe from the ancient world.",
"No stars are depicted on the globe, but it shows over 40 classical Greek constellations in substantial detail.",
"In the 1990s, two smaller celestial globes from antiquity became public: one from brass measuring 11 cm held by the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, and one from gilt silver measuring 6.3 cm privately held by the Kugel family.=== Al-Sufi - The Book of the Constellations ===Constellation of Delphinus from a copy of 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi's ''Book of Constellations, 1125''Al-Sufi (Abu'l-Husayn 'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Umar al-Sufi) was an important 10th century astronomer whose works were instrumental in the Islamic development of the Celestial Globe.",
"His book, The Book of the Constellations, (‘designed to be accurate for the year 964 (353 AH)’ ) was a ‘description of the constellations that combines Greek/ Ptolemaic traditions with Arabic/Bedouin ones’.",
"The Book of the Constellations then served as an important source of star coordinates for makers of astrolabes and globes across the Islamic world.",
"Similarly this ‘treatise was instrumental in displacing the traditional Bedouin constellation imagery and replacing it with the Greek/Ptolemaic system which ultimately came to dominate all astronomy’.=== 11th century ===The earliest surviving Celestial Globe was made between 1080 and 1085 C.E by Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli, a well known astrolabe maker working in Valencia, Spain.",
"Although the imagery on this globe appears to be unrelated to that in al-Sufi’s The Book of the Constellations al-Wazzan does seem to have been aware of this work as ‘all forty-eight of the classical Greek constellations are illustrated on the globe, just as in al-Sufi's treatise, with the stars indicated by circles’.=== 13th Century ===In the 13th century a Celestial Globe, now housed in the Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon in Dresden, ‘was produced at one of the most important centres of astronomy in intellectual history, the Ilkhanid observatory at Maragha in north-western Iran constructed in 1259 and headed by Nasir al-Dln TusT (d. 1274), the renowned polymath.’ This particular scientific instrument was made by the son of the renowned scientist Mu'ayyad al-’Urdi al-Dimashqi, Muhammad b. Mu'ayyad al-'Urdl in 1288.This globe is an interesting example of how Celestial Globes demonstrate both the scientific and the artistic talents of those who make them.",
"All ‘forty-eight classical constellations used in Ptolemy's Almagest are represented on the globe, meaning it could then be ‘used in calculations for astronomy and astrology, such as navigation, time-keeping or determining a horoscope’.",
"Artistically, this globe is an exciting insight into thirteenth century Iranian illustration as the ‘thirteenth century was a period when inlaid brass became a premier medium for figural imagery’ and so ‘the globes from this period are duly exceptional for the detail and clarity of their engraved figures’.=== 17th Century ===A 17th-century celestial globe was made by Diya’ ad-din Muhammad in Lahore, 1668 (now in Pakistan).",
"It is now housed at the National Museum of Scotland.",
"It is encircled by a meridian ring and a horizon ring.",
"The latitude angle of 32° indicates that the globe was made in the Lahore workshop.",
"This specific 'workshop claims 21 signed globes—the largest number from a single shop’ making this globe a good example of Celestial Globe production at its peak.",
"The globe itself has been manufactured in one piece, so as to be seamless.",
"This complicated process was, if not invented, then certainly perfected, in the Lahore workshop Diya’ ad-din Muhammad worked in.There are grooves which encircle the surface of the globe that create 12 sections of 30° which pass through the ecliptic poles.",
"While they are no longer used in astronomy today, they are called “ecliptic latitude circles” and help astronomers of the Arabic and Greek worlds find the co-ordinates of a particular star.",
"Each of the 12 sections corresponds to a house in the zodiac."
],
[
"See also",
"*Armillary sphere*Celestial sphere*De sphaera mundi"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"** *"
],
[
"External links",
"* https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/collection-search-results/celestial-globe/218493* https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/collection-search-results/celestial-globe/204058* https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/193606"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Covenant-breaker"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Covenant-breaker''' is a term used in the Baháʼí Faith to refer to a person who has been excommunicated from the Baháʼí community for breaking the Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh, meaning actively promoting schism in the religion or otherwise opposing the legitimacy of the chain of succession of leadership.",
"Excommunication among Baháʼís is rare and not used for transgressions of community standards, intellectual dissent, or conversion to other religions.",
"Instead, it is the most severe punishment, reserved for suppressing organized dissent that threatens the unity of believers.Currently, the Universal House of Justice has the sole authority to declare a person a Covenant-breaker, and once identified, all Baháʼís are expected to shun them, even if they are family members.",
"According to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Covenant-breaking is a contagious disease.",
"The Baháʼí writings forbid association with Covenant-breakers and Baháʼís are urged to avoid their literature, thus providing an exception to the Baháʼí principle of ''independent investigation of truth''.",
"Most Baháʼís are unaware of the small Baháʼí divisions that exist.Dr.",
"Mikhail Sergeev wrote about the Baháʼí practice of excommunication,The three largest attempts at alternative leadership—whose followers are considered Covenant-breakers—were from Subh-i-Azal, Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí, and Charles Mason Remey.",
"Others were declared Covenant-breakers for actively opposing or disobeying the head of the religion, or maliciously attacking the Baháʼí administration after leaving it."
],
[
"Definition",
"Covenant-breaking does not refer to attacks from non-Baháʼís or former Baháʼís.",
"Rather, it is in reference to internal campaigns of opposition where the Covenant-breaker is seen as challenging the unity of the Baháʼí Faith, causing internal division, or by claiming or supporting an alternate succession of authority or administrative structure.",
"The central purpose of the covenant is to prevent schism and dissension.In a letter to an individual dated 23 March 1975, the Universal House of Justice wrote:The term '''Covenant-breaker''' was first used by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to describe the partisans of his half-brother Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí, who challenged his leadership.",
"In ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's Will and Testament, he appointed Shoghi Effendi as the first ''Guardian'', an institution of the religion now defined, and called for the election of the Universal House of Justice.",
"ʻAbdul-Bahá defined in the same manner opposition to these two institutions as Covenant-breaking and advised all Baháʼís to shun anyone opposing the Covenant: \"...one of the greatest and most fundamental principles of the Cause of God is to shun and avoid entirely the Covenant-breakers, for they will utterly destroy the Cause of God, exterminate His Law and render of no account all efforts exerted in the past.\""
],
[
"Categorization",
"=== Included categories of people ===Most Covenant-breakers are involved in schismatic groups, but not always.",
"For example, a Baháʼí who refuses to follow guidance on treatment of Covenant-breakers is at risk of being named one.",
"One article originally written for the Baháʼí Encyclopedia, characterized Covenant-breakers that have emerged in the course of Baháʼí history as belonging to one of four categories:#Leadership challenge: These are persons who dispute the authority and legitimacy of the head of the religion and advance claims either for themselves or for another.",
"The main examples of these are Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí and Charles Mason Remey.#Dissidence: Those who actively disagree with the policies and actions of the head of the faith without, however, advancing an alternative claim for leadership.",
"This group consisted mostly of opponents of the Baháʼí administration such as Ruth White, Julia Lynch Olin and Mirza Ahmad Sohrab.#Disobedience: Those who disobey certain direct instructions from the head of the religion.",
"Mostly the instruction in question is to cease to associate with a Covenant-breaker.",
"Examples of this type include most of the descendants of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá during Shoghi Effendi's time.#Apostates who maliciously attack the Baháʼí Faith.",
"Examples include Ávárih, Sobhi and Níkú.=== Excluded categories of people ===Shoghi Effendi wrote to the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada in 1957:Beyond this, many other relationships to the Baháʼí Faith exist, both positive and negative.",
"Covenant-breaking does not apply to most of them.",
"The following is a partial list of those who could not rightly be termed Covenant-breakers:* Members of other religions or no religion—with or without any particular relationship to the Baháʼí Faith.",
"* Baháʼís who simply leave the religion.",
"(see above)* Baháʼís who, in the estimation of the head of the religion have insufficiently understood the nature of the covenant from the start.",
"These are sometimes \"disenrolled\" and are considered to have never actually been Baháʼís, given their fundamental diversion from this core Baháʼí doctrine.===Bábís===Bábís are generally regarded as another religion altogether.",
"Since Covenant-breaking presumes that one has submitted oneself to a covenant and then broken it, and Bábís never recognized or swore allegiance to Baháʼu'lláh, they are not Covenant-breakers.Followers of Subh-i-Azal, Baháʼu'lláh's half-brother who tried to poison him, engaged in active opposition to Baháʼís, and Shoghi Effendi did inform Baháʼís that they should avoid contact with his descendants, writing that \"No intelligent and loyal Baha'i would associate with a descendant of Azal, if he traced the slightest breath of criticism of our Faith, in any aspect, from that person.",
"In fact these people should be strenuously avoided as having an inherited spiritual disease -- the disease of Covenant-breaking!",
"\"."
],
[
"Shoghi Effendi's immediate family",
"Through the influence of Bahíyyih Khánum, the eldest daughter of Baháʼu'lláh, everyone in the household initially rallied around Shoghi Effendi after the death of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.",
"For several years his brother Husayn and several cousins served him as secretaries.",
"The only ones publicly opposing him were Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí and his followers, who were declared Covenant-breakers by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.",
"Contrary to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's specific instruction, certain family members established illicit links with those whom ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had declared Covenant-breakers.",
"After Bahíyyih Khánum died in 1932, Shoghi Effendi's eldest sister – Ruhangiz – married Nayyer Effendi Afnan, a son of Siyyid Ali Afnan, stepson of Baháʼu'lláh though Furughiyyih.",
"The children of Furughiyyih sided with Muhammad ʻAlí and opposed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, leaving only ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's own children as faithful among the descendants of Baháʼu'lláh.",
"Moojan Momen describes these events as follows:These marriages caused Ruhangiz, Mehrangiz, and Thurayyá to be declared Covenant-breakers by Shoghi Effendi, though there was some delay and concealment initially in order to avoid public degradation of the family.",
"On 2 November 1941 Shoghi Effendi sent two cables announcing the expulsion of Túbá and her children Ruhi, Suhayl, and Fu'ad for consenting to the marriage of Thurayyá to Faydi.",
"There was also mention that Ruhi's visit to America and Fu'ad's visit to England were without approval.",
"In December 1941 he announced the expulsion of his sister Mehrangiz.Presumably being faced with a choice between shunning their disobedient family members and being themselves disobedient to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, his cousins, aunts and uncles chose the latter.===Expulsions===In 1944 Shoghi Effendi announced the expulsion of Munib Shahid, the grandson of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's through Ruha, for marrying into the family of an enemy of the Baháʼís.",
"In April 1945, he announced the expulsion of Husayn Ali, his brother, for joining the other Covenant-breakers.",
"In a 1950 Shoghi Effendi sent another cable expelling the family of Ruha, another daughter of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá for showing \"open defiance\", and in December 1951 he announced a \"fourth alliance\" of members of the family of Siyyid Ali marrying into Ruha's family, and that his brother Riaz was included among the Covenant-breakers.In 1953 he cabled about Ruhi Afnan corresponding with Mirza Ahmad Sohrab, selling property of Baháʼu'lláh, and publicly \"misrepresenting the teachings and deliberately causing confusion in minds of authorities and the local population\"."
],
[
"Resultant groups",
"Most of the groups regarded by the larger group of Baháʼís as Covenant-breakers originated in the claims of Charles Mason Remey to the Guardianship in 1960.The ''Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá'' states that Guardians should be lineal descendants of Baháʼu'lláh, that each Guardian must select his successor during his lifetime, and that the nine Hands of the Cause of God permanently stationed in the holy land must approve the appointment by majority vote.",
"Baháʼís interpret lineal descendency to mean physical familial relation to Baháʼu'lláh, of which Mason Remey was not.Almost all of Baháʼís accepted the determination of the Hands of the Cause that upon the death of Shoghi Effendi, he died \"without having appointed his successor\".",
"There was an absence of a valid descendant of Baháʼu'lláh who could qualify under the terms of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's will.",
"Later the Universal House of Justice, initially elected in 1963, made a ruling on the subject that it was not possible for another Guardian to be appointed.In 1960 Remey, a Hand of the Cause himself, retracted his earlier position, and claimed to have been coerced.",
"He claimed to be the successor to Shoghi Effendi.",
"He and the small number of people who followed him were expelled from the mainstream Baháʼí community by the Hands of the Cause.",
"Those close to Remey claimed that he went senile in old age, and by the time of his death he was largely abandoned, with his most prominent followers fighting amongst themselves for leadership.The largest group of the remaining followers of Remey, members of the \"Orthodox Baháʼí Faith\", believe that legitimate authority passed from Shoghi Effendi to Mason Remey to Joel Marangella.",
"They, therefore, regard the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, Israel to be illegitimate, and its members and followers to be Covenant-breakers.In 2009, Jeffery Goldberg and Janice Franco, both from the mainstream Baháʼí community, joined the Orthodox Baháʼí Faith.",
"Both of them were declared as Covenant-breakers and shunned.",
"Goldberg's wife was told to divorce her husband.The present descendants of expelled members of Baháʼu'lláh's family have not specifically been declared Covenant-breakers, though they mostly do not associate themselves with the Baháʼí religion.A small group of Baháʼís in Northern New Mexico believe that these descendants are eligible for appointment to the Guardianship and are waiting for such a direct descendant of Baháʼu'lláh to arise as the rightful Guardian.Enayatullah (Zabih) Yazdani was designated a Covenant-breaker in June 2005, after many years of insisting on his views that Mason Remey was the legitimate successor to Shoghi Effendi and of accepting Donald Harvey as the third guardian.",
"He is now the fifth guardian of a small group of Baháʼís and resides in Australia.There is also a small group in Montana, originally inspired by Leland Jensen, who claimed a status higher than that of the Guardian.",
"His failed apocalyptic predictions and unsuccessful efforts to reestablish the Guardianship and the administration were apparent by his death in 1996.A dispute among Jensen's followers over the identity of the Guardian resulted in another division in 2001.===American opposition===Juan Cole, an American professor of Middle Eastern history who had been a Baháʼí for 25 years, left the religion in 1996 after being approached by a Continental Counselor about his involvement in a secret email list that was organizing opposition to certain Baháʼí institutions and policies.",
"Cole was never labeled a Covenant-breaker, because he claimed to be a Unitarian-Universalist upon leaving.",
"He went on to publish three papers in journals in 1998, 2000, and 2002.These heavily criticized the Baháʼí administration in the United States and suggested cult-like tendencies, particularly regarding the requirement of pre-publication review and the practice of shunning Covenant-breakers.",
"For example, Cole wrote in 1998, \"Baha’is, like members of the Watchtower and other cults, shun those who are excommunicated.\"",
"In 2000, he wrote: \"Baha'i authorities... keep believers in line by appealing to the welfare and unity of the community, and if these appeals fail then implicit or explicit threats of disfellowshipping and even shunning are invoked.",
"...",
"Shunning is the central control mechanism in the Baha'i system\" In 2002, he wrote: \"Opportunistic sectarian-minded officials may have seen this... as a time when they could act arbitrarily and harshly against intellectuals and liberals, using summary expulsion and threats of shunning\".Moojan Momen, a Baháʼí author, reviewed 66 exit narratives of former Baháʼís, and identified 1996 (Cole's departure) to 2002 as a period of \"articulate and well-educated\" apostates that used the newly available Internet to connect with each other and form a community with its own \"mythology, creed and salvation stories becoming what could perhaps be called an anti-religion\".",
"According to Momen, the narrative among these apostates of a \"fiercely aggressive religion where petty dictators rule\" is the opposite experience of most members, who see \"peace as a central teaching\", \"consultative decision-making\", and \"mechanisms to guard against individuals attacking the central institutions of the Bahá'í Faith or creating schisms.\"",
"On the practice of shunning, Momen writes that it is \"rarely used and is only applied after prolonged negotiations fail to resolve the situation.",
"To the best knowledge of the present author it has been used against no more than a handful of individuals in over two decades and to only the first of the apostates described below Francesco Ficicchia more than twenty-five years ago - although it is regularly mentioned in the literature produced by the apostates as though it were a frequent occurrence.\""
],
[
"See also",
"*Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh*List of former Baháʼís"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Citations"
],
[
"References",
"**********************"
],
[
"External links",
"* A Compilation: Non-Association with Covenant-breakers - From the Continental Board of Counselors to the NSAs of Alaska, Canada and the US, 7 December 1999."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Concord, Michigan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Mann HouseThe Concord Grist Mill depicted on an early 20th-century postcard'''Concord''' is a village in Jackson County in the U.S. state of Michigan.",
"The population was 1,050 at the 2010 census.",
"The village is within Concord Township.Settled in 1831, much of the village's downtown area is designated as part of the Concord Village Historic District.",
"The village is located along M-60 about southwest of Jackson."
],
[
"History",
"Concord first received a post office in 1836.It was incorporated as a village in 1871.The Michigan Historical Center operates a museum in Concord called the Mann House.",
"The Mann House is an excellent example of typical middle-class domestic architecture of the early 1880s and features the family's sleigh and buggy as well as Jackson's Michigan State Prison made furniture."
],
[
"Government",
"Concord is a general-law village incorporated within the Concord Township."
],
[
"Geography",
"According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which is land and (7.41%) is water.The village is located within the T3S R3W survey township."
],
[
"Demographics",
"Concord Community Schools (Enrollment 900) participate in Class C and Division 4 of MHSAA athletics.",
"Their teams are known as the Yellow Jackets and play in the Big 8 Conference.",
"The schools' colors are purple and gold.",
"The boys' cross country and track & field teams both claimed MHSAA State Championships during the 2009–10 school year, as well as back to back MHSAA State Championships in the 2014 and 2015 school years.",
"In 2011 and 2012, the boys cross country team won back to back MHSAA State Championships.===2010 census===As of the census of 2010, there were 1,050 people, 412 households, and 293 families living in the village.",
"The population density was .",
"There were 484 housing units at an average density of .",
"The racial makeup of the village was 99.0% White, 0.3% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.1% from other races, and 0.4% from two or more races.",
"Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.8% of the population.There were 412 households, of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.6% were married couples living together, 10.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 28.9% were non-families.",
"25.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.",
"The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.02.The median age in the village was 40.9 years.",
"26% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.4% were from 25 to 44; 28.7% were from 45 to 64; and 15.6% were 65 years of age or older.",
"The gender makeup of the village was 48.9% male and 51.1% female.===2000 census===As of the census of 2000, there were 1,101 people, 428 households, and 308 families living in the village.",
"The population density was .",
"There were 499 housing units at an average density of .",
"The racial makeup of the village was 97.91% White, 0.09% Black or African American, 0.27% Native American, 0.73% Asian, 0.64% from other races, and 0.36% from two or more races.",
"0.82% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.There were 428 households, out of which 34.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.9% were married couples living together, 10.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.0% were non-families.",
"25.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.",
"The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.09.In the village, the population was spread out, with 28.1% under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 14.5% who were 65 years of age or older.",
"The median age was 37 years.",
"For every 100 females, there were 92.8 males.",
"For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.7 males.The median income for a household in the village was $46,500, and the median income for a family was $54,531.Males had a median income of $39,167 versus $23,594 for females.",
"The per capita income for the village was $19,348.About 4.8% of families and 5.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.1% of those under age 18 and 7.1% of those age 65 or over."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Village of Concord Official Website* Public School System* Jackson County online"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chaos Computer Club"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Chaos Computer Club''' ('''CCC''') is Europe's largest association of hackers with 7,700 registered members.",
"Founded in 1981, the association is incorporated as an ''eingetragener Verein'' in Germany, with local chapters (called ''Erfa-Kreise'') in various cities in Germany and the surrounding countries, particularly where there are German-speaking communities.Since 1985, some chapters in Switzerland have organized an independent sister association called the (CCC-CH) instead.The CCC describes itself as \"a galactic community of life forms, independent of age, sex, race or societal orientation, which strives across borders for freedom of information…\".",
"In general, the CCC advocates more transparency in government, freedom of information, and the human right to communication.",
"Supporting the principles of the hacker ethic, the club also fights for free universal access to computers and technological infrastructure as well as the use of open-source software.",
"The CCC spreads an entrepreneurial vision refusing capitalist control.",
"It has been characterised as \"…one of the most influential digital organisations anywhere, the centre of German digital culture, hacker culture, hacktivism, and the intersection of any discussion of democratic and digital rights\".Members of the CCC have demonstrated and publicized a number of important information security problems.The CCC frequently criticizes new legislation and products with weak information security which endanger citizen rights or the privacy of users.Notable members of the CCC regularly function as expert witnesses for the German constitutional court, organize lawsuits and campaigns, or otherwise influence the political process."
],
[
"Activities",
"=== Regular events ===Chaos Communication Camp 2003 near Berlin, featuring the '''' aka '''', a Jolly Roger malapropism to the logo of the former Deutsche Bundespost, the Federal Post of GermanyThe CCC hosts the annual Chaos Communication Congress, Europe's biggest hacker gathering.When the event was held in the Hamburg congress center in 2013, it drew 9,000 guests.For the 2016 installment, 11,000 guests were expected, with additional viewers following the event via live streaming.Every four years, the Chaos Communication Camp is the outdoor alternative for hackers worldwide.The CCC also held, from 2009 to 2013, a yearly conference called SIGINT in Cologne which focused on the impact of digitisation on society.",
"The SIGINT conference was discontinued in 2014.The four-day conference '''' in Karlsruhe is with more than 1,500 participants the second largest annual event.Another yearly CCC event taking place on the Easter weekend is the Easterhegg, which is more workshop oriented than the other events.The CCC often uses the c-base station located in Berlin as an event location or as function rooms.=== Publications and outreach ===VideoThe CCC publishes the irregular magazine ''Datenschleuder'' (''data slingshot'') since 1984.The Berlin chapter produces a monthly radio show called which picks up various technical and political topics in a two-hour talk radio show.",
"The program is aired on a local radio station called and on the internet.Other programs have emerged in the context of Chaosradio, including radio programs offered by some regional Chaos Groups and the podcast spin-off ''CRE'' by Tim Pritlove.Many of the chapters of CCC participate in the volunteer project ''Chaos macht Schule'' which supports teaching in local schools.",
"Its aims are to improve technology and media literacy of pupils, parents, and teachers.CCC members are present in big tech companies and in administrative instances.",
"One of the spokespersons of the CCC, as of 1986, Andy Müller-Maguhn, was a member of the executive committee of the ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) between 2000 and 2002.=== CryptoParty ===The CCC sensitises and introduces people to the questions of data privacy.",
"Some of its local chapters support or organize so called CryptoParties to introduce people to the basics of practical cryptography and internet anonymity."
],
[
"History",
"=== Founding ===Wau HollandThe CCC was founded in West Berlin on 12 September 1981 at a table which had previously belonged to the Kommune 1 in the rooms of the newspaper Die Tageszeitung by Wau Holland and others in anticipation of the prominent role that information technology would play in the way people live and communicate.=== BTX-Hack ===The CCC became world-famous in 1984 when they drew public attention to the security flaws of the German Bildschirmtext computer network by causing it to debit DM 134,000 () in a Hamburg bank in favor of the club.",
"The money was returned the next day in front of the press.",
"Prior to the incident, the system provider had failed to react to proof of the security flaw provided by the CCC, claiming to the public that their system was safe.",
"Bildschirmtext was the biggest commercially available online system targeted at the general public in its region at that time, run and heavily advertised by the German telecommunications agency Deutsche Bundespost which also strove to keep up-to-date alternatives out of the market.=== Karl Koch ===In 1987, the CCC was peripherally involved in the first cyberespionage case to make international headlines.",
"A group of German hackers led by Karl Koch, who was loosely affiliated with the CCC, was arrested for breaking into US government and corporate computers, and then selling operating-system source code to the Soviet KGB.This incident was portrayed in the movie ''23''.=== GSM-Hack ===In April 1998, the CCC successfully demonstrated the cloning of a GSM customer card, breaking the COMP128 encryption algorithm used at that time by many GSM SIMs.=== Project Blinkenlights ===Blinkenlights at the 22nd Chaos Communication CongressIn 2001, the CCC celebrated its twentieth birthday with an interactive light installation dubbed ''Project Blinkenlights'' that turned the building Haus des Lehrers in Berlin into a giant computer screen.",
"A follow-up installation, ''Arcade'', was created in 2002 by the CCC for the Bibliothèque nationale de France.",
"Later in October 2008 CCC's Project Blinkenlights went to Toronto, Ontario, Canada with project Stereoscope.=== Schäuble fingerprints ===In March 2008, the CCC acquired and published the fingerprints of German Minister of the Interior Wolfgang Schäuble.",
"The magazine also included the fingerprint on a film that readers could use to fool fingerprint readers.",
"This was done to protest the use of biometric data in German identity devices such as e-passports.=== Staatstrojaner affair ===Mascot used to protest against the Staatstrojaner, a trojan horseThe Staatstrojaner (''Federal Trojan horse'') is a computer surveillance program installed secretly on a suspect's computer, which the German police uses to wiretap Internet telephony.",
"This \"source wiretapping\" is the only feasible way to wiretap in this case, since Internet telephony programs will usually encrypt the data when it leaves the computer.",
"The Federal Constitutional Court of Germany has ruled that the police may only use such programs for telephony wiretapping, and for no other purpose, and that this restriction should be enforced through technical and legal means.On 8 October 2011, the CCC published an analysis of the Staatstrojaner software.",
"The software was found to have the ability to remote control the target computer, to capture screenshots, and to fetch and run arbitrary extra code.",
"The CCC says that having this functionality built in is in direct contradiction to the ruling of the constitutional court.In addition, there were a number of security problems with the implementation.",
"The software was controllable over the Internet, but the commands were sent completely unencrypted, with no checks for authentication or integrity.",
"This leaves any computer under surveillance using this software vulnerable to attack.",
"The captured screenshots and audio files were encrypted, but so incompetently that the encryption was ineffective.",
"All captured data was sent over a proxy server in the United States, which is problematic since the data is then temporarily outside the German jurisdiction.The CCC's findings were widely reported in the German press.",
"This trojan has also been nicknamed R2-D2 because the string \"C3PO-r2d2-POE\" was found in its code; another alias for it is 0zapftis (\"It's tapped!\"",
"in Bavarian, a sardonic reference to Oktoberfest).",
"According to a Sophos analysis, the trojan's behavior matches that described in a confidential memo between the German Landeskriminalamt and a software firm called ''''; the memo was leaked on WikiLeaks in 2008.Among other correlations is the dropper's file name , short for Skype Capture Unit Installer.",
"The 64-bit Windows version installs a digitally signed driver, but signed by the non-existing certificate authority \"Goose Cert\".",
"DigiTask later admitted selling spy software to governments.The Federal Ministry of the Interior released a statement in which they denied that R2-D2 has been used by the Federal Criminal Police Office (BKA); this statement however does not eliminate the possibility that it has been used by state-level German police forces.",
"The BKA had previously announced however (in 2007) that they had somewhat similar trojan software that can inspect a computer's hard drive.=== Domscheit-Berg affair ===Former WikiLeaks spokesman Daniel Domscheit-Berg was expelled from the national CCC (but not the Berlin chapter) in August 2011.This decision was revoked in February 2012.As a result of his role in the expulsion, board member Andy Müller-Maguhn was not reelected for another term.=== Phone authentication systems ===The CCC has repeatedly warned phone users of the weakness of biometric identification in the wake of the 2008 Schäuble fingerprints affair.",
"In their \"hacker ethics\" the CCC includes \"protect people data\", but also \"Computers can change your life for the better\".",
"The club regards privacy as an individual right: the CCC does not discourage people from sharing or storing personal information on their phones, but advocates better privacy protection, and the use of specific browsing and sharing techniques by users.==== Apple TouchID ====From a photograph of the user's fingerprint on a glass surface, using \"easy everyday means\", the biometrics hacking team of the CCC was able to unlock an iPhone 5S.==== Samsung S8 iris recognition ====The Samsung Galaxy S8's iris recognition system claims to be \"one of the safest ways to keep your phone locked and the contents private\" as \"patterns in your irises are unique to you and are virtually impossible to replicate\", as quoted in official Samsung content.",
"However, in some cases, using a high resolution photograph of the phone owner's iris and a lens, the CCC claimed to be able to trick the authentication system."
],
[
"{{anchor|CCCF}}Fake Chaos Computer Club France",
"The '''Chaos Computer Club France''' (CCCF) was a fake hacker organisation created in 1989 in Lyon (France) by Jean-Bernard Condat, under the command of Jean-Luc Delacour, an agent of the Direction de la surveillance du territoire governmental agency.",
"The primary goal of the CCCF was to watch and to gather information about the French hacker community, identifying the hackers who could harm the country.",
"Journalist said that this organization also worked with the French National Gendarmerie.The CCCF had an electronic magazine called ''Chaos Digest (ChaosD)''.",
"Between 4 January 1993 and 5 August 1993, seventy-three issues were published ()."
],
[
"See also",
"* ''23'' (film)* c-base* Chaos Communication Congress* Chaosdorf, the local chapter of the Chaos Computer Club at Düsseldorf* Datenschleuder* Digitalcourage* Digital identity* Hacker culture* Information privacy* Netzpolitik.org* Project Blinkenlights* Security hacker* Tron (hacker)* Wau Holland Foundation"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Chaos Computer Club hackers 'have a conscience', BBC News, 2011-02-11"
],
[
"External links",
"* * CCC Events Blog* Chaosradio Podcast Network"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Convention (norm)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''convention''' is a set of agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards, social norms, or other criteria, often taking the form of a custom.In a social context, a convention may retain the character of an \"unwritten law\" of custom (for example, the manner in which people greet each other, such as by shaking each other's hands).",
"Certain types of rules or customs may become law and sometimes they may be further codified to formalize or enforce the convention (for example, laws that define on which side of the road vehicles must be driven).In physical sciences, numerical values (such as constants, quantities, or scales of measurement) are called conventional if they do not represent a measured property of nature, but originate in a convention, for example an average of many measurements, agreed between the scientists working with these values."
],
[
"General",
"A convention is a selection from among two or more alternatives, where the rule or alternative is agreed upon among participants.",
"Often the word refers to unwritten customs shared throughout a community.",
"For instance, it is conventional in many societies that strangers being introduced shake hands.",
"Some conventions are explicitly legislated; for example, it is conventional in the United States and in Germany that motorists drive on the right side of the road, whereas in Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Nepal, India and the United Kingdom motorists drive on the left.",
"The standardization of time is a human convention based on the solar cycle or calendar.",
"The extent to which justice is conventional (as opposed to natural or objective) is historically an important debate among philosophers.The nature of conventions has raised long-lasting philosophical discussion.",
"Quine, Davidson, and David Lewis published influential writings on the subject.",
"Lewis's account of convention received an extended critique in Margaret Gilbert's ''On Social Facts'' (1989), where an alternative account is offered.",
"Another view of convention comes from Ruth Millikan's ''Language: A Biological Model'' (2005), once more against Lewis.According to David Kalupahana, The Buddha described conventions—whether linguistic, social, political, moral, ethical, or even religious—as arising dependent on specific conditions.",
"According to his paradigm, when conventions are considered absolute realities, they contribute to dogmatism, which in turn leads to conflict.",
"This does not mean that conventions should be absolutely ignored as unreal and therefore useless.",
"Instead, according to Buddhist thought, a wise person adopts a Middle Way without holding conventions to be ultimate or ignoring them when they are fruitful."
],
[
"Customary or social conventions",
"=== Social ===In sociology, a ''social rule'' refers to any social convention commonly adhered to in a society.",
"These ''rules'' are not written in law or otherwise formalized.",
"In social constructionism, there is a great focus on social rules.",
"It is argued that these rules are socially constructed, that these rules act upon every member of a society, but at the same time, are re-produced by the individuals.Sociologists representing symbolic interactionism argue that social rules are created through the interaction between the members of a society.",
"The focus on active interaction highlights the fluid, shifting character of social rules.",
"These are specific to the social context, a context that varies through time and place.",
"That means a social rule changes over time within the same society.",
"What was acceptable in the past may no longer be the case.",
"Similarly, rules differ across space: what is acceptable in one society may not be so in another.Social rules reflect what is ''acceptable'' or ''normal'' behaviour in any situation.",
"Michel Foucault's concept of discourse is closely related to social rules as it offers a possible explanation how these rules are shaped and change.",
"It is the social rules that tell people what is ''normal'' behaviour for any specific category.",
"Thus, social rules tell a woman how to behave in a womanly manner, and a man, how to be manly.",
"Other such rules are as follows:*Strangers being introduced shake hands, as in Western societies, but:**Bow toward each other, in Korea, Japan and China** ''Wai'' each other in Thailand**''Do not'' bow at each other, in the Jewish tradition**In the United States, eye contact, a nod of the head toward each other, and a smile, with no bowing; the palm of the hand faces sideways, neither upward nor downward, in a business handshake.",
"**Present business cards to each other, in business meetings (both-handed in Japan)*Click heels together, while saluting in some military contexts *In most places its always polite to ask before kissing or hugging, this is called public display of affection.",
"*A property norm is to place things back where we found them.",
"*A property norm is used to identify which commodities are accepted as money.",
"*A sexual norm can refer to a personal or a social norm.",
"Most cultures have social norms regarding sexuality, and define normal sexuality to consist only of certain sex acts between individuals who meet specific criteria of age, consanguinity, race/ethnicity, and/or social role and socioeconomic status.",
"In the west outside the traditional norm between consenting adults what is considered not normal is what falls under what is regarded as paraphilia or sexual perversion.",
"*A form of marriage, polygyny or polyandry, is right or wrong in a given society, as is homosexual marriage considered wrong in many of the societies.",
"An religious more for an example is that a woman or man must not cohabitate, live together, when romantically involved until they have gotten married.",
"Adultery is considered wrong that is not violating sexual fidelity when there is union of a couple in marriage.",
"*A men's and women's dress code.",
"*Avoid using rude hand gestures like pointing at people, swear words, offensive language etc., *A woman's curtsey in some societies*In the Middle East, never displaying the sole of the foot toward another, as this would be seen as a grave insult.",
"*In many schools, though seats for students are not assigned they are still \"claimed\" by certain students, and sitting in someone else's seat is considered an insult.",
"*To reciprocate when something is done for us.",
"*Etiquette norms, like asking to be excused from the gathering's table, be ready to pay for your bill particularly in the case you asked people to dinner, it is a faux pas to refuse an offer of food as a guest.",
"*Contraception norms, not to limit access to them by women who require it, some cultures limit contraception.",
"*Recreational drug use restrictions on access or as popularly accepted in the culture where it is used as an example alcohol, nicotine, cannabis and hashish, there is a disincentive and prohibition for controlled substances where use and sale is prohibited like MDMA and party drugs.",
"*The belief that certain forms of discrimination are unethical because they take something away from the person by restrictions and by being ostracised.",
"Furthermore, can \"Restrict women's and girls' rights, access to empowerment opportunities and resources\".",
"*A person has a duty of care for the aged persons within the family.",
"This is particularly true in countries of Asia.",
"Much of aged care falls under unpaid labor.",
"*Refuse to favor known persons, as this would be an abuse of power relationship.",
"*Do not make a promise if you know that you can not keep it.",
"*Do not ask for money if you know that you can not pay it back to that person or place.",
"*\"Practice honesty and not deceive the innocent with false promises to obtain economic benefits or gratuities.\"",
"*It is suitable to make a pledge of allegiance in the United States, when prompted to in some social contexts.",
"*An gentlemen's agreement, or gentleman's agreement, is an informal and legally non-binding agreement between two or more parties.",
"We follow through on our business dealings, when we say we will do something then we do it and will not falter to do so.",
"*Do not divulge the privacy of others.",
"*Treat friends and family non-violently, be faithful and honest in a couple, to treat with respect the beliefs, activities or aims of our parents, show respect for beliefs, religious and cultural symbols of others.",
"* Tolerate and respect people with functional diversity, particularly when they wish to integrate in a game or sports equipment.",
"Also tolerate different points of view than your own, even if contrary, and do not try and change their beliefs by force.",
"*Give the seat to people with children, pregnant or elderly, in public and private transportation.",
"*Face the front, do not go elevator surfing, and do not push extra buttons in an elevator or stand too close to someone if there are few people.",
"*In a library, it is polite to have talk in the same noise volume as that of a classroom.",
"*In a cinema, it is correct to not talk during a movie because people are there to watch the film, also it is correct to not have phones on as the light and sound will distract other patrons.",
"*If you are going to be punctual, notify friends or acquaintances if you will be late.",
"*If you cannot show up to a restaurant, theater, cinema etc.",
"to an outing its proper to give the reason over your phone or address sometime prior.",
"*It is a norm to speak one at a time.",
"*A religious vow is a special promise.",
"It made in a religious sense or in ceremonies such as in marriages when there is a couple who are being promised to marriage called \"marriage vows\", they are also promising one another to be faithful and take care of their children.",
"*Helping somebody in need, in may be for social responsibility or to prevent harm, like in the parable of the Good Samaritan.",
"*Do not go to a non-fast food restaurant or bar unless you have enough to make a good tip, depending on the place.",
"*Examples of US social norms or customs turned into laws is the following: **People under 21 cannot buy alcohol.",
"**You must be 16 to drive.",
"**Firearms are legal and relatively accessible to anyone who wants one.",
"**In a city you cannot cross the street wherever you like, you must use a zebra crossing.",
"You can be fined if the police catch you breaking this rule.",
"**It is a social norm to provide tips in the US to waitresses and waiters.",
"*There are numerous gender-specific norms that influence society:**Girls should wear pink; boys should wear blue.",
"**Men should be strong and not show any emotion.",
"**Women should be caring and nurturing.",
"**Men should do repairs at the house and be the one to work and make money; while women are expected to take care of the housework and children.",
"**A man should pay for the woman's meal when going out to dinner.",
"**Men should open doors for women at bars, clubs, workplace, and should clear the way for the exit."
],
[
"Government",
"In government, convention is a set of unwritten rules that participants in the government must follow.",
"These rules can be ignored only if justification is clear, or can be provided.",
"Otherwise, consequences follow.",
"Consequences may include ignoring some other convention that has until now been followed.",
"According to the traditional doctrine (Dicey), conventions cannot be enforced in courts, because they are non-legal sets of rules.",
"Convention is particularly important in the Westminster System of government, where many of the rules are unwritten."
],
[
"See also",
"* A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English* Conventional electrical unit* Conventional insulin therapy* Conventional landing gear* Conventional pollutant* Conventional sex* Conventional superconductor* Conventional treatment* Conventional tillage* Conventional wastewater treatment* Conventional wisdom* Conventionalism* Conventionally grown* De facto standard* Non-conventional trademark* Standard (disambiguation)* Trope (literature)* Unconventional computing* Unconventional superconductor* Unconventional wind turbines"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*Rescorla, Michael (2007) Convention – ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* Law-Ref.org – an index of important international conventions"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Complete metric space"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In mathematical analysis, a metric space is called '''complete''' (or a '''Cauchy space''') if every Cauchy sequence of points in has a limit that is also in .Intuitively, a space is complete if there are no \"points missing\" from it (inside or at the boundary).",
"For instance, the set of rational numbers is not complete, because e.g.",
"is \"missing\" from it, even though one can construct a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers that converges to it (see further examples below).",
"It is always possible to \"fill all the holes\", leading to the ''completion'' of a given space, as explained below."
],
[
"Definition",
"'''Cauchy sequence'''A sequence in a metric space is called '''Cauchy''' if for every positive real number there is a positive integer such that for all positive integers '''Complete space'''A metric space is '''complete''' if any of the following equivalent conditions are satisfied::#Every Cauchy sequence of points in has a limit that is also in :#Every Cauchy sequence in converges in (that is, to some point of ).",
":#Every decreasing sequence of non-empty closed subsets of with diameters tending to 0, has a non-empty intersection: if is closed and non-empty, for every and then there is a unique point common to all sets"
],
[
"Examples",
"The space '''Q''' of rational numbers, with the standard metric given by the absolute value of the difference, is not complete.",
"Consider for instance the sequence defined by and This is a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers, but it does not converge towards any rational limit: If the sequence did have a limit then by solving necessarily yet no rational number has this property.",
"However, considered as a sequence of real numbers, it does converge to the irrational number .The open interval , again with the absolute difference metric, is not complete either.",
"The sequence defined by is Cauchy, but does not have a limit in the given space.",
"However the closed interval is complete; for example the given sequence does have a limit in this interval, namely zero.The space '''R''' of real numbers and the space '''C''' of complex numbers (with the metric given by the absolute difference) are complete, and so is Euclidean space '''R'''''n'', with the usual distance metric.",
"In contrast, infinite-dimensional normed vector spaces may or may not be complete; those that are complete are Banach spaces.",
"The space C of continuous real-valued functions on a closed and bounded interval is a Banach space, and so a complete metric space, with respect to the supremum norm.",
"However, the supremum norm does not give a norm on the space C of continuous functions on , for it may contain unbounded functions.",
"Instead, with the topology of compact convergence, C can be given the structure of a Fréchet space: a locally convex topological vector space whose topology can be induced by a complete translation-invariant metric.The space '''Q'''''p'' of ''p''-adic numbers is complete for any prime number This space completes '''Q''' with the ''p''-adic metric in the same way that '''R''' completes '''Q''' with the usual metric.If is an arbitrary set, then the set of all sequences in becomes a complete metric space if we define the distance between the sequences and to be where is the smallest index for which is distinct from or if there is no such index.",
"This space is homeomorphic to the product of a countable number of copies of the discrete space Riemannian manifolds which are complete are called geodesic manifolds; completeness follows from the Hopf–Rinow theorem."
],
[
"Some theorems",
"Every compact metric space is complete, though complete spaces need not be compact.",
"In fact, a metric space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded.",
"This is a generalization of the Heine–Borel theorem, which states that any closed and bounded subspace of is compact and therefore complete.Let be a complete metric space.",
"If is a closed set, then is also complete.",
"Let be a metric space.",
"If is a complete subspace, then is also closed.If is a set and is a complete metric space, then the set of all bounded functions from to is a complete metric space.",
"Here we define the distance in in terms of the distance in with the supremum normIf is a topological space and is a complete metric space, then the set consisting of all continuous bounded functions is a closed subspace of and hence also complete.The Baire category theorem says that every complete metric space is a Baire space.",
"That is, the union of countably many nowhere dense subsets of the space has empty interior.The Banach fixed-point theorem states that a contraction mapping on a complete metric space admits a fixed point.",
"The fixed-point theorem is often used to prove the inverse function theorem on complete metric spaces such as Banach spaces."
],
[
"Completion",
"For any metric space ''M'', it is possible to construct a complete metric space ''M′'' (which is also denoted as ), which contains ''M'' as a dense subspace.",
"It has the following universal property: if ''N'' is any complete metric space and ''f'' is any uniformly continuous function from ''M'' to ''N'', then there exists a unique uniformly continuous function ''f′'' from ''M′'' to ''N'' that extends ''f''.",
"The space ''M''' is determined up to isometry by this property (among all complete metric spaces isometrically containing ''M''), and is called the ''completion'' of ''M''.The completion of ''M'' can be constructed as a set of equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences in ''M''.",
"For any two Cauchy sequences and in ''M'', we may define their distance as(This limit exists because the real numbers are complete.)",
"This is only a pseudometric, not yet a metric, since two different Cauchy sequences may have the distance 0.But \"having distance 0\" is an equivalence relation on the set of all Cauchy sequences, and the set of equivalence classes is a metric space, the completion of ''M''.",
"The original space is embedded in this space via the identification of an element ''x'' of ''M''' with the equivalence class of sequences in ''M'' converging to ''x'' (i.e., the equivalence class containing the sequence with constant value ''x'').",
"This defines an isometry onto a dense subspace, as required.",
"Notice, however, that this construction makes explicit use of the completeness of the real numbers, so completion of the rational numbers needs a slightly different treatment.Cantor's construction of the real numbers is similar to the above construction; the real numbers are the completion of the rational numbers using the ordinary absolute value to measure distances.",
"The additional subtlety to contend with is that it is not logically permissible to use the completeness of the real numbers in their own construction.",
"Nevertheless, equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences are defined as above, and the set of equivalence classes is easily shown to be a field that has the rational numbers as a subfield.",
"This field is complete, admits a natural total ordering, and is the unique totally ordered complete field (up to isomorphism).",
"It is ''defined'' as the field of real numbers (see also Construction of the real numbers for more details).",
"One way to visualize this identification with the real numbers as usually viewed is that the equivalence class consisting of those Cauchy sequences of rational numbers that \"ought\" to have a given real limit is identified with that real number.",
"The truncations of the decimal expansion give just one choice of Cauchy sequence in the relevant equivalence class.For a prime the -adic numbers arise by completing the rational numbers with respect to a different metric.If the earlier completion procedure is applied to a normed vector space, the result is a Banach space containing the original space as a dense subspace, and if it is applied to an inner product space, the result is a Hilbert space containing the original space as a dense subspace."
],
[
"Topologically complete spaces",
"Completeness is a property of the ''metric'' and not of the ''topology'', meaning that a complete metric space can be homeomorphic to a non-complete one.",
"An example is given by the real numbers, which are complete but homeomorphic to the open interval , which is not complete.In topology one considers ''completely metrizable spaces'', spaces for which there exists at least one complete metric inducing the given topology.",
"Completely metrizable spaces can be characterized as those spaces that can be written as an intersection of countably many open subsets of some complete metric space.",
"Since the conclusion of the Baire category theorem is purely topological, it applies to these spaces as well.Completely metrizable spaces are often called ''topologically complete''.",
"However, the latter term is somewhat arbitrary since metric is not the most general structure on a topological space for which one can talk about completeness (see the section Alternatives and generalizations).",
"Indeed, some authors use the term ''topologically complete'' for a wider class of topological spaces, the completely uniformizable spaces.A topological space homeomorphic to a separable complete metric space is called a Polish space."
],
[
"Alternatives and generalizations",
"Since Cauchy sequences can also be defined in general topological groups, an alternative to relying on a metric structure for defining completeness and constructing the completion of a space is to use a group structure.",
"This is most often seen in the context of topological vector spaces, but requires only the existence of a continuous \"subtraction\" operation.",
"In this setting, the distance between two points and is gauged not by a real number via the metric in the comparison but by an open neighbourhood of via subtraction in the comparison A common generalisation of these definitions can be found in the context of a uniform space, where an entourage is a set of all pairs of points that are at no more than a particular \"distance\" from each other.It is also possible to replace Cauchy ''sequences'' in the definition of completeness by Cauchy ''nets'' or Cauchy filters.",
"If every Cauchy net (or equivalently every Cauchy filter) has a limit in then is called complete.",
"One can furthermore construct a completion for an arbitrary uniform space similar to the completion of metric spaces.",
"The most general situation in which Cauchy nets apply is Cauchy spaces; these too have a notion of completeness and completion just like uniform spaces."
],
[
"See also",
"* * * * * *"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * Kreyszig, Erwin, ''Introductory functional analysis with applications'' (Wiley, New York, 1978).",
"* Lang, Serge, \"Real and Functional Analysis\" *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"The Amazing Criswell"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Jeron Criswell King''' (August 18, 1907 – October 4, 1982), known by his stage-name '''The Amazing Criswell''' , was an American psychic known for wildly inaccurate predictions.",
"In person, he went by '''Charles Criswell King''', and was sometimes credited as '''Jeron King Criswell'''.Criswell was flamboyant, with spit curled hair, a stentorian style of speaking, and a sequined tuxedo.",
"He owned a coffin in which he claimed to sleep.",
"He grew up in a troubled family in Indiana with relatives who owned a funeral home, and said that he became comfortable with sleeping in caskets in the storeroom.",
"He appeared in two films directed by Ed Wood—''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' (1957) and ''Night of the Ghouls'' (1959)—and also appeared in ''Orgy of the Dead'' (1965), which was written by Wood."
],
[
"Early life",
"Criswell claimed that he never talked until the age of four.",
"During a thunderstorm he first spoke, making his first prediction, \"the rain will stop.\"",
"From this point on he was talkative, often placing himself center stage at any opportunity."
],
[
"Career",
"Criswell said he had once worked as a radio announcer and news broadcaster.",
"He began buying time on a local Los Angeles television station in the early 1950s to run infomercials for his Criswell Family Vitamins.",
"To fill the time, he began his \"Criswell Predicts\" part of the show.",
"This made him a minor off-beat celebrity in Los Angeles and around Hollywood, and his friendship with old show-business people such as Mae West and rising fringe celebrities such as Korla Pandit made Criswell an entertaining presence at parties.",
"His fame brought him appearances on ''The Jack Paar Show'' (1957–1962) which allowed him to publish his predictions in three publications of Spaceway Magazine (February 1955, April 1955, and June 1955), as well as run a weekly syndicated newspaper article starting on September 6, 1951.He later published three books of predictions; ''From Now to the Year 2000'', ''Your Next Ten Years'', and ''Forbidden Predictions''.",
"He also recorded a long playing record, ''Your Incredible Future'' (which was later released on CD), featuring 84 minutes of his predictions in his own voice.",
"Criswell appeared in the movies of writer and director Ed Wood.",
"After Criswell's death, his longtime friend Paul Marco released Criswell's song \"Someone Walked Over My Grave\" on a 7\" record which was recorded by Criswell as a memorial song that he wanted released posthumously.===Filmography, recording and television appearances=== Year Medium Title Role Director filmed 1956, premiered 1957 Film ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' Himself Ed Wood filmed 1958, premiered 1959 Film ''Night of the Ghouls'' Himself Ed Wood 1965 Film ''Orgy of the Dead'' The Emperor Stephen C. Apostolof 1982 Film ''It Came from Hollywood'' Archive footage Malcolm Leo, Andrew Solt 1994 Documentary ''Ed Wood: Look Back in Angora''' Archive footage Ted Newsom 1996 Documentary ''The Haunted World of Edward D. Wood Jr.'' Archive footage Brett Thompson 1970 Spoken Word Recording (LP) ''The Legendary Criswell Predicts Your Incredible Future'' Himself Horoscope Productions 1970, 1965, 1963 Television ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' Himself Frederick De Cordova 2007 Television ''Cinema Insomnia'' (''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' & ''Hardware Wars'') Himself Ernie Fosselius & Mr. Lobo"
],
[
"Predictions",
"\"Criswell Predicts\" scene in ''Plan 9 from Outer Space''Criswell's predictions were nationally syndicated and he appeared on the television show ''Criswell Predicts'' on KLAC Channel 13 (now KCOP-13) in Los Angeles as well as being recorded for syndication.",
"His announcer was Bob Shields, who later played the judge on ''The Judge''.",
"Criswell wore heavy makeup in public after his live program was broadcast in Los Angeles.",
"Only selected people were allowed in the KCOP studio during his broadcast.Criswell wrote several books of predictions, including 1968's ''Criswell Predicts: From Now to the Year 2000.''",
"In it, he claimed that Denver, Colorado, would be struck by a ray from space that would cause all metal to adopt the qualities of rubber, leading to horrific accidents at amusement parks.",
"He predicted mass cannibalism and the end of planet Earth, which he set as happening on August 18, 1999.Criswell was a student of history.",
"He believed history repeated itself, that the United States were the \"modern Romans\".",
"Each day, he read the ''St.",
"Louis Post-Dispatch'' looking for clues for his predictions.Some sources claim Criswell's most famous prediction was on ''The Jack Paar Program'' (1962–65) in March 1963, when he predicted that US President John F. Kennedy would not run for reelection in 1964 because something was going to happen to him in November 1963.Sources say that Criswell never claimed to be a real psychic; however, those who knew him, including actress and fellow ''Plan 9'' alumna Maila Nurmi (\"Vampira\"), believed he was.",
"According to writer Charles A. Coulombe, whose family rented an apartment from him, Criswell told Coulombe's father had the gift, but I lost it when I started taking money for it.\""
],
[
"Private life",
"Criswell married a former speakeasy dancer named Halo Meadows, who once appeared on ''You Bet Your Life'', and whom Coulombe describes as \"quite mad\": \"Mrs Criswell had a huge standard poodle (named \"Buttercup\") which she was convinced was the reincarnation of her cousin Thomas.",
"She spent a great deal of time sunbathing ... which, given her size, was not too pleasing a sight.",
"\"Niche of \"The Amazing Criswell\" at Valhalla Memorial ParkMae West used Criswell as her personal psychic; he once predicted her rise to President of the United States, whereupon she, Criswell and George Liberace, the brother of showman Liberace, would take a rocket to the Moon.",
"Criswell and West were great friends and she would lavish him with home-cooked food which she had delivered to the studio that he shared with Maila Nurmi (\"Vampira\").",
"It is said that West sold Criswell her old luxury cars for five dollars.Criswell died on October 4, 1982, at the age of 75; he was cremated days later."
],
[
"Legacy",
"* In 1955, Mae West wrote and recorded a song called \"Criswell Predicts\" for her album ''The Fabulous Mae West''* In 1994, Criswell was portrayed in the Tim Burton biopic ''Ed Wood'' by actor Jeffrey Jones.",
"* In 1997, several actors, including Sean Phillip Mabrey, have played Criswell in ''Plan 9 from Outer Space: The Musical'', written by David G.",
"Smith.",
"* In 1999, the film ''Devil Girls'' featured a portrayal of Criswell by Rob Gorden.",
"* In 2000, the song \"Criswell Predicts\" by pop punk band Groovie Ghoulies appeared on their album ''Travels With My Amp''.",
"* In 2005, Criswell and the ''Plan 9'' cast were lampooned in an episode of the television series, ''Deadly Cinema'', and clips of this episode were featured in the documentary, ''Vampira: The Movie''.",
"* In 2006, Craig Brown played Criswell in ''Plan Live From Outer Space'', a stage adaptation of ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' which won a Canadian Comedy Award the following year.",
"* In 2009, a teaser trailer was released by Darkstone Entertainment for the John Johnson film ''Plan 9'', a remake of ''Plan 9 From Outer Space''.",
"The voice of popular television horror host Mr. Lobo can be heard narrating the trailer as Criswell.",
"He also portrayed Criswell in the film, in a much larger role in this re-imagining of the original Ed Wood story.",
"In addition, for the purpose of promoting the film on the internet, Mr. Lobo has produced 62 episodes of ''Criswell Predicts!''",
"which is a parody and homage to Criswell's original television program of the same name ''sans'' the exclamation mark."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*** \"Criswell Predicts\" — ''The Onion'' A.V.",
"Club, August 11, 1999"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chain reaction"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''chain reaction''' is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place.",
"In a chain reaction, positive feedback leads to a self-amplifying chain of events.Chain reactions are one way that systems which are not in thermodynamic equilibrium can release energy or increase entropy in order to reach a state of higher entropy.",
"For example, a system may not be able to reach a lower energy state by releasing energy into the environment, because it is hindered or prevented in some way from taking the path that will result in the energy release.",
"If a reaction results in a small energy release making way for more energy releases in an expanding chain, then the system will typically collapse explosively until much or all of the stored energy has been released.A macroscopic metaphor for chain reactions is thus a snowball causing a larger snowball until finally an avalanche results (\"snowball effect\").",
"This is a result of stored gravitational potential energy seeking a path of release over friction.",
"Chemically, the equivalent to a snow avalanche is a spark causing a forest fire.",
"In nuclear physics, a single stray neutron can result in a prompt critical event, which may finally be energetic enough for a nuclear reactor meltdown or (in a bomb) a nuclear explosion.Numerous chain reactions can be represented by a mathematical model based on Markov chains."
],
[
"Chemical chain reactions",
"=== History ===In 1913, the German chemist Max Bodenstein first put forth the idea of chemical chain reactions.",
"If two molecules react, not only molecules of the final reaction products are formed, but also some unstable molecules which can further react with the parent molecules with a far larger probability than the initial reactants.",
"(In the new reaction, further unstable molecules are formed besides the stable products, and so on.",
")In 1918, Walther Nernst proposed that the photochemical reaction between hydrogen and chlorine is a chain reaction in order to explain what is known as the ''quantum yield'' phenomena.",
"This means that one photon of light is responsible for the formation of as many as 106 molecules of the product HCl.",
"Nernst suggested that the photon dissociates a Cl2 molecule into two Cl atoms which each initiate a long chain of reaction steps forming HCl.In 1923, Danish and Dutch scientists J.",
"A. Christiansen and Hendrik Anthony Kramers, in an analysis of the formation of polymers, pointed out that such a chain reaction need not start with a molecule excited by light, but could also start with two molecules colliding violently due to thermal energy as previously proposed for initiation of chemical reactions by van' t Hoff.Christiansen and Kramers also noted that if, in one link of the reaction chain, two or more unstable molecules are produced, the reaction chain would branch and grow.",
"The result is in fact an exponential growth, thus giving rise to explosive increases in reaction rates, and indeed to chemical explosions themselves.",
"This was the first proposal for the mechanism of chemical explosions.A quantitative chain chemical reaction theory was created later on by Soviet physicist Nikolay Semyonov in 1934.Semyonov shared the Nobel Prize in 1956 with Sir Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, who independently developed many of the same quantitative concepts.===Typical steps===The main types of steps in chain reaction are of the following types.",
"* Initiation (formation of active particles or chain carriers, often free radicals, in either a thermal or a photochemical step)* Propagation (may comprise several elementary steps in a cycle, where the active particle through reaction forms another active particle which continues the reaction chain by entering the next elementary step).",
"In effect the active particle serves as a catalyst for the overall reaction of the propagation cycle.",
"Particular cases are:** chain branching (a propagation step where one active particle enters the step and two or more are formed);** chain transfer (a propagation step in which the active particle is a growing polymer chain which reacts to form an inactive polymer whose growth is terminated and an active small particle (such as a radical), which may then react to form a new polymer chain).",
"* Termination (elementary step in which the active particle loses its activity; e. g. by recombination of two free radicals).The ''chain length'' is defined as the average number of times the propagation cycle is repeated, and equals the overall reaction rate divided by the initiation rate.Some chain reactions have complex rate equations with fractional order or mixed order kinetics.=== Detailed example: the hydrogen-bromine reaction ===The reaction H2 + Br2 → 2 HBr proceeds by the following mechanism:* Initiation : Br2 → 2 Br• (thermal) or Br2 + hν → 2 Br• (photochemical): each Br atom is a free radical, indicated by the symbol \"•\" representing an unpaired electron.",
"* Propagation (here a cycle of two steps): Br• + H2 → HBr + H•: H• + Br2 → HBr + Br•: the sum of these two steps corresponds to the overall reaction H2 + Br2 → 2 HBr, with catalysis by Br• which participates in the first step and is regenerated in the second step.",
"* Retardation (inhibition): H• + HBr → H2 + Br•: this step is specific to this example, and corresponds to the first propagation step in reverse.",
"* Termination 2 Br• → Br2: recombination of two radicals, corresponding in this example to initiation in reverse.As can be explained using the steady-state approximation, the thermal reaction has an initial rate of fractional order (3/2), and a complete rate equation with a two-term denominator (mixed-order kinetics).===Further chemical examples===* The reaction 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O provides an example of chain branching.",
"The propagation is a sequence of two steps whose net effect is to replace an H atom by another H atom plus two OH radicals.",
"This leads to an explosion under certain conditions of temperature and pressure.",
"** H• + O2 → •OH + •O•** •O• + H2 → •OH + H•* In chain-growth polymerization, the propagation step corresponds to the elongation of the growing polymer chain.",
"Chain transfer corresponds to transfer of the activity from this growing chain, whose growth is terminated, to another molecule which may be a second growing polymer chain.",
"For polymerization, the kinetic chain length defined above may differ from the degree of polymerization of the product macromolecule.",
"* Polymerase chain reaction, a technique used in molecular biology to amplify (make many copies of) a piece of DNA by ''in vitro'' enzymatic replication using a DNA polymerase.===Acetaldehyde pyrolysis and rate equation===The pyrolysis (thermal decomposition) of acetaldehyde, CH3CHO (g) → CH4 (g) + CO (g), proceeds via the Rice-Herzfeld mechanism:*Initiation (formation of free radicals):: CH3CHO (g) → •CH3 (g) + •CHO (g)\t k1The methyl and CHO groups are free radicals.",
"*Propagation (two steps):: •CH3 (g) + CH3CHO (g) → CH4 (g) + •CH3CO (g) \tk2This reaction step provides methane, which is one of the two main products.",
": •CH3CO (g) → CO (g) + •CH3 (g)\t\t k3The product •CH3CO (g) of the previous step gives rise to carbon monoxide (CO), which is the second main product.The sum of the two propagation steps corresponds to the overall reaction CH3CHO (g) → CH4 (g) + CO (g), catalyzed by a methyl radical •CH3.",
"*Termination:: •CH3 (g) + •CH3 (g) → C2H6 (g) \tk4\tThis reaction is the only source of ethane (minor product) and it is concluded to be the main chain ending step.Although this mechanism explains the principal products, there are others that are formed in a minor degree, such as acetone (CH3COCH3) and propanal (CH3CH2CHO).Applying the Steady State Approximation for the intermediate species CH3(g) and CH3CO(g), the rate law for the formation of methane and the order of reaction are found:The rate of formation of the product methane isFor the intermediates andAdding (2) and (3), we obtain so that Using (4) in (1) gives the rate law , which is order 3/2 in the reactant CH3CHO."
],
[
"Nuclear chain reactions",
"A ''nuclear'' chain reaction was proposed by Leo Szilard in 1933, shortly after the neutron was discovered, yet more than five years before nuclear fission was first discovered.",
"Szilárd knew of ''chemical'' chain reactions, and he had been reading about an energy-producing nuclear reaction involving high-energy protons bombarding lithium, demonstrated by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, in 1932.Now, Szilárd proposed to use neutrons theoretically produced from certain nuclear reactions in lighter isotopes, to induce further reactions in light isotopes that produced more neutrons.",
"This would in theory produce a chain reaction at the level of the nucleus.",
"He did not envision fission as one of these neutron-producing reactions, since this reaction was not known at the time.",
"Experiments he proposed using beryllium and indium failed.Later, after fission was discovered in 1938, Szilárd immediately realized the possibility of using neutron-induced fission as the particular nuclear reaction necessary to create a chain-reaction, so long as fission also produced neutrons.",
"In 1939, with Enrico Fermi, Szilárd proved this neutron-multiplying reaction in uranium.",
"In this reaction, a neutron plus a fissionable atom causes a fission resulting in a larger number of neutrons than the single one that was consumed in the initial reaction.",
"Thus was born the practical nuclear chain reaction by the mechanism of neutron-induced nuclear fission.Specifically, if one or more of the produced neutrons themselves interact with other fissionable nuclei, and these also undergo fission, then there is a possibility that the macroscopic overall fission reaction will not stop, but continue throughout the reaction material.",
"This is then a self-propagating and thus self-sustaining chain reaction.",
"This is the principle for nuclear reactors and atomic bombs.Demonstration of a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction was accomplished by Enrico Fermi and others, in the successful operation of Chicago Pile-1, the first artificial nuclear reactor, in late 1942."
],
[
"Electron avalanche in gases",
"An electron avalanche happens between two unconnected electrodes in a gas when an electric field exceeds a certain threshold.",
"Random thermal collisions of gas atoms may result in a few free electrons and positively charged gas ions, in a process called impact ionization.",
"Acceleration of these free electrons in a strong electric field causes them to gain energy, and when they impact other atoms, the energy causes release of new free electrons and ions (ionization), which fuels the same process.",
"If this process happens faster than it is naturally quenched by ions recombining, the new ions multiply in successive cycles until the gas breaks down into a plasma and current flows freely in a discharge.Electron avalanches are essential to the dielectric breakdown process within gases.",
"The process can culminate in corona discharges, streamers, leaders, or in a spark or continuous electric arc that completely bridges the gap.",
"The process may extend huge sparks — streamers in lightning discharges propagate by formation of electron avalanches created in the high potential gradient ahead of the streamers' advancing tips.",
"Once begun, avalanches are often intensified by the creation of photoelectrons as a result of ultraviolet radiation emitted by the excited medium's atoms in the aft-tip region.",
"The extremely high temperature of the resulting plasma cracks the surrounding gas molecules and the free ions recombine to create new chemical compounds.The process can also be used to detect radiation that initiates the process, as the passage of a single particles can be amplified to large discharges.",
"This is the mechanism of a Geiger counter and also the visualization possible with a spark chamber and other wire chambers."
],
[
"Avalanche breakdown in semiconductors",
"An avalanche breakdown process can happen in semiconductors, which in some ways conduct electricity analogously to a mildly ionized gas.",
"Semiconductors rely on free electrons knocked out of the crystal by thermal vibration for conduction.",
"Thus, unlike metals, semiconductors become better conductors the higher the temperature.",
"This sets up conditions for the same type of positive feedback—heat from current flow causes temperature to rise, which increases charge carriers, lowering resistance, and causing more current to flow.",
"This can continue to the point of complete breakdown of normal resistance at a semiconductor junction, and failure of the device (this may be temporary or permanent depending on whether there is physical damage to the crystal).",
"Certain devices, such as avalanche diodes, deliberately make use of the effect."
],
[
"Living organisms",
"Examples of chain reactions in living organisms include excitation of neurons in epilepsy and lipid peroxidation.",
"In peroxidation, a lipid radical reacts with oxygen to form a peroxyl radical (L• + O2 → LOO•).",
"The peroxyl radical then oxidises another lipid, thus forming another lipid radical (LOO• + L–H → LOOH + L•).",
"A chain reaction in glutamatergic synapses is the cause of synchronous discharge in some epileptic seizures."
],
[
"See also",
"* Cascading failure* Multiple-vehicle collision* Rube Goldberg machine"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* IUPAC Gold Book - Chain reaction"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Caddie"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Imaginative drawing by journalist Marguerite Martyn of a couple at the Forest Park Golf Course, Forest Road, Missouri, in 1914, while a caddie leans against a tree.A golf caddie, 1790, by Lemuel Francis AbbottIn golf or disc golf, a '''caddie''' (or '''caddy''') is the person who assists a golfer on the course.",
"Typical duties for a caddie include carrying a player's bag and clubs or discs, performing any course maintenance that is the player's responsibility (e.g.",
"repairing divots and raking bunkers) and offering the player advice and moral support."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The Scots word ''caddie'' or '''' was derived in the 17th century from the French word ''cadet'' and originally meant a student military officer.",
"It later came to refer to someone who did odd jobs.",
"By the 19th century, it had come to mean someone who carried clubs for a golfer, or in its shortened form, cad, a man of disreputable behaviour."
],
[
"History",
"The first recorded use of a caddie was in Edinburgh in 1681 by the future James II of England when taking part in the first international golf contest."
],
[
"Earnings",
"Caddies tend to be low paid, and usually get only a small share of prize money.",
"At a professional level, they work as contractors to individual players but without guaranteed hours.",
"In 2020, caddies on the PGA European Tour became eligible to earn bonuses through sponsors' logos on their gear."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"Caddies have been depicted in television, films, and books, including:* ''The Caddy'', a 1953 musical comedy film starring Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis* ''McAuslan in the Rough'', a 1974 short story by George MacDonald Fraser in which a disreputable Scottish soldier caddies for his regimental sergeant major* ''Caddyshack'', a 1980 comedy film featuring Bill Murray* ''Brown's Requiem'', a 1981 crime novel by James Ellroy, who worked as a caddie while writing his first books* ''The Legend of Bagger Vance'', a 2000 film based on the 1995 book by Steven Pressfield, ''The Legend of Bagger Vance: A Novel of Golf and the Game of Life'', features Vance as an angelic caddie.",
"* ''The Greatest Game Ever Played'', a 2005 film about 1913 US open where Francis Ouimet (Shia LaBeouf) wins with his caddie Eddie Lowery (Josh Flitter).",
"* ''Loopers: The Caddie's Long Walk'', a 2018 documentary narrated by Bill Murray"
],
[
"See also",
"* Caddie Hall of Fame"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* European Tour Caddies Association* \"Caddies making a comeback\", ''The Seattle Times''* \"Notes from the Caddieshack\" - a McSweeney's Internet Tendency column about being a caddie in the Chicago suburbs"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Compound turbine"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''compound turbine''' is a steam turbine in which there are two casings, a high-pressure casing and a low-pressure casing, operating in concert to extract work from a single source of steam.",
"The steam is partially expanded in the high-pressure casing, then exhausted to the low-pressure casing."
],
[
"Tandem compound or cross compound",
"The rotor arrangement can be either tandem-compound in which the two axles are joined end to end, or cross-compound in which the two turbines have separate axles.",
"In the cross-compound case two separate generators are usually supplied, although a gearbox can reduce this to one."
],
[
"Advantages",
"Divided flow low-pressure turbine rotor.",
"Steam enters at the centre and expands in both directionsThe principal advantages of compound turbines are the reduction in size of any one casing, the confinement of the highest pressure to the smaller casing (which may be made of stronger and more expensive materials) and the possibility of divided flow in the low-pressure casing for the purpose of equalizing end thrusts."
],
[
"See also",
"* Pressure compounding in turbines"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Stellar corona"
],
[
"Introduction",
"During a total solar eclipse, the Sun's corona and prominences are visible to the naked eye.A '''corona''' (: '''coronas''' or '''coronae''') is the outermost layer of a star's atmosphere.",
"It consists of plasma.The Sun's corona lies above the chromosphere and extends millions of kilometres into outer space.",
"It is most easily seen during a total solar eclipse, but it is also observable with a coronagraph.",
"Spectroscopic measurements indicate strong ionization in the corona and a plasma temperature in excess of , much hotter than the surface of the Sun, known as the photosphere.",
"is, in turn, derived ."
],
[
"History",
"Corona sketched by José Joaquín de Ferrer during the solar eclipse of June 16, 1806 in Kinderhook, New York.In 1724, French-Italian astronomer Giacomo F. Maraldi recognized that the aura visible during a solar eclipse belongs to the Sun, not to the Moon.",
"In 1809, Spanish astronomer José Joaquín de Ferrer coined the term 'corona'.",
"Based in his own observations of the 1806 solar eclipse at Kinderhook (New York), de Ferrer also proposed that the corona was part of the Sun and not of the Moon.",
"English astronomer Norman Lockyer identified the first element unknown on Earth in the Sun's chromosphere, which was called helium (from Greek 'sun').",
"French astronomer Jules Jenssen noted, after comparing his readings between the 1871 and 1878 eclipses, that the size and shape of the corona changes with the sunspot cycle.",
"In 1930, Bernard Lyot invented the \"coronograph\" (now \"coronagraph\"), which allows viewing the corona without a total eclipse.",
"In 1952, American astronomer Eugene Parker proposed that the solar corona might be heated by myriad tiny 'nanoflares', miniature brightenings resembling solar flares that would occur all over the surface of the Sun.=== Historical theories ===The high temperature of the Sun's corona gives it unusual spectral features, which led some in the 19th century to suggest that it contained a previously unknown element, \"coronium\".",
"Instead, these spectral features have since been explained by highly ionized iron (Fe-XIV, or Fe13+).",
"Bengt Edlén, following the work of Walter Grotrian in 1939, first identified the coronal spectral lines in 1940 (observed since 1869) as transitions from low-lying metastable levels of the ground configuration of highly ionised metals (the green Fe-XIV line from Fe13+ at , but also the red Fe-X line from Fe9+ at )."
],
[
"Observable components",
"The solar corona has three recognized, and distinct, sources of light that occupy the same volume: the \"F-corona\" (for \"Fraunhofer\"), the \"K-corona\" (for \"kontinuierlich\"), and the \"E-corona\" (for \"emission\").The \"F-corona\" is named for the Fraunhofer spectrum of absorption lines in ordinary sunlight, which are preserved by reflection off small material objects.",
"The F-corona is faint near the Sun itself, but drops in brightness only gradually far from the Sun, extending far across the sky and becoming the zodiacal light.",
"The F-corona is recognized to arise from small dust grains orbiting the Sun; these form a tenuous cloud that extends through much of the solar system.The \"K-corona\" is named for the fact that its spectrum is a continuum, with no major spectral features.",
"It is sunlight light that is Thomson-scattered by free electrons in the hot plasma of the Sun's outer atmosphere.",
"The continuum nature of the spectrum arises from Doppler broadening of the Sun's Fraunhofer absorption lines in the reference frame of the (hot and therefore fast-moving) electrons.",
"Although the K-corona is a phenomenon of the electrons in the plasma, the term is frequently used to describe the plasma itself (as distinct from the dust that gives rise to the F-corona).The \"E-corona\" is the component of the corona with an emission-line spectrum, either inside or outside the wavelength band of visible light.",
"It is a phenomenon of the ion component of the plasma, as individual ions are excited by collision with other ions or electrons, or by absorption of ultraviolet light from the Sun."
],
[
"Physical features",
"Configuration of solar magnetic flux during the solar cycleThe Sun's corona is much hotter (by a factor from 150 to 450) than the visible surface of the Sun: the corona's temperature is 1 to 3 million kelvin compared to the photosphere's average temperature – around .",
"The corona is far less dense than the photosphere, and produces about one-millionth as much visible light.",
"The corona is separated from the photosphere by the relatively shallow chromosphere.",
"The exact mechanism by which the corona is heated is still the subject of some debate, but likely possibilities include episodic energy releases from the pervasive magnetic field and magnetohydrodynamic waves from below.",
"The outer edges of the Sun's corona are constantly being transported away, creating the \"open\" magnetic flux entrained in the solar wind.The corona is not always evenly distributed across the surface of the Sun.",
"During periods of quiet, the corona is more or less confined to the equatorial regions, with coronal holes covering the polar regions.",
"However, during the Sun's active periods, the corona is evenly distributed over the equatorial and polar regions, though it is most prominent in areas with sunspot activity.",
"The solar cycle spans approximately 11 years, from solar minimum to the following minimum.",
"Since the solar magnetic field is continually wound up due to the faster rotation of mass at the Sun's equator (differential rotation), sunspot activity will be more pronounced at solar maximum where the magnetic field is more twisted.",
"Associated with sunspots are coronal loops, loops of magnetic flux, upwelling from the solar interior.",
"The magnetic flux pushes the hotter photosphere aside, exposing the cooler plasma below, thus creating the relatively dark sun spots.Since the corona has been photographed at high resolution in the X-ray range of the spectrum by the satellite Skylab in 1973, and then later by Yohkoh and the other following space instruments, it has been seen that the structure of the corona is quite varied and complex: different zones have been immediately classified on the coronal disc.The astronomers usually distinguish several regions, as described below.===Active regions===Active regions are ensembles of loop structures connecting points of opposite magnetic polarity in the photosphere, the so-called coronal loops.",
"They generally distribute in two zones of activity, which are parallel to the solar equator.",
"The average temperature is between two and four million kelvin, while the density goes from 109 to 1010 particles per cubic centimetre.Solar prominences and sunspotsActive regions involve all the phenomena directly linked to the magnetic field, which occur at different heights above the Sun's surface: sunspots and faculae occur in the photosphere; spicules, Hα filaments and plages in the chromosphere; prominences in the chromosphere and transition region; and flares and coronal mass ejections (CME) happen in the corona and chromosphere.",
"If flares are very violent, they can also perturb the photosphere and generate a Moreton wave.",
"On the contrary, quiescent prominences are large, cool, dense structures which are observed as dark, \"snake-like\" Hα ribbons (appearing like filaments) on the solar disc.",
"Their temperature is about –, and so they are usually considered as chromospheric features.In 2013, images from the High Resolution Coronal Imager revealed never-before-seen \"magnetic braids\" of plasma within the outer layers of these active regions.====Coronal loops====Image from TRACE at 171Å wavelength (extreme ultraviolet) showing coronal loopsCoronal loops are the basic structures of the magnetic solar corona.",
"These loops are the closed-magnetic flux cousins of the open-magnetic flux that can be found in coronal holes and the solar wind.",
"Loops of magnetic flux well up from the solar body and fill with hot solar plasma.",
"Due to the heightened magnetic activity in these coronal loop regions, coronal loops can often be the precursor to solar flares and CMEs.The solar plasma that feeds these structures is heated from under to well over 106 K from the photosphere, through the transition region, and into the corona.",
"Often, the solar plasma will fill these loops from one point and drain to another, called foot points (siphon flow due to a pressure difference, or asymmetric flow due to some other driver).When the plasma rises from the foot points towards the loop top, as always occurs during the initial phase of a compact flare, it is defined as chromospheric evaporation.",
"When the plasma rapidly cools and falls toward the photosphere, it is called chromospheric condensation.",
"There may also be symmetric flow from both loop foot points, causing a build-up of mass in the loop structure.",
"The plasma may cool rapidly in this region (for a thermal instability), its dark filaments obvious against the solar disk or prominences off the Sun's limb.Coronal loops may have lifetimes in the order of seconds (in the case of flare events), minutes, hours or days.",
"Where there is a balance in loop energy sources and sinks, coronal loops can last for long periods of time and are known as ''steady state'' or ''quiescent'' coronal loops (example).Coronal loops are very important to our understanding of the current ''coronal heating problem''.",
"Coronal loops are highly radiating sources of plasma and are therefore easy to observe by instruments such as ''TRACE''.",
"An explanation of the coronal heating problem remains as these structures are being observed remotely, where many ambiguities are present (i.e., radiation contributions along the line-of-sight propagation).",
"''In-situ'' measurements are required before a definitive answer can be determined, but due to the high plasma temperatures in the corona, ''in-situ'' measurements are, at present, impossible.",
"The next mission of the NASA Parker Solar Probe will approach the Sun very closely, allowing more direct observations.====Large-scale structures====Large-scale structures are very long arcs which can cover over a quarter of the solar disk but contain plasma less dense than in the coronal loops of the active regions.They were first detected in the June 8, 1968, flare observation during a rocket flight.The large-scale structure of the corona changes over the 11-year solar cycle and becomes particularly simple during the minimum period, when the magnetic field of the Sun is almost similar to a dipolar configuration (plus a quadrupolar component).====Interconnections of active regions====As Parker Solar Probe passed through the Sun's corona in early 2021, the spacecraft flew by structures called coronal streamers.The interconnections of active regions are arcs connecting zones of opposite magnetic field, of different active regions.",
"Significant variations of these structures are often seen after a flare.Some other features of this kind are helmet streamers – large, cap-like coronal structures with long, pointed peaks that usually overlie sunspots and active regions.",
"Coronal streamers are considered to be sources of the slow solar wind.====Filament cavities====Image taken by the Solar Dynamics Observatory on October 16, 2010.A very long filament cavity is visible across the Sun's southern hemisphere.Filament cavities are zones which look dark in the X-rays and are above the regions where Hα filaments are observed in the chromosphere.",
"They were first observed in the two 1970 rocket flights which also detected ''coronal holes''.Filament cavities are cooler clouds of plasma suspended above the Sun's surface by magnetic forces.",
"The regions of intense magnetic field look dark in images because they are empty of hot plasma.",
"In fact, the sum of the magnetic pressure and plasma pressure must be constant everywhere on the heliosphere in order to have an equilibrium configuration: where the magnetic field is higher, the plasma must be cooler or less dense.",
"The plasma pressure can be calculated by the state equation of a perfect gas: , where is the particle number density, the Boltzmann constant and the plasma temperature.",
"It is evident from the equation that the plasma pressure lowers when the plasma temperature decreases with respect to the surrounding regions or when the zone of intense magnetic field empties.",
"The same physical effect renders sunspots apparently dark in the photosphere.====Bright points====Bright points are small active regions found on the solar disk.",
"X-ray bright points were first detected on April 8, 1969, during a rocket flight.The fraction of the solar surface covered by bright points varies with the solar cycle.",
"They are associated with small bipolar regions of the magnetic field.",
"Their average temperature ranges from 1.1 MK to 3.4 MK.",
"The variations in temperature are often correlated with changes in the X-ray emission.===Coronal holes===Coronal holes are unipolar regions which look dark in the X-rays since they do not emit much radiation.",
"These are wide zones of the Sun where the magnetic field is unipolar and opens towards the interplanetary space.",
"The high speed solar wind arises mainly from these regions.In the UV images of the coronal holes, some small structures, similar to elongated bubbles, are often seen as they were suspended in the solar wind.",
"These are the coronal plumes.",
"More precisely, they are long thin streamers that project outward from the Sun's north and south poles.===The quiet Sun===The solar regions which are not part of active regions and coronal holes are commonly identified as the quiet Sun.The equatorial region has a faster rotation speed than the polar zones.",
"The result of the Sun's differential rotation is that the active regions always arise in two bands parallel to the equator and their extension increases during the periods of maximum of the solar cycle, while they almost disappear during each minimum.",
"Therefore, the quiet Sun always coincides with the equatorial zone and its surface is less active during the maximum of the solar cycle.",
"Approaching the minimum of the solar cycle (also named butterfly cycle), the extension of the quiet Sun increases until it covers the whole disk surface excluding some bright points on the hemisphere and the poles, where there are coronal holes.===Alfvén surface===NASA animation of the Parker Solar Probe passing through the Sun's corona.",
"Inside the corona's boundary, its Alfvén surface, plasma waves travel back and forth to the Sun's surface.The Alfvén surface is the boundary separating the corona from the solar wind defined as where the coronal plasma's Alfvén speed and the large-scale solar wind speed are equal.Researchers were unsure exactly where the Alfvén critical surface of the Sun lay.",
"Based on remote images of the corona, estimates had put it somewhere between 10 and 20 solar radii from the surface of the Sun.",
"On April 28, 2021, during its eighth flyby of the Sun, NASA's Parker Solar Probe encountered the specific magnetic and particle conditions at 18.8 solar radii that indicated that it penetrated the Alfvén surface."
],
[
"Variability of the corona",
"A portrait, as diversified as the one already pointed out for the coronal features, is emphasized by the analysis of the dynamics of the main structures of the corona, which evolve at differential times.",
"Studying coronal variability in its complexity is not easy because the times of evolution of the different structures can vary considerably: from seconds to several months.",
"The typical sizes of the regions where coronal events take place vary in the same way, as it is shown in the following table.",
"'''Coronal event''' '''Typical time-scale''' '''Typical length-scale (Mm)''' Active region flare 10 to 10–100 X-ray bright point minutes 1–10 Transient in large-scale structures from minutes to hours ~100 Transient in interconnecting arcs from minutes to hours ~100 Quiet Sun from hours to months 100– Coronal hole several rotations 100–===Flares===On August 31, 2012, a long filament of solar material that had been hovering in the Sun's outer atmosphere, the corona, erupted at 4:36 p.m. EDTFlares take place in active regions and are characterized by a sudden increase of the radiative flux emitted from small regions of the corona.",
"They are very complex phenomena, visible at different wavelengths; they involve several zones of the solar atmosphere and many physical effects, thermal and not thermal, and sometimes wide reconnections of the magnetic field lines with material expulsion.Flares are impulsive phenomena, of average duration of 15 minutes, and the most energetic events can last several hours.",
"Flares produce a high and rapid increase of the density and temperature.An emission in white light is only seldom observed: usually, flares are only seen at extreme UV wavelengths and into the X-rays, typical of the chromospheric and coronal emission.In the corona, the morphology of flares is described by observations in the UV, soft and hard X-rays, and in Hα wavelengths, and is very complex.",
"However, two kinds of basic structures can be distinguished:* ''Compact flares'', when each of the two arches where the event is happening maintains its morphology: only an increase of the emission is observed without significant structural variations.",
"The emitted energy is of the order of 1022 – 1023 J.",
"* ''Flares of long duration'', associated with eruptions of prominences, transients in white light and ''two-ribbon flares'': in this case the magnetic loops change their configuration during the event.",
"The energies emitted during these flares are of such great proportion they can reach 1025 J.Filament erupting during a solar flare, seen at EUV wavelengths (TRACE)As for temporal dynamics, three different phases are generally distinguished, whose duration are not comparable.",
"The durations of those periods depend on the range of wavelengths used to observe the event:* ''An initial impulsive phase'', whose duration is on the order of minutes, strong emissions of energy are often observed even in the microwaves, EUV wavelengths and in the hard X-ray frequencies.",
"* ''A maximum phase''* ''A decay phase'', which can last several hours.Sometimes also a phase preceding the flare can be observed, usually called as \"pre-flare\" phase.===Coronal mass ejections===Often accompanying large solar flares and prominences are coronal mass ejections (CME).",
"These are enormous emissions of coronal material and magnetic field that travel outward from the Sun at over a million kilometers per hour, containing roughly 10 times the energy of the solar flare or prominence that accompanies them.",
"Some larger CMEs can propel hundreds of millions of tons of material into interplanetary space at roughly 1.5 million kilometers an hour."
],
[
"Stellar coronae",
"Coronal stars are ubiquitous among the stars in the cool half of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram.",
"These coronae can be detected using X-ray telescopes.",
"Some stellar coronae, particularly in young stars, are much more luminous than the Sun's.",
"For example, FK Comae Berenices is the prototype for the FK Com class of variable star.",
"These are giants of spectral types G and K with an unusually rapid rotation and signs of extreme activity.",
"Their X-ray coronae are among the most luminous (''L''x ≥ 1032 erg·s−1 or 1025W) and the hottest known with dominant temperatures up to 40 MK.The astronomical observations planned with the Einstein Observatory by Giuseppe Vaiana and his group showed that F-, G-, K- and M-stars have chromospheres and often coronae much like the Sun.The ''O-B stars'', which do not have surface convection zones, have a strong X-ray emission.",
"However these stars do not have coronae, but the outer stellar envelopes emit this radiation during shocks due to thermal instabilities in rapidly moving gas blobs.Also A-stars do not have convection zones but they do not emit at the UV and X-ray wavelengths.",
"Thus they appear to have neither chromospheres nor coronae."
],
[
"Physics of the corona",
"Hinode on 12 January 2007, reveals the filamentary nature of the corona.The matter in the external part of the solar atmosphere is in the state of plasma, at very high temperature (a few million kelvin) and at very low density (of the order of 1015 particles/m3).According to the definition of plasma, it is a quasi-neutral ensemble of particles which exhibits a collective behaviour.The composition is similar to that in the Sun's interior, mainly hydrogen, but with much greater ionization of its heavier elements than that found in the photosphere.",
"Heavier metals, such as iron, are partially ionized and have lost most of the external electrons.",
"The ionization state of a chemical element depends strictly on the temperature and is regulated by the Saha equation in the lowest atmosphere, but by collisional equilibrium in the optically thin corona.",
"Historically, the presence of the spectral lines emitted from highly ionized states of iron allowed determination of the high temperature of the coronal plasma, revealing that the corona is much hotter than the internal layers of the chromosphere.The corona behaves like a gas which is very hot but very light at the same time: the pressure in the corona is usually only 0.1 to 0.6 Pa in active regions, while on the Earth the atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa, approximately a million times higher than on the solar surface.",
"However it is not properly a gas, because it is made of charged particles, basically protons and electrons, moving at different velocities.",
"Supposing that they have the same kinetic energy on average(for the equipartition theorem), electrons have a mass roughly times smaller than protons, therefore they acquire more velocity.",
"Metal ions are always slower.",
"This fact has relevant physical consequences either on radiative processes (that are very different from the photospheric radiative processes), or on thermal conduction.Furthermore, the presence of electric charges induces the generation of electric currents and high magnetic fields.Magnetohydrodynamic waves (MHD waves) can also propagate in this plasma, even though it is still not clear how they can be transmitted or generated in the corona.===Radiation===Coronal plasma is optically thin and therefore transparent to the electromagnetic radiation that it emits and to that coming from lower layers.",
"The plasma is very rarefied and the photon mean free path overcomes by far all the other length-scales, including the typical sizes of common coronal features.Electromagnetic radiation from the corona has been identified coming from three main sources, located in the same volume of space: * The K-corona (K for , \"continuous\" in German) is created by sunlight Thomson scattering off free electrons; doppler broadening of the reflected photospheric absorption lines spreads them so greatly as to completely obscure them, giving the spectral appearance of a continuum with no absorption lines.",
"* The F-corona (F for Fraunhofer) is created by sunlight bouncing off dust particles, and is observable because its light contains the Fraunhofer absorption lines that are seen in raw sunlight; the F-corona extends to very high elongation angles from the Sun, where it is called the zodiacal light.",
"* The E-corona (E for emission) is due to spectral emission lines produced by ions that are present in the coronal plasma; it may be observed in broad or forbidden or hot spectral emission lines and is the main source of information about the corona's composition.===Thermal conduction===A mosaic of the extreme ultraviolet images taken from STEREO on December 4, 2006.These false color images show the Sun's atmospheres at a range of different temperatures.",
"Clockwise from top left: 1 million degrees C (171 Å—blue), 1.5 million °C (), – (304 Å—red), and 2.5 million °C (286 Å—yellow).STEREO – First images as a slow animationIn the corona thermal conduction occurs from the external hotter atmosphere towards the inner cooler layers.",
"Responsible for the diffusion process of the heat are the electrons, which are much lighter than ions and move faster, as explained above.When there is a magnetic field the thermal conductivity of the plasma becomes higher in the direction which is parallel to the field lines rather than in the perpendicular direction.A charged particle moving in the direction perpendicular to the magnetic field line is subject to the Lorentz force which is normal to the plane individuated by the velocity and the magnetic field.",
"This force bends the path of the particle.",
"In general, since particles also have a velocity component along the magnetic field line, the Lorentz force constrains them to bend and move along spirals around the field lines at the cyclotron frequency.If collisions between the particles are very frequent, they are scattered in every direction.",
"This happens in the photosphere, where the plasma carries the magnetic field in its motion.",
"In the corona, on the contrary, the mean free-path of the electrons is of the order of kilometres and even more, so each electron can do a helicoidal motion long before being scattered after a collision.",
"Therefore, the heat transfer is enhanced along the magnetic field lines and inhibited in the perpendicular direction.In the direction longitudinal to the magnetic field, the thermal conductivity of the corona iswhere is the Boltzmann constant, is the temperature in kelvin, is the electron mass, is the electric charge of the electron,is the Coulomb logarithm, andis the Debye length of the plasma with particle density .",
"The Coulomb logarithm is roughly 20 in the corona, with a mean temperature of 1 MK and a density of 1015 particles/m3, and about 10 in the chromosphere, where the temperature is approximately 10kK and the particle density is of the order of 1018 particles/m3, and in practice it can be assumed constant.Thence, if we indicate with the heat for a volume unit, expressed in J m−3, the Fourier equation of heat transfer, to be computed only along the direction of the field line, becomesNumerical calculations have shown that the thermal conductivity of the corona is comparable to that of copper.===Coronal seismology===Coronal seismology is a method of studying the plasma of the solar corona with the use of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves.",
"MHD studies the dynamics of electrically conducting fluids – in this case, the fluid is the coronal plasma.",
"Philosophically, coronal seismology is similar to the Earth's seismology, the Sun's helioseismology, and MHD spectroscopy of laboratory plasma devices.",
"In all these approaches, waves of various kinds are used to probe a medium.",
"The potential of coronal seismology in the estimation of the coronal magnetic field, density scale height, fine structure and heating has been demonstrated by different research groups."
],
[
"Coronal heating problem",
"A new visualisation technique can provide clues to the coronal heating problem.The coronal heating problem in solar physics relates to the question of why the temperature of the Sun's corona is millions of kelvins versus the thousands of kelvins of the surface.",
"Several theories have been proposed to explain this phenomenon, but it is still challenging to determine which is correct.",
"The problem first emerged after the identification of unknown spectral lines in the solar spectrum with highly ionized iron and calcium atoms.",
"The comparison of the coronal and the photospheric temperatures of , leads to the question of how the 200-times-hotter coronal temperature can be maintained.",
"The problem is primarily concerned with how the energy is transported up into the corona and then converted into heat within a few solar radii.The high temperatures require energy to be carried from the solar interior to the corona by non-thermal processes, because the second law of thermodynamics prevents heat from flowing directly from the solar photosphere (surface), which is at about , to the much hotter corona at about 1 to 3 MK (parts of the corona can even reach ).Between the photosphere and the corona, the thin region through which the temperature increases is known as the transition region.",
"It ranges from only tens to hundreds of kilometers thick.",
"Energy cannot be transferred from the cooler photosphere to the corona by conventional heat transfer as this would violate the second law of thermodynamics.",
"An analogy of this would be a light bulb raising the temperature of the air surrounding it to something greater than its glass surface.",
"Hence, some other manner of energy transfer must be involved in the heating of the corona.The amount of power required to heat the solar corona can easily be calculated as the difference between coronal radiative losses and heating by thermal conduction toward the chromosphere through the transition region.",
"It is about 1 kilowatt for every square meter of surface area on the Sun's chromosphere, or 1/ of the amount of light energy that escapes the Sun.Many coronal heating theories have been proposed, but two theories have remained as the most likely candidates: wave heating and magnetic reconnection (or nanoflares).",
"Through most of the past 50 years, neither theory has been able to account for the extreme coronal temperatures.In 2012, high resolution (<0.2″) soft X-ray imaging with the High Resolution Coronal Imager aboard a sounding rocket revealed tightly wound braids in the corona.",
"It is hypothesized that the reconnection and unravelling of braids can act as primary sources of heating of the active solar corona to temperatures of up to 4 million kelvin.",
"The main heat source in the quiescent corona (about 1.5 million kelvin) is assumed to originate from MHD waves.NASA's Parker Solar Probe is intended to approach the Sun to a distance of approximately 9.5 solar radii to investigate coronal heating and the origin of the solar wind.",
"It was successfully launched on August 12, 2018 and as of fall 2022 has completed the first 13 of more than 20 planned close approaches to the Sun.+Competing theories of heating mechanismsHeating models HydrodynamicMagnetic* No magnetic field* Slow rotating stars DC (''reconnection'') AC (''waves'')* B-field stresses* Reconnection events* Flares-nanoflares* ''Uniform heating rates''* Photospheric foot point ''shuffling''* MHD wave propagation* High Alfvén wave flux* ''Non-uniform heating rates''===Wave heating theory===The wave heating theory, proposed in 1949 by Évry Schatzman, proposes that waves carry energy from the solar interior to the solar chromosphere and corona.",
"The Sun is made of plasma rather than ordinary gas, so it supports several types of waves analogous to sound waves in air.",
"The most important types of wave are magneto-acoustic waves and Alfvén waves.",
"Magneto-acoustic waves are sound waves that have been modified by the presence of a magnetic field, and Alfvén waves are similar to ultra low frequency radio waves that have been modified by interaction with matter in the plasma.",
"Both types of waves can be launched by the turbulence of granulation and super granulation at the solar photosphere, and both types of waves can carry energy for some distance through the solar atmosphere before turning into shock waves that dissipate their energy as heat.One problem with wave heating is delivery of the heat to the appropriate place.",
"Magneto-acoustic waves cannot carry sufficient energy upward through the chromosphere to the corona, both because of the low pressure present in the chromosphere and because they tend to be reflected back to the photosphere.",
"Alfvén waves can carry enough energy, but do not dissipate that energy rapidly enough once they enter the corona.",
"Waves in plasmas are notoriously difficult to understand and describe analytically, but computer simulations, carried out by Thomas Bogdan and colleagues in 2003, seem to show that Alfvén waves can transmute into other wave modes at the base of the corona, providing a pathway that can carry large amounts of energy from the photosphere through the chromosphere and transition region and finally into the corona where it dissipates it as heat.Another problem with wave heating has been the complete absence, until the late 1990s, of any direct evidence of waves propagating through the solar corona.",
"The first direct observation of waves propagating into and through the solar corona was made in 1997 with the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory space-borne solar observatory, the first platform capable of observing the Sun in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) for long periods of time with stable photometry.",
"Those were magneto-acoustic waves with a frequency of about 1 millihertz (mHz, corresponding to a wave period), that carry only about 10% of the energy required to heat the corona.",
"Many observations exist of localized wave phenomena, such as Alfvén waves launched by solar flares, but those events are transient and cannot explain the uniform coronal heat.It is not yet known exactly how much wave energy is available to heat the corona.",
"Results published in 2004 using data from the TRACE spacecraft seem to indicate that there are waves in the solar atmosphere at frequencies as high as (10 second period).",
"Measurements of the temperature of different ions in the solar wind with the UVCS instrument aboard SOHO give strong indirect evidence that there are waves at frequencies as high as , well into the range of human hearing.",
"These waves are very difficult to detect under normal circumstances, but evidence collected during solar eclipses by teams from Williams College suggest the presences of such waves in the 1– range.Recently, Alfvénic motions have been found in the lower solar atmosphere and also in the quiet Sun, in coronal holes and in active regions using observations with AIA on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory.These Alfvénic oscillations have significant power, and seem to be connected to the chromospheric Alfvénic oscillations previously reported with the Hinode spacecraft.Solar wind observations with the ''Wind'' spacecraft have recently shown evidence to support theories of Alfvén-cyclotron dissipation, leading to local ion heating.===Magnetic reconnection theory===Arcing active region by Solar Dynamics ObservatoryThe magnetic reconnection theory relies on the solar magnetic field to induce electric currents in the solar corona.",
"The currents then collapse suddenly, releasing energy as heat and wave energy in the corona.",
"This process is called \"reconnection\" because of the peculiar way that magnetic fields behave in plasma (or any electrically conductive fluid such as mercury or seawater).",
"In a plasma, magnetic field lines are normally tied to individual pieces of matter, so that the topology of the magnetic field remains the same: if a particular north and south magnetic pole are connected by a single field line, then even if the plasma is stirred or if the magnets are moved around, that field line will continue to connect those particular poles.",
"The connection is maintained by electric currents that are induced in the plasma.",
"Under certain conditions, the electric currents can collapse, allowing the magnetic field to \"reconnect\" to other magnetic poles and release heat and wave energy in the process.Magnetic reconnection is hypothesized to be the mechanism behind solar flares, the largest explosions in the Solar System.",
"Furthermore, the surface of the Sun is covered with millions of small magnetized regions 50– across.",
"These small magnetic poles are buffeted and churned by the constant granulation.",
"The magnetic field in the solar corona must undergo nearly constant reconnection to match the motion of this \"magnetic carpet\", so the energy released by the reconnection is a natural candidate for the coronal heat, perhaps as a series of \"microflares\" that individually provide very little energy but together account for the required energy.The idea that nanoflares might heat the corona was proposed by Eugene Parker in the 1980s but is still controversial.",
"In particular, ultraviolet telescopes such as TRACE and SOHO/EIT can observe individual micro-flares as small brightenings in extreme ultraviolet light, but there seem to be too few of these small events to account for the energy released into the corona.",
"The additional energy not accounted for could be made up by wave energy, or by gradual magnetic reconnection that releases energy more smoothly than micro-flares and therefore does not appear well in the TRACE data.",
"Variations on the micro-flare hypothesis use other mechanisms to stress the magnetic field or to release the energy, and are a subject of active research in 2005.===Spicules (type II)===For decades, researchers believed spicules could send heat into the corona.",
"However, following observational research in the 1980s, it was found that spicule plasma did not reach coronal temperatures, and so the theory was discounted.As per studies performed in 2010 at the ''National Center for Atmospheric Research'' in Colorado, in collaboration with the ''Lockheed Martin's Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory'' (LMSAL) and the ''Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics'' of the University of Oslo, a new class of spicules (TYPE II) discovered in 2007, which travel faster (up to 100 km/s) and have shorter lifespans, can account for the problem.",
"These jets insert heated plasma into the Sun's outer atmosphere.Thus, a much greater understanding of the corona and improvement in the knowledge of the Sun's subtle influence on the Earth's upper atmosphere can be expected henceforth.",
"The Atmospheric Imaging Assembly on NASA's recently launched Solar Dynamics Observatory and NASA's Focal Plane Package for the Solar Optical Telescope on the Japanese Hinode satellite which was used to test this hypothesis.",
"The high spatial and temporal resolutions of the newer instruments reveal this coronal mass supply.These observations reveal a one-to-one connection between plasma that is heated to millions of degrees and the spicules that insert this plasma into the corona."
],
[
"See also",
"* Advanced Composition Explorer* Geocorona* Supra-arcade downflows* X-ray astronomy"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* NASA description of the solar corona* Coronal heating problem at Innovation Reports* NASA/GSFC description of the coronal heating problem* FAQ about coronal heating* Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, including near-real-time images of the solar corona* Coronal x-ray images from the Hinode XRT* nasa.gov Astronomy Picture of the Day July 26, 2009 – a combination of thirty-three photographs of the Sun's corona that were digitally processed to highlight faint features of a total eclipse that occurred in March 2006* Animated explanation of the core of the Sun (University of South Wales)* Alfvén waves may heat the Sun's corona* Solar Interface Region – Bart de Pontieu (SETI Talks) Video"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chrono Cross"
],
[
"Introduction",
" is a 1999 role-playing video game developed and published by Square for the PlayStation video game console.",
"It is set in the same world as ''Chrono Trigger'', which was released in 1995 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System.",
"''Chrono Cross'' was designed primarily by scenarist and director Masato Kato, who had help from other designers who also worked on ''Chrono Trigger'', including art director Yasuyuki Honne and composer Yasunori Mitsuda.",
"Nobuteru Yūki designed the characters of the game.The story of ''Chrono Cross'' focuses on a teenage boy named Serge and a theme of parallel worlds.",
"Faced with an alternate reality in which he died as a child, Serge endeavors to discover the truth of the two worlds' divergence.",
"The flashy thief Kid and many other characters assist him in his travels around the tropical archipelago El Nido.",
"Struggling to uncover his past and find the mysterious Frozen Flame, Serge is chiefly challenged by Lynx, a shadowy antagonist working to apprehend him.Upon its release in Japan in 1999 and North America in 2000, ''Chrono Cross'' received critical acclaim, earning a perfect 10.0 score from ''GameSpot''.",
"The game shipped copies worldwide by 2003, leading to a Greatest Hits re-release and continued life in Japan as part of the Ultimate Hits series.",
"''Chrono Cross'' was later re-released for the PlayStation Network in Japan in July 2011, and in North America four months later.",
"A remaster of the game, titled was released on April 7, 2022, for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One."
],
[
"Gameplay",
"''Chrono Cross'' features standard role-playing video game gameplay with some differences.",
"Players advance the game by controlling the protagonist Serge through the game's world, primarily by foot and boat.",
"Navigation between areas is conducted via an overworld map, much like ''Chrono Trigger's'', depicting the landscape from a scaled-down overhead view.",
"Around the island world are villages, outdoor areas, and dungeons, through which the player moves in three dimensions.",
"Locations such as cities and forests are represented by more realistically scaled field maps, in which players can converse with locals to procure items and services, solve puzzles and challenges, or encounter enemies.",
"Like ''Chrono Trigger'', the game features no random encounters; enemies are openly visible on field maps or lie in wait to ambush the party.",
"Touching the monster switches perspectives to a battle screen, in which players can physically attack, use \"Elements\", defend, or run away from the enemy.",
"Battles are turn-based, allowing the player unlimited time to select an action from the available menu.",
"For both the playable characters and the computer-controlled enemies, each attack reduces their number of hit points (a numerically based life bar), which can be restored through some Elements.",
"When a playable character loses all hit points, he or she faints.",
"If all the player's characters fall in battle, the game ends and must be restored from a previously saved chapter—except for specific storyline-related battles that allow the player to lose.",
"''Chrono Cross''s developers aimed to break new ground in the genre, and the game features several innovations.",
"For example, players can run away from all conflicts, including boss fights and the final battle.===Battle and Elements===alt=Two characters in foreground in battle poise, menu with \"Attack\", \"Element\", \"Defend\", \"Run Away\", boxes with health statistics for characters \"Serge\", \"Kid\", and \"Mel\", stone floor, gold robotic enemy facing the charactersThe Element system of ''Chrono Cross'' handles all magic, consumable items, and character-specific abilities.",
"Elements unleash magic effects upon the enemy or party and must be equipped for use, much like the materia of 1997's ''Final Fantasy VII''.",
"Elements can be purchased from shops or found in treasure chests littered throughout areas.",
"Once acquired, they are allocated to a grid whose size and shape are unique to each character.",
"They are ranked according to eight tiers; certain high level Elements can only be assigned on equivalent tiers in a character's grid.",
"As the game progresses, the grid expands, allowing more Elements to be equipped and higher tiers to be accessed.",
"Elements are divided into six paired oppositional types, or \"colors,\" each with a natural effect.",
"Red (fire/magma) opposes Blue (water/ice), Green (wind/flora) opposes Yellow (earth/lightning), and White (light/cosmos) opposes Black (darkness/gravity).",
"Each character and enemy has an innate color, enhancing the power of using same-color Elements while also making them weak against elements of the opposite color.",
"''Chrono Cross'' also features a \"field effect\", which keeps track of Element color used in the upper corner of the battle screen.",
"If the field is purely one color, characters are able to unleash a powerful summon element at the cost of one of the player's stars.",
"The field will also enhance the power of Elements of the colors present, while weakening Elements of the opposite colors.",
"Characters also innately learn some special techniques (\"Techs\") that are unique to each character but otherwise act like Elements.",
"Like ''Chrono Trigger'', characters can combine certain Techs to make more powerful Double or Triple Techs.",
"Consumable Elements may be used to restore hit points or heal status ailments during or after battle.Another innovative aspect of ''Chrono Cross'' is its stamina bar.",
"At the beginning of a battle, each character has seven points of stamina.",
"When a character attacks or uses an Element, stamina is decreased proportionally to the potency of the attack.",
"Stamina slowly recovers when the character defends or when other characters perform actions in battle.",
"Characters with stamina below one point must wait to take action.",
"Use of an Element reduces the user's stamina bar by seven stamina points; this often means that the user's stamina gauge falls into the negative and the character must wait longer than usual to recover.",
"With each battle, players can enhance statistics such as strength and defense.",
"However, no system of experience points exists; after four or five upgrades, statistics remain static until players defeat a boss.",
"This adds a star to a running count shown on the status screen, which allows for another few rounds of statistical increases.",
"Players can equip characters with weapons, armor, helmets, and accessories for use in battle; for example, the \"Power Seal\" upgrades attack power.",
"Items and equipment may be purchased or found on field maps, often in treasure chests.",
"Unlike Elements, weapons and armor cannot merely be purchased with money; instead, the player must obtain base materials—such as copper, bronze, or bone—for a blacksmith to forge for a fee.",
"The items can later be disassembled into their original components at no cost.===Parallel dimensions===alt=\"Home World\", an archipelago featuring fishing settlements, a city, and a volcanic mountain range surrounding a stone fortThe existence of two major parallel dimensions, like time periods in ''Chrono Trigger'', plays a significant role in the game.",
"Players must go back and forth between the worlds to recruit party members, obtain items, and advance the plot.",
"Much of the population of either world have counterparts in the other; some party members can even visit their other versions.",
"The player must often search for items or places found exclusively in one world.",
"Events in one dimension sometimes have an impact in the other—for instance, cooling scorched ground on an island in one world allows vegetation to grow in the other world.",
"This system assists the presentation of certain themes, including the questioning of the importance of one's past decisions and humanity's role in destroying the environment.",
"Rounding out the notable facets of ''Chrono Cross''s gameplay are the New Game+ option and multiple endings.",
"As in ''Chrono Trigger'', players who have completed the game may choose to start the game over using data from the previous session.",
"Character levels, learned techniques, equipment, and items gathered copy over, while acquired money and some story-related items are discarded.",
"On a New Game+, players can access twelve endings.",
"Scenes viewed depend on players' progress in the game before the final battle, which can be fought at any time in a New Game+ file."
],
[
"Plot",
"===Characters===''Chrono Cross'' features a diverse cast of 45 party members.",
"Each character is outfitted with an innate Element affinity and three unique special abilities that are learned over time.",
"If taken to the world opposite their own, characters react to their counterparts (if available).",
"Many characters tie in to crucial plot events.",
"Since it is impossible to obtain all 45 characters in one playthrough, players must replay the game to witness everything.",
"Through use of the New Game+ feature, players can ultimately obtain all characters on one save file.Serge, the game's protagonist, is a 17-year-old boy who lives in the fishing village of Arni.",
"One day, he slips into an alternate world in which he drowned ten years before.",
"Determined to find the truth behind the incident, he follows a predestined course that leads him to save the world.",
"He is assisted by Kid, a feisty, skilled thief who seeks the mythical Frozen Flame.",
"Portrayed as willful and tomboyish due to her rough, thieving past, she helps Serge sneak into Viper Manor in order to obtain the Frozen Flame.",
"Kid vows to find and defeat Lynx, an anthropomorphic panther who burned down her adopted mother's orphanage.Lynx, a cruel agent of the supercomputer FATE, is bent on finding Serge and using his body as part of a greater plan involving the Frozen Flame.",
"Lynx travels with Harle, a mysterious, playful girl dressed like a harlequin.",
"Harle was sent by the Dragon God to shadow Lynx and one day steal the Frozen Flame from Chronopolis, a task she painfully fulfills despite being smitten with Serge.To accomplish this goal, Harle helps Lynx manipulate the Acacia Dragoons, the powerful militia governing the islands of El Nido.",
"As the Dragoons maintain order, they contend with Fargo, a former Dragoon turned pirate captain who holds a grudge against their leader, General Viper.",
"Though tussling with Serge initially, the Acacia Dragoons—whose ranks include the fierce warriors Karsh, Zoah, Marcy, and Glenn—later assist him when the militaristic nation of Porre invades the archipelago.",
"The invasion brings Norris and Grobyc to the islands, a heartful commander of an elite force and a prototype cyborg soldier, respectively, as they too seek the Frozen Flame.===Story===The game begins with Serge located in El Nido, a tropical archipelago inhabited by ancient natives, mainland colonists, and beings called Demi-humans.",
"Serge slips into an alternate dimension in which he drowned on the beach ten years prior, and meets the thief, \"Kid\".",
"As his adventure proceeds from here, Serge is able to recruit a multitude of allies to his cause.",
"While assisting Kid in a heist at Viper Manor to steal the Frozen Flame, he learns that ten years before the present, the universe split into two dimensions—one in which Serge lived, and one in which he perished.",
"Through Kid's Astral Amulet charm, Serge travels between the dimensions.",
"At Fort Dragonia, with the use of a Dragonian artifact called the Dragon Tear, Lynx switches bodies with Serge.",
"Unaware of the switch, Kid confides in Lynx, who stabs her as the real Serge helplessly watches.",
"Lynx boasts of his victory and banishes Serge to a strange realm called the Temporal Vortex.",
"He takes Kid under his wing, brainwashing her to believe the real Serge (in Lynx's body) is her enemy.",
"Serge escapes with help from Harle, although his new body turns him into a stranger in his own world, with all the allies he had gained up to that point abandoning him due to his new appearance.",
"Discovering that his new body prevents him from traveling across the dimensions, he sets out to regain his former body and learn more of the universal split that occurred ten years earlier, gaining a new band of allies along the way.",
"He travels to a forbidden lagoon known as the Dead Sea—a wasteland frozen in time, dotted with futuristic ruins.",
"At the center, he locates a man named Miguel and presumably ''Home'' world's Frozen Flame.",
"Charged with guarding the Dead Sea by an entity named FATE, Miguel and three visions of Crono, Marle, and Lucca from ''Chrono Trigger'' explain that Serge's existence dooms ''Home'' world's future to destruction at the hands of Lavos.",
"To prevent Serge from obtaining the Frozen Flame, FATE destroys the Dead Sea.Able to return to ''Another'' world, Serge allies with the Acacia Dragoons against Porre and locates that dimension's Dragon Tear, allowing him to return to his human form.",
"He then enters the Sea of Eden, ''Another'' world's physical equivalent of the Dead Sea, finding a temporal research facility from the distant future called Chronopolis.",
"Lynx and Kid are inside; Serge defeats Lynx and the supercomputer FATE, allowing the six Dragons of El Nido to steal the Frozen Flame and retire to Terra Tower, a massive structure raised from the sea floor.",
"Kid falls into a coma, and Harle bids the party goodbye to fly with the Dragons.",
"Serge regroups his party and tends to Kid, who remains comatose.",
"Continuing his adventure, he obtains and cleanses the corrupted Masamune sword from ''Chrono Trigger''.",
"He then uses the Dragon relics and shards of the Dragon Tears to create the mythic Element Chrono Cross.",
"The spiritual power of the Masamune later allows him to lift Kid from her coma.",
"At Terra Tower, the prophet of time, revealed to be Belthasar from ''Chrono Trigger'', visits him with visions of Crono, Marle, and Lucca.",
"Serge learns that the time research facility Chronopolis created El Nido thousands of years ago after a catastrophic experimental failure drew it to the past.",
"The introduction of a temporally foreign object in history caused the planet to pull in a counterbalance from a different dimension.",
"This was Dinopolis, a city of Dragonians—parallel universe descendants of ''Chrono Trigger''s Reptites.",
"The institutions warred and Chronopolis subjugated the Dragonians.",
"Humans captured their chief creation—the Dragon God, an entity capable of controlling nature.Chronopolis divided this entity into six pieces and created an Elements system.",
"FATE then terraformed an archipelago, erased the memories of most of Chronopolis's staff, and sent them to inhabit and populate its new paradise.",
"Thousands of years later, a panther demon attacked a three-year-old Serge.",
"His father took him to find assistance at Marbule, but Serge's boat blew off course due to a raging magnetic storm caused by Schala.",
"Schala, the princess of the Kingdom of Zeal, had long ago accidentally fallen to a place known as the Darkness Beyond Time and began merging with Lavos, the chief antagonist of ''Chrono Trigger''.",
"Schala's storm nullified Chronopolis's defenses and allowed Serge to contact the Frozen Flame; approaching it healed Serge but corrupted his father, turning him into Lynx.",
"A circuit in Chronopolis then designated Serge \"Arbiter\", simultaneously preventing FATE from using the Frozen Flame by extension.",
"The Dragons were aware of this situation, creating a seventh Dragon under the storm's cover named Harle, who manipulated Lynx to steal the Frozen Flame for the Dragons.After Serge returned home, FATE sent Lynx to kill Serge, hoping that it would release the Arbiter lock.",
"Ten years after Serge drowned, the thief Kid—presumably on Belthasar's orders—went back in time to save Serge and split the dimensions.",
"FATE, locked out of the Frozen Flame again, knew that Serge would one day cross to ''Another'' world and prepared to apprehend him.",
"Lynx switched bodies with Serge to dupe the biological check of Chronopolis on the Frozen Flame.",
"Belthasar then reveals that these events were part of a plan he had orchestrated named Project Kid.",
"Serge continues to the top of Terra Tower and defeats the Dragon God.",
"Continuing to the beach where the split in dimensions had occurred, Serge finds apparitions of Crono, Marle, and Lucca once more.",
"They reveal that Belthasar's plan was to empower Serge to free Schala from melding with Lavos, lest they evolve into the \"Time Devourer\", a creature capable of destroying spacetime.",
"Lucca explains that Kid is Schala's clone, sent to the modern age to take part in Project Kid.",
"Serge uses a Time Egg—given to him by Belthasar—to enter the Darkness Beyond Time and vanquish the Time Devourer, separating Schala from Lavos and restoring the dimensions to one.",
"Thankful, Schala muses on evolution and the struggle of life and returns Serge to his home, noting that he will forget the entire adventure.",
"She then seemingly records the experience in her diary, noting she will always be searching for Serge in this life and beyond, signing the entry as Schala \"Kid\" Zeal, implying that she and Kid have merged and became whole again.",
"A wedding photo of Kid and an obscured male sits on the diary's desk.",
"Scenes then depict a real-life Kid searching for someone in a modern city, intending to make players entertain the possibility that their own Kid is searching for them.",
"The ambiguous ending leaves the events of the characters' lives following the game up to interpretation.===Relation to ''Radical Dreamers''===''Chrono Cross'' employs story arcs, characters, and themes from ''Radical Dreamers'', a Satellaview side story to ''Chrono Trigger'' released in Japan.",
"''Radical Dreamers'' is an illustrated text adventure which was created to wrap up an unresolved plot line of ''Chrono Trigger''.",
"Though it borrows from ''Radical Dreamers'' in its exposition, ''Chrono Cross'' is not a remake of ''Radical Dreamers'', but a larger effort to fulfill that game's purpose; the plots of the games are irreconcilable.",
"To resolve continuity issues and acknowledge ''Radical Dreamers'', the developers of ''Chrono Cross'' suggested the game happened in a parallel dimension.",
"A notable difference between the two games is that Magus—present in ''Radical Dreamers'' as Gil—is absent from ''Chrono Cross''.",
"Director Masato Kato originally planned for Magus to appear in disguise as Guile, but scrapped the idea due to plot difficulties.",
"Kato specifically felt that the game's large number of characters, as well as the difficult production schedule, did not allow him to develop the relationship between Magus and Kid.",
"In the DS version of ''Chrono Trigger'', Kato teases the possibility of an amnesiac Magus."
],
[
"Development",
"Square began planning ''Chrono Cross'' immediately after the release of ''Xenogears'' in 1998 (which itself was originally conceived as a sequel to the SNES game).",
"''Chrono Trigger''s scenario director Masato Kato had brainstormed ideas for a sequel as early as 1996, following the release of ''Radical Dreamers''.",
"Square's managers selected a team, appointed Hiromichi Tanaka producer, and asked Kato to direct and develop a new ''Chrono'' game in the spirit of ''Radical Dreamers''.",
"Kato thought ''Dreamers'' was released in a \"half-finished state\", and wanted to continue the story of the character Kid.",
"Kato and Tanaka decided to produce an indirect sequel.",
"They acknowledged that Square would soon re-release ''Chrono Trigger'' as part of ''Final Fantasy Chronicles'', which would give players a chance to catch up on the story of ''Trigger'' before playing ''Cross''.",
"Kato thought that using a different setting and cast for ''Chrono Cross'' would allow players unfamiliar with ''Chrono Trigger'' to play ''Cross'' without becoming confused.",
"The ''Chrono Cross'' team decided against integrating heavy use of time travel into the game, as they thought it would be \"rehashing and cranking up the volume of the last game\".",
"Masato Kato cited the belief, \"there's no use in making something similar to before \", and noted, \"we're not so weak nor cheap as to try to make something exactly the same as ''Trigger'' ...",
"Accordingly, ''Chrono Cross'' is not ''Chrono Trigger 2''.",
"It doesn't simply follow on from ''Trigger'', but is another, different ''Chrono'' that interlaces with ''Trigger''.\"",
"Kato and Tanaka further explained their intentions after the game's release:alt=A Japanese man with left-parted hair, a brown leather jacket, and a blue shirtFull production began on ''Chrono Cross'' in mid-1998.The ''Chrono Cross'' team reached 80 members at its peak, with additional personnel of 10–20 cut-scene artists and 100 quality assurance testers.",
"The team felt pressure to live up to the work of ''Chrono Trigger''s \"Dream Team\" development group, which included famous Japanese manga artist Akira Toriyama.",
"Kato and Tanaka hired Nobuteru Yūki for character design and Yasuyuki Honne for art direction and concept art.",
"The event team originally envisioned a short game, and planned a system by which players would befriend any person in a town for alliance in battle.",
"Developers brainstormed traits and archetypes during the character-creation process, originally planning 64 characters with unique endings that could vary in three different ways per character.",
"Kato described the character creation process: \"Take Pierre, for example: we started off by saying we wanted a wacko fake hero like Tata from ''Trigger''.",
"We also said things like 'we need at least one powerful mom', 'no way we're gonna go without a twisted brat', and so on so forth.",
"\"As production continued, the length of ''Cross'' increased, leading the event team to reduce the number of characters to 45 and scrap most of the alternate endings.",
"Developers humorously named the character Pip \"Tsumaru\" in Japanese (which means \"packed\") as a pun on their attempts to pack as much content into the game as possible.",
"To avoid the burden of writing unique, accented dialogue for several characters, team member Kiyoshi Yoshii coded a system that produces accents by modifying basic text for certain characters.",
"Art director Nobuteru Yuuki initially wanted the characters to appear in a more ''chibi'' format with diminutive proportions.",
"The game world's fusion of high technology and ethnic, tribal atmospheres proved challenging at first.",
"He later recalled striving to harmonize the time period's level of technology, especially as reflected in characters' garb.",
"The demands of the art style led to Square merging the ''Final Fantasy VIII'' team into that of ''Chrono Cross'' two months before the Japanese release.The ''Chrono Cross'' team devised an original battle system using a stamina bar and Elements.",
"Kato planned the system around allowing players to avoid repetitive gameplay (also known as \"grinding\") to gain combat experience.",
"Elements were developed while planning the final battle (during which a sequence of specific Elements must be triggered), and then applied in reverse to the rest of the game.",
"Hiromichi Tanaka likened the Elements system to card games, hoping players would feel a sense of complete control in battle.",
"The team programmed each battle motion manually instead of performing motion capture.",
"Developers strove to include tongue-in-cheek humor in the battle system's techniques and animations to distance the game from the ''Final Fantasy'' franchise.",
"Masato Kato planned for the game's setting to feature a small archipelago, for fear that players would become confused traveling in large areas with respect to parallel worlds.",
"He hoped El Nido would still impart a sense of grand scale, and the development team pushed hardware limitations in creating the game's world.",
"To create field maps, the team modeled locations in 3D, then chose the best angle for 2D rendering.",
"The programmers of ''Chrono Cross'' did not use any existing Square programs or routines to code the game, instead writing new, proprietary systems.",
"Other innovations included variable-frame rate code for fast-forward and slow-motion gameplay (awarded as a bonus for completing the game) and a \"CD-read swap\" system to allow quick data retrieval.Masato Kato directed and wrote the main story, leaving sub-plots and minor character events to other staff.",
"The event team sometimes struggled to mesh their work on the plot due to the complexity of the parallel worlds concept.",
"Masato Kato confirmed that ''Cross'' featured a central theme of parallel worlds, as well as the fate of Schala, which he was previously unable to expound upon in ''Chrono Trigger''.",
"Concerning the ending sequences showing Kid searching for someone in a modern city, he hoped to make players realize that alternate futures and possibilities may exist in their own lives, and that this realization would \"not ... stop with the game\".",
"He later added, \"Paraphrasing one novelist's favorite words, what's important is not the message or theme, but how it is portrayed as a game.",
"Even in Cross, it was intentionally made so that the most important question was left unanswered.\"",
"Kato described the finished story as \"ole' boy-meets-girl type of story\" with sometimes-shocking twists.",
"Kato rode his motorcycle to relieve the stress of the game's release schedule.",
"He continued refining event data during the final stages of development while the rest of the team undertook debugging and quality control work.",
"Square advertised the game by releasing a short demo of the first chapter with purchases of ''Legend of Mana''.",
"The North American version of ''Cross'' required three months of translation and two months of debugging before release.",
"Richard Honeywood translated, working with Kato to rewrite certain dialogue for ease of comprehension in English.",
"He also added instances of wordplay and alliteration to compensate for difficult Japanese jokes.",
"To streamline translation for all 45 playable characters, Honeywood created his own version of the accent generator which needed to be more robust than the simple verbal tics of the Japanese cast.",
"Although the trademark ''Chrono Cross'' was registered in the European Union, the game was not released in Europe.After the game was done, the team was merged with those behind ''Parasite Eve II'', ''Brave Fencer Musashi'' and ''Mana'' to make ''Final Fantasy XI''.",
"The programming for the game endured as the basis for the engine of ''Final Fantasy XI''.===Music===''Chrono Cross'' was scored by freelance video game music composer Yasunori Mitsuda, who previously worked on ''Chrono Trigger''.",
"Director Masato Kato personally commissioned Mitsuda's involvement, citing a need for the \"Chrono sound\".",
"Kato envisioned a \"Southeast Asian feel, mixed with the foreign tastes and the tones of countries such as Greece\"; Mitsuda centered his work around old world cultural influences, including Mediterranean, Fado, Celtic, and percussive African music.",
"Mitsuda cited visual inspiration for songs: \"All of my subjects are taken from scenery.",
"I love artwork.\"",
"To complement the theme of parallel worlds, he gave ''Another'' and ''Home'' respectively dark and bright moods, and hoped players would feel the emotions of \"'burning soul,' 'lonely world,' and 'unforgettable memories'\".",
"Mitsuda and Kato planned music samples and sound effects with the philosophy of \"a few sounds with a lot of content\".",
"''Xenogears'' contributor Tomohiko Kira played guitar on the beginning and ending themes.",
"Noriko Mitose, as selected by Masato Kato, sang the ending song—\"Radical Dreamers – The Unstolen Jewel\".",
"Ryo Yamazaki, a synthesizer programmer for Square Enix, helped Mitsuda transfer his ideas to the PlayStation's sound capabilities; Mitsuda was happy to accomplish even half of what he envisioned.",
"Certain songs were ported from the score of ''Radical Dreamers'', such as \"Gale\", \"Frozen Flame\", and \"Viper Mansion\".",
"Other entries in the soundtrack contain leitmotifs from ''Chrono Trigger'' and ''Radical Dreamers''.",
"The melody of \"Far Promise ~ Dream Shore\" features prominently in \"Dreams of the Ages\" and \"Sailing (Another World)\".",
"Masato Kato faced internal opposition in hiring Noriko Mitose:Yasunori MitsudaProduction required six months of work.",
"After wrapping, Mitsuda and Kato played ''Chrono Cross'' to record their impressions and observe how the tracks intermingled with scenes; the ending theme brought Kato to tears.",
"Players who preordered the game received a sampler disc of five songs, and Square released a three-CD official soundtrack in Japan after the game's debut.",
"The soundtrack won the Gold Prize for the PlayStation Awards of 2000.In 2005, Square Enix reissued the soundtrack due to popular demand.",
"Earlier that year, Mitsuda announced a new arranged ''Chrono Cross'' album, scheduled for release in July 2005.Mitsuda's contract with Square gave him ownership and full rights to the soundtrack of ''Chrono Cross''.",
"It was delayed, and at a Play!",
"A Video Game Symphony concert in May 2006, he revealed it would feature acoustic music and would be \"out within the year\", later backtracking and alleging a 2007 release date.",
"Mitsuda posted a streaming sample of a finished track on his personal website in January 2009, and has stated the album will be released to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the Japanese debut of ''Cross''.",
"Music from ''Chrono Cross'' has been featured in the September 2009 ''Symphonic Fantasies'' concerts, part of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series conducted by Arnie Roth.",
"That same year, the ''Chrono Cross'' theme \"Scars of Time\" was voted first place in Hardcore Gaming 101's \"Best Video Game Music of All Time\" poll.",
"\"Scars of Time\" was also featured in 2012 by NPR in a program about classically arranged video game scores."
],
[
"Release and reception",
"''Chrono Cross'' shipped 850,000 units in Japan and 650,000 abroad by 2003.It was re-released once in the United States as a Sony Greatest Hits title and again as part of the Japanese Ultimate Hits series.",
"''Chrono Cross'' was also released on the PlayStation Network in Japan on July 6, 2011, and in North America on November 8, 2011, but a PAL region release has not been announced.",
"Critics praised the game's complex plot, innovative battle system, varied characters, moving score, vibrant graphics, and success in breaking convention with its predecessor.",
"''Electronic Gaming Monthly'' gave ''Chrono Cross'' a Gold Award, scoring it 10/10/9.5 in their three reviewer format with the first review declaring the game to be \"a masterpiece, plain and simple\".",
"GameSpot awarded the game a perfect 10, one of only sixteen games in the 40,000 games listed on Gamespot to have been given the score, and its Console Game of the Year Award for 2000.It also received the annual Best Role-Playing Game, Best Game Music and Best PlayStation Game awards, and nominations for Best Game Story and Best Graphics, Artistic.",
"IGN gave the game a score of 9.7, and ''Cross'' appeared 89th in its 2008 Top 100 games list.",
"''Famitsu'' rated the game 36 out of 40 from four reviewers.Fan reaction was largely positive, though certain fans complained that the game was a far departure from its predecessor, ''Chrono Trigger''; ''Chrono Cross'' broke convention by featuring more characters, fewer double and triple techs, fewer instances of time travel, and few appearances of ''Trigger'' characters and locations.",
"Producer Hiromichi Tanaka and director Masato Kato were aware of the changes in development, specifically intending to provide an experience different from ''Chrono Trigger''.",
"Kato anticipated and rebuffed this discontent before the game's release, wondering what the ''Chrono'' title meant to these fans and whether his messages ever \"really got through to them\".",
"He continued, \"''Cross'' is undoubtedly the highest quality ''Chrono'' that we can create right now.",
"(I won't say the 'best' ''Chrono'', but) If you can't accept that, then I'm sorry to say this but I guess your ''Chrono'' and my ''Chrono'' have taken totally different paths.",
"But I would like to say, thank you for falling in love with ''Trigger'' so much.\"",
"Tanaka added, \"Of course, the fans of the original are very important, but what innovation can come about when you're bound to the past?",
"I believe that gameplay should evolve with the hardware.\"",
"Kato later acknowledged that he could have \"shown more empathy to the player\" by making the story less complex, and acknowledged fans who felt the game was a departure from ''Chrono Trigger'', noting that one can still \"equally enjoy the game.\"",
"He later reflected in 2015 that \"the bashing was terrible\" in reference to fans' push-back on featuring so many playable characters, acknowledging the complaint that recruiting all characters required several playthroughs.During the 4th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated ''Chrono Cross'' for the \"Game of the Year\", \"Console Game of the Year\", and \"Console Role-Playing\" awards."
],
[
"Legacy",
"On December 9, 2021, a cross-over event between ''Chrono Cross'' and the free-to-play RPG ''Another Eden'' was released.",
"A collaborative effort between ''Chrono'' writer Kato and composer Mitsuda, the game features elements similar to the ''Chrono'' series, such as talking frog protagonists and time-travel elements.",
"Titled ''Complex Dream'', the event introduces several ''Chrono Cross'' characters, including Serge, Kid, and Harle, as well as gameplay elements from the series such as element magic and combo techs.=== Remaster ===Publications began discussion of a possible remastered version of ''Chrono Cross'' in September 2021, when a security flaw allowed for a web developer to see an internal listing of current and upcoming video games in Nvidia's GeForce Now database, which included a never-announced ''Chrono Cross Remastered''.",
"Nvidia later confirmed that the list was real, but that the games listed were speculative, and may or may not end up getting a final release.",
"A second Nvidia leak occurred the following November, which again listed ''Chrono Cross Remastered'', this time with a December 2021 release date.",
"Further comments on the game's existence also arose in November; Video Games Chronicle reported Nick Baker of the XboxEra podcast could confirm prior reports of its existence, and game website ''Gematsu'' separately confirmed the game's existence.",
"On December 4, 2021, Square Enix announced a cross over event between ''Chrono Cross'' and mobile game ''Another Eden''; the announcement spurred more discussion on a remaster, considering Square was reviving the game for the first time in 20 years, and writer Masato Kato worked on both games.A remaster of the game, titled '''''Chrono Cross: The Radical Dreamers Edition''','' was announced on February 9, 2022, during a Nintendo Direct presentation, being slated for release on April 7, 2022, for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One.",
"The remaster of the title includes quality-of-life updates such as the ability to disable encounters, in addition to an enhanced OST.",
"The remaster is also bundled with the text adventure game ''Radical Dreamers'', previously only available to Japanese players through the Satellaview peripheral for the Super Famicom.",
"Masato Kato, Yasunori Mitsuda, Nobuteru Yuuki, and Hiromichi Tanaka were brought in to lightly polish the game's dialogue, music, character art, and mechanics, respectively.",
"Tanaka revealed that the game's assets, stored on magnetic tape after development ceased in 1999, were lost in the intervening years, causing him to rely on a personal backup he had maintained for certain aspects of his polishing work.",
"Producer Koichiro Sakamoto further explained that creating the remaster required teams to painstakingly upscale the game's original location art and remap each 3D field map, sometimes relying on AI to improve the resolution.",
"The work demanded close scrutiny to ensure no original details were missed.While ''Chrono Cross: The Radical Dreamers Edition'' was received well by critics, it received a negative reaction from players in part due to how it performed as compared to its PlayStation 1 counterpart.",
"Analysis showed that the remastered version had its frame rate dropping quite frequently, and was also unable to cross the threshold of 30 FPS.",
"This issue has been noticed across all the platforms it was released on.On February 22, 2023, Square-Enix released an update patch for the remaster on all systems it released for which has fixed some of the various gameplay issues with the remaster, as well as updating several performance aspects of the game including increasing the game's framerate to 60fps.===Sequel===In 2001, Hironobu Sakaguchi revealed the company's staff wanted to develop a new game and were discussing script ideas.",
"Although Kato was interested in a new title, the project had not been greenlighted.",
"Square then registered a trademark for ''Chrono Break'' worldwide, causing speculation concerning a new sequel.",
"Nothing materialized, and the trademark was dropped in the United States on November 13, 2003, though it still stands in Japan and the European Union.",
"Kato later returned to Square Enix as a freelancer to work on ''Children of Mana'' and ''Dawn of Mana''.",
"Mitsuda also expressed interest in scoring a new ''Chrono'' series game.",
"In 2005, Kato and Mitsuda teamed up to do a game called ''Deep Labyrinth'', and again in 2008 for ''Sands of Destruction'', both for the Nintendo DS.",
"The February 2008 issue of ''Game Informer'' ranked the ''Chrono'' series eighth among the \"Top Ten Sequels in Demand\", naming the games \"steadfast legacies in the Square Enix catalogue\" and asking \"what's the damn holdup?!\"",
"In ''Electronic Gaming Monthly''s June 2008 \"Retro Issue\", writer Jeremy Parish cited ''Chrono'' as the franchise video game fans would be most thrilled to see a sequel to.",
"In the May 1, 2009, issue of ''Famitsu'', ''Chrono Trigger'' placed 14th out of 50 in a vote of most-wanted sequels by the magazine's readers.",
"At E3 2009, SE Senior Vice President Shinji Hashimoto remarked, \"If people want a sequel, they should buy more!\""
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official website for The Radical Dreamers Edition* Official Japanese website for The Radical Dreamers Edition** Chrono Cross game entry at The Playstation Datacenter"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Planned economy"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''planned economy''' is a type of economic system where the distribution of goods and services or the investment, production and the allocation of capital goods takes place according to economic plans that are either economy-wide or limited to a category of goods and services.",
"A planned economy may use centralized, decentralized, participatory or Soviet-type forms of economic planning.",
"The level of centralization or decentralization in decision-making and participation depends on the specific type of planning mechanism employed.Socialist states based on the Soviet model have used central planning, although a minority such as the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia have adopted some degree of market socialism.",
"Market abolitionist socialism replaces factor markets with direct calculation as the means to coordinate the activities of the various socially owned economic enterprises that make up the economy.",
"More recent approaches to socialist planning and allocation have come from some economists and computer scientists proposing planning mechanisms based on advances in computer science and information technology.Planned economies contrast with unplanned economies, specifically market economies, where autonomous firms operating in markets make decisions about production, distribution, pricing and investment.",
"Market economies that use indicative planning are variously referred to as planned market economies, mixed economies and mixed market economies.",
"A command economy follows an administrative-command system and uses Soviet-type economic planning which was characteristic of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc before most of these countries converted to market economies.",
"This highlights the central role of hierarchical administration and public ownership of production in guiding the allocation of resources in these economic systems."
],
[
"Overview",
"In the Hellenistic and post-Hellenistic world, \"compulsory state planning was the most characteristic trade condition for the Egyptian countryside, for Hellenistic India, and to a lesser degree the more barbaric regions of the Seleucid, the Pergamenian, the southern Arabian, and the Parthian empires\".",
"Scholars have argued that the Incan economy was a flexible type of command economy, centered around the movement and utilization of labor instead of goods.",
"One view of mercantilism sees it as involving planned economies.The Soviet-style planned economy in Soviet Russia evolved in the wake of a continuing existing World War I war-economy as well as other policies, known as war communism (1918–1921), shaped to the requirements of the Russian Civil War of 1917–1923.These policies began their formal consolidation under an official organ of government in 1921, when the Soviet government founded Gosplan.",
"However, the period of the New Economic Policy ( to intervened before the planned system of regular five-year plans started in 1928.Leon Trotsky was one of the earliest proponents of economic planning during the NEP period.",
"Trotsky argued that specialization, the concentration of production and the use of planning could \"raise in the near future the coefficient of industrial growth not only two, but even three times higher than the pre-war rate of 6% and, perhaps, even higher\".",
"According to historian Sheila Fitzpatrick, the scholarly consensus was that Stalin appropriated the position of the Left Opposition on such matters as industrialisation and collectivisation.After World War II (1939–1945) France and Great Britain practiced dirigisme – government direction of the economy through non-coercive means.",
"The Swedish government planned public-housing models in a similar fashion as urban planning in a project called Million Programme, implemented from 1965 to 1974.Some decentralized participation in economic planning occurred across Revolutionary Spain, most notably in Catalonia, during the Spanish Revolution of 1936.=== Relationship with socialism ===Albert Einstein advocated for a socialist planned economy with his 1949 article \"Why Socialism?",
"\"In the May 1949 issue of the ''Monthly Review'' titled \"Why Socialism?",
"\", Albert Einstein wrote:I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals.",
"In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion.",
"A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child.",
"The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow-men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.While socialism is not equivalent to economic planning or to the concept of a planned economy, an influential conception of socialism involves the replacement of capital markets with some form of economic planning in order to achieve ''ex-ante'' coordination of the economy.",
"The goal of such an economic system would be to achieve conscious control over the economy by the population, specifically so that the use of the surplus product is controlled by the producers.",
"The specific forms of planning proposed for socialism and their feasibility are subjects of the socialist calculation debate.=== Computational economic planning ===In 1959 Anatoly Kitov proposed a distributed computing system (Project \"Red Book\", ) with a focus on the management of the Soviet economy.",
"Opposition from the Defence Ministry killed Kitov's plan.In 1971 the socialist Allende administration of Chile launched Project Cybersyn to install a telex machine in every corporation and organization in the economy for the communication of economic data between firms and the government.",
"The data was also fed into a computer-simulated economy for forecasting.",
"A control room was built for real-time observation and management of the overall economy.",
"The prototype-stage of the project showed promise when it was used to redirect supplies around a trucker's strike, but after CIA-backed Augusto Pinochet led a coup in 1973 that established a military dictatorship under his rule the program was abolished and Pinochet moved Chile towards a more liberalized market economy.In their book ''Towards a New Socialism'' (1993), the computer scientist Paul Cockshott from the University of Glasgow and the economist Allin Cottrell from Wake Forest University claim to demonstrate how a democratically planned economy built on modern computer technology is possible and drives the thesis that it would be both economically more stable than the free-market economies and also morally desirable.=== Cybernetics ===Project Cybersyn was an early form of computational economic planning.The use of computers to coordinate production in an optimal fashion has been variously proposed for socialist economies.",
"The Polish economist Oskar Lange (1904–1965) argued that the computer is more efficient than the market process at solving the multitude of simultaneous equations required for allocating economic inputs efficiently (either in terms of physical quantities or monetary prices).Salvador Allende's socialist government pioneered the 1970 Chilean distributed decision support system Project Cybersyn in an attempt to move towards a decentralized planned economy with the experimental viable system model of computed organisational structure of autonomous operative units through an algedonic feedback setting and bottom-up participative decision-making in the form of participative democracy by the Cyberfolk component.=== Fictional portrayals ===The 1888 novel ''Looking Backward'' by Edward Bellamy depicts a fictional planned economy in a United States around the year 2000 which has become a socialist utopia.The World State in Aldous Huxley's ''Brave New World'' (1932) and Airstrip One in George Orwell's ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' (1949) provide fictional depictions of command economies, albeit with diametrically opposed aims.",
"The former is a consumer economy designed to engender productivity while the latter is a shortage economy designed as an agent of totalitarian social control.",
"Airstrip One is organized by the euphemistically named Ministry of Plenty.Other literary portrayals of planned economies include Yevgeny Zamyatin's ''We'' (1924), which influenced Orwell's work.",
"Like ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'', Ayn Rand's dystopian 1938 story ''Anthem'' offered an artistic portrayal of a command economy that was influenced by ''We''.",
"The difference is that it was a primitivist planned economy as opposed to the advanced technology of ''We'' or ''Brave New World''."
],
[
"Central planning",
"=== Advantages ===The government can harness land, labor, and capital to serve the economic objectives of the state.",
"Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern.",
"In international comparisons, state-socialist nations have compared favorably with capitalist nations in health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy.",
"However, according to Michael Ellman, the reality of this, at least regarding infant mortality, varies depending on whether official Soviet or WHO definitions are used.The state can begin building massive heavy industries at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry and without reliance on external financing.",
"This is what happened in the Soviet Union during the 1930s when the government forced the share of gross national income dedicated to private consumption down from 80% to 50%.",
"As a result of this development, the Soviet Union experienced massive growth in heavy industry, with a concurrent massive contraction of its agricultural sector due to the labor shortage.=== Disadvantages ======= Economic instability ====Studies of command economies of the Eastern Bloc in the 1950s and 1960s by both American and Eastern European economists found that contrary to the expectations of both groups they showed greater fluctuations in output than market economies during the same period.==== Inefficient resource distribution ====Critics of planned economies argue that planners cannot detect consumer preferences, shortages and surpluses with sufficient accuracy and therefore cannot efficiently co-ordinate production (in a market economy, a free price system is intended to serve this purpose).",
"This difficulty was notably written about by economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek, who referred to subtly distinct aspects of the problem as the economic calculation problem and local knowledge problem, respectively.",
"These distinct aspects were also present in the economic thought of Michael Polanyi.Whereas the former stressed the theoretical underpinnings of a market economy to subjective value theory while attacking the labor theory of value, the latter argued that the only way to satisfy individuals who have a constantly changing hierarchy of needs and are the only ones to possess their particular individual's circumstances is by allowing those with the most knowledge of their needs to have it in their power to use their resources in a competing marketplace to meet the needs of the most consumers most efficiently.",
"This phenomenon is recognized as spontaneous order.",
"Additionally, misallocation of resources would naturally ensue by redirecting capital away from individuals with direct knowledge and circumventing it into markets where a coercive monopoly influences behavior, ignoring market signals.",
"According to Tibor Machan, \"without a market in which allocations can be made in obedience to the law of supply and demand, it is difficult or impossible to funnel resources with respect to actual human preferences and goals\".Historian Robert Vincent Daniels regarded the Stalinist period to represent an abrupt break with Lenin's government in terms of economic planning in which an deliberated, scientific system of planning that featured former Menshevik economists at Gosplan had been replaced with a hasty version of planning with unrealistic targets, bureaucratic waste, bottlenecks and shortages.",
"Stalin's formulations of national plans in terms of physical quantity of output was also attributed by Daniels as a source for the stagnant levels of efficiency and quality.==== Suppression of economic democracy and self-management ====Economist Robin Hahnel, who supports participatory economics, a form of socialist decentralized planned economy, notes that even if central planning overcame its inherent inhibitions of incentives and innovation, it would nevertheless be unable to maximize economic democracy and self-management, which he believes are concepts that are more intellectually coherent, consistent and just than mainstream notions of economic freedom.",
"Furthermore, Hahnel states:Combined with a more democratic political system, and redone to closer approximate a best case version, centrally planned economies no doubt would have performed better.",
"But they could never have delivered economic self-management, they would always have been slow to innovate as apathy and frustration took their inevitable toll, and they would always have been susceptible to growing inequities and inefficiencies as the effects of differential economic power grew.",
"Under central planning neither planners, managers, nor workers had incentives to promote the social economic interest.",
"Nor did impeding markets for final goods to the planning system enfranchise consumers in meaningful ways.",
"But central planning would have been incompatible with economic democracy even if it had overcome its information and incentive liabilities.",
"And the truth is that it survived as long as it did only because it was propped up by unprecedented totalitarian political power.===Command economy===Planned economies contrast with command economies in that a planned economy is \"an economic system in which the government controls and regulates production, distribution, prices, etc.\"",
"whereas a command economy necessarily has substantial public ownership of industry while also having this type of regulation.",
"In command economies, important allocation decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.This is contested by some Marxists.",
"Decentralized planning has been proposed as a basis for socialism and has been variously advocated by anarchists, council communists, libertarian Marxists and other democratic and libertarian socialists who advocate a non-market form of socialism, in total rejection of the type of planning adopted in the economy of the Soviet Union.Most of a command economy is organized in a top-down administrative model by a central authority, where decisions regarding investment and production output requirements are decided upon at the top in the chain of command, with little input from lower levels.",
"Advocates of economic planning have sometimes been staunch critics of these command economies.",
"Leon Trotsky believed that those at the top of the chain of command, regardless of their intellectual capacity, operated without the input and participation of the millions of people who participate in the economy and who understand/respond to local conditions and changes in the economy.",
"Therefore, they would be unable to effectively coordinate all economic activity.Historians have associated planned economies with Marxist–Leninist states and the Soviet economic model.",
"Since the 1980s, it has been contested that the Soviet economic model did not actually constitute a planned economy in that a comprehensive and binding plan did not guide production and investment.",
"The further distinction of an administrative-command system emerged as a new designation in some academic circles for the economic system that existed in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, highlighting the role of centralized hierarchical decision-making in the absence of popular control over the economy.",
"The possibility of a digital planned economy was explored in Chile between 1971 and 1973 with the development of Project Cybersyn and by Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Kharkevich, head of the Department of Technical Physics in Kiev in 1962.While both economic planning and a planned economy can be either authoritarian or democratic and participatory, democratic socialist critics argue that command economies are necessarily authoritarian or undemocratic in practice.",
"Indicative planning is a form of economic planning in market economies that directs the economy through incentive-based methods.",
"Economic planning can be practiced in a decentralized manner through different government authorities.",
"In some predominantly market-oriented and Western mixed economies, the state utilizes economic planning in strategic industries such as the aerospace industry.",
"Mixed economies usually employ macroeconomic planning while micro-economic affairs are left to the market and price system."
],
[
"Decentralized planning",
"A decentralized-planned economy, occasionally called horizontally planned economy due to its horizontalism, is a type of planned economy in which the investment and allocation of consumer and capital goods is explicated accordingly to an economy-wide plan built and operatively coordinated through a distributed network of disparate economic agents or even production units itself.",
"Decentralized planning is usually held in contrast to centralized planning, in particular the Soviet-type economic planning of the Soviet Union's command economy, where economic information is aggregated and used to formulate a plan for production, investment and resource allocation by a single central authority.",
"Decentralized planning can take shape both in the context of a mixed economy as well as in a post-capitalist economic system.",
"This form of economic planning implies some process of democratic and participatory decision-making within the economy and within firms itself in the form of industrial democracy.",
"Computer-based forms of democratic economic planning and coordination between economic enterprises have also been proposed by various computer scientists and radical economists.",
"Proponents present decentralized and participatory economic planning as an alternative to market socialism for a post-capitalist society.Decentralized planning has been a feature of anarchist and socialist economics.",
"Variations of decentralized planning such as economic democracy, industrial democracy and participatory economics have been promoted by various political groups, most notably anarchists, democratic socialists, guild socialists, libertarian Marxists, libertarian socialists, revolutionary syndicalists and Trotskyists.",
"During the Spanish Revolution, some areas where anarchist and libertarian socialist influence through the CNT and UGT was extensive, particularly rural regions, were run on the basis of decentralized planning resembling the principles laid out by anarcho-syndicalist Diego Abad de Santillan in the book ''After the Revolution''.=== Models ======= Negotiated coordination ====Economist Pat Devine has created a model of decentralized economic planning called \"negotiated coordination\" which is based upon social ownership of the means of production by those affected by the use of the assets involved, with the allocation of consumer and capital goods made through a participatory form of decision-making by those at the most localized level of production.",
"Moreover, organizations that utilize modularity in their production processes may distribute problem solving and decision making.==== Participatory planning ====The planning structure of a decentralized planned economy is generally based on a consumers council and producer council (or jointly, a distributive cooperative) which is sometimes called a consumers' cooperative.",
"Producers and consumers, or their representatives, negotiate the quality and quantity of what is to be produced.",
"This structure is central to guild socialism, participatory economics and the economic theories related to anarchism.=== Practice ======= Kerala ====Some decentralized participation in economic planning has been implemented in various regions and states in India, most notably in Kerala.",
"Local level planning agencies assess the needs of people who are able to give their direct input through the Gram Sabhas (village-based institutions) and the planners subsequently seek to plan accordingly.==== Revolutionary Catalonia ====Some decentralized participation in economic planning has been implemented across Revolutionary Spain, most notably in Catalonia, during the Spanish Revolution of 1936.==== Similar concepts in practice ========= Community participatory planning =====The United Nations has developed local projects that promote participatory planning on a community level.",
"Members of communities take decisions regarding community development directly."
],
[
"See also",
"* Adhocracy* Commanding heights of the economy* Communist state* Creative destruction* Critique of political economy* Distributed economy* Economic equilibrium* Economic interventionism* Inclusive democracy* Input–output model* Laissez-faire* Material balance planning* Nationalization* Peer-to-peer economy* Production for use* Public ownership* Resource-based economy* Social peer-to-peer processes* Steady-state economy* Technocracy* Workers' self-management* The Venus Project* ''Why Socialism?''",
"– an article written by Albert Einstein which presented a critique of modern capitalism and advocated for a planned economy.",
"; Case studies (Soviet-type economies)* Analysis of Soviet-type economic planning* Eastern Bloc economies* Economy of Cuba* Economy of North Korea* Five-year plans of the Soviet Union* OGAS, a plan for creating a computer network to supervise the Soviet economy* Project Cybersyn, a project for a computer network controlling the economy of Chile under Salvador Allende; Case studies (mixed-market economies)* Five-year plans of China* Dirigisme (indicative planning in France)* Economy of India* Economy of Singapore* First Malaysia Plan* Five-year plans of Argentina* Five-year plans of South Korea"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Kaplan, Robert – see reference to his work on International Economics and Foreign Relations, where he addresses nature of \"command economy\", a Weberian term.",
"* Cox, Robin (2005).",
"\"The Economic Calculation Controversy: Unravelling of a Myth\".",
"''Common Voice'' (3).",
"* Damier, Vadim (2012).",
"\"The Economy of Freedom\".",
"* Devine, Pat (2010).",
"''Democracy and Economic Planning''.",
"Polity.",
".",
"* Ellman, Michael (2014).",
"''Socialist Planning'' (3rd ed.).",
"Cambridge University Press.",
".",
"* Grossman, Gregory (1987): \"Command economy\".",
"''The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics''.",
"'''1'''.",
"pp. 494–495.",
"* Landauer, Carl (1947).",
"''Theory of National Economic Planning'' (2nd ed.).",
"Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press.",
"* Mandel, Ernest (1986).",
"''In Defence of Socialist Planning''.",
"''New Left Review'' (159).",
"* .",
"* Nove, Alec (1987).",
"\"Planned economy\".",
"''The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics''.",
"'''3'''.",
"pp.",
"879–885."
],
[
"External links",
"* \"The Myth of the Permanent Arms Economy\"* \"The Stalin Model for the Control and Coordination of Enterprises in a Socialist Economy\""
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chimpanzee"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''chimpanzee''' (; '''''Pan troglodytes'''''), also known as simply the '''chimp''', is a species of great ape native to the forests and savannahs of tropical Africa.",
"It has four confirmed subspecies and a fifth proposed one.",
"When its close relative the bonobo was more commonly known as the pygmy chimpanzee, this species was often called the '''common chimpanzee''' or the '''robust chimpanzee'''.",
"The chimpanzee and the bonobo are the only species in the genus ''Pan''.",
"Evidence from fossils and DNA sequencing shows that ''Pan'' is a sister taxon to the human lineage and is humans' closest living relative.",
"The chimpanzee is covered in coarse black hair, but has a bare face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet.",
"It is larger and more robust than the bonobo, weighing for males and for females and standing .The chimpanzee lives in groups that range in size from 15 to 150 members, although individuals travel and forage in much smaller groups during the day.",
"The species lives in a strict male-dominated hierarchy, where disputes are generally settled without the need for violence.",
"Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools, modifying sticks, rocks, grass and leaves and using them for hunting and acquiring honey, termites, ants, nuts and water.",
"The species has also been found creating sharpened sticks to spear small mammals.",
"Its gestation period is eight months.",
"The infant is weaned at about three years old but usually maintains a close relationship with its mother for several years more.The chimpanzee is listed on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species.",
"Between 170,000 and 300,000 individuals are estimated across its range.",
"The biggest threats to the chimpanzee are habitat loss, poaching, and disease.",
"Chimpanzees appear in Western popular culture as stereotyped clown-figures and have featured in entertainments such as chimpanzees' tea parties, circus acts and stage shows.",
"Although many chimpanzees have been kept as pets, their strength, aggressiveness, and unpredictability makes them dangerous in this role.",
"Some hundreds have been kept in laboratories for research, especially in the United States.",
"Many attempts have been made to teach languages such as American Sign Language to chimpanzees, with limited success."
],
[
"Etymology",
"'''Relationships among apes'''.",
"The branch lengths are a measure of evolutionary distinctness.",
"Based on genome sequencing by The Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium.",
"Figure from Yousaf et al.",
"2021, adapted from Prado-Martinez et al.",
"2013.The English word ''chimpanzee'' is first recorded in 1738.It is derived from Vili ''ci-mpenze'' or Tshiluba language ''chimpenze'', with a meaning of \"ape\", or \"mockman\".",
"The colloquialism \"chimp\" was most likely coined some time in the late 1870s.",
"The genus name ''Pan'' derives from the Greek god, while the specific name ''troglodytes'' was taken from the Troglodytae, a mythical race of cave-dwellers."
],
[
"Taxonomy",
"The first great ape known to Western science in the 17th century was the \"orang-outang\" (genus ''Pongo''), the local Malay name being recorded in Java by the Dutch physician Jacobus Bontius.",
"In 1641, the Dutch anatomist Nicolaes Tulp applied the name to a chimpanzee or bonobo brought to the Netherlands from Angola.",
"Another Dutch anatomist, Peter Camper, dissected specimens from Central Africa and Southeast Asia in the 1770s, noting the differences between the African and Asian apes.",
"The German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach classified the chimpanzee as ''Simia troglodytes'' by 1775.Another German naturalist, Lorenz Oken, coined the genus ''Pan'' in 1816.The bonobo was recognised as distinct from the chimpanzee by 1933.===Evolution===Despite a large number of ''Homo'' fossil finds, ''Pan'' fossils were not described until 2005.Existing chimpanzee populations in West and Central Africa do not overlap with the major human fossil sites in East Africa, but chimpanzee fossils have now been reported from Kenya.",
"This indicates that both humans and members of the ''Pan'' clade were present in the East African Rift Valley during the Middle Pleistocene.According to studies published in 2017 by researchers at George Washington University, bonobos, along with chimpanzees, split from the human line about 8 million years ago; then bonobos split from the common chimpanzee line about 2 million years ago.",
"Another 2017 genetic study suggests ancient gene flow (introgression) between 200,000 and 550,000 years ago from the bonobo into the ancestors of central and eastern chimpanzees.===Subspecies and population status===Four subspecies of the chimpanzee have been recognised, with the possibility of a fifth:* Central chimpanzee or the tschego (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''), found in Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with about 140,000 individuals existing in the wild.",
"* Western chimpanzee (''P.",
"troglodytes verus''), found in Ivory Coast, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, and Ghana with about 52,800 individuals still in existence.",
"* Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee (''P.",
"troglodytes ellioti'' (also known as ''P.",
"t. vellerosus'')), that live within forested areas across Nigeria and Cameroon, with 6000–9000 individuals still in existence.",
"* Eastern chimpanzee (''P.",
"troglodytes schweinfurthii''), found in the Central African Republic, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Zambia, with approximately 180,000–256,000 individuals still existing in the wild.",
"* Southeastern chimpanzee, ''P.",
"troglodytes marungensis'', in Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda.",
"Colin Groves argues that this is a subspecies, created by enough variation between the northern and southern populations of ''P.",
"t. schweinfurthii'', but it is not recognised by the IUCN.===Genome===A draft version of the chimpanzee genome was published in 2005 and encodes 18,759 proteins, (compared to 20,383 in the human proteome).",
"The DNA sequences of humans and chimpanzees are very similar and the difference in protein number mostly arises from incomplete sequences in the chimp genome.",
"Both species differ by about 35 million single-nucleotide changes, five million insertion/deletion events and various chromosomal rearrangements.",
"Typical human and chimpanzee protein homologs differ in an average of only two amino acids.",
"About 30% of all human proteins are identical in sequence to the corresponding chimpanzee protein.",
"Duplications of small parts of chromosomes have been the major source of differences between human and chimpanzee genetic material; about 2.7% of the corresponding modern genomes represent differences, produced by gene duplications or deletions, since humans and chimpanzees diverged from their common evolutionary ancestor."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"SkeletonAdult chimpanzees have an average standing height of .",
"Wild adult males weigh between with females weighing between .",
"In exceptional cases, certain individuals may considerably exceed these measurements, standing over on two legs and weighing up to in captivity.The chimpanzee is more robustly built than the bonobo but less than the gorilla.",
"The arms of a chimpanzee are longer than its legs and can reach below the knees.",
"The hands have long fingers with short thumbs and flat fingernails.",
"The feet are adapted for grasping, and the big toe is opposable.",
"The pelvis is long with an extended ilium.",
"A chimpanzee's head is rounded with a prominent and prognathous face and a pronounced brow ridge.",
"It has forward-facing eyes, a small nose, rounded non-lobed ears and a long mobile upper lip.",
"Additionally, adult males have sharp canine teeth.",
"Chimpanzees lack the prominent sagittal crest and associated head and neck musculature of gorillas.Chimpanzee hand (left) compared to human handChimpanzee bodies are covered by coarse hair, except for the face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet.",
"Chimpanzees lose more hair as they age and develop bald spots.",
"The hair of a chimpanzee is typically black but can be brown or ginger.",
"As they get older, white or grey patches may appear, particularly on the chin and lower region.",
"Chimpanzee skin that is covered with body hair is white, while exposed areas vary: white which ages into a dark muddy colour in eastern chimpanzees, freckled on white which ages to a heavily mottled muddy colour in central chimpanzees, and black with a butterfly-shaped white mask that darkens with age in western chimpanzees.",
"Facial pigmentation increases with age and exposure to ultraviolet light.",
"Females develop swelling pink skin when in oestrus.Chimpanzees are adapted for both arboreal and terrestrial locomotion.",
"Arboreal locomotion consists of vertical climbing and brachiation.",
"On the ground, chimpanzees move both quadrupedally and bipedally.",
"These movements appear to have similar energy costs.",
"As with bonobos and gorillas, chimpanzees move quadrupedally by knuckle-walking, which probably evolved independently in ''Pan'' and ''Gorilla''.",
"Their muscles are 50% stronger per weight than those of humans due to higher content of fast twitch muscle fibres, one of the chimpanzee's adaptations for climbing and swinging.",
"According to Japan's Asahiyama Zoo, the grip strength of an adult chimpanzee is estimated to be , while other sources claim figures of up to ."
],
[
"Ecology",
"Overnight nest in a treeThe chimpanzee is a highly adaptable species.",
"It lives in a variety of habitats, including dry savanna, evergreen rainforest, montane forest, swamp forest, and dry woodland-savanna mosaic.",
"In Gombe, the chimpanzee mostly uses semideciduous and evergreen forest as well as open woodland.",
"At Bossou, the chimpanzee inhabits multistage secondary deciduous forest, which has grown after shifting cultivation, as well as primary forest and grassland.",
"At Taï, it is found in the last remaining tropical rain forest in Ivory Coast.",
"The chimpanzee has an advanced cognitive map of its home range and can repeatedly find food.",
"The chimpanzee builds a sleeping nest in a tree in a different location each night, never using the same nest more than once.",
"Chimpanzees sleep alone in separate nests except for infants or juvenile chimpanzees, which sleep with their mothers.===Diet===Ficus'' fruit in Kibale National Park, UgandaThe chimpanzee is an omnivorous frugivore.",
"It prefers fruit above all other food items but also eats leaves, leaf buds, seeds, blossoms, stems, pith, bark, and resin.",
"A study in Budongo Forest, Uganda found that 64.5% of their feeding time concentrated on fruits (84.6% of which being ripe), particularly those from two species of ''Ficus'', ''Maesopsis eminii'', and ''Celtis gomphophylla''.",
"In addition, 19% of feeding time was spent on arboreal leaves, mostly ''Broussonetia papyrifera'' and ''Celtis mildbraedii''.",
"While the chimpanzee is mostly herbivorous, it does eat honey, soil, insects, birds and their eggs, and small to medium-sized mammals, including other primates.",
"Insect species consumed include the weaver ant ''Oecophylla longinoda'', ''Macrotermes'' termites, and honey bees.",
"The red colobus ranks at the top of preferred mammal prey.",
"Other mammalian prey include red-tailed monkeys, infant and juvenile yellow baboons, bush babies, blue duikers, bushbucks, and common warthogs.Despite the fact that chimpanzees are known to hunt and to collect both insects and other invertebrates, such food actually makes up a very small portion of their diet, from as little as 2% yearly to as much as 65 grams of animal flesh per day for each adult chimpanzee in peak hunting seasons.",
"This also varies from troop to troop and year to year.",
"However, in all cases, the majority of their diet consists of fruits, leaves, roots, and other plant matter.",
"Female chimpanzees appear to consume much less animal flesh than males, according to several studies.",
"Jane Goodall documented many occasions within Gombe Stream National Park of chimpanzees and western red colobus monkeys ignoring each other despite close proximity.Chimpanzees do not appear to directly compete with gorillas in areas where they overlap.",
"When fruit is abundant, gorilla and chimpanzee diets converge, but when fruit is scarce gorillas resort to vegetation.",
"The two apes may also feed on different species, whether fruit or insects.",
"Interactions between them can range from friendly and even stable social bonding, to avoidance, to aggression and predation on part of chimpanzees.===Mortality and health===Chimpanzee named \"Gregoire\" on 9 December 2006, born in 1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of Tchimpounga, Republic of the Congo)The average lifespan of a chimpanzee in the wild is relatively short, usually less than 15 years, although individuals that reach 12 years may live an additional 15 years.",
"On rare occasions, wild chimpanzees may live nearly 60 years.",
"Captive chimpanzees tend to live longer than most wild ones, with median lifespans of 31.7 years for males and 38.7 years for females.",
"The oldest-known male captive chimpanzee to have been documented lived to 66 years, and the oldest female, Little Mama, was over 70 years old.Leopards prey on chimpanzees in some areas.",
"It is possible that much of the mortality caused by leopards can be attributed to individuals that have specialised in chimp-killing.",
"Chimpanzees may react to a leopard's presence with loud vocalising, branch shaking, and throwing objects.",
"There is at least one record of chimpanzees killing a leopard cub after mobbing it and its mother in their den.",
"Four chimpanzees could have fallen prey to lions at Mahale Mountains National Park.",
"Although no other instances of lion predation on chimpanzees have been recorded, lions likely do kill chimpanzees occasionally, and the larger group sizes of savanna chimpanzees may have developed as a response to threats from these big cats.",
"Chimpanzees may react to lions by fleeing up trees, vocalising, or hiding in silence.P.",
"humanus''.Chimpanzees and humans share only 50% of their parasite and microbe species.",
"This is due to the differences in environmental and dietary adaptations; human internal parasite species overlap more with omnivorous, savanna-dwelling baboons.",
"The chimpanzee is host to the louse species ''Pediculus schaeffi'', a close relative of ''P.",
"humanus'', which infests human head and body hair.",
"By contrast, the human pubic louse ''Pthirus pubis'' is closely related to ''Pthirus gorillae'', which infests gorillas.",
"A 2017 study of gastrointestinal parasites of wild chimpanzees in degraded forest in Uganda found nine species of protozoa, five nematodes, one cestode, and one trematode.",
"The most prevalent species was the protozoan ''Troglodytella abrassarti''."
],
[
"Behaviour",
"Recent studies have suggested that human observers influence chimpanzee behaviour.",
"One suggestion is that drones, camera traps, and remote microphones should be used to record and monitor chimpanzees rather than direct human observation.===Group structure===Group in UgandaChimpanzees live in communities that typically range from around 15 to more than 150 members but spend most of their time traveling in small, temporary groups consisting of a few individuals.",
"These groups may consist of any combination of age and sexes.",
"Both males and females sometimes travel alone.",
"This fission-fusion society may include groups of four types: all-male, adult females and offspring, adults of both sexes, or one female and her offspring.",
"These smaller groups emerge in a variety of types, for a variety of purposes.",
"For example, an all-male troop may be organised to hunt for meat, while a group consisting of lactating females serves to act as a \"nursery group\" for the young.At the core of social structures are males, which patrol the territory, protect group members, and search for food.",
"Males remain in their natal communities, while females generally emigrate at adolescence.",
"Males in a community are more likely to be related to one another than females are to each other.",
"Among males, there is generally a dominance hierarchy, and males are dominant over females.",
"However, this unusual fission-fusion social structure, \"in which portions of the parent group may on a regular basis separate from and then rejoin the rest,\" is highly variable in terms of which particular individual chimpanzees congregate at a given time.",
"This is caused mainly by the large measure of individual autonomy that individuals have within their fission-fusion social groups.",
"As a result, individual chimpanzees often forage for food alone, or in smaller groups, as opposed to the much larger \"parent\" group, which encompasses all the chimpanzees which regularly come into contact with each other and congregate into parties in a particular area.Alpha male chimpanzee at Kibale National Park, Uganda.Male chimpanzees exist in a linear dominance hierarchy.",
"Top-ranking males tend to be aggressive even during dominance stability.",
"This is probably due to the chimpanzee's fission-fusion society, with male chimpanzees leaving groups and returning after extended periods of time.",
"With this, a dominant male is unsure if any \"political maneuvering\" has occurred in his absence and must re-establish his dominance.",
"Thus, a large amount of aggression occurs within five to fifteen minutes after a reunion.",
"During these encounters, displays of aggression are generally preferred over physical attacks.Males maintain and improve their social ranks by forming coalitions, which have been characterised as \"exploitative\" and based on an individual's influence in agonistic interactions.",
"Being in a coalition allows males to dominate a third individual when they could not by themselves, as politically apt chimpanzees can exert power over aggressive interactions regardless of their rank.",
"Coalitions can also give an individual male the confidence to challenge a dominant or larger male.",
"The more allies a male has, the better his chance of becoming dominant.",
"However, most changes in hierarchical rank are caused by dyadic interactions.",
"Chimpanzee alliances can be very fickle, and one member may suddenly turn on another if it is to his advantage.liceLow-ranking males frequently switch sides in disputes between more dominant individuals.",
"Low-ranking males benefit from an unstable hierarchy and often find increased sexual opportunities if a dispute or conflict occurs.",
"In addition, conflicts between dominant males cause them to focus on each other rather than the lower-ranking males.",
"Social hierarchies among adult females tend to be weaker.",
"Nevertheless, the status of an adult female may be important for her offspring.",
"Females in Taï have also been recorded to form alliances.",
"While chimpanzee social structure is often referred to as patriarchal, it is not entirely unheard of for females to forge coalitions against males.",
"There is also at least one recorded case of females securing a dominant position over males in their respective troop, albeit in a captive environment.",
"Social grooming appears to be important in the formation and maintenance of coalitions.",
"It is more common among adult males than either between adult females or between males and females.Males in Mahale National Park, TanzaniaChimpanzees have been described as highly territorial and will frequently kill other chimpanzees, although Margaret Power wrote in her 1991 book ''The Egalitarians'' that the field studies from which the aggressive data came, Gombe and Mahale, used artificial feeding systems that increased aggression in the chimpanzee populations studied.",
"Thus, the behaviour may not reflect innate characteristics of the species as a whole.",
"In the years following her artificial feeding conditions at Gombe, Jane Goodall described groups of male chimpanzees patrolling the borders of their territory, brutally attacking chimpanzees that had split off from the Gombe group.",
"A study published in 2010 found that the chimpanzees wage wars over territory, not mates.",
"Patrols from smaller groups are more likely to avoid contact with their neighbours.",
"Patrols from large groups even take over a smaller group's territory, gaining access to more resources, food, and females.",
"While it was traditionally accepted that only female chimpanzees immigrate and males remain in their natal troop for life, there are confirmed cases of adult males safely integrating themselves into new communities among West African chimpanzees, suggesting they are less territorial than other subspecies.===Mating and parenting===Infant and motherChimpanzees mate throughout the year, although the number of females in oestrus varies seasonally in a group.",
"Female chimpanzees are more likely to come into oestrus when food is readily available.",
"Oestrous females exhibit sexual swellings.",
"Chimpanzees are promiscuous: during oestrus, females mate with several males in their community, while males have large testicles for sperm competition.",
"Other forms of mating also exist.",
"A community's dominant males sometimes restrict reproductive access to females.",
"A male and female can form a consortship and mate outside their community.",
"In addition, females sometimes leave their community and mate with males from neighboring communities.These alternative mating strategies give females more mating opportunities without losing the support of the males in their community.",
"Infanticide has been recorded in chimpanzee communities in some areas, and the victims are often consumed.",
"Male chimpanzees practice infanticide on unrelated young to shorten the interbirth intervals in the females.",
"Females sometimes practice infanticide.",
"This may be related to the dominance hierarchy in females or may simply be pathological.Copulation is brief, lasting approximately seven seconds.",
"The gestation period is eight months.",
"Care for the young is provided mostly by their mothers.",
"The survival and emotional health of the young is dependent on maternal care.",
"Mothers provide their young with food, warmth, and protection, and teach them certain skills.",
"In addition, a chimpanzee's future rank may be dependent on its mother's status.",
"Male chimpanzees continue to associate with the females they impregnated and interact with and support their offspring.",
"Newborn chimpanzees are helpless.",
"For example, their grasping reflex is not strong enough to support them for more than a few seconds.",
"For their first 30 days, infants cling to their mother's bellies.",
"Infants are unable to support their own weight for their first two months and need their mothers' support.When they reach five to six months, infants ride on their mothers' backs.",
"They remain in continual contact for the rest of their first year.",
"When they reach two years of age, they are able to move and sit independently and start moving beyond the arms' reach of their mothers.",
"By four to six years, chimpanzees are weaned and infancy ends.",
"The juvenile period for chimpanzees lasts from their sixth to ninth years.",
"Juveniles remain close to their mothers, but interact an increasing amount with other members of their community.",
"Adolescent females move between groups and are supported by their mothers in agonistic encounters.",
"Adolescent males spend time with adult males in social activities like hunting and boundary patrolling.",
"A captive study suggests males can safely immigrate to a new group if accompanied by immigrant females who have an existing relationship with this male.",
"This gives the resident males reproductive advantages with these females, as they are more inclined to remain in the group if their male friend is also accepted.===Communication===Chimpanzees use facial expressions, postures, and sounds to communicate with each other.",
"Chimpanzees have expressive faces that are important in close-up communications.",
"When frightened, a \"full closed grin\" causes nearby individuals to be fearful, as well.",
"Playful chimpanzees display an open-mouthed grin.",
"Chimpanzees may also express themselves with the \"pout\", which is made in distress, the \"sneer\", which is made when threatening or fearful, and \"compressed-lips face\", which is a type of display.",
"When submitting to a dominant individual, a chimpanzee crunches, bobs, and extends a hand.",
"When in an aggressive mode, a chimpanzee swaggers bipedally, hunched over and arms waving, in an attempt to exaggerate its size.",
"While travelling, chimpanzees keep in contact by beating their hands and feet against the trunks of large trees, an act that is known as \"drumming\".",
"They also do this when encountering individuals from other communities.Vocalisations are also important in chimpanzee communication.",
"The most common call in adults is the \"pant-hoot\", which may signal social rank and bond along with keeping groups together.",
"Pant-hoots are made of four parts, starting with soft \"hoos\", the introduction; that gets louder and louder, the build-up; and climax into screams and sometimes barks; these die down back to soft \"hoos\" during the letdown phase as the call ends.",
"Grunting is made in situations like feeding and greeting.",
"Submissive individuals make \"pant-grunts\" towards their superiors.",
"Whimpering is made by young chimpanzees as a form of begging or when lost from the group.",
"Chimpanzees use distance calls to draw attention to danger, food sources, or other community members.",
"\"Barks\" may be made as \"short barks\" when hunting and \"tonal barks\" when sighting large snakes.Adult male eastern chimpanzee snatches a dead bushbuck antelope from a baboon in Gombe Stream National Park.===Hunting===When hunting small monkeys such as the red colobus, chimpanzees hunt where the forest canopy is interrupted or irregular.",
"This allows them to easily corner the monkeys when chasing them in the appropriate direction.",
"Chimpanzees may also hunt as a coordinated team, so that they can corner their prey even in a continuous canopy.",
"During an arboreal hunt, each chimpanzee in the hunting groups has a role.",
"\"Drivers\" serve to keep the prey running in a certain direction and follow them without attempting to make a catch.",
"\"Blockers\" are stationed at the bottom of the trees and climb up to block prey that takes off in a different direction.",
"\"Chasers\" move quickly and try to make a catch.",
"Finally, \"ambushers\" hide and rush out when a monkey nears.",
"While both adults and infants are taken, adult male colobus monkeys will attack the hunting chimps.",
"Male chimpanzees hunt more than females.",
"When caught and killed, the meal is distributed to all hunting party members and even bystanders."
],
[
"Intelligence",
"Human and chimpanzee skull and brain.",
"Diagram by Paul Gervais from ''Histoire naturelle des mammifères'' (1854).Chimpanzees display numerous signs of intelligence, from the ability to remember symbols to cooperation, tool use, and perhaps language.",
"They are among species that have passed the mirror test, suggesting self-awareness.",
"In one study, two young chimpanzees showed retention of mirror self-recognition after one year without access to mirrors.",
"Chimpanzees have been observed to use insects to treat their own wounds and those of others.",
"They catch them and apply them directly to the injury.",
"Chimpanzees also display signs of culture among groups, with the learning and transmission of variations in grooming, tool use and foraging techniques leading to localized traditions.A 30-year study at Kyoto University's Primate Research Institute has shown that chimpanzees are able to learn to recognise the numbers 1 to 9 and their values.",
"The chimpanzees further show an aptitude for eidetic memory, demonstrated in experiments in which the jumbled digits are flashed onto a computer screen for less than a quarter of a second.",
"One chimpanzee, Ayumu, was able to correctly and quickly point to the positions where they appeared in ascending order.",
"Ayumu performed better than human adults who were given the same test.In controlled experiments on cooperation, chimpanzees show a basic understanding of cooperation, and recruit the best collaborators.",
"In a group setting with a device that delivered food rewards only to cooperating chimpanzees, cooperation first increased, then, due to competitive behaviour, decreased, before finally increasing to the highest level through punishment and other arbitrage behaviours.Great apes show laughter-like vocalisations in response to physical contact, such as wrestling, play chasing, or tickling.",
"This is documented in wild and captive chimpanzees.",
"Chimpanzee laughter is not readily recognisable to humans as such, because it is generated by alternating inhalations and exhalations that sound more like breathing and panting.",
"Instances in which nonhuman primates have expressed joy have been reported.",
"Humans and chimpanzees share similar ticklish areas of the body, such as the armpits and belly.",
"The enjoyment of tickling in chimpanzees does not diminish with age.Chimpanzees have displayed different behaviours in response to a dying or dead group member.",
"When witnessing a sudden death, the other group members act in frenzy, with vocalisations, aggressive displays, and touching of the corpse.",
"In one case chimpanzees cared for a dying elder, then attended and cleaned the corpse.",
"Afterward, they avoided the spot where the elder died and behaved in a more subdued manner.",
"Mothers have been reported to carry around and groom their dead infants for several days.Experimenters now and then witness behaviour that cannot be readily reconciled with chimpanzee intelligence or theory of mind.",
"Wolfgang Köhler, for instance, reported insightful behaviour in chimpanzees, but he likewise often observed that they experienced \"special difficulty\" in solving simple problems.",
"Researchers also reported that, when faced with a choice between two persons, chimpanzees were just as likely to beg food from a person who could see the begging gesture as from a person who could not, thereby raising the possibility that chimpanzees lack theory of mind.===Tool use===Chimpanzees using twigs to dip for antsNearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools.",
"They modify sticks, rocks, grass, and leaves and use them when foraging for termites and ants, nuts, honey, algae or water.",
"Despite the lack of complexity, forethought and skill are apparent in making these tools.",
"Chimpanzees have used stone tools since at least 4,300 years ago.A chimpanzee from the Kasakela chimpanzee community was the first nonhuman animal reported making a tool, by modifying a twig to use as an instrument for extracting termites from their mound.",
"At Taï, chimpanzees simply use their hands to extract termites.",
"When foraging for honey, chimpanzees use modified short sticks to scoop the honey out of the hive if the bees are stingless.",
"For hives of the dangerous African honeybees, chimpanzees use longer and thinner sticks to extract the honey.Chimpanzees also fish for ants using the same tactic.",
"Ant dipping is difficult and some chimpanzees never master it.",
"West African chimpanzees crack open hard nuts with stones or branches.",
"Some forethought in this activity is apparent, as these tools are not found together or where the nuts are collected.",
"Nut cracking is also difficult and must be learned.",
"Chimpanzees also use leaves as sponges or spoons to drink water.West African chimpanzees in Senegal were found to sharpen sticks with their teeth, which were then used to spear Senegal bushbabies out of small holes in trees.",
"An eastern chimpanzee has been observed using a modified branch as a tool to capture a squirrel.Whilst experimental studies on captive chimpanzees have found that many of their species-typical tool-use behaviours can be individually learnt by each chimpanzees, a 2021 study on their abilities to make and use stone flakes, in a similar way as hypothesised for early hominins, did not find this behaviour across two populations of chimpanzees—suggesting that this behaviour is outside the chimpanzee species-typical range.===Language===Hugo Rheinhold's ''Affe mit Schädel'' (\"Ape with skull\"), Scientists have attempted to teach human language to several species of great ape.",
"One early attempt by Allen and Beatrix Gardner in the 1960s involved spending 51 months teaching American Sign Language to a chimpanzee named Washoe.",
"The Gardners reported that Washoe learned 151 signs, and had spontaneously taught them to other chimpanzees, including her adopted son, Loulis.",
"Over a longer period of time, Washoe was reported to have learned over 350 signs.Debate is ongoing among scientists such as David Premack about chimpanzees' ability to learn language.",
"Since the early reports on Washoe, numerous other studies have been conducted, with varying levels of success.",
"One involved a chimpanzee jokingly named Nim Chimpsky (in allusion to the theorist of language Noam Chomsky), trained by Herbert Terrace of Columbia University.",
"Although his initial reports were quite positive, in November 1979, Terrace and his team, including psycholinguist Thomas Bever, re-evaluated the videotapes of Nim with his trainers, analyzing them frame by frame for signs, as well as for exact context (what was happening both before and after Nim's signs).",
"In the reanalysis, Terrace and Bever concluded that Nim's utterances could be explained merely as prompting on the part of the experimenters, as well as mistakes in reporting the data.",
"\"Much of the apes' behaviour is pure drill\", he said.",
"\"Language still stands as an important definition of the human species.\"",
"In this reversal, Terrace now argued Nim's use of ASL was not like human language acquisition.",
"Nim never initiated conversations himself, rarely introduced new words, and mostly imitated what the humans did.",
"More importantly, Nim's word strings varied in their ordering, suggesting that he was incapable of syntax.",
"Nim's sentences also did not grow in length, unlike human children whose vocabulary and sentence length show a strong positive correlation."
],
[
"Relations with humans",
"===In culture===Gio tribe, LiberiaChimpanzees are rarely represented in African culture, as people find their resemblance to humans discomforting.",
"The Gio people of Liberia and the Hemba people of the Congo have created masks of the animals.",
"Gio masks are crude and blocky, and worn when teaching young people how not to behave.",
"The Hemba masks have a smile that suggests drunken anger, insanity or horror and are worn during rituals at funerals, representing the \"awful reality of death\".",
"The masks may also serve to guard households and protect both human and plant fertility.",
"Stories have been told of chimpanzees kidnapping and raping women.In Western popular culture, chimpanzees have occasionally been stereotyped as childlike companions, sidekicks or clowns.",
"They are especially suited for the latter role on account of their prominent facial features, long limbs and fast movements, which humans often find amusing.",
"Accordingly, entertainment acts featuring chimpanzees dressed up as humans with lip-synchronised human voices have been traditional staples of circuses, stage shows and TV shows like ''Lancelot Link, Secret Chimp'' (1970-1972) and ''The Chimp Channel'' (1999).",
"From 1926 until 1972, London Zoo, followed by several other zoos around the world, held a chimpanzees' tea party daily, inspiring a long-running series of advertisements for PG Tips tea featuring such a party.",
"Animal rights groups have urged a stop to such acts, considering them abusive.Poster for the 1931 film ''Aping Hollywood''.",
"Media like this relied on the novelty of performing apes to carry their gags.Chimpanzees in media include Judy on the television series ''Daktari'' in the 1960s and Darwin on ''The Wild Thornberrys'' in the 1990s.",
"In contrast to the fictional depictions of other animals, such as dogs (as in ''Lassie''), dolphins (''Flipper''), horses (''The Black Stallion'') or even other great apes (''King Kong''), chimpanzee characters and actions are rarely relevant to the plot.",
"Depictions of chimpanzees as individuals rather than stock characters, and as central rather than incidental to the plot can be found in science fiction.",
"Robert A. Heinlein's 1947 short story \"Jerry Was a Man\" concerns a genetically enhanced chimpanzee suing for better treatment.",
"The 1972 film ''Conquest of the Planet of the Apes'', the third sequel of the 1968 film ''Planet of the Apes'', portrays a futuristic revolt of enslaved apes led by the only talking chimpanzee, Caesar, against their human masters.===As pets===Chimpanzees have traditionally been kept as pets in a few African villages, especially in the Democratic Republic of Congo.",
"In Virunga National Park in the east of the country, the park authorities regularly confiscate chimpanzees from people keeping them as pets.",
"Outside their range, chimpanzees are popular as exotic pets despite their strength and aggression.",
"Even in places where keeping non-human primates as pets is illegal, the exotic pet trade continues to prosper, leading to injuries from attacks.===Use in research===Hundreds of chimpanzees have been kept in laboratories for research.",
"Most such laboratories either conduct or make the animals available for invasive research, defined as \"inoculation with an infectious agent, surgery or biopsy conducted for the sake of research and not for the sake of the chimpanzee, and/or drug testing\".",
"Research chimpanzees tend to be used repeatedly over decades for up to 40 years, unlike the pattern of use of most laboratory animals.",
"Two federally funded American laboratories use chimpanzees: the Yerkes National Primate Research Center at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, and the Southwest National Primate Center in San Antonio, Texas.",
"Five hundred chimpanzees have been retired from laboratory use in the US and live in animal sanctuaries in the US or Canada.A five-year moratorium was imposed by the US National Institutes of Health in 1996, because too many chimpanzees had been bred for HIV research, and it has been extended annually since 2001.With the publication of the chimpanzee genome, plans to increase the use of chimpanzees in America were reportedly increasing in 2006, some scientists arguing that the federal moratorium on breeding chimpanzees for research should be lifted.",
"However, in 2007, the NIH made the moratorium permanent.Ham, the first great ape in space, before being inserted into his Mercury-Redstone 2 capsule on 31 January 1961Other researchers argue that chimpanzees either should not be used in research, or should be treated differently, for instance with legal status as persons.",
"Pascal Gagneux, an evolutionary biologist and primate expert at the University of California, San Diego, argues, given chimpanzees' sense of self, tool use, and genetic similarity to human beings, studies using chimpanzees should follow the ethical guidelines used for human subjects unable to give consent.",
"A recent study suggests chimpanzees which are retired from labs exhibit a form of post-traumatic stress disorder.",
"Stuart Zola, director of the Yerkes laboratory, disagrees.",
"He told ''National Geographic'': \"I don't think we should make a distinction between our obligation to treat humanely any species, whether it's a rat or a monkey or a chimpanzee.",
"No matter how much we may wish it, chimps are not human.",
"\"Only one European laboratory, the Biomedical Primate Research Centre in Rijswijk, the Netherlands, used chimpanzees in research.",
"It formerly held 108 chimpanzees among 1,300 non-human primates.",
"The Dutch ministry of science decided to phase out research at the centre from 2001.Trials already under way were however allowed to run their course.",
"Chimpanzees including the female Ai have been studied at the Primate Research Institute of Kyoto University, Japan, formerly directed by Tetsuro Matsuzawa, since 1978.Some 12 chimpanzees are currently held at the facility.Two chimpanzees have been sent into outer space as NASA research subjects.",
"Ham, the first great ape in space, was launched in the Mercury-Redstone 2 capsule on 31 January 1961, and survived the suborbital flight.",
"Enos, the third primate to orbit Earth after Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Gherman Titov, flew on Mercury-Atlas 5 on 29 November of the same year.===Field study===Feeding station at Gombe, where Jane Goodall used to feed and observe the chimpanzeesJane Goodall undertook the first long-term field study of the chimpanzee, begun in Tanzania at Gombe Stream National Park in 1960.Other long-term studies begun in the 1960s include Adriaan Kortlandt's in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Toshisada Nishida's in Mahale Mountains National Park in Tanzania.",
"Current understanding of the species' typical behaviours and social organisation has been formed largely from Goodall's ongoing 60-year Gombe research study.===Attacks===Chimpanzees have attacked humans.",
"In Uganda, several attacks on children have happened, some of them fatal.",
"Some of these attacks may have been due to the chimpanzees being intoxicated (from alcohol obtained from rural brewing operations) and becoming aggressive towards humans.",
"Human interactions with chimpanzees may be especially dangerous if the chimpanzees perceive humans as potential rivals.",
"At least six cases of chimpanzees snatching and eating human babies are documented.A chimpanzee's strength and sharp teeth mean that attacks, even on adult humans, can cause severe injuries.",
"This was evident after the attack and near death of former NASCAR driver St. James Davis, who was mauled by two escaped chimpanzees while he and his wife were celebrating the birthday of their former pet chimpanzee.",
"Another example of chimpanzees being aggressive toward humans occurred in 2009 in Stamford, Connecticut, when a , 13-year-old pet chimpanzee named Travis attacked his owner's friend, who lost her hands, eyes, nose, and part of her maxilla from the attack.===Human immunodeficiency virus===Two primary classes of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2.HIV-1 is the more virulent and easily transmitted, and is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world; HIV-2 occurs mostly in west Africa.",
"Both types originated in west and central Africa, jumping from other primates to humans.",
"HIV-1 has evolved from a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVcpz) found in the subspecies ''P.",
"t. troglodytes'' of southern Cameroon.",
"Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, has the greatest genetic diversity of HIV-1 so far discovered, suggesting the virus has been there longer than anywhere else.",
"HIV-2 crossed species from a different strain of HIV, found in the sooty mangabey monkeys in Guinea-Bissau."
],
[
"Conservation",
"Cameroonian chimpanzee at a rescue centre after its mother was killed by poachersThe chimpanzee is on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species.",
"Chimpanzees are legally protected in most of their range and are found both in and outside national parks.",
"Between 172,700 and 299,700 individuals are thought to be living in the wild, a decrease from about a million chimpanzees in the early 1900s.",
"Chimpanzees are listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that commercial international trade in wild-sourced specimens is prohibited and all other international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated by the CITES permitting system.The biggest threats to the chimpanzee are habitat destruction, poaching, and disease.",
"Chimpanzee habitats have been limited by deforestation in both West and Central Africa.",
"Road building has caused habitat degradation and fragmentation of chimpanzee populations and may allow poachers more access to areas that had not been seriously affected by humans.",
"Although deforestation rates are low in western Central Africa, selective logging may take place outside national parks.Chimpanzees are a common target for poachers.",
"In Ivory Coast, chimpanzees make up 1–3% of bushmeat sold in urban markets.",
"They are also taken, often illegally, for the pet trade and are hunted for medicinal purposes in some areas.",
"Farmers sometimes kill chimpanzees that threaten their crops; others are unintentionally maimed or killed by snares meant for other animals.Infectious diseases are a main cause of death for chimpanzees.",
"They succumb to many diseases that afflict humans because the two species are so similar.",
"As the human population grows, so does the risk of disease transmission between humans and chimpanzees."
],
[
"See also",
"* * * ''Chimpanzee'', 2012 documentary* * Great Ape Project* International Primate Day* * * ''One Small Step: The Story of the Space Chimps'', 2008 documentary* Primate archaeology"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Literature cited===*"
],
[
"External links",
"* DiscoverChimpanzees.org* Chimpanzee Genome resources* Primate Info Net ''Pan troglodytes'' Factsheets * U.S.",
"Fish & Wildlife Service Species Profile* View the ''Pan troglodytes'' genome in Ensembl* Genome of ''Pan troglodytes'' (version Clint_PTRv2/panTro6), via UCSC Genome Browser* Data of the genome of ''Pan troglodytes'', via NCBI* Data of the genome assembly of ''Pan troglodytes'' Clint_PTRv2/panTro6, via NCBI* Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016)."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease''' ('''CMT''') is a hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy of the peripheral nervous system characterized by progressive loss of muscle tissue and touch sensation across various parts of the body.",
"This disease is the most commonly inherited neurological disorder, affecting about one in 2,500 people.",
"It is named after those who classically described it: the Frenchman Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893), his pupil Pierre Marie (1853–1940), and the Briton Howard Henry Tooth (1856–1925).There is no known cure.",
"Care focuses on maintaining function.",
"CMT was previously classified as a subtype of muscular dystrophy."
],
[
"Signs and symptoms",
"Symptoms of CMT usually begin in early childhood or early adulthood but can begin later.",
"Some people do not experience symptoms until their early 30s or 40s.",
"Usually, the initial symptom is foot drop or high arches early in the course of the disease.",
"This can be accompanied by hammertoe, where the toes are always curled.",
"Wasting of muscle tissue of the lower parts of the legs may give rise to a \"stork leg\" or \"inverted champagne bottle\" appearance.",
"Weakness in the hands and forearms occurs in many people as the disease progresses.Loss of touch sensation in the feet, ankles, and legs as well as in the hands, wrists, and arms occurs with various types of the disease.",
"Early- and late-onset forms occur with 'on and off' painful spasmodic muscular contractions that can be disabling when the disease activates.",
"High-arched feet (pes cavus) or flat-arched feet (pes planus) are classically associated with the disorder.",
"Sensory and proprioceptive nerves in the hands and feet are often damaged, while unmyelinated pain nerves are left intact.",
"Overuse of an affected hand or limb can activate symptoms including numbness, spasm, and painful cramping.Symptoms and progression of the disease can vary.",
"Involuntary grinding of teeth and squinting are prevalent and often go unnoticed by the person affected.",
"Breathing can be affected in some, as can hearing, vision, and neck and shoulder muscles.",
"Scoliosis is common, causing hunching and loss of height.",
"Hip sockets can be malformed.",
"Gastrointestinal problems can be part of CMT, as can difficulty chewing, swallowing, and speaking (due to atrophy of vocal cords).",
"A tremor can develop as muscles waste.",
"Pregnancy has been known to exacerbate CMT, as well as severe emotional stress.",
"Patients with CMT must avoid periods of prolonged immobility such as when recovering from a secondary injury, as prolonged periods of limited mobility can drastically accelerate symptoms of CMT.Pain due to postural changes, skeletal deformations, muscle fatigue, and cramping is fairly common in people with CMT.",
"It can be mitigated or treated by physical therapies, surgeries, and corrective or assistive devices.",
"Analgesic medications may also be needed if other therapies do not provide relief from pain.",
"Neuropathic pain is often a symptom of CMT, though, like other symptoms of CMT, its presence and severity vary from case to case.",
"For some people, pain can be significant to severe and interfere with daily life activities.",
"However, pain is not experienced by all people with CMT.",
"When neuropathic pain is present as a symptom of CMT, it is comparable to that seen in other peripheral neuropathies, as well as postherpetic neuralgia and complex regional pain syndrome, among other diseases."
],
[
"Causes",
"Chromosome 17Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease is caused by genetic mutations that cause defects in neuronal proteins.",
"Nerve signals are conducted by an axon with a myelin sheath wrapped around it.",
"Most mutations in CMT affect the myelin sheath, but some affect the axon.===Classification===CMT is a heterogeneous disease and the mutations linked to it may occur in a number of different genes.",
"Based on the affected gene, CMT is categorized into several types and subtypes.====Chromosome 17====The most common cause of CMT (70–80% of the cases) is the duplication of a large region on the short arm of chromosome 17 that includes the gene ''PMP22''.====Chromosome 1====Some mutations affect the gene ''MFN2'', on chromosome 1, which codes for a mitochondrial protein.",
"Mutated ''MFN2'' causes the mitochondria to form large clusters, or clots, which are unable to travel down the axon towards the synapses.",
"This prevents the synapses from functioning.====X-linked CMT and Schwann cells====CMT can also be produced by X-linked mutations and is named X-linked CMT (CMTX).",
"In CMTX, mutated connexons create nonfunctional gap junctions that interrupt molecular exchange and signal transport.The mutation can appear in the ''GJB1'' gene coding for the connexin 32 protein, a gap junction protein expressed in Schwann cells.",
"Because this protein is also present in oligodendrocytes, demyelination can appear in the CNS.Schwann cells create the myelin sheath, by wrapping its plasma membrane around the axon.Neurons, Schwann cells, and fibroblasts work together to create a functional nerve.",
"Schwann cells and neurons exchange molecular signals by gap junctions that regulate survival and differentiation.Demyelinating Schwann cells causes abnormal axon structure and function.",
"They may cause axon degeneration, or they may simply cause axons to malfunction.The myelin sheath allows nerve cells to conduct signals faster.",
"When the myelin sheath is damaged, nerve signals are slower, and this can be measured by a common neurological test, electromyography.",
"When the axon is damaged, though, this results in a reduced compound muscle action potential.",
"'''GARS1-Related Axonal Neuropathy'''CMT2 types are typically referred to as axonal neuropathies due to the axonal degeneration observed.",
"CMT2 types are a result of damage to the nerve axons rather than damage to the myelin sheath (as is the case with CMT1).",
"Damaged axons cause slowed transmission of signals to the muscles and brain, causing symptoms including muscle atrophy, weakness, decreased sensitivity, and foot deformity.",
"Symptoms of CMT2 types typically appear between the ages of 5 and 25.CMT2D is one of 31 Charcot–Marie–Tooth type 2 forms 1 and is only diagnosed if sensory deficits (such as loss of sensation due to the degradation of sensory axons) are observed along with motor deficits; otherwise, distal hereditary motor neuropathy type V is diagnosed.",
"It is unknown why sensory involvement is so varied between GARS1 neuropathy patients.",
"Symptoms of CMT2D include foot deformity, muscle weakness and cramping, compromised reflexes, loss of sensation, and muscle atrophy and are similar to the symptoms of other both CMT1 and CMT2 types.",
"Symptoms and severity vary from patient to patient.Mice are often used to model CMT2D and typically demonstrate aberrant neuromuscular function at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ).",
"The neuromuscular junction is abnormal in CMT2D mice, with subjects showing neuromuscular junction degeneration in hind muscles.",
"The dorsal root ganglia (DRG) is also affected via aberrant sensory neuron fate, meaning that sensory neuron cell fates are abnormally determined.",
"CMT2D mice have fewer proprioceptive and mechanosensitive neurons, but have more nociceptive neurons, possibly due to mutant GlyRS aberrantly interacting with the extracellular region of tropomyosin receptor kinase, or Trk, receptors.",
"Trk receptors are crucial to the survival and development of sensory neurons; when disrupted, nerve development and survival is disrupted as well, possibly leading to the abnormal sensory neuron counts observed in CMT2D mice.CMT2D is a result of autosomal dominant mutations in the human GARS1 gene located at 7p14.3 and is thought to be caused by aberrant gain-of-function missense mutations.",
"The GARS1 gene is a protein-coding gene responsible for the encoding of glycyl-tRNA synthetase (GlyRS).",
"Glycyl-tRNA synthetase is a class II aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase and acts as the catalyst for the synthesis of glycyl-tRNA by covalently bonding amino acids with their corresponding cognate tRNAs for protein translation.",
"Glycyl-tRNA synthetase is integral to protein translation and attaches glycine to its cognate tRNA.Many different mutations have been found in CMT2D patients and it remains unclear how mutations in GARS1 cause CMT2D.",
"However, it is thought that mutant glycyl-tRNA synthetase (GlyRS) interferes with transmembrane receptors, causing motor disease and that mutations in the gene could disrupt the ability of GlyRS to interact with its cognate RNA, disrupting protein production.",
"The GARS1 mutations present in CMT2D cause a deficient amount of glycyl-tRNA in cells, preventing the elongation phase of protein synthesis.",
"Because elongation is a key step in protein production, ribosomes are unable to continue protein synthesis at glycine sites.",
"GARS1 mutations also stall initiation of translation.",
"Glycine addition failure causes a stress response that further stalls protein production, preventing initiation of translation.",
"By stalling elongation and initiation of translation, CMT2D mutations in the GARS1 gene cause translational repression, meaning that overall translation is inhibited.GARS1-associated axonal neuropathy is progressive, meaning that it worsens over time.",
"Unknown mechanisms are thought to cause the chronic neurodegeneration resulting from the aberrant GlyRS; however, one theory for disease is VEGF-deficiency.",
"Mutant GlysRS interferes with neuronal transmembrane receptors, including neuropilin 1 (Nrp1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), causing neuropathy.",
"GARS-CMT2D mutations alter GlyRS and allow it to bind to the Nrp1 receptor, interfering with the normal binding of Nrp1 to VEGF.",
"While enhanced expression of VEGF improves motor function, reduced expression of Nrp1 worsens CMT2D; because Nrp1 binds to mutant GlyRS in mutant GARS1-CMT2D individuals, Nrp1 expression is reduced, in turn worsening motor function.",
"Mice with deficient VEGF demonstrate motor-neuron disease over time.",
"Thus, the VEGF/Nrp1 pathway is considered to be targetable for CMT2D treatment."
],
[
"Diagnosis",
"CMT can be diagnosed through three different forms of tests: measurement of the speed of nerve impulses (nerve conduction studies), a biopsy of the nerve, and DNA testing.",
"DNA testing can give a definitive diagnosis, but not all the genetic markers for CMT are known.",
"CMT is first most noticed when someone develops lower leg weakness, such as foot drop, or foot deformities, including hammertoes and high arches, but signs alone do not lead to diagnosis.",
"Patients must be referred to a physician specialising in neurology or rehabilitation medicine.",
"To see signs of muscle weakness, the neurologist may ask patients to walk on their heels or to move part of their leg against an opposing force.",
"To identify sensory loss, the neurologist tests for deep-tendon reflexes, such as the knee jerk, which are reduced or absent in CMT.",
"The doctor may also ask the patient's family history since CMT is hereditary.",
"The lack of family history does not rule out CMT, but is helpful to rule out other causes of neuropathy, such as diabetes or exposure to certain chemicals or drugs.In 2010, CMT was one of the first diseases where the genetic cause of a particular patient's disease was precisely determined by sequencing the whole genome of an affected individual.",
"This was done by the scientists employed by the Charcot Marie Tooth Association (CMTA).",
"Two mutations were identified in a gene, ''SH3TC2'', known to cause CMT.",
"Researchers then compared the affected patient's genome to the genomes of the patient's mother, father, and seven siblings with and without the disease.",
"The mother and father each had one normal and one mutant copy of this gene, and had mild or no symptoms.",
"The offspring who inherited two mutant genes presented fully with the disease.===Histology===Denervation atrophy of type II muscle fibersThe constant cycle of demyelination and remyelination, which occurs in CMT, can lead to the formation of layers of myelin around some nerves, termed an \"onion bulb\".",
"These are also seen in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy.",
"Muscles show fiber type grouping, a similarly nonspecific finding that indicates a cycle of denervation/reinnervation.",
"Normally, type I and type II muscle fibers show a checkerboard-like random distribution.",
"However, when reinnervation occurs, the group of fibers associated with one nerve are of the same type.",
"The standard for indicating fiber type is histoenzymatic adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase at pH 9.4)."
],
[
"Management",
"Often, the most important goal for patients with CMT is to maintain movement, muscle strength, and flexibility.",
"Therefore, an interprofessional team approach with occupational therapy (OT), physical therapy (PT), orthotist, podiatrist, and or orthopedic surgeon is recommended.",
"PT typically focuses on muscle-strength training, muscle stretching, and aerobic exercise, while OT can provide education on energy conservation strategies and activities of daily living.",
"Physical therapy should be involved in designing an exercise program that fits a person's personal strengths and flexibility.",
"Bracing can also be used to correct problems caused by CMT.",
"An orthotist may address gait abnormalities by prescribing the use of orthotics.Appropriate footwear is also very important for people with CMT, but they often have difficulty finding well-fitting shoes because of their high-arched feet and hammertoes.",
"Due to the lack of good sensory reception in the feet, CMT patients may also need to see a podiatrist for assistance in trimming nails or removing calluses that develop on the pads of the feet.",
"Lastly, patients can also decide to have surgery performed by a podiatrist or an orthopedic surgeon.",
"Surgery may help to stabilize the patients' feet or correct progressive problems.",
"These procedures include straightening and pinning the toes, lowering the arch, and sometimes, fusing the ankle joint to provide stability.",
"CMT patients must take extra care to avoid falling as fractures take longer to heal in someone with an underlying disease process.",
"Additionally, the resulting inactivity may cause the CMT to worsen.",
"The Charcot–Marie–Tooth Association classifies the chemotherapy drug vincristine as a \"definite high risk\" and states, \"vincristine has been proven hazardous and should be avoided by all CMT patients, including those with no symptoms.\"",
"Several corrective surgical procedures can be done to improve the physical condition of the affected individuals.=== Orthotics ===Ankle-foot orthosisIf the muscles of the lower extremities are weak, it makes sense to prescribe custom-fabricated orthotics.",
"Depending on which muscle groups are affected, the correct orthoses with appropriate functional elements should be prescribed.",
"A weakness of the tibialis anterior muscle, which lifts the feet, is usually accompanied by an atrophy of the gastrocnemius muscle which, together with the soleus muscle, forms the triceps surae muscles (distal calf muscles), occurs causing the known \"stork leg deformity\".",
"In most cases, ankle-foot orthoses that have functional elements for the foot lifting and adjustable control of the lowering of the forefoot make sense.",
"Weak calf muscles lead to insufficient activation of the forefoot lever.",
"This leads to an additional increasing uncertainty when standing and walking.",
"If the calf muscles are weak, an orthosis should therefore be equipped with functional elements to activate the forefoot lever.",
"An orthotic joint with an adjustable dynamic dorsiflexion stop with strong spring in combination with a lower leg shell in front of the shin is recommended for this.",
"Such orthoses help to control foot drop, instability of the foot and ankle and offer the patient a better sense of balance when standing and walking without restricting mobility and the dynamics of the ankle joint.",
"Studies confirm the positive effect of orthoses with adjustable functional elements in patients with paralysis of these muscle groups.",
"It is of great advantage if the resistances of the two functional elements can be set separately from one another in the two directions of movement, dorsiflexion and plantar flexion."
],
[
"Prognosis",
"The severity of symptoms varies widely even for the same type of CMT.",
"Cases of monozygotic twins with varying levels of disease severity have been reported, showing that identical genotypes are associated with different levels of severity (see penetrance).",
"Some patients are able to live a normal life and are almost or entirely asymptomatic.",
"A 2007 review stated that, \"life expectancy is not known to be altered in the majority of cases.\""
],
[
"History",
"The disease is named after those who classically described it: the Frenchman Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893), his pupil Pierre Marie (1853–1940), and the Briton Howard Henry Tooth (1856–1925)."
],
[
"See also",
"* Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease classifications* Palmoplantar keratoderma and spastic paraplegia* Hereditary motor and sensory neuropathies* Hereditary motor neuropathies* Low copy repeats* ''Christina's World''"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Central pontine myelinolysis"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Central pontine myelinolysis''' is a neurological condition involving severe damage to the myelin sheath of nerve cells in the ''pons'' (an area of the brainstem).",
"It is predominately iatrogenic (treatment-induced), and is characterized by acute paralysis, dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), dysarthria (difficulty speaking), and other neurological symptoms.Central pontine myelinolysis was first described as a disorder in 1959.The original paper described four cases with fatal outcomes, and the findings on autopsy.",
"The disease was described as a disease of alcoholics and malnutrition.",
"'Central pontine' indicated the site of the lesion and 'myelinolysis' was used to emphasise that myelin was affected.",
"The authors intentionally avoided the term 'demyelination' to describe the condition, in order to differentiate this condition from multiple sclerosis and other neuroinflammatory disorders.Since this original description, demyelination in other areas of the central nervous system associated with osmotic stress has been described outside the pons (extrapontine).",
"'''Osmotic demyelination syndrome''' is the term used for both central pontine myelinolysis and extrapontine myelinolysis.Central pontine myelinolysis, and osmotic demyelination syndrome, present most commonly as a complication of treatment of patients with profound hyponatremia (low sodium), which can result from a varied spectrum of conditions, based on different mechanisms.",
"It occurs as a consequence of a rapid rise in serum tonicity following treatment in individuals with chronic, severe hyponatremia who have made intracellular adaptations to the prevailing hypotonicity."
],
[
"Signs and symptoms",
"T2 weighted magnetic resonance scan image showing bilaterally symmetrical hyperintensities in caudate nucleus (small, thin arrow), putamen (long arrow), with sparing of globus pallidus (broad arrow), suggestive of extrapontine myelinolysis (osmotic demyelination syndrome)Symptoms depend on the regions of the brain involved.",
"Prior to its onset, patients may present with the neurological signs and symptoms of hyponatraemic encephalopathy such as nausea and vomiting, confusion, headache and seizures.",
"These symptoms may resolve with normalisation of the serum sodium concentration.",
"Three to five days later, a second phase of neurological manifestations occurs correlating with the onset of myelinolysis.",
"Observable immediate precursors may include seizures, disturbed consciousness, gait changes, and decrease or cessation of respiratory function.The classical clinical presentation is the progressive development of spastic quadriparesis, pseudobulbar palsy, and emotional lability (pseudobulbar affect), with other more variable neurological features associated with brainstem damage.",
"These result from a rapid myelinolysis of the corticobulbar and corticospinal tracts in the brainstem.In about ten per cent of people with central pontine myelinolysis, extrapontine myelinolysis is also found.",
"In these cases symptoms of Parkinson's disease may be generated."
],
[
"Causes",
"Loss of myelinated fibers at the basilar part of the pons in the brainstem (Luxol-Fast blue stain)The most common cause is overly-rapid correction of low blood sodium levels (hyponatremia).",
"Apart from rapid correction of hyponatraemia, there are case reports of central pontine myelinolysis in association with hypokalaemia, anorexia nervosa when feeding is started, patients undergoing dialysis and burn victims.",
"There is a case report of central pontine myelinolysis occurring in the context of refeeding syndrome, in the absence of hyponatremia.It has also been known to occur in patients suffering withdrawal symptoms of chronic alcoholism.",
"In these instances, occurrence may be entirely unrelated to hyponatremia or rapid correction of hyponatremia.",
"It could affect patients who take some prescription medicines that are able to cross the blood-brain barrier and cause abnormal thirst reception - in this scenario the central pontine myelinolysis is caused by polydipsia leading to low blood sodium levels (hyponatremia).In schizophrenic patients with psychogenic polydipsia, inadequate thirst reception leads to excessive water intake, severely diluting serum sodium.",
"With this excessive thirst combined with psychotic symptoms, brain damage such as central pontine myelinolysis may result from hyperosmolarity caused by excess intake of fluids, (primary polydipsia) although this is difficult to determine because such patients are often institutionalised and have a long history of mental health conditions.It has been observed following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.Central pontine myelinolysis may also occur in patients prone to hyponatremia affected by:* Severe liver disease (e.g., cirrhosis)* Liver transplant* Alcoholism* Hypokalemia* People with serum sodium <105 mEq/L* Severe burns* Malnutrition* Anorexia nervosa* Severe electrolyte disorders* HIV/AIDS* hyperemesis gravidarum* Hyponatremia due to peritoneal dialysis* Wernicke encephalopathy"
],
[
"Pathophysiology",
"The currently accepted theory states that the brain cells adjust their osmolarities by changing levels of certain osmolytes like inositol, betaine, and glutamine in response to varying serum osmolality.",
"In the context of chronic low plasma sodium (hyponatremia), the brain compensates by decreasing the levels of these osmolytes within the cells, so that they can remain relatively isotonic with their surroundings and not absorb too much fluid.",
"The reverse is true in hypernatremia, in which the cells increase their intracellular osmolytes so as not to lose too much fluid to the extracellular space.With correction of the hyponatremia with intravenous fluids, the extracellular tonicity increases, followed by an increase in intracellular tonicity.",
"When the correction is too rapid, not enough time is allowed for the brain's cells to adjust to the new tonicity, namely by increasing the intracellular osmoles mentioned earlier.",
"If the serum sodium levels rise too rapidly, the increased extracellular tonicity will continue to drive water out of the brain's cells.",
"This can lead to cellular dysfunction and central pontine myelinolysis."
],
[
"Diagnosis",
"It can be diagnosed clinically in the appropriate context, but may be difficult to confirm radiologically using conventional imaging techniques.",
"Changes are more prominent on MRI than on CT, but often take days or weeks after acute symptom onset to develop.",
"Imaging by MRI typically demonstrates areas of hyperintensity on T2-weighted images."
],
[
"Treatment",
"To minimise the risk of this condition developing from its most common cause, overly rapid reversal of hyponatremia, the hyponatremia should be corrected at a rate not exceeding 10 mmol/L/24 h or 0.5 mEq/L/h; or 18 mEq/L/48hrs; thus avoiding demyelination.",
"No large clinical trials have been performed to examine the efficacy of therapeutic re-lowering of serum sodium, or other interventions sometimes advocated such as steroids or plasma exchange.Alcoholic patients should receive vitamin supplementation and a formal evaluation of their nutritional status.Once osmotic demyelination has begun, there is no cure or specific treatment.",
"Care is mainly supportive.",
"Alcoholics are usually given vitamins to correct for other deficiencies.",
"The favourable factors contributing to the good outcome in central pontine myelinolysis without hyponatremia were: concurrent treatment of all electrolyte disturbances, early intensive care unit involvement at the advent of respiratory complications, early introduction of feeding including thiamine supplements with close monitoring of the electrolyte changes and input.Research has led to improved outcomes.",
"Animal studies suggest that inositol reduces the severity of osmotic demyelination syndrome if given before attempting to correct chronic hyponatraemia.",
"Further study is required before using inositol in humans for this purpose."
],
[
"Prognosis",
"Though traditionally the prognosis is considered poor, a good functional recovery is possible.",
"All patients at risk of developing refeeding syndrome should have their electrolytes closely monitored, including sodium, potassium, magnesium, glucose and phosphate.Recent data indicate that the prognosis of critically ill patients may even be better than what is generally considered, despite severe initial clinical manifestations and a tendency by the intensivists to underestimate a possible favorable evolution.While some patients die, most survive and of the survivors, approximately one-third recover; one-third are disabled but are able to live independently; one-third are severely disabled.",
"Permanent disabilities range from minor tremors and ataxia to signs of severe brain damage, such as spastic quadriparesis and locked-in syndrome.",
"Some improvements may be seen over the course of the first several months after the condition stabilizes.The degree of recovery depends on the extent of the original axonal damage."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* MedPix Images of Osmotic Myelinolysis"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Crystallographic defect"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Electron microscopy of antisites (a, Mo substitutes for S) and vacancies (b, missing S atoms) in a monolayer of molybdenum disulfide.",
"Scale bar: 1 nm.A '''crystallographic defect''' is an interruption of the regular patterns of arrangement of atoms or molecules in crystalline solids.",
"The positions and orientations of particles, which are repeating at fixed distances determined by the unit cell parameters in crystals, exhibit a periodic crystal structure, but this is usually imperfect.",
"Several types of defects are often characterized: point defects, line defects, planar defects, bulk defects.",
"Topological homotopy establishes a mathematical method of characterization."
],
[
"Point defects",
"Point defects are defects that occur only at or around a single lattice point.",
"They are not extended in space in any dimension.",
"Strict limits for how small a point defect is are generally not defined explicitly.",
"However, these defects typically involve at most a few extra or missing atoms.",
"Larger defects in an ordered structure are usually considered dislocation loops.",
"For historical reasons, many point defects, especially in ionic crystals, are called ''centers'': for example a vacancy in many ionic solids is called a luminescence center, a color center, or F-center.",
"These dislocations permit ionic transport through crystals leading to electrochemical reactions.",
"These are frequently specified using Kröger–Vink notation.",
"*Vacancy defects are lattice sites which would be occupied in a perfect crystal, but are vacant.",
"If a neighboring atom moves to occupy the vacant site, the vacancy moves in the opposite direction to the site which used to be occupied by the moving atom.",
"The stability of the surrounding crystal structure guarantees that the neighboring atoms will not simply collapse around the vacancy.",
"In some materials, neighboring atoms actually move away from a vacancy, because they experience attraction from atoms in the surroundings.",
"A vacancy (or pair of vacancies in an ionic solid) is sometimes called a Schottky defect.",
"*Interstitial defects are atoms that occupy a site in the crystal structure at which there is usually not an atom.",
"They are generally high energy configurations.",
"Small atoms (mostly impurities) in some crystals can occupy interstices without high energy, such as hydrogen in palladium.Schematic illustration of some simple point defect types in a monatomic solid*A nearby pair of a vacancy and an interstitial is often called a Frenkel defect or Frenkel pair.",
"This is caused when an ion moves into an interstitial site and creates a vacancy.",
"*Due to fundamental limitations of material purification methods, materials are never 100% pure, which by definition induces defects in crystal structure.",
"In the case of an impurity, the atom is often incorporated at a regular atomic site in the crystal structure.",
"This is neither a vacant site nor is the atom on an interstitial site and it is called a '''substitutional defect'''.",
"The atom is not supposed to be anywhere in the crystal, and is thus an impurity.",
"In some cases where the radius of the substitutional atom (ion) is substantially smaller than that of the atom (ion) it is replacing, its equilibrium position can be shifted away from the lattice site.",
"These types of substitutional defects are often referred to as off-center ions.",
"There are two different types of substitutional defects: Isovalent substitution and aliovalent substitution.",
"Isovalent substitution is where the ion that is substituting the original ion is of the same oxidation state as the ion it is replacing.",
"Aliovalent substitution is where the ion that is substituting the original ion is of a different oxidation state than the ion it is replacing.",
"Aliovalent substitutions change the overall charge within the ionic compound, but the ionic compound must be neutral.",
"Therefore, a charge compensation mechanism is required.",
"Hence either one of the metals is partially or fully oxidised or reduced, or ion vacancies are created.",
"*'''Antisite defects''' occur in an ordered alloy or compound when atoms of different type exchange positions.",
"For example, some alloys have a regular structure in which every other atom is a different species; for illustration assume that type A atoms sit on the corners of a cubic lattice, and type B atoms sit in the center of the cubes.",
"If one cube has an A atom at its center, the atom is on a site usually occupied by a B atom, and is thus an antisite defect.",
"This is neither a vacancy nor an interstitial, nor an impurity.",
"*Topological defects are regions in a crystal where the normal chemical bonding environment is topologically different from the surroundings.",
"For instance, in a perfect sheet of graphite (graphene) all atoms are in rings containing six atoms.",
"If the sheet contains regions where the number of atoms in a ring is different from six, while the total number of atoms remains the same, a topological defect has formed.",
"An example is the Stone Wales defect in nanotubes, which consists of two adjacent 5-membered and two 7-membered atom rings.Schematic illustration of defects in a compound solid, using GaAs as an example.",
"*Amorphous solids may contain defects.",
"These are naturally somewhat hard to define, but sometimes their nature can be quite easily understood.",
"For instance, in ideally bonded amorphous silica all Si atoms have 4 bonds to O atoms and all O atoms have 2 bonds to Si atom.",
"Thus e.g.",
"an O atom with only one Si bond (a dangling bond) can be considered a defect in silica.",
"Moreover, defects can also be defined in amorphous solids based on empty or densely packed local atomic neighbourhoods, and the properties of such 'defects' can be shown to be similar to normal vacancies and interstitials in crystals.",
"*Complexes can form between different kinds of point defects.",
"For example, if a vacancy encounters an impurity, the two may bind together if the impurity is too large for the lattice.",
"Interstitials can form 'split interstitial' or 'dumbbell' structures where two atoms effectively share an atomic site, resulting in neither atom actually occupying the site."
],
[
"Line defects",
"Line defects can be described by gauge theories.Dislocations are linear defects, around which the atoms of the crystal lattice are misaligned.There are two basic types of dislocations, the ''edge'' dislocation and the ''screw'' dislocation.",
"\"Mixed\" dislocations, combining aspects of both types, are also common.",
"An ''edge dislocation'' is shown.",
"The dislocation line is presented in blue, the Burgers vector b in black.Edge dislocations are caused by the termination of a plane of atoms in the middle of a crystal.",
"In such a case, the adjacent planes are not straight, but instead bend around the edge of the terminating plane so that the crystal structure is perfectly ordered on either side.",
"The analogy with a stack of paper is apt: if a half a piece of paper is inserted in a stack of paper, the defect in the stack is only noticeable at the edge of the half sheet.The screw dislocation is more difficult to visualise, but basically comprises a structure in which a helical path is traced around the linear defect (dislocation line) by the atomic planes of atoms in the crystal lattice.The presence of dislocation results in lattice strain (distortion).",
"The direction and magnitude of such distortion is expressed in terms of a Burgers vector (b).",
"For an edge type, b is perpendicular to the dislocation line, whereas in the cases of the screw type it is parallel.",
"In metallic materials, b is aligned with close-packed crystallographic directions and its magnitude is equivalent to one interatomic spacing.Dislocations can move if the atoms from one of the surrounding planes break their bonds and rebond with the atoms at the terminating edge.It is the presence of dislocations and their ability to readily move (and interact) under the influence of stresses induced by external loads that leads to the characteristic malleability of metallic materials.Dislocations can be observed using transmission electron microscopy, field ion microscopy and atom probe techniques.Deep-level transient spectroscopy has been used for studying the electrical activity of dislocations in semiconductors, mainly silicon.Disclinations are line defects corresponding to \"adding\" or \"subtracting\" an angle around a line.",
"Basically, this means that if you track the crystal orientation around the line defect, you get a rotation.",
"Usually, they were thought to play a role only in liquid crystals, but recent developments suggest that they might have a role also in solid materials, e.g.",
"leading to the self-healing of cracks.==Planar defects==Origin of stacking faults: Different stacking sequences of close-packed crystals*Grain boundaries occur where the crystallographic direction of the lattice abruptly changes.",
"This usually occurs when two crystals begin growing separately and then meet.",
"*Antiphase boundaries occur in ordered alloys: in this case, the crystallographic direction remains the same, but each side of the boundary has an opposite phase: For example, if the ordering is usually ABABABAB (hexagonal close-packed crystal), an antiphase boundary takes the form of ABABBABA.",
"*Stacking faults occur in a number of crystal structures, but the common example is in close-packed structures.",
"They are formed by a local deviation of the stacking sequence of layers in a crystal.",
"An example would be the ABABCABAB stacking sequence.",
"*A twin boundary is a defect that introduces a plane of mirror symmetry in the ordering of a crystal.",
"For example, in cubic close-packed crystals, the stacking sequence of a twin boundary would be ABCABCBACBA.",
"*On planes of single crystals, steps between atomically flat terraces can also be regarded as planar defects.",
"It has been shown that such defects and their geometry have significant influence on the adsorption of organic molecules"
],
[
"Bulk defects",
"* Three-dimensional macroscopic or bulk defects, such as pores, cracks, or inclusions* Voids — small regions where there are no atoms, and which can be thought of as clusters of vacancies* Impurities can cluster together to form small regions of a different phase.",
"These are often called precipitates."
],
[
"Mathematical classification methods",
"A successful mathematical classification method for physical lattice defects, which works not only with the theory of dislocations and other defects in crystals but also, e.g., for disclinations in liquid crystals and for excitations in superfluid 3He, is the topological homotopy theory."
],
[
"Computer simulation methods",
"Density functional theory, classical molecular dynamics and kinetic Monte Carlosimulations are widely used to study the properties of defects in solids with computer simulations.",
"Simulating jamming of hard spheres of different sizes and/or in containers with non-commeasurable sizes using the Lubachevsky–Stillinger algorithmcan be an effective technique for demonstrating some types of crystallographic defects."
],
[
"See also",
"*Bjerrum defect*Crystallographic defects in diamond*Kröger–Vink notation*F-center"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Hagen Kleinert, ''Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter'', Vol.",
"II, \"Stresses and defects\", pp.",
"743–1456, World Scientific (Singapore, 1989); Paperback *Hermann Schmalzried: ''Solid State Reactions''.",
"Verlag Chemie, Weinheim 1981, ."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Chomsky normal form"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In formal language theory, a context-free grammar, ''G'', is said to be in '''Chomsky normal form''' (first described by Noam Chomsky) if all of its production rules are of the form:: ''A'' → ''BC'', or: ''A'' → ''a'', or: ''S'' → ε,where ''A'', ''B'', and ''C'' are nonterminal symbols, the letter ''a'' is a terminal symbol (a symbol that represents a constant value), ''S'' is the start symbol, and ε denotes the empty string.",
"Also, neither ''B'' nor ''C'' may be the start symbol, and the third production rule can only appear if ε is in ''L''(''G''), the language produced by the context-free grammar ''G''.Every grammar in Chomsky normal form is context-free, and conversely, every context-free grammar can be transformed into an equivalent one which is in Chomsky normal form and has a size no larger than the square of the original grammar's size."
],
[
"Converting a grammar to Chomsky normal form",
"To convert a grammar to Chomsky normal form, a sequence of simple transformations is applied in a certain order; this is described in most textbooks on automata theory.The presentation here follows Hopcroft, Ullman (1979), but is adapted to use the transformation names from Lange, Leiß (2009).",
"Each of the following transformations establishes one of the properties required for Chomsky normal form.===START: Eliminate the start symbol from right-hand sides===Introduce a new start symbol ''S''0, and a new rule :''S''0 → ''S'', where ''S'' is the previous start symbol.This does not change the grammar's produced language, and ''S''0 will not occur on any rule's right-hand side.===TERM: Eliminate rules with nonsolitary terminals===To eliminate each rule :''A'' → ''X''1 ... ''a'' ... ''X''''n''with a terminal symbol ''a'' being not the only symbol on the right-hand side, introduce, for every such terminal, a new nonterminal symbol ''N''''a'', and a new rule :''N''''a'' → ''a''.",
"Change every rule :''A'' → ''X''1 ... ''a'' ... ''X''''n'' to :''A'' → ''X''1 ... ''N''''a'' ... ''X''''n''.If several terminal symbols occur on the right-hand side, simultaneously replace each of them by its associated nonterminal symbol.This does not change the grammar's produced language.===BIN: Eliminate right-hand sides with more than 2 nonterminals===Replace each rule :''A'' → ''X''1 ''X''2 ... ''X''''n'' with more than 2 nonterminals ''X''1,...,''X''''n'' by rules :''A'' → ''X''1 ''A''1, :''A''1 → ''X''2 ''A''2, :... , :''A''''n''-2 → ''X''''n''-1 ''X''''n'', where ''A''''i'' are new nonterminal symbols.Again, this does not change the grammar's produced language.===DEL: Eliminate ε-rules===An ε-rule is a rule of the form :''A'' → ε, where ''A'' is not ''S''0, the grammar's start symbol.To eliminate all rules of this form, first determine the set of all nonterminals that derive ε.Hopcroft and Ullman (1979) call such nonterminals ''nullable'', and compute them as follows:* If a rule ''A'' → ε exists, then ''A'' is nullable.",
"* If a rule ''A'' → ''X''1 ... ''X''''n'' exists, and every single ''X''''i'' is nullable, then ''A'' is nullable, too.Obtain an intermediate grammar by replacing each rule :''A'' → ''X''1 ... ''X''''n'' by all versions with some nullable ''X''''i'' omitted.By deleting in this grammar each ε-rule, unless its left-hand side is the start symbol, the transformed grammar is obtained.For example, in the following grammar, with start symbol ''S''0,: ''S''0 → ''AbB'' | ''C'': ''B'' → ''AA'' | ''AC'': ''C'' → ''b'' | ''c'': ''A'' → ''a'' | εthe nonterminal ''A'', and hence also ''B'', is nullable, while neither ''C'' nor ''S''0 is.Hence the following intermediate grammar is obtained:: ''S''0 → ''b'' | ''b'' | ''b'' | ''b'' | ''C'': ''B'' → '''' | '''' | '''' | ''ε'' | ''C'' | ''C'': ''C'' → ''b'' | ''c'': ''A'' → ''a'' | εIn this grammar, all ε-rules have been \"inlined at the call site\".In the next step, they can hence be deleted, yielding the grammar:: ''S''0 → ''AbB'' | ''Ab'' | ''bB'' | ''b'' | ''C'': ''B'' → ''AA'' | ''A'' | ''AC'' | ''C'': ''C'' → ''b'' | ''c'': ''A'' → ''a''This grammar produces the same language as the original example grammar, viz.",
"{''ab'',''aba'',''abaa'',''abab'',''abac'',''abb'',''abc'',''b'',''bab'',''bac'',''bb'',''bc'',''c''}, but has no ε-rules.===UNIT: Eliminate unit rules===A unit rule is a rule of the form :''A'' → ''B'', where ''A'', ''B'' are nonterminal symbols.To remove it, for each rule :''B'' → ''X''1 ... ''X''''n'', where ''X''1 ... ''X''''n'' is a string of nonterminals and terminals, add rule :''A'' → ''X''1 ... ''X''''n'' unless this is a unit rule which has already been (or is being) removed.",
"The skipping of nonterminal symbol ''B'' in the resulting grammar is possible due to ''B'' being a member of the unit closure of nonterminal symbol ''A''.===Order of transformations===+ Mutual preservationof transformation results Transformation ''X'' ()resp.",
"() the result of ''Y'': START TERMBINDELUNIT START TERM BIN DEL UNIT *'''UNIT''' preserves the result of '''DEL''' if '''START''' had been called before.When choosing the order in which the above transformations are to be applied, it has to be considered that some transformations may destroy the result achieved by other ones.",
"For example, '''START''' will re-introduce a unit rule if it is applied after '''UNIT'''.",
"The table shows which orderings are admitted.Moreover, the worst-case bloat in grammar size depends on the transformation order.",
"Using |''G''| to denote the size of the original grammar ''G'', the size blow-up in the worst case may range from |''G''|2 to 22 |G|, depending on the transformation algorithm used.",
"The blow-up in grammar size depends on the order between '''DEL''' and '''BIN'''.",
"It may be exponential when '''DEL''' is done first, but is linear otherwise.",
"'''UNIT''' can incur a quadratic blow-up in the size of the grammar.",
"The orderings '''START''','''TERM''','''BIN''','''DEL''','''UNIT''' and '''START''','''BIN''','''DEL''','''UNIT''','''TERM''' lead to the least (i.e.",
"quadratic) blow-up."
],
[
"Example",
"Abstract syntax tree of the arithmetic expression \"''a''^2+4*''b''\" wrt.",
"the example grammar ('''top''') and its Chomsky normal form ('''bottom''')The following grammar, with start symbol ''Expr'', describes a simplified version of the set of all syntactical valid arithmetic expressions in programming languages like C or Algol60.Both ''number'' and ''variable'' are considered terminal symbols here for simplicity, since in a compiler front end their internal structure is usually not considered by the parser.",
"The terminal symbol \"^\" denoted exponentiation in Algol60.",
": ''Expr'' → ''Term'' ''Expr'' ''AddOp'' ''Term'' ''AddOp'' ''Term'' ''Term'' → ''Factor'' ''Term'' ''MulOp'' ''Factor'' ''Factor'' → ''Primary'' ''Factor'' ^ ''Primary'' ''Primary'' → ''number'' ''variable'' ( ''Expr'' ) ''AddOp'' → + − ''MulOp'' → * /In step \"START\" of the above conversion algorithm, just a rule ''S''0→''Expr'' is added to the grammar.After step \"TERM\", the grammar looks like this:: ''S''0 → ''Expr'' ''Expr'' → ''Term'' ''Expr'' ''AddOp'' ''Term'' ''AddOp'' ''Term'' ''Term'' → ''Factor'' ''Term'' ''MulOp'' ''Factor'' ''Factor'' → ''Primary'' ''Factor'' ''PowOp'' ''Primary'' ''Primary'' → ''number'' ''variable'' ''Open'' ''Expr'' ''Close'' ''AddOp'' → + − ''MulOp'' → * / ''PowOp'' → ^ ''Open'' → ( ''Close'' → )After step \"BIN\", the following grammar is obtained:: ''S''0 → ''Expr'' ''Expr'' → ''Term'' ''Expr'' ''AddOp_Term'' ''AddOp'' ''Term'' ''Term'' → ''Factor'' ''Term'' ''MulOp_Factor'' ''Factor'' → ''Primary'' ''Factor'' ''PowOp_Primary'' ''Primary'' → ''number'' ''variable'' ''Open'' ''Expr_Close'' ''AddOp'' → + − ''MulOp'' → * / ''PowOp'' → ^ ''Open'' → ( ''Close'' → ) ''AddOp_Term'' → ''AddOp'' ''Term'' ''MulOp_Factor'' → ''MulOp'' ''Factor'' ''PowOp_Primary'' → ''PowOp'' ''Primary'' ''Expr_Close'' → ''Expr'' ''Close''Since there are no ε-rules, step \"DEL\" does not change the grammar.After step \"UNIT\", the following grammar is obtained, which is in Chomsky normal form:: ''S''0 → ''number'' ''variable'' ''Open'' ''Expr_Close'' ''Factor'' ''PowOp_Primary'' ''Term'' ''MulOp_Factor'' ''Expr'' ''AddOp_Term'' ''AddOp'' ''Term'' ''Expr'' → ''number'' ''variable'' ''Open'' ''Expr_Close'' ''Factor'' ''PowOp_Primary'' ''Term'' ''MulOp_Factor'' ''Expr'' ''AddOp_Term'' ''AddOp'' ''Term'' ''Term'' → ''number'' ''variable'' ''Open'' ''Expr_Close'' ''Factor'' ''PowOp_Primary'' ''Term'' ''MulOp_Factor'' ''Factor'' → ''number'' ''variable'' ''Open'' ''Expr_Close'' ''Factor'' ''PowOp_Primary'' ''Primary'' → ''number'' ''variable'' ''Open'' ''Expr_Close'' ''AddOp'' → + − ''MulOp'' → * / ''PowOp'' → ^ ''Open'' → ( ''Close'' → ) ''AddOp_Term'' → ''AddOp'' ''Term'' ''MulOp_Factor'' → ''MulOp'' ''Factor'' ''PowOp_Primary'' → ''PowOp'' ''Primary'' ''Expr_Close'' → ''Expr'' ''Close''The ''N''''a'' introduced in step \"TERM\" are ''PowOp'', ''Open'', and ''Close''.The ''A''''i'' introduced in step \"BIN\" are ''AddOp_Term'', ''MulOp_Factor'', ''PowOp_Primary'', and ''Expr_Close''."
],
[
"Alternative definition",
"=== Chomsky reduced form ===Another way to define the Chomsky normal form is:A formal grammar is in '''Chomsky reduced form''' if all of its production rules are of the form:: or: ,where , and are nonterminal symbols, and is a terminal symbol.",
"When using this definition, or may be the start symbol.",
"Only those context-free grammars which do not generate the empty string can be transformed into Chomsky reduced form.=== Floyd normal form ===In a letter where he proposed a term Backus–Naur form (BNF), Donald E. Knuth implied a BNF \"syntax in which all definitions have such a form may be said to be in 'Floyd Normal Form'\",: or: or: ,where , and are nonterminal symbols, and is a terminal symbol,because Robert W. Floyd found any BNF syntax can be converted to the above one in 1961.But he withdrew this term, \"since doubtless many people have independently used this simple fact in their own work, and the point is only incidental to the main considerations of Floyd's note.\"",
"While Floyd's note cites Chomsky's original 1959 article, Knuth's letter does not."
],
[
"Application",
"Besides its theoretical significance, CNF conversion is used in some algorithms as a preprocessing step, e.g., the CYK algorithm, a bottom-up parsing for context-free grammars, and its variant probabilistic CKY."
],
[
"See also",
"*Backus–Naur form*CYK algorithm*Greibach normal form*Kuroda normal form*Pumping lemma for context-free languages — its proof relies on the Chomsky normal form"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Cole, Richard.",
"''Converting CFGs to CNF (Chomsky Normal Form)'', October 17, 2007.",
"(pdf) — uses the order TERM, BIN, START, DEL, UNIT.",
"* ''(Pages 237–240 of section 6.6: simplified forms and normal forms.",
")''* ''(Pages 98–101 of section 2.1: context-free grammars.",
"Page 156.",
")''* ''(pages 171-183 of section 7.1: Chomsky Normal Form)''* Sipser, Michael.",
"''Introduction to the Theory of Computation,'' 2nd edition.",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty''' ('''CTBT''') is a multilateral treaty to ban nuclear weapons test explosions and any other nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments.",
"It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996, but has not entered into force, as eight specific nations have not ratified the treaty."
],
[
"History",
"The movement for international control of nuclear weapons began in 1945, with a call from Canada and the United Kingdom for a conference on the subject.",
"In June 1946, Bernard Baruch, an emissary of President Harry S. Truman, proposed the Baruch Plan before the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission, which called for an international system of controls on the production of atomic energy.",
"The plan, which would serve as the basis for U.S. nuclear policy into the 1950s, was rejected by the Soviet Union as a US ploy to cement its nuclear dominance.Between the Trinity nuclear test of 16 July 1945 and the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) on 5 August 1963, 499 nuclear tests were conducted.",
"Much of the impetus for the PTBT, the precursor to the CTBT, was rising public concern surrounding the size and resulting nuclear fallout from underwater and atmospheric nuclear tests, particularly tests of powerful thermonuclear weapons (hydrogen bombs).",
"The Castle Bravo test of 1 March 1954, in particular, attracted significant attention as the detonation resulted in fallout that spread over inhabited areas and sickened a group of Japanese fishermen.",
"Between 1945 and 1963, the US conducted 215 atmospheric tests, the Soviet Union conducted 219, the UK conducted 21, and France conducted 3.In 1954, following the Castle Bravo test, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India issued the first appeal for a \"standstill agreement\" on testing, which was soon echoed by the British Labour Party.",
"Negotiations on a comprehensive test ban, primarily involving the US, UK, and the Soviet Union, began in 1955 following a proposal by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev.",
"Of primary concern throughout the negotiations, which would stretch—with some interruptions—to July 1963, was the system of verifying compliance with the test ban and detecting illicit tests.",
"On the Western side, there were concerns that the Soviet Union would be able to circumvent any test ban and secretly leap ahead in the nuclear arms race.",
"These fears were amplified following the US ''Rainier'' shot of 19 September 1957, which was the first contained underground test of a nuclear weapon.",
"Though the US held a significant advantage in underground testing capabilities, there was worry that the Soviet Union would be able to covertly conduct underground tests during a test ban, as underground detonations were more challenging to detect than above-ground tests.",
"On the Soviet side, conversely, the on-site compliance inspections demanded by the US and UK were seen as amounting to espionage.",
"Disagreement over verification would lead to the Anglo-American and Soviet negotiators abandoning a comprehensive test ban (i.e., a ban on all tests, including those underground) in favor of a partial ban, which would be finalized on 25 July 1963.The PTBT, joined by 123 states following the original three parties, banned detonations for military and civilian purposes underwater, in the atmosphere, and outer space.The PTBT had mixed results.",
"On the one hand, enactment of the treaty was followed by a substantial drop in the atmospheric concentration of radioactive particles.",
"On the other hand, nuclear proliferation was not halted entirely (though it may have been slowed) and nuclear testing continued at a rapid clip.",
"Compared to the 499 tests from 1945 to the signing of the PTBT, 436 tests were conducted over the ten years following the PTBT.",
"Furthermore, US and Soviet underground testing continued \"venting\" radioactive gas into the atmosphere.",
"Additionally, though underground testing was generally safer than above-ground testing, underground tests continued to risk the leaking of radionuclides, including plutonium, into the ground.",
"From 1964 through 1996, the year of the CTBT's adoption, an estimated 1,377 underground nuclear tests were conducted.",
"The final non-underground (atmospheric or underwater) test was conducted by China in 1980.The PTBT has been seen as a step towards the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968, which directly referenced the PTBT.",
"Under the NPT, non-nuclear weapon states were prohibited from possessing, manufacturing, and acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices.",
"All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were committed to the goal of total nuclear disarmament.",
"However, India, Pakistan, and Israel have declined to sign the NPT on the grounds that such a treaty is fundamentally discriminatory as it places limitations on states that do not have nuclear weapons while making no efforts to curb weapons development by declared nuclear weapons states.In 1974, a step towards a comprehensive test ban was made with the Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT), ratified by the US and Soviet Union, which banned underground tests with yields above 150 kilotons.",
"In April 1976, the two states reached agreement on the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty (PNET), which concerns nuclear detonations outside the weapons sites discussed in the TTBT.",
"As in the TTBT, the US and Soviet Union agreed to bar peaceful nuclear explosions (PNEs) at these other locations with yields above 150 kilotons, as well as group explosions with total yields over 1,500 kilotons.",
"To verify compliance, the PNET requires that states rely on national technical means of verification, share information on explosions, and grant on-site access to counterparties.",
"The TTBT and PNET entered into force on 11 December 1990.Reagan and Gorbachev, December 1987In October 1977, the US, UK, and Soviet Union returned to negotiations over a test ban.",
"These three nuclear powers made notable progress in the late 1970s, agreeing to terms on a ban on all testing, including a temporary prohibition on PNEs, but continued disagreements over the compliance mechanisms led to an end to negotiations ahead of Ronald Reagan's inauguration as president in 1981.In 1985, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev announced a unilateral testing moratorium, and in December 1986, Reagan reaffirmed US commitment to pursue the long-term goal of a comprehensive test ban.",
"In November 1987, negotiations on a test ban restarted, followed by a joint US-Soviet program to research underground-test detection in December 1987.In October 2023, Russian president Vladimir Putin stated that since the United States had not ratified the CTBT, consideration could be given to withdrawing Russia's ratification of the treaty.",
"Later in the month, a law revoking ratification of the CTBT was passed by the Russian parliament.",
"On 2 November, Putin officially signed into law the withdrawal of ratification of the treaty."
],
[
"Negotiations",
"Given the political situation prevailing in the subsequent decades, little progress was made in nuclear disarmament until the end of the Cold War in 1991.Parties to the PTBT held an amendment conference that year to discuss a proposal to convert the Treaty into an instrument banning all nuclear-weapon tests.",
"With strong support from the UN General Assembly, negotiations for a comprehensive test-ban treaty began in 1993.===Adoption===Extensive efforts were made over the next three years to draft the Treaty text and its two annexes.",
"However, the Conference on Disarmament, in which negotiations were being held, did not succeed in reaching consensus on the adoption of the text.",
"Under the direction of Prime Minister John Howard and Foreign Minister Alexander Downer, Australia then sent the text to the United Nations General Assembly in New York, where it was submitted as a draft resolution.",
"On 10 September 1996, the Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) was adopted by a large majority, exceeding two-thirds of the General Assembly's Membership.===Obligations===(Article I):# Each State Party undertakes not to carry out any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion, and to prohibit and prevent any such nuclear explosion at any place under its jurisdiction or control.# Each State Party undertakes, furthermore, to refrain from causing, encouraging, or in any way participating in the carrying out of any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion."
],
[
"Status",
"The Treaty was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996.It opened for signature in New York on 24 September 1996, when it was signed by 71 states, including five of the eight then nuclear-capable states.",
", 177 states have ratified the CTBT and another nine states have signed but not ratified it.",
"''In this news article, the number of states ratifying was reported as 154.",
"''The treaty will enter into force 180 days after the 44 states listed in Annex 2 of the treaty have ratified it.",
"These \"Annex 2 states\" are states that participated in the CTBT's negotiations between 1994 and 1996 and possessed nuclear power reactors or research reactors at that time.",
", nine Annex 2 states have not ratified the treaty: China, Egypt, Iran, Israel and the United States have signed but not ratified the Treaty; India, North Korea and Pakistan have not signed it; while Russia signed and ratified the treaty but subsequently withdrew its ratification prior to its entry into force."
],
[
"Monitoring",
"Geophysical and other technologies are used to monitor for compliance with the Treaty: forensic seismology, hydroacoustics, infrasound, and radionuclide monitoring.",
"The first three forms of monitoring are known as wave-form measurements.",
"Seismic monitoring is performed with a system of 50 primary stations located throughout the world, with 120 auxiliary stations in signatory states.",
"Hydroacoustic monitoring is performed with a system of 11 stations that consist of hydrophone triads to monitor for underwater explosions.",
"Hydroacoustic stations can use seismometers to measure T-waves from possible underwater explosions instead of hydrophones.",
"The best measurement of hydroacoustic waves has been found to be at a depth of 1000 m. Infrasound monitoring relies on changes in atmospheric pressure caused by a possible nuclear explosion, with 41 stations certified as of August 2019.One of the biggest concerns with infrasound measurements is noise due to exposure from wind, which can affect the sensor's ability to measure if an event occurred.",
"Together, these technologies are used to monitor the ground, water, and atmosphere for any sign of a nuclear explosion.Radionuclide monitoring takes the form of either monitoring for radioactive particulates or noble gases as a product of a nuclear explosion.",
"Radioactive particles emit radiation that can be measured by any of the 80 stations located throughout the world.",
"They are created from nuclear explosions that can collect onto the dust that is moved from the explosion.",
"If a nuclear explosion took place underground, noble gas monitoring can be used to verify whether or not a possible nuclear explosion took place.",
"Noble gas monitoring relies on measuring increases in radioactive xenon gas.",
"Different isotopes of xenon include 131mXe, 133Xe, 133mXe, and 135Xe.",
"All four monitoring methods make up the International Monitoring System (IMS).",
"Statistical theories and methods are integral to CTBT monitoring providing confidence in verification analysis.",
"Once the Treaty enters into force, on-site inspections will be conducted where concerns about compliance arise.The Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), an international organization headquartered in Vienna, Austria, was created to build the verification framework, including establishment and provisional operation of the network of monitoring stations, the creation of an international data centre (IDC), and development of the on-site Inspection capability.",
"The CTBTO is responsible for collecting information from the IMS and distribute the analyzed and raw data to member states to judge whether or not a nuclear explosion occurred through the IDC.",
"Parameters such as determining the location where a nuclear explosion or test took place is one of the things that the IDC can accomplish.",
"If a member state chooses to assert that another state had violated the CTBT, they can request an on-site inspection to take place to verify.The monitoring network consists of 337 facilities located all over the globe.",
"As of May 2012, more than 260 facilities have been certified.",
"The monitoring stations register data that is transmitted to the international data centre in Vienna for processing and analysis.",
"The data are sent to states that have signed the Treaty.===Subsequent nuclear testing===Three countries have tested nuclear weapons since the CTBT opened for signature in 1996.India and Pakistan both carried out two sets of tests in 1998.North Korea carried out six announced tests, one each in 2006, 2009, 2013, two in 2016 and one in 2017.All six North Korean tests were picked up by the International Monitoring System set up by the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission.",
"A North Korean test is believed to have taken place in January 2016, evidenced by an \"artificial earthquake\" measured as a magnitude 5.1 by the U.S. Geological Survey.",
"The first successful North Korean hydrogen bomb test supposedly took place in September 2017.It was estimated to have an explosive yield of 120 kilotons."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of weapons of mass destruction treaties* Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization* Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission* National technical means of verification* Nuclear disarmament* Nuclear-free zone* Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Full text of the treaty * CTBTO Preparatory Commission — official news and information* The Test Ban Test: U.S.",
"Rejection has Scuttled the CTBT* US conducts subcritical nuclear test ABC News, 24 February 2006* International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, 1991* Daryl Kimball and Christine Kucia, Arms Control Association, 2002* General John M. Shalikashvili, Special Advisor to the President and the Secretary of State for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty* Christopher Paine, Senior Researcher with NRDC's Nuclear Program, 1999* Obama or McCain Can Finish Journey to Nuclear Test Ban Treaty* Introductory note by Thomas Graham, Jr., procedural history note and audiovisual material on the ''Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty'' in the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law* Lecture by Masahiko Asada titled ''Nuclear Weapons and International Law'' in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law* Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Background and Current Developments Congressional Research Service* The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents, oral history interviews and other empirical sources."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Dance"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Two modern dancers'''Dance''' is an art form, often classified as a sport, consisting of sequences of body movements with aesthetic and often symbolic value, either improvised or purposefully selected.",
"Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire of movements or by its historical period or place of origin.",
"Dance is typically performed with musical accompaniment, and sometimes with the dancer simultaneously using a musical instrument themselves.An important distinction is to be drawn between theatrical and participatory dance, although these two categories are not always completely separate; both may have special functions, whether social, ceremonial, competitive, erotic, martial, sacred or liturgical.",
"Other forms of human movement are sometimes said to have a dance-like quality, including martial arts, gymnastics, cheerleading, figure skating, synchronized swimming, marching bands, and many other forms of athletics.",
"Dance is not solely restricted to performance, as dance is used as a form of exercise and occasionally training for other sports and activities.",
"Dance has become a sport for some, with dancing competitions found across the world exhibiting various different styles and standards.",
"Dance has an aesthetic appeal to many people."
],
[
"Theatrical and participatory dance",
"Members of an American jazz dance company perform a formal group routine in a concert dance settingTheatrical dance, also called performance or concert dance, is intended primarily as a spectacle, usually a performance upon a stage by virtuoso dancers.",
"It often tells a story, perhaps using mime, costume and scenery, or it may interpret the musical accompaniment, which is often specially composed and performed in a theatre setting but it is not a requirement.",
"Examples are Western ballet and modern dance, Classical Indian dance such as Bharatanatyam, and Chinese and Japanese song and dance dramas, such as the dragon dance.",
"Most classical forms are centred upon dance alone, but performance dance may also appear in opera and other forms of musical theatre.Participatory dance, whether it be a folk dance, a social dance, a group dance such as a line, circle, chain or square dance, or a partner dance, such as in Western ballroom dancing, is undertaken primarily for a common purpose, such as social interaction or exercise, or building flexibility of participants rather than to serve any benefit to onlookers.",
"Such dance seldom has any narrative.",
"A group dance and a ''corps de ballet'', a social partner dance and a ''pas de deux'', differ profoundly.",
"Even a solo dance or interpretive dance may be undertaken solely for the satisfaction of the dancer.",
"Participatory dancers often all employ the same movements and steps but, for example, in the rave culture of electronic dance music, vast crowds may engage in free dance, uncoordinated with those around them.",
"On the other hand, some cultures lay down strict rules as to the particular dances people may or must participate."
],
[
"History",
"Mesolithic dancers at BhimbetkaArchaeological evidence for early dance includes 10,000-years-old paintings in Madhya Pradesh, India at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and Egyptian tomb paintings depicting dancing figures, dated .",
"It has been proposed that before the invention of written languages, dance was an important part of the oral and performance methods of passing stories down from one generation to the next.",
"The use of dance in ecstatic trance states and healing rituals (as observed today in many contemporary indigenous cultures) is thought to have been another early factor in the social development of dance.Dancers and musicians on a Sasanian bowl, IranReferences to dance can be found in very early recorded history; Greek dance (''choros'') is referred to by Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch and Lucian.",
"The Bible and Talmud refer to many events related to dance, and contain over 30 different dance terms.",
"In Chinese pottery as early as the Neolithic period, groups of people are depicted dancing in a line holding hands, and the earliest Chinese word for \"dance\" is found written in the oracle bones.",
"Dance is described in the ''Lüshi Chunqiu''.",
"Primitive dance in ancient China was associated with sorcery and shamanic rituals.Greek bronze statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, 3rd–2nd century BC, Alexandria, EgyptDuring the first millennium BCE in India, many texts were composed which attempted to codify aspects of daily life.",
"Bharata Muni's ''Natya Shastra'' (literally ''\"the text of dramaturgy\"'') is one early text.",
"It mainly deals with drama, in which dance plays an important part in Indian culture.",
"A strong continuous tradition of dance has since continued in India, through to modern times, where it continues to play a role in culture, ritual, and the Bollywood entertainment industry.",
"Many other contemporary dance forms can likewise be traced back to historical, traditional, ceremonial, and ethnic dance."
],
[
"Music",
"Two women dance at a pop music concert in Sofia, Bulgaria.Dance is generally, but not exclusively, performed with the accompaniment of music and may or may not be performed in time to such music.",
"Some dance (such as tap dance) may provide its own audible accompaniment in place of (or in addition to) music.",
"Many early forms of music and dance were created for each other and are frequently performed together.",
"Notable examples of traditional dance-music couplings include the jig, waltz, tango, disco, and salsa.",
"Some musical genres have a parallel dance form such as baroque music and baroque dance; other varieties of dance and music may share nomenclature but developed separately, such as classical music and classical ballet.",
"The choreography and music are meant to complement each other, to express a story told by the choreographer and dancers."
],
[
"Rhythm",
"Rhythm and dance are deeply linked in history and practice.",
"The American dancer Ted Shawn wrote; \"The conception of rhythm which underlies all studies of the dance is something about which we could talk forever, and still not finish.\"",
"A musical rhythm requires two main elements; first, a regularly-repeating pulse (also called the \"beat\" or \"tactus\") that establishes the tempo and, second, a pattern of accents and rests that establishes the character of the metre or basic rhythmic pattern.",
"The basic pulse is roughly equal in duration to a simple step or gesture.A basic tango rhythmDances generally have a characteristic tempo and rhythmic pattern.",
"The tango, for example, is usually danced in time at approximately 66 beats per minute.",
"The basic slow step, called a \"slow\", lasts for one beat, so that a full \"right–left\" step is equal to one measure.",
"The basic forward and backward walk of the dance is so counted – \"slow-slow\" – while many additional figures are counted \"slow – quick-quick\".Repetitive body movements often depend on alternating \"strong\" and \"weak\" muscular movements.",
"Given this alternation of left-right, of forward-backward and rise-fall, along with the bilateral symmetry of the human body, many dances and much music are in duple and quadruple meter.",
"Since some such movements require more time in one phase than the other – such as the longer time required to lift a hammer than to strike – some dance rhythms fall into triple metre.",
"Occasionally, as in the folk dances of the Balkans, dance traditions depend heavily on more complex rhythms.",
"Further, complex dances composed of a fixed sequence of steps always require phrases and melodies of a certain fixed length to accompany that sequence.",
"''Lululaund – The Dancing Girl'' (painting and silk cloth.",
"A.L.",
"Baldry 1901, before p. 107), The inscription reads; \"Dancing is a form of rhythm/ Rhythm is a form of music/ Music is a form of thought/ And thought is a form of divinity.",
"\"Musical accompaniment arose in the earliest dance, so that ancient Egyptians attributed the origin of the dance to the divine Athotus, who was said to have observed that music accompanying religious rituals caused participants to move rhythmically and to have brought these movements into proportional measure.",
"The same idea, that dance arises from musical rhythm, was found in renaissance Europe, in the works of the dancer Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro, who speaks of dance as a physical movement that arises from and expresses inward, spiritual motion agreeing with the \"measures and perfect concords of harmony\" that fall upon the human ear, while, earlier, Mechthild of Magdeburg, seizing upon dance as a symbol of the holy life foreshadowed in Jesus' saying \"I have piped and ye have not danced\", writes;Thoinot Arbeau's celebrated 16th-century dance-treatise ''Orchésographie'', indeed, begins with definitions of over eighty distinct drum-rhythms.Helen MollerThe Waltz'' by Camille Claudel, 1905 castAs has been shown above, dance has been represented through the ages as having emerged as a response to music yet, as Lincoln Kirstein implied, it is at least as likely that primitive music arose from dance.",
"Shawn concurs, stating that dance \"was the first art of the human race, and the matrix out of which all other arts grew\" and that even the \"metre in our poetry today is a result of the accents necessitated by body movement, as the dancing and reciting was performed simultaneously\" – an assertion somewhat supported by the common use of the term \"foot\" to describe the fundamental rhythmic units of poetry.Scholes, not a dancer but a musician, offers support for this view, stating that the steady measures of music, of two, three or four beats to the bar, its equal and balanced phrases, regular cadences, contrasts and repetitions, may all be attributed to the \"incalculable\" influence of dance upon music.Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, primarily a musician and teacher, relates how a study of the physical movements of pianists led him \"to the discovery that musical sensations of a rhythmic nature call for the muscular and nervous response of the whole organism\", to develop \"a special training designed to regulate nervous reactions and effect a co-ordination of muscles and nerves\" and ultimately to seek the connections between \"the art of music and the art of dance\", which he formulated into his system of eurhythmics.",
"He concluded that \"musical rhythm is only the transposition into sound of movements and dynamisms spontaneously and involuntarily expressing emotion\".Hence, though doubtless, as Shawn asserts, \"it is quite possible to develop the dance without music and... music is perfectly capable of standing on its own feet without any assistance from the dance\", nevertheless the \"two arts will always be related and the relationship can be profitable both to the dance and to music\", the precedence of one art over the other being a moot point.",
"The common ballad measures of hymns and folk-songs takes their name from dance, as does the carol, originally a circle dance.",
"Many purely musical pieces have been named \"waltz\" or \"minuet\", for example, while many concert dances have been produced that are based upon abstract musical pieces, such as ''2 and 3 Part Inventions, Adams Violin Concerto'' and ''Andantino''.",
"Similarly, poems are often structured and named after dances or musical works, while dance and music have both drawn their conception of \"measure\" or \"metre\" from poetry.Shawn quotes with approval the statement of Dalcroze that, while the art of musical rhythm consists in differentiating and combining time durations, pauses and accents \"according to physiological law\", that of \"plastic rhythm\" (i.e.",
"dance) \"is to designate movement in space, to interpret long time-values by slow movements and short ones by quick movements, regulate pauses by their divers successions and express sound accentuations in their multiple nuances by additions of bodily weight, by means of muscular innervations\".Shawn nevertheless points out that the system of musical time is a \"man-made, artificial thing.... a manufactured tool, whereas rhythm is something that has always existed and depends on man not at all\", being \"the continuous flowing time which our human minds cut up into convenient units\", suggesting that music might be revivified by a return to the values and the time-perception of dancing.The early-20th-century American dancer Helen Moller stated that \"it is rhythm and form more than harmony and color which, from the beginning, has bound music, poetry and dancing together in a union that is indissoluble.\""
],
[
"Approaches",
"Tang dynasty female dancers===Theatrical===Concert dance, like opera, generally depends for its large-scale form upon a narrative dramatic structure.",
"The movements and gestures of the choreography are primarily intended to mime the personality and aims of the characters and their part in the plot.",
"Such theatrical requirements tend towards longer, freer movements than those usual in non-narrative dance styles.",
"On the other hand, the ''ballet blanc'', developed in the 19th century, allows interludes of rhythmic dance that developed into entirely \"plotless\" ballets in the 20th century and that allowed fast, rhythmic dance-steps such as those of the ''petit allegro''.",
"A well-known example is ''The Cygnets' Dance'' in act two of ''Swan Lake''.The ballet developed out of courtly dramatic productions of 16th- and 17th-century France and Italy and for some time dancers performed dances developed from those familiar from the musical suite, all of which were defined by definite rhythms closely identified with each dance.",
"These appeared as character dances in the era of romantic nationalism.Ballet reached widespread vogue in the romantic era, accompanied by a larger orchestra and grander musical conceptions that did not lend themselves easily to rhythmic clarity and by dance that emphasised dramatic mime.",
"A broader concept of rhythm was needed, that which Rudolf Laban terms the \"rhythm and shape\" of movement that communicates character, emotion and intention, while only certain scenes required the exact synchronisation of step and music essential to other dance styles, so that, to Laban, modern Europeans seemed totally unable to grasp the meaning of \"primitive rhythmic movements\", a situation that began to change in the 20th century with such productions as Igor Stravinsky's ''The Rite of Spring'' with its new rhythmic language evoking primal feelings of a primitive past.Indian classical dance styles, like ballet, are often in dramatic form, so that there is a similar complementarity between narrative expression and \"pure\" dance.",
"In this case, the two are separately defined, though not always separately performed.",
"The rhythmic elements, which are abstract and technical, are known as ''nritta''.",
"Both this and expressive dance ''(nritya)'', though, are closely tied to the rhythmic system (''tala'').",
"Teachers have adapted the spoken rhythmic mnemonic system called ''bol'' to the needs of dancers.Japanese classical dance-theatre styles such as Kabuki and Noh, like Indian dance-drama, distinguish between narrative and abstract dance productions.",
"The three main categories of kabuki are ''jidaimono'' (historical), ''sewamono'' (domestic) and ''shosagoto'' (dance pieces).",
"Somewhat similarly, Noh distinguishes between ''Geki Noh'', based around the advancement of plot and the narration of action, and ''Furyū Noh'', dance pieces involving acrobatics, stage properties, multiple characters and elaborate stage action.===Participatory and social===A contra dance, a form of participatory social folk dance with mixed European rootsSocial dances, those intended for participation rather than for an audience, may include various forms of mime and narrative, but are typically set much more closely to the rhythmic pattern of music, so that terms like waltz and polka refer as much to musical pieces as to the dance itself.",
"The rhythm of the dancers' feet may even form an essential part of the music, as in tap dance.",
"African dance, for example, is rooted in fixed basic steps, but may also allow a high degree of rhythmic interpretation: the feet or the trunk mark the basic pulse while cross-rhythms are picked up by shoulders, knees, or head, with the best dancers simultaneously giving plastic expression to all the elements of the polyrhythmic pattern."
],
[
"Cultural traditions",
"===Africa===\"Kuduro\" (Angolan dance)Ugandan youth dance at a cultural celebration of peaceDance in Africa is deeply integrated into society and major events in a community are frequently reflected in dances: dances are performed for births and funerals, weddings and wars.",
"Traditional dances impart cultural morals, including religious traditions and sexual standards; give vent to repressed emotions, such as grief; motivate community members to cooperate, whether fighting wars or grinding grain; enact spiritual rituals; and contribute to social cohesiveness.Thousands of dances are performed around the continent.",
"These may be divided into traditional, neotraditional, and classical styles: folkloric dances of a particular society, dances created more recently in imitation of traditional styles, and dances transmitted more formally in schools or private lessons.",
"African dance has been altered by many forces, such as European missionaries and colonialist governments, who often suppressed local dance traditions as licentious or distracting.",
"Dance in contemporary African cultures still serves its traditional functions in new contexts; dance may celebrate the inauguration of a hospital, build community for rural migrants in unfamiliar cities, and be incorporated into Christian church ceremonies.===Asia===An Indian classical dancerIn the Mintha Theater (Mandalay) a master teacher of the Inwa School of Performing Arts demonstrates traditional hand movements.All Indian classical dances are to varying degrees rooted in the ''Natyashastra'' and therefore share common features: for example, the ''mudra''s (hand positions), some body positions, leg movement and the inclusion of dramatic or expressive acting or abhinaya.",
"Indian classical music provides accompaniment and dancers of nearly all the styles wear bells around their ankles to counterpoint and complement the percussion.There are now many regional varieties of Indian classical dance.",
"Dances like ''\"Odra Magadhi\"'', which after decades-long debate, has been traced to present day Mithila, Odisha region's dance form of Odissi (Orissi), indicate influence of dances in cultural interactions between different regions.The Punjab area overlapping India and Pakistan is the place of origin of Bhangra.",
"It is widely known both as a style of music and a dance.",
"It is mostly related to ancient harvest celebrations, love, patriotism or social issues.",
"Its music is coordinated by a musical instrument called the 'Dhol'.",
"Bhangra is not just music but a dance, a celebration of the harvest where people beat the dhol (drum), sing Boliyaan (lyrics) and dance.",
"It developed further with the Vaisakhi festival of the Sikhs.The dances of Sri Lanka include the devil dances (''yakun natima''), a carefully crafted ritual reaching far back into Sri Lanka's pre-Buddhist past that combines ancient \"Ayurvedic\" concepts of disease causation with psychological manipulation and combines many aspects including Sinhalese cosmology.",
"Their influence can be seen on the classical dances of Sri Lanka.An Indonesian Balinese dancerIndonesian dances reflect the richness and diversity of Indonesian ethnic groups and cultures.",
"There are more than 1,300 ethnic groups in Indonesia, it can be seen from the cultural roots of the Austronesian and Melanesian peoples, and various cultural influences from Asia and the west.",
"Dances in Indonesia originate from ritual movements and religious ceremonies, this kind of dance usually begins with rituals, such as war dances, shaman dances to cure or ward off disease, dances to call rain and other types of dances.",
"With the acceptance of dharma religion in the 1st century in Indonesia, Hinduism and Buddhist rituals were celebrated in various artistic performances.",
"Hindu epics such as the Ramayana, Mahabharata and also the Panji became the inspiration to be shown in a dance-drama called \"Sendratari\" resembling \"ballet\" in the western tradition.",
"An elaborate and highly stylized dance method was invented and has survived to this day, especially on the islands of Java and Bali.",
"The Javanese Wayang wong dance takes footage from the Ramayana or Mahabharata episodes, but this dance is very different from the Indian version, indonesian dances do not pay as much attention to the \"mudras\" as Indian dances: even more to show local forms.",
"The sacred Javanese ritual dance Bedhaya is believed to date back to the Majapahit period in the 14th century or even earlier, this dance originated from ritual dances performed by virgin girls to worship Hindu Gods such as Shiva, Brahma, and Vishnu.",
"In Bali, dance has become an integral part of the sacred Hindu Dharma rituals.",
"Some experts believe that Balinese dance comes from an older dance tradition from Java.",
"Reliefs from temples in East Java from the 14th century feature crowns and headdresses similar to the headdresses used in Balinese dance today.",
"Islam began to spread to the Indonesian archipelago when indigenous dances and dharma dances were still popular.",
"Artists and dancers still use styles from the previous era, replacing stories with more Islamic interpretations and clothing that is more closed according to Islamic teachings.The dances of the Middle East are usually the traditional forms of circle dancing which are modernized to an extent.",
"They would include dabke, tamzara, Assyrian folk dance, Kurdish dance, Armenian dance and Turkish dance, among others.",
"All these forms of dances would usually involve participants engaging each other by holding hands or arms (depending on the style of the dance).",
"They would make rhythmic moves with their legs and shoulders as they curve around the dance floor.",
"The head of the dance would generally hold a cane or handkerchief.===Europe and North America===''Dance at Bougival'' by Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1883)Folk dances vary across Europe and may date back hundreds or thousands of years, but many have features in common such as group participation led by a caller, hand-holding or arm-linking between participants, and fixed musical forms known as caroles.",
"Some, such as the maypole dance are common to many nations, while others such as the céilidh and the polka are deeply-rooted in a single culture.",
"Some European folk dances such as the square dance were brought to the New World and subsequently became part of American culture.Two classical ballet dancers perform a sequence of ''The Nutcracker'', one of the best known works of classical dance.Buffalo Dance'', 1894Ballet developed first in Italy and then in France from lavish court spectacles that combined rhythm, drama, poetry, song, costumes and dance.",
"Members of the court nobility took part as performers.",
"During the reign of Louis XIV, himself a dancer, dance became more codified.",
"Professional dancers began to take the place of court amateurs, and ballet masters were licensed by the French government.",
"The first ballet dance academy was the Académie Royale de Danse (Royal Dance Academy), opened in Paris in 1661.Shortly thereafter, the first institutionalized ballet troupe, associated with the Academy, was formed; this troupe began as an all-male ensemble but by 1681 opened to include women as well.20th century concert dance brought an explosion of innovation in dance style characterized by an exploration of freer technique.",
"Early pioneers of what became known as modern dance include Loie Fuller, Isadora Duncan, Mary Wigman and Ruth St. Denis.",
"The relationship of music to dance serves as the basis for Eurhythmics, devised by Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, which was influential to the development of Modern dance and modern ballet through artists such as Marie Rambert.",
"Eurythmy, developed by Rudolf Steiner and Marie Steiner-von Sivers, combines formal elements reminiscent of traditional dance with the new freer style, and introduced a complex new vocabulary to dance.",
"In the 1920s, important founders of the new style such as Martha Graham and Doris Humphrey began their work.",
"Since this time, a wide variety of dance styles have been developed; see Modern dance.African American dance developed in everyday spaces, rather than in dance studios, schools or companies.",
"Tap dance, disco, jazz dance, swing dance, hip hop dance, the lindy hop with its relationship to rock and roll music and rock and roll dance have had a global influence.",
"Dance styles fusing classical ballet technique with African-American dance have also appeared in the 21st century, including Hiplet.===Latin America===Street samba dancers perform in carnival parades and contests.Dance is central to Latin American social life and culture.",
"Brazilian Samba, Argentinian tango, and Cuban salsa are internationally popular partner dances, and other national dances—merengue, cueca, plena, jarabe, joropo, marinera, cumbia, bachata and others—are important components of their respective countries' cultures.",
"Traditional Carnival festivals incorporate these and other dances in enormous celebrations.Dance has played an important role in forging a collective identity among the many cultural and ethnic groups of Latin America.",
"Dance served to unite the many African, European, and indigenous peoples of the region.",
"Certain dance genres, such as capoeira, and body movements, especially the characteristic ''quebradas'' or pelvis swings, have been variously banned and celebrated throughout Latin American history."
],
[
"Education",
"A dancer practices in a dance studio, the primary setting for training in classical dance and many other styles.Dance studies are offered through the arts and humanities programs of many higher education institutions.",
"Some universities offer Bachelor of Arts and higher academic degrees in Dance.",
"A dance study curriculum may encompass a diverse range of courses and topics, including dance practice and performance, choreography, ethnochoreology, kinesiology, dance notation, and dance therapy.",
"Most recently, dance and movement therapy has been integrated in some schools into math lessons for students with learning disabilities, emotional or behavioral disabilities, as well as for those with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)."
],
[
"Occupations",
"===Dancers===Professional dancers are usually employed on contract or for particular performances or productions.",
"The professional life of a dancer is generally one of constantly changing work situations, strong competitive pressure and low pay.",
"Consequently, professional dancers often must supplement their incomes to achieve financial stability.",
"In the U.S. many professional dancers belong to unions (such as the American Guild of Musical Artists, Screen Actors Guild and Actors' Equity Association) that establish working conditions and minimum salaries for their members.",
"Professional dancers must possess large amounts of athleticism.",
"To lead a successful career, it is advantageous to be versatile in many styles of dance, have a strong technical background and to use other forms of physical training to remain fit and healthy.===Teachers===Dance teachers typically focus on teaching dance performance, or coaching competitive dancers, or both.",
"They typically have performance experience in the types of dance they teach or coach.",
"For example, dancesport teachers and coaches are often tournament dancers or former dancesport performers.",
"Dance teachers may be self-employed, or employed by dance schools or general education institutions with dance programs.",
"Some work for university programs or other schools that are associated with professional classical dance (e.g., ballet) or modern dance companies.",
"Others are employed by smaller, privately owned dance schools that offer dance training and performance coaching for various types of dance.===Choreographers===Choreographers are the ones that design the dancing movements within a dance, they are often university trained and are typically employed for particular projects or, more rarely may work on contract as the resident choreographer for a specific dance company."
],
[
"Competitions",
"An amateur dancesport competition, featuring the Viennese WaltzA '''dance competition''' is an organized event in which contestants perform dances before a judge or judges for awards, and in some cases, monetary prizes.",
"There are several major types of dance competitions, distinguished primarily by the style or styles of dances performed.",
"Dance competitions are an excellent setting to build connections with industry leading faculty members, adjudicators, choreographers and other dancers from competing studios.",
"A typical dance competition for younger pre-professional dancers can last anywhere between two and four days, depending whether it is a regional or national competition.The purpose of dance competitions is to provide a fun and educative place for dancers and give them the opportunity to perform their choreographed routines from their current dance season onstage.",
"Oftentimes, competitions will take place in a professional setting or may vary to non-performance spaces, such as a high school theatre.",
"The results of the dancers are then dictated by a credible panel of judges and are evaluated on their performance than given a score.",
"As far as competitive categories go, most competitions base their categories according to the dance style, age, experience level and the number of dancers competing in the routine.",
"Major types of dance competitions include:* '''Dancesport''', which is focused exclusively on ballroom and latin dance.",
"* '''Competitive dance''', in which a variety of theater dance styles, such as acrobatics, ballet, jazz, hip-hop, lyrical, stepping, and tap, are permitted.",
"* '''Commercial Dance''', consisting of as hip hop, jazz, locking, popping, breakdancing, contemporary etc.",
"* '''Single-style''' competitions, such as; highland dance, dance team, and Irish dance, that only permit a single dance style.",
"* '''Open''' competitions, that permit a wide variety of dance styles.",
"An example of this is the TV program ''So You Think You Can Dance''.",
"*'''Olympic''', Dance has been trying to be part of the Olympic sport since 1930s."
],
[
"Dance diplomacy",
"During the 1950s and 1960s, cultural exchange of dance was a common feature of international diplomacy, especially amongst East and South Asian nations.",
"The People's Republic of China, for example, developed a formula for dance diplomacy that sought to learn from and express respect for the aesthetic traditions of recently independent states that were former European colonies, such as Indonesia, India, and Burma, as a show of anti-colonial solidarity."
],
[
"Health",
"=== Footwear ===In most forms of dance the foot is the source of movement, and in some cases require specific shoes to aid in the health, safety ability of the dancer, depending on the type of dance, the intensity of the movements, and the surface that will be danced on.Dance footwear can be potentially both supportive and or restrictive to the movement of the dancer.",
"The effectiveness of the shoe is related to its ability to help the foot do something it is not intended to do, or to make easier a difficult movement.",
"Such effects relate to health and safety because of the function of the equipment as unnatural to the bodies usual mobility.==== Ballet ====Pointe shoeWorn out pointe shoeBallet is notable for the risks of injury due to the biomechanics of the ankle and the toes as the main support for the rest of the movements.",
"With the pointe shoe, the design specifically brings all of the toes together to allow the toes to be stood on for longer periods of time.There are accessories associated with pointe shoes that help to mitigate injury and soothe pain while dancing, including things such as toe pads, toe tape, and cushions.=== Body image ===Dancers are publicly thought to be very preoccupied with their body image to fit a certain mold in the industry.",
"Research indicates that dancers do have greater difficulty controlling their eating habits as a large quantity strive for the art-form's ideal body mass.",
"Some dancers often resort to abusive tactics to maintain a certain image.",
"Common scenarios include dancers abusing laxatives for weight control and end up falling into unhealthy eating disorders.",
"Studies show that a large quantity of dancers use at least one method of weight control including over exercising and food restriction.",
"The pressure for dancers to maintain a below average weight affects their eating and weight controlling behaviours and their life-style.",
"Due to its artistic nature, dancers tend to have many hostile self-critical tendencies.",
"Commonly seen in performers, it is likely that a variety of individuals may be resistant to concepts of self-compassion.===Eating disorders===In North America, eating disorders present a significant public health challenge, with an estimated 10% of young girls affected.",
"Those engaged in aesthetic-focused sports like dance face even greater risks due to intense pressures for a slender physique.",
"Eating disorders in dancers are generally very common.",
"Through data analysis and studies published, sufficient data regarding the percentage and accuracy dancers have of realistically falling into unhealthy disordered eating habits or the development of an eating disorder were extracted.",
"Dancers, in general, have a higher risk of developing eating disorders than the general public, primarily falling into anorexia nervosa and EDNOS.",
"Research has yet to distinguish a direct correlation regarding dancers having a higher risk of developing bulimia nervosa.",
"Studies concluded that dancers overall have a three times higher risk of developing eating disorders, more specifically anorexia nervosa and EDNOS."
],
[
"Dance on social media",
"Dance has become a popular form of content across many social media platforms, including TikTok.",
"During 2020, TikTok dances offered the opportunity for isolated individuals to interact and connect with one another through a virtual format.",
"Since its debut in 2017, the app has also attracted a small but growing audience of professional dancers in their early 20s to 30s.",
"While the majority of this demographic is more accustomed to performing onstage, this app introduced a new means to generate professional exposure."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Irish dancers in team costume, Davis Academy, USA.jpg|'''Folk dance''' – a trio of Irish Stepdancers performing in competitionFile:TÜRKA Vanemuise suures majas -- tants Kodukotus.JPG|Folk dance in EstoniaFile:NwFusionAngelaLeap.jpg|A contemporary dancer performs a stag split leap.File:NWFusion7.jpg|'''Dance partnering''' – a male dancer assists a female dancer in performing an arabesque, as part of a classical pas de deux.File:FrontAerial.gif|'''Acrobatic dance''' – an acro dancer performs a front aerial.File:ToeRise.jpg|A dancer performs a \"toe rise\", in which she rises from a kneeling position to a standing position on the tops of her feet.File:Jitterbug Wolcott FSA.jpg|'''Social dance''' – dancers at a juke joint dance the Jitterbug, an early 20th century dance that would go on to influence swing, jive, and jazz dance.File:Tanzturnier_28.JPG|Latin Ballroom dancers perform the Tango.File:Bootsa.jpg|Gumboot dance evolved from the stomping signals used as coded communication between labourers in South African mines.File:Harlekin Columbine Tivoli Denmark.jpg|Harlequin and Columbina from the mime theater in Copenhagen, DenmarkFile:Popping dancer.gif|A hip-hop dancer demonstrates popping.File:Striptease pole dancing in Belovskaya, Belgorodskaya Oblast, Russia.jpg|'''Erotic dance''' – a pole dancer performs a routine.File:Spark Fire Dance in Art on Ice 2014-3.jpg|'''Prop dance''' – a fire dancer performanceFile:Imdt01.jpg|'''Modern dance''' – a dancer performs a leg split while balanced on the back of her partner.File:Belogolovtsev Abderahman.jpg|'''Stage dance''' – a professional dancer at the Bolshoi TheatreFile:La bailaora Josefa Vargas (1840).jpg|A nineteenth century artist's representation of a Flamenco dancerFile:Պար_Գառնում.jpg|'''Ritual dance''' – Armenian folk dancers celebrate a neo-pagan new year.File:Samba Atlason Jakobsdottir 0509.JPG|A latin ballroom couple perform a Samba routine at a dancesport event.File:Polonezkoy_08859_nevit.jpg|'''Folk dance''' – some dance traditions travel with immigrant communities, as with this festival dance performed by a Polish community in Turkey.File:Fuori asse alla seconda.jpg|A ballet dancer performs a standing side split.File:Breakdancer - Faneuil Hall cropped.jpg|'''Street dance''' – a Breakdancer performs a handstand trick.File:Odissi Performance DS.jpg|Indian classical dancerFile:Ballet Class 3 (237261875).jpeg|Ballet class of young girls wearing leotards and skirts in 2017File:Tari Kebagh, 2017.jpg|''Kebagh'' dance from Pagar Alam, IndonesiaFile:50 tahun LKB Saraswati, Jakarta.jpg|Balinese dance"
],
[
"In animals",
"Some parrots and elephants have been observed dancing in a way that follows the beat of the music.",
"Other animals appear to lack the ability to do this spontaneously, though some can be trained or led by humans."
],
[
"See also",
"* Art* Outline of performing arts* Outline of dance* List of dancers* List of dances* List of dance awards* Index of dance articles"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Abra, Allison.",
"\"Going to the palais: a social and cultural history of dancing and dance halls in Britain, 1918–1960.\"",
"''Contemporary British History'' (Sep 2016) 30#3 pp. 432–433.",
"* Blogg, Martin.",
"''Dance and the Christian Faith: A Form of Knowing'', The Lutterworth Press (2011), * Carter, A.",
"(1998) ''The Routledge Dance Studies Reader''.",
"Routledge.",
".",
"* Cohen, S, J.",
"(1992) ''Dance As a Theatre Art: Source Readings in Dance History from 1581 to the Present''.",
"Princeton Book Co.",
".",
"* Daly, A.",
"(2002) ''Critical Gestures: Writings on Dance and Culture''.",
"Wesleyan University Press.",
".",
"* Miller, James, L. (1986) ''Measures of Wisdom: The Cosmic Dance in Classical and Christian Antiquity'', University of Toronto Press.",
"."
],
[
"External links",
"* * Historic illustrations of dancing from 3300 BC to 1911 AD from Project Gutenberg"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Drew Barrymore"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Drew Blythe Barrymore''' (born February 22, 1975) is an American actress, producer, talk show host and author.",
"A member of the Barrymore family of actors, she has received several awards and nominations, including a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award, in addition to nominations for nine Emmy Awards and a British Academy Film Award.",
"She received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2004.She is also the Chief Gifting Officer for Etsy as of January 2024.Barrymore achieved fame as a child actress with her breakout role in ''E.T.",
"the Extra-Terrestrial''.",
"Following a highly publicized childhood marked by drug and alcohol abuse, she released an autobiography ''Little Girl Lost'', which became a ''New York Times'' bestseller.",
"She starred in a string of successful films during the 1990s and 2000s, including ''Charlie's Angels'', ''Poison Ivy'', ''Boys on the Side'', ''Mad Love'', ''Batman Forever'', ''Scream'' and ''Ever After''.",
"Barrymore starred with Adam Sandler in the films: ''The Wedding Singer'', ''50 First Dates'' and ''Blended''.",
"Her other films include ''Firestarter'', ''Donnie Darko'', ''Riding in Cars with Boys'', ''Confessions of a Dangerous Mind'', ''Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle'', ''Fever Pitch'', ''Music and Lyrics'', ''Going the Distance'', ''Big Miracle'', and ''Miss You Already''.",
"She also starred in her directorial debut film ''Whip It''.",
"She won a Screen Actors Guild Award and a Golden Globe Award for her role in ''Grey Gardens''.",
"She starred in the Netflix series ''Santa Clarita Diet'' and currently hosts her syndicated talk show ''The Drew Barrymore Show''.",
"In September 2023, she announced she would return to the show without writers during the ongoing WGA strike, but after backlash, she reversed the decision the same month.Barrymore is the founder of the production company Flower Films.",
"It produced several projects in which she has starred.",
"She launched a range of cosmetics under the Flower banner in 2013, which has grown to include lines in perfume, hair products and eyewear.",
"Her other business ventures include a range of wines, homeware and clothing.",
"In 2014, Barrymore released the ''New York Times'' bestselling photobook ''Find It in Everything'' of photographs she had taken over the span of a decade of everyday situations in the shape of a heart, including a discarded straw wrapper, a hole in a T-shirt, and a scallion in a bowl of miso soup.",
"E. P. Dutton published a collection of Barrymore's autobiographical essays in her ''New York Times'' bestselling book ''Wildflower'' in 2015, for which she also narrated the audiobook version."
],
[
"Early life",
"===Ancestry===Anne Helm and Drew's father, John Drew Barrymore, in ''Gunsmoke'', 1964Drew Blythe Barrymore was born on February 22, 1975, in Culver City, California, to actor John Drew Barrymore and aspiring actress Jaid Barrymore (born Ildikó Jaid Makó), who was born in a displaced persons camp in Brannenburg, West Germany, to Hungarian World War II refugees.",
"Through her father, Barrymore has three older half-siblings, including actor John Blyth Barrymore.",
"Her parents divorced in 1984.In 2023, Barrymore displayed an AncestryDNA test onscreen on her talk show, which showed that her genetic ancestry is primarily European, with 6% Northern Indian.Barrymore was born into an acting family.",
"All of her paternal great-grandparents, Maurice and Georgie Drew Barrymore, Maurice and Mae Costello (née Altschuk), and her paternal grandparents, John Barrymore and Dolores Costello, were actors, with John being arguably the most acclaimed actor of his generation.",
"Barrymore is a niece of Diana Barrymore, a grandniece of Lionel Barrymore, Ethel Barrymore and Helene Costello, and a great-great-granddaughter of Irish-born John and English-born Louisa Lane Drew, all of whom were also actors.",
"She is a great grandniece of Broadway idol John Drew Jr. and silent film actor, writer and director Sidney Drew.Barrymore's godmothers are actress Sophia Loren and Lee Strasberg's widow, Anna Strasberg; Barrymore described her relationship with the latter as one that \"would become so important to me as a kid because she was so kind and nurturing.\"",
"Her godfather is filmmaker Steven Spielberg.Barrymore's first name, Drew, was the maiden name of her paternal great-grandmother Georgie Drew, and her middle name, Blythe, was the surname of the family first used by her great-grandfather Maurice Barrymore.",
"In her 1991 autobiography ''Little Girl Lost'', Barrymore recounted early memories of her abusive father, who left the family when she was six months old.",
"She and her father never had a significant relationship and seldom spoke.===Childhood===Barrymore grew up on Poinsettia Place in West Hollywood, until she moved to Sherman Oaks at the age of seven.",
"In her 2015 memoir ''Wildflower'', she says she spoke \"like a valley girl\" because she grew up in Sherman Oaks.",
"She moved back to West Hollywood on becoming emancipated at age 14.She attended elementary school at Fountain Day School in West Hollywood and Country School.",
"In the wake of her sudden stardom, Barrymore endured a notoriously troubled childhood.",
"She was a regular at Studio 54 as a young girl, and her nightlife and constant partying became a popular subject with the media.",
"She was placed in rehab at 13, and spent 18 months in an institution for the mentally ill. A suicide attempt at 14 put her back in rehab, followed by a three-month stay with singer David Crosby and his wife.",
"The stay was precipitated, Crosby said, because she \"needed to be around some people that were committed to sobriety.\"",
"Barrymore described this period of her life for ''Little Girl Lost.''",
"After a successful juvenile court petition for emancipation, she moved into her own apartment at the age of 15."
],
[
"Career",
"===1980s===Barrymore and Ronald Reagan in 1984Barrymore's career began when she was eleven months old, when she appeared in a dog food commercial.",
"After her film debut with a small role in ''Altered States'', she played Gertie in ''E.T.",
"the Extra-Terrestrial''.",
"Director Steven Spielberg felt she had the right imagination for the role after she impressed him with a story that she led a punk rock band.",
"''E.T.''",
"was the highest-grossing film of the 1980s, and made Barrymore one of the most famous child actors of the time.",
"She won the Young Artist Award for Best Young Supporting Actress and was nominated for the Rising Star Award at the British Academy Film Awards.",
"In the eighth season of ''Saturday Night Live'', she became the youngest person to guest-host the series.In the 1984 film adaptation for Stephen King's 1980 novel ''Firestarter'', Barrymore played a girl with pyrokinesis, and the target of a secret government agency known as The Shop.",
"That year, she also played a young girl divorcing her famous parents in ''Irreconcilable Differences'', and was nominated for her first Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress.",
"In his review in the ''Chicago Sun-Times'', Roger Ebert wrote: \"Barrymore is the right actress for this role precisely because she approaches it with such grave calm.",
"\"Barrymore and Corey Feldman at the 61st Academy Awards in 1989Barrymore endured a troubled youth and continued acting during the decade.",
"She starred in the anthology horror film ''Cat's Eye,'' also written by King.",
"It received positive reviews and Barrymore was nominated for a Young Artist Award for Best Leading Young Actress.",
"For ''Dangerous Liaisons'', Barrymore declined the role of Cecile, which went to Uma Thurman.",
"Barrymore starred in the romance film ''See You in the Morning''.",
"Vincent Canby of ''The New York Times'' criticized the \"fashionable phoniness\" of the film, but positively singled out Barrymore.",
"In ''Far from Home'', she played a teenager who gets stranded with her father in a small, remote desert town.",
"The film went largely unnoticed by audiences and received negative reviews from critics, who dismissed the sexual portrayal of her role.===1990s===Barrymore's rebelliousness played itself out on screen and in print.",
"She played a poor teenage girl in ''Poison Ivy'', which was a box-office bomb, but was popular on video and cable.",
"Her character \"Ivy\" was ranked at #6 on the list of the top 26 \"bad girls\" of all time by ''Entertainment Weekly''.",
"Barrymore was seventeen when she posed nude with her then-fiancé, actor Jamie Walters, for the cover of the July issue of ''Interview'' magazine; she also appeared nude in pictures inside the issue.In ''Guncrazy'', Barrymore played a teenager who kills her abusive stepfather.",
"''Variety'' remarked that she \"pulls off impressively\" her character, and Barrymore was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film.",
"Barrymore played the younger sister of a murdered ballerina in ''No Place to Hide'' and a writer followed by what is apparently her evil twin in ''Doppelganger''.",
"Both films were panned by critics and failed to find an audience.",
"She appeared in the western film ''Bad Girls'', which follows four former prostitutes on the run following a justifiable homicide and prison escape.",
"Roger Ebert, in his review for the film, wrote for ''Chicago Sun-Times'': \"What a good idea, to make a Western about four tough women.",
"And what a sad movie.",
"\"Barrymore posed nude for the January 1995 issue of ''Playboy''.",
"Soon after, her godfather Steven Spielberg gave her a quilt for her 20th birthday with a note that read, \"Cover yourself up.\"",
"Enclosed in the quilt were copies of her ''Playboy'' pictures which had been altered by Spielberg's art department so that she appeared fully clothed.",
"Barrymore later said that she would not let her own child make the same choice she did.While appearing on the ''Late Show with David Letterman'', Barrymore climbed onto the desk, flashed her breasts to David Letterman and gave him a kiss on the cheek as a birthday gift.",
"She modeled in a series of Guess?",
"jeans ads during this time.In the late 1990s, Barrymore re-established her image and continued to be a highly bankable star.Barrymore in 1997In ''Boys on the Side'', Barrymore played a pregnant girl attempting to escape from her abusive boyfriend.",
"It was a box office success and was positively received by critics.",
"In the superhero film ''Batman Forever'', she played one of the two female assistants for Two-Face (Tommy Lee Jones).Barrymore made a brief but notable appearance in Wes Craven's 1996 slasher film ''Scream''.",
"She read the film's script and was interested in being involved, approaching the production team herself to request a role.",
"The producers were quick to take advantage of her unexpected interest and signed her to play the lead role of Sidney Prescott.",
"However, after unexpected commitments, Barrymore played Casey Becker in a minor role, and Neve Campbell took the leading one.",
"''Scream'' was released to critical acclaim and made $173 million worldwide.In ''The Wedding Singer'' (1998), Barrymore played a waitress in love with the titular character, played by Adam Sandler.",
"''Variety'' found the film to be a \"spirited, funny and warm saga\" that serves them up \"in a new way that enhances their most winning qualities\".",
"Budgeted at $18 million, the film grossed $123.3 million internationally.",
"In ''Home Fries'' (1998), Barrymore played a pregnant woman unknowingly falling for the stepson of the late father of her baby.",
"She starred in the historical drama film ''Ever After'' (1998), which made $98 million and was inspired by the fairy tale Cinderella.",
"Roger Ebert said about Barrymore and the film: \"she can hold the screen and involve us in her characters\".Barrymore voiced the titular anthropomorphic Jack Russell terrier in the Christmas television film ''Olive, the Other Reindeer'' and was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award.",
"After establishing Flower Films, Barrymore and Nancy Juvonen produced the company's first film, ''Never Been Kissed'', in which Barrymore played an insecure copy editor for the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' and a high school student.",
"While reviews from critics were mixed, ''CNN'' noted: \"There are two words which describe why this film works: Drew Barrymore.",
"Her comedic timing and willingness to go all out in her quest for a laugh combine to make ''Never Been Kissed'' a gratifying movie-going experience\".",
"The film was a commercial success, grossing $84.5 million.===2000s===Barrymore at the premiere for ''Music & Lyrics'' in 2007In ''Charlie's Angels'', Barrymore, Cameron Diaz and Lucy Liu played the trio of investigators in Los Angeles.",
"The film was a major box office success and helped solidify Barrymore's standing in her production company as one of the film's producers.",
"Barrymore starred in ''Riding in Cars with Boys'', as a teenage mother in a failed marriage with the drug-addicted father (based on Beverly Donofrio's real-life story).",
"When the production of ''Donnie Darko'' was threatened, Barrymore stepped forward with financing from the company, and played the title character's English teacher.",
"Although the film was less than successful at the box office in the wake of 9/11, it reached cult status after the DVD release, inspiring numerous websites devoted to unraveling the plot twists and meanings.Barrymore starred in George Clooney's directorial debut ''Confessions of a Dangerous Mind'', based on the autobiography of television producer Chuck Barris.",
"Barrymore reprised her role in ''Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle'' and starred with Ben Stiller in ''Duplex''.",
"Flower Films and Happy Madison Productions produced the film ''50 First Dates'', in which Barrymore played an amnesiac woman and Sandler played a marine veterinarian.",
"Summing up Barrymore's appeal, Roger Ebert, in his review for the film, remarked that Barrymore displayed a \"smiling, coy sincerity\", in what he described as an \"ingratiating and lovable\" film.",
"''50 First Dates'' was a commercial success; it made US$120.9 million in North America and US$196.4 million worldwide.In the 2005 American remake adaptation of the 1997 British film ''Fever Pitch'', Barrymore played the love interest of an immature schoolteacher (Jimmy Fallon).",
"The film grossed a modest US$50 million worldwide and had generally favorable reviews by critics who felt it \"has enough charm and on-screen chemistry between Fallon and Barrymore to make it a solid hit\".",
"She and Hugh Grant starred in ''Music and Lyrics'', which focuses on the relationship that evolves between a former pop music idol and an aspiring writer as they struggle to compose a song for a reigning pop diva.",
"The romantic comedy, released in February 2007, received largely positive reviews, with ''The Washington Post'' finding the two to be \"great together\" in it.",
"The film was a commercial success, grossing US$145 million globally.Barrymore at the premiere for ''Lucky You'' in 2007In Curtis Hanson's poker film ''Lucky You'', Barrymore played an aspiring singer and the subject of the affections of a talented player.",
"In Raja Gosnell's film ''Beverly Hills Chihuahua'', Barrymore voiced the titular character, a richly pampered pet who gets dognapped in Mexico and has to escape from an evil Doberman.Barrymore starred in the ensemble comedy ''He's Just Not That Into You'', which received mixed reviews, partly due to her limited time on screen, while it grossed US$178 million worldwide.",
"She played Edith Bouvier Beale, the daughter of Edith Ewing Bouvier Beale (Jessica Lange) in the HBO film ''Grey Gardens'', which is based on the 1975 documentary film.",
"The television film was a huge success, winning five Primetime Emmy Awards and two Golden Globe Awards.",
"''Rolling Stone'' writer Peter Travers found Barrymore to be a \"revelation\" in her role.",
"Barrymore was nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie, and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film and the Screen Actors Guild for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries.Barrymore starred in her directorial debut film ''Whip It''.",
"It follows a high-schooler (Elliot Page) ditching the teen beauty pageant scene and participating in an Austin roller derby league.",
"Barrymore worked with screenwriter Shauna Cross for months on script revisions, with Barrymore pushing her to \"avoid her story's tidier prospects, to make things 'more raw and open ended.'\"",
"While the film found limited box office receipts, it was favorably received; according to review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, critics agreed that her \"directorial debut has enough charm, energy, and good-natured humor to transcend its many cliches\".",
"For her venture, Barrymore garnered nominations for a Bronze Horse at the Stockholm Film Festival and for the EDA Female Focus Award at the 2009 Alliance of Women Film Journalists.",
"In ''Everybody's Fine'', Barrymore played the daughter of a recently widowed retiree (Robert De Niro).",
"The drama flopped at the box office, but Stephen Holden for ''The New York Times'' considered Barrymore \"as ingenuous as ever\" in what he described as a \"small role.",
"\"===2010s===Toni Collette and Barrymore at the premiere for ''Miss You Already'' at the 2015 Toronto International Film FestivalBarrymore starred with Justin Long in Nanette Burstein's film ''Going the Distance''.",
"It follows a couple dealing the ups and downs of a long-distance relationship, while commuting between New York City and San Francisco.",
"It garnered generally mixed reviews by critics, who summed it as \"timelier and a little more honest than most romantic comedies\", and budgeted at US$32 million, the film made US$40 million at the worldwide box office.On August 2, 2011, Barrymore directed the music video for the song \"Our Deal,\" for the band Best Coast, which features Chloë Grace Moretz, Miranda Cosgrove, Tyler Posey, Donald Glover, Shailene Woodley and Alia Shawkat.",
"Barrymore starred in the biopic film ''Big Miracle'', which covers Operation Breakthrough, the 1988 international effort to rescue gray whales from being trapped in ice near Point Barrow, Alaska.",
"Her character, Rachel Kramer, is based on Greenpeace activist Cindy Lowry.",
"Despite a positive critical reception, the film flopped at the box office.In ''Blended'', Barrymore played a recently divorced woman ending up on a family resort with a widower (Sandler).",
"Film critic James Berardinelli dismissed the \"hit-and-miss humor\" of the story and wrote that \"as Sandler and Barrymore are concerned, the third time is definitely not the charm\", as part of an overall lukewarm critical response.",
"The film ultimately grossed US$128 million worldwide.",
"She and Toni Collette starred in ''Miss You Already'' (2015), as two long-time friends whose relationship is put to the test when one starts a family and the other becomes ill. Reviewers embraced the film, while it received a limited theatrical release.In the Netflix original television series ''Santa Clarita Diet'', Barrymore played a real estate agent who, after experiencing a physical transformation into a zombie, starts craving human flesh.",
"Along with co-star Timothy Olyphant, Barrymore served as an executive producer on the single-camera series, which was favorably received upon its premiere; ''Rolling Stone'' felt that \"much of the series' laughs comes down to the uncrushable Drew Barrymore charm\" and furthermore remarked: \"The show is a welcome comeback for Barrymore, the eternally beloved grunge-era wild thing—it's not just her big move into TV, but her first high-profile performance anywhere in years.",
"In a way, it circles back to the roles she was doing in the early 90s, playing deadly vixens in flicks like ''Guncrazy'' or ''Doppelganger''\".===2020s===Barrymore starred in Jamie Babbit's film ''The Stand In''.",
"It was set to premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival in April 2020, but was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.",
"On September 14, 2020, Barrymore launched a syndicated daytime talk show, ''The Drew Barrymore Show'', which is also available on Spotify in a podcast format.",
"On December 4, 2020, she appeared as a guest star on ''Martha Knows Best''.",
"On March 11, 2021, Barrymore said she was taking an indefinite hiatus from acting.",
"She wrote a cookbook with chef Pilar Valdes entitled ''Rebel Homemaker'', which was a ''New York Times'' bestseller.",
"In June 2021, she launched ''Drew Magazine'', a quarterly released lifestyle magazine by publisher Bauer Media USA.",
"Barrymore was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by ''Time'' magazine in 2023.In September 2023, Barrymore crossed a WGA picket line to continue her syndicated TV talk show, writing “I own this choice” when explaining her reasoning via social media.",
"While SAG had stated that as the host of the show she was not under any obligation to strike, her show continued without unionized writing staff.",
"Audience members showing support for the Writer's Guild were kicked out of the studio, and had any WGA pins confiscated.",
"Due to these events, the National Book Foundation removed Barrymore from being the host of the then upcoming 74th National Book Awards.",
"Barrymore apologized for her actions later that week in a video on Instagram, claiming that, \"I believe there’s nothing I can do or say in this moment to make it OK.\" Barrymore deleted the apology video from her account following criticism.",
"On the 17th, Barrymore announced on her Instagram account that she would be postponing production of her talk show until the strike ends due to the backlash, writing \"I have listened to everyone, and I am making the decision to pause the show’s premiere until the strike is over”.",
"She also adds “I have no words to express my deepest apologies to anyone I have hurt, and, of course, to our incredible team who works on the show and has made it what it is today”.",
"A spokesperson for CBS Media Ventures said, \"We support Drew’s decision to pause the show’s return and understand how complex and difficult this process has been for her.\""
],
[
"Image and fashion",
"Barrymore at the premiere for ''Whip It'' at the 256x256pxBarrymore became a CoverGirl Cosmetics' model and spokeswoman in 2007.In February 2015, she became one of the faces of CoverGirl, alongside Queen Latifah and Taylor Swift.",
"The company partnered with her because \"she emulates the iconic image of CoverGirl with her fresh, natural beauty and energetic yet authentic spirit,\" said Esi Eggleston Bracey, vice president and general manager of CoverGirl Cosmetics North America.",
"She brought not only her personality into this endorsement but also her creative side, as she also helped create the ads.",
"She was No.",
"1 on ''People'''s annual 100 Most Beautiful People list in 2007.She was named the new face for the Gucci jewelry line.",
"Barrymore signed a contract with IMG Models New York City.",
"She is a spokeswoman for Crocs.In May 2007, Barrymore was named Ambassador Against Hunger for the United Nations World Food Programme and later donated $1 million to the cause.",
"As a guest photographer for a magazine series called \"They Shoot New York\", she appeared on the cover holding a Pentax K1000 film camera.",
"She expressed hopes of exposing her work in a gallery one day, as she had documented the most recent decade of her life with a Pentax camera.Barrymore launched a women's fashion line in fall 2017 in conjunction with Amazon.com called Dear Drew, which featured a pop-up shop in New York City that opened in November."
],
[
"Personal life",
"In 1991, Barrymore was engaged to Leland Hayward's grandson, Leland III.",
"The engagement was called off a few months later.",
"She was engaged to Jamie Walters from 1992 to 1993.Barrymore married Welsh-born Los Angeles bar owner Jeremy Thomas on March 20, 1994.She filed for divorce from him less than two months later.In late 1994, Barrymore began dating Hole guitarist Eric Erlandson, followed by MTV host and comedian Tom Green in 1999; she and Green were engaged in July 2000 and married a year later.",
"Together, they starred in ''Charlie's Angels'' and Green's directorial film debut, ''Freddy Got Fingered''.",
"Green filed for divorce in December 2001, which was finalized on October 15, 2002.In 2002, Barrymore began dating The Strokes drummer Fabrizio Moretti shortly after they met at a concert.",
"Their relationship ended in January 2007.She began dating Justin Long, but they broke up in July 2008.In early 2011, Barrymore began dating art consultant Will Kopelman, the son of former Chanel COO Arie L. Kopelman.",
"The couple announced their engagement in January 2012, and married on June 2, 2012, in Montecito, California.",
"Four days later, the couple's wedding image appeared on the cover of ''People'' magazine.",
"They have two daughters, born in 2012 and 2014.On April 2, 2016, Barrymore and Kopelman released a statement about their separation.",
"On July 15, 2016, Barrymore officially filed for divorce, which was finalized on August 3, 2016.In an interview with ''Contactmusic.com'' in 2003, Barrymore said: \"Do I like women sexually?",
"Yeah, I do.",
"Totally.",
"I have always considered myself bisexual.",
"I love a woman's body.",
"I think a woman and a woman together are beautiful, just as a man and a woman together are beautiful.",
"Being with a woman is like exploring your own body, but through someone else\".Barrymore is the godmother of Frances Bean Cobain, the daughter of Kurt Cobain and Courtney Love.Barrymore eats a plant-based diet, and reportedly convinced Cardi B to try veganism.",
"Since 2023, the longtime Los Angeles native resides in Manhattan."
],
[
"Awards, honors, and nominations",
"Barrymore's star on the Hollywood Walk of FameIn 1999, Barrymore was honored by the Young Artist Foundation with its Former Child Star \"Lifetime Achievement\" Award commemorating her outstanding achievements within the film industry as a child actress.",
"For her contributions to the film industry, Barrymore received a motion pictures star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2004.It is located at 6925 Hollywood Boulevard.Her films compiled a worldwide box office gross that stood at over US$2.3 billion.",
"According to ''The Hollywood Reporter''s annual Star Salary Top 10, she was tied for eighth place on the top ten list of actresses' salaries, commanding 10 to 12 million dollars per film for 2006.Barrymore became the youngest person to host ''Saturday Night Live,'' having hosted on November 20, 1982 at seven years of age, a record that remains unbroken .",
"On February 3, 2007, Barrymore hosted ''SNL'' for the fifth time, becoming the second female host (after Candice Bergen) in the show's history to do so.",
"She hosted again on October 10, 2009, becoming the first woman to host six times."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* Barrymore, Drew.",
"''Little Girl Lost''.",
"Pocket Books, 1990.",
"* Barrymore, Drew.",
"''Find It in Everything''.",
"Little, Brown and Company, 2014.",
"* Barrymore, Drew.",
"''Wildflower''.",
"Dutton, 2015.",
"* Barrymore, Drew and Valdes, Pilar.",
"''Rebel Homemaker: Food, Family, Life''.",
"Dutton, 2021."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of celebrities who own wineries and vineyards"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Aronson, Virginia.",
"''Drew Barrymore''.",
"Chelsea House, 1999.",
"* Bankston, John.",
"''Drew Barrymore''.",
"Chelsea House Publishers, 2002.",
"* Dye, David.",
"''Child and Youth Actors: Filmography of Their Entire Careers, 1914–1985''.",
"Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1988, p. 11.",
"* Ellis, Lucy.",
"''Drew Barrymore: The Biography''.",
"Aurum Press, 2004.",
"* Hill, Anne E. ''Drew Barrymore''.",
"Lucent Books, 2001."
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"D. W. Griffith"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''David Wark Griffith''' (January 22, 1875 – July 23, 1948) was an American film director.",
"Considered one of the most influential figures in the history of the motion picture, he pioneered many aspects of film editing and expanded the art of the narrative film.To modern audiences, Griffith is known primarily for directing the 1915 film ''The Birth of a Nation''.",
"One of the most financially successful films of all time and considered a landmark by film historians, it made investors enormous profits, but it also attracted much controversy for its degrading portrayals of African Americans, its glorification of the Ku Klux Klan and support for the Confederacy, and its overtly racist viewpoint.",
"The film led to riots in several major cities all over the United States, and the NAACP attempted to have the film banned.",
"Griffith made his next film ''Intolerance'' (1916) as an answer to critics, who he felt unfairly maligned his work.Together with Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks, Griffith founded the studio United Artists in 1919 with the goal of enabling actors and directors to make films on their own terms as opposed to the terms of commercial studios.",
"Several of Griffith's later films were successful, including ''Broken Blossoms'' (1919), ''Way Down East'' (1920), and ''Orphans of the Storm'' (1921), but the high costs he incurred for production and promotion often led to commercial failure.",
"He had made roughly 500 films by the time of ''The Struggle'' (1931), his final feature, and all but three were completely silent."
],
[
"Early life",
"Griffith circa 1907Griffith was born on January 22, 1875, on a farm in Oldham County, Kentucky, the son of Jacob Wark \"Roaring Jake\" Griffith, a Confederate Army colonel in the American Civil War who was elected as a Kentucky state legislator, and Mary Perkins (née Oglesby).",
"Griffith was raised as a Methodist, and he attended a one-room schoolhouse, where he was taught by his older sister Mattie.",
"His father died when he was 10, and the family struggled with poverty.When Griffith was 14, his mother abandoned the farm and moved the family to Louisville, Kentucky; there she opened a boarding house, which was unsuccessful.",
"Griffith then left high school to help support the family, taking a job in a dry goods store and later in a bookstore.",
"He began his creative career as an actor in touring companies.",
"Meanwhile, he was learning how to become a playwright, but he had little success.",
"Only one of his plays was accepted for a performance.",
"He traveled to New York City in 1907 in an attempt to sell a script to Edison Studios producer Edwin Porter; although Porter rejected the script, he gave Griffith an acting part in ''Rescued from an Eagle's Nest'' instead.",
"As a result of this experience, Griffith decided to try his luck as an actor, and he appeared in many films as an extra."
],
[
"Early film career",
"Griffith on the set of ''The Birth of a Nation'' (1915) with actor Henry B. Walthall and othersIn 1908, Griffith accepted a role as a stage extra in ''Professional Jealousy'' for the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, where he met cameraman Billy Bitzer.",
"In 1908, Biograph's main director Wallace McCutcheon Sr. fell ill, and his son Wallace McCutcheon Jr. took his place.",
"McCutcheon Jr. did not bring the studio success; Biograph co-founder Harry Marvin then gave Griffith the position, and he made the short ''The Adventures of Dollie''.",
"He directed a total of 48 shorts for the company that year.Among the films he directed in 1909 was ''The Cricket on the Hearth'', an adaptation of Charles Dickens' novel.",
"Showing the influence of Dickens on his own film narrative, Griffith employed the technique of cross-cutting—where two stories run alongside each other, as seen in Dickens' novels such as ''Oliver Twist''.",
"When criticized by a cameraman for doing this technique in a later film, Griffith was said to have replied \"Well, doesn't Dickens write that way?",
"\".His short ''In Old California'' (1910) was the first film shot in Hollywood, California.",
"Four years later, he produced and directed his first feature film ''Judith of Bethulia'' (1914), one of the early films to be produced in the U.S. Biograph believed that longer features were not viable at this point.",
"According to Lillian Gish, the company thought that \"a movie that long would hurt the audience's eyes\".Left to right: Griffith, cameraman Billy Bitzer (behind Pathé camera), Dorothy Gish (watching from behind Bitzer), Karl Brown (keeping script) and Miriam Cooper (in profile) in a production still for ''Intolerance'' (1916)Griffith left Biograph because of company resistance to his goals and his cost overruns on the film.",
"He took his company of actors with him and joined the Mutual Film Corporation.",
"There he co-produced ''The Life of General Villa'', a silent biographical-action movie starring Pancho Villa as himself, shot on location in Mexico during a civil war.",
"He formed a studio with Majestic Studios manager Harry Aitken, which became known as Reliance-Majestic Studios and later was renamed Fine Arts Studios.",
"His new production company became an autonomous production unit partner in the Triangle Film Corporation along with Thomas H. Ince and Keystone Studios' Mack Sennett.",
"The Triangle Film Corporation was headed by Aitken, who was released from the Mutual Film Corporation, and his brother Roy.",
"''The Birth of a Nation'' (1915), by Griffith; runtime 03:00:22Griffith directed and produced ''The Clansman'' through Reliance-Majestic Studios in 1915.The film later became known as ''The Birth of a Nation''.",
"It is one of the early feature length American films.",
"The film was a success, but it aroused much controversy due to its depiction of slavery, the Ku Klux Klan, race relations in the American Civil War, and the Reconstruction era of the United States.",
"It was based on Thomas Dixon Jr.'s 1905 novel ''The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan''; it depicts Southern slavery as benign, the enfranchisement of freedmen as a corrupt plot by the Republican Party, and the Ku Klux Klan as a band of heroes restoring the rightful order.",
"This view of the era was popular at the time and was endorsed for decades by historians of the Dunning School, but it met with strong criticism from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and other groups.The NAACP attempted to stop showings of the film.",
"This ban was successful in some cities, but nonetheless it was shown widely and became the most successful box-office attraction of its time.",
"It is considered among the first \"blockbuster\" motion pictures, and it broke all box-office records that had been established until then.",
"\"They lost track of the money it made\", Lillian Gish remarked in a Kevin Brownlow interview.The first million-dollar partners: Fairbanks, Pickford, Chaplin and GriffithIntolerance'' (1916), by Griffith, runtime 02:56:26Audiences in some major northern cities rioted over the film's racial content and the violence.",
"Griffith's indignation at efforts to censor or ban the film motivated him the following year to produce ''Intolerance'', in which he portrayed the effects of intolerance in four different historical periods: the Fall of Babylon; the Crucifixion of Jesus; the events surrounding the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (during religious persecution of French Huguenots); and a modern story.",
"''Intolerance'' was not a financial success; it did not bring in enough profits to cover the lavish road show that accompanied it.",
"Griffith put a huge budget into the film's production that could not be recovered in its box office.",
"He mostly financed ''Intolerance'' himself, which contributed to his financial ruin for the rest of his life.Intolerance'' (1916)Griffith's production partnership was dissolved in 1917, and he went to Artcraft, part of Paramount Pictures, and then to First National Pictures (1919–1920).",
"At the same time, he founded United Artists together with Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks; the studio was based on allowing actors to control their own interests rather than being dependent upon commercial studios.Souvenir program from D.W. Griffith presentation of \"The Birth of a Nation\"He continued to make films, but he never again achieved box-office grosses as high as either ''The Birth of a Nation'' or ''Intolerance''."
],
[
"Later film career",
"Although United Artists survived as a company, Griffith's association with it was short-lived.",
"While some of his later films did well at the box office, commercial success often eluded him.",
"Griffith features from this period include ''Broken Blossoms'' (1919), ''Way Down East'' (1920), ''Orphans of the Storm'' (1921), ''Dream Street'' (1921), ''One Exciting Night'' (1922), and ''America'' (1924).",
"Of these, the first three were successes at the box office.",
"Griffith was forced to leave United Artists after ''Isn't Life Wonderful'' (1924) failed at the box office.United Artists founders Griffith, Pickford, Chaplin and Fairbanks sign their contract for the cameras in 1919.He made ''Lady of the Pavements'' (1929), a part sound film, and only two full-sound films: ''Abraham Lincoln'' (1930) and ''The Struggle'' (1931).",
"Neither was successful, and after ''The Struggle'', he never made another film.In 1936, director Woody Van Dyke, who had worked as Griffith's apprentice on ''Intolerance'', asked Griffith to help him shoot the famous earthquake sequence for ''San Francisco'', but Griffith was not given any film credit.",
"Starring Clark Gable, Jeanette MacDonald and Spencer Tracy, it was the top-grossing film of the year.In 1939, the producer Hal Roach hired Griffith to produce ''Of Mice and Men'' (1939) and ''One Million B.C.''",
"(1940).",
"He wrote to Griffith: \"I need help from the production side to select the proper writers, cast, et cetera, and to help me generally in the supervision of these pictures.",
"\"Although Griffith eventually disagreed with Roach over the production and departed, Roach later insisted that some of the scenes in the completed film were directed by Griffith.",
"This movie was the final production in which Griffith was involved.",
"However, cast members' accounts recall Griffith directing only the screen tests and costume tests.",
"When Roach advertised the film in late 1939 with Griffith listed as producer, Griffith asked that his name be removed.Griffith was for decades held in awe by many members of the film industry.",
"He was presented a special Oscar by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in the mid-1930s.",
"In 1946, he made an impromptu visit to the film location of David O. Selznick's epic western ''Duel in the Sun'', where some of his veteran actors—Lillian Gish, Lionel Barrymore and Harry Carey—were cast members.",
"Gish and Barrymore found their mentor's presence distracting, and they became self-conscious; in response, Griffith hid behind the scenery when the two were filming their scenes."
],
[
"Death",
"On the morning of July 23, 1948, Griffith was discovered unconscious in the lobby at the Knickerbocker Hotel in Los Angeles, where he had been living alone.",
"He died of a cerebral hemorrhage at 3:42 PM on the way to a Hollywood hospital.",
"A public memorial service was held in his honor at the Hollywood Masonic Temple.",
"He is buried at Mount Tabor Methodist Church Graveyard in Centerfield, Kentucky.",
"In 1950, The Directors Guild of America provided a stone and bronze monument for his grave site."
],
[
"Legacy",
"Stamp issued by the United States Postal Service in 1975 to commemorate the centennial of Griffith's birthGriffith has a controversial legacy.",
"Despite criticism, he was a widely celebrated and respected public figure during his life, and modern film historians continue to recognize him for his contributions to the craft of filmmaking.",
"Nevertheless, many critics during his lifetime, as well as in the decades since his death, have characterized him and his work (most notably ''The Birth of a Nation'') as upholding white supremacist ideals.",
"Historians frequently cite ''The Birth of a Nation'' as a major factor in the KKK's revival in the 20th century, and it remains controversial to this day.Performer and director Charlie Chaplin called Griffith \"The Teacher of Us All\".",
"Filmmakers such as Alfred Hitchcock, Lev Kuleshov, Jean Renoir, Cecil B. DeMille, King Vidor, Victor Fleming, Raoul Walsh, Carl Theodor Dreyer, Sergei Eisenstein, and Stanley Kubrick have praised Griffith.Griffith's Star on the Hollywood Walk of FameGriffith seems to have been the first to understand how certain film techniques could be used to create an expressive language; it gained popular recognition with the release of his ''The Birth of a Nation'' (1915).",
"His early shorts —such as Biograph's ''The Musketeers of Pig Alley'' (1912), show that Griffith's attention to camera placement and lighting heightened mood and tension.",
"In making ''Intolerance'', Griffith opened new possibilities for the medium, creating a form that seems to owe more to music than to traditional narrative.",
"* In the 1951 ''Philco Television Playhouse'' episode \"The Birth of the Movies\", events from Griffith's film career were depicted.",
"Griffith was played by John Newland.",
"* In 1953 the Directors Guild of America (DGA) instituted the D. W. Griffith Award, its highest honor.",
"However, on December 15, 1999, then DGA President Jack Shea and the DGA National Board announced that the award would be renamed as the \"DGA Lifetime Achievement Award\".",
"They stated that, although Griffith was extremely talented, they felt his film ''The Birth of a Nation'' had \"helped foster intolerable racial stereotypes\", and that it was thus better not to have the top award in his name.",
"* On February 8, 1960, Griffith was posthumously awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, which is located at 6535 Hollywood Boulevard.",
"* In 1975, Griffith was honored on a 10-cent postage stamp by the United States.",
"* The 1976 American comedy film ''Nickelodeon'' in part pays homage to silent film makers, and includes footage from ''The Birth of a Nation''.",
"* D.W. Griffith Middle School in Los Angeles is named after Griffith.",
"* In 2008 the Hollywood Heritage Museum hosted a screening of Griffith's early films to commemorate the centennial of his start in film.",
"* On January 22, 2009, the Oldham History Center in La Grange, Kentucky, opened a 15-seat theatre in Griffith's honor.",
"The theatre features a library of available Griffith films."
],
[
"Film preservation",
"Griffith has six films preserved on the United States National Film Registry deemed as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\": ''Lady Helen's Escapade'', ''A Corner in Wheat'' (both 1909), ''The Musketeers of Pig Alley'' (1912), ''The Birth of a Nation'' (1915), ''Intolerance'' (1916) and ''Broken Blossoms'' (1919)."
],
[
"See also",
"* D. W. Griffith filmography* D. W. Griffith House* Griffith Ranch (in San Fernando, California)* List of film directors who studied under D. W. Griffith* List of Freemasons* List of people from the Louisville metropolitan area"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Seymour Stern, ''An Index to the Creative Work of D.W. Griffith'' (London: The British Film Institute, 1944–47)* Iris Barry and Eileen Bowser, ''D.W.",
"Griffith: American Film Master'' (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965)* Kevin Brownlow, ''The Parade's Gone By'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1968)* David Robinson, ''Hollywood in the Twenties'' (New York: A.S. Barnes & Co, Inc., 1968)* Lillian Gish, ''The Movies, Mr. Griffith and Me'' (Englewood, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969)* Robert M. Henderson, ''D.W.",
"Griffith: His Life and Work'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972)* Karl Brown, ''Adventures with D.W. Griffith'' (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1973)* Edward Wagenknecht and Anthony Slide, ''The Films of D.W. Griffith'' (New York: Crown, 1975)* Petrić, Vlada, ''D.W.",
"Griffith's A Corner in Wheat: A Critical Analysis'' (Cambridge, MA: University Film Study Center, 1975)* William K. Everson, ''American Silent Film'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978)* Richard Schickel, ''D.W.",
"Griffith: An American Life'' (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984)* William M. Drew, ''D.W.",
"Griffith's \"Intolerance:\" Its Genesis and Its Vision'' (Jefferson, NJ: McFarland & Company, 1986)* Tom Gunning, ''D.W.",
"Griffith and the Origin of the American Narrative: The Early Years at Biograph'' (Urbana, Illinois: Illinois University Press, 1994)* * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Bibliography of books and articles about Griffith via University of California, Berkeley Media Resources Center** Photo of Griffith as a young man in the 1890s or early 1900s* D.W. Griffith in the ''Vanity Fair Hall of Fame'' (1918)* A magazine article by the famous director printed in ''Illustrated World'' (1921)****"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Dune"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Dune fields in the Australian desert.Coastal dunes at the Yyteri Beach in Pori, FinlandSand dunes of the Empty Quarter to the east of Liwa Oasis, United Arab EmiratesA '''dune''' is a landform composed of wind- or water-driven sand.",
"It typically takes the form of a mound, ridge, or hill.",
"An area with dunes is called a '''dune system''' or a '''dune complex'''.",
"A large dune complex is called a '''dune field''', while broad, flat regions covered with wind-swept sand or dunes, with little or no vegetation, are called ''ergs'' or ''sand seas''.",
"Dunes occur in different shapes and sizes, but most kinds of dunes are longer on the stoss (upflow) side, where the sand is pushed up the dune, and have a shorter ''slip face'' in the lee side.",
"The valley or trough between dunes is called a ''dune slack''.Dunes are most common in desert environments, where the lack of moisture hinders the growth of vegetation that would otherwise interfere with the development of dunes.",
"However, sand deposits are not restricted to deserts, and dunes are also found along sea shores, along streams in semiarid climates, in areas of glacial outwash, and in other areas where poorly cemented sandstone bedrock disintegrates to produce an ample supply of loose sand.",
"Subaqueous dunes can form from the action of water flow (fluvial processes) on sand or gravel beds of rivers, estuaries, and the sea-bed.Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the beach.",
"In most cases, the dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea.",
"Artificial dunes are sometimes constructed to protect coastal areas.",
"The dynamic action of wind and water can sometimes cause dunes to drift, which can have serious consequences.",
"For example, the town of Eucla, Western Australia, had to be relocated in the 1890s because of dune drift.The modern word \"dune\" came into English from French around 1790, which in turn came from Middle Dutch ''dūne''."
],
[
"Formation",
"saltation).",
"This exacerbating feedback loop helps sand accumulate into dunes.A universally precise distinction does not exist between ripples, dunes, and draas, which are all deposits of the same type of materials.",
"Dunes are generally defined as greater than 7 cm tall and may have ripples, while ripples are deposits that are less than 3 cm tall.",
"A draa is a very large aeolian landform, with a length of several kilometers and a height of tens to hundreds of meters, and which may have superimposed dunes.Dunes are made of sand-sized particles, and may consist of quartz, calcium carbonate, snow, gypsum, or other materials.",
"The upwind/upstream/upcurrent side of the dune is called the stoss side; the downflow side is called the lee side.",
"Sand is pushed (creep) or bounces (saltation) up the stoss side, and slides down the lee side.",
"A side of a dune that the sand has slid down is called a '''slip face''' (or slipface).The Bagnold formula gives the speed at which particles can be transported."
],
[
"Aeolian dunes",
"===Aeolian dune shapes===Five basic dune types are recognized: crescentic, linear, star, dome, and parabolic.",
"Dune areas may occur in three forms: simple (isolated dunes of basic type), compound (larger dunes on which smaller dunes of same type form), and complex (combinations of different types).====Barchan or crescentic====Isolated barchan dunes on the surface of Mars.",
"Dominant wind direction would be from left to right.Barchan dunes are crescent-shaped mounds which are generally wider than they are long.",
"The lee-side slipfaces are on the concave sides of the dunes.",
"These dunes form under winds that blow consistently from one direction (unimodalwinds).",
"They form separate crescents when the sand supply is comparatively small.",
"When the sand supply is greater, they may merge into barchanoid ridges, and then transverse dunes (see below).Some types of crescentic dunes move more quickly over desert surfaces than any other type of dune.",
"A group of dunes moved more than 100 metres per year between 1954 and 1959 in China's Ningxia Province, and similar speeds have been recorded in the Western Desert of Egypt.",
"The largest crescentic dunes on Earth, with mean crest-to-crest widths of more than three kilometres, are in China's Taklamakan Desert.====Transverse dunes====Abundant barchan dunes may merge into barchanoid ridges, which then grade into linear (or slightly sinuous) transverse dunes, so called because they lie transverse, or across, the wind direction, with the wind blowing perpendicular to the ridge crest.====Seif or longitudinal dunes====Seif dunes are linear (or slightly sinuous) dunes with two slip faces.",
"The two slip faces make them sharp-crested.",
"They are called ''seif'' dunes after the Arabic word for \"sword\".",
"They may be more than 160 kilometres (100 miles) long, and thus easily visible in satellite images (see illustrations).Seif dunes are associated with bidirectional winds.",
"The long axes and ridges of these dunes extend along the resultant direction of sand movement (hence the name \"longitudinal\").",
"Some linear dunes merge to form Y-shaped compound dunes.Formation is debated.",
"Ralph Bagnold, in ''The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes'', suggested that some seif dunes form when a barchan dune moves into a bidirectional wind regime, and one arm or wing of the crescent elongates.",
"Others suggest that seif dunes are formed by vortices in a unidirectional wind.",
"In the sheltered troughs between highly developed seif dunes, barchans may be formed, because the wind is constrained to be unidirectional by the dunes.",
"File:Rub' al Khali (Arabian Empty Quarter) sand dunes imaged by Terra (EOS AM-1).jpg|Rub' al Khali (Arabian Empty Quarter) sand dunes imaged by Terra (EOS AM-1).",
"Most of these dunes are seif dunes.",
"Their origin from barchans is suggested by the stubby remnant \"hooks\" seen on many of the dunes.",
"Wind would be from left to right.File:ISS-31 Linear dunes in the Great Sand Sea in southwest Egypt.jpg|Large linear seif dunes in the Great Sand Sea in southwest Egypt, seen from the International Space Station.",
"The distance between each dune is 1.5–2.5 km.File:Longitudinal_dune.jpg|The average-direction-longitudinal model of seif dune formationFile:Tranverse dune.jpg|alt=Transverse dune with wind blowing across crest|By contrast, transverse dunes form with the wind blowing perpendicular to the ridges, and have only one slipface, on the lee side.",
"The stoss side is less steep.File:Cross-bedding.gif|alt=Animation of wind pushing transverse dunes along.",
"The sand blows from the stoss side down onto the less side, where it is buried by the next layer.",
"The dune thus moves, and a cross-section through it shown diagonal cross-bedding|Transverse dunes lie perpendicular to the wind, which moves them forwards, producing the cross-bedding shown here.Seif dunes are common in the Sahara.",
"They range up to in height and in length.",
"In the southern third of the Arabian Peninsula, a vast erg, called the Rub' al Khali or Empty Quarter, contains seif dunes that stretch for almost and reach heights of over .Linear loess hills known as pahas are superficially similar.",
"These hills appear to have been formed during the last ice age under permafrost conditions dominated by sparse tundra vegetation.====Star====Radially symmetrical, star dunes are pyramidal sand mounds with slipfaces on three or more arms that radiate from the high center of the mound.",
"They tend to accumulate in areas with multidirectional wind regimes.",
"Star dunes grow upward rather than laterally.",
"They dominate the Grand Erg Oriental of the Sahara.",
"In other deserts, they occur around the margins of the sand seas, particularly near topographic barriers.",
"In the southeast Badain Jaran Desert of China, the star dunes are up to 500 metres tall and may be the tallest dunes on Earth.====Dome====Oval or circular mounds that generally lack a slipface.",
"Dome dunes are rare and occur at the far upwind margins of sand seas.=====Lunettes=====Fixed crescentic dunes that form on the leeward margins of playas and river valleys in arid and semiarid regions in response to the direction (s) of prevailing winds, are known as lunettes, source-bordering dunes, bourrelets and clay dunes.",
"They may be composed of clay, silt, sand, or gypsum, eroded from the basin floor or shore, transported up the concave side of the dune, and deposited on the convex side.",
"Examples in Australia are up to 6.5 km long, 1 km wide, and up to 50 metres high.",
"They also occur in southern and West Africa, and in parts of the western United States, especially Texas.====Parabolic====Schematic of coastal parabolic dunesU-shaped mounds of sand with convex noses trailed by elongated arms are parabolic dunes.",
"These dunes are formed from blowout dunes where the erosion of vegetated sand leads to a U-shaped depression.",
"The elongated arms are held in place by vegetation; the largest arm known on Earth reaches 12 km.",
"Sometimes these dunes are called U-shaped, blowout, or hairpin dunes, and they are well known in coastal deserts.",
"Unlike crescent shaped dunes, their crests point upwind.",
"The bulk of the sand in the dune migrates forward.In plan view, these are U-shaped or V-shaped mounds of well-sorted, very fine to medium sand with elongated arms that extend upwind behind the central part of the dune.",
"There are slipfaces that often occur on the outer side of the nose and on the outer slopes of the arms.These dunes often occur in semiarid areas where the precipitation is retained in the lower parts of the dune and underlying soils.",
"The stability of the dunes was once attributed to the vegetative cover but recent research has pointed to water as the main source of parabolic dune stability.",
"The vegetation that covers them—grasses, shrubs, and trees—help anchor the trailing arms.",
"In inland deserts, parabolic dunes commonly originate and extend downwind from blowouts in sand sheets only partly anchored by vegetation.",
"They can also originate from beach sands and extend inland into vegetated areas in coastal zones and on shores of large lakes.Most parabolic dunes do not reach heights higher than a few tens of metres except at their nose, where vegetation stops or slows the advance of accumulating sand.Simple parabolic dunes have only one set of arms that trail upwind, behind the leading nose.",
"Compound parabolic dunes are coalesced features with several sets of trailing arms.",
"Complex parabolic dunes include subsidiary superposed or coalesced forms, usually of barchanoid or linear shapes.Parabolic dunes, like crescent dunes, occur in areas where very strong winds are mostly unidirectional.",
"Although these dunes are found in areas now characterized by variable wind speeds, the effective winds associated with the growth and migration of both the parabolic and crescent dunes probably are the most consistent in wind direction.The grain size for these well-sorted, very fine to medium sands is about 0.06 to 0.5 mm.",
"Parabolic dunes have loose sand and steep slopes only on their outer flanks.",
"The inner slopes are mostly well packed and anchored by vegetation, as are the corridors between individual dunes.",
"Because all dune arms are oriented in the same direction, and, the inter-dune corridors are generally swept clear of loose sand, the corridors can usually be traversed in between the trailing arms of the dune.",
"However to cross straight over the dune by going over the trailing arms, can be very difficult.",
"Also, traversing the nose is very difficult as well because the nose is usually made up of loose sand without much if any vegetation.A type of extensive parabolic dune that lacks discernible slipfaces and has mostly coarse grained sand is known as a ''zibar''.",
"The term zibar comes from the Arabic word to describe \"rolling transverse ridges ... with a hard surface\".",
"The dunes are small, have low relief, and can be found in many places across the planet from Wyoming (United States) to Saudi Arabia to Australia.",
"Spacing between zibars ranges from 50 to 400 metres and they do not become more than 10 metres high.",
"The dunes form at about ninety degrees to the prevailing wind which blows away the small, fine-grained sand leaving behind the coarser grained sand to form the crest.====Reversing dunes====Reversing dune showing short minor slipface atop the major stoss (upwind) faceOccurring wherever winds periodically reverse direction, reversing dunes are varieties of any of the above shapes.",
"These dunes typically have major and minor slipfaces oriented in opposite directions.",
"The minor slipfaces are usually temporary, as they appear after a reverse wind and are generally destroyed when the wind next blows in the dominant direction.====Draas====Dune Nine in Sossusvlei, Namibia, is over 300m high.Draas are very large-scale dune bedforms; they may be tens or a few hundreds of metres in height, kilometres wide, and hundreds of kilometres in length.",
"After a draa has reached a certain size, it generally develops superimposed dune forms.",
"They are thought to be more ancient and slower-moving than smaller dunes, and to form by vertical growth of existing dunes.",
"Draas are widespread in sand seas and are well-represented in the geological record.===Dune complexity===All these dune shapes may occur in three forms: simple (isolated dunes of basic type), compound (larger dunes on which smaller dunes of same type form), and complex (combinations of different types).",
"Simple dunes are basic forms with the minimum number of slipfaces that define the geometric type.",
"Compound dunes are large dunes on which smaller dunes of similar type and slipface orientation are superimposed.",
"Complex dunes are combinations of two or more dune types.",
"A crescentic dune with a star dune superimposed on its crest is the most common complex dune.",
"Simple dunes represent a wind regime that has not changed in intensity or direction since the formation of the dune, while compound and complex dunes suggest that the intensity and direction of the wind has changed.===Dune movement===The sand mass of dunes can move either windward or leeward, depending on if the wind is making contact with the dune from below or above its apogee.",
"If wind hits from above, the sand particles move leeward; the leeward flux of sand is greater than the windward flux.",
"Conversely, if sand hits from below, sand particles move windward.",
"Further, if the wind is carrying sand particles when it hits the dune, the dune's sand particles will saltate more than if the wind had hit the dune without carrying sand particles.===Coastal dunes===Coastal dunes covered in grasses around the mouth of the Liver Å river in DenmarkNewborough Dune Rejuvenation, Wales; video of work done by Natural Resources Wales; 2015Coastal dunes form when wet sand is deposited along the coast and dries out and is blown along the beach.",
"Dunes form where the beach is wide enough to allow for the accumulation of wind-blown sand, and where prevailing '''onshore winds''' tend to blow sand inland.",
"The three key ingredients for coastal dune formation are a large sand supply, winds to move said sand supply, and a place for the sand supply to accumulate.",
"Obstacles—for example, vegetation, pebbles and so on—tend to slow down the wind and lead to the deposition of sand grains.",
"These small \"incipient dunes or \"shadow dunes\" tend to grow in the vertical direction if the obstacle slowing the wind can also grow vertically (i.e., vegetation).",
"Coastal dunes expand laterally as a result of lateral growth of coastal plants via seed or rhizome.",
"Models of coastal dunes suggest that their final equilibrium height is related to the distance between the water line and where vegetation can grow.",
"Coastal dunes can be classified by where they develop, or begin to take shape.",
"Dunes are commonly grouped into either the Primary Dune Group or the Secondary Dune Group.",
"Primary dunes gain most of their sand from the beach itself, while secondary dunes gain their sand from the primary dune.",
"Along the Florida Panhandle, most dunes are considered to be foredunes or hummocks.",
"Different locations around the globe have dune formations unique to their given coastal profile.Coastal sand dunes can provide privacy and/or habitats to support local flora and fauna.",
"Animals such as sand snakes, lizards, and rodents can live in coastal sand dunes, along with insects of all types.",
"Often the vegetation of sand dunes is discussed without acknowledging the importance that coastal dunes have for animals.",
"Further, some animals, such as foxes and feral pigs can use coastal dunes as hunting grounds to find food.",
"Birds are also known to utilize coastal dunes as nesting grounds.",
"All these species find the coastal environment of the sand dune vital to their species' survival.Over the course of time coastal dunes may be impacted by tropical cyclones or other intense storm activity, dependent on their location.",
"Recent work has suggested that coastal dunes tend to evolve toward a high or low morphology depending on the growth rate of dunes relative to storm frequency.",
"During a storm event, dunes play a significant role in minimizing wave energy as it moves onshore.",
"As a result, coastal dunes, especially those in the foredune area affected by a storm surge, will retreat or erode.",
"To counteract the damage from tropical activity on coastal dunes, short term post-storm efforts can be made by individual agencies through fencing to help with sand accumulation.How much a dune erodes during any storm surge is related to its location on the coastal shoreline and the profile of the beach during a particular season.",
"In those areas with harsher winter weather, during the summer a beach tends to take on more of a convex appearance due to gentler waves, while the same beach in the winter may take on more of a concave appearance.",
"As a result, coastal dunes can get eroded much more quickly in the winter than in the summer.",
"The converse is true in areas with harsher summer weather.There are many threats to these coastal communities.",
"Some coastal dunes, for example ones in San Francisco, have been completely altered by urbanization; reshaping the dune for human use.",
"This puts native species at risk.",
"Another danger, in California and places in the UK specifically, is the introduction of invasive species.",
"Plant species, such as ''Carpobrotus edulis'', were introduced from South Africa in an attempt to stabilize the dunes and provide horticultural benefits, but instead spread taking land away from native species.",
"''Ammophila arenaria'', known as European beachgrass, has a similar story, though it has no horticulture benefits.",
"It has great ground coverage and, as intended, stabilized the dunes but as an unintended side effect prevented native species from thriving in those dunes.",
"One such example is the dune field at Point Reyes, California.",
"There are now efforts to get rid of both of these invasive species.====Ecological succession on coastal dunes====As a dune forms, plant succession occurs.",
"The conditions on an ''embryo dune'' are harsh, with salt spray from the sea carried on strong winds.",
"The dune is well drained and often dry, and composed of calcium carbonate from seashells.",
"Rotting seaweed, brought in by storm waves adds nutrients to allow pioneer species to colonize the dune.",
"For example, in the United Kingdom these pioneer species are often marram grass, sea wort grass and other sea grasses.",
"These plants are well adapted to the harsh conditions of the foredune, typically having deep roots which reach the water table, root nodules that produce nitrogen compounds, and protected stoma, reducing transpiration.",
"Also, the deep roots bind the sand together, and the dune grows into a foredune as more sand is blown over the grasses.",
"The grasses add nitrogen to the soil, meaning other, less hardy plants can then colonize the dunes.",
"Typically these are heather, heaths and gorses.",
"These too are adapted to the low soil water content and have small, prickly leaves which reduce transpiration.",
"Heather adds humus to the soil and is usually replaced by coniferous trees, which can tolerate low soil pH, caused by the accumulation and decomposition of organic matter with nitrate leaching.",
"Coniferous forests and heathland are common climax communities for sand dune systems.Young dunes are called yellow dunes and dunes which have high humus content are called grey dunes.",
"Leaching occurs on the dunes, washing humus into the slacks, and the slacks may be much more developed than the exposed tops of the dunes.",
"It is usually in the slacks that more rare species are developed and there is a tendency for the dune slacks' soil to be waterlogged where only marsh plants can survive.",
"In Europe these plants include: creeping willow, cotton grass, yellow iris, reeds, and rushes.",
"As for vertebrates in European dunes, natterjack toads sometimes breed here.==== Coastal dune floral adaptations ====Sand dunes of Hyypänmäki in Hailuoto, FinlandSea dune erosion at Talacre, WalesDune ecosystems are extremely difficult places for plants to survive.",
"This is due to a number of pressures related to their proximity to the ocean and confinement to growth on sandy substrates.",
"These include:* Little available soil moisture* Little available soil organic matter/nutrients/water* Harsh winds* Salt spray* Erosion/shifting and sometimes burial or exposure (from shifting)* Tidal influencesPlants have evolved many adaptations to cope with these pressures:* Deep taproot to reach water table (Pink Sand Verbena)* Shallow but extensive root systems*Rhizomes* Prostrate growth form to avoid wind/salt spray (''Abronia spp''., Beach Primrose)* Krummholz growth form (Monterrey Cypress-not a dune plant but deals with similar pressures)* Thickened cuticle/Succulence to reduce moisture loss and reduce salt uptake (''Ambrosia/Abronia spp., Calystegia soldanella'')* Pale leaves to reduce insolation (''Artemisia/Ambrosia spp.",
"'')* Thorny/Spiky seeds to ensure establishment in vicinity of parent, reduces chances of being blown away or swept out to sea (''Ambrosia chamissonis'')===Gypsum dunes===Gypsum dune fields, White Sands National Park, New Mexico, United StatesIn deserts where large amounts of limestone mountains surround a closed basin, such as at White Sands National Park in south-central New Mexico, occasional storm runoff transports dissolved limestone and gypsum into a low-lying pan within the basin where the water evaporates, depositing the gypsum and forming crystals known as selenite.",
"The crystals left behind by this process are eroded by the wind and deposited as vast white dune fields that resemble snow-covered landscapes.",
"These types of dune are rare, and only form in closed arid basins that retain the highly soluble gypsum that would otherwise be washed into the sea.===Nabkha dunes===A nabkha, or coppice dune, is a small dune anchored by vegetation.",
"They usually indicate desertification or soil erosion, and serve as nesting and burrow sites for animals."
],
[
"Sub-aqueous dunes",
"Sub-aqueous (underwater) dunes form on a bed of sand or gravel under the actions of water flow.",
"They are ubiquitous in natural channels such as rivers and estuaries, and also form in engineered canals and pipelines.",
"Dunes move downstream as the upstream slope is eroded and the sediment deposited on the downstream or lee slope in typical bedform construction.",
"In the case of sub-aqueous barchan dunes, sediment is lost by their extremities, known as horns.These dunes most often form as a continuous 'train' of dunes, showing remarkable similarity in wavelength and height.",
"The shape of a dune gives information about its formation environment.",
"For instance, rivers produce asymmetrical ripples, with the steeper slip face facing downstream.",
"Ripple marks preserved in sedimentary strata in the geological record can be used to determine the direction of current flow, and thus an indication of the source of the sediments.Dunes on the bed of a channel significantly increase flow resistance, their presence and growth playing a major part in river flooding."
],
[
"Lithified dunes",
"Cross-bedding in lithified aeolian sand dunes preserved as sandstone in Zion National Park, UtahA lithified (consolidated) sand dune is a type of sandstone that is formed when a marine or aeolian sand dune becomes compacted and hardened.",
"Once in this form, water passing through the rock can carry and deposit minerals, which can alter the color of the rock.",
"Cross-bedded layers of stacks of lithified dunes can produce the cross-hatching patterns, such as those seen in Zion National Park in the western United States.A slang term, used in the southwest US, for consolidated and hardened sand dunes is \"slickrock\", a name that was introduced by pioneers of the Old West because their steel-rimmed wagon wheels could not gain traction on the rock."
],
[
"Desertification",
"Sand dunes can have a negative impact on humans when they encroach on human habitats.",
"Sand dunes move via a few different means, all of them helped along by wind.",
"One way that dunes can move is by saltation, where sand particles skip along the ground like a bouncing ball.",
"When these skipping particles land, they may knock into other particles and cause them to move as well, in a process known as creep.",
"With slightly stronger winds, particles collide in mid-air, causing sheet flows.",
"In a major dust storm, dunes may move tens of metres through such sheet flows.",
"Also as in the case of snow, sand avalanches, falling down the slipface of the dunes—that face away from the winds—also move the dunes forward.Sand threatens buildings and crops in Africa, the Middle East, and China.",
"Drenching sand dunes with oil stops their migration, but this approach uses a valuable resource and is quite destructive to the dunes' animal habitats.",
"Sand fences might also slow their movement to a crawl, but geologists are still analyzing results for the optimum fence designs.",
"Preventing sand dunes from overwhelming towns, villages, and agricultural areas has become a priority for the United Nations Environment Programme.",
"Planting dunes with vegetation also helps to stabilise them."
],
[
"Conservation",
"Sand blowing off a crest in the Kelso Dunes of the Mojave Desert, California, USADune habitats provide niches for highly specialized plants and animals, including numerous rare species and some endangered species.",
"Due to widespread human population expansion, dunes face destruction through land development and recreational usages, as well as alteration to prevent the encroachment of sand onto inhabited areas.",
"Some countries, notably the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Netherlands, and Sri Lanka have developed significant programs of dune protection through the use of sand dune stabilization.",
"In the U.K., a Biodiversity Action Plan has been developed to assess dunes loss and to prevent future dunes destruction."
],
[
"Examples",
"===Africa===A dune in Sossusvlei, in the greater Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibia.",
"Note the trees being engulfed for scale.Camelthorn trees and bushes scattered on dunes in the Kalahari Desert in Namibia (2017)Sand dune in the Libyan Desert near Dakhla Oasis at sunset.",
"* Alexandria Coastal Dunefields, in the Eastern Cape, South Africa* Witsand Nature Reserve in the Kalahari Desert, South Africa* The white dunes of De Hoop Nature Reserve, South Africa* The dunes of the Suguta Valley, a desert part of the Great Rift Valley in northwestern Kenya* The dunes of the Danakil Depression, northeastern Ethiopia toward the border with Eritrea* The dunes of Sossusvlei in the greater Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibia* Chad Basin National Park in northern Nigeria* The coastal dunes of Iona National Park in the southwesternmost part of Angola* Khawa dunes in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, the southwesternmost part of Botswana* La Dune Rose in the city of Gao in northern Mali near the Niger River* Erg Aoukar in southeastern Mauritania extending into Mali * Erg Chech in southwestern Algeria and northern Mali* Erg Chebbi and Erg Chigaga in southern Morocco* Grand Erg Oriental in northeastern Algeria and southern Tunisia * Grand Erg Occidental in western Algeria * The Idehan Ubari and the Idehan Murzuq in southwestern Libya* The Corralejo dunes in the Canary Islands, Spain* The Rebiana Sand Sea in southeastern Libya* The Great Sand Sea in southeastern Libya and southwestern Egypt* The Selima Sand Sheet in northwestern Sudan* The dunes of the Bayuda Desert in northern Sudan* The dunes of the Lompoul Desert in northwestern Senegal* The coastal dunes of Bazaruto Island, Mozambique* Erg du Djourab in northern Chad* The dunes of the Mourdi Depression in northeastern Chad* The dunes of Tin Toumma Desert, in southeastern Niger* Grand Erg de Bilma in the Ténéré, in northern Niger* The dunes of Oursi in the Sahel Region, northern Burkina Faso* Tanzania's Shifting Sands near Olduvai GorgeWind ripples on crescent-shaped sand dunes (barchans) in southwest Afghanistan (Sistan)===Asia===* Sunset view dunes in the Alankuda village on Kalpitiya peninsula in Sri Lanka.",
"* The dunes in the Thar Desert in India and Pakistan* Tottori Sand Dunes, Tottori Prefecture, Japan* Rig-e Jenn in the Central Desert of Iran.",
"* Rig-e Lut in the Southeast of Iran.",
"* The Ilocos Norte Sand Dunes in the Philippines, particularly Paoay Sand Dunes.",
"* Moreeb Dune in Liwa Oasis, United Arab Emirates, used as an arena for drag motor sports and Sandboarding.",
"* Gumuk Pasir Parangkusumo near Parangtritis beach in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.",
"* Mui Ne, Vietnam.",
"* Wahiba Sands, Oman* Teri, red dune complex in southern India* The dunes of the Taklamakan Desert in southwest Xinjiang in Northwest China*Tukulans of the Central Yakutian Lowland, RussiaFronting the Mediterranean Sea in Oliva, Valencian Community, Spain===Europe=== tall dune in Salir do Porto, PortugalSand dunes of Lemnos, Greece* The Dunes of Dyuni, near Pomorie, Bulgaria, vast area of sand dunes in the Burgas Province* The Dune of Pilat, not far from Bordeaux, France, is the largest known sand dune in Europe* The Dunes of Piscinas, in the south west of Sardinia island.",
"* Sands of Forvie within the Ythan Estuary complex, Aberdeenshire, Scotland.",
"* Oxwich Dunes, near Swansea, is on the Gower Peninsula in Wales.",
"* Winterton Dunes – Norfolk, England* Słowiński National Park, Poland*Siedlec Desert, Poland*Starczynów Desert, now mostly forested dunes, Poland* Sand dunes of Lemnos, Lesbos Prefecture, Greece* Akrotiri Sand Dune, Lemesos, Cyprus* Råbjerg mile, Northern Jutland, Denmark* Thy National Park, North Denmark Region, Denmark* Dunes of Corrubedo, Spain* Cresmina Dune, Portugal* Northern Littoral Natural Park, Portugal* Dune of Salir, Portugal* São Jacinto Dunes Natural Reserve, Portugal* Rëra e Hedhur in Shëngjin, Albania* De Hoge Veluwe National Park, Veluwe, Netherlands* Kootwijkerzand, Veluwe, Netherlands, 7 km2* Dunes of Texel National Park, Texel, Netherlands* Zuid-Kennemerland National Park, North Holland, Netherlands* Berkheide, Netherlands* Ammothines Lemnou, Lemnos, Greece* Dunes of the Curonian Spit, Lithuania and Russia**Parnidis Dune, Vecekrugas Dune - Curonian Spit, Lithuania* Oleshky Sands, Ukraine* Ullahau, Sweden, Big Parabel Dune and dune system===North America===Guadalupe-Nipomo DunesCadiz Dunes Wilderness, California* Victoria Island Sand Dunes,160 km North West of Cambridge Bay, Nunavut, Canada.",
"Approximately 600 square kilometers, the largest in Canada, third largest in North America and the largest in the Arctic.",
"There are two lakes with direct access to the Dunes from float planes.",
"*Herring Cove, Race Point and The Province Lands bicycle path in Provincetown, Massachusetts as part of the US National Park Service of the Cape Cod National Seashore.",
"* Great Kobuk Sand Dunes, Kobuk Valley National Park, Alaska* The Athabasca Sand Dunes, located in the Athabasca Sand Dunes Provincial Park, Saskatchewan.",
"* The Cadiz Dunes in the Mojave Trails National Monument in California.",
"* The Kelso Dunes in the Mojave Desert of California.",
"*Eureka Valley Sand Dunes and Mesquite Flat Sand Dunes in Death Valley National Park, California.",
"*Great Sand Dunes National Park, Colorado.",
"*White Sands National Park, New Mexico.",
"*Little Sahara Recreation Area, Utah.",
"*Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Michigan, on the east shore of Lake Michigan.",
"*Indiana Dunes National Park, Indiana, on the south shore of Lake Michigan.",
"*Warren Dunes State Park, Michigan, on the east shore of Lake Michigan.",
"*Grand Sable Dunes, in the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Michigan.",
"*Samalayuca Dunes, in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico*Algodones Dunes near Brawley, California.",
"*Guadalupe-Nipomo Dunes, on the central coast of California.",
"*Monahans Sandhills State Park near Odessa, Texas.",
"*Beaver Dunes State Park near Beaver, Oklahoma.",
"* The Killpecker sand dunes of the Red Desert in southwestern Wyoming.",
"*Jockey's Ridge State Park – on the Outer Banks, North Carolina.",
"* The Great Dune found in Cape Henlopen State Park in Lewes, Delaware.",
"*Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area near Florence, Oregon, on the Pacific Coast.",
"*Bruneau Dunes State Park – Owyhee Desert, Idaho*Hoffmaster State Park – Muskegon, Michigan*Silver Lake State Park — a sand dunes that allows off-road vehicle use located near Mears, Michigan.",
"*Carcross Desert near Carcross, Yukon*Grey Cloud Dunes- Minnesota===South America===White sand dunes in the Lençóis Maranhenses National Park, Maranhão, Brazil* Lençóis Maranhenses National Park in the state of Maranhão, Brazil* Jericoacoara National Park, in the state of Ceará, Brazil* Genipabu in Natal, Brazil* Medanos de Coro National Park near the town of Coro, in Falcón State, Venezuela* Duna Federico Kirbus in Catamarca Province, Argentina* Villa Gesell in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina* Cerro Blanco in Nazca Province, Peru* Huacachina in Ica Region, Peru* Cerro Medanoso in Atacama Region, Chile* Colún Beach, Valdivian Coastal Reserve in Chile* :es:Dunas de Concón, Chile* :es:Cerro Dragón (Chile), urban dune in Iquique, ChileCoastal dunes at Stockton Beach in the City of Newcastle===Oceania===* Simpson Desert sand dunes in the Northern Territory, Queensland and South Australia, Australia* Coorong National Park in South Australia, Australia* Lincoln National Park in South Australia, Australia* Coffin Bay National Park in South Australia, Australia* Fraser Island in Queensland, Australia* Cronulla sand dunes in New South Wales, Australia* Stockton Beach in New South Wales, Australia* Lancelin sand dunes in Western Australia, Australia* Te Paki sand dunes near Cape Reinga, New Zealand===World's highest dunes===+ Note: This table is partially based on estimates and incomplete information.Dune Height from Base feet/metres Height from Sea Level feet/metres Location NotesDuna Federico Kirbus≈4,035/1,230 ≈9,334/2,845 Bolsón de Fiambalá, Fiambalá, Catamarca Province, Argentina Highest in the worldCerro Blanco≈3,860/1,176 ≈6,791/2,080 Nazca Province, Ica Region, Peru Highest in Peru, second highest in the worldBadain Jaran Dunes ≈1,640/500 ≈6,640/2,020 Badain Jaran Desert, Alashan Plain, Inner Mongolia, Gobi Desert, China World's tallest stationary dunes and highest in AsiaRig-e Yalan Dune ≈1,542/470 ≈3,117/950 Lut Desert, Kerman, Iran Hottest place on Earth (Gandom Beryan)Average Highest Area Dunes 1,410/430?",
"≈6,500/1,980?",
"Isaouane-n-Tifernine Sand Sea, Algerian Sahara Highest in AfricaBig Daddy/Dune 7(Big Mama?)",
"1,256/383 ≈1,870/570 Sossusvlei Dunes, Namib Desert, Namibia / Near Walvis Bay Namib Desert, Namibia according to the Namibian Ministry of Environment & Tourism the highest dune in the worldMount Tempest ≈920/280 ≈920/280 Moreton Island, Brisbane, Australia Highest in AustraliaStar Dune >750/230 ≈8,950/2,730 Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve, Colorado, USA Highest in North AmericaDune of Pyla ≈345/105 ≈699/130 Bay of Arcachon, Aquitaine, France Highest in EuropeMing-Sha Dunes ?",
"5,660/1,725 Dunhuang Oasis, Taklamakan Desert, Gansu, China Medanoso Dune ≈1805/550 ≈5446/1,660 Atacama Desert, Chile Highest in Chile===Sand dune systems===:Sleeping Bear Dunes in Michigan(coastal dunes featuring succession)* Athabasca Sand Dunes Provincial Park, Alberta and Saskatchewan* Ashdod Sand Dune, Israel* Bamburgh Dunes, Northumberland, England* Bradley Beach, New Jersey* Circeo National Park, a Mediterranean dune area on the southwest coast of the Lazio region of Italy* Cronulla sand dunes, NSW, Australia* Crymlyn Burrows, Wales* Dawlish Warren, Devon, England* Fraser Island, Queensland Australia, largest sand island in the world* Indiana Dunes National Park, Indiana* Kenfig Burrows, Wales* Margam burrows, Wales* Murlough Sand Dunes, Newcastle, Co Down, Northern Ireland* Morfa Harlech sand dunes, Gwynedd, Wales* Newborough Warren, North Wales* Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area, near North Bend, Oregon* Penhale Sands, Cornwall, England* Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Michigan* Sandy Island Beach State Park, Richland, New York* Studland, Dorset, England* Thy National Park, North Denmark Region, Denmark* Winterton, Norfolk, England* Woolacombe, Devon, England* Ynyslas Sand Dunes, Wales===Extraterrestrial dunes===Sand dune on MarsDunes can likely be found in any environment where there is a substantial atmosphere, winds, and dust to be blown.",
"Dunes are common on Mars and in the equatorial regions of Titan.Titan's dunes include large expanses with modal lengths of about 20–30 km.",
"The regions are not topographically confined, resembling sand seas.",
"These dunes are interpreted to be longitudinal dunes whose crests are oriented parallel to the dominant wind direction, which generally indicates west-to-east wind flow.",
"The sand is likely composed of hydrocarbon particles, possibly with some water ice mixed in.Dunes are a popular theme in science fiction, featuring in depictions of dry Desert planets appearing as early as the 1956 film ''Forbidden Planet'' and Frank Herbert's 1965 novel ''Dune''.",
"The environment of the desert planet Arrakis (also known as Dune) in the ''Dune'' franchise ''Dune'' in turn inspired the ''Star Wars'' franchise, which includes prominent theme of dunes on fictional planets such as Tatooine, Geonosis, and Jakku."
],
[
"See also",
"* Antidune* Devil's stovepipe* Ice dune* List of landforms* Masseira* Médanos* Sandhill* Sand wave* Singing sand* Strand plain"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * ** *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Loibor Seder Kenya's Biggest Sand Dune* Coastal Sand Dunes* Dune pattern identification, U.S. Army*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"David Lynch"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''David Keith Lynch''' (born January 20, 1946) is an American filmmaker, painter, visual artist, musician and actor.",
"Lynch has received critical acclaim for his films, which are often distinguished by their surrealist, dreamlike qualities.",
"He has received numerous accolades, including the Golden Lion in 2006 and an Honorary Academy Award in 2019.In 2007, a panel of critics convened by ''The Guardian'' announced that \"after all the discussion, no one could fault the conclusion that David Lynch is the most important film-maker of the current era.",
"\"Lynch studied painting before he began making short films in the late 1960s.",
"His first feature-length film was ''Eraserhead'' (1977), which saw success as a midnight movie.",
"He received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director for ''The Elephant Man'' (1980), ''Blue Velvet'' (1986), and ''Mulholland Drive'' (2001).",
"His film ''Wild at Heart'' (1990) earned the Cannes Film Festival's Palme d'Or.",
"Other notable films include ''Dune'' (1984), ''Lost Highway'' (1997), and ''Inland Empire'' (2006).",
"Lynch and Mark Frost created the ABC series ''Twin Peaks'' (1990–1991), and Lynch co-wrote and directed its film prequel, ''Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me'' (1992) and the limited series ''Twin Peaks: The Return'' (2017).",
"He also portrayed Gordon Cole in the ''Twin Peaks'' projects.Lynch's other artistic endeavors include his work as a musician, encompassing the studio albums ''BlueBOB'' (2001), ''Crazy Clown Time'' (2011), and ''The Big Dream'' (2013) as well as painting and photography.",
"He has written the books ''Images'' (1994), ''Catching the Big Fish'' (2006), and ''Room to Dream'' (2018).",
"He has also directed several music videos for artists such as Chris Isaak, X Japan, Moby, Interpol, Nine Inch Nails, and Donovan, and commercials for Calvin Klein, Dior, L'Oreal, Yves Saint Laurent, Gucci, and the New York City Department of Sanitation.A practitioner of Transcendental Meditation (TM), he founded the David Lynch Foundation, which seeks to fund the teaching of TM in schools and has since widened its scope to other at-risk populations, including the homeless, veterans, and refugees in 2005."
],
[
"Early life",
"David Keith Lynch was born in Missoula, Montana, on January 20, 1946.His father, Donald Walton Lynch (1915–2007), was a research scientist working for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and his mother, Edwina \"Sunny\" Lynch (née Sundberg; 1919–2004), was an English language tutor.",
"Two of Lynch's maternal great-grandparents were Finnish-Swedish immigrants who arrived in the U.S. during the 19th century.",
"He was raised as a Presbyterian.",
"The Lynches often moved around according to where the USDA assigned Donald.",
"Because of this, Lynch moved with his parents to Sandpoint, Idaho, when he was two months old; two years later, after his brother John was born, the family moved to Spokane, Washington.",
"Lynch's sister Martha was born there.",
"The family then moved to Durham, North Carolina, Boise, Idaho, and Alexandria, Virginia.",
"Lynch adjusted to this transitory early life with relative ease, noting that he usually had no issue making new friends whenever he started attending a new school.",
"Of his early life, he remarked:Lynch's high school senior portrait, 1964Alongside his schooling, Lynch joined the Boy Scouts, although he later said he only \"became a Scout so I could quit and put it behind me\".",
"He rose to the highest rank of Eagle Scout.",
"As an Eagle Scout, he was present with other Boy Scouts outside the White House at the inauguration of President John F. Kennedy, which took place on Lynch's 15th birthday.",
"Lynch was also interested in painting and drawing from an early age, and became intrigued by the idea of pursuing it as a career path when living in Virginia, where his friend's father was a professional painter.At Francis C. Hammond High School in Alexandria, Lynch did not excel academically, having little interest in schoolwork, but he was popular with other students, and after leaving he decided that he wanted to study painting at college.",
"He began his studies at the Corcoran School of the Arts and Design in Washington, D.C., before transferring in 1964 to the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, where he was roommates with musician Peter Wolf.",
"He left after only a year, saying, \"I was not inspired AT ALL in that place.\"",
"He instead decided that he wanted to travel around Europe for three years with his friend Jack Fisk, who was similarly unhappy with his studies at Cooper Union.",
"They had some hopes that they could train in Europe with Austrian expressionist painter Oskar Kokoschka at his school.",
"Upon reaching Salzburg, however, they found that Kokoschka was not available; disillusioned, they returned to the United States after spending only two weeks in Europe."
],
[
"Career",
"===1967–1976: Short films and ''Eraserhead'' ===Back in the United States, Lynch returned to Virginia, but since his parents had moved to Walnut Creek, California, he stayed with his friend Toby Keeler for a while.",
"He decided to move to Philadelphia and enroll at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, after advice from Fisk, who was already enrolled there.",
"He preferred this college to his previous school in Boston, saying, \"In Philadelphia there were great and serious painters, and everybody was inspiring one another and it was a beautiful time there.\"",
"It was here that he began a relationship with a fellow student, Peggy Reavey, whom he married in 1967.The following year, Peggy gave birth to their daughter Jennifer.",
"Peggy later said, \"Lynch definitely was a reluctant father, but a very loving one.",
"Hey, I was pregnant when we got married.",
"We were both reluctant.\"",
"As a family, they moved to Philadelphia's Fairmount neighborhood, where they bought a 12-room house for the relatively low price of $3,500 () due to the area's high crime and poverty rates.",
"Lynch later said:Meanwhile, to help support his family, he took a job printing engravings.",
"At the Pennsylvania Academy, Lynch made his first short film, ''Six Men Getting Sick (Six Times)'' (1967).",
"He had first come up with the idea when he developed a wish to see his paintings move, and he began discussing doing animation with an artist named Bruce Samuelson.",
"When this project never came about, Lynch decided to work on a film alone, and purchased the cheapest 16mm camera that he could find.",
"Taking one of the academy's abandoned upper rooms as a workspace, he spent $150, which at the time he felt to be a lot of money, to produce ''Six Men Getting Sick''.",
"Calling the film \"57 seconds of growth and fire, and three seconds of vomit\", Lynch played it on a loop at the academy's annual end-of-year exhibit, where it shared joint first prize with a painting by Noel Mahaffey.",
"This led to a commission from one of his fellow students, the wealthy H. Barton Wasserman, who offered him $1,000 () to create a film installation in his home.",
"Spending $478 of that on the second-hand Bolex camera \"of his dreams\", Lynch produced a new animated short, but upon getting the film developed, realized that the result was a blurred, frameless print.",
"He later said, \"So I called up Wasserman and said, 'Bart, the film is a disaster.",
"The camera was broken and what I've done hasn't turned out.'",
"And he said, 'Don't worry, David, take the rest of the money and make something else for me.",
"Just give me a print.'",
"End of story.",
"\"With his leftover money, Lynch decided to experiment with a mix of animation and live action, producing the four-minute short ''The Alphabet'' (1968).",
"The film starred Lynch's wife Peggy as a character known as The Girl, who chants the alphabet to a series of images of horses before dying at the end by hemorrhaging blood all over her bed sheets.",
"Adding a sound effect, Lynch used a broken Uher tape recorder to record the sound of Jennifer crying, creating a distorted sound that Lynch found particularly effective.",
"Later describing what had inspired him, Lynch said, \"Peggy's niece was having a bad dream one night and was saying the alphabet in her sleep in a tormented way.",
"So that's sort of what started ''The Alphabet'' going.",
"The rest of it was just subconscious.",
"\"Learning about the newly founded American Film Institute, which gave grants to filmmakers who could support their application with a prior work and a script for a new project, Lynch decided to send them a copy of ''The Alphabet'' along with a script he had written for a new short film that would be almost entirely live action, ''The Grandmother''.",
"The institute agreed to help finance the work, initially offering him $5,000 out of his requested budget of $7,200, but later granting him the additional $2,200.Starring people he knew from both work and college and filmed in his own house, ''The Grandmother'' featured a neglected boy who \"grows\" a grandmother from a seed to care for him.",
"The film critics Michelle Le Blanc and Colin Odell wrote, \"this film is a true oddity but contains many of the themes and ideas that would filter into his later work, and shows a remarkable grasp of the medium\".Theatrical release poster for ''Eraserhead'' (1977)In 1970, Lynch moved with his wife and daughter to Los Angeles, where he began studying filmmaking at the AFI Conservatory, a place he later called \"completely chaotic and disorganized, which was great ... you quickly learned that if you were going to get something done, you would have to do it yourself.",
"They wanted to let people do their thing.\"",
"He began writing a script for a proposed work, ''Gardenback'', that had \"unfolded from this painting I'd done\".",
"In this venture he was supported by a number of figures at the Conservatory, who encouraged him to lengthen the script and add more dialogue, which he reluctantly agreed to do.",
"All the interference on his ''Gardenback'' project made him fed up with the Conservatory and led him to quit after returning to start his second year and being put in first-year classes.",
"AFI dean Frank Daniel asked Lynch to reconsider, believing that he was one of the school's best students.",
"Lynch agreed on the condition that he could create a project that would not be interfered with.",
"Feeling that ''Gardenback'' was \"wrecked\", he set out on a new film, ''Eraserhead''.",
"''Eraserhead'' was planned to be about 42 minutes long (it ended up being 89 minutes), its script was only 21 pages, and Lynch was able to create the film without interference.",
"Filming began on May 29, 1972, at night in some abandoned stables, allowing the production team, which was largely Lynch and some of his friends, including Sissy Spacek, Jack Fisk, cinematographer Frederick Elmes and sound designer Alan Splet, to set up a camera room, green room, editing room, sets as well as a food room and a bathroom.",
"The AFI gave Lynch a $10,000 grant, but it was not enough to complete the film, and under pressure from studios after the success of the relatively cheap feature film ''Easy Rider'', it was unable to give him more.",
"Lynch was then supported by a loan from his father and money that he earned from a paper route that he took up, delivering ''The Wall Street Journal''.",
"Not long into ''Eraserhead'''s production, Lynch and Peggy amicably separated and divorced, and he began living full-time on set.",
"In 1977, Lynch married Mary Fisk, sister of Jack Fisk.Lynch has said that not a single reviewer of the film understood it in the way he intended.",
"Filmed in black and white, ''Eraserhead'' tells the story of Henry (Jack Nance), a quiet young man living in a dystopian industrial wasteland, whose girlfriend gives birth to a deformed baby whom she leaves in his care.",
"It was heavily influenced by the fearful mood of Philadelphia, and Lynch has called it \"my ''Philadelphia Story''\".Due to financial problems the filming of ''Eraserhead'' was haphazard, regularly stopping and starting again.",
"It was in one such break in 1974 that Lynch created the short film ''The Amputee'', a one-shot film about two minutes long.",
"Lynch proposed that he make ''The Amputee'' to present to AFI to test two different types of film stock.",
"''Eraserhead'' was finally finished in 1976.Lynch tried to get it entered into the Cannes Film Festival, but while some reviewers liked it, others felt it was awful, and it was not selected for screening.",
"Reviewers from the New York Film Festival also rejected it, but it was screened at the Los Angeles Film Festival, where Ben Barenholtz, the distributor of the Elgin Theater, heard about it.",
"He was very supportive of the movie, helping to distribute it around the United States in 1977, and ''Eraserhead'' subsequently became popular on the midnight movie underground circuit, and was later called one of the most important midnight movies of the 1970s, along with ''El Topo'', ''Pink Flamingos'', ''The Rocky Horror Picture Show'', ''The Harder They Come'' and ''Night of the Living Dead''.",
"Stanley Kubrick said it was one of his all-time favorite films.===1980–1989: Rise to prominence ===After ''Eraserhead''s success on the underground circuit, Stuart Cornfeld, an executive producer for Mel Brooks, saw it and later said, \"I was just 100 percent blown away ...",
"I thought it was the greatest thing I'd ever seen.",
"It was such a cleansing experience.\"",
"He agreed to help Lynch with his next film, ''Ronnie Rocket'', for which Lynch had already written a script.",
"But Lynch soon realized that ''Ronnie Rocket'', a film that he has said is about \"electricity and a three-foot guy with red hair\", was not going to be picked up by any financiers, and so he asked Cornfeld to find him a script by someone else that he could direct.",
"Cornfeld found four.",
"On hearing the title of the first, ''The Elephant Man'', Lynch chose it.",
"''The Elephant Man''s script, written by Chris de Vore and Eric Bergren, was based on a true story, that of Joseph Merrick, a severely deformed man in Victorian London, who was held in a sideshow but later taken under the care of a London surgeon, Frederick Treves.",
"Lynch wanted to make some alterations that would alter the story from true events but in his view make a better plot, but he needed Mel Brooks's permission, as Brooks's company, Brooksfilms, was responsible for production.",
"Brooks viewed ''Eraserhead'', and after coming out of the screening theatre, embraced Lynch, declaring, \"You're a madman!",
"I love you!",
"You're in.",
"\"''The Elephant Man'' starred John Hurt as John Merrick (the name changed from Joseph) and Anthony Hopkins as Treves.",
"Filming took place in London.",
"Though surrealistic and in black and white, it has been called \"one of the most conventional\" of Lynch's films.",
"''The Elephant Man'' was a huge critical and commercial success, earning eight Academy Award nominations, including Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay.After ''The Elephant Man''s success, George Lucas, a fan of ''Eraserhead'', offered Lynch the opportunity to direct the third film in his original ''Star Wars'' trilogy, ''Return of the Jedi''.",
"Lynch declined, saying that he had \"next door to zero interest\" and arguing that Lucas should direct the film himself as the movie should reflect his own vision, not Lynch's.",
"Soon, the opportunity to direct another big-budget science fiction epic arose when Dino de Laurentiis of the De Laurentiis Entertainment Group asked Lynch to create a film adaptation of Frank Herbert's science fiction novel ''Dune'' (1965).",
"Lynch agreed, and in doing so was also contractually obliged to produce two other works for the company.",
"He set about writing a script based upon the novel, initially with both Chris de Vore and Eric Bergren, and then alone when De Laurentiis was unhappy with their ideas.",
"Lynch also helped build some of the sets, attempting to create \"a certain look\", and particularly enjoyed building the set for the oil planet Giedi Prime, for which he used \"steel, bolts, and porcelain\".",
"''Dune'' is set in the far future, when humans live in an interstellar empire under a feudal system.",
"The main character, Paul Atreides (Kyle MacLachlan), is the son of a noble who takes control of the desert planet Arrakis, which grows the rare spice melange, the empire's most highly prized commodity.",
"Lynch was unhappy with the work, later saying, \"''Dune'' was a kind of studio film.",
"I didn't have final cut.",
"And, little by little, I was subconsciously making compromises\" to his own vision.",
"Much of his footage was eventually removed from the final theatrical cut, dramatically condensing the plot.",
"Although De Laurentiis hoped it would be as successful as ''Star Wars'', ''Dune'' (1984) was a critical and commercial dud; it had cost $45 million to make, and grossed $27.4 million domestically.",
"Later, Universal Studios released an \"extended cut\" for syndicated television, containing almost an hour of cutting-room-floor footage and new narration.",
"It did not represent Lynch's intentions, but the studio considered it more comprehensible than the original version.",
"Lynch objected to the changes and had his name struck from the extended cut, which has Alan Smithee credited as the director and \"Judas Booth\" (a pseudonym Lynch invented, reflecting his feelings of betrayal) as the screenwriter.In 1983, he began writing and drawing of a comic strip, ''The Angriest Dog in the World'', that featured unchanging graphics of a tethered dog so angry it could not move, alongside cryptic philosophical references.",
"It was published from 1983 to 1992 in ''The Village Voice,'' ''Creative Loafing'', and other tabloid and alternative publications.",
"Around this time Lynch also became interested in photography as an art form, and traveled to northern England to photograph the degrading industrial landscape.Lynch was contractually still obliged to produce two other projects for De Laurentiis, the first a planned sequel to ''Dune'', which due to the film's failure never went beyond the script stage.",
"The other was a more personal work, based on a script Lynch had been working on for some time.",
"Developing from ideas that Lynch had had since 1973, the film, ''Blue Velvet'', was set in the real town of Lumberton, North Carolina, and revolves around a college student, Jeffrey Beaumont (MacLachlan), who finds a severed ear in a field.",
"Investigating further with the help of friend Sandy (Laura Dern), he discovers that it is related to a criminal gang led by psychopath Frank Booth (Dennis Hopper), who has kidnapped the husband and child of singer Dorothy Vallens (Isabella Rossellini) and repeatedly rapes her.",
"Lynch has called the story \"a dream of strange desires wrapped inside a mystery story\".Lynch included pop songs from the 1960s in the film, including Roy Orbison's \"In Dreams\" and Bobby Vinton's \"Blue Velvet\", the latter of which largely inspired the film.",
"Lynch has said, \"It was the song that sparked the movie ...",
"There was something mysterious about it.",
"It made me think about things.",
"And the first things I thought about were lawns—lawns and the neighborhood.",
"Other music for the film was composed by Angelo Badalamenti, who wrote the music for most of Lynch's subsequent work.",
"De Laurentiis loved the film, and it received support at some of the early specialist screenings, but the preview screenings to mainstream audiences were very negatively received, with most of the viewers hating the film.",
"Lynch had found success with ''The Elephant Man'', but ''Blue Velvet''s controversy with audiences and critics introduced him into the mainstream, and it became a huge critical and moderate commercial success.",
"The film earned Lynch his second Academy Award nomination for Best Director.",
"Woody Allen, whose ''Hannah and Her Sisters'' was nominated for Best Picture, said ''Blue Velvet'' was his favorite film of the year.",
"In the late 1980s, Lynch began to work in television, directing a short piece, ''The Cowboy and the Frenchman'', for French television in 1989.=== 1990–1999: ''Twin Peaks'' and stardom ===Lynch at the 1990 Emmy Awards ceremony.Around this time, he met the television producer Mark Frost, who had worked on such projects as ''Hill Street Blues'', and they decided to start working together on a biopic of Marilyn Monroe based on Anthony Summers's book ''The Goddess: The Secret Lives of Marilyn Monroe'', but it never got off the ground.",
"They went on to work on a comedy script, ''One Saliva Bubble'', but that did not see completion either.",
"While talking in a coffee shop, Lynch and Frost had the idea of a corpse washing up on a lakeshore, and went to work on their third project, initially called ''Northwest Passage'' but eventually ''Twin Peaks'' (1990–91).",
"A drama series set in a small Washington town where popular high school student Laura Palmer has been murdered, ''Twin Peaks'' featured FBI Special Agent Dale Cooper (MacLachlan) as the investigator trying to identify the killer, and discovering not only the murder's supernatural aspects but also many of the townsfolk's secrets; Lynch said, \"The project was to mix a police investigation with the ordinary lives of the characters.\"",
"He later said, \"Mark Frost and I worked together, especially in the initial stages.",
"Later on we started working more apart.\"",
"They pitched the series to ABC, which agreed to finance the pilot and eventually commissioned a season comprising seven episodes.During season one Lynch directed two of the seven episodes, devoting more time to his film ''Wild at Heart'', but carefully chose the other episodes' directors.",
"He also appeared in several episodes as FBI agent Gordon Cole.",
"The series was a success, with high ratings in the United States and many other countries, and soon spawned a cult following.",
"Soon a second season of 22 episodes went into production, but ABC executives believed that public interest in the show was decreasing.",
"The network insisted that Lynch and Frost reveal Laura Palmer's killer's identity prematurely, which Lynch grudgingly agreed to do, in what Lynch has called one of his biggest professional regrets.",
"After identifying the murderer and moving from Thursday to Saturday night, ''Twin Peaks'' continued for several more episodes, but was canceled after a ratings drop.",
"Lynch, who disliked the direction that writers and directors took in the later episodes, directed the final episode.",
"He ended it with a cliffhanger (like season one had), later saying, \"that's not the ending.",
"That's the ending that people were stuck with.",
"\"While ''Twin Peaks'' was in production, the Brooklyn Academy of Music asked Lynch and Badalamenti, who wrote the music for ''Twin Peaks'', to create a theatrical piece to be performed twice in 1989 as a part of the New Music America Festival.",
"The result was ''Industrial Symphony No.",
"1: The Dream of the Broken Hearted'', which starred frequent Lynch collaborators such as Laura Dern, Nicolas Cage and Michael J. Anderson, and contained five songs sung by Julee Cruise.",
"Lynch produced a 50-minute video of the performance in 1990.Meanwhile, he was also involved in creating various commercials for companies including Yves Saint Laurent, Calvin Klein, Giorgio Armani and the Japanese coffee company Namoi, which featured a Japanese man searching Twin Peaks for his missing wife.Lynch at the 1990 Cannes Film Festival.While Lynch was working on the first few episodes of ''Twin Peaks'', his friend Monty Montgomery \"gave me a book that he wanted to direct as a movie.",
"He asked if I would maybe be executive producer or something, and I said 'That's great, Monty, but what if I read it and fall in love with it and want to do it myself?'",
"And he said, 'In that case, you can do it yourself'.\"",
"The book was Barry Gifford's novel ''Wild at Heart: The Story of Sailor and Lula'', about two lovers on a road trip.",
"Lynch felt that it was \"just exactly the right thing at the right time.",
"The book and the violence in America merged in my mind and many different things happened.\"",
"With Gifford's support, Lynch adapted the novel into ''Wild at Heart'', a crime and road movie starring Nicolas Cage as Sailor and Laura Dern as Lula.",
"Describing its plot as a \"strange blend\" of \"a road picture, a love story, a psychological drama and a violent comedy\", Lynch altered much of the original novel, changing the ending and incorporating numerous references to ''The Wizard of Oz''.",
"Despite a muted response from American critics and viewers, ''Wild at Heart'' won the Palme d'Or at the 1990 Cannes Film Festival.After ''Wild at Heart''s success, Lynch returned to the world of the canceled ''Twin Peaks'', this time without Frost, to create a film that was primarily a prequel but also in part a sequel.",
"Lynch said, \"I liked the idea of the story going back and forth in time.\"",
"The result, ''Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me'' (1992), primarily revolved around the last few days in the life of Laura Palmer, and was much \"darker\" in tone than the TV series, with much of the humor removed, and dealing with such topics as incest and murder.",
"Lynch has said the film is about \"the loneliness, shame, guilt, confusion and devastation of the victim of incest\".",
"The company CIBY-2000 financed ''Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me'', and most of the TV series' cast reprised their roles, though some refused and many were unenthusiastic about the project.",
"The film was a commercial failure in the United States at the time of its release, but it has since experienced a critical reappraisal.",
"A number of critics, such as Mark Kermode, have called it Lynch's \"masterpiece\".Meanwhile, Lynch worked on some new television shows.",
"He and Frost created the comedy series ''On the Air'' (1992), which was canceled after three episodes aired, and he and Monty Montgomery created the three-episode HBO miniseries ''Hotel Room'' (1993) about events that happen in one hotel room on different dates.In 1993, Lynch collaborated with Japanese musician Yoshiki on the video for X Japan's song \"Longing ~Setsubou no Yoru~\".",
"The video was never officially released, but Lynch claimed in his 2018 memoir ''Room to Dream'' that \"some of the frames are so fuckin' beautiful, you can't believe it.",
"\"After his unsuccessful TV ventures, Lynch returned to film.",
"In 1997, he released the non-linear noiresque ''Lost Highway'', which was co-written by Barry Gifford and starred Bill Pullman and Patricia Arquette.",
"The film failed commercially and received a mixed response from critics.Lynch then began work on a film from a script by Mary Sweeney and John E. Roach, ''The Straight Story'', based on a true story: that of Alvin Straight (Richard Farnsworth), an elderly man from Laurens, Iowa, who goes on a 300-mile journey to visit his sick brother (Harry Dean Stanton) in Mount Zion, Wisconsin, by riding lawnmower.",
"Asked why he chose this script, Lynch said, \"that's what I fell in love with next\", and expressed his admiration of Straight, describing him as \"like James Dean, except he's old\".",
"Badalamenti wrote the music for the film, saying it was \"very different from the kind of score he's done for Lynch in the past\".Among the many differences from Lynch's other films, ''The Straight Story'' contains no profanity, sexuality or violence, and is rated G (general viewing) by the Motion Picture Association of America, which came as \"shocking news\" to many in the film industry, who were surprised that it \"did not disturb, offend or mystify\".",
"Le Blanc and Odell write that the plot made it \"seem as far removed from Lynch's earlier works as could be imagined, but in fact right from the very opening, this is entirely his film—a surreal road movie\".===2000–2009: Established career ===Naomi Watts, David Lynch, Laura Elena Harring, and Justin Theroux at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival.That year, Lynch approached ABC again with ideas for a television drama.",
"The network gave Lynch the go-ahead to shoot a two-hour pilot for the series ''Mulholland Drive'', but disputes over content and running time led to the project being shelved indefinitely.",
"But with $7 million from the French production company StudioCanal, Lynch completed the pilot as a film, ''Mulholland Drive''.",
"The film, a non-linear narrative surrealist tale of Hollywood's dark side, stars Naomi Watts, Laura Harring and Justin Theroux.",
"It performed relatively well at the box office worldwide and was a critical success, earning Lynch Best Director at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival (shared with Joel Coen for ''The Man Who Wasn't There'') and Best Director from the New York Film Critics Association.",
"He also received his third Academy Award nomination for Best Director.",
"In 2016, the film was named the best film of the 21st century in a BBC poll of 177 film critics from 36 countries.With the rising popularity of the Internet, Lynch decided to use it as a distribution channel, releasing several new series he had created exclusively on his website, davidlynch.com, which went online on December 10, 2001.In 2002, he created a series of online shorts, ''DumbLand''.",
"Intentionally crude in content and execution, the eight-episode series was later released on DVD.",
"The same year, Lynch released a surreal sitcom, ''Rabbits'', about a family of humanoid rabbits.",
"Later, he made his experiments with Digital Video available in the form of the Japanese-style horror short ''Darkened Room''.",
"In 2006, Lynch's feature film ''Inland Empire'' was released.",
"At three hours, it is the longest of his films.",
"Like ''Mulholland Drive'' and ''Lost Highway'', it does not follow a traditional narrative structure.",
"It stars Lynch regulars Laura Dern, Harry Dean Stanton and Justin Theroux, with cameos by Naomi Watts and Laura Harring as the voices of Suzie and Jane Rabbit, and a performance by Jeremy Irons.",
"Lynch has called ''Inland Empire'' \"a mystery about a woman in trouble\".",
"In an effort to promote it, he made appearances with a cow and a placard bearing the slogan \"Without cheese there would be no ''Inland Empire''\".In 2009, Lynch produced a documentary web series directed by his son Austin Lynch and friend Jason S., ''Interview Project''.",
"Interested in working with Werner Herzog, in 2009 Lynch collaborated on Herzog's film ''My Son, My Son, What Have Ye Done?''",
"With a nonstandard narrative, the film is based on a true story of an actor who committed matricide while acting in a production of the Oresteia, and starred Lynch regular Grace Zabriskie.",
"In 2009, Lynch had plans to direct a documentary on Maharishi Mahesh Yogi consisting of interviews with people who knew him, but nothing has come of it.=== 2010–2019: Return to television ===In 2010, Lynch began making guest appearances on the ''Family Guy'' spin-off ''The Cleveland Show'' as Gus the Bartender.",
"He had been convinced to appear in the show by its lead actor, Mike Henry, a fan of Lynch who felt that his whole life had changed after seeing ''Wild at Heart''.",
"''Lady Blue Shanghai'' is a 16-minute promotional film that was written, directed and edited by Lynch for Dior.",
"It was released on the Internet in May 2010.Lynch directed a concert by English new wave band Duran Duran on March 23, 2011.The concert was streamed live on YouTube from the Mayan Theater in Los Angeles as the kickoff to the second season of ''Unstaged: An Original Series from American Express''.",
"\"The idea is to try and create on the fly, layers of images permeating Duran Duran on the stage\", Lynch said.",
"\"A world of experimentation and hopefully some happy accidents\".",
"The animated short ''I Touch a Red Button Man'', a collaboration between Lynch and the band Interpol, played in the background during Interpol's concert at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2011.The short, which features Interpol's song \"Lights\", was later made available online.Lynch (left) with Kyle MacLachlan at the 2017 premiere of ''Twin Peaks: The Return''.It was believed that Lynch was going to retire from the film industry; according to Abel Ferrara, Lynch \"doesn't even want to make films any more.",
"I've talked to him about it, OK?",
"I can tell when he talks about it.\"",
"But in a June 2012 ''Los Angeles Times'' interview, Lynch said he lacked the inspiration to start a new movie project, but \"If I got an idea that I fell in love with, I'd go to work tomorrow\".",
"In September 2012, he appeared in the three-part \"Late Show\" arc on FX's ''Louie'' as Jack Dahl.",
"In November 2012, Lynch hinted at plans for a new film while attending Plus Camerimage in Bydgoszcz, Poland, saying, \"something is coming up.",
"It will happen but I don't know exactly when\".",
"At Plus Camerimage, Lynch received a lifetime achievement award and the Key to the City from Bydgoszcz's mayor, Rafał Bruski.",
"In a January 2013 interview with the ''Los Angeles Times'', Laura Dern confirmed that she and Lynch were planning a new project, and ''The New York Times'' later revealed that Lynch was working on the script.",
"''Idem Paris'', a short documentary film about the lithographic process, was released online in February 2013.On June 28, 2013, a video Lynch directed for the Nine Inch Nails song \"Came Back Haunted\" was released.",
"He also did photography for the Dumb Numbers' self-titled album released in August 2013.On October 6, 2014, Lynch confirmed via Twitter that he and Frost would start shooting a new, nine-episode season of ''Twin Peaks'' in 2015, with the episodes expected to air in 2016 on Showtime.",
"Lynch and Frost wrote all the episodes.",
"On April 5, 2015, Lynch announced via Twitter that the project was still alive, but he was no longer going to direct because the budget was too low for what he wanted to do.",
"On May 15, 2015, he said via Twitter that he would return to the revival, having sorted out his issues with Showtime.",
"Showtime CEO David Nevins confirmed this, announcing that Lynch would direct every episode of the revival and that the original nine episodes had been extended to 18.Filming was completed by April 2016.The two-episode premiere aired on May 21, 2017.While doing press for ''Twin Peaks'', Lynch was again asked if he had retired from film and seemed to confirm that he had made his last feature film, responding, \"Things changed a lot...",
"So many films were not doing well at the box office even though they might have been great films and the things that were doing well at the box office weren't the things that I would want to do\".",
"Lynch later said that this statement had been misconstrued: \"I did not say I quit cinema, simply that nobody knows what the future holds.",
"\"Lynch portrayed director John Ford in Steven Spielberg's ''The Fabelmans'' (2022).Since the last episode of ''The Return'' aired, there has been speculation about a fourth season.",
"Lynch did not deny the possibility of another season, but said that if it were to happen, it would not air before 2021.===2020–present: Weather reports and other projects ===Lynch did weather reports on his now-defunct website in the 2000s.",
"He returned to doing weather reports from his apartment in Los Angeles, along with two new series, ''What is David Lynch Working on Today?",
"'', which details him making collages and ''Today's Number Is...'', where each day he picks a random number from 1 to 10 using a jar containing ten numbered ping-pong balls.",
"In one of his weather reports, he detailed a dream he had about being a German soldier shot by an American soldier on D-Day.",
"In June 2020, Lynch rereleased his 2002 web series ''Rabbits'' on YouTube.",
"On July 17, 2020, his store for merchandise released a set of face masks with Lynch's art on them for the COVID-19 pandemic.",
"In February 2022, it was announced that Lynch had been cast in the Steven Spielberg film ''The Fabelmans'' in a role ''Variety'' called at the time \"a closely guarded secret\", later revealed to be that of real-life film director John Ford, whose famous encounter with Spielberg is dramatized in the film's final moments, with the film's protagonist Sammy Fabelman (played by Gabriel LaBelle) in Spielberg's place.",
"Lynch and the cast were nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture.",
"Lynch stopped doing weather reports after 2022.In 2021, it was announced that Lynch was working on a new project for Netflix with the working titles ''Wisteria'' and ''Unrecorded Night''.",
"He was set to write and direct 13 episodes with an $85 million budget.",
"Production was set to begin in May 2021 in Los Angeles."
],
[
"Cinematic influences and themes",
"===Influences===Lynch has said his work is more similar to that of European filmmakers than American ones, and that most films that \"get down and thrill your soul\" are by European directors.",
"He has expressed his admiration for Federico Fellini, Jean-Luc Godard, Ingmar Bergman, Werner Herzog, Alfred Hitchcock, Roman Polanski, Jacques Tati, Stanley Kubrick, and Billy Wilder.",
"He has said that Wilder's ''Sunset Boulevard'' (1950) is one of his favorite pictures, as are Kubrick's ''Lolita'' (1962), Fellini's ''8½'' (1963), Tati's ''Monsieur Hulot's Holiday'' (1953), Hitchcock's ''Rear Window'' (1954), and Herzog's ''Stroszek'' (1977).",
"He has also cited Herk Harvey's ''Carnival of Souls'' (1962) and Jerzy Skolimowski's ''Deep End'' (1970) as influences on his work.===Motifs===Several themes recur in Lynch's work.",
"Le Blanc and Odell write, \"his films are so packed with motifs, recurrent characters, images, compositions and techniques that you could view his entire output as one large jigsaw puzzle of ideas\".",
"One of the key themes they note is the usage of dreams and dreamlike imagery and structure, something they relate to the \"surrealist ethos\" of relying \"on the subconscious to provide visual drive\".",
"This can be seen in Merrick's dream of his mother in ''The Elephant Man'', Cooper's dreams of the red room in ''Twin Peaks'' and the \"dreamlike logic\" of the narratives of ''Eraserhead'', ''Mulholland Drive'' and ''Inland Empire''.",
"Of his attitude to dreams, Lynch has said, \"Waking dreams are the ones that are important, the ones that come when I'm quietly sitting in a chair, letting my mind wander.",
"When you sleep, you don't control your dream.",
"I like to dive into a dream world that I've made or discovered; a world I choose ... You can't really get others to experience it, but right there is the power of cinema.\"",
"His films are known for their use of magic realism.",
"The motif of dreams is closely linked to his recurring use of drones, real-world sounds and musical styles.Another of Lynch's prominent themes is industry, with repeated imagery of \"the clunk of machinery, the power of pistons, shadows of oil drills pumping, screaming woodmills and smoke billowing factories\", as seen in the industrial wasteland in ''Eraserhead'', the factories in ''The Elephant Man'', the sawmill in ''Twin Peaks'' and the lawnmower in ''The Straight Story''.",
"Of his interest in such things, Lynch has said, \"It makes me feel good to see giant machinery, you know, working: dealing with molten metal.",
"And I like fire and smoke.",
"And the sounds are so powerful.",
"It's just big stuff.",
"It means that things are being made, and I really like that.",
"\"Another theme is the dark underbelly of violent criminal activity in a society, such as Frank Booth's gang in ''Blue Velvet'' and the cocaine smugglers in ''Twin Peaks''.",
"The idea of deformity is also found in several of Lynch's films, from ''The Elephant Man'' to the deformed baby in ''Eraserhead'', as well as death from head wounds, found in most of Lynch's films.",
"Other imagery common in Lynch's works includes flickering electricity or lights, fire, and stages upon which a singer performs, often surrounded by drapery.Except ''The Elephant Man'' and ''Dune'', which are set in Victorian London and a fictitious galaxy respectively, all of Lynch's films are set in the United States, and he has said, \"I like certain things about America and it gives me ideas.",
"When I go around and I see things, it sparks little stories, or little characters pop out, so it just feels right to me to, you know, make American films.\"",
"A number of his works, including ''Blue Velvet'', ''Twin Peaks'' and ''Lost Highway'', are intentionally reminiscent of 1950s American culture despite being set in later decades of the 20th century.",
"Lynch has said, \"It was a fantastic decade in a lot of ways ... there was something in the air that is not there any more at all.",
"It was such a great feeling, and not just because I was a kid.",
"It was a really hopeful time, and things were going up instead of going down.",
"You got the feeling you could do anything.",
"The future was bright.",
"Little did we know we were laying the groundwork for a disastrous future.Lynch also tends to feature his leading female actors in \"split\" roles, so that many of his female characters have multiple, fractured identities.",
"This practice began with his casting Sheryl Lee as both Laura Palmer and her cousin Maddy Ferguson in ''Twin Peaks'' and continued in his later works.",
"In ''Lost Highway'', Patricia Arquette plays the dual role of Renee Madison/Alice Wakefield; in ''Mulholland Drive'' Naomi Watts plays Diane Selwyn/Betty Elms and Laura Harring plays Camilla Rhodes/Rita; in ''Inland Empire'' Laura Dern plays Nikki Grace/Susan Blue.",
"The numerous alternative versions of lead characters and fragmented timelines may echo and/or reference the many worlds interpretation of quantum physics and perhaps Lynch's broader interest in quantum mechanics.",
"Some have suggested that Lynch's love for Hitchcock's ''Vertigo'', which employs a split lead character (the Judy Barton and Madeleine Elster characters, both portrayed by Kim Novak) may have influenced this aspect of his work.His films frequently feature characters with supernatural or omnipotent qualities.",
"They can be seen as physical manifestations of various concepts, such as hatred or fear.",
"Examples include The Man Inside the Planet in ''Eraserhead'', BOB in ''Twin Peaks'', The Mystery Man in ''Lost Highway'', The Bum in ''Mulholland Drive'', and The Phantom in ''Inland Empire''.",
"Lynch approaches his characters and plots in a way that steeps them in a dream state rather than reality.===Recurring collaborators===Lynch is also widely noted for his collaborations with various production artists and composers on his films and other productions.",
"He frequently worked with Angelo Badalamenti to compose music for his productions, former wife Mary Sweeney as a film editor, casting director Johanna Ray, and cast members Harry Dean Stanton, Jack Nance, Kyle MacLachlan, Naomi Watts, Isabella Rossellini, Grace Zabriskie, and Laura Dern."
],
[
"Filmography",
"'''Feature films''' Year Title Distributor Ref.",
"1977 ''Eraserhead'' Libra Films 1980 ''The Elephant Man'' Paramount Pictures 1984 ''Dune'' Universal Pictures 1986 ''Blue Velvet'' De Laurentiis Entertainment Group 1990 ''Wild at Heart'' The Samuel Goldwyn Company 1992 ''Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me'' New Line Cinema 1997 ''Lost Highway'' October Films 1999 ''The Straight Story'' Buena Vista Pictures 2001 ''Mulholland Drive'' Universal Pictures 2006 ''Inland Empire'' Absurda, 518 Media'''TV series''' Year Title Network Ref(s) 1990–1991 ''Twin Peaks'' ABC 1992 ''On the Air'' 1993 ''Hotel Room'' HBO 2017 ''Twin Peaks: The Return'' Showtime"
],
[
"Other work",
"===Painting===Lynch painted ''So This Is Love'' in 1992.Lynch first trained as a painter, and although he is now better known as a filmmaker, he has continued to paint.",
"Lynch has stated that \"all my paintings are organic, violent comedies.",
"They have to be violently done and primitive and crude, and to achieve that I try to let nature paint more than I paint.\"",
"Many of his works are very dark in color, and Lynch has said this is becauseMany of his works also contain letters and words added to the painting.",
"He explains:Lynch considers the 20th-century Irish-born British artist Francis Bacon to be his \"number one kinda hero painter\", stating that \"Normally I only like a couple of years of a painter's work, but I like everything of Bacon's.",
"The guy, you know, had the stuff.",
"\"Lynch was the subject of a major art retrospective at the Fondation Cartier, Paris from March 3 – May 27, 2007.The show was titled ''The Air is on Fire'' and included numerous paintings, photographs, drawings, alternative films and sound work.",
"New site-specific art installations were created specially for the exhibition.",
"A series of events accompanied the exhibition including live performances and concerts.His alma mater, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, presented an exhibition of his work, entitled \"The Unified Field\", which opened on September 12, 2014, and ended in January 2015.Lynch is represented by Kayne Griffin Corcoran in Los Angeles, and has been exhibiting his paintings, drawings, and photography with the gallery since 2011.His favorite photographers include William Eggleston (''The Red Ceiling''), Joel-Peter Witkin, and Diane Arbus.===Music===Lynch in August 2007Lynch has been involved in several music projects, many of them related to his films, including sound design for some of his films (sometimes alongside collaborators Alan Splet, Dean Hurley, and/or Angelo Badalamenti).",
"His album genres include experimental rock, ambient soundscapes and, most recently, avant-garde electropop music.",
"He produced and wrote lyrics for Julee Cruise's first two albums, ''Floating into the Night'' (1989) and ''The Voice of Love'' (1993), in collaboration with Badalamenti, who composed the music and also produced.",
"In 1991, Lynch directed a 30-second teaser trailer for the Michael Jackson album ''Dangerous'', personally requested by Jackson.",
"Lynch also worked on the 1998 Jocelyn Montgomery album ''Lux Vivens (Living Light), The Music of Hildegard von Bingen''.",
"He composed music for ''Wild at Heart'', ''Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me'', ''Mulholland Drive'', and ''Rabbits''.",
"In 2001, he released ''BlueBob'', a rock album performed by Lynch and John Neff.",
"The album is notable for Lynch's unusual guitar playing style.",
"He plays \"upside down and backwards, like a lap guitar\", and relies heavily on effects pedals.",
"Most recently Lynch composed several pieces for ''Inland Empire'', including two songs, \"Ghost of Love\" and \"Walkin' on the Sky\", in which he makes his public debut as a singer.",
"In 2009, his new book-CD set ''Dark Night of the Soul'' was released.",
"In 2008, he started his own record label, David Lynch MC, which first released ''Fox Bat Strategy: A Tribute to Dave Jaurequi'' in early 2009.In November 2010, Lynch released two electropop music singles, \"Good Day Today\" and \"I Know\", through the independent British label Sunday Best Recordings.",
"Describing why he created them, he stated that \"I was just sitting and these notes came and then I went down and started working with Dean Hurley, his engineer and then these few notes, 'I want to have a good day, today' came and the song was built around that\".",
"The singles were followed by an album, ''Crazy Clown Time'', which was released in November 2011 and described as an \"electronic blues album\".",
"The songs were sung by Lynch, with guest vocals on one track by Karen O of the Yeah Yeah Yeahs, and composed and performed by Lynch and Dean Hurley.",
"All or most of the songs for ''Crazy Clown Time'' were put into art-music videos, Lynch directing the title song's video.On September 29, 2011, Lynch released ''This Train'' with vocalist and longtime musical collaborator Chrysta Bell on the La Rose Noire label.",
"Lynch's third studio album, ''The Big Dream'', was released in 2013 and included the single \"I'm Waiting Here\", with Swedish singer-songwriter Lykke Li.",
"''The Big Dream''s release was preceded by ''TBD716'', an enigmatic 43-second video featured on Lynch's YouTube and Vine accounts.For Record Store Day 2014, David Lynch released ''The Big Dream Remix EP'' which featured four songs from his album remixed by various artists.",
"This included the track \"Are You Sure\" remixed by Bastille.",
"The band Bastille have been known to take inspiration from David Lynch's work for their songs and music videos, the main one being their song \"Laura Palmer\" which is influenced by Lynch's television show ''Twin Peaks''.On November 2, 2018, a collaborative album by Lynch and Angelo Badalamenti, titled ''Thought Gang'', was released on vinyl and on compact disc.",
"The album was recorded around 1993 but was unreleased at the time.",
"Two tracks from the album already appeared on the soundtrack from the 1992 movie ''Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me'' and three other tracks were used for the ''Twin Peaks'' TV series in 2017.In May 2019, Lynch provided guest vocals on the track ''Fire is Coming'' by Flying Lotus.",
"He also co-wrote the track that appears on Flying Lotus' album ''Flamagra''.",
"A video accompanying the song was released on April 17, 2019.In May 2021, Lynch produced a new track by Scottish artist Donovan titled \"I Am the Shaman\".",
"The song was released on May 10, Donovan's 75th birthday.",
"Lynch also directed the accompanying video.===Design===Lynch designed and constructed furniture for his 1997 film ''Lost Highway'', including the small table in the Madison house and the VCR case.",
"In April 1997, he presented a furniture collection at the prestigious Milan Furniture Fair.",
"\"Design and music, art and architecture – they all belong together.",
"\"Working with designer Raphael Navot, architectural agency Enia and light designer Thierry Dreyfus, Lynch has conceived and designed a nightclub in Paris.",
"\"Silencio\" opened in October 2011, and is a private members' club although is free to the public after midnight.",
"Patrons have access to concerts, films and other performances by artists and guests.",
"Inspired by the club of the same name in his 2001 film ''Mulholland Drive'', the underground space consists of a series of rooms, each dedicated to a certain purpose or atmosphere.",
"\"Silencio is something dear to me.",
"I wanted to create an intimate space where all the arts could come together.",
"There won't be a Warhol-like guru, but it will be open to celebrated artists of all disciplines to come here to programme or create what they want.",
"\"===Literature===In 2006, Lynch wrote a short book, ''Catching the Big Fish: Meditation, Consciousness, and Creativity'', which describes his creative processes, stories from his career, and the benefits he has realized from his practice of Transcendental Meditation.",
"He describes the metaphor behind the title in the introduction:The book weaves a nonlinear autobiography with descriptions of Lynch's experiences during Transcendental Meditation.Working with Kristine McKenna, Lynch published a biography-memoir hybrid, ''Room to Dream'', in June 2018."
],
[
"Awards and nominations",
"In 2017, Lynch was awarded The Edward MacDowell Medal by The MacDowell Colony for outstanding contributions to American culture."
],
[
"Reception",
"In 2007, a panel of critics convened by ''The Guardian'' announced that \"after all the discussion, no one could fault the conclusion that David Lynch is the most important film-maker of the current era\", and AllMovie called him \"the Renaissance man of modern American filmmaking\".",
"His work led to him being labeled \"the first populist surrealist\" by film critic Pauline Kael."
],
[
"Legacy",
"The moving image collection of David Lynch is held at the Academy Film Archive, which has preserved two of his student films."
],
[
"Personal life",
"===Relationships===Lynch has had several long-term relationships.",
"In January 1968, he married Peggy Reavey, with whom he had one child, Jennifer Lynch, born in 1968, who is a film director.",
"They filed for divorce in 1974.In June 1977, Lynch married Mary Fisk, and the couple had one child, Austin Jack Lynch, born in 1982.They divorced in 1987.Lynch later developed a relationship with Mary Sweeney, with whom he had one son, Riley Sweeney Lynch, born in 1992.Sweeney also worked as Lynch's longtime film editor/producer and co-wrote and produced ''The Straight Story''.",
"The two married in May 2006, but filed for divorce that June.",
"In 2009, Lynch married actress Emily Stofle, who appeared in his 2006 film ''Inland Empire'' as well as the 2017 revival of ''Twin Peaks''.",
"The couple have one child, Lula Boginia Lynch, born in 2012.The couple filed for divorce in 2023.===Political and public views===Lynch has said that he is \"not a political person\" and that he knows little about politics.",
"Describing his political philosophy in 2006, he said, \"at that time the 1990s, I thought of myself as a libertarian.",
"I believed in next to zero government.",
"And I still would lean toward no government and not so many rules, except for traffic lights and things like this.",
"I really believe in traffic regulations.\"",
"He continued: \"I'm a Democrat now.",
"And I've always been a Democrat, really.",
"But I don't like the Democrats a lot, either, because I'm a smoker, and I think a lot of the Democrats have come up with these rules for non-smoking.\"",
"In the 2000 U.S. presidential election, he endorsed the Natural Law Party, which advocated Transcendental Meditation.",
"He said that he would vote for Democratic incumbent Barack Obama in the 2012 U.S. presidential election.In 2009, Lynch signed a petition in support of director Roman Polanski after Polanski's arrest on his 1977 sexual abuse charges.",
"Polanski had been detained while traveling to a film festival.",
"The petition argued the arrest would undermine the tradition of film festivals as a place for works to be shown \"freely and safely\", and that arresting filmmakers traveling to neutral countries could open the door \"for actions of which no-one can know the effects.",
"\"In the 2016 U.S. presidential election, he endorsed Bernie Sanders, whom he described as \"for the people\", He voted for Sanders in the 2016 Democratic primaries, and for Libertarian candidate Gary Johnson in the general election.",
"In a June 2018 interview with ''The Guardian'', he said that Donald Trump could go down as \"one of the greatest presidents in history because he has disrupted the country so much.",
"No one is able to counter this guy in an intelligent way.\"",
"He added: \"Our so-called leaders can't take the country forward, can't get anything done.",
"Like children, they are.",
"Trump has shown all this.\"",
"The interviewer clarified that \"while Trump may not be doing a good job himself, Lynch thinks, he is opening up a space where other outsiders might.\"",
"At a rally later that month, Trump read out sections of the interview, claiming Lynch was a supporter.",
"Lynch later clarified on Facebook that his words were taken out of context, saying that Trump would \"not have a chance to go down in history as a great president\" if he continued on the course of \"causing suffering and division\" and advising him to \"treat all the people as you would like to be treated\".In one of his daily weather report videos, Lynch expressed support for Black Lives Matter protests.",
"In another such video, Lynch condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine and addressed Russian president Vladimir Putin directly, telling him there was \"no room for this kind of absurdity anymore\" and that Putin would reap what he had sown, lifetime after lifetime.===Transcendental Meditation===Lynch spoke on Transcendental Meditation and the creative process in 2007.Lynch advocates Transcendental Meditation as a spiritual practice.",
"He was initiated into Transcendental Meditation in July 1973, and has practiced the technique consistently since then.",
"Lynch says he met Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the founder of the TM movement, for the first time in 1975 at the Spiritual Regeneration Movement center in Los Angeles, California.",
"He became close with the Maharishi during a month-long \"Millionaire's Enlightenment Course\" held in 2003, the fee for which was $1 million.In July 2005, Lynch launched the David Lynch Foundation for Consciousness-Based Education and Peace, established to help finance scholarships for students in middle and high schools who are interested in learning Transcendental Meditation and to fund research on the technique and its effects on learning.",
"Together with John Hagelin and Fred Travis, a brain researcher from Maharishi University of Management (MUM), Lynch promoted his vision on college campuses with a tour that began in September 2005.Lynch is on MUM's board of trustees and has hosted an annual \"David Lynch Weekend for World Peace and Meditation\" there since 2005.Lynch was working for the building and establishment of seven buildings in which 8,000 salaried people would practice advanced meditation techniques, \"pumping peace for the world\".",
"He estimates the cost at US$7 billion.",
"As of December 2005, he had spent $400,000 of his money and raised $1 million in donations.",
"In December 2006, ''The New York Times'' reported that he continued to have that goal.",
"Lynch's book ''Catching the Big Fish'' (Tarcher/Penguin, 2006) discusses Transcendental Meditation's effect on his creative process.",
"Lynch attended the funeral of the Maharishi in India in 2008.He told a reporter, \"In life, he revolutionized the lives of millions of people.",
"...",
"In 20, 50, 500 years there will be millions of people who will know and understand what the Maharishi has done.\"",
"In 2009, Lynch went to India to film interviews with people who knew the Maharishi as part of a biographical documentary.In 2009, Lynch organized a benefit concert at Radio City Music Hall for the David Lynch Foundation.",
"On April 4, 2009, the \"Change Begins Within\" concert featured Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, Donovan, Sheryl Crow, Eddie Vedder, Moby, Bettye LaVette, Ben Harper, and Mike Love of the Beach Boys.",
"''David Wants to Fly'', released in May 2010, is a documentary by German filmmaker David Sieveking \"that follows the path of his professional idol, David Lynch, into the world of Transcendental Meditation (TM)\".",
"At the end of the film, Sieveking becomes disillusioned with Lynch.An independent project starring Lynch called ''Beyond The Noise: My Transcendental Meditation Journey'', directed by film student Dana Farley, who has severe dyslexia and attention deficit disorder, was shown at film festivals in 2011, including the Marbella Film Festival.",
"Filmmaker Kevin Sean Michaels is one of the producers.",
"In 2013, Lynch wrote: \"Transcendental Meditation leads to a beautiful, peaceful revolution.",
"A change from suffering and negativity to happiness and a life more and more free of any problems.",
"\"In a 2019 interview of Lynch by British artist Alexander de Cadenet, Lynch said of TM: \"Here's an experience that utilizes the full brain.",
"That's what it's for.",
"It's for enlightenment, for higher states of consciousness, culminating in the highest state of unity consciousness.\"",
"In April 2022, Lynch announced a $500 million transcendental meditation world peace initiative to fund transcendental meditation for 30,000 college students.===Website===Lynch designed his personal website, a site exclusive to paying members, where he posts short videos and his absurdist series ''Dumbland'', plus interviews and other items.",
"The site also featured a daily weather report, where Lynch gives a brief description of the weather in Los Angeles, where he resides.",
"He continues to broadcast this weather report (usually no longer than 30 seconds) on his personal YouTube channel, ''DAVID LYNCH THEATER'', along with \"TODAY'S NUMBER\", where he draws a random number, between one and ten, out of a bingo cage.",
"Lynch also created a short film, \"Rabbits\", for his website.",
"An absurd ringtone (\"I like to kill deer\") from the website was a common sound bite on ''The Howard Stern Show'' in early 2006.Lynch is a coffee drinker and has his own line of special organic blends available for purchase on his website and at Whole Foods.",
"Called \"David Lynch Signature Cup\", the coffee has been advertised via flyers included with several recent Lynch-related DVD releases, including ''Inland Empire'' and the Gold Box edition of ''Twin Peaks''.",
"The brand's tagline is \"It's all in the beans ... and I'm just full of beans.\"",
"This is also a line said by Justin Theroux's character in ''Inland Empire''."
],
[
"Solo exhibitions"
],
[
"Discography",
"Studio albums*''BlueBOB'' (2001)*''Crazy Clown Time'' (2011)*''The Big Dream'' (2013)Collaborative albums*''Lux Vivens'' (with Jocelyn Montgomery) (1998)*''The Air Is On Fire'' (with Dean Hurley) (2007)*''Polish Night Music'' (with Marek Zebrowski) (2007)*''This Train'' (with Chrysta Bell) (2011)*''Somewhere in the Nowhere'' (with Chrysta Bell) (2016)*''Thought Gang'' (with Angelo Badalamenti) (recorded 1992/93) (2018)"
],
[
"See also",
"* David Lynch's unrealized projects"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* Lynch, David and McKenna, Kristine (2018).",
"''Room to Dream''.",
"Random House.",
"* ''David Lynch: The Art of the Real'', the website of a 2012 Berlin conference on the artistic work of David Lynch with all lectures in text form.",
"* ''David Lynch: The Unified Field'' by Robert Cozzolino with Alethea Rockwell (Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia and the University of California Press, 2014 ).",
"* ''The Passion of David Lynch: Wild at Heart in Hollywood'' by Martha Nochimson (University of Texas Press, 1997, ).",
"* ''The Complete Lynch'' by David Hughes (Virgin Virgin, 2002, ).",
"* ''Weirdsville U.S.A.: The Obsessive Universe of David Lynch'' by Paul A.",
"Woods (Plexus Publishing.",
"UK, Reprint edition, 2000, ).",
"* ''David Lynch'' (Twayne's Filmmakers Series) by Kenneth C. Kaleta (Twayne Publishers, 1992, ).",
"* ''Pervert in the Pulpit: Morality in the Works of David Lynch'' by Jeff Johnson (McFarland & Company, 2004, ).",
"* ''Snowmen'' by David Lynch (Foundation Cartier pour l'art contemporain, Paris, 2008, ).",
"* ''David Lynch: Beautiful Dark'' by Greg Olson (Scarecrow Press, 2008, ).",
"* ''The Film Paintings of David Lynch: Challenging Film Theory'' by Allister Mactaggart (Intellect, 2010, ).",
"* ''Interpretazione tra mondi.",
"Il pensiero figurale di David Lynch'' by Pierluigi Basso Fossali (Edizioni ETS, Pisa, 2008, , 9788846716712).",
"* ''David Lynch'' ed.",
"by Paolo Bertetto (Marsilio, Venezia, 2008, , 9788831793933).",
"* ''David Lynch – Un cinéma du maléfique'', by Enrique Seknadje, Editions Camion Noir, 2010..* ''David Lynch in Theory'' , a collection of essays edited by Francois-Xavier Gleyzon (Charles University Press, 2010) .",
"* ''David Lynch, 2nd Edition'' by Michel Chion (BFI Publishing, 2006, ).",
"* ''Mulholland Drive: An Intertextual Reading'' by Ebrahim Barzegar (CINEJ Cinema Journal, 2014)* ''Labyrinths and Illusions in David Lynch's Mulholland Drive and Inland Empire'' by Ebrahim Barzegar (CINEJ Cinema Journal, 2016)"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Official YouTube Channel* * * David Lynch at Moviefone* Bibliography of books and articles about Lynch via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"David Cronenberg"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''David Paul Cronenberg''' (born March 15, 1943) is a Canadian film director and screenwriter.",
"He is a principal originator of the body horror genre, with his films exploring visceral bodily transformation, infectious diseases, and the intertwining of the psychological, physical, and technological.",
"Cronenberg is best known for exploring these themes through sci-fi horror films such as ''Shivers'' (1975), ''Scanners'' (1981), ''Videodrome'' (1983) and ''The Fly'' (1986), though he has also directed dramas, psychological thrillers and gangster films.Cronenberg's films have polarized critics and audiences alike; he has earned critical acclaim and has sparked controversy for his depictions of gore and violence.",
"''The Village Voice'' called him \"the most audacious and challenging narrative director in the English-speaking world\".",
"His films have won numerous awards, including the Special Jury Prize for ''Crash'' at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival, a unique award that is distinct from the Jury Prize as it is not given annually, but only at the request of the official jury, who in this case gave the award \"for originality, for daring, and for audacity\".From the 2000s to the 2020s, Cronenberg collaborated on several films with Viggo Mortensen, including ''A History of Violence'' (2005), ''Eastern Promises'' (2007), ''A Dangerous Method'' (2011) and ''Crimes of the Future'' (2022).",
"Six of his films were selected to compete for the Palme d'Or, the most recent being ''Crimes of the Future'', which was screened at the 2022 Cannes Film Festival."
],
[
"Early life and education",
"David Cronenberg was born in Toronto, Ontario, on March 15, 1943.Cronenberg is the son of Esther ( Sumberg), a musician, and Milton Cronenberg, a writer and editor.",
"He was raised in a \"middle-class progressive Jewish family\".",
"His father was born in Baltimore, Maryland, and his mother was born in Toronto; all of his grandparents were Jews from Lithuania.",
"Milton wrote some short stories for ''True Detective'' and had a column in the ''Toronto Telegram'' for around thirty years.",
"The Cronenberg household was full of a wide variety of books, and Cronenberg's father tried to introduce his son to art films such as ''The Seventh Seal'', although at the time Cronenberg was more interested in western and pirate films, showing a particular affinity for those featuring Burt Lancaster.A voracious reader from an early age, Cronenberg started off enjoying science fiction magazines like ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'', ''Galaxy'', and ''Astounding'', where he first encountered authors who would prove influential on his own work, including Ray Bradbury and Isaac Asimov, although he wouldn't encounter his primary influence, Philip K. Dick, until much later.",
"Cronenberg also read comic books, noting his favorites were ''Tarzan'', ''Little Lulu'', ''Uncle Scrooge'', ''Blackhawk'', ''Plastic Man'', ''Superman'', and the original Fawcett Comics version of ''Captain Marvel'', later known as ''Shazam''.",
"Although as an adult, Cronenberg feels superhero films are artistically limited, he maintains a fondness for ''Captain Marvel''/''Shazam'', criticizing how he feels the character had been neglected.",
"Cronenberg also read horror comics published by EC, which in contrast to the others, he described as \"scary and bizarre and violent and nasty—the ones your mother didn't want you to have.",
"\"Early films that later proved influential on Cronenberg's career include avant-garde, horror, science fiction, and thriller films, such as ''Un Chien Andalou'', ''Vampyr'', ''War of the Worlds'', ''Freaks'', ''Creature from the Black Lagoon'', ''Alphaville'', ''Performance'', and ''Duel''.",
"However, Cronenberg has also cited less obvious films as influences, including comedies like ''The Bed Sitting Room'', as well as Disney cartoons such as ''Bambi'' and ''Dumbo''.",
"Cronenberg said he found these two Disney animated films, as well as Universal's live-action ''Blue Lagoon'', \"terrifying\" which influenced his approach to horror.",
"Cronenberg went on to say that ''Bambi'' was the \"first important film\" he ever saw, citing the moment when Bambi's mother died as particularly powerful.",
"Cronenberg even wished to screen ''Bambi'' as part of a museum exhibition of his influences, but Disney refused him permission.",
"In terms of conventional horror films that frightened him, Cronenberg cited ''Don't Look Now''.Cronenberg attended Dewson Street Public School, Kent Senior School, Harbord Collegiate Institute and North Toronto Collegiate Institute.",
"He enrolled at the University of Toronto for Honours Science in 1963, but changed to Honours English Language and Literature the next year.",
"He graduated from university in 1967, at the top of his class with a general bachelor of arts.",
"Cronenberg decided to not study for a master of arts after making ''Stereo''.Cronenberg's fascination with the film ''Winter Kept Us Warm'' (1966), by classmate David Secter, sparked his interest in film.",
"He began frequenting film camera rental houses and learned the art of filmmaking.",
"Cronenberg made two short films, ''Transfer'' and ''From the Drain'', with a few hundred dollars.",
"Cronenberg, Ivan Reitman, Bob Fothergill, and Iain Ewing were inspired by Jonas Mekas and formed the Toronto Film Co-op."
],
[
"Career",
"=== 1969–1979: Film debut and early work === After two short sketch films and two short art-house features (the black-and-white ''Stereo'' and the colour ''Crimes of the Future'') Cronenberg went into partnership with Ivan Reitman.",
"The Canadian government provided financing for his films throughout the 1970s.",
"During this period, he focused on his signature \"body horror\" films such as ''Shivers'' and ''Rabid'', the latter of which provided pornographic actress Marilyn Chambers with work in a different genre, although Cronenberg's first choice for the role had been a then little-known Sissy Spacek.",
"''Rabid'' was a breakthrough with international distributors, and his next two horror features, ''The Brood'' and ''Scanners'', gained stronger support.",
"Even at this stage however, Cronenberg showed variety, by making ''Fast Company'' between ''The Brood'' and ''Rabid'', a project reflecting his interest in car racing and bike gangs.=== 1981–1988: Breakthrough and acclaim === In 1981 directed the science-fiction horror film ''Scanners'' (1981).",
"In the film, \"scanners\" are psychics with unusual telepathic and telekinetic powers.",
"The film has since become a cult classic.",
"In 1983 he directed another science-fiction horror film ''Videodrome'' starring James Woods.",
"The film was distributed by Universal Pictures.",
"Janet Maslin of ''The New York Times'' remarked on the film's \"innovativeness\", and praised Woods' performance as having a \"sharply authentic edge\".",
"That same year he directed ''The Dead Zone'' (1983) starring Christopher Walken.",
"Cronenberg directed ''The Fly'' (1986) starring Jeff Goldblum and Geena Davis.",
"The film is loosely based on George Langelaan's 1957 short story of the same name and the 1958 film of the same name.",
"It was distributed by 20th Century Fox and was a box office hit making $60 million.",
"Cronenberg has not generally worked within the world of big-budget, mainstream Hollywood filmmaking, although he has had occasional near misses.",
"At one stage he was considered by George Lucas as a possible director for ''Return of the Jedi'' (1983) but was passed over.",
"Since ''Dead Ringers'' (1988), Cronenberg has worked with cinematographer Peter Suschitzky on each of his films (see List of film director and cinematographer collaborations).",
"Suschitzky was the director of photography for ''The Empire Strikes Back'' (1980), and Cronenberg remarked that Suschitzky's work in that film \"was the only one of those movies that actually looked good\", which was a motivating factor to work with him on ''Dead Ringers''.Cronenberg has collaborated with composer Howard Shore on all of his films since ''The Brood'' (1979), (see List of film director and composer collaborations) with the exception of ''The Dead Zone'' (1983), which was scored by Michael Kamen.",
"Other regular collaborators include actor Robert Silverman, art director Carol Spier (also his sister) sound editor Bryan Day, film editor Ronald Sanders, his sister, costume designer Denise Cronenberg, and, from 1979 until 1988, cinematographer Mark Irwin.",
"In 2008, Cronenberg directed Howard Shore's first opera, ''The Fly''.=== 1991–2002: Career fluctuations ===Cronenberg at the Cannes Film Festival in 2002Cronenberg also worked for nearly a year on a version of ''Total Recall'' (1990), but experienced \"creative differences\" with producers Dino De Laurentiis and Ronald Shusett; a different version of the film was eventually made by Paul Verhoeven.",
"Cronenberg related in his 1992 memoir, ''Cronenberg on Cronenberg'' that, as a fan of Philip K. Dick—author of \"We Can Remember it For You Wholesale\", the short story upon which the film was based— his dissatisfaction with what he envisioned the film to be and what it ended up being pained him so greatly that, for a time, he suffered a migraine just thinking about it, akin to a needle piercing his eye.",
"In the late 1990s, Cronenberg was announced as director of a sequel to another Verhoeven film, ''Basic Instinct'' (1992), but this also fell through.Cronenberg has cited William S. Burroughs and Vladimir Nabokov as influences.",
"Perhaps the best example of a film that straddles the line between his works of personal chaos and psychological confusion is Cronenberg's 1991 \"adaptation\" of ''Naked Lunch'' (1959), his literary hero William S. Burroughs' most controversial book.",
"The novel was considered \"unfilmable\", and Cronenberg acknowledged that a straight translation into film would \"cost 400 million dollars and be banned in every country in the world\".",
"Instead—much like in his earlier film, ''Videodrome''—he consistently blurred the lines between what appeared to be reality and what appeared to be hallucinations brought on by the main character's drug addiction.",
"Some of the book's \"moments\" (as well as incidents loosely based upon Burroughs' life) are presented in this manner within the film.",
"Cronenberg stated that while writing the screenplay for ''Naked Lunch'' (1991), he felt a moment of synergy with Burroughs' writing style.",
"He felt the connection between his screenwriting style and Burroughs' prose style was so strong, that he jokingly remarked that should Burroughs pass on, \"I'll just write his next book.",
"\"Cronenberg has also appeared as an actor in other directors' films.",
"Most of his roles are cameo appearances, as in the films ''Into the Night'' (1985), ''Blood and Donuts'' (1995), ''To Die For'' (1995), and ''Jason X'' (2002) and the television series ''Alias'', but on occasion he has played major roles, as in ''Nightbreed'' (1990) and ''Last Night'' (1998).",
"He has not had major roles in any of his own films, but he did put in a brief appearance as a gynecologist in ''The Fly''; he can also be glimpsed among the sex-crazed hordes in ''Shivers''; he can be heard as an unseen car-pound attendant in ''Crash''; his hands can be glimpsed in ''eXistenZ'' (1999); and he appeared as a stand-in for James Woods in ''Videodrome''.Cronenberg has said that his films should be seen \"from the point of view of the disease\", and that in ''Shivers'', for example, he identifies with the characters ''after'' they become infected with the anarchic parasites.",
"Disease and disaster, in Cronenberg's work, are less problems to be overcome than agents of personal transformation.",
"Of his characters' transformations, Cronenberg said, \"But because of our necessity to impose our own structure of perception on things we look on ourselves as being relatively stable.",
"But, in fact, when I look at a person I see this maelstrom of organic, chemical and electron chaos; volatility and instability, shimmering; and the ability to change and transform and transmute.\"",
"Similarly, in ''Crash'' (1996), people who have been injured in car crashes attempt to view their ordeal as \"a fertilizing rather than a destructive event\".",
"In 2005, Cronenberg publicly disagreed with Paul Haggis' choice of the same name for the latter's Oscar-winning film ''Crash'' (2004), arguing that it was \"very disrespectful\" to the \"important and seminal\" J. G. Ballard novel on which Cronenberg's film was based.=== 2005–present: Resurgence === Cronenberg at the 2011 Toronto International Film FestivalHis thriller ''A History of Violence'' (2005) is one of his highest budgeted and most accessible to date.",
"He has said that the decision to direct it was influenced by his having had to defer some of his salary on the low-budgeted ''Spider'' (2002), but it was one of his most critically acclaimed films to date, along with ''Eastern Promises'' (2007), a film about the struggle of one man to gain power in the Russian Mafia.",
"Although Cronenberg has worked with a number of Hollywood stars, he remains a staunchly Canadian filmmaker, with nearly all of his films (including major studio vehicles ''The Dead Zone'' and ''The Fly'') having been filmed in his home province Ontario.",
"Notable exceptions include ''M.",
"Butterfly'' (1993), most of which was shot in China, ''Spider'', and ''Eastern Promises'' (2007), which were both filmed primarily in England, and ''A Dangerous Method'' (2011), which was filmed in Germany and Austria.",
"''Rabid'' and ''Shivers'' were shot in and around Montreal.",
"Most of his films have been at least partially financed by Telefilm Canada, and Cronenberg, a vocal supporter of government-backed film projects, has said: \"Every country needs a system of government grants to have a national cinema in the face of Hollywood\".In 2008, Cronenberg realized two extra-cinematographic projects: the exhibition ''Chromosomes'' at the Rome Film Fest, and the opera ''The Fly'' at the LaOpera in Los Angeles and Theatre Châtelet in Paris.",
"In July 2010, Cronenberg completed production on ''A Dangerous Method'' (2011), an adaptation of Christopher Hampton's play ''The Talking Cure'', starring Keira Knightley, Michael Fassbender, Vincent Cassel, and frequent collaborator Viggo Mortensen.",
"The film was produced by independent British producer Jeremy Thomas.",
"On television, he has appeared in the recurring roles of Dr. Brezzel in Season 3 of ''Alias'', and Kovich in Seasons 3 & 4 of ''Star Trek: Discovery''.",
"He has also had main roles as Reverend Verrenger in ''Alias Grace'', and Spencer Galloway in ''Slasher: Flesh & Blood''.Cronenberg at the Cannes Film Festival in 2014In the October 2011 edition of ''Rue Morgue'', Cronenberg stated that he has written a companion piece to his 1986 remake of ''The Fly'', which he would like to direct if given the chance.",
"He has stated that it is not a traditional sequel, but rather a \"parallel story\".",
"In 2012, his film ''Cosmopolis'' competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival.",
"For a time it appeared that, as ''Eastern Promises'' producer Paul Webster told Screen International, a sequel is in the works that would reunite the key team of Cronenberg, Steven Knight, and Viggo Mortensen.",
"The film was to be made by Webster's new production company ''Shoebox Films'' in collaboration with Focus Features, and shot in early 2013.However, in 2012, Cronenberg commented that the ''Eastern Promises'' sequel had fallen through due to budget disagreement with Focus Features.Filming for Cronenberg's next film, a satire drama entitled ''Maps to the Stars'' (2014)—with Julianne Moore, Mia Wasikowska, John Cusack, and Robert Pattinson—began on July 8, 2013, in Toronto, Ontario and Los Angeles.",
"This was the first time Cronenberg filmed in the United States.",
"On June 26, 2014, Cronenberg's short film ''The Nest'' was published on YouTube.",
"The film was commissioned for \"David Cronenberg – The Exhibition\" at EYE Film Institute in Amsterdam and was available on YouTube for the duration of the exhibition, until September 14, 2014.Also in 2014, Cronenberg published his first novel, ''Consumed''.",
"In a May 2016 interview, Viggo Mortensen revealed that Cronenberg is considering retiring due to difficulty financing his film projects.",
"Cronenberg appears as himself in the minute-long short film ''The Death of David Cronenberg'', shot by his daughter Caitlin, which was released digitally on September 19, 2021.In February 2021 however, Mortensen said Cronenberg had refined an older script he had written and hopes to film it with Mortensen that summer.",
"He further hinted that it is a \"strange film noir\" and resembles Cronenberg's earlier body horror films.",
"In April 2021, the title was revealed to be ''Crimes of the Future''.",
"It was shot in Greece during the summer of 2021, and competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2022 Cannes Film Festival."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Cronenberg lives in Toronto.",
"He married his first wife, Margaret Hindson, in 1972: their seven-year marriage ended in 1979 amidst personal and professional differences.",
"They had one daughter, Cassandra Cronenberg.",
"His second wife was film editor Carolyn Zeifman, to whom he was married until her death in 2017.The couple met on the set of ''Rabid'' while she was working as a production assistant.",
"They have two children, Caitlin and Brandon.",
"In the book ''Cronenberg on Cronenberg'' (1992), he revealed that ''The Brood'' was inspired by events that occurred during the unraveling of his first marriage, which caused both Cronenberg and his daughter Cassandra a great deal of turmoil.",
"The character Nola Carveth, mother of the brood, is based on Cassandra's mother.",
"Cronenberg said that he found the shooting of the climactic scene, in which Nola was strangled by her husband, to be \"very satisfying\".In a September 2013 interview, Cronenberg revealed that film director Martin Scorsese admitted to him that he was intrigued by Cronenberg's early work but was subsequently \"terrified\" to meet him in person.",
"Cronenberg responded to Scorsese: \"You're the guy who made ''Taxi Driver'' and you're afraid to meet me?\"",
"In the same interview, Cronenberg identified as an atheist.",
"\"Anytime I've tried to imagine squeezing myself into the box of any particular religion, I find it claustrophobic and oppressive,\" Cronenberg elaborated.",
"\"I think atheism is an acceptance of what is real.\"",
"In the same interview, Cronenberg revealed that it depends on the \"time of day\" as to whether or not he is afraid of death.",
"He further stated that he is not concerned about posthumous representations of his film work: \"It wouldn't disturb me to think that my work would just sink beneath the waves without trace and that would be it.",
"So what?",
"It doesn't bother me.",
"\"In ''Cronenberg on Cronenberg'', the director further elaborated that he was raised in a secular Jewish home, and while he and his family had no disdain towards any religion, such matters were not discussed.",
"In the same book, Cronenberg said that in his teens he went through a phase where he wondered about the existence of God, but ultimately came to the conclusion that the God concept was developed to cope with the fear of death.",
"In a 2007 interview, Cronenberg explained the role atheism plays in his work.",
"He stated, \"I'm interested in saying, 'Let us discuss the existential question.",
"We are all going to die, that is the end of all consciousness.",
"There is no afterlife.",
"There is no God.",
"Now what do we do.'",
"That's the point where it starts getting interesting to me.",
"\"In Cronenberg's later films (e.g.",
"''A History of Violence'', ''Eastern Promises'' and ''A Dangerous Method'') openly religious characters become more common.",
"During an interview for ''A History of Violence'', Cronenberg even chose to identify as a materialist rather than an atheist, stating, \"I'm not an atheist, but for me to turn away from any aspect of the human body to me is a philosophical betrayal.",
"And there's a lot of art and religion whose whole purpose is to turn away from the human body.",
"I feel in my art that my mandate is to not do that.",
"\"In a separate 2013 interview, Cronenberg discussed the role religion plays in his films, using ''Eastern Promises'' as the main example:I'm an atheist but not all my characters are atheists.",
"So it's true that I don't think about God ever as part of my life or anything.",
"But if you're a dramatist and you are working with characters who come from a particular culture, you have to accept their understanding of life, and with passion.",
"So the Nikolai character, I'm pretty sure he believes in God and most of the other characters in the movie do too.",
"Some of them are Muslim, some of them are Eastern Orthodox, and that's a part of their life, a part of their understanding of suffering.",
"Because everybody in life suffers but not everybody thinks of that in religious terms.",
"These people do.",
"And they think of suffering as a way to salvation, also in religious terms.",
"I am their God really, as I am creating them; that's religious in itself.",
"I am a very hardcore atheist believe me but you become like an actor really, as a director or a writer.",
"You must take on the character as that character is and believe in it as you're playing it.",
"To allow that character to exist as he would exist.",
"That's really what it's all about, so I have no problem with characters who are religious and believe in God.",
"I would have a problem if that was the point of the whole story because that bores me and I just don't have any emotional or intellectual respect for it, frankly."
],
[
"Filmography",
"+Directed features Year Title Distribution 1969 ''Stereo'' Film Canada Presentations 1970 ''Crimes of the Future'' New Cinema Enterprises 1975 ''Shivers'' Cinépix Film Properties / New World Pictures 1977 ''Rabid'' Cinépix 1979 ''Fast Company'' Admit One Presentations / Danton Films ''The Brood'' New World Pictures 1981 ''Scanners'' New World Pictures / Manson International 1983 ''Videodrome'' Universal Pictures ''The Dead Zone'' Paramount Pictures 1986 ''The Fly'' 20th Century Fox 1988 ''Dead Ringers'' 1991 ''Naked Lunch'' 1993 ''M.",
"Butterfly'' Warner Bros. 1996 ''Crash'' Alliance Communications 1999 ''eXistenZ'' Alliance Atlantis 2002 ''Spider'' Cineplex Films 2005 ''A History of Violence'' New Line Cinema 2007 ''Eastern Promises'' Focus Features 2011 ''A Dangerous Method'' Sony Pictures Classics 2012 ''Cosmopolis'' Entertainment One 2014 ''Maps to the Stars'' Focus World 2022 ''Crimes of the Future'' Sphere Films TBA ''The Shrouds'' TBA"
],
[
"Awards and recognition {{anchor|Awards|Honours}}",
"Cronenberg has appeared on various \"Greatest Director\" lists.",
"In 2004, Science Fiction magazine ''Strange Horizons'' named him the second greatest director in the history of the genre, ahead of better known directors such as Steven Spielberg, James Cameron, Jean-Luc Godard, and Ridley Scott.",
"In the same year, ''The Guardian'' listed him 9th on their list of \"The world's 40 best directors\".",
"In 2007, Total Film named him as the 17th greatest director of all-time.",
"Film professor Charles Derry, in his overview of the horror genre ''Dark Dreams'', called the director one of the most important in his field, and that \"no discussion of contemporary horror film can conclude without reference to the films of David Cronenberg.",
"\"Cronenberg received the Special Jury Prize at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival for ''Crash''.",
"In 1999, he was inducted onto Canada's Walk of Fame, awarded the Silver Bear Award at the 49th Berlin International Film Festival.",
"and that November received the Governor General's Performing Arts Award, Canada's highest honour in the performing arts.In 2002, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada, and was promoted to Companion of the Order of Canada (the order's highest rank) in 2014.In 2006 he was awarded the Cannes Film Festival's lifetime achievement award, the Carrosse d'Or.",
"In 2009 Cronenberg received the Légion d'honneur from the government of France.",
"The following year Cronenberg was named an honorary patron of the University Philosophical Society, Trinity College Dublin.",
"In 2012, he received the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal.The opening of the \"David Cronenberg: Evolution\" Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) exhibition occurred on October 30, 2013.Held at the TIFF Bell Lightbox venue, the exhibition paid tribute to the director's entire filmmaking career and the festival's promotional material referred to Cronenberg as \"one of Canada's most prolific and iconic filmmakers\".",
"The exhibition was shown internationally following the conclusion of the TIFF showing on January 19, 2014.In 2014, he was made a Member of the Order of Ontario in recognition for being \"Canada's most celebrated internationally acclaimed filmmaker\".In April 2018, it was announced that Cronenberg would receive the honorary Golden Lion at the 75th Venice International Film Festival.===British Academy Film Awards=== Year Nominated work Category Result2008''Eastern Promises''Outstanding British Film===Berlin International Film Festival=== Year Nominated work Category Result1992''Naked Lunch''Golden Bear1999''eXistenZ''Silver Bear for an outstanding artistic contribution===Cannes Film Festival=== Year Nominated work Category Result1996''Crash''Jury PrizePalme d'Or2002''Spider''2005''A History of Violence''2006Golden Coach2012''Cosmopolis''Palme d'Or2014''Maps to the Stars''2022''Crimes of the Future''===Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television==='''Best Picture''' Year Nominated work Result1988''Dead Ringers''1996''Crash''1999''eXistenZ'''''Best Director''' Year Nominated work Result1981''Scanners''1983''Videodrome''1988''Dead Ringers''1991''Naked Lunch''1996''Crash''2002''Spider''2007''Eastern Promises''2011''A Dangerous Method''2014''Maps to the Stars'''''Best Screenplay''' Year Nominated work Result1981''Scanners''1983''Videodrome''1988''Dead Ringers''1991''Naked Lunch''1996''Crash''2012''Cosmopolis''===Saturn Awards=== Year Nominated work Category Result1983''The Dead Zone''Best Director1986''The Fly''1988''Dead Ringers''Best Horror FilmBest Writing1999''eXistenZ''Best Science Fiction Film"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * The Literary Adaptations of David Cronenberg (via LitReactor, 2011)* David Cronenberg Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)* David Cronenberg Profile by ''The New York Times Magazine'' (September 2005)* ''Teleplay'' episode \"The Italian Machine\" online at the Channel4 website (RealMedia)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Dale Earnhardt"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Ralph Dale Earnhardt''' (; April 29, 1951February 18, 2001) was an American professional stock car driver and racing team owner, who raced from 1975 to 2001 in the former NASCAR Winston Cup Series (now called the NASCAR Cup Series), most notably driving the No.3 Chevrolet for Richard Childress Racing.",
"His aggressive driving style earned him the nicknames \"'''the Intimidator'''\", \"'''the Man in Black'''\" and \"'''Ironhead'''\"; after his son Dale Earnhardt Jr. joined the Cup Series circuit in 1999, Earnhardt was generally known by the retronyms '''Dale Earnhardt Sr.''' and '''Dale Sr.''' He is regarded as one of the greatest drivers in NASCAR history and named as one of the NASCAR's 50 Greatest Drivers class in 1998.The third child of racing driver Ralph Earnhardt and Martha Earnhardt, he began his career in 1975 in the World 600.Earnhardt won a total of 76 Winston Cup races over the course of his 26-year career, including four Winston 500s (1990, 1994, 1999, and 2000) and the 1998 Daytona 500.Along with his 76 career points wins, he has also won 24 non-points exhibition events, bringing his overall Winston Cup win total to 100, one of only four drivers in NASCAR history to do so.",
"He is the only driver in NASCAR history to score at least one win in four different and consecutive decades (scoring his first career win in 1979, 38 wins in the 1980s, 35 wins in the 1990s, & scoring his final two career wins in 2000).",
"He also earned seven Winston Cup championships, a record held with Richard Petty and Jimmie Johnson.On February 18, 2001, Earnhardt died in a sudden last-lap crash during the Daytona 500 due to a basilar skull fracture.",
"His death was regarded in the racing industry as being a crucial moment in improving safety in all aspects of car racing, especially NASCAR.",
"He was 49 years old.",
"Earnhardt has been inducted into numerous halls of fame, including the NASCAR Hall of Fame inaugural class in 2010."
],
[
"Biography",
"===Early and personal life===Ralph Dale Earnhardt was born on April 29, 1951, in the suburb of Kannapolis, North Carolina, as the third child of Martha ( Coleman, 1930–2021) and Ralph Earnhardt (1928-1973).",
"Earnhardt's father was one of the best short-track drivers in North Carolina at the time and won his first and only NASCAR Sportsman Championship in 1956 at Greenville Pickens Speedway in Greenville, South Carolina.",
"In 1963 at the age of 12, Dale Earnhardt secretly drove his father’s car in one of his races and had a near victory against one of his father's closest competitors.",
"In 1972, he raced his father at Metrolina Speedway in a race with cars from semi mod and sportsman divisions.",
"Although Ralph did not want his son to pursue a career as a race car driver, Dale dropped out of school to pursue his dreams.",
"Ralph was a hard teacher for Dale, and after Ralph suddenly died of a heart attack at his home in 1973 at age 45, it took many years before Dale felt as though he had finally \"proven\" himself to his father.",
"Earnhardt had four siblings: two brothers, Danny (died 2021) and Randy (died 2013); and two sisters, Cathy and Kaye.",
"Earnhardt was married three times.",
"In 1968, at the age of 17, Earnhardt married his first wife, Latane Brown.",
"With her, Earnhardt fathered his first son, Kerry, a year later.",
"Earnhardt and Brown divorced in 1970.In 1971, Earnhardt married his second wife, Brenda Gee, the daughter of NASCAR car builder Robert Gee.",
"In his marriage with Gee, Earnhardt had two children: a daughter, Kelley King Earnhardt, in 1972, and a son, Dale Earnhardt Jr., in 1974.Not long after Dale Jr. was born, Earnhardt and Gee divorced.",
"Earnhardt then married his third wife, Teresa Houston, in 1982.She gave birth to their daughter, Taylor Nicole Earnhardt, in 1988."
],
[
"NASCAR career",
"===Early Winston Cup career (1975–1978)===Earnhardt began his professional career in the NASCAR Winston Cup Series in 1975, making his points race debut at Charlotte Motor Speedway in North Carolina in the longest race on the Cup circuit—the 1975 World 600.He had made his Grand National debut in 1974 in an unofficial invitational exhibition race at Metrolina Speedway, where with eight laps to go he got under Richard Childress and spun out when battling for third.",
"He drove the No.",
"8 Ed Negre Dodge Charger and finished 22nd in that race, just one spot ahead of his future car owner, Richard Childress.",
"Earnhardt competed in eight more races until 1979.===Rod Osterlund Racing (1979–1980)===When he joined car owner Rod Osterlund Racing in a season that included a rookie class of future stars including Earnhardt, Harry Gant, and Terry Labonte in his rookie season, Earnhardt won one race at Bristol, captured four poles, scored eleven Top 5s and seventeen Top 10s, and finished seventh in the points standings despite missing four races due to a broken collarbone, winning Rookie of the Year honors.During his sophomore season, Earnhardt, now with 20-year-old Doug Richert as his crew chief, began the season winning the Busch Clash.",
"With wins at Atlanta, Bristol, Nashville, Martinsville, and Charlotte, Earnhardt won his first Winston Cup points championship.",
"He is the only driver in NASCAR Cup history to follow a Rookie of the Year title with a NASCAR Winston Cup Championship the next season.",
"He was also the third driver in NASCAR history to win both the Rookie of the Year and Winston Cup Series championship, following David Pearson (1960, 1966) and Richard Petty (1959, 1964).",
"Ten drivers have since joined this exclusive club: Rusty Wallace (1984, 1989), Alan Kulwicki (1986, 1992), Jeff Gordon (1993, 1995), Tony Stewart (1999, 2002), Matt Kenseth (2000, 2003), Kevin Harvick (2001, 2014), Kyle Busch (2005, 2015), Joey Logano (2009, 2018), Chase Elliott (2016, 2020), and Kyle Larson (2014, 2021).===Rod Osterlund Racing, Stacy Racing, and Richard Childress Racing (1981)===1981 would prove to be tumultuous for the defending Winston Cup champion.",
"Sixteen races into the season, Rod Osterlund suddenly sold his team to Jim Stacy, an entrepreneur from Kentucky who entered NASCAR in 1977.After just four races, Earnhardt fell out with Stacy and left the team.",
"Earnhardt finished out the year driving Pontiacs for Richard Childress Racing and managed to place seventh in the final points standings.",
"Earnhardt departed RCR at the end of the season, citing a lack of chemistry.Earnhardt was also a color commentator for the Busch Clash, while he also drove on that same day.===Bud Moore Engineering (1982–1983)===Earnhardt's 1983 Ford Thunderbird The following year, at Childress's suggestion, Earnhardt joined car owner Bud Moore for the 1982 and 1983 seasons driving the No.",
"15 Wrangler Jeans-sponsored Ford Thunderbird (the only full-time Ford ride in his career).",
"During the 1982 season, Earnhardt struggled.",
"Although he won at Darlington, he failed to finish 18 of the 30 races and ended the season 12th in points, the worst of his career.",
"He also suffered a broken kneecap at Pocono Raceway when he flipped after contact with Tim Richmond.",
"In 1983, Earnhardt rebounded and won his first of 12 Twin 125 Daytona 500 qualifying races.",
"He won at Nashville and at Talladega, finishing eighth in the points standings, despite failing to finish 13 of the 30 races.===Return to Richard Childress Racing (1984–2001)=======1984–1985====After the 1983 season, Earnhardt returned to Richard Childress Racing, replacing Ricky Rudd in the No.",
"3.Rudd went to Bud Moore's No.",
"15, replacing Earnhardt.",
"Wrangler sponsored both drivers at their respective teams.",
"During the 1984 and 1985 seasons, Earnhardt went to victory lane six times, at Talladega, Atlanta, Richmond, Bristol (twice), and Martinsville, where he finished fourth and eighth in the season standings respectively.",
"====1986–1987====The 1986 season saw Earnhardt win his second career Winston Cup Championship and the first owner's championship for Richard Childress Racing.",
"He won five races and had 16 top-fives and 23 top-10s.",
"Earnhardt successfully defended his championship the following year, going to victory lane 11 times and winning the championship by 489 points over Bill Elliott.",
"In the process, Earnhardt set a NASCAR modern-era record of four consecutive wins and won five of the first seven races.",
"In the 1987 season, he earned the nickname \"The Intimidator\", due in part to the 1987 Winston All-Star Race.",
"During this race, Earnhardt was briefly forced into the infield grass but kept control of his car and returned to the track without giving up his lead.",
"The maneuver is now referred to as the \"'''Pass in the Grass'''\", even though Earnhardt did not pass anyone while he was off the track.",
"After The Winston, an angry fan sent Bill France Jr. a letter threatening to kill Earnhardt at Pocono, Watkins Glen, or Dover, prompting the FBI to provide security for Earnhardt on the three tracks.",
"The investigation was closed after the races at the three tracks finished without incident.",
"Many of Earnhardt's competitors on the racetrack disliked his personal driving style.",
"Earnhardt's relentless pursuit of victory on the racetrack combined with his uniquely offensive driving ability led to many rivalries with fellow drivers and fines levied by NASCAR.",
"In 1987, NASCAR began to implement a measure that was designed to incentivize less aggressive driving styles by forcing drivers who cause these undesired hazardous racing conditions to be subjected to time at the garage region during the race.====1988–1989====The 1988 season saw Earnhardt racing with a new sponsor, GM Goodwrench, after Wrangler Jeans dropped its sponsorship in 1987.During this season, he changed the color of his paint scheme from blue and yellow to the signature black in which the No.",
"3 car was painted for the rest of his life.",
"He won three races in 1988, finishing third in the points standings behind Bill Elliott in first and Rusty Wallace in second.",
"The following year, Earnhardt won five races, but a late spin out at North Wilkesboro arguably cost him the 1989 championship, as Rusty Wallace edged him out for it by 12 points (Earnhardt won the final race, but Wallace finished 15th when needing to finish at least 18th to win).",
"It was his first season for the GM Goodwrench Chevrolet Lumina.====1990–1995====The 1990 season started for Earnhardt with victories in the Busch Clash and his heat of the Gatorade Twin 125's.",
"Near the end of the Daytona 500, he had a dominant forty-second lead when the final caution flag came out with a handful of laps to go.",
"When the green flag waved, Earnhardt was leading Derrike Cope.",
"On the final lap, Earnhardt ran over a piece of metal, which was later revealed as a bell housing, in turn 3, cutting down a tire.",
"Cope, in an upset, won the race while Earnhardt finished fifth after leading 155 of the 200 laps.",
"The No.",
"3 Goodwrench-sponsored Chevy team took the flat tire that cost them the win and hung it on the shop wall as a reminder of how close they had come to winning the Daytona 500.Earnhardt won nine races that season and won his fourth Winston Cup title, beating Mark Martin by 26 points.",
"He also became the first multiple winner of the annual all-star race, The Winston.",
"The 1991 season saw Earnhardt win his fifth Winston Cup championship.",
"This season, he scored four wins and won the championship by 195 points over Ricky Rudd.",
"One of his wins came at North Wilkesboro, in a race where Harry Gant had a chance to set a single-season record by winning his fifth consecutive race, breaking a record held by Earnhardt.",
"Late in the race, Gant lost his brakes, which gave Earnhardt the chance he needed to make the pass for the win and maintain his record.Earnhardt's only win of the 1992 season came at Charlotte, in the Coca-Cola 600, ending a 13-race win streak by Ford teams.",
"Earnhardt finished a career-low 12th in the points for the second time in his career, with three last place finishes (Daytona and Talladega in July and Martinsville in September), and the only time he had finished that low since joining Richard Childress Racing.",
"He still made the trip to the annual Awards Banquet with Rusty Wallace but did not have the best seat in the house.",
"Wallace stated he and Earnhardt had to sit on the backs of their chairs to see, and Earnhardt said, \"This sucks, I should have gone hunting.\"",
"At the end of the year, longtime crew chief Kirk Shelmerdine left to become a driver.",
"Andy Petree took over as crew chief.",
"Hiring Petree turned out to be beneficial, as Earnhardt returned to the front in 1993.He once again came close to a win at the Daytona 500 and dominated Speedweeks before finishing second to Dale Jarrett on a last-lap pass.",
"Earnhardt scored six wins en route to his sixth Winston Cup title, including wins in the first prime-time Coca-Cola 600 and The Winston, both at Charlotte, and the Pepsi 400 at Daytona.",
"He beat Rusty Wallace for the championship by 80 points.",
"On November 14, 1993, after the season-ending Hooters 500 at Atlanta, the race winner Wallace and 1993 series champion Earnhardt ran a dual Polish Victory Lap together while carrying #28 and #7 flags commemorating 1992 Daytona 500 winner Davey Allison and 1992 NASCAR Winston Cup Series champion Alan Kulwicki respectively, who both had died in separate plane accidents during the season.1994 racecarIn 1994, Earnhardt achieved a feat that he himself had believed to be impossible—he scored his seventh Winston Cup championship, tying Richard Petty.",
"He was very consistent, scoring four wins, and after Ernie Irvan was sidelined due to a near-deadly crash at Michigan (the two were neck-and-neck at the top of the points up until the crash), won the title by over 400 points over Mark Martin.",
"Earnhardt sealed the deal at Rockingham by winning the race over Rick Mast.",
"It was his final NASCAR championship and his final season for the GM Goodwrench Chevrolet Lumina.",
"Earnhardt started off the 1995 season by finishing second in the Daytona 500 to Sterling Marlin.",
"He won five races in 1995, including his first road course victory at Sears Point.",
"He also won the Brickyard 400 at Indianapolis Motor Speedway, a win he called the biggest of his career.",
"But in the end, Earnhardt lost the championship to Jeff Gordon by 34 points.",
"The GM Goodwrench racing team changed to Chevrolet Monte Carlos.Earnhardt almost was ready to leave the #3 at the end of the 1995 season, according to his former crew chief Larry McReynolds.",
"At the time, McReynolds was the crew chief for the #28 Havoline Ford Thunderbird at Robert Yates Racing.",
"Earnhardt had actually been approached by Yates to drive the #28 for the 1995 season in place of Ernie Irvan, who was injured in a crash during the 1994 season.",
"Instead, Robert Yates signed Dale Jarrett to a one-year deal to drive the #28.During the 1995 season, Yates was being pressed by his manufacturer to start a second team and sent a contract to Earnhardt to drive it.",
"Earnhardt never returned the contract, and according to McReynolds the reason he did not sign was because he only wanted to drive the #28 for Yates; the team fully intended to put Irvan back behind the wheel of his old car once he was able to resume driving.",
"Instead, Earnhardt stayed with RCR and the #3, while Jarrett was signed to drive Yates’ new car, numbered 88.====1996–1999====Earnhardt at Phoenix International Raceway.1996 for Earnhardt started just like it had done in 1993—he dominated Speedweeks, only to finish second in the Daytona 500 to Dale Jarrett for the second time.",
"He won early in the year, scoring consecutive victories at Rockingham and Atlanta.",
"On July 28 in the DieHard 500 at Talladega, he was second in points and looking for his eighth season title, despite the departure of crew chief Andy Petree.",
"Late in the race, Ernie Irvan lost control of his No.",
"28 Havoline-sponsored Ford Thunderbird, made contact with the No.",
"4 Kodak-sponsored Chevy Monte Carlo of Sterling Marlin, and ignited a crash that saw Earnhardt's No.",
"3 Chevrolet hit the tri-oval wall nearly head-on at almost 200 mph.",
"After hitting the wall, Earnhardt's car flipped and slid across the track, in front of race traffic.",
"His car was hit in the roof and windshield.",
"This accident, as well as a similar accident that led to the death of Russell Phillips at Charlotte, led NASCAR to mandate the \"Earnhardt Bar\", a metal brace located in the center of the windshield that reinforces the roof in case of a similar crash.",
"This bar is also required in NASCAR-owned United SportsCar Racing and its predecessors for road racing.Rain delays had canceled the live telecast of the race, and most fans first learned of the accident during the night's sports newscasts.",
"Video of the crash showed what appeared to be a fatal incident, but once medical workers arrived at the car, Earnhardt climbed out and waved to the crowd, refusing to be loaded onto a stretcher despite a broken collarbone, sternum, and shoulder blade.",
"Although the incident looked like it would end his season early, Earnhardt refused to stay out of the car.",
"The next week at Indianapolis, he started the race but exited the car on the first pit stop, allowing Mike Skinner to take the wheel.",
"When asked, Earnhardt said that vacating the No.",
"3 car was the hardest thing he had ever done.",
"The following weekend at Watkins Glen, he drove the No.",
"3 Goodwrench Chevrolet to the fastest time in qualifying, earning the \"True Grit\" pole.",
"T-shirts emblazoned with Earnhardt's face were quickly printed up, brandishing the caption, \"It Hurt So Good\".",
"Earnhardt led for most of the race and looked to have victory in hand, but fatigue took its toll and he ended up sixth behind race winner Geoff Bodine.",
"Earnhardt did not win again in 1996 but still finished fourth in the standings behind Terry Labonte, Jeff Gordon, and Dale Jarrett, with 2 wins, 13 top fives, 17 top tens, and his last 2 career poles, with an average finish of 10.6.David Smith departed as crew chief of the No.",
"3 team and RCR at the end of the year for personal reasons, and he was replaced by Larry McReynolds.In 1997, Earnhardt went winless for only the second time in his career.",
"The only (non-points) win came during Speedweeks at Daytona in the Twin 125-mile qualifying race, his record eighth-straight win in the event.",
"Once again in the hunt for the Daytona 500 with 10 laps to go, Earnhardt was taken out of contention by a late crash which sent his car upside down on the backstretch.",
"He hit the low point of his year when he blacked out early in the Mountain Dew Southern 500 at Darlington in September, causing him to hit the wall.",
"Afterward, he was disoriented, and it took several laps before he could find his pit stall.",
"When asked, Earnhardt complained of double vision which made it difficult to pit.",
"Mike Dillon (Richard Childress's son-in-law) was brought in to relieve Earnhardt for the remainder of the race.",
"Earnhardt was evaluated at a local hospital and cleared to race the next week, but the cause of the blackout and double vision was never determined.",
"Despite no wins, Earnhardt finished the season fifth in the final standings with 7 top fives and 16 top tens, with an average finish of 12.1.On February 15, 1998, Earnhardt finally won the Daytona 500 in his 20th attempt after failing to win in his previous 19 attempts.",
"He began the season by winning his Twin 125-mile qualifier race for the ninth straight year, and the week before was the first to drive around the track under the newly installed lights, for coincidentally 20 laps.",
"On race day, he showed himself to be a contender early.",
"Halfway through the race, however, it seemed that Jeff Gordon had the upper hand.",
"But by lap 138, Earnhardt had taken the lead and thanks to a push by teammate Mike Skinner, he maintained it.",
"Earnhardt made it to the caution-checkered flag before Bobby Labonte.",
"Afterwards, there was a large show of respect for Earnhardt, in which every crew member of every team lined pit road to shake his hand as he made his way to victory lane.",
"Earnhardt then drove his No.",
"3 into the infield grass, starting a trend of post-race celebrations.",
"He spun the car twice, throwing grass and leaving tire tracks in the shape of a No.",
"3 in the grass.",
"He then spoke about the victory, saying, \"I have had a lot of great fans and people behind me all through the years and I just can't thank them enough.",
"The Daytona 500 is ours.",
"We won it, we won it, we won it!\"",
"The rest of the season did not go as well, and the Daytona 500 was his only victory that year.",
"Despite that, he did almost pull off a Daytona sweep, where he was one of the contenders for the win in the first nighttime Pepsi 400, but a pit stop late in the race in which a rogue tire cost him the race win.",
"He slipped to 12th in the point standings halfway through the season, and Richard Childress decided to make a crew chief change, taking Mike Skinner's crew chief Kevin Hamlin and putting him with Earnhardt while giving Skinner Larry McReynolds (Earnhardt's crew chief).",
"Earnhardt finished the 1998 season eighth in the final points standings, with 1 win, 5 top fives, and 13 top tens, with an average finish of 16.2.Before the 1999 season, fans began discussing Earnhardt's age and speculating that with his son, Dale Jr., making his Winston Cup debut, Earnhardt might be contemplating retirement.",
"Earnhardt swept both races for the year at Talladega, leading some to conclude that his talent had become limited to the restrictor plate tracks, which require a unique skill set and an exceptionally powerful racecar to win.",
"But halfway through the year, Earnhardt began to show some of the old spark.",
"In the August race at Michigan, he led laps late in the race and nearly pulled off his first win on a non-restrictor-plate track since 1996.One week later, he provided NASCAR with one of its most controversial moments.",
"At the Bristol night race, Earnhardt found himself in contention to win his first short track race since Martinsville in 1995.When a caution came out with 15 laps to go, leader Terry Labonte got hit from behind by the lapped car of Darrell Waltrip.",
"His spin put Earnhardt in the lead with five cars between him and Labonte with five laps to go.",
"Labonte had four fresh tires, and Earnhardt was driving on old tires, which made Earnhardt's car considerably slower.",
"Labonte caught Earnhardt and passed him coming to the white flag, but Earnhardt drove hard into turn two, bumping Labonte and spinning him around.",
"Earnhardt collected the win while spectators booed and made obscene gestures.",
"\"I didn't mean to turn him around, I just wanted to rattle his cage,\" Earnhardt said of the incident.",
"He finished seventh in the standings that year, with 3 wins, 7 top fives, and 21 top tens, with an average finish of 12.0.====2000====AIM-120 advanced medium-range air-to-air missile (AMRAAM) missile as he competes in a load crew competition at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, September 2000.Coincidentally, this position on a load crew is known unofficially as \"Jammer Driver\" or officially as Number ''3'' man.In the 2000 season, Earnhardt had a resurgence, which was commonly attributed to neck surgery he underwent to correct a lingering injury from his 1996 Talladega crash.",
"He scored what were considered the two most exciting wins of the year—winning by 0.010 seconds over Bobby Labonte at Atlanta, then gaining seventeen positions in the final four laps to win at Talladega, claiming his only No Bull million-dollar bonus along with his record 10th win at the track.",
"Earnhardt also had second-place runs at Richmond and Martinsville, tracks where he had struggled through the late 1990s.",
"On the strength of those performances, Earnhardt got to second in the standings.",
"However, poor performances at the road course of Watkins Glen, where he wrecked coming out of the chicane, a wreck with Kenny Irwin Jr. while leading the spring race at Bristol, and mid-pack runs at intermediate tracks like Charlotte and Dover in a season dominated by the Ford Taurus in those tracks from Roush, Yates, and Penske, coupled with Bobby Labonte's extreme consistency, denied Earnhardt an eighth championship title.",
"Earnhardt finished 2000 with two wins, 13 top fives, 24 top tens, an average finish of 9.4, and was the only driver besides Labonte to finish the season with zero DNF's."
],
[
"Death",
"The final-lap crash that killed Earnhardt.",
"He and Ken Schrader (No.",
"36) have just made contact with each other.During the Daytona 500 at Daytona International Speedway on February 18, 2001, Earnhardt was killed in a three-car crash on the final lap of the race.",
"He collided with Ken Schrader after making small contact with Sterling Marlin and hit the outside wall head-on.",
"He had been blocking Schrader on the outside and Marlin on the inside at the time of the crash.",
"Earnhardt's and Schrader's cars both slid off the track's asphalt banking into the infield grass just inside of turn 4.Seconds later, his driver Michael Waltrip won the race, with Michael’s teammate and his son Dale Earnhardt Jr. finishing second.",
"Earnhardt was pronounced dead at the Halifax Medical Center at 5:16 pm Eastern Standard Time (22:16 UTC); he was 49 years old.",
"NASCAR president Mike Helton confirmed Earnhardt's death in a statement to the press.",
"An autopsy conducted on February 19, 2001, concluded that Earnhardt sustained a fatal basilar skull fracture.",
"Four days later, on February 22, public funeral services for Earnhardt were held at the Calvary Church in Charlotte, North Carolina.=== Aftermath ===After Earnhardt's death, two investigations led by the Daytona Beach Police Department and NASCAR commenced; nearly every detail of the crash was made public.",
"The allegations of seatbelt failure resulted in Bill Simpson's resignation from the company bearing his name, which manufactured the seatbelts used in Earnhardt's car and nearly every other NASCAR driver's car.",
"NASCAR implemented rigorous safety improvements, such as mandating the HANS device, which Earnhardt refused to wear after finding it restrictive and uncomfortable.",
"Several press conferences were held in the days following Earnhardt's death.",
"After driver Sterling Marlin and his relatives received hate mail and death threats from angry fans, Waltrip and Earnhardt Jr. absolved him of any responsibility.",
"Richard Childress made a public pledge that the number 3 would never again adorn the side of a black race car with a GM Goodwrench sponsorship.",
"The number returned for the 2014 season, this time not sponsored by GM Goodwrench (which was rebranded GM Certified Service in 2011), driven by Childress's grandson Austin Dillon.At this time, his team was re-christened as the No.",
"29 team.",
"Childress's second-year Busch Series driver Kevin Harvick was named as Earnhardt's replacement, beginning with the 2001 Dura Lube 400 at North Carolina Speedway.",
"Special pennants bearing the No.",
"3 were distributed to everyone at the track to honor Earnhardt, and the Childress team wore blank uniforms out of respect, something which disappeared quickly and was soon replaced by the previous GM Goodwrench Service Plus uniforms.",
"Harvick's car always displayed the Earnhardt stylized number 3 on the \"B\" posts (metal portion on each side of the car to the rear of the front windows) above the number 29 until the end of 2013, when he departed for Stewart-Haas Racing.Fans began honoring Earnhardt by holding three fingers aloft on the third lap of every race, a black screen of No.",
"3 in the beginning of ''NASCAR Thunder 2002'' before the EA Sports logo, and the television coverage of ''NASCAR on Fox'' and ''NASCAR on NBC'' went silent for each third lap from Rockingham to the following year's race there in honor of Earnhardt, unless on-track incidents brought out the caution flag on the third lap.",
"Three weeks after Earnhardt's death, Harvick, driving a car that had been prepared for Earnhardt, scored his first career Cup win at Atlanta.",
"On the final lap of the 2001 Cracker Barrel Old Country Store 500, he beat Jeff Gordon by .006 seconds (the margin being 0.004 of a second closer than Earnhardt had won over Bobby Labonte at the same race a year ago) in an identical photo finish, and the images of Earnhardt's longtime gas man Danny \"Chocolate\" Myers crying after the victory, Harvick's tire-smoking burnout on the front stretch with three fingers held aloft outside the driver's window.",
"Harvick would win another race at the inaugural event at Chicagoland en route to a ninth-place finish in the final points and won Rookie of the Year honors along with the 2001 NASCAR Busch Series Championship.Dale Earnhardt, Inc. won five races in the 2001 season, beginning with Steve Park's victory in the race at Rockingham just one week after Earnhardt's death.",
"Earnhardt Jr. and Waltrip finished first and second in the series' return to Daytona in July for the Pepsi 400, a reverse of the finish in the Daytona 500.Earnhardt Jr. also won the fall races at Dover (first post 9/11 race) and Talladega and came to an eighth-place points finish.Earnhardt's remains were interred at his estate in Mooresville, North Carolina after a private funeral service on February 21, 2001."
],
[
"No. 3 car",
"Earnhardt in the No.",
"3 carThe No.",
"3 carEarnhardt drove the No.",
"3 car for the majority of his career, spanning the latter half of the 1981 season, and then again from 1984 until he died in 2001.Although he had other sponsors during his career, his No.",
"3 is associated in fans' minds with his last sponsor GM Goodwrench and his last color scheme — a predominantly black car with bold red and silver trim.",
"The black and red No.",
"3 continues to be one of the most famous logos in North American motor racing.A common misconception was that Richard Childress Racing \"owned the rights\" to the No.",
"3 in NASCAR competition (fueled by the fact that Kevin Harvick's car had a little No.",
"3 as an homage to Earnhardt from 2001 to 2013 and the usage of the No.",
"3 on the Camping World Truck Series truck of Ty Dillon when he ran in that series), but NASCAR, and no specific team, owns the rights to this or any other number.",
"According to established NASCAR procedures, Richard Childress Racing had priority over other teams if they chose to reuse the number, which they did when Austin Dillon was promoted to the Cup series in 2014.While Richard Childress Racing owns the stylized No.",
"3 logos used during Earnhardt's lifetime (and used presently with Dillon), those rights would hypothetically not prevent a future racing team from using a different No.",
"3 design (also, a new No.",
"3 team would most likely, in any case, need to create logos which fit with their sponsor's logos).In 2004, ESPN released a made-for-TV movie entitled ''3: The Dale Earnhardt Story'', which used a new (but similarly colored) No.",
"3 logo.",
"The movie was a sympathetic portrayal of Earnhardt's life, but the producers were sued for using the No.",
"3 logo.",
"In December 2006, the ESPN lawsuit was settled, but details were not released to the public.Dale Earnhardt Jr. made two special appearances in 2002 in a No.",
"3 Busch Series car: these appearances were at the track where his father died (Daytona) and the track where he made his first Winston Cup start (Charlotte).",
"Earnhardt Jr. won the first of those two races, which was the season-opening event at Daytona.",
"He also raced a No.",
"3 sponsored by Wrangler on July 2, 2010, for Richard Childress Racing at Daytona.",
"In a green-white-checker finish he outran Joey Logano to win his second race in the No.",
"3.Otherwise, the No.",
"3 was missing from the national touring series until September 5, 2009, when Austin Dillon, the 19-year-old grandson of Richard Childress, debuted an RCR-owned No.",
"3 truck in the Camping World Truck Series.",
"Dillon and his younger brother Ty Dillon drove the No.",
"3 in various lower level competitions for several years, including the Camping World East Series.",
"In 2012, Austin Dillon began driving in the Nationwide Series full-time, using the No.",
"3; he had previously used the No.",
"33 while driving in that series part-time.Richard Childress Racing entered a No.",
"3 in the Daytona truck race on February 13, 2010, with sponsorship from Bass Pro Shops driven by Austin Dillon.",
"It was involved in a wreck almost identical to that which took the life of Earnhardt: being spun out, colliding with another vehicle, and being turned into the outside wall in turn number four.",
"Dillon again returned to a No.",
"3 marked racecar when he started fifth in the 2012 Daytona Nationwide Series opener in an Advocare-sponsored black Chevrolet Impala.",
"On December 11, 2013, RCR announced that Austin Dillon would drive the No.",
"3 car in the upcoming 2014 Sprint Cup season, bringing the number back to the series for the first time in 13 years.Only the former International Race of Champions actually retired the No.",
"3, which they did in a rule change effective in 2004.Until the series folded in 2007, anyone wishing to use the No.",
"3 again had to use No.",
"03 instead.Formula One driver Daniel Ricciardo chose the number 3 as his permanent racing number when F1's rules changed to allow drivers to choose their own numbers for 2014 and stated on Twitter that part of the reason for his choice was that he was a fan of Earnhardt's, while his helmet design features the number stylized in the same way."
],
[
"Legacy",
"\"Earnhardt Tower\", a seating section at Daytona International Speedway was opened and named in his honor a month before his death at the track.Statue of Dale Earnhardt Sr. holding his winner's trophy at the Daytona International SpeedwayEarnhardt has several roads named after him, including a street in his hometown Kannapolis.",
"Dale Earnhardt Boulevard (originally Earnhardt Road) is marked as exit 60 off Interstate 85, northeast of Charlotte.",
"Dale Earnhardt Drive is also the start of The Dale Journey Trail, a self-guided driving tour of landmarks in the lives of Earnhardt and his family.",
"The North Carolina Department of Transportation switched the designation of a road between Kannapolis and Mooresville near the headquarters of DEI (that used to be called NC 136) with NC 3, which was in Currituck County.",
"In addition, exit 72 off Interstate 35W, one of the entrances to Texas Motor Speedway, is named \"Dale Earnhardt Way\".Between the 2004 and 2005 JGTC (renamed Super GT from 2005) season, Hasemi Sport competed in the series with a sole black G'Zox-sponsored Nissan 350Z with the same number and letterset as Earnhardt on the roof.During the NASCAR weekend races at Talladega Superspeedway on April 29, 2006 – May 1, 2006, the DEI cars competed in identical special black paint schemes on Dale Earnhardt Day, which is held annually on his birthday—April 29.Martin Truex Jr., won the Aaron's 312 in the black car, painted to reflect Earnhardt's Intimidating Black No.",
"3 NASCAR Busch Grand National series car.",
"In the Nextel Cup race on May 1, No.",
"8 Dale Earnhardt Jr.; No.",
"1 Martin Truex Jr.; and No.",
"15 Paul Menard competed in cars with the same type of paint scheme.On June 18, 2006, at Michigan for the 3M Performance 400, Earnhardt Jr. ran a special vintage Budweiser car to honor his father and his grandfather Ralph Earnhardt.",
"He finished third after rain caused the race to be cut short.",
"The car was painted to resemble Ralph's 1956 dirt cars, and carried 1956-era Budweiser logos to complete the throwback look.In the summer of 2007, Dale Earnhardt, Inc. (DEI) with the Dale Earnhardt Foundation, announced it will fund an annual undergraduate scholarship at Clemson University in Clemson, South Carolina, for students interested in motorsports and automotive engineering.",
"Scholarship winners are also eligible to work at DEI in internships.",
"The first winner was William Bostic, a senior at Clemson majoring in mechanical engineering.The former Earnhardt Grandstand at Daytona International SpeedwayIn 2008, on the 50th anniversary of the first Daytona 500 race, DEI and RCR teamed up to make a special COT sporting Earnhardt's 1998 Daytona 500 paint scheme to honor the tenth anniversary of his Daytona 500 victory.",
"In a tribute to all previous Daytona 500 winners, the winning drivers appeared in a lineup on stage, in chronological order.",
"The throwback No.",
"3 car stood in the infield, in the approximate position Earnhardt would have taken in the processional.",
"The throwback car featured the authentic 1998-era design on a current-era car, a concept similar to modern throwback jerseys in other sports.",
"The car was later sold in 1:64 and 1:24 scale models.The Intimidator 305 roller coaster has been open since April 2, 2010, at Kings Dominion in Doswell, Virginia.",
"Named after Earnhardt, the ride's trains are modeled after his black-and-red Chevrolet.",
"Another Intimidator was built at Carowinds, in Charlotte, North Carolina, which opened on March 27, 2010.The entrance to both roller coasters feature signage that shows Earnhardt's legacy along with one of his cars.Atlanta Braves assistant coach Ned Yost was a friend of Earnhardt, and Richard Childress.",
"When Yost was named Milwaukee Brewers manager, he changed jersey numbers, from No.",
"5 to No.",
"3 in Earnhardt's honor.",
"(No.",
"3 is retired by the Braves in honor of outfielder Dale Murphy, so Yost could not make the change while in Atlanta.)",
"When Yost was named Kansas City Royals assistant coach, he wore No.",
"2 for the 2010 season, even when he was named manager in May 2010, but for the 2011 season, he switched back to No.",
"3.During the third lap of the 2011 Daytona 500 (a decade since Earnhardt's death), and 2021 Daytona 500 (two decades since Earnhardt's death) the commentators on FOX fell silent while fans raised three fingers in a similar fashion to the tributes throughout 2001.The north entrance to New Avondale City Center in Arizona will bear the name Dale Earnhardt Drive.",
"Avondale is where Earnhardt won a Cup race in 1990.His helmet from the 1998 season is at the National Museum of American History in the Smithsonian museum in Washington D.C.Weedeater, a sludge metal band from North Carolina, paid tribute to Earnhardt on their 2003 album ''Sixteen Tons'', with the song \"No.",
"3\".",
"The song is played with audio clips from television broadcasts about Earnhardt mixed in the background.",
"He is also mentioned in a 2001 song composed by John Hiatt entitled ''The Tiki Bar Is Open,'' along with his legendary race number.On February 28, 2016, after winning the Folds of Honor QuikTrip 500 at Atlanta Motor Speedway, during his victory lap, driver Jimmie Johnson held his hand out of his window, with three fingers extended in tribute to Earnhardt.",
"This was following Johnson's 76th Cup Series win, which tied the career mark of Earnhardt's.",
"This is also the track where Earnhardt claimed his sixth Winston Cup Series title.In the week of the 2021 Formula One United States Grand Prix, McLaren driver, Daniel Ricciardo drove the iconic Wrangler car from the 1980s as a tribute to Earnhardt and his family, as Ricciardo has been a fan of Earnhardt since he was a child.",
"The opportunity came after winning the Italian Grand Prix that year, and the McLaren Team Owner, Zak Brown promised him that he would give him a chance to drive the iconic car."
],
[
"Awards",
"Earnhardt's suit on display at the North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame* He was awarded the Order of the Long Leaf Pine by North Carolina Governor Jim Hunt in 1994.",
"* He was inducted into the North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame in 1994.",
"* Earnhardt was named one of NASCAR's 50 Greatest Drivers in 1998.",
"* Earnhardt was posthumously named \"NASCAR's Most Popular Driver\" in 2001.This was the only time he received the award.",
"* He was posthumously inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2002, a year after his death.",
"* He was posthumously inducted in the Oceanside Rotary Club Stock Car Racing Hall of Fame at Daytona Beach in 2004.",
"* He was posthumously inducted in the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2006.",
"* Earnhardt was named first on ESPN's list of \"NASCAR's 20 Greatest Drivers\" in 2007 in front of Richard Petty.",
"* He was posthumously inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 2006.",
"* He was posthumously inducted in the Inaugural Class of the NASCAR Hall of Fame on May 23, 2010.",
"* He was posthumously inducted into the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame in 2020."
],
[
"Motorsports career results",
"===NASCAR===(key) ('''Bold''' – Pole position awarded by qualifying time.",
"''Italics'' – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time.",
"* – Most laps led.",
")====Winston Cup Series==== NASCAR Winston Cup Series results Year Team No.",
"Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Pts Ref 1975 Negre Racing 8 Dodge RSD DAY RCH CAR BRI ATL NWS DAR MAR TAL NSV DOV CLT RSD MCH DAY NSV POC TAL MCH DAR DOV NWS MAR CLT RCH CAR BRI ATL ONT NA 0 1976 Ballard Racing 30 Chevy RSD DAY CAR RCH BRI ATL NWS DAR MAR TAL NSV DOV CLT RSD MCH DAY NSV POC TAL MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR 103rd 70 Johnny Ray 77 Chevy ATL ONT 1977 Gray Racing 19 Chevy RSD DAY RCH CAR ATL NWS DAR BRI MAR TAL NSV DOV CLT RSD MCH DAY NSV POC TAL MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR ATL ONT 118th 49 1978 Cronkrite Racing 96 Ford RSD DAY RCH CAR ATL BRI DAR NWS MAR TAL DOV CLT NSV RSD MCH DAY NSV POC TAL MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR 43rd 558 Osterlund Racing 98 Chevy ATL ONT 1979 2 RSD CAR RCH NWS BRI DAR MAR NSV DOV CLT TWS '''RSD''' MCH NSV POC TAL MCH BRI DAR '''RCH''' '''DOV''' MAR CLT '''NWS''' CAR ATL ONT 7th 3749\t Buick DAY ATL TAL Olds DAY 1980 Chevy RSD RCH CAR ATL BRI DAR NWS MAR NSV DOV CLT TWS RSD MCH DAY NSV POC MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV NWS MAR CLT CAR ATL ONT 1st 4661 Olds DAY TAL TAL 1981 Pontiac RSD DAY RCH CAR ATL BRI NWS DAR MAR TAL NSV DOV CLT TWS RSD MCH 7th 3975 Jim Stacy Racing DAY NSV POC TAL Richard Childress Racing 3 Pontiac MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR ATL RSD 1982 Bud Moore Engineering 15 Ford DAY RCH BRI '''ATL'''28* CAR DAR NWS MAR TAL NSV DOV CLT30* POC RSD MCH DAY NSV POC TAL MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV NWS CLT MAR CAR ATL RSD 12th 3402 1983 DAY RCH CAR ATL DAR NWS MAR TAL NSV DOV BRI CLT RSD POC MCH DAY NSV POC TAL MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR ATL RSD 8th 3732 1984 Richard Childress Racing 3 Chevy DAY RCH CAR ATL BRI NWS DAR MAR TAL NSV DOV CLT RSD POC MCH DAY NSV POC TAL MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR CLT NWS CAR ATL RSD 4th 4265\t 1985 DAY RCH CAR ATL BRI DAR NWS MAR TAL DOV CLT RSD POC MCH DAY POC TAL MCH '''BRI''' DAR19* RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR ATL RSD 8th 3561 1986 DAY RCH CAR '''ATL''' BRI DAR NWS MAR TAL DOV CLT RSD POC MCH DAY27* POC TAL26* GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR ATL RSD 1st 4468 1987 DAY CAR RCH '''ATL'''16* DAR NWS BRI MAR TAL CLT DOV POC RSD MCH DAY POC TAL GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR RSD ATL 1st 4696 1988 DAY RCH10* CAR ATL DAR BRI NWS MAR TAL CLT DOV RSD POC MCH DAY POC TAL GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR CLT17* NWS CAR PHO ATL 3rd 4256 1989 DAY CAR ATL RCH DAR BRI NWS MAR TAL CLT DOV SON POC MCH DAY POC TAL GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR CLT ''NWS''10* CAR PHO ATL 2nd 4164 1990 DAY5* RCH CAR ''ATL'' DAR BRI NWS MAR TAL CLT DOV SON POC MCH DAY POC '''TAL''' '''GLN''' MCH '''BRI'''8* '''DAR''' RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR PHO ATL 1st 4430 1991 DAY RCH CAR ATL DAR BRI NWS MAR TAL CLT DOV SON POC MCH DAY POC TAL GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR PHO ATL 1st 4287 1992 DAY CAR RCH ATL DAR BRI NWS MAR TAL CLT DOV SON POC MCH DAY POC TAL '''GLN''' MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR PHO ATL 12th 3574 1993 DAY CAR RCH ATL ''DAR'' BRI NWS MAR '''TAL''' '''SON'''6* CLT DOV POC MCH DAY NHA POC TAL GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR PHO ATL 1st 4526 1994 DAY CAR RCH ATL DAR BRI NWS MAR TAL SON CLT DOV POC MCH '''DAY''' NHA POC '''TAL''' IND GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR PHO ATL 1st 4694\t 1995 DAY CAR RCH '''ATL''' DAR BRI NWS MAR TAL SON CLT DOV POC MCH '''DAY''' NHA POC TAL IND GLN MCH BRI DAR '''RCH''' DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR PHO ATL 2nd 4580 1996 '''DAY''' CAR RCH ATL DAR BRI NWS MAR TAL SON CLT DOV POC MCH DAY NHA POC TAL28* IND '''GLN'''6* MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR PHO ATL 4th 4327 1997 DAY CAR RCH ATL DAR TEX BRI MAR SON TAL CLT DOV POC MCH CAL DAY NHA POC IND GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH NHA DOV MAR CLT TAL CAR PHO ATL 5th 4216 1998 DAY CAR LVS ATL DAR BRI TEX MAR TAL CAL CLT DOV RCH MCH POC SON NHA POC IND GLN MCH BRI NHA DAR RCH DOV MAR CLT TAL DAY PHO CAR ATL 8th 3928 1999 DAY CAR LVS ATL DAR TEX BRI MAR TAL CAL RCH CLT DOV MCH POC SON DAY NHA POC IND GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH NHA DOV MAR CLT TAL CAR PHO HOM ATL 7th 4492 2000 DAY CAR LVS ATL DAR BRI TEX MAR TAL CAL RCH CLT DOV MCH POC SON DAY NHA POC IND GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH NHA DOV MAR CLT TAL CAR PHO HOM ATL 2nd 4865 2001 DAY CAR LVS ATL DAR BRI TEX MAR TAL CAL RCH CLT DOV MCH POC SON DAY CHI NHA POC IND GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV KAN CLT MAR TAL PHO CAR HOM ATL NHA 57th 132 =====Daytona 500===== Year Team Manufacturer Start Finish 1979Osterlund Racing Buick 10 8 1980 Oldsmobile 32 4 1981 Pontiac 7 5 1982Bud Moore EngineeringFord 10 36 1983 3 35 1984Richard Childress Racing Chevrolet 29 2 1985 18 32 1986 4 14 1987 13 5 1988 6 10 1989 8 3 1990 2 5 1991 4 5 1992 3 9 1993 4 2 1994 2 7 1995 2 2 1996 '''1''' 2 1997 4 31 1998 4 '''1''' 1999 4 2 2000 21 21 2001 7 12====Busch Series==== NASCAR Busch Series results Year Team No.",
"Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Pts Ref 1982 Robert Gee 15 Pontiac DAY RCH DAR HCY SBO DOV HCY CLT ASH HCY SBO CAR CRW SBO HCY LGY IRP RCH MAR CLT HCY MAR 21st 1188 45 Pontiac BRI MAR Robert Gee 15 Olds CRW RCH LGY Whitaker Racing Pontiac BRI HCY 1983 Robert Gee DAY RCH '''CAR''' HCY MAR NWS SBO GPS LGY DOV BRI CLT SBO HCY ROU SBO ROU CRW ROU SBO HCY LGY IRP GPS BRI HCY DAR RCH NWS SBO MAR ROU CLT HCY MAR 31st 790 1984 Whitaker Racing 7 Olds DAY RCH CAR HCY MAR DAR ROU NSV LGY MLW DOV 39th 553 Dale Earnhardt, Inc. 8 Pontiac CLT SBO HCY ROU SBO ROU HCY IRP LGY SBO BRI DAR RCH NWS CLT HCY CAR MAR 1985 DAY CAR HCY BRI MAR '''DAR''' SBO LGY DOV CLT SBO HCY ROU IRP SBO LGY HCY MLW BRI DAR RCH NWS ROU CLT HCY CAR MAR 47th 391 1986 DAY CAR HCY MAR DAR SBO LGY JFC DOV CLT SBO HCY ROU DAR '''CLT''' CAR MAR 25th 1611 Chevy BRI IRP SBO RAL OXF SBO HCY LGY ROU BRI RCH DOV MAR ROU 1987 DAY27* HCY MAR DAR '''BRI''' LGY SBO CLT5* DOV IRP ROU JFC OXF SBO HCY RAL LGY ROU BRI JFC DAR RCH DOV MAR CLT CAR MAR 33rd 1107 1988 DAY HCY '''CAR'''27* MAR DAR BRI LNG NZH SBO NSV CLT DOV ROU LAN LVL MYB OXF SBO HCY LNG IRP ROU BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR CLT CAR MAR 25th 1633 1989 3 Pontiac DAY 25th 1637 Chevy CAR MAR HCY DAR BRI NZH SBO LAN NSV CLT SBO HCY DUB IRP ROU BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR CLT CAR MAR Baker-Schiff Racing 87 Pontiac DOV ROU LVL VOL MYB 1990 Dale Earnhardt, Inc. 3 Chevy DAY RCH CAR MAR HCY DAR BRI LAN SBO NZH HCY CLT DOV ROU VOL MYB OXF NHA SBO DUB IRP ROU BRI24* DAR RCH DOV MAR CLT NHA CAR MAR 26th 1947 1991 DAY RCH '''CAR''' MAR VOL HCY DAR BRI LAN SBO NZH CLT DOV ROU HCY MYB GLN OXF NHA SBO DUB IRP ROU BRI DAR RCH DOV CLT NHA CAR6* MAR 27th 1799 1992 DAY CAR RCH ATL MAR DAR BRI CLT DOV ROU MYB GLN VOL NHA '''TAL''' IRP ROU MCH NHA BRI DAR RCH DOV CLT MAR CAR HCY 23rd 1665 Ken Schrader Racing 15 Chevy HCY LAN DUB NZH 1993 Dale Earnhardt, Inc. 3 Chevy DAY CAR RCH DAR BRI HCY ROU MAR NZH CLT DOV MYB GLN MLW TAL IRP MCH NHA BRI DAR RCH DOV ROU CLT MAR CAR HCY ATL 37th 989 1994 DAY CAR RCH ATL MAR DAR HCY BRI ROU NHA NZH CLT DOV MYB GLN MLW SBO TAL HCY IRP MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV CLT MAR CAR 34th 1188 † - Qualified but replaced by Neil Bonnett==== Winston West Series ====+NASCAR Winston West Series resultsYearTeam/OwnerNo.Make1234567891011121314NWWCPtsRef 1981 Osterlund Racing 72 Pontiac RSD S99 AAS MMR RSD LAG POR19 WSP EVG SHA RSD SON RSD PHO 43rd 35 1985 Bill Schmidt 3 Chevy SON SHA RSD MMR SIR1* POR STA YAK EVG WSR MMR RSD 33rd 60 ==== Busch North Series ====+NASCAR Winston West Series resultsYearTeam/OwnerNo.Make12345678910111213141516171819202122232425NWWCPtsRef1988Dale Shaw68PontiacJEN2056th1031993Dale Earnhardt, Inc.8ChevroletNHA3170th70===International Race of Champions===(key) ('''Bold''' – Pole position.",
"* – Most laps led.)",
"International Race of Champions results Year Make Q1 Q2 Q3 1 2 3 4 Pos.",
"Pts Ref 1979−80 Chevy MCH MCH RSD RSD ATL NA 0 1984 MCH CLE TAL MCH 9th 31 1987 DAY MOH MCH GLN 10th 30 1988 DAY RSD MCH GLN 5th 45 1989 DAY NZH MCH GLN 4th 57 1990 Dodge TAL CLE MCH 1st 60 1991 DAY '''TAL''' '''MCH''' GLN 9th 27 1992 DAY TAL MCH MCH 2nd 63 1993 DAY DAR TAL MCH5* NA 0 1994 '''DAY''' DAR TAL MCH 4th 56 1995 DAY DAR TAL MCH 1st 61 1996 Pontiac DAY TAL CLT MCH 8th 39 1997 DAY CLT CAL MCH 7th 35\t 1998 DAY CAL MCH IND 7th 36 1999 DAY TAL MCH IND 1st 75 2000 '''DAY''' TAL MCH IND 1st 74 2001 '''DAY''' TAL MCH IND NA 0===ARCA Hooters SuperCar Series===(key) ('''Bold''' – Pole position awarded by qualifying time.",
"''Italics'' – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time.",
"* – Most laps led.)",
"ARCA Hooters SuperCar Series results Year Team No.",
"Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Pts Ref 1991 Dale Earnhardt, Inc. 3 Chevy DAY ATL KIL TAL TOL FRS POC MCH KIL FRS DEL POC TAL HPT MCH ISF TOL DSF TWS ATL 113th - 1993 Dale Earnhardt, Inc. 3 Chevy DAY FIF TWS TAL KIL CMS FRS TOL POC MCH FRS POC KIL ISF DSF TOL SLM WIN ATL 109th -===24 Hours of Daytona===(key) 24 Hours of Daytona results Year Class No Team Car Co-drivers Laps Position Class Pos.",
"2001 GTS 3 Corvette Racing Chevrolet Corvette Andy Pilgrim Dale Earnhardt Jr. Kelly Collins 642 4 2"
],
[
"See also",
"* Dale Earnhardt, Inc.* Ralph Earnhardt, father* Teresa Earnhardt, wife* Dale Earnhardt Jr., son* Kelly Earnhardt Miller, daughter* Jeffrey Earnhardt, grandson* Kerry Earnhardt, son * Bobby Earnhardt, grandson * Richard Childress Racing* List of Daytona 500 winners* List of Daytona 500 pole position winners* List of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series champions* List of all-time NASCAR Cup Series winners* List of members of the NASCAR Hall of Fame"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"List of games based on Dune"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A number of games have been published based on the ''Dune'' universe created by Frank Herbert."
],
[
"Card games",
"* ''Dune'' (1997): Collectible card game produced by Five Rings Publishing Group/Last Unicorn Games and later Wizards of the Coast.",
"Each player leads a planetary house, \"battling, conniving, and bribing its way to greatness ... players bid for powerful characters, search for the life-prolonging spice melange, avoid sandworms, engage in interstellar commerce, and, naturally, try to kill each other\"."
],
[
"Board games",
"* ''Dune'' (1979/2019): Avalon Hill/Gale Force Nine* ''Dune'' (1984): Parker Brothers* ''Dune: Imperium'' (2020): Dire Wolf* ''Dune: War for Arrakis'' (2024): CMON"
],
[
"Role-playing games",
"* ''Dune: Chronicles of the Imperium'' (2000): Last Unicorn Games.",
"Delayed by legal issues and then a corporate buyout of Last Unicorn by Wizards of the Coast, a \"Limited Edition\" run of 3000 copies of a core rule-book was initially published, pending Wizards of the Coast's conversion of the game to its d20 role-playing game system and a subsequent wider release.",
"The game was later discontinued, but was eventually published by Wizards of the Coast after the acquisition.",
"Val Mayerik did interior art for the game.",
"* ''Dune: A Dream Of Rain'' (2004): Evil Twin Games; unlicensed fan-made game, based on the d20 System.",
"* ''Dune: Adventures in the Imperium'' (2021): Modiphius Entertainment.",
"Its release coincided with the 2021 ''Dune'' film.==Video games==To date, there have been five licensed ''Dune''-related video games released.",
"There have also been many ''Dune''-based MUDs (Multi-User Dimension) and browser-based online games, all created and run by fans.===''Dune'' (1992)===1992's ''Dune'' from Cryo Interactive/Virgin Interactive blends adventure with strategy.",
"Loosely following the story of the 1965 novel ''Dune'' and using many visual elements from the 1984 film of the same name by David Lynch, the game casts the player as Paul Atreides, with the ultimate goal of driving the Harkonnens from the planet Dune and taking control of its valuable export, the spice.",
"Key to success is the management of spice mining, military forces, and ecology as the player amasses allies and skills.",
"One aspect of the game allows the player to terraform Arrakis from a desert into a fertile and green planet, at the cost of sandworm habitat and reduced melange spice production.===''Dune II'' (1992)===''Dune II: The Building of a Dynasty'', later retitled ''Dune II: Battle for Arrakis'' for the European release and the Mega Drive/Genesis port, was released in December 1992 from Westwood Studios/Virgin Interactive.",
"Often considered to be the first \"mainstream modern real-time strategy game\", ''Dune II'' established many conventions of the genre.",
"Only loosely connected to the plot of the novels or films, the game pits three interplanetary houses — the Atreides, the Harkonnens, and the Ordos — against each other for control of the planet Arrakis and its valuable spice, all while fending off the destructive natural forces of the harsh desert planet itself.===''Dune 2000'' (1998)===''Dune 2000'', a 1998 remake of ''Dune II'' from Intelligent Games/Westwood Studios/Virgin Interactive, added improved graphics and live-action cutscenes.",
"Though gameplay is similar to its predecessor, ''Dune 2000'' features an enhanced storyline and functionality.===''Emperor: Battle for Dune'' (2001)===''Emperor: Battle for Dune'' (Intelligent Games/Westwood Studios/Electronic Arts) was released on June 12, 2001.A sequel to ''Dune 2000'', the real-time strategy game features 3D graphics and live-action cutscenes, and casts players as Atreides, Harkonnens, or Ordos.===''Frank Herbert's Dune'' (2001)===Released in 2001 by Cryo Interactive/DreamCatcher Interactive, ''Frank Herbert's Dune'' is a 3D video game based on the 2000 Sci Fi Channel miniseries of the same name.",
"As Paul Muad'Dib Atreides, the player must become leader of the Fremen, seize control of Dune, and defeat the evil Baron Harkonnen.",
"The game was not a commercial or critical success, and Cryo subsequently filed for bankruptcy in July 2002.===''Dune Generations'' (2001, cancelled)===''Dune Generations'' logoIn 2001, Cryonetworks disclosed information about ''Dune Generations'', an online, 3D real-time strategy game set in the ''Dune'' universe.",
"An official website for the upcoming game featured concept images, a brief background story and description of the persistent gameworld, and a list of frequently asked questions.",
"The game would be constructed using Cryo's own online multimedia development framework SCOL.Within \"the infrastructure of a permanent and massive multiplayer world that exists online\", ''Dune Generations'' would let players assume control of a dynasty in the ''Dune'' universe, with the goal of first mastering the natural resources of their own homeworlds and ultimately rising in power and influence through conflicts and alliances with other player dynasties.",
"Each of the three available dynasty types - traders, soldiers, or mercenaries - would provide a different playing experience, all with the long-term goal of gaining control of Arrakis and its valuable spice.A preview video trailer was released in November 2001.The game was still in the alpha testing stage in February 2002, and the project was ultimately halted after Cryo filed for bankruptcy in July.===''Dune: Ornithopter Assault'' (2002, cancelled)===''Dune: Ornithopter Assault'' was developed by Hungarian studio Soft Brigade 2 for the Game Boy Advance, but was cancelled in 2002.The game was to be a 3D air-to-ground shooter featuring 20 missions, five modes, and multiplayer Link Cable connectivity.",
"Without the license, the game was eventually released as ''Elland: The Crystal Wars'' on PC.===''Dune Wars'' mod for ''Civilization IV'' (2009)===The ''Dune Wars'' mod is a total conversion of ''Civilization IV: Beyond the Sword'' to the ''Dune'' setting.",
"The mod was featured by Tom Chick in the relaunched Tom vs Bruce series.",
"In 2015 an updated version of the mod called ''Dune Wars: Revival'' was released.=== ''Dune: Spice Wars'' (2022) ===''Dune: Spice Wars'' is released on Steam in Early Access by French development studio Shiro Games on April 26, 2022.The game is inspired by Dune and Dune 2 with a strong influence by the books rather than the movies.",
"The new game is a hybrid of RTS and 4X game mechanism, according to the studio: \"Is it an RTS or a 4X?",
"It is both.",
"The game is real time, but the pace is slower than in a typical RTS (and you can pause and fast forward).",
"The game also features exploration, territory control, economic growth, combat, politics and spying, features that make it a true 4X game but do not detract from the core RTS experience that players would expect.",
"\"=== ''Dune: Awakening'' (TBA) ===''Dune: Awakening'' is an upcoming open-world action survival MMO game set on the planet Arrakis, where players can enjoy exploration of Dune.",
"It was first announced by its publisher and developer Funcom on Gamescom Opening Night Live 2022; the release date has not been revealed, and it will be released on PS5, PC and Xbox Series X/S.",
"The first trailer was premiered on August 23, 2022."
],
[
"Online games",
"===DuneMUSH===''Dune II'' was an unlicensed, online multiplayer MUSH active in the early 1990s.=== ''Behind the Dune'' ===''Behind the Dune'' is an unlicensed online flash single player game first released in 2016.The game is based on ''Dune'' (1992) by Cryo Interactive."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"** Herbert's Dune'' games at uvlist.net* games at Dune2k.com"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"List of Dune characters"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Characters from Denis Villeneuve's ''Dune'' (2021).",
"From left to right: Chani (Zendaya), Gurney Halleck (Josh Brolin), Lady Jessica (Rebecca Ferguson), Stilgar (Javier Bardem), Paul Atreides (Timothée Chalamet), Duncan Idaho (Jason Momoa), Liet-Kynes (Sharon Duncan-Brewster) and Leto Atreides (Oscar Isaac).",
"''Dune'' is a science fiction media franchise that originated with the 1965 novel of the same name by American author Frank Herbert.",
"''Dune'' is frequently cited as the best-selling science fiction novel in history, and won the 1966 Hugo Award as well as the inaugural Nebula Award for Best Novel.",
"Herbert wrote five sequels before his death in 1986: ''Dune Messiah'' (1969), ''Children of Dune'' (1976), ''God Emperor of Dune'' (1981), ''Heretics of Dune'' (1984) and ''Chapterhouse: Dune'' (1985).",
"''Dune'' follows Paul, the scion of House Atreides, as his family is thrown into the dangerous political intrigues centered on the desert planet Arrakis, only known source of the oracular spice melange, the most important and valuable substance in the universe.",
"The series spans 5,000 years, focusing on Paul and then his various descendants.",
"''Dune'' was adapted as a 1984 film, and again in two parts, the films ''Dune'' (2021) and ''Dune: Part Two'' (2024).",
"Additionally, the novel was adapted as a 2000 television miniseries, and the first two sequels were also adapted as a single miniseries in 2003.Since 1999, Herbert's son Brian Herbert and science fiction author Kevin J. Anderson have published 15 prequel novels, collected in the series ''Prelude to Dune'' (1999–2001), ''Legends of Dune'' (2002–2004), ''Heroes of Dune'' (2008–2023), ''Great Schools of Dune'' (2012–2016), and ''The Caladan Trilogy'' (2020–2022).",
"They have also released two sequel novels—''Hunters of Dune'' (2006) and ''Sandworms of Dune'' (2007)—which complete the original series."
],
[
"Overview",
" Character Frank Herbert Novels Adaptations ''Dune'' ''Dune Messiah'' ''Children of Dune'' ''God Emperor of Dune'' ''Heretics of Dune'' ''Chapterhouse: Dune'' ''Dune'' ''Dune'' ''Children of Dune'' ''Dune'' Paul Atreides Kyle MacLachlan Alec Newman Timothée Chalamet Lady Jessica Francesca Annis Saskia Reeves Alice Krige Rebecca Ferguson Leto I Atreides Jürgen Prochnow William Hurt Oscar Isaac Vladimir Harkonnen Kenneth McMillan Ian McNeice Stellan Skarsgård Chani Sean Young Barbora Kodetová Zendaya Stilgar Everett McGill Uwe Ochsenknecht Steven Berkoff Javier Bardem Gaius Helen Mohiam Siân Phillips Zuzana Geislerová Charlotte Rampling Duncan Idaho Richard Jordan James Watson Edward Atterton Jason Momoa Wellington Yueh Dean Stockwell Robert Russell Chang Chen Gurney Halleck Patrick Stewart P. H. Moriarty Josh Brolin Feyd-Rautha Sting Matt Keeslar Austin Butler Glossu Rabban Paul Smith Dave Bautista Princess Irulan Virginia Madsen Julie Cox Florence Pugh Shaddam IV José Ferrer Giancarlo Giannini Christopher Walken Thufir Hawat Freddie Jones Stephen McKinley Henderson Count Fenring Miroslav Táborský Margot Fenring Léa Seydoux Piter De Vries Brad Dourif Jan Unger David Dastmalchian Alia Atreides Alicia Witt Laura Burton Daniela Amavia Shadout Mapes Linda Hunt Jaroslava Šiktancová Golda Rosheuvel Liet-Kynes Max von Sydow Karel Dobrý Sharon Duncan-Brewster Ramallo Silvana Mangano Drahomira Fialkova Jamis Judd Omen Christopher Lee Brown Babs Olusanmokun Harah Molly Wrynn Otheym Honorato Magalone Jakob Schwarz Korba Karel Dobrý Aramsham Iakin Nefud Jack Nance Scytale Leonardo Cimino Martin McDougall Edric Terrence Stone Bijaz Gee Williams Lichna Klára Issová Farok Ivo Novák Princess Wensicia Susan Sarandon Leto II Atreides James McAvoy Ghanima Atreides Jessica Brooks Tyekanik Marek Vašut Farad'n Jonathan Brüün Javid Rik Young Siona Atreides Hwi Noree Anteac Moneo Atreides Nayla Chenoeh Luyseyal Lucilla Miles Teg Murbella Darwi Odrade Sheeana Tylwyth Waff Bellonda Taraza Burzmali Hedley Tuek Daniel and Marty Dama Logno"
],
[
"Introduced in ''Dune'' (1965)",
"=== Paul Atreides ===In ''Dune'', Paul is the teenage son and heir of Duke Leto Atreides and Lady Jessica, whose family is thrown into the dangerous political intrigues centered on the inhospitable desert planet Arrakis, only known source of the oracular spice melange, the most important and valuable substance in the universe.",
"Paul has been trained by his father and several Atreides attendants in fighting and the art of war, and by his mother in some of her Bene Gesserit disciplines.",
"Paul also possesses burgeoning prescient abilities, which are further unlocked by the inescapable exposure to melange on Arrakis.",
"House Atreides is soon betrayed and scattered, with Leto killed, his forces decimated, and Paul and Jessica forced to flee into the open desert.",
"They are taken in by the native Fremen, a secretive population of fierce fighters who thrive despite the scarcity of water and presence of aggressive, giant sandworms.",
"Paul rises to lead the planetwide Fremen forces against the Imperial stranglehold over Arrakis, ultimately seizing control of the planet and deposing Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV.",
"In ''Dune Messiah'', Paul's empire is challenged by the conspiracies of various factions hoping to destroy him, while a jihad in his name rages across the universe.",
"''Children of Dune'' finds Paul's heirs trying to maintain the already declining empire he has abandoned.Paul is portrayed by Kyle MacLachlan in the 1984 film adaptation ''Dune'', and by Alec Newman in the 2000 miniseries ''Frank Herbert's Dune'' and its 2003 sequel, ''Frank Herbert's Children of Dune''.",
"The character is played by Timothée Chalamet in the 2021 film ''Dune'' and its sequel, ''Dune: Part Two'' (2024).=== Lady Jessica ===In ''Dune'', Lady Jessica is the concubine of Duke Leto and the mother of his son Paul and daughter Alia.",
"Jessica is one of the Bene Gesserit, a secretive, matriarchal order who achieve superhuman abilities through physical and mental conditioning and the use of the drug melange.",
"Instructed by the Bene Gesserit to first conceive a daughter with Leto to further the order's centuries-long breeding program, she disobeyed out of love for Leto, and gave him a son.",
"This seemingly minor misstep puts the Atreides bloodline on a collision course with events that will ultimately change the fate of the universe.",
"Pregnant with Alia, Jessica flees into the desert with Paul as House Atreides is all but destroyed by the forces of the wicked Baron Vladimir Harkonnen.",
"Finding refuge with the native Fremen, she and Paul take advantage of the legends planted there by Bene Gesserit religious engineering, casting themselves as the prophesied messiah and his mother.",
"Jessica undergoes the Fremen version of the Bene Gesserit spice agony ritual, becoming a Reverend Mother and unlocking Other Memory, the personas and memories of all her female ancestors.",
"But doing so while pregnant subjects the unborn Alia to an onslaught of heightened awareness for which her fragile consciousness is not prepared.",
"Jessica returns to Arrakis in ''Children of Dune'' and recognizes that Alia, who serves as regent for Paul and Chani's twin children, Leto II and Ghanima, has succumbed to the dangers of her unique birth and become possessed.",
"Jessica escapes an assassination attempt by Alia, and trains Farad'n, the grandson of Shaddam IV, in the Bene Gesserit way.Lady Jessica is portrayed by Francesca Annis in the 1984 film.",
"Saskia Reeves plays the role in the 2000 miniseries, and is succeeded by Alice Krige in its 2003 sequel.",
"Rebecca Ferguson portrays Jessica in the 2021 film and its 2024 sequel.=== Leto I Atreides ===Duke Leto Atreides is the planetary governor of the ocean planet Caladan who takes over the lucrative spice mining operations on the desert planet Arrakis at the behest of the Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV.",
"Knowing it is some kind of trap but unable to refuse the assignment, Leto proactively seeks an alliance with the native Fremen, people tempered by the planet's harsh conditions who Leto realizes are an underestimated and untapped resource.",
"He is accompanied to Arrakis by his Bene Gesserit concubine Lady Jessica, with whom he is in love but has not married to allow for the possibility of a politically advantageous marriage, and his son and heir, Paul.",
"Threatened by Leto's growing influence among the Landsraad assembly of noble families, Shaddam has aligned himself with Leto's enemy, the Baron Harkonnen.",
"The Harkonnens, secretly bolstered by Shaddam's fierce Sardaukar warriors and aided by Leto's own personal physician, the Suk doctor Wellington Yueh, launch an attack that decimates the Atreides forces.",
"Leto is taken prisoner by the Baron, and dies attempting to kill him.The character has been described as \"regal and doomed\", and \"warmly protective but all-too-vulnerable\".Leto is portrayed by Jürgen Prochnow in the 1984 film.",
"Ben Sherlock of ''Screen Rant'' called Prochnow \"mesmerizing\" in the role, with \"a commanding screen presence\" that \"brought slightly more grit\" than subsequent portrayals.",
"William Hurt plays Leto in the 2000 miniseries.",
"Hurt was the first actor to be cast in the 2000 adaptation.",
"A fan of the novel, he told ''The New York Times'', \"I was a science fiction junkie ... Director John Harrison captured Herbert's prophetic reflection of our own age, where nation-states are competing with the new global economy and its corporate elements.\"",
"Emmet Asher-Perrin of ''Tor.com'' wrote that Hurt \"brings a certain reserved calm that works for the character.\"",
"Leto is portrayed by Oscar Isaac in the 2021 film.",
"Chaim Gartenberg of ''The Verge'' wrote, \"Isaac exudes a sense of righteous honor, and it’s easy to see both why his men would follow him to a forsaken desert world and why he falls so thoroughly into the political traps.",
"\"In 2020, Funko produced a Duke Leto figure as part of their POP!",
"Television line.",
"It is a vinyl figure in the Japanese chibi style, depicting Leto in armor and styled after the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film.Leto is also a primary character in the prequel trilogies ''Prelude to Dune'' and ''The Caladan Trilogy'' by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.",
"In ''Prelude to Dune'', young Leto's mother, Helena, arranges for his father, expert bullfighter Duke Paulus Atreides, to be killed by a drugged Salusan bull so she can rule Caladan as Leto's regent.",
"He exiles his mother to a distant convent to avoid the scandal of a public execution, and as duke takes Kailea Vernius of the industrial planet Ix as his concubine.",
"They have a son, Victor, but grow apart, and Kailea's resentment and insecurities build.",
"Threatened by Leto's attraction to the Bene Gesserit acolyte Jessica, Kailea attempts to kill him, but in the ensuing accident her brother Rhombur is critically injured and Victor is killed.",
"Kailea commits suicide, and Leto takes Jessica as his concubine.",
"Though instructed by the Bene Gesserit to bear the mourning Leto a daughter, Jessica intentionally conceives the son he desires, Paul.",
"Leto surrounds himself with loyal and capable individuals, and comes to be known as an effective politician, a fair and just statesman, and a capable leader of his small military.",
"The new Padishah Emperor, Shaddam IV, both admires Leto and dislikes him as a political rival.",
"Leto's military victory over the Tleilaxu forces occupying Ix, and his role in the subsequent political censure of Shaddam, ensure Leto a vengeful enemy in the emperor.=== Vladimir Harkonnen ===Baron Vladimir Harkonnen is the ruthless and cunning head of House Harkonnen, centuries-old enemies of House Atreides.",
"The Baron's intent to exterminate the Atreides line seems close to fruition as Duke Leto is lured to Arrakis on the pretense of taking over the lucrative spice mining operation there, previously controlled by the Harkonnens.",
"The Baron has coerced Leto's own physician, the trusted Suk doctor Wellington Yueh, to be his agent in the Atreides household.",
"Yueh disables the protective shields around the Atreides palace and the Harkonnen forces (secretly supplemented by the seemingly unstoppable Imperial Sardaukar warriors) attack.",
"Yueh gives a captive Leto the means to assassinate the Baron, who survives the attempt as Leto dies.",
"Escaping into the desert and later presumed dead, Leto's son Paul reveals to his mother, Lady Jessica, that the Baron is her father.",
"The Baron's succession plan is to install his charismatic yet deadly younger nephew, Feyd-Rautha, as ruler of Arrakis after a period of tyrannical misrule by his brutish elder nephew, Glossu Rabban, making Feyd appear to be the savior of the people.",
"A crisis on Arrakis begins when the mysterious Muad'Dib emerges as a leader of the native Fremen tribes, uniting them against Harkonnen rule.",
"Eventually, a series of Fremen victories against Rabban threaten to disrupt the trade of the spice, attracting the attention of Shaddam IV himself.",
"The emperor arrives on Arrakis with several legions of his Sardaukar, and he and the Baron are shocked to discover that the Fremen warlord Muad'Dib is actually Paul Atreides.",
"The Fremen, previously underestimated by the Harkonnens, overcome the Imperial and Harkonnen forces thanks to Paul's military strategy, their own ferocity and their ability to use sandstorms and the giant sandworms of Arrakis to their advantage.",
"Paul's sister Alia, four years old but born a fully aware Fremen Reverend Mother, reveals to the Baron that he is her grandfather before she kills him with a poisoned needle called a gom jabbar.In ''Children of Dune'', Alia succumbs to the dangers of her unique birth and is possessed by the persona of the deceased Baron Harkonnen.",
"As he promises his assistance in quelling the multitude of other ancestral voices assailing her, Alia gradually relinquishes control of herself to the Baron, and descends into depravity and a lust for power sure to destroy the Atreides empire from within.",
"Eventually realizing that Harkonnen's consciousness has surpassed her abilities to contain him, Alia commits suicide.Baron Harkonnen is portrayed by Kenneth McMillan in the 1984 film, and by Ian McNeice in the 2000 miniseries and its 2003 sequel.",
"Stellan Skarsgård portrays the character in the 2021 film and its 2024 sequel.=== Chani ===Chani is the daughter of Liet-Kynes, the Imperial Planetologist on Arrakis, and his Fremen wife Faroula.",
"In ''Dune'', Paul Atreides sees Chani in his prescient dreams before his family moves from Caladan to Arrakis.",
"Later, Paul and his mother Jessica flee the Harkonnen attack that kills his father and decimates the Atreides forces, and are reluctantly taken in by a tribe of the planet's native desert people, the Fremen.",
"Chani, a fierce warrior, is assigned to protect and guide Paul in the Fremen ways.",
"They soon become lovers, and Paul, now known as Muad'Dib, rises as a military and religious leader among the Fremen.",
"Their rebellion against the Harkonnens intensifies, and Paul and Chani's infant son is murdered in a Sardaukar raid.",
"The Fremen overcome the Imperial and Harkonnen forces thanks to Paul's military strategy, their own ferocity and their ability to use sandstorms and the giant sandworms of Arrakis to their advantage.",
"With his absolute control over Arrakis and the spice, Paul deposes Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV, marrying his daughter Princess Irulan to secure the throne.",
"He vows that Chani will always be his only love, and mother of his children.Twelve years later in ''Dune Messiah'', Paul and Chani remain childless.",
"Irulan, Bene Gesserit-trained and doing their bidding, has been secretly feeding Chani contraceptives to prevent her from conceiving an Imperial heir.",
"The Sisterhood are desperate to regain control of Paul's bloodline for their breeding program, and are fearful of the effect Chani's \"wild\" genes may have on their offspring.",
"But when Chani begins an ancient Fremen fertility diet high in melange, Irulan loses her ability to interfere, and Chani becomes pregnant.",
"Chani ultimately discovers not only Irulan's role in her infertility but the fact that the contraceptives have caused permanent damage and will jeopardize her pregnancy.",
"Chani seeks to kill Irulan, but Paul forbids it.",
"He is secretly somewhat grateful to Irulan, as he has seen through his prescience that childbirth will bring Chani's death, and so Irulan has unwittingly extended Chani's life.",
"Chani dies after giving birth to Paul's twin children, Leto II and Ghanima.",
"Having proven their ability to do so, the Tleilaxu offer to resurrect Chani as a ghola in exchange for control of the empire, but Paul refuses.",
"Through his oracular sight, Paul has seen that Chani's death during childbirth is far less painful and cruel than her possible future fates had she survived.Chani is portrayed by actress Sean Young in the 1984 film, and by Barbora Kodetová in the 2000 miniseries and its 2003 sequel.",
"Zendaya portrays the character in the 2021 film and its 2024 sequel.=== Stilgar ===Stilgar is the Fremen leader, or naib, of Sietch Tabr.",
"In ''Dune'', Duke Leto Atreides sends his swordmaster, Duncan Idaho, to build a relationship with the mysterious native Fremen of Arrakis, people tempered by the planet's harsh conditions who Leto realizes are an underestimated and untapped resource.",
"Leto allows Duncan, impressed with the Fremen and their ways, a dual loyalty to both the Atreides and Stilgar.",
"When Leto's son Paul and his Bene Gesserit mother, Lady Jessica, flee a Harkonnen attack, they find refuge with Stilgar's tribe of Fremen.",
"Paul, believed to be their prophesied messiah, comes to be known as Muad'Dib and rises as a military and religious leader among the Fremen.",
"Previously underestimated by the Harkonnens, the Fremen overcome the Imperial and Harkonnen forces that control Arrakis thanks to Paul's military strategy, their own ferocity and their ability to use sandstorms and the giant sandworms to their advantage.",
"In ''Dune Messiah'', Stilgar is a staunch supporter and protector of Paul, and one of his inner circle of advisors.",
"In ''Children of Dune'', Stilgar is fiercely loyal to Paul's young heirs Leto II and Ghanima, and is conflicted as the regent, Paul's sister Alia, descends into madness.",
"Duncan manipulates Stilgar into killing him, knowing it will force Stilgar to join the rebellion against Alia.",
"Later, with Leto presumed dead, Stilgar helps Ghanima and Princess Irulan escape Alia's tyranny.Novelist Brian Herbert, Frank Herbert's son and biographer, wrote, \"One time I asked my father if he identified with any of the characters in his stories, and to my surprise he said it was Stilgar, the rugged leader of the Fremen... Mulling this over, I realized Stilgar was the equivalent of a Native American chief in ''Dune''—a person who represented and defended time-honored ways that did not harm the ecology of the planet.",
"\"Stilgar is portrayed by Everett McGill in the 1984 film.",
"Uwe Ochsenknecht plays the role in the 2000 miniseries, and is succeeded by Steven Berkoff in its 2003 sequel.",
"Asher-Perrin called Ochsenknecht \"a wonderfully gruff Stilgar\", but later wrote, \"Steven Berkoff is an incredible character actor, but there is nothing about him that even remotely invokes the old Fremen leader.",
"Instead, he reads at the beginning like the Atreides family butler before moving onto Old British Wardog Supreme.\"",
"Javier Bardem portrays Stilgar in the 2021 film and its 2024 sequel.In 1984, toy company LJN released a line of ''Dune'' action figures, styled after David Lynch's film, which included a figure of Stilgar.",
"McFarlane Toys released a 7\" articulating action figure of Stilgar in 2020, styled after the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film.",
"In 2022, Super7 released a 3.75\" articulating Stilgar action figure as part of its ''Dune'' ReAction line, also styled after the Lynch film.Stilgar's early life is explored in the ''Prelude to Dune'' prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, and he is resurrected as a ghola in the Brian Herbert/Anderson conclusion to the original series, ''Sandworms of Dune''.",
"The character also appears in the prequel novels ''Paul of Dune'' and ''The Winds of Dune''.=== Duncan Idaho ===Duncan Idaho is the Swordmaster of House Atreides, and one of Paul's teachers.",
"In ''Dune'', Leto sends Duncan to build a relationship with the mysterious native Fremen of Arrakis, people tempered by the planet's harsh conditions who Leto realizes are an underestimated and untapped resource.",
"Leto allows Duncan, impressed with the Fremen and their ways, a dual loyalty to both the Atreides and Stilgar, but he is later killed helping Paul and Jessica escape the Harkonnens.",
"Duncan is revived by the Bene Tleilax as the ghola Mentat Hayt in ''Dune Messiah'', and works with Paul's sister Alia to unravel the conspiracy against the Atreides.",
"The Tleilaxu have secretly programmed Hayt to seduce Alia, weaken Paul psychologically and then kill him.",
"The trauma of the attempt restores his memories of being Duncan.",
"He is married to Alia in ''Children of Dune'', but she has succumbed to the dangers of her unique birth and become possessed by the persona of the deceased Baron Harkonnen.",
"As Alia becomes more power-hungry and attempts to assassinate her mother Jessica, Duncan spirits Jessica and Paul's children Leto II and Ghanima away.",
"He manipulates Fremen naib Stilgar, a loyal Atreides advisor, into killing him, knowing that the act will force Stilgar to join the rebellion against Alia or be executed by her out of political necessity.Thirty-five hundred years later in ''God Emperor of Dune'', a series of Duncan gholas provided by the Tleilaxu have served the seemingly immortal God Emperor Leto II Atreides one after the other.",
"Most of these have been killed by Leto himself, as the serial Duncans, pledged to the Atreides in a time when justice reigned, tend to rebel against the hallmark tyranny and oppression of Leto's rule.",
"The newest Duncan is as disillusioned as his predecessors, and after falling in love with the Ixian ambassador Hwi Noree (who is engaged to Leto), he joins Atreides descendant Siona in her plot to assassinate Leto.",
"He allows them to succeed, and as he dies, Leto reveals that his millennia-long plan for humanity's ultimate survival—called the Golden Path—has come to fruition.",
"Siona and her descendants will be invisible to prescient sight, and the end of his millennia of oppression will spark a mass diaspora of humankind which will come to be known as The Scattering.Fifteen hundred years later, the Bene Gesserit become the consumers of Duncan gholas in ''Heretics of Dune'' and ''Chapterhouse Dune''.",
"The Sisterhood suspect that the Tleilaxu have implanted the gholas with some secret purpose, and when latest Duncan regains his memories, he agrees.",
"The Honored Matres, a violent matriarchal order with the ability to enslave men using their unique sexual talents, have arrived from the farthest reaches of the universe, wreaking havoc and destruction, and obliterating Tleilaxu worlds.",
"An attempt by the Honored Matre Murbella to sexually imprint Duncan triggers the hidden Tleilaxu purpose: to conquer the Honored Matres by using a better version of their own sexual techniques.",
"All the memories of the previous Duncans are unlocked in the current one as he and Murbella imprint each other.",
"Addicted to each other, they are confined to a no-ship on the Bene Gesserit homeworld, Chapterhouse.",
"There, Duncan trains other men to enslave Honored Matres, until he and Sheeana escape in the untraceable ship.Duncan is portrayed by Richard Jordan in the 1984 film.",
"James Watson plays the role in the 2000 miniseries, and is succeeded by Edward Atterton in its 2003 sequel.",
"Jason Momoa portrays Duncan in the 2021 film.=== Wellington Yueh ===Dr.",
"Wellington Yueh is a Suk doctor and the trusted personal physician of Duke Leto Atreides.",
"In ''Dune'', Baron Vladimir Harkonnen is intent on the destruction of House Atreides, who have been lured to Arrakis on the pretense of taking over the valuable spice mining operation there.",
"Though Suk Imperial Conditioning supposedly makes the subject incapable of inflicting harm, the Baron has taken Yueh's Bene Gesserit wife Wanna prisoner, threatening her with interminable torture unless Yueh complies with his demands.",
"Aware of Yueh's conditioning and believing Wanna was killed by the Harkonnens, Leto's Mentat Thufir Hawat and concubine Lady Jessica are assured that the doctor is not a Harkonnen spy.",
"Yueh disables the protective shields around the Atreides palace on Arrakis, and the Harkonnen forces (secretly supplemented by the seemingly unstoppable Imperial Sardaukar warriors) attack.",
"Yueh takes Leto prisoner, but desiring to slay the Baron in defiance of his conditioning, Yueh provides the captive Leto with a fake tooth filled with poisonous gas as a means to kill the Baron, though Leto would die as well.",
"Upon delivering Leto, Yueh confirms his belief that Wanna is already dead, moments before the Baron's twisted Mentat Piter De Vries kills him.",
"The Baron escapes the poison, which only kills Leto and De Vries.",
"Leto's son Paul flees into the desert with Jessica, aided by survival kits left for them by a compassionate Yueh.Yueh is portrayed by Dean Stockwell in the 1984 film, and by Robert Russell in the 2000 miniseries.",
"Chang Chen plays the character in the 2021 film.The character also appears in the ''Prelude to Dune'' prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, and is resurrected as a ghola in ''Hunters of Dune'' and ''Sandworms of Dune'', the Brian Herbert/Anderson sequels which conclude the original series.",
"In ''Prelude to Dune'', a younger Baron Harkonnen consults with Yueh seeking a cure for the debilitating disease which is slowly but surely rendering him obese.",
"Yueh is aware of no cure, but correctly suggests that the disease's source may be the Bene Gesserit.",
"The early years of Yueh as the physician to House Atreides are also explored in the novels.",
"In ''Hunters of Dune'', set 5,000 years after ''Dune'', Yueh is resurrected as a ghola to aid in the coming final battle with mankind's \"great enemy.\"",
"In ''Sandworms of Dune'', the finale of the original series, the young Yueh ghola is wracked by feelings of intense guilt over the actions of the \"original\" Yueh.",
"Though he does not yet possess those memories, he fears that he will repeat those mistakes.",
"A ghola's memories are restored by subjecting the ghola to an intense personal trauma, specific to each individual, so Yueh's great fear of having his memories restored becomes the trigger used by the Bene Gesserit to unlock them.",
"Later, Yueh kills the gestating ghola of Leto, having been tricked into believing that it was De Vries, and ultimately also kills the ghola of the Baron Harkonnen.",
"Eleven years later, Yueh lives on the original Atreides homeworld Caladan, helping the Jessica ghola restore it to its former glory.=== Mohiam ===Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Gaius Helen Mohiam is Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV's Truthsayer, and Lady Jessica's former teacher.",
"In ''Dune'', Mohiam subjects 15-year-old Paul Atreides to a life or death test of his humanity: he is inflicted with excruciating pain, but must exert control over his survival instinct and withstand it, or be killed instantly with a poisoned needle.",
"Paul passes the test, having sustained more pain than anyone before him.",
"Mohiam, though still furious at Jessica for disobeying the Sisterhood's command that she bear a daughter for their breeding scheme, is intrigued by the potential she sees in Paul and his nascent prescient abilities.",
"Years later on Arrakis, Mohiam is shaken by her encounter with Paul's four-year-old sister Alia, who by misadventure had been born a fully aware Reverend Mother.",
"Mohiam is further alarmed by the ritual battle-to-the-death between Paul and the Harkonnen heir, Feyd-Rautha, which could prove catastrophic for the Bene Gesserit breeding program no matter the outcome.",
"Paul is victorious in the duel, and in seizing control of Arrakis, the only source of the all-important spice melange, gains insurmountable power over all civilization.",
"Seeing the inevitability of the situation Paul has orchestrated, Mohiam compels Shaddam to give in to Paul's demands and relinquish the Imperial throne to him.Twelve years later in ''Dune Messiah'', Mohiam joins a conspiracy to topple the rule of Paul Atreides that includes the Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale, the Spacing Guild Navigator Edric, and even Paul's embittered consort Princess Irulan, Shaddam's daughter.",
"Paul has sworn that only his Fremen concubine, Chani, will bear his children.",
"Knowing that the Bene Gesserit are desperate to regain control of his bloodline for their breeding program, and are fearful of the effect Chani's \"wild\" genes may have on their offspring, Paul makes Mohiam an offer.",
"In exchange for Chani's guaranteed safety, and the Sisterhood's acceptance of his decision to father no heirs with Irulan, Paul offers something of the utmost value: his sperm.",
"This is a complicated proposition for Mohiam, because artificial insemination is forbidden in the wake of the anti-technology Butlerian Jihad, and the idea of it is as horrific to the Sisterhood as the loss of the precious Atreides genes.",
"The conspiracy ultimately fails, and Paul kills Scytale.",
"Edric and Mohiam are executed on orders from Paul's sister Alia, despite Paul's previous instructions to spare Mohiam's life.Mohiam is portrayed by Siân Phillips in the 1984 film, and by Zuzana Geislerová in the 2000 miniseries and its 2003 sequel.",
"The character is played by Charlotte Rampling in the 2021 film and its 2024 sequel.=== Rabban ===Glossu \"Beast\" Rabban is the violent and brutish older nephew of Baron Harkonnen.",
"He is as cruel and sadistic as his uncle, but lacks the Baron's intelligence.",
"The Baron tasks Rabban to rule the planet Arrakis for a time in the most brutal way possible, so that when his favored nephew Feyd-Rautha takes over, Feyd will be welcomed as a hero by the populace.",
"After the Baron seizes the planet back from Atreides control, Rabban tells his uncle that the Harkonnens have woefully underestimated both the numbers and threat of the Fremen population there.",
"Known as \"the Beast Rabban\" on Arrakis for his aggression and cruelty, his Fremen nickname is \"''Mudir Nahya''\", which translates as \"Demon Ruler\" or \"King Cobra\".",
"Rabban is killed by the Fremen and the people of Arrakeen when Paul \"Muad'Dib\" Atreides retakes Arrakis using Fremen forces.Travis Johnson of Flicks.com.au describes Rabban as \"the Baron's murderous and notably less Machiavellian nephew\".",
"Noting that the characters in ''Dune'' fit mythological archetypes, novelist Brian Herbert, Frank Herbert's son and biographer, writes that \"Beast Rabban Harkonnen, though evil and aggressive, is essentially a fool.",
"\"Rabban is portrayed by Paul L. Smith in the 1984 film, and by in the 2000 ''Dune'' miniseries.",
"The character is played by Dave Bautista in the 2021 film and its 2024 sequel.Rabban also appears in the ''Prelude to Dune'' prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.",
"In the series, he kills Duncan Idaho's parents and Gurney Halleck's sister, and earns his nickname \"Beast\" when he strangles his own father.=== Feyd-Rautha ===Feyd-Rautha Harkonnen is the charismatic yet deadly younger nephew and heir of Baron Harkonnen.",
"In ''Dune'', the Baron favors Feyd over his older brother Glossu Rabban because of Feyd's intelligence and his dedication to the Harkonnen culture of carefully planned and subtly executed sadism and cruelty, as opposed to Rabban's outright brutality.",
"The Baron's succession plan is to install Feyd as ruler of Arrakis after a period of tyrannical misrule by Rabban, making Feyd appear to be the savior of the people.",
"Like Paul Atreides, Feyd is also the product of a centuries-long breeding program organized by the Bene Gesserit, who planned to breed a Harkonnen son with an Atreides daughter with the expectation that their offspring would have a high probability of being their hoped-for super-being, the Kwisatz Haderach.",
"For this reason, Lady Jessica's decision to defy the Sisterhood and to produce an Atreides son, Paul, threw the Bene Gesserit's plans into turmoil and established an irreconcilable tension between Feyd and Paul as the scions of their bitterly opposed noble houses.",
"The risk of one or both of these young men being killed, destroying thousands of years of genetic engineering, is so great that the Bene Gesserit send an envoy, Margot Fenring, to seduce Feyd and conceive a child, salvaging his genetic material.",
"Margot also uses an imprinting technique to condition Feyd to be vulnerable to Bene Gesserit control in the future.",
"It is also later noted that Feyd's encounter with Lady Fenring produced a daughter.",
"Feyd's ambition and impatience to inherit the Baron's title and power spur him to attempt his uncle's assassination.",
"The attempt fails, prompting the Baron to reveal to his nephew the lofty plans he has for him, possibly to even have him ascend the throne as Emperor.",
"The Baron explains that the elevation of House Harkonnen means more to him than power in his own lifetime, so if Feyd promises to forego any further assassination attempts, he will voluntarily step down and let his nephew succeed him—after his plot against the Emperor has succeeded.",
"Feyd agrees, but as punishment for the failed assassination attempt, the Baron forces Feyd to single-handedly slaughter all the female slaves who serve as his lovers so that Feyd will learn the price of failure.",
"As Paul seizes control of the all-important planet Arrakis and makes his final bid to usurp the Padishah Emperor's power, he is challenged by Feyd, the current Harkonnen leader after the deaths of the Baron and Rabban.",
"Though famed for his prowess in single combat, Feyd intends to guarantee victory by breaking the formal rules of kanly (which govern this type of challenge) and using a hidden poison spur in his fighting outfit.",
"He nearly succeeds in killing Paul in the ritualized fight, as Paul struggles with whether to try the paralysis word-sound given to him by his mother, and owe the Bene Gesserit his victory, or to risk his life against Feyd in a \"fair\" fight.",
"Paul manages to defeat Feyd without the command, killing him, and goes on to accede to the Imperial throne.Feyd is portrayed by Sting in the 1984 film, and by Matt Keeslar in the 2000 miniseries.",
"The character does not appear in the 2021 film, but is played by Austin Butler in its 2024 sequel.=== Princess Irulan ===Princess Irulan is the eldest daughter of Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV and the Bene Gesserit Anirul.",
"The character serves as a ''de facto'' narrator in ''Dune'', with excerpts of Irulan's later writings used as epigraphs before each chapter of the novel.",
"In forms such as diary entries, historical commentary, biography, quotations and philosophy, these writings set tone and provide exposition, context and other details intended to enhance understanding of Herbert's complex fictional universe and themes.",
"In ''Dune'', a widespread rebellion of the native Fremen on Arrakis creates a disruption in the production of the all-important spice melange, bringing Shaddam and his court, including Irulan, to the planet to impose order.",
"Paul Atreides leads the Fremen in an overwhelming victory over the combined Harkonnen and Imperial Sardaukar forces and seizes control of Arrakis, the only known source of the spice.",
"Paul demands that Shaddam relinquish the Imperial throne to him or he will destroy all spice production and plunge the universe into chaos.",
"Shaddam bristles at Paul's suggestion that he marry Irulan, but she immediately recognizes the inevitability of the situation Paul has orchestrated, and tells Shaddam, \"Here's a man fit to be your son.\"",
"Once Paul defeats the treacherous Feyd-Rautha Harkonnen in single combat, and Count Fenring refuses the Emperor's order to kill Paul, Shaddam capitulates.Twelve years later in ''Dune Messiah'', Irulan is Paul's consort and trusted advisor, but he has sworn that only his beloved concubine Chani will bear his children.",
"Paul and Chani remain childless, however, because a resentful Irulan, Bene Gesserit-trained and doing their bidding, has been secretly feeding Chani contraceptives to prevent her from conceiving an Imperial heir.",
"The Sisterhood are desperate to regain control of Paul's bloodline for their breeding program, and are fearful of the effect Chani's \"wild\" genes may have on their offspring.",
"But when Chani begins an ancient Fremen fertility diet high in melange, Irulan loses her ability to interfere, and Chani becomes pregnant.",
"Chani ultimately discovers not only Irulan's role in her infertility but the fact that the contraceptives have caused permanent damage and will jeopardize her pregnancy.",
"Chani seeks to kill Irulan, but Paul forbids it.",
"He is secretly somewhat grateful to Irulan, as he has seen through his prescience that childbirth will bring Chani's death, and so Irulan has unwittingly extended Chani's life.",
"Chani dies giving birth to the twins Leto II and Ghanima, and a newly blinded Paul follows Fremen custom and wanders alone into the desert to die.",
"Realizing her love for Paul, Irulan breaks ties with the Bene Gesserit and dedicates herself to his children.Nine years later in ''Children of Dune'', Irulan's sister Wensicia plots to assassinate Leto and Ghanima to reclaim power for House Corrino through her son, Farad'n.",
"Irulan also serves as chief advisor to Paul's sister Alia, who reigns as Holy Regent for the twins.",
"Irulan attempts to serve as a guide and confidante to Ghanima, but is often flustered by the adult consciousness the twins possess as a result of being pre-born and having access to Other Memory.",
"Ghanima cares for Irulan, but Alia never trusts the princess, due to Irulan's Corrino heritage and Alia's own increasing paranoia.",
"Irulan flees into the desert with Ghanima and Stilgar during the Fremen rebellion against Alia's tyranny.",
"Though the other rebels are massacred, Irulan and Stilgar are imprisoned upon their capture, and presumably freed when Leto deposes Alia.Irulan is portrayed by Virginia Madsen in the 1984 film, and by Julie Cox in the 2000 miniseries and its 2003 sequel.",
"The character does not appear in the 2021 film, but is played by Florence Pugh in its 2024 sequel.=== Shaddam IV ===Shaddam IV of House Corrino is the Padishah Emperor of the Known Universe, whose power is secured by his armies of fierce Sardaukar warriors and control of the desert planet Arrakis, the only source of the all-important spice melange.",
"In ''Dune'', Shaddam has granted Duke Leto Atreides control of the lucrative spice mining operations on Arrakis, previously managed by House Harkonnen, longtime enemies of the Atreides.",
"Leto is aware that this assignment is some kind of trap, but is unable to refuse.",
"Shaddam is threatened by Leto's growing influence among the Landsraad assembly of noble families, and uses the centuries-old feud between the Atreides and Harkonnens to disguise his moves against Leto.",
"The forces of Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, secretly bolstered by Shaddam's Sardaukar and aided by a traitor in Leto's household, launch an attack that decimates the Atreides forces.",
"Leto is killed, and his Bene Gesserit concubine Lady Jessica, and heir Paul, flee into the desert and are presumed dead in a sandstorm.",
"Years later, a rebellion of the native Fremen on Arrakis creates a disruption in the production of the all-important spice melange, bringing Shaddam and his court to the planet to impose order.",
"Paul Atreides is alive, and has risen as a military and religious leader among the Fremen.",
"He leads them in an overwhelming victory over the combined Harkonnen and Imperial forces and seizes control of Arrakis.",
"Paul demands that Shaddam relinquish the Imperial throne to him or he will destroy all spice production and plunge the universe into chaos.",
"Shaddam resists, but is forced to capitulate after Paul defeats Feyd-Rautha Harkonnen in single combat, and Count Fenring refuses Shaddam's order to kill Paul.",
"Paul intends to take Shaddam's daughter, Princess Irulan, as his consort, and exile Shaddam.Shaddam is described as \"red-haired\" by Irulan via epigraph in ''Dune'', and noted to be 72 years old yet looking no older than 35.He is the son of Elrood IX and the 81st member of House Corrino to occupy the Golden Lion Throne.",
"Shaddam has five daughters—the Princesses Irulan, Chalice, Wensicia, Josifa, and Rugi—and no legal sons by his wife Anirul, a Bene Gesserit of Hidden Rank.",
"His closest friend is the assassin Count Fenring, a cousin and childhood companion.Shaddam is portrayed by José Ferrer in the 1984 film, and by Giancarlo Giannini in the 2000 miniseries.",
"Giannini also dubbed himself in the Italian version of the miniseries.",
"The character does not appear in the 2021 film, but is played by Christopher Walken in its 2024 sequel.Shaddam also appears in multiple prequel series by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson: ''Prelude to Dune'', ''Heroes of Dune'' and ''The Caladan Trilogy''.",
"In the ''Prelude to Dune'' trilogy, Shaddam is eager to succeed his father Elrood IX as Padishah Emperor, but despite his advanced age Elrood shows no signs of ill health.",
"Shaddam finally tasks his longtime friend and minion Fenring to administer Elrood with an undetectable, slow-acting poison.",
"Shaddam had previously been complicit in the murder of his elder brother, the Crown Prince Fafnir, and had secretly administered contraceptives to his own mother, Habla, so she could not conceive another son to rival him.",
"Elrood finally dies, and Shaddam secures his throne by paying the Spacing Guild with a supply of the spice and by arranging his own marriage to a Bene Gesserit.",
"This union with the Lady Anirul Sadow-Tonkin results in five daughters, but no sons.=== Gurney Halleck ===Gurney Halleck is the Warmaster of Duke Leto Atreides, trained by \"the best fighters in the universe\", who has in turn trained Leto's son and heir Paul in hand-to-hand combat.",
"Gurney, Duncan Idaho and the Mentat Thufir Hawat serve Leto as a war council unparalleled in the Imperium.",
"Gurney is also a talented troubadour.",
"In ''Dune'', Gurney and 73 of his men survive the Harkonnen attack that decimates the Atreides forces, and they fall in with local spice smugglers to survive.",
"Gurney and his team fall for a Fremen trap—a fake hoard of spice—and are almost killed before Paul, now the Fremen leader \"Muad'Dib\", recognizes him.",
"Gurney nearly kills Jessica, mistakenly believing she betrayed Leto, but later becomes her loyal chief officer.",
"In ''Children of Dune'', Gurney returns to Arrakis with Jessica and coordinates a purging of dissidents with Fremen leader Stilgar.",
"Gurney follows what he believes are Jessica's orders to test Paul's son Leto II to be sure he has not been overcome by his ancestral memories.",
"Learning that the testing was actually ordered by Paul's sister Alia, Gurney escapes, sending a message to Duncan to initiate their plan to force Stilgar to join the rebellion against Alia.",
"Gurney flees to a rebel sietch and joins Leto II and the mysterious Preacher, who is actually a blinded Paul.",
"After Leto II returns to Arrakeen and reclaims the throne from Alia, Gurney is assigned to Sietch Tabr as part of Stilgar's council.Gurney is portrayed by Patrick Stewart in the 1984 film, and by P. H. Moriarty in the 2000 miniseries and its 2003 sequel.",
"The character is played by Josh Brolin in the 2021 film and its 2024 sequel.=== Count Fenring ===Count Hasimir Fenring is Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV's closest friend and advisor, and husband to the Bene Gesserit Lady Margot.",
"Prior to the events of ''Dune'', Fenring serves as the Imperial Spice Minister on Arrakis during the Harkonnen regime, and then as Governor of Arrakis during the handover period between House Harkonnen and House Atreides.",
"In ''Dune'', the Harkonnens, secretly aided by the Shaddam's fierce Sardaukar warriors, destroy the Atreides forces and reclaim control of Arrakis.",
"Fenring and Margot visit the Harkonnen homeworld of Giedi Prime, where the Count informs Baron Harkonnen that Shaddam is displeased with the way the invasion of Arrakis was handled, and is frustrated by The Baron's failure to suppress the disruptive native Fremen population.",
"Fenring is also there on the Emperor's behalf to assess the Harkonnen heir, Feyd, which irks the Baron.",
"Margot is also observing Feyd for the Bene Gesserit, who count him as an important part of their breeding program.",
"Fenring is impressed with Feyd, but laments his upbringing among the brutal Harkonnens.",
"Later, Paul Atreides leads the Fremen in an overwhelming victory over the combined Harkonnen and Imperial forces and seizes control of Arrakis.",
"Paul demands that Shaddam relinquish the Imperial throne to him or he will destroy all spice production and plunge the universe into chaos.",
"Shaddam resists, and Fenring, a deadly fighter and rumored assassin, is summoned and ordered to kill Paul.",
"He refuses, aware that Paul represents the success of the Bene Gesserit breeding program of which Fenring himself is a failure.",
"Paul deposes Shaddam, and the Fenrings join the former emperor in exile.Fenring does not appear in the 1984 film, but is portrayed by Miroslav Táborský in the 2000 miniseries.=== Margot Fenring ===Margot, Lady Fenring, is the Bene Gesserit wife of Count Hasimir Fenring.",
"Though the Count is the close friend and advisor of the Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV, Margot's primary loyalty is to the Sisterhood.",
"In ''Dune'', Duke Leto Atreides is lured to the desert planet Arrakis on the pretense of taking over the lucrative spice mining operation there, but the assignment is part of a plot by Shaddam and Baron Vladimir Harkonnen to destroy the Atreides.",
"Margot leaves a coded message for Leto's Bene Gesserit concubine, Lady Jessica, warning her that the Atreides, especially Leto and Jessica's son Paul, are in imminent danger from the Harkonnens, and alerts her to the existence of a traitor in the Atreides household.",
"Paul evades a trap set for him, but a devastating attack by the Harkonnens leaves Leto dead, and forces Paul and Jessica to flee into the desert.",
"Due to the harsh conditions and an oncoming sandstorm, they are soon presumed dead.",
"Margot is sent by the Bene Gesserit to seduce Feyd-Rautha Harkonnen and to \"preserve the bloodline\" by retrieving his genetic material, through conception, for their breeding program.",
"She later bears Feyd's daughter.",
"Margot also uses an imprinting technique to condition Feyd to be vulnerable to Bene Gesserit control in the future.",
"Paul and Feyd later duel to the death, and Paul is victorious without using Margot's implanted command.",
"Having seized control of the all-important Arrakis, Paul deposes Shaddam, and the Fenrings join the former emperor in exile.Margot does not appear in the 1984 film, 2000 miniseries or 2021 film, but is portrayed by Léa Seydoux in the 2024 sequel film.=== Thufir Hawat ===Thufir Hawat is a Mentat, an individual conditioned to mimic the cognitive and analytical ability of computers, who serves as Master of Assassins and primary military strategist for Duke Leto Atreides.",
"In ''Dune'', the Atreides are lured to Arrakis on the pretense of taking over the lucrative spice mining operation there, but soon fall prey to a catastrophic attack by their longtime enemies the Harkonnens, whose forces are secretly bolstered by the fierce Sardaukar warriors of the emperor, Shaddam IV.",
"Hawat is captured, and the calculating Baron Vladimir Harkonnen takes him as a replacement for his own twisted Mentat Piter De Vries, who was killed in the aftermath of the attack.",
"The Baron hopes to channel Hawat's desire for revenge away from House Harkonnen, and keeps his abilities in check by feeding him false data, specifically, permitting him to believe that Leto's concubine Lady Jessica had been the traitor responsible for the Atreides' destruction.",
"Hawat is also secretly administered a residual poison which requires regular doses of an antidote to prevent death.",
"In spite of these obstacles, Hawat attempts to bring down the Harkonnens from within.",
"He gains the trust of the Baron's nephew and heir Feyd-Rautha by assisting him with a plot to discredit the Harkonnen slavemaster and replace him with someone loyal to Feyd.",
"Hawat encourages the ambitions of Feyd against the Baron, which leads him to attempt to assassinate his uncle.",
"The Baron, warned by Hawat, eludes the attempt and punishes Feyd for his failure.",
"Later, Hawat is coerced to assassinate Leto's son, Paul Atreides.",
"Paul suspects this, but out of gratitude for Hawat's exceptional loyalty, Paul gives him the opportunity to take anything Hawat wishes of him, even his life.",
"Hawat chooses death rather than to betray Paul.Hawat is portrayed by Freddie Jones in the 1984 film, and by in the 2000 miniseries.",
"The character is played by Stephen McKinley Henderson in the 2021 film and its 2024 sequel.The character also appears in the ''Prelude to Dune'' prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, and is resurrected as a ghola in ''Hunters of Dune'' and ''Sandworms of Dune'', the Brian Herbert/Anderson sequels which conclude the original series.=== Alia Atreides ===Alia is the daughter of Duke Leto and Jessica, and Paul’s younger sister.",
"Subjected to the Fremen spice agony in the womb, she is born a fully aware Reverend Mother.",
"Among the Bene Gesserit, a child born in this manner, called an Abomination, is immediately killed because they are susceptible to being overtaken by their ancestral personas.",
"Alia pretends to be a child as she grows up among the Fremen.",
"At four years old, she kills her grandfather, the Baron Harkonnen, as Paul seizes control of Arrakis.",
"As Paul's sister, Alia is worshipped in her own right in ''Dune Messiah''.",
"She and Hayt—who is the swordmaster Duncan Idaho brought back from the dead as a ghola by Tleilaxu means—work together to unravel the conspiracy against the Atreides.",
"She marries Duncan, his memories restored, and is named regent for Paul and Chani's children, Leto II and Ghanima.",
"In ''Children of Dune'', the danger of Abomination has come to fruition, and Alia is possessed by the persona of the Baron.",
"Her increasing depravity and lust for power under his control drive her to plot Jessica's assassination.",
"Confronted by Leto and overcome by the Baron, Alia has a fleeting moment of self-control and leaps to her death.Alia is portrayed by Alicia Witt in the 1984 film, and by Laura Burton in the 2000 miniseries.",
"Daniela Amavia portrays an adult Alia in the 2003 sequel miniseries.",
"The character does not appear in the 2021 film, which covers the first part of ''Dune'', but is expected to appear in the 2024 sequel film.=== Shadout Mapes ===The Shadout Mapes is the mysterious Fremen housekeeper at the palace of Arakeen on Arrakis.",
"In ''Dune'', Duke Leto Atreides, his Bene Gesserit concubine Lady Jessica, and their son Paul arrive as Leto takes over management of the planet's lucrative spice mining operations.",
"The Fremen begin to believe that Paul is their prophesied messiah, who is foretold to be accompanied by his Bene Gesserit mother, and when talking to Mapes, Jessica uses phrases that are part of the legend.",
"Mapes gives Jessica a crysknife, a weapon made from the tooth of a giant sandworm that is considered holy by the Fremen and rarely seen by outsiders.",
"Paul later saves Mapes from a deadly hunter-seeker intended to kill him, and she warns of a traitor in the Atreides household.",
"Mapes is killed by that same traitor, Suk doctor Wellington Yueh, as the Harkonnens attack.Mapes is portrayed by Linda Hunt in the 1984 film, and by Jaroslava Šiktancová in the 2000 miniseries.",
"Golda Rosheuvel plays the character in the 2021 film.Mapes is the main character of the 2022 short story \"Dune: The Edge of a Crysknife\" by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, which takes place before the events of the ''Prelude to Dune'' trilogy.=== Liet-Kynes ===Liet-Kynes is the Imperial Planetologist of the desert planet Arrakis, and the father of Chani by his Fremen wife, Faroula.",
"In ''Dune'', Duke Leto Atreides meets with Dr. Kynes, the Imperial Planetologist, soon after arriving on Arrakis to take over the melange harvesting operations there.",
"Escorted by the planet's native Fremen, Kynes is the liaison between them and the Imperials.",
"Kynes takes personal note of Leto's son Paul, who seems to know Fremen ways intuitively, and shows signs of being a prophesied Fremen messiah.",
"The Atreides later hear of a person or deity named \"Liet\" to whom all the Fremen communities give allegiance.",
"It is only after Leto is killed, and Paul and his mother, Lady Jessica, take refuge among the Fremen that Liet and Kynes are revealed to be the same person.",
"He is the son of Pardot Kynes, the first Imperial Planetologist of Arrakis, and a Fremen woman, and is Chani's father.",
"Captured by the Harkonnens and left to die in the desert without a stillsuit or water, Kynes is killed by a spice blow, an explosive eruption that is part of the melange cycle.",
"In ''God Emperor of Dune'', Liet-Kynes's wife and Chani's mother is identified as Faroula, \"a noted herbalist among the Fremen\".Liet-Kynes is portrayed by Max von Sydow in the 1984 film, and by Karel Dobrý in the 2000 miniseries.",
"Sharon Duncan-Brewster plays a gender-swapped version of the character in the 2021 film.Liet-Kynes also appears in the ''Prelude to Dune'' prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.",
"That series establishes that his mother is Frieth, the sister of Stilgar.",
"Growing up under Fremen tradition, Liet inherits his father's position as planetologist as well as his secret goal of terraforming Arrakis into a temperate planet.=== Ramallo ===Reverend Mother Ramallo is a spiritual leader, or Sayyadina, among the Fremen of Sietch Tabr on Arrakis, a \"wild\" version of a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother.",
"In ''Dune'', Paul Atreides and his Bene Gesserit mother, Lady Jessica, flee a Harkonnen attack and find refuge among the Fremen.",
"When Ramallo knows she is nearing the end of her life, Jessica undergoes the ritual spice agony to make her Ramallo's replacement.",
"The Fremen ordeal to become a Reverend Mother involves ingesting the poisonous Water of Life, the exhalation of a dying sandworm.",
"Jessica survives and shares minds with Ramallo, acquiring the older woman's life experiences and collective ancestral Other Memory, and then Ramallo dies.Ramallo is portrayed by Italian actress Silvana Mangano in the 1984 film.",
"Drahomíra Fialková plays the character in the 2000 miniseries, with Petra Kulíková as a younger version of Ramallo.Ramallo also appears in the ''Prelude to Dune'' prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.=== Jamis ===Jamis is a formidable Fremen warrior from Sietch Tabr.",
"In ''Dune'', Paul Atriedes and his Bene Gesserit mother, Lady Jessica, flee a Harkonnen attack and find refuge with the Fremen of Sietch Tabr.",
"Newcomer Paul is immediately challenged by the distrustful Fremen warrior Jamis, and per Fremen custom they engage in a ritual fight to the death.",
"Paul kills Jamis, and is subsequently obligated to take responsibility for his wife Harah and children.Jamis is portrayed by Judd Omen in the 1984 film, Christopher Lee Brown in the 2000 miniseries, and by Babs Olusanmokun in the 2021 film.=== Harah ===Harah is the Fremen wife of Jamis.",
"Her first husband was Geoff, by whom she had a son, Kaleff.",
"Jamis defeated Geoff in a ritual duel and took Harah as his own wife, and fathered her son Orlop.",
"After Paul kills Jamis in a ritual fight to the death in ''Dune'', Fremen custom demands that Paul inherit his possessions, including Harah and her children.",
"Paul must take her into his household as his wife or his servant, and after a year if he has not married her, she may choose as she wishes.",
"Paul accepts Harah as a servant.",
"She is at first insulted by his reluctance to marry her, but dedicates herself to his service.",
"Harah becomes very close to, and protective of, Paul's young sister Alia, who is born a fully aware Reverend Mother and pretends to be a child as she grows up among the Fremen.",
"In ''Children of Dune'', Harah is married to Stilgar, and is Chani's closest friend.",
"She is witness to the birth of Paul and Chani's twins, Leto II and Ghanima, and to Chani's subsequent death.",
"Harah dedicates herself to the care of the twins.",
"When an adult Alia's tyranny becomes too great and endangers Leto and Ghanima, Harah goes into hiding with Stilgar, Princess Irulan and the children.Harah is portrayed by Molly Wrynn in the 1984 film.=== Piter De Vries ===Piter De Vries is a Mentat, an individual conditioned to mimic the cognitive and analytical ability of computers, who serves the ruthless Baron Vladimir Harkonnen.",
"De Vries has the added distinction of having been \"twisted\" into an amoral sadist by the Tleilaxu.",
"In ''Dune'', De Vries is the architect of the plan to destroy House Atreides, longtime enemy of the Harkonnens, while restoring the Baron's stewardship over the planet Arrakis.",
"Though the personal physician of Duke Leto Atreides, Wellington Yueh, has undergone Suk conditioning which renders him incapable of inflicting harm on his patients, De Vries subverts it by kidnapping and torturing Yueh's wife.",
"Hoping to free her, Yueh betrays the Atreides, enabling a catastrophic attack by the Harkonnens and delivering Leto to the Baron.",
"Yueh learns that his wife is already dead and is killed by De Vries.",
"Yueh, however, has given the captive Leto a false tooth filled with poison gas with which to assassinate the Baron.",
"Harkonnen evades the attempt, but Leto and De Vries die.",
"De Vries is the creator of residual poison, a toxin which requires regular doses of an antidote to prevent death.",
"The Baron secretly administers it to the captured Atreides Mentat Thufir Hawat as coercion to make him the replacement for De Vries.In the novel, De Vries is described as \"tall, though slender, and something about him suggested effeminacy\".",
"He is addicted to the drug melange, and also has the ruby red lips characteristic of those who consume sapho juice, an addictive drug which enhances Mentat capabilities.De Vries is portrayed by Brad Dourif in the 1984 film, and by Jan Unger in the 2000 miniseries.",
"David Dastmalchian plays the character in the 2021 film.Piter also appears in the ''Prelude to Dune'' prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.",
"In the series, Piter discovers the Harkonnen heritage of Lady Jessica and her newborn son Paul, and attempts to kidnap and ransom the infant.",
"The plot is thwarted and the secret preserved when Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Mohiam kills the Mentat and arranges for his corpse to be shipped home to the Harkonnen homeworld, Giedi Prime.",
"An enraged Baron is left with no choice but to order a duplicate from the Bene Tleilax: the Mentat De Vries featured in Herbert's original novel ''Dune''.=== Other ===* '''''' is one of Paul's loyal Fedaykin death commandos in ''Dune''.",
"In ''Dune Messiah'', he is ill after fighting in Paul's jihad, but reveals to Paul evidence of a Fremen conspiracy against him.",
"Otheym gives Paul his dwarf Tleilaxu servant Bijaz, who, like a recording machine, can remember faces, names, and details.",
"Paul accepts reluctantly, seeing the strands of a Tleilaxu plot.",
"Otheym's daughter Lichna is also killed and replaced by a Tleilaxu Face Dancer as a means to infiltrate Paul's household.",
"Otheym is portrayed by Honorato Magalone in the 1984 film, and by Jakob Schwarz in the 2000 miniseries and its 2003 sequel.",
"* '''''' is one of Paul's loyal Fedaykin death commandos in ''Dune''.",
"In ''Dune Messiah'', he has become a fanatic of the religion which has risen around Paul, and the High Priest among its Qizarate leaders.",
"Hoping to increase his own religious power, Korba joins a conspiracy to set off an atomic weapon called a stone burner to martyr Paul.",
"The explosion kills hundreds of Fremen and blinds many other, including Paul himself.",
"Korba is tried for his crimes, and executed by Stilgar.",
"Korba is portrayed by Karel Dobrý in the 2003 miniseries.",
"* '''''' is a spice smuggler on Arrakis.",
"In ''Dune'', he attends a dinner thrown by Duke Leto Atreides and his Bene Gesserit concubine Lady Jessica at their Arrakeen palace.",
"Esmar is later killed in the Harkonnen attack on Arrakeen that effectively destroys House Atreides.",
"Esmar is portrayed by Pavel Kríz in the 2000 miniseries.",
"* '''''' is a spice smuggler on Arrakis like his father, Esmar Tuek.",
"After the Harkonnen attack on Arrakeen, Staban gives sanctuary to Atreides Warmaster Gurney Halleck and his surviving troops.",
"Gurney and his men join the smugglers, improving their organization and efficiency.",
"* '''''' is the commander of the Imperial Sardaukar forces who arrive on Arrakis with Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV to impose order when Fremen attacks disrupt spice production on the planet.",
"The ferocious Sardaukar soldier-fanatics are considered unstoppable, but the Fremen overcome them thanks to Paul's military strategy, their own ferocity and their ability to use sandstorms and the giant sandworms of Arrakis to their advantage.",
"Paul uses the Bene Gesserit compulsion technique called the Voice to compel the Aramsham to humiliate himself by surrendering.",
"However, Aramsham's Sardaukar stoicism is so great that he will not even give his name until Paul uses the Voice again.",
"The defeat of the Sardaukar allows Paul to seize control of Arrakis and depose Shaddam.",
"* '''''' is the Captain of the Guard for House Harkonnen, promoted from a corporal after the death of his predecessor Umman Kudu in Duke Leto Atreides' poison gas attack on Baron Vladimir Harkonnen.",
"Nefud is addicted to the drug semuta.",
"Nefud is portrayed by Jack Nance in the 1984 film.",
"* '''''' is the Bene Gesserit wife of Suk doctor Wellington Yueh, the personal physician of Duke Leto Atreides.",
"Prior to the events transpiring in ''Dune'', she is kidnapped by Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, who uses the threat of her extended torture to subvert Yueh's Suk Imperial Conditioning, which normally prohibits him from doing harm, and coerce him to betray Leto.",
"Yueh submits to the Baron's demands, lowering the Atreides defensive shields and delivering Leto to him, but also gives Leto the means to assassinate the Baron.",
"Yueh discovers, as he suspected, that Wanna has already been killed, and is himself murdered by the Baron's twisted Mentat, Piter De Vries.",
"However, Yueh's loyalty to the Atreides had prompted him to aid Leto's son Paul and concubine Lady Jessica escape the Harkonnens."
],
[
"Introduced in ''Dune Messiah'' (1969)",
"=== Scytale ===Scytale is a Tleilaxu Face Dancer who executes a plot to dethrone Paul Atriedes in ''Dune Messiah''.",
"Scytale's conspiracy includes Spacing Guild Navigator Edric, the Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Mohiam, and the Princess Irulan, Paul's consort.",
"Unlike Face Dancers depicted later in the series, Scytale appears autonomous, and his high-level dealings with the other conspirators suggest a certain rank and level of trust among the Tleilaxu.",
"Scytale notes of Face Dancers, \"We are Jadacha hermaphrodites ... either sex at will.\"",
"He subsequently kills and assumes the appearance of Lichna, the daughter of the trusted Fremen commando Otheym, in order to lure Paul from the Atreides Keep to Otheym's house, where Scytale has planted an atomic weapon.",
"The attack fails to kill Paul, but the atomic blast blinds him.",
"Scytale soon makes an attempt to force Paul's allegiance.",
"With the Tleilaxu ghola of Duncan Idaho having regained the memories of the deceased original, Scytale has proven that the Tleilaxu can resurrect a human being.",
"He offers Paul a ghola of his concubine Chani, who has just died giving birth to their twin children, in exchange for Paul surrendering his empire to Tleilaxu control.",
"Though tempted, Paul refuses.",
"Scytale holds a knife over the newborn twins, threatening to kill them instantly unless Paul accepts.",
"Paul instead kills Scytale with a thrown crysknife, guided by a vision sent by his infant son.In ''Heretics of Dune'', 5000 years after the events of ''Dune Messiah'', a ghola of Scytale is a Tleilaxu Master and one of Tleilaxu leader Tylwyth Waff's nine councillors.",
"The novel establishes that after learning how to restore a ghola's memories in ''Dune Messiah'', the Masters use this knowledge as a form of immortality, creating clones from their living cells which can be reawakened upon their deaths.",
"Face Dancers are still Tleilaxu servants rather than emissaries, and Herbert does not explain how the Scytale of ''Dune Messiah''—a Face Dancer, though autonomous—could ascend to become a Master, or how the Master/Face Dancer relationship may have evolved over the millennia.In ''Chapterhouse Dune'' (1985), the fearsome Honored Matres have destroyed all of the Tleilaxu worlds in retaliation for the Tleilaxu role in programming the latest Duncan Idaho ghola with knowledge of how to sexually enslave Honored Matres.",
"Scytale, likely the last surviving Tleilaxu Master, barely escapes the attack while leaving his homeworld and is given sanctuary by the Bene Gesserit.",
"Essentially a prisoner, he is kept in a no-ship grounded on the secret Bene Gesserit planet Chapterhouse.",
"In exchange for their protection, Scytale has given the Bene Gesserit the knowledge to create axlotl tanks to grow their own gholas.",
"Desiring his own Face Dancer servants, axlotl tanks, and access to the ship's systems, Scytale has held back the secret to creating artificial melange for future negotiations.",
"His secret bargaining chip is a nullentropy capsule containing cells carefully and covertly collected by the Tleilaxu for millennia, including those of Tleilaxu Masters and Face Dancers, Paul, Chani, the original Duncan Idaho, Thufir Hawat, Gurney Halleck and Stilgar.The character \"The Baron's Doctor\" in the 1984 film ''Dune'', portrayed by Leonardo Cimino, was intended to be revealed as Scytale in ''Dune II'', a planned sequel film adapting ''Dune Messiah'' which was never made.",
"Posing as Baron Harkonnen's physician, Scytale would have absconded with Duncan Idaho's corpse and spent years reviving it.",
"Scytale is portrayed by Martin McDougall in the 2003 miniseries ''Frank Herbert's Children of Dune'', which is an adaptation of both ''Dune Messiah'' and its sequel ''Children of Dune''.Scytale also appears in the sequel novels ''Hunters of Dune'' and ''Sandworms of Dune'' by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.",
"In ''Hunters of Dune'', Scytale is desperate, as his current body is slowly dying, and he does not have another to replace it.",
"Needing to grow a new ghola clone of himself, his only bargaining tool is the secret nullentropy capsule.",
"Other cells in Scytale's possession include those of Leto I, Lady Jessica, Leto II and other legendary figures dating back to Serena Butler and Xavier Harkonnen from the Butlerian Jihad.",
"The Bene Gesserit debate whether to create gholas of any of these historical figures, and despite the controversy, gholas are created a few at a time.",
"Scytale is allowed to have his own once the first few have been born.",
"In ''Sandworms of Dune'', Scytale finally reawakens his own ghola's past memories using the trauma of watching the elder Scytale die in front of his younger self.",
"Along with gholas of the Tleilaxu Masters, Scytale grows Tleilaxu females from newly discovered cells, vowing to never again allow the Masters to corrupt the recovering Tleilaxu people.=== Edric ===Edric is a Spacing Guild Navigator and the Guild's ambassador on Arrakis.",
"In ''Dune Messiah'', Edric engages in a conspiracy to dethrone Emperor Paul Atreides, joined by the Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale, the Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Mohiam, and Paul's embittered consort, Princess Irulan.",
"As its Navigators require immense quantities of melange to navigate foldspace, the Spacing Guild has a vested interest in breaking Paul's stranglehold over the spice supply.",
"Edric's involvement also protects the conspirators from discovery, as his prescience hides the activities of himself and those around him from other prescients, like Paul.",
"The plot ultimately fails, and Edric and Mohiam are executed by Fremen naib Stilgar on orders from Paul's sister, Alia Atreides.In ''Chapterhouse Dune'', a \"very powerful\" Navigator is described as \"one of the Edrics\", suggesting a possible breeding plan or use of gholas.=== Bijaz ===Bijaz is a Tleilaxu dwarf in the employ of Otheym, one of the former Fedaykin death commandos of Paul Atreides.",
"In ''Dune Messiah'', Otheym reveals to Paul evidence of a Fremen conspiracy against him.",
"Otheym gives Paul his dwarf Tleilaxu servant Bijaz, who has the ability to remember faces, names and details like a recording machine.",
"Paul accepts reluctantly, seeing the strands of a Tleilaxu plot.",
"Bijaz, actually an agent of the Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale, uses a specific humming intonation to implant a command that will compel the Duncan Idaho ghola, Hayt, to kill Paul under certain circumstances.",
"Paul's concubine Chani dies in childbirth, and Paul's reaction to her death triggers Hayt's assassination attempt.",
"Hayt's ghola body reacts against its own programming and Duncan's full consciousness is recovered, simultaneously making him independent of Tleilaxu control.",
"Having proven that a ghola's memories of its originator can be restored, Scytale offers Paul a ghola of Chani in exchange for Paul surrendering his empire to Tleilaxu control.",
"Paul refuses, and Scytale is killed.",
"Later, Bijaz approaches Paul and repeats Scytale's offer, but is killed by Duncan on Paul's order.Bijaz is portrayed by Gee Williams in the 2003 miniseries.=== Lichna ===Lichna is the daughter of Otheym, one of Paul's former Fedaykin death commandos.",
"In ''Dune Messiah'', she is killed and impersonated by the shapeshifting Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale as a means to infiltrate Paul's household.",
"Paul can see through the deception, but wants to see where the plot leads.",
"Aware it is part of the conspiracy against him, Paul allows himself to be lured to Otheym's home in the city.Lichna is portrayed by Klára Issová in the 2003 miniseries.=== Farok ===Farok is another of Paul's former Fedaykin.",
"In ''Dune Messiah'', he is one of many Fremen disillusioned by the changes Paul's regime brings to their culture, and joins the conspiracy to unseat Paul.Farok is portrayed by Ivo Novák in the 2003 miniseries."
],
[
"Introduced in ''Children of Dune'' (1976)",
"=== Princess Wensicia ===Princess Wensicia is the third daughter of Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV and the Bene Gesserit Anirul, and the younger sister of Princess Irulan.",
"In ''Children of Dune'', Shaddam is dead and Wensicia plots from exile to restore House Corrino to its former glory by wresting control of the Imperial throne from the usurper, Paul Atreides, for her son, Farad'n.",
"She attempts to assassinate Leto II and Ghanima Atreides, Paul's twin heirs, by sending mechanically controlled Laza tigers to hunt them in the desert.",
"Leto's growing prescience allows him to thwart the attack on himself and his sister, and he pretends to be dead to escape the increasingly murderous ambitions of his father's sister Alia.",
"Later Farad'n, newly trained in the Bene Gesserit ways by Paul and Alia's mother Lady Jessica, accepts an arrangement brokered by Jessica for him to marry Ghanima and share the throne.",
"His part of the deal is to \"denounce and banish\" Wensicia for Leto's murder, which he does.",
"Leto later returns and ascends the throne himself.Wensicia is described as \"fair-haired\" with a \"heart-shaped face,\" and is said to have learned \"shifty trickiness\" from her sister Irulan but not herself been trained by the Bene Gesserit.",
"Shaddam IV's heir is Wensicia's son Farad'n, whose deceased father, Dalak, is related to Count Fenring.Wensicia is portrayed by Susan Sarandon in the 2003 miniseries.",
"Sarandon told ''The New York Times'', \"One of the reasons I always loved the books was because they were driven by strong women, living outside the rules.\"",
"She added that the ''Dune'' series \"is very apropos to some of what's going on in the world today.",
"It's about the dangers of fundamentalism and the idea that absolute power corrupts.\"",
"The actress said of Wensicia, \"She's just evil, evil, evil.",
"I'm practically unrecognizable.",
"It was a blast.\"",
"Laura Fries of ''Variety'' wrote, \"it’s Susan Sarandon and Alice Krige as Lady Jessica who steal the thunder as opposing matriarchs of the great royal houses.",
"Although the two never catfight, their ongoing struggle to rule the ''Dune'' dynasty gives this mini a real kick.\"",
"Observing that Sarandon and Krige were \"clearly relishing their roles\", Fries added that \"Sarandon makes a formidable enemy\".",
"Melanie McFarland of the ''Seattle Post-Intelligencer'' noted, \"Sarandon's exiled princess may be the villain, cooking up deadly schemes, but we're right along with her in having a good time.\"",
"Sarandon herself said, \"it's always fun to play a smart villain.\"",
"Not impressed overall with the acting in the miniseries, Ron Wertheimer of ''The New York Times'' wrote:In the miniseries, Wensicia orchestrates the ''Dune Messiah'' conspiracy to assassinate Paul using a pre-programmed Tleilaxu ghola of his deceased friend Duncan Idaho, a plotline in which she is not involved in the novel.",
"Emmet Asher-Perrin of ''Tor.com'' wrote:Wensicia also appears in the novel ''Paul of Dune'' by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.=== Leto II Atreides ===Leto II Atreides is the son of Paul Atreides and his Fremen concubine Chani, and the twin brother of Ghanima.",
"Born at the end of ''Dune Messiah'', Leto is orphaned soon after, as his mother dies in childbirth and his blinded father, following Freemen custom, walks out into the open desert to die.",
"Paul's sister Alia subsequently serves as regent for the twins in ''Children of Dune'', and Princess Irulan steps into the role of surrogate mother.",
"Like Alia, Leto and Ghanima are \"pre-born\", having been awakened to adult consciousness and their genetic memories in the womb.",
"The danger to individuals born this way, called Abomination by the Bene Gesserit, is that they are susceptible to being overtaken by their ancestral personas.",
"Leto solves this problem by constructing his own personality out of an executive committee of his ancestors.",
"Influenced by all the important ones, he cannot be possessed by an individual.",
"Alia, however, is increasingly falling under the control of her late grandfather, Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, whose hatred of the Atreides puts the twins in danger and threatens to topple Paul's empire.",
"Deposed Emperor Shaddam IV's daughter Wensicia, Irulan's younger sister, plots from exile to place her son Farad'n on the throne and executes an assassination attempt on nine-year-old Leto and Ghanima.",
"The twins anticipate and survive the plot.",
"Leto leaves to seek out the mysterious Preacher, who some believe is Paul himself, and Ghanima hypnotizes herself to believe that Leto is dead.",
"Like his father Paul before him, Leto enters a spice trance induced by an overdose of melange.",
"His visions show him myriad possible futures where humanity becomes extinct, and only one where it survives.",
"He names this future \"The Golden Path\" and resolves to bring it to fruition—something that his father, who had already glimpsed this future, refused to do.",
"Leto sacrifices his humanity to become a symbiont with the sandworm, beginning the transformation by allowing sandtrout, the larval stage of sandworms, to cover his body.",
"The oversaturation of spice, and Leto's ability to adjust his body chemistry, fool the creatures into bonding with him, creating a membrane of \"new skin\" that bestows on him superhuman speed, strength and near-invulnerability.",
"In addition, he will live for thousands of years, enough time to see his Golden Path to its completion.",
"Leto returns to the capital where everyone has assembled for the wedding of Ghanima and Farad'n.",
"Confronted by Leto and overcome by the Baron, Alia has a fleeting moment of self-control and leaps to her death.",
"Leto declares himself Emperor, asserts control over the Fremen and restores Ghanima's genuine memories with a predetermined command.",
"Farad'n pledges himself to Leto and delivers control of the remaining Sardaukar armies.",
"Leto marries Ghanima to consolidate power, but Farad'n is her true consort so the Atreides line can continue.Thirty-five hundred years later in ''God Emperor of Dune'', the God Emperor Leto II is now almost fully transformed into a sandworm, retaining only his human face and arms.",
"He is seemingly immortal and invulnerable to harm, but also prone to instinct-driven bouts of violence when provoked to anger.",
"As a result, Leto's oppressive rule is one of religious awe and despotic fear.",
"Widely known as the Tyrant, he has killed all other sandworms by terraforming Arrakis into a verdant planet, and his control of the remaining supply of melange guarantees his stranglehold on civilization.",
"All of the former major powers, like the Bene Gesserit and Spacing Guild, have capitulated.",
"Following his Golden Path, Leto has forced the human population into a state of trans-galactic stagnation: space travel is non-existent to most people in his Empire, which he has deliberately kept to a near-medieval level of technological sophistication.",
"A string of Duncan Idaho gholas have served Leto over the millennia, though they are prone to eventually rebel against him.",
"Ghanima's descendant Moneo Atreides is Leto's majordomo and closest confidante, while Moneo's daughter Siona has become the leader of a local rebellion against Leto.",
"The Ixians send a new ambassador named Hwi Noree, and though Leto realizes that she has been specifically designed and trained to ensnare him, he cannot resist falling in love with her.",
"Exposure to concentrated spice essence awakens Siona to Leto's Golden Path, and though she sees its importance, she remains dedicated to his destruction.",
"Siona and the current Duncan Idaho overcome a searing mutual hatred of each other to plan Leto's assassination, of which the God Emperor is aware and has made possible.",
"As Leto's wedding procession moves across a high bridge, the conspirators destroy the support beams, and Leto's entourage, including Hwi, plunge to their deaths into the river below.",
"Leto's body rends apart in the water, the outer layer of sandtrout encysting the water and scurrying off, while the rest burns and disintegrates on the shore.",
"A dying Leto reveals to Siona a secret aspect of his Golden Path: she is the end result of a breeding scheme to produce a human who is invisible to prescient vision.",
"Siona and her descendants will possess this ability, and Leto explains that humanity is now free from the domination of oracles, free to scatter throughout the universe, never again to face complete domination or complete destruction.",
"After revealing the location of his secret spice hoard, Leto dies, leaving Duncan and Siona to face the task of managing the empire.Leto is portrayed by James McAvoy in the 2003 miniseries.=== Ghanima Atreides ===Ghanima Atreides is the daughter of Paul Atreides and his Fremen concubine Chani, and the twin sister of Leto II.",
"Born at the end of ''Dune Messiah'', Ghanima is orphaned soon after, as her mother dies in childbirth and her blinded father, following Fremen custom, walks out into the open desert to die.",
"Paul's sister Alia subsequently serves as regent for the twins in ''Children of Dune'', and Princess Irulan steps into the role of surrogate mother.",
"Like Alia, Leto and Ghanima are \"pre-born\", having been awakened to adult consciousness and their genetic memories in the womb.",
"The danger to individuals born this way, called Abomination by the Bene Gesserit, is that they are susceptible to being overtaken by their ancestral personas.",
"Leto solves this problem by constructing his own personality out of an executive committee of his ancestors.",
"Influenced by all the important ones, he cannot be possessed by an individual.",
"Alia, however, is increasingly falling under the control of her late grandfather, Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, whose hatred of the Atreides puts the twins in danger and threatens to topple Paul's empire.",
"Deposed Emperor Shaddam IV's daughter Wensicia, Irulan's younger sister, plots from exile to place her son Farad'n on the throne and executes an assassination attempt on nine-year-old Leto and Ghanima.",
"The twins anticipate and survive the plot.",
"Leto leaves to seek out the mysterious Preacher, who some believe is Paul himself, and Ghanima hypnotizes herself to believe that Leto is dead.",
"The intense mental discipline needed for this self-deception builds a safe haven in Ghanima's mind for her own personality to safely develop, with the persona of Chani acting as a guardian.",
"Recognizing Alia as worsening threat, Fremen naib Stilgar takes Ghanima into hiding.",
"Farad'n denounces his mother, and Alia, having retaken Ghanima, arranges a marriage between them.",
"Knowing that Ghanima has sworn to kill him on their wedding night in revenge for Leto's \"death\", Alia intends to exploit the resulting chaos to weaken her enemies.",
"Leto, having seen a prescient vision of humanity's only path to survival, has vowed to bring it to fruition and begun the necessary transformation to a human-sandworm hybrid.",
"He returns to the capital where everyone has assembled for the wedding of Ghanima and Farad'n.",
"Confronted by Leto and overcome by the Baron, Alia has a fleeting moment of self-control and leaps to her death.",
"Leto declares himself Emperor, asserts control over the Fremen and restores Ghanima's genuine memories with a predetermined command.",
"Farad'n pledges himself to Leto and delivers control of the remaining Sardaukar armies.",
"Leto marries Ghanima to consolidate power, but Farad'n is her true consort so the Atreides line can continue.Ghanima is portrayed by Jessica Brooks in the 2003 miniseries.",
"Laura Fries of ''Variety'' wrote, \"the mini picks up a great deal of charisma when James McAvoy|James McAvoy as Leto and Brooks come aboard as the next generation of the house of Atreides.\"",
"The characters Leto and Ghanima were aged from ten-year-olds to teens for the miniseries, which Emmet Asher-Perrin of ''Tor.com'' called \"a smart move here, as finding two ten year old kids who had the ability to behave as though they had millennia of ancestral memory bubbling up inside of them was always going to be an impossibility.\"",
"Asher-Perrin also called the rapport between Brooks and McAvoy \"dazzling\".=== Tyekanik ===Tyekanik is a Sardaukar officer who serves Princess Wensicia in ''Children of Dune''.",
"He is instrumental in her plot to assassinate the Atreides twins, Leto II and Ghanima, using mechanically-controlled Laza tigers.Tyekanik is portrayed by Marek Vašut in the 2003 miniseries.=== Namri ===Namri is the Fremen naib of Sietch Fondak, formerly known as Sietch Jacurutu, in ''Children of Dune''.",
"The Fremen of Fondak are called Iduali, or \"water stealers\", and shunned for a past transgression.",
"Believing he is acting on orders from Lady Jessica, Gurney Halleck abducts a nine-year-old Leto II and brings him to Fondak, where Namri assists him in administering an overdose of the spice to Leto as a test.",
"However, the test has actually been ordered by Leto's aunt Alia, possessed by the Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, and Namri has been told to kill Leto no matter the result.",
"Leto escapes and Namri attempts to kill Gurney, who kills him instead.Namri is portrayed by Predrag Bjelac in the 2003 miniseries.=== Javid ===Ziarenko Javid is the son of Namri and a High Priest of the Qizarate, the leaders of the religion which has risen around Paul Atreides.",
"Possessed by the persona of Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, Paul's sister Alia takes Javid as her lover, infuriating her husband, Duncan Idaho.",
"Duncan later kills Javid publicly in Sietch Tabr, partly out of revenge and partly to manipulate Stilgar into killing Duncan as a means to force Stilgar to join the rebellion against Alia.Javid is portrayed by Rik Young in the 2003 miniseries.=== Farad'n ===Farad'n is the son of Princess Wensicia, and the grandson of Shaddam IV.",
"In ''Children of Dune'', Shaddam is dead and Wensicia plots from exile to restore House Corrino to its former glory by wresting control of the Imperial throne from the usurper, Paul Atreides, for Farad'n.",
"She attempts to assassinate Leto II and Ghanima Atreides, Paul's twin heirs, and though she fails, Leto pretends to be dead to escape the increasingly murderous ambitions of his father's sister Alia.",
"Paul and Alia's mother, Lady Jessica, trains Farad'n in the Bene Gesserit ways as a preamble to an offer to marry Ghanima and share the throne.",
"His part of the deal is to \"denounce and banish\" Wensicia for Leto's murder, which he does, but Ghanima intends to murder Farad'n on their wedding night as revenge.",
"Leto reappears, now beginning the transformation into a human-sandworm hybrid, and ascends the throne himself.",
"Leto, who is now physically incapable of siring children, commands Farad'n to father the future Atreides line as Ghanima's mate.",
"Farad'n is also appointed as the Royal Scribe and renamed \"Harq al'Ada\" (the \"breaker of habit\"), and relinquishes his control of the remaining Sardaukar to Leto, effectively surrendering House Corrino's claim to the Imperial throne.",
"Many of the chapter epigraphs in the novel are from the later writings of Farad'n (as Harq al'Ada) in his role as chronicler of the reign of Leto II.Farad'n is portrayed by Jonathan Brüün in the 2003 miniseries.=== Other ===* '''''' is Namri's niece and Javid's cousin, who cares for Leto II while he undergoes the spice trance at Fondak.",
"Through his prescience, Leto sees a possible future in which Sabiha is his mate, but he chooses another path.",
"They meet again later at Shuloch, where Leto begins his transformation into a human-sandworm hybrid, and Sabiha is among the first to witness his subsequent superhuman abilities.",
"Sabiha is portrayed by Lana Likic in the 2003 miniseries.",
"* '''''' is the teenage Fremen boy who serves as a guide to the Preacher, a mysterious blind man who is actually Paul Atreides.",
"Tariq is the son of Muriz, a Fremen from the outcast Sietch Fondak.",
"Tariq is portrayed by Viliam Docolomansky in the 2003 miniseries.",
"* '''''' is a Fremen Iduali from the outcast Sietch Fondak, and the father of Assan Tariq.",
"After the mysterious Preacher, secretly a blinded Paul Atreides, publicly challenges the current state of his own religion, Muriz stabs him to death.",
"Muriz is in turn killed by Gurney Halleck.",
"Muriz is portrayed by Zdenek Maryska in the 2003 miniseries.",
"* '''''' is a Fremen warrior whom Alia Atreides takes as a lover after Stilgar joins the rebellion against her tyrannical rule.",
"Alia sends Agarves to negotiate with Stilgar, naib of Sietch Tabr, for the return of her niece Ghanima Atreides and Princess Irulan, promising Agarves leadership of Tabr if he kills Stilgar.",
"She uses a hidden tracker in Agarves' boots to raid the secret meeting, and Stilgar kills Agarves, as she planned."
],
[
"Introduced in ''God Emperor of Dune'' (1981)",
"=== Siona Atreides ===Siona Atreides is the daughter of God Emperor Leto II's attendant and confidante Moneo, and a direct descendant of Leto's twin sister Ghanima and Farad'n Corrino.",
"In ''God Emperor of Dune'', Siona objects to Leto's tyrannical stranglehold on civilization, and leads a group of like-minded dissidents determined to depose Leto by any means necessary.",
"Leto allows her to steal secret records from his archives, and she loses ten of her cohorts to Leto's D-wolves, barely escaping with her own life.",
"Forced to join the Fish Speakers, an all-female army who obey Leto without question, Siona is further bristled by Leto's obvious desire to breed her with the latest Duncan Idaho ghola.",
"Leto, who over the millennia has become a human-sandworm hybrid thanks to his fusion with sandtrout, the larval stage of sandworms, tests Siona by taking her out to the middle of the desert.",
"She is careless in the use of her stillsuit to preserve moisture, and dehydration forces her to accept Leto's offer of spice essence from his body to replenish her.",
"Awakened to Leto's Golden Path, the prophetic vision he follows to avert humanity's complete destruction, Siona is convinced of its importance, and better understands why he has ruled so harshly.",
"But she remains dedicated to Leto's destruction, and an errant rainstorm demonstrates for her his mortal vulnerability to water.",
"Leto has planned a Royal Procession to travel to his wedding to the Ixian ambassador Hwi Noree, and Siona and Idaho overcome a searing mutual hatred of each other to plan his assassination.",
"As the procession moves across a high bridge over the Idaho River, Siona's associate, the Fish Speaker Nayla, destroys the support beams with a lasgun.",
"The bridge collapses and Leto's entourage, including Hwi, plunge to their deaths into the river below.",
"Leto's body rends apart in the water, the outer layer of sandtrout encysting the water and scurrying off, while the rest burns and disintegrates on the shore.",
"A dying Leto reveals a secret aspect of his Golden Path: Siona is the end result of a breeding scheme to produce a human who is invisible to prescient vision.",
"Siona and her descendants will possess this ability, and Leto explains that humanity is now free from the domination of oracles, free to scatter throughout the universe, never again to face complete domination or complete destruction.",
"After revealing the location of his secret spice hoard, Leto dies, leaving Duncan and Siona to face the task of managing the empire.=== Hwi Noree ===Hwi Noree is the newest Ixian ambassador to Arrakis, and the niece of Malky, a previous Ixian ambassador who had been close to Leto II.",
"In ''God Emperor of Dune'', Leto is enchanted by the beautiful and charismatic Hwi, and though he realizes she has been specifically designed and trained to ensnare him, he cannot resist falling in love with her.",
"Raised in secret in a no-chamber, she has been bred to appeal to what remains of Leto's humanity, a process guided by Malky himself.",
"Though his transformation into a human-sandworm hybrid makes him incapable of physical intimacy, Leto proposes marriage and Hwi agrees.",
"Duncan Idaho also falls in love with Hwi, and they fall into bed together.",
"The resulting rivalry only worsens the rift between Leto and Duncan, who is driven to join Siona in her assassination plot against Leto.",
"Hwi dies with Leto when their wedding procession crosses a sabotaged bridge, which collapses into the Idaho River below.=== Anteac ===Bene Gesserit Truthsayer Tertius Eileen Anteac comes to Arrakis with Luyseyal in ''God Emperor of Dune'' for an audience with the God Emperor Leto II that coincides with the Royal Festival held every ten years.",
"They receive a message from Othwi Yake, Assistant to the Ixian ambassador, that Face Dancers have infiltrated the Ixian embassy, and are planning to assassinate Leto II.",
"They try to warn Leto, but the message does not reach his convoy in time, though the plot fails, as Anteac and Luyseyal knew it would.",
"They achieve little in their meeting with Leto II, and he takes the priceless vial of spice-essence with which they hoped to test his mortality.",
"Leto reminds Luyseyal of the lesson learned from past over-machined societies: \"The devices themselves condition the users to employ each other the way they employ machines.\"",
"Later, Leto enlists Anteac's aid in detecting the Face Dancers, who by that time have replaced everyone in the Ixian embassy except the new ambassador, Hwi Noree.",
"In particular, Anteac identifies the duplicate of Yake, who has been killed and replicated since the original sent his warning to Anteac.",
"Leto's chief minister Moneo Atreides suggests to the God Emperor that Anteac is a secret Mentat, a skill prohibited in the Empire by Leto himself.",
"Leto agrees but says that it amuses him.",
"Hwi shares her knowledge of the environment in which she was brought up with Anteac, who has been conscripted by Leto to lead a Fish Speaker assault on Ix to wrest the secret of Hwi's origins.",
"Anteac is shocked at the knowledge that Hwi is to marry Leto, and at the same time annoyed that The Bene Gesserit had allowed so talented a woman as Hwi to pass through their training program without turning her into one of them.",
"With Anteac's faithful assistance, Leto's forces successfully invade Ix and capture Malky, Hwi's uncle and Leto's former friend, but Anteac is killed.Some 1,500 years later in ''Chapterhouse: Dune'' the Duncan Idaho ghola recalls his past incarnation from the time of Leto II, noting that he had met with Anteac on orders from the God Emperor to suppress the Mentat school the Bene Gesserit had hidden on Wallach IX.",
"It is also revealed that Reverend Mother Bellonda is a descendant of Anteac's.=== Moneo Atreides ===Moneo Atreides is Leto II's longtime majordomo and close confidante, the son of one of the Duncan Idaho gholas, the father of Siona with the Fish Speaker Seyefa, and a direct descendant of Leto's twin sister Ghanima and Farad'n Corrino.",
"Like Siona, he was rebellious as a young man, leading a group of rebels dedicated to ending Leto's oppressive reign.",
"He recognized that eliminating Leto would cast the universe into chaos, but that it would prompt a beneficial rebirth for humanity.",
"In ''God Emperor of Dune'', Moneo has long given up these efforts and now serves Leto with the utmost dedication, having seen the Golden Path for himself and recognized its importance in saving humanity from destruction.",
"Moneo is killed during Leto's assassination, orchestrated by Siona and Duncan, when the bridge that Leto's procession is crossing is destroyed.=== Nayla ===Nayla is a fanatical Fish Speaker in the service of the God Emperor.",
"Knowing of Siona Atreides and Duncan Idaho's plot against him, Leto has instructed Nayla to follow any order Siona gives her.",
"When Siona tasks Nayla to assist in Leto's assassination by sabotaging the bridge he is traveling on, Nayla complies with fervor, damaging the supports with a lasgun.",
"Leto, Hwi Noree and Moneo Atreides are among those killed in the collapse, and Duncan kills Nayla for her role in Hwi's death.=== Chenoeh ===Quintinius Violet Chenoeh, specially trained as an oral recorder, is sent by Syaksa to Arrakis with Tawsuoko on a fact-gathering mission in the same year as Anteac, prior to the events ''God Emperor of Dune''.",
"She is invited to converse with the God Emperor himself, and he is uncharacteristically indulgent of her questions and somewhat generous with his own information, however cryptic.",
"Leto tells Chenoeh that he plans to restore \"outward spiritual freedom\" for mankind, and then refers to Siona Atreides as his \"achievement\", which the Sisterhood correctly interprets as being related to Leto's own breeding program.",
"Leto then says, \"You will return to your Superiors with my message, but these words keep secret for now.",
"I will visit my rage upon your Sisterhood if you fail.\"",
"Chenoeh complies, following Syaksa's own warning: \"You must do nothing which will bring down his wrath upon us.\"",
"Leto relates how he and his sister Ghanima were able to escape the disaster of Abomination, and also makes one of the earliest references to his secret journals, later found at Dar-es-Balat.",
"He knows he will ultimately be perceived as a tyrant, and wishes to preserve his \"feelings and motives... lest history distort them too much.\"",
"At the same time, he warns \"Beware of ''the'' truth,\" and shares what he calls \"the greatest mystery of all time\" by which he composes his life: \"The only past which endures lies wordlessly within you.\"",
"Leto tells Chenoeh that by virtue of his taking her into his confidence, \"You will become here an integral part of my myth.",
"Our distant cousins will pray to you for intercession with me!\"",
"He also foretells her later death during her attempt at becoming a Reverend Mother through the spice agony.",
"Chenoeh's account of their secret conversation is found after her death, and it is later noted that \"the persistent Cult of Sister Chenoeh assumes new significance because of the journals' disclosures.\"",
"Chenoeh and Tawsuoko also bring back to Chapterhouse proof (in the form of a written eyewitness account of Leto's statement) that, as rumored, Leto executed nine historians four centuries prior.=== Other ===* '''''' is the Ixian ambassador to Arrakis prior to the events of ''God Emperor of Dune''.",
"In this capacity he becomes a close confidante to Leto, discussing controversial subjects and challenging the God Emperor as a subtle attempt at manipulation.",
"Malky is recalled to Ix, and replaced by Iyo Kobat.",
"In the novel, Malky's niece, Hwi Noree, is installed as the new Ixian ambassador.",
"Leto soon learns that she has been designed and trained to ensnare him, and that Malky was complicit in the process.",
"Leto sends a Fish Speaker force to Ix to capture Malky, who is brought back to Arrakis and murdered by Moneo.",
"* '''''' is a Bene Gesserit Truthsayer who comes to Arrakis with Anteac in ''God Emperor of Dune'' for an audience with the God Emperor Leto II that coincides with the Royal Festival held every ten years.",
"They receive a message from Othwi Yake, Assistant to the Ixian mbassador, that Face Dancers have infiltrated the Ixian embassy, and are planning to assassinate Leto II.",
"Anteac and Luyseyal try to warn Leto, but the message does not reach his convoy in time, though the plot fails, as Anteac and Luyseyal knew it would.",
"They achieve little in their meeting with Leto II, and he takes the priceless vial of spice-essence with which they hoped to test his mortality.",
"Leto reminds Luyseyal of the lesson learned from past over-machined societies: \"The devices themselves condition the users to employ each other the way they employ machines.",
"\"* '''''' is a Bene Gesserit sent by Syaksa to Arrakis with Chenoeh on a fact-gathering mission the same year as Anteac, prior to the events ''God Emperor of Dune''.",
"In addition to the record of Chenoeh's somewhat enlightening conversations with the God Emperor, she and Chenoeh bring back to Chapterhouse proof (in the form of a written eyewitness account of Leto's statement) that, as rumored, Leto executed nine historians four centuries prior.",
"* '''''' is a Bene Gesserit who sends Chenoeh and Tawsuoko to Arrakis on a fact-gathering mission the same year as Anteac, prior to the events ''God Emperor of Dune''.",
"Syaksa's warning to Chenoeh that \"You must do nothing which will bring down his wrath upon us\" encourages Chenoeh to obey the God Emperor's command to withhold certain of his statements from the Sisterhood.",
"Syaksa and four other Reverend Mothers (Yitob, Mamulut, Eknekosk and Akeli) incorporate information gleaned from this mission into an \"assessment of the state of the Empire\" for that year.",
"Syaksa believes that the religious character of the Fish Speakers is slowly being devolved under Leto II.",
"She further attributes to him a motive based on the concept of hydraulic despotism, in which a government structure maintains power and control through exclusive control over a basic resource needed to live (in this case, melange), proposing that he is building the Empire toward an even greater dependence on the spice."
],
[
"Introduced in ''Heretics of Dune'' (1984)",
"=== Lucilla ===Lucilla is a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother and Imprinter.",
"In ''Heretics of Dune'', Bene Gesserit Mother Superior Taraza sends the young and attractive Lucilla to Gammu, formerly the Harkonnen homeworld Giedi Prime, to teach the teenage Duncan Idaho ghola whom the Sisterhood is raising there.",
"Lucilla is also tasked with binding his loyalty to her, and thus the Bene Gesserit, through imprinting, while also protecting him from the negative influence—and possible peril—presented by dissenting Bene Gesserit who believe the ghola is a danger to the Sisterhood.",
"Extremely precocious and already having divined the fact that he is a ghola, the young Duncan nurses hatred for the Bene Gesserit, hoping to escape their control of his life.",
"He soon blossoms, however, under the training of Lucilla and Miles Teg, a male military commander of the Bene Gesserit brought out of retirement in part to protect the ghola.",
"An attempt is made on Duncan's life, and Teg and Lucilla flee with Duncan into the countryside.",
"They hide in a forgotten Harkonnen no-globe, during which time Teg is able to awaken Duncan to his original memories.",
"This occurs before Lucilla has imprinted the ghola, and his new self-awareness now makes it impossible for her to attempt it.",
"Teg arranges an extraction by his protégé Burzmali, but they are ambushed, and Teg sacrifices himself to capture while Lucilla and Duncan escape.",
"Duncan attempts to get off Gammu undetected in the guise of a diminutive Tleilaxu Master, but is taken hostage.",
"Lucilla and Burzmali arrive at a Bene Gesserit safehouse, but discover that it has been taken over by the fearsome Honored Matres, a violent matriarchal order from the farthest reaches of the universe who have been wreaking havoc and destruction on Tleilaxu worlds.",
"Lucilla manages to impersonate an Honored Matre as one of their number, escaping with Duncan and an Honored Matre prisoner, Murbella.",
"Teg commandeers an Honored Matre no-ship and flees with Lucilla, Duncan and a captive Murbella.In ''Chapterhouse: Dune'', Lucilla has been transferred to the planet Lampadas to oversee a Bene Gesserit education center located there.",
"She manages to escape before the Honored Matres destroy the planet, carrying the shared memories of its millions of Reverend Mothers.",
"Her ship is damaged by a mine and she is forced to land on Gammu, where she takes refuge with a hidden colony of Jews, knowing that they will be sympathetic to her.",
"The Jews had fled Earth thousands of years earlier in order to escape relentless persecution, and they now practice their religion in secret to maintain their ties to ancient history.",
"The Bene Gesserit, with their own method of connecting to their past, have cultivated a relationship with the Jews.",
"The leader of this settlement gives Lucilla shelter, but ultimately has to turn her over to the Honored Matres in order to save his people from destruction at their hands.",
"Before doing so, however, he introduces Lucilla to Rebecca, a \"wild\" Reverend Mother who has gained her Other Memories without Bene Gesserit training.",
"Lucilla shares minds with Rebecca, who promises to take the memories of Lampadas safely back to the Sisterhood.",
"The Honored Matres capture Lucilla and bring her before the Great Honored Matre Dama, who surprises everyone present by declining to kill her outright.",
"Dama tries to persuade Lucilla to join the Honored Matres, preserving her life in exchange for Bene Gesserit secrets.",
"Dama is especially interested in the Bene Gesserit ability to modify their biochemistry and render toxins harmless, prompting Lucilla to speculate that the Honored Matres were driven out of the Scattering by an enemy who used biological weapons.",
"These conversations with Lucilla continue for weeks, and she reveals to Dama that, although the Bene Gesserit know how to manipulate and control the populace, they practice and believe in democracy.",
"Dama's desire to destroy the Sisterhood is redoubled when she discovers that the Bene Gesserit teach this dangerous knowledge, and she kills Lucilla.Lucilla is described as a near copy of the elite Reverend Mother Darwi Odrade, from her physical appearance to the sound of her voice.",
"The two women are not directly related, but are instead the products of parallel breeding lines.=== Miles Teg ===Miles Teg is a Mentat and the former Supreme Bashar of the Bene Gesserit, their leading military commander.",
"In ''Heretics of Dune'', Bene Gesserit Mother Superior Taraza summons Teg out of retirement to take over the weapons training of the newest Duncan Idaho ghola, still a teenager, on Gammu.",
"Teg, Duncan and Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Lucilla flee an attempt on Duncan's life, and hide in a long-forgotten Harkonnen no-globe discovered by Teg's aide, Patrin.",
"Teg uses his strong resemblance to his ancestor Duke Leto Atreides, to whom the original Idaho was fiercely loyal, and a variety of relentless physical and mental attacks to awaken Duncan to his original memories.",
"Teg arranges an extraction by his protégé Burzmali, but they are ambushed, and Teg sacrifices himself to capture by the Honored Matres to allow Lucilla and Duncan to escape.",
"Teg is tortured using a T-Probe, and under the severe stress and agony produced by the probe's attempts to gain control of his body and his knowledge, his Mentat abilities and Atreides genes elevate him to a higher level of being.",
"He is able to move faster than the eye can see by accelerating his metabolism, and he gains mild prescience, which he describes as a doubled vision which gives him intimations of danger.",
"His accelerated speed comes at the cost of incredible energy expenditure, requiring him to consume enormous amounts of food.",
"After escaping his captors, he finds that his safehouse had been taken over by Honored Matres, who attempt to gain his allegiance.",
"Seeing the terrible state their constant drive for power and contempt for the masses has lowered them to, he uses his incredible speed to slaughter them and escape once more.",
"Teg gathers a force of veterans who had served under him on previous campaigns from the bars of Ysai and captures an Honored Matre no-ship using his tactical genius and new abilities.",
"He flees the planet with Lucilla, Duncan and a captive Honored Matre, Murbella.",
"Journeying to Rakis, Teg hands off Duncan and Lucilla to the Bene Gesserits Sheeana and Darwi Odrade, the latter of which is revealed to be his daughter.",
"As the others escape, Teg goads the Honored Matres, who incinerate the entire planet with their Obliterator weapons to be sure Teg is killed.A ghola of Teg is birthed in ''Chapterhouse: Dune'' on orders from Odrade, who is now Mother Superior of the Bene Gesserit after Taraza's death in the battle at Rakis.",
"Odrade needs Teg's military abilities to thwart the worsening threat of the Honored Matres.",
"The Bene Gesserit later reawaken him to his full memories prematurely by using Sheeana to imprint him.",
"As the original Teg has been trained by his mother to resist such manipulation, the attempt subjects the Teg ghola to a heightened amount of stress which also unlocks the superhuman abilities previously acquired by Teg under Honored Matre torture.",
"A reawakened Teg leads the final assault upon the Honored Matres, but is captured when the Matres pretend to surrender.",
"Murbella, a captive Honored Matre indoctrinated into the Bene Gesserit, kills the Honored Matre leader Logno at the same time Bene Gesserit Mother Superior Odrade is killed, and Murbella manages to secure the leadership of both groups.",
"Teg is released, later joining Sheeana and Duncan Idaho when they escape Bene Gesserit control in a no-ship.The adult Teg is described as 296 years old but still vital, and has a striking resemblance to his ancestor, Leto Atreides.",
"The son of the Bene Gesserit Lady Janet Roxbrough (a Fish Speaker descendant) and Loschy Teg, a \"CHOAM station factor\" who was chosen for breeding by the Sisterhood for his \"gene potential,\" Miles had been instructed in the Bene Gesserit ways by his mother before being sent to Lampadas to train as a Mentat.",
"Teg is a military genius, having a very strong sense of honor, loyalty, and many of the characteristics of House Atreides, his ancestors.",
"He is well known for doing the unexpected.",
"Teg is also not a spice addict, as is common with most other people, not even resorting to the spice at old age when most others might wish to use it to extend their lives.",
"By the time of ''Heretics of Dune'', Teg's wife had been dead for 38 years, his grown children living elsewhere except for his eldest daughter Dimela.",
"She and her husband Firus take control of Teg's farm when he leaves his homeworld Lernaeus, and the couple have three children.",
"Teg had a younger brother, Sabine, who had been poisoned on Romo.",
"In ''Heretics of Dune'', it is revealed that Teg had fathered other children during his younger years, one of whom is Odrade.Teg also appears in the sequel novels ''Hunters of Dune'' and ''Sandworms of Dune'' by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.",
"In ''Hunters of Dune'', Duncan and Teg run the affairs on the no-ship, being the only two passengers with experience in military leadership.",
"Teg considers himself responsible for the security of the ship and its vital cargo of historical gholas, produced in transit from genetic material possessed by captive passenger Scytale, purportedly the last Tleilaxu Master.",
"In ''Sandworms of Dune'', mysterious saboteurs conduct crippling attacks on the no-ship's systems.",
"Teg and Duncan discover that Face Dancers have infiltrated the ship, but not before they are led directly to the \"Unknown Enemy\" who have been stalking the ship for years: Daniel and Marty, incarnations of the ancient thinking machines Omnius and Erasmus.",
"The critically damaged no-ship is caught in the thinking machine tachyon net, and Teg uses his accelerated metabolism to both repair the ship and launch countermeasures against the attacking machines.",
"Though he has consumed vast quantities of melange and carbohydrates from the ship's stores to complete his task, Teg dies from massive cellular exhaustion.",
"Duncan is unable to free the ship, and it is taken to the machine world Synchrony.",
"En route, Duncan and Sheeana release the husk that is left of Teg's body into space, vowing that the Bashar will never be captured by the Enemy.",
"Later, after the machines are defeated, Duncan asks Scytale for a new ghola of Teg, whom he will need at his side in his new position as the bridge between both mankind and machines.=== Murbella ===Murbella is a young Honored Matre who defects to the Bene Gesserit.",
"In ''Heretics of Dune'', the violent Honored Matres capture the teenage Duncan Idaho ghola, who is loyal to their enemies, the Bene Gesserit.",
"Young Honored Matre Murbella is tasked to use her sexual imprinting talents to enslave Duncan to force his allegiance to them.",
"The Tleilaxu have secretly programmed the ghola with the male equivalent to the Honored Matres' imprinting power, which is unlocked by Murbella's attempt.",
"Duncan and Murbella imprint each other, and in her weakened condition Murbella is easily captured by the Bene Gesserit.",
"Her new addiction to Duncan keeps Murbella subdued, and Bene Gesserit soon begin to train her as one of them, though they do not completely trust her.",
"In ''Chapterhouse: Dune'', Duncan and Murbella's mutual imprinting has made them reluctant lovers.",
"Murbella collapses under the pressure of training and her pregnancy, but realizes that she admires and wants to be Bene Gesserit.",
"Murbella submits to the spice agony to become a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother, and survives.",
"During a Bene Gesserit attack on the Honored Matres, Murbella kills the Great Honored Matre Logno with her Bene Gesserit-enhanced fighting skills, and the Honored Matres are awed by her physical prowess.",
"The Bene Gesserit Mother Superior Darwi Odrade is also killed, and Murbella secures the leadership of both groups, per Odrade's plan.",
"Murbella intends to merge the two orders into a New Sisterhood, which displeases some of the Bene Gesserit.",
"The dissenters flee Chapterhouse with Duncan, Miles Teg, and Sheeana in a no-ship, and Murbella realizes their plan too late to stop them.Murbella also appears in the sequel novels ''Hunters of Dune'' and ''Sandworms of Dune'' by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.",
"In ''Hunters of Dune'', Murbella takes the title Mother Commander.",
"She has four daughters by Duncan: Rinya, Janess, Tanidia and Gianne.",
"Murbella searches her Other Memory for the origin of the Honored Matres.",
"She discovers that they are descendants of rogue Bene Gesserits and Tleilaxu females, originally used as axlotl tanks and freed by Fish Speakers, who allied in the Scattering.",
"Murbella also discovers that the Honored Matres' \"outside enemy\" are thinking machines, provoked when the Honored Matres stole technologically advanced weapons, including Obliterators, from them.",
"In ''Sandworms of Dune'', Murbella now knows that the sentient computer network Omnius and his thinking machine forces are coming, and attempts to rally humankind for a last stand against the thinking machines.",
"She commissions the scientists of Ix to copy the destructive Obliterators for use on the fleet of warships she has ordered from the Spacing Guild.",
"However, Ix is now secretly controlled by Face Dancer leader Khrone.",
"When Murbella is ready to launch her fleet, the Obliterators and Ixian navigation devices all suddenly fail, which Murbella realizes is sabotage.",
"The Oracle of Time appears, destroying Omnius and the thinking machines with her own armada.",
"Murbella is reunited with Duncan, who intends to end the divide between humans and thinking machines, allowing the two to co-exist.=== Darwi Odrade ===Darwi Odrade is an elite Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother and Atreides descendant.",
"In ''Heretics of Dune'', the \"wild talents\" of the Atreides bloodline that Odrade displays intermittently are what the Bene Gesserit both fear and desperately need.",
"The suspicious Reverend Mother Bellonda scrutinizes Odrade continually, looking for reasons to terminate her, while Mother Superior Taraza senses that the Sisterhood needs Odrade's limited Atreides prescience to avert imminent destruction at the hands of the Honored Matres.",
"Taraza tasks Odrade to take over the Bene Gesserit Keep on the planet Arrakis, and take under her protection the foundling girl Sheeana, who has the natural ability to control the giant sandworms.",
"Recognizing Sheeana's value to the Sisterhood, Odrade begins training her as a Bene Gesserit acolyte.",
"Meanwhile, an anonymous document referred to as the Atreides Manifesto surfaces, attacking all religions in the known universe except for that of the Bene Tleilax.",
"This creates a furor with the intensely religious Tleilaxu, who have long nursed dreams of hegemony, dominating the universe with their religion.",
"The Tleilaxu council decides to treat the Manifesto as a gift from God, and they spread it far and wide.",
"It is later revealed that the Manifesto was in fact written by Odrade.",
"When Taraza is killed after a showdown with the Honored Matres on Arrakis, Odrade becomes Mother Superior.In ''Chapterhouse Dune'' (1985), Odrade is accompanied by Tamalane, Dortujla and the acolyte Suipol to meet the Great Honored Matre Dama on Junction, as retired Bene Gesserit Supreme Bashar Miles Teg leads a force to attack Gammu.",
"With the planet about to fall, the Honored Matres activate their \"weapon of last resort\", turning victory into defeat and holding Odrade captive.",
"Tamalane, Dortujla, and Suipol are killed.",
"As planned with Odrade previously, Honored Matre-turned-Bene Gesserit Murbella travels to Junction alone, pretending to have escaped the Bene Gesserit with their unique abilities and the location of their hidden homeworld, Chapterhouse.",
"Murbella is brought before the new Great Honored Matre Logno, who has just killed her predecessor Dama and has Odrade standing nearby, unrestrained in a gesture of contempt.",
"Murbella provokes and kills Logno, while simultaneously the Honored Matre Elpek kills Odrade.",
"With both of these deaths, Murbella becomes the new Mother Superior as well as Great Honored Matre, fulfilling Odrade's intentions.Odrade is secretly the daughter of military commander Teg, and her \"care with details\" makes her, like Teg, most suited for duties related to security.",
"The younger Reverend Mother and Imprinter Lucilla is described a near copy of Odrade, from her physical appearance to the sound of her voice.",
"The two women are not directly related, but are instead the products of parallel breeding lines.",
"As the Bene Gesserit are wary of the historical unpredictability of Atreides genes, it is noted in ''Heretics of Dune'' that her offspring receive \"careful examination\", and that \"two of those offspring had been quietly put to death.",
"\"=== Sheeana ===Sheeana Brugh is a young girl native to Rakis (formerly Arrakis) who possesses the unique ability to control the giant sandworms that roam the desert planet.",
"In ''Heretics of Dune'', Sheeana's talent is revealed after her impoverished village is wiped out by a sandworm which refuses to harm her, and then whisks her to the capital city of Keen (formerly Arrakeen) when she climbs on to its back in the long-forbidden Fremen tradition.",
"Sheeana is soon recognized as the \"sandrider\" predicted by the Leto II, and worshipped by the priesthood of Rakis.",
"As she matures to adulthood, Sheeana effectively assumes control of the priesthood.",
"Her popularity and religious aura have increased both on and off Rakis, and the priests, believing her a prophet, are compelled to follow even her most unorthodox commands.",
"The Bene Gesserit, who have their own plans for Sheeana and have secretly guided her education, thwart an assassination attempt on her, and unofficially take control of Sheeana, the priesthood and Rakis.",
"Reverend Mother Darwi Odrade begins Sheeana's formal Bene Gesserit training.",
"Mother Superior Taraza is soon pleased with Sheeana's progress, and considers a secondary plan of seeding other planets with sandworms with Sheeana's help.",
"Rakis itself is destroyed by the vengeful Honored Matres.",
"In ''Chapterhouse: Dune'', Sheeana is now in charge of the project to breed sandworms on the secret Bene Gesserit world, Chapterhouse.",
"She becomes a full Reverend Mother but remains very independent, with mysterious depths.",
"Disagreeing with the plans of new Bene Gesserit leader Murbella, Sheeana chooses to escape Chapterhouse on an untraceable no-ship with the like-minded Duncan Idaho ghola and a number of other passengers.Sheeana also appears in the sequel novels ''Hunters of Dune'' and ''Sandworms of Dune'' by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.In ''Hunters of Dune'', Sheeana and Duncan lead the no-ship in their journey to flee the Unknown Enemy that pursues them.",
"Sheeana decides that they need to make new gholas of former heroes using the genetic material carried by the last Tleilaxu Master, Scytale.=== Tylwyth Waff ===Tylwyth Waff is a Tleilaxu Master and the leader of the Bene Tleilax, a secretive race of genetic manipulators who traffic in biological products such as artificial eyes, gholas, and \"twisted\" Mentats.",
"Waff is described as \"an elfin figure barely a meter and a half tall.",
"Eyes, hair, and skin were shades of gray, all a stage for the oval face with its tiny mouth and line of sharp teeth\".",
"In ''Heretics of Dune'', Waff successfully replaces High Priest Hedley Tuek with a Face Dancer duplicate loyal to the Tleilaxi, but loses control of the impostor due to its eventual complete assimilation into its new form.",
"Traveling to Rakis, Waff decides to ally with the Bene Gesserit after he is tricked into believing that they share the secret religious beliefs of the Tleilaxu.",
"He is killed along with the entire population of Rakis when the Honored Matres destroy the planet in revenge for Miles Teg's slaughter of their members.",
"Meanwhile, he has a replacement ghola growing for himself in Bandalong, the capital city of the Tleilaxu homeworld, Tleilax.Waff also appears in the sequel novels ''Hunters of Dune'' and ''Sandworms of Dune'' by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.",
"In ''Hunters of Dune'', the Honored Matres who conquered Tleilax have kept several of Waff's gholas alive, but in vegetative states.",
"In order to recover the supposedly \"lost\" secret to producing melange in axlotl tanks, the Lost Tleilaxu scribe Uxtal is tasked to create new gholas from Waff's genetic material.",
"Uxtal accelerates the process artificially, and of the first batch of eight Waff gholas, seven fail to regain their memories and are viciously killed.",
"The massacre shocks the last ghola into regaining some of Waff's memories, but not enough to recreate the melange process.",
"Later, the Waff ghola escapes the Bene Gesserit attack on Tleilax, finding refuge with the Spacing Guild by offering Guild Navigator Edrik the genetic knowledge for the Guild to create their own, optimized sandworms to produce melange.",
"In ''Sandworms of Dune'', Waff alters the DNA of the sandworm's larval sandtrout stage to create an aquatic form of the worms, which are then released into the oceans of Buzzell.",
"Adapting to their new environment, these \"seaworms\" quickly flourish, eventually producing a highly concentrated form of melange, dubbed \"ultraspice\".",
"Waff makes a pilgrimage to Rakis, original homeworld of the sandworms, and sacrifices himself to a worm, which to him is an embodiment of God.=== Bellonda ===Bellonda is a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother and the chief Mentat-Archivist counselor to Mother Superior Taraza in ''Heretics of Dune''.",
"After Taraza's death, Bellonda serves new Mother Superior Darwi Odrade in the same function in ''Chapterhouse: Dune''.",
"During a conversation with the Duncan Idaho ghola it is revealed that Bellonda is a descendant of Anteac, an important Reverend Mother from the time of the God Emperor Leto II.Bellonda also appears in the sequel novel ''Hunters of Dune'' by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.",
"In the novel, Bellonda is one of the few Bene Gesserit with access to the Bene Gesserit's sensitive breeding records, and one of even fewer possessing the memories of all the Mothers Superior.",
"Bellonda suspects that the Honored Matres had originally been Reverend Mothers sent out in the Scattering, and calculates that melange withdrawal and hypnosis had caused them to deny their origins.",
"Bellonda is later killed in a duel by her Spice Operations Director partner and nemesis, the former Honored Matre Doria.",
"An outraged Mother Commander Murbella, leader of the merged New Sisterhood of Bene Gesserit and Honored Matres, forces Doria to share minds with Bellonda before her memories are lost forever.=== Taraza ===Alma Mavis Taraza is the Bene Gesserit Mother Superior in ''Heretics of Dune'' who brings former Supreme Bashar Miles Teg reluctantly out of retirement to guard the latest Duncan Idaho ghola.",
"Taraza blackmails Tleilaxu Master Waff to find out all he knows about the invading Honored Matres, as well as the fact that the Bene Tleilax have programmed their own agenda within the ghola.",
"She also manages to divine that Waff is a secret Zensufi, which finally gives the Sisterhood a way to manipulate the Tleilaxu.",
"Reverend Mother Darwi Odrade subsequently uses this knowledge of Waff's religious beliefs to form an alliance with him.",
"As Tleilaxu axlotl tanks are the only other source of melange besides Rakis, this alliance will be essential when Taraza executes her ultimate plan: to destroy Rakis and free humanity from Leto II's own plan.",
"The discovery of a girl with the ability to control sandworms prompts Taraza to consider a secondary plan of seeding other planets with them.",
"The Honored Matres are goaded into attacking Rakis and Taraza is killed, but not before she is able to share Other Memory with Odrade, who escapes.=== Burzmali ===Alef Burzmali is Miles Teg's protégé in the Bene Gesserit military who became Supreme Bashar after Teg's retirement.",
"In ''Heretics of Dune'', he aids Teg in extracting the Duncan Idaho ghola and Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Lucilla from their hiding place on Gammu.",
"When Duncan is captured by the Honored Matres, Lucilla impersonates one of them, with Burzmali playing her sexual slave, to access the building where Duncan is being held.",
"Burzmali dies attempting to protect the planet Lampadas from a catastrophic attack by Honored Matres in ''Chapterhouse Dune''.=== Hedley Tuek ===Hedley Tuek is the High Priest of the Rakian Priesthood, and a descendant of the melange smuggler Esmar Tuek.",
"Tleilaxu Master Waff has Tuek killed and replaced by a Face Dancer, a genetically-engineered mimic, but loses control of the duplicate due to its eventual complete assimilation into its new form.=== Other ===* '''''' is the Bene Gesserit in charge of the Duncan Idaho ghola project on Gammu in ''Heretics of Dune''.",
"As the leader of a faction of the Sisterhood who believe that such gholas are a danger to the order and its goals, she has been subtly encouraging the ghola's failure.",
"By the time Lucilla arrives to teach Duncan and bind his loyalty to the Sisterhood with sexual imprinting, he has already been tarnished by Schwangyu, and nurses hatred for the Bene Gesserit and a desire to escape their control.",
"Despite Schwangyu's efforts to seduce Lucilla to her side, Duncan blossoms under the training of Lucilla and Miles Teg, and Schwangyu begins to realize that she has much underestimated Lucilla.",
"Schwangyu betrays Teg, Lucilla, and Duncan to the Tleilaxu, allowing them to attack the keep on Gammu where Duncan is being trained, but the Tleilaxu forces kill her during the strike.",
"* '''''' is a Bene Gesserit who is one of the Duncan Idaho ghola's first chief instructors on Gammu in the events before ''Heretics of Dune''.",
"Tamalane is one of Mother Superior Odrade's advisors in ''Chapterhouse: Dune'', and accompanies Odrade, Dortujla and the acolyte Suipol to meet the Great Honored Matre Dama on Junction as Miles Teg leads a force to attack Gammu.",
"Tamalane and her party are eventually slain by the Honored Matres, but the Bene Gesserit conquest proves successful with Murbella left as leader to both the Bene Gesserit and the Honored Matres.",
"* '''''' is the Bene Gesserit Archivist counselor and advisor to Mother Superior Taraza in ''Heretics of Dune''.",
"She is one of very few sisters with access to sensitive breeding records, and is the first advisor to correctly suggest that the Tleilaxu ambition is to produce a complete prana-bindu mimic.",
"* '''''' is the Bene Gesserit mother of Supreme Bashar Miles Teg, who teaches him the Bene Gesserit ways in his youth, prior to ''Heretics of Dune''.",
"* '''''' is a young Bene Gesserit acolyte whom Miles Teg meets as a child.",
"While the Honored Matres interrogate an adult Miles with a T-Probe in ''Heretics of Dune'', he recalls a visit from the Sisterhood to his Bene Gesserit mother, Lady Janet Roxbrough.",
"Miles is left talking with one of the visitor's young acolytes, Carlana, who unsuccessfully tries her \"fledging skills\" on the eleven-year-old Teg.",
"Miles, who has been well-instructed by his mother, can easily see through Carlana and manipulates her in return.",
"Carlana is described as having red-blond hair, a doll's face with green-gray eyes and upturned nose, and an \"inflated view of her own attractions.",
"\"* '''''' is a Bene Gesserit who had been the Duncan Idaho ghola's first chief instructor prior to the events of ''Heretics of Dune''.",
"She had become very attached to him, but had been sent away after allowing him to discover (at age eight) that he is a ghola."
],
[
"Introduced in ''Chapterhouse: Dune'' (1985)",
"=== Rebecca ===Rebecca is a \"wild\" Reverend Mother who lives among a secret community of Jews on Gammu.",
"In ''Chapterhouse: Dune'', Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Lucilla is fleeing the destruction of the planet Lampadas by the Honored Matres and is forced to land on Gammu.",
"Once there, she seeks out a hidden settlement of Jews, whom she knows will give her sanctuary.",
"They are obligated to turn her over to the Honored Matres to assure their own survival, but Lucilla, who is carrying the priceless shared-minds of all the Reverend Mothers of Lampadas, is able to share minds with Rebecca and pass on this knowledge before being captured by the Honored Matres.",
"Rebecca and the Jews eventually escape Gammu with the Bene Gesserit forces, and Rebecca is able to pass on the 7,622,014 Lampadas shared-minds to the Sisterhood.In the sequel novel ''Hunters of Dune'' by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, Rebecca is aboard the untraceable no-ship which Sheeana and Duncan Idaho use to flee the Bene Gesserit planet Chapterhouse.",
"Rebecca later offers herself as a volunteer to become one of the axlotl tanks used to produce the important gholas of Paul Atreides, Leto II and others.=== Daniel and Marty ===Daniel and Marty are a pair of mysterious observers with advanced technological powers introduced in ''Chapterhouse: Dune''.",
"Duncan Idaho sees the duo in a vision and determines that they are likely Face Dancers, the shapeshifting minions of the Tleilaxu, though atypically autonomous ones.",
"In the final chapter of the novel, Daniel and Marty observe the escape of the no-ship from Chapterhouse and confirm that they are independent Face Dancers.",
"They acknowledge that Tleilaxu Masters created them and express some deference, but also assert their independence and indicate that their ability to absorb the memories and experiences of other people made their autonomy inevitable.",
"Daniel and Marty hint that they observe and are familiar with various groups in the universe, and allude to their desire to capture and study the passengers of the no-ship.Herbert's 1986 death \"left fans with an über-cliffhanger\" for twenty years, until his son Brian Herbert and author Kevin J. Anderson published two sequels to the original series, ''Hunters of Dune'' and ''Sandworms of Dune''.In ''Hunters of Dune'', Daniel and Marty are in constant pursuit of the escaped no-ship, on which they believe is the Kwisatz Haderach they require to be victorious in the imminent and long-foretold \"battle at the end of the universe\" known as kralizec.",
"Their Face Dancer minion Khrone is executing a parallel plan to create their own Kwisatz Haderach, using a Paul Atreides ghola that will be conditioned by a ghola of the Baron Harkonnen.",
"Daniel and Marty themselves have the ability to create illusions, and to inflict pain on any human.",
"It is eventually revealed that Daniel and Marty are not, in fact, Face Dancers: they are actually incarnations of the thinking machines Omnius (Daniel) and Erasmus (Marty), introduced in the ''Legends of Dune'' prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Anderson.",
"In the third ''Legends'' novel ''Dune: The Battle of Corrin'', Omnius had sent out a last blast of information before being destroyed in the Battle of Corrin.",
"This signal had eventually connected with one of the probes disseminated from Giedi Prime several years earlier, uploading versions of Erasmus and Omnius.In ''Sandworms of Dune'', Omnius and Erasmus finally capture the no-ship and pit the Paul ghola on board against their own twisted version, Paolo, in a duel to the death that will leave them with the strongest of the two.",
"Paul survives, but realizes that Duncan is actually the \"ultimate Kwisatz Haderach\" that Omnius has been seeking.",
"The Oracle of Time, the immortal founder of the Spacing Guild, transports every aspect of the Omnius network into another dimension forever.",
"Erasmus offers Duncan the choice between continuing their war or ending it.",
"Duncan chooses peace over victory, and he and Erasmus merge minds.",
"Erasmus imparts Duncan with all the codes required to run the Synchronized Worlds, as well as all of Erasmus' knowledge, setting Duncan as the bridge between humans and machines to permanently end the divide and ensure that the two may co-exist.",
"With little left for him, Erasmus again expresses his desire to learn everything possible about what it is to be human—and asks Duncan to deactivate him so that he may experience \"death\".William F. Touponce states unequivocally that Daniel and Marty are Face Dancers in his 1988 book ''Frank Herbert'', explaining \"Herbert gives us a segment narrated from their point of view only at the very end of the novel.",
"They are offshoots of the Tleilaxu Face Dancers sent out in The Scattering and have become almost godlike because of their capacity to assume the persona of whoever they kill—and they have been doing this for centuries, capturing Mentats and Tleilaxu Masters and whatever else they could assimilate, until now they play with whole planets and civilizations.",
"They are weirdly benign when they first appear in the visions of Duncan Idaho as a calm elderly couple working in a flower garden, trying to capture him in their net\".",
"In an August 2007 review of ''Sandworms of Dune'', John C. Snider of SciFiDimensions.com argues that it \"doesn't fit\" or \"add up\" that Frank Herbert's Daniel and Marty are the \"malevolent\" thinking machines Brian Herbert and Anderson created in their ''Legends of Dune'' prequel novels.",
"He further wonders why \"Omnius, long established as puzzled by and averse to human unpredictability, would want to breed that ultimate ungovernable—a Kwisatz Haderach\".=== Dama ===Great Honored Matre Dama is the Honored Matre leader on Junction in ''Chapterhouse Dune'', and is called the \"Spider Queen\" by the Bene Gesserit leader Darwi Odrade.",
"Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Lucilla flees the destruction of Lampadas by the Honored Matres, but is forced to land on Gammu.",
"She is captured and brought before Dama, but not killed outright.",
"Dama tries to persuade Lucilla to join the Honored Matres, preserving her life in exchange for Bene Gesserit secrets.",
"Dama does not try to hide the fact that the Matres dearly want to learn to modify their biochemistry as the Bene Gesserit do.",
"These conversations with Lucilla continue for weeks.",
"When she reveals to Dama that, although the Bene Gesserit know how to manipulate and control the populace, they practice and believe in democracy, Dama's desire to destroy the Sisterhood is redoubled when she discovers the Bene Gesserit teach this dangerous knowledge.",
"Dama kills Lucilla, and then meets with Mother Superior Odrade.",
"Dama at first seems surprisingly cooperative, but Odrade soon realizes that Dama intends no reasonable negotiation.",
"Under cover of Odrade's diplomacy, the Bene Gesserit forces under Miles Teg attack Junction with tremendous force.",
"Dama's chief advisor Logno assassinates Dama with poison, and assumes control of the Honored Matres.=== Logno ===Logno is the chief advisor to Great Honored Matre Dama on Junction.",
"In ''Chapterhouse Dune'', Logno assassinates Dama with poison while the Bene Gesserit forces are attacking Junction.",
"Logno assumes control of the Honored Matres and immediately surrenders.",
"Bene Gesserit leader Odrade is surprised, but she and Miles Teg soon realize they have fallen into a trap.",
"The Honored Matres use a weapon of mass destruction and turn defeat into victory.",
"Murbella saves as much of the Bene Gesserit force as she can, and they begin to withdraw to Chapterhouse.",
"Odrade, however, had planned for the possible failure of the Bene Gesserit attack and left Murbella instructions for a last desperate gamble.",
"Murbella pilots a small craft down to the surface, announcing herself as an Honored Matre who, in the confusion, has managed to escape the Bene Gesserit with all their secrets.",
"She arrives on the planet and immediately announces her intentions by killing an overeager Honored Matre with blinding speed enhanced by Bene Gesserit training that makes her faster than any Honored Matre before her.",
"Murbella is taken to Logno, and immediately declares herself hostile.",
"Logno cannot help herself and attacks, and Murbella handily kills her and some of her allies.",
"Murbella takes charge of the Honored Matres, who are awed by her physical prowess.=== Dortujla ===Dortujla is the head of the Bene Gesserit keep on the cold aquatic planet Buzzell, having been sent there as punishment for the so-called \"Jessica crime\"—a love affair, forbidden by the Bene Gesserit as a weakness that could compromise their performance.",
"In ''Chapterhouse: Dune'', Dortujla comes to Odrade on Chapterhouse to report that humanoid Handlers and their half-man/half-cat enslaved Futars have offered alliance against the Honored Matres, who have yet to make a move on Buzzell.",
"Dortujla's Mentat analysis, however, suggests that the Handlers somehow intend dominance, and that the Matres intend to colonize Buzzell.",
"Odrade sees an opportunity, and orders Dortujla to return to Buzzell and make contact with the Honored Matres, brokering a meeting between Odrade and their leader in which the Bene Gesserit will supposedly surrender.",
"Dortujla is tortured by the Honored Matres and forced to watch her party be murdered and fed to captive Futars.",
"However, she witnesses a Futar using its immobilizing scream, which has \"qualities of Voice\", against the Honored Matres.",
"Later, Dortujla accompanies Odrade, Tamalane and the acolyte Suipol to meet the Great Honored Matre Dama on Junction, the old Spacing Guild complex above Gammu, as Miles Teg leads a force to attack Gammu.",
"Dortujla and her party are eventually slain by the Honored Matres.=== Other ===* '''''' is a Bene Gesserit acolyte in ''Chapterhouse: Dune''.",
"She is chosen to serve and accompany Odrade on her voyage with Tamalane and Dortujla to meet the Great Honored Matre Dama on Junction, as Miles Teg leads a force to attack Gammu.",
"Odrade describes her as a \"dark little thing with a round, calm face and manners to match.",
"Not one of our brightest but guaranteed efficient.\"",
"However, after interaction with Suipol, Odrade realizes that she is much more capable than anticipated and judges her ready to undertake the spice agony and become a full Reverend Mother.",
"Suipol and her party are eventually slain by the Honored Matres.",
"Odrade is upset by the Suipol's death, lamenting the fact that the young acolyte died without being able to share her memories with another sister.",
"* '''''' is a young Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother in ''Chapterhouse: Dune'' who is captured and interrogated by Great Honored Matre Dama on Junction.",
"Sabanda dies without revealing anything to the Honored Matres, except the fact that Sheeana is alive and, to Sabanda's amusement, the fact that Mother Superior Odrade calls the Honored Matre leader \"Spider Queen.\""
],
[
"Novels by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson",
"Since 1999, Herbert's son Brian Herbert and author Kevin J. Anderson have published 15 prequel novels, collected in the series ''Prelude to Dune'' (1999–2001), ''Legends of Dune'' (2002–2004), ''Heroes of Dune'' (2008–2023), ''Great Schools of Dune'' (2012–2016), and ''The Caladan Trilogy'' (2020–2022).",
"They have also released two sequel novels—''Hunters of Dune'' (2006) and ''Sandworms of Dune'' (2007)—which complete the original series.===Introduced in ''Prelude to Dune'' (1999–2001)======= Anirul ====Anirul is a Bene Gesserit of Hidden Rank, wife of the 81st Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV and the mother of his five daughters, the Princesses Irulan, Chalice, Wensicia, Josifa and Rugi.",
"Anirul is referred to only three times in Herbert's 1965 novel ''Dune'', and only once by name, but is a major character in the ''Prelude to Dune'' prequel trilogy.",
"In ''Dune: House Atreides'' (1999), Anirul is described as having \"short bronze-brown hair,\" and that her \"features were long and narrow, giving her a doelike face, but her large eyes had a depth of millennia in them.\"",
"In the novel, she is the Bene Gesserit Kwisatz Mother, the Reverend Mother chosen every generation to guide the Bene Gesserit breeding program.",
"She calculates that the culmination of the program, the creation of a male superbeing called the Kwisatz Haderach, is imminent.",
"This eventuality is contingent on a daughter of Baron Vladimir Harkonnen being bred with an Atreides male.",
"The resulting daughter would then be bred with another Harkonnen heir, to produce the male Kwisatz Haderach.",
"The Bene Gesserit Margot Fenring arranges for Anirul to marry Shaddam as a means for the Sisterhood to gain influence over the Imperial throne by ensuring that Shaddam will never have a son.",
"During the events of ''Dune: House Corrino'' (2001), Anirul is murdered by the Harkonnen Mentat Piter De Vries while trying to save the young Paul Atreides from being kidnapped.==== Elrood IX ====Elrood IX of House Corrino is the Padishah Emperor, and father of Shaddam IV.",
"He is mentioned twice in Appendix IV of ''Dune'', where it is noted that he \"succumbed to chaumurky\" (poison), rumored to have been administered by Count Hasimir Fenring.",
"In ''Dune: House Atreides'', Elrood shows interest in Project Amal, an early attempt by the Bene Tleilax to create synthetic melange and eliminate dependence upon Arrakis.",
"Success would guarantee Elrood total control over spice production.",
"To further this goal, Elrood allows the Tleilaxu to invade and occupy the industrial planet Ix, with the help of Elrood's Sardaukar army, and remake it into a laboratory station for the project.",
"Elrood's other motivation is revenge against Earl Dominic Vernius, the ruler of Ix, whose wife Shando had been one of Elrood's concublines.",
"Shaddam is eager to become emperor, but despite Elrood's advanced age, he shows no signs of ill health.",
"Shaddam finally tasks his longtime friend and minion Fenring to administer Elrood with an undetectable, slow-acting poison.",
"Elrood finally dies, and Shaddam secures his throne by paying off the Spacing Guild with a supply of melange and by arranging his own marriage to a Bene Gesserit.==== Other ====* '''''' is the Bene Gesserit mother of Count Hasimir Fenring.",
"Before the events of the ''Prelude to Dune'' trilogy, Chaola (also known as Cirni) is lady-in-waiting to Habla, the fourth wife of Elrood IX, and serves as wet nurse to both her son and Crown Prince Shaddam (later Shaddam IV).",
"It is also hinted that Chaola may secretly be Elrood's sister.",
"Chaola's son Hasimir proves to be a failure for the Bene Gesserit breeding program.",
"In ''Dune'', Paul Atreides notes, \"Fenring was one of the might-have-beens, an almost Kwisatz Haderach, crippled by a flaw in the genetic pattern — a eunuch, his talent concentrated into furtiveness and inner seclusion.\"",
"Nonetheless, the bloodline manipulations of the Bene Gesserit produce a supremely intelligent and perceptive killer in Fenring, who later serves as Emperor Shaddam's chief counselor.",
"* '''''' is the Bene Gesserit Mother Superior during the ''Prelude to Dune'' trilogy, as the Sisterhood nears the fruition of its breeding program.",
"* '''''' is the Bene Gesserit wife of Prince Rhombur Vernius of Ix in the ''Prelude to Dune'' trilogy.",
"* is a Tleilaxu Master who leads Project Amal, an early attempt by the Bene Tleilax to create synthetic melange in order to eliminate dependence upon Arrakis.",
"* Duke Paulus Atreides, ruler of the ocean planet Caladan and father of Leto I* Helena Atreides, wife of Paulus and mother of Leto I* Victor Atreides, son of Leto and Kailea Vernius of Ix* Edwina Richese, daughter of Elrood IX* Tyros Reffa, illegitimate son of Elrood IX* Pardot Kynes, first Imperial Planetologist on Arrakis and father of Liet-Kynes (mentioned in ''Dune'')* Faroula, wife of Liet-Kynes, and Chani's mother (mentioned in ''God Emperor of Dune'')* Abulurd Harkonnen II, half-brother of the Baron; father of Glossu Rabban and Feyd-Rautha (mentioned in ''Dune'')* Dmitri Harkonnen, father of Baron Vladimir Harkonnen and Abulurd II* , head of House Vernius and ruler of Ix, father of Rhombur and Kailea* , wife of Dominic and mother of Rhombur and Kailea* Rhombur Vernius, son of Dominic and Shando, later the cyborg ruler of Ix* Kailea Vernius, daughter of Dominic and Shando, Leto's concubine and mother of Victor* Cammar Pilru, Ixian ambassador and father of twins C'tair and D'murr* D'murr Pilru, Spacing Guild Navigator and twin brother of C'tair* C'tair Pilru, twin brother of D'murr===Introduced in ''Legends of Dune'' (2002–2004)======= Serena Butler ====Serena Butler is a prominent politician and voice of the human rebellion who becomes the namesake of the Butlerian Jihad against the oppressive rule of the thinking machines in the ''Legends of Dune'' prequel trilogy.",
"The daughter of League of Nobles Viceroy Manion Butler and his wife Livia, Serena is romantically involved with Xavier Harkonnen, who leads the military force on the League capital world of Salusa Secundus.",
"The universe is under threat of total domination by the thinking machine empire, which consists of the evermind Omnius, the independent robot Erasmus and their army cymeks, fearsome weaponized machines controlled by disembodied human brains.",
"The thinking machines control many worlds, and continue to conquer more, enslaving or exterminating any humans they encounter.",
"In ''Dune: The Butlerian Jihad'' (2002), Serena is captured by the thinking machines and studied by Erasmus, who seeks to understand humans completely so that the thinking machines can be truly superior.",
"Though his methods of study often entail human vivisection and torture, Erasmus takes a liking to Serena, as does the young Vorian Atreides, a human trustee who serves the thinking machines.",
"Serena realizes she is pregnant with Xavier's child, and later gives birth to a baby boy she names Manion.",
"Eventually finding this distraction inconvenient, Erasmus not only removes Serena's uterus, but kills her young son in front of her and his slaves by dropping the child from a high balcony.",
"This event, broadcast across the universe, incites a formal jihad against the thinking machines.",
"Seeing Serena subsequently attack and destroy a sentinel robot with her bare hands encourages Erasmus' slaves, already groomed for rebellion by slave leader Iblis Ginjo, to rise up.",
"Vorian, witnessing the murder and realizing the lie he lives as a machine trustee, flees with Serena and Ginjo.",
"In ''Dune: The Machine Crusade'' (2003), Ginjo (now Grand Patriarch of the Holy Jihad) and Serena (Priestess of the Jihad) have become the religious leaders of the human rebellion, now known the Butlerian Jihad, which elevates young Manion to a martyr.",
"Serena is named interim Viceroy upon her father's retirement, but is later relegated to a figurehead by Ginjo as he consolidates his power.",
"The humans begin to tire of war, but Serena and Ginjo know that true peace is not possible, and that the thinking machines must be destroyed.",
"Serena visits Omnius as an emissary of the Jihad under the pretense of negotiating peace, but secretly intends to provoke Omnius into killing her, thereby making her a martyr and reenergizing the Jihad.",
"Although Erasmus stops Omnius from murdering Serena, one of her Seraphim bodyguards, on orders from Ginjo, kills her instead.",
"Ginjo manufactures images of Serena being tortured at length and murdered by the thinking machines, silencing anti-war dissenters and galvanizing the Jihad back into action.==== Xavier Harkonnen ====Xavier Harkonnen is the courageous and honorable leader of the military force on the League of Nobles capital world of Salusa Secundus in the ''Legends of Dune'' prequel trilogy.",
"In ''Dune: The Butlerian Jihad'', Xavier is romantically involved with Serena Butler until she is presumably killed in an attack by the thinking machines, who seek to conquer the universe and enslave or exterminate all humans.",
"Xavier marries Serena's sister Octa and starts a family.",
"Serena, actually a prisoner of the thinking machines, reappears after Manion, Serena and Xavier's infant son, is martyred by the independent robot Erasmus and sparks a jihad against the machines.",
"In ''Dune: The Machine Crusade'', Serena and the formerly enslaved Iblis Ginjo have become the religious leaders of the human rebellion, with Xavier and Vorian Atreides its two generals.",
"A hero of the Jihad, Xavier achieves many military victories over the machines.",
"When he realizes the extent of Ginjo's corruption, Xavier sacrifices his own life and reputation by steering the ship carrying himself and Ginjo into a sun.",
"His secrets dying with him, Ginjo becomes a martyred saint, and Xavier a traitor to humanity.==== Vorian Atreides ====Vorian Atreides is the human son of the Titan Agamemnon, and later the founder of House Atreides, in the ''Legends of Dune'' trilogy.",
"In ''Dune: The Butlerian Jihad'', he serves the thinking machines as a human trustee, his primary function being to deliver updates of the thinking machine ruler, the evermind Omnius, to machine-controlled worlds alongside his robot co-pilot, Seurat.",
"Vorian falls in love with Serena Butler, a human captured by the independent robot Erasmus, and is horrified when Erasmus murders her child.",
"Vorian betrays the thinking machines and flees with Serena and the human former slave leader Iblis Ginjo.",
"In ''Dune: The Machine Crusade'', Serena and Ginjo have become the religious leaders of the human rebellion, with Vorian and Xavier Harkonnen as its two generals.",
"A hero of the Jihad, Vorian achieves many military victories over the machines.",
"Having become a close friend to Xavier, Vorian tries to clear Harkonnen's name after Xavier is branded a traitor for assassinating the corrupt Ginjo in a suicide flight into a sun.",
"In ''Dune: The Battle of Corrin'' (2004), Vorian commands the final assault on Omnius.",
"Trapped on Corrin, the thinking machines have surrounded the planet with a human shield of slave ships, and Xavier's grandson Abulurd Harkonnen defies Vorian's orders to reactivate their weapons and attack.",
"Abulurd is ultimately relieved of duty and charged with treason and cowardice, for which he is exiled, igniting the Atreides-Harkonnen feud which will last for millennia.Having previously begun a family on Caladan which would become House Atreides, and fathering children on many worlds, Vorian is settled on the backwater world Kepler in ''Sisterhood of Dune'' (2012).",
"His father Agamemnon's life-extension treatments have kept Vorian in his prime for generations, and he foils a group of slavers targeting his village.",
"Vorian meets with Padishah Emperor Salvador Corrino, and is welcomed as a hero of the Jihad.",
"The populace ask that he take the throne from the Corrinos, and though he declines to do so, Salvador and his brother Roderick worry that Vorian's presence may incite a revolution.",
"In exchange for Vorian retreating into deeper exile, Salvador agrees to protect Kepler with Imperial forces.",
"Vorian travels to Arrakis and is confronted by a vengeful Griffin Harkonnen, Abulurd's grandson, whose family ekes out a meager existence but hopes to improve its fortunes.",
"Vorian and Griffin reconcile, but Griffin is later killed by the assassins Hyla and Andros, Vorian's twin half-siblings who are still loyal to the vanquished thinking machines.",
"Vorian sends a message of condolence to Griffin's sister, Valya Harkonnen, who spurns the offer and plans her own revenge.",
"In ''Mentats of Dune'' (2014), Vorian is wracked with guilt over Griffin's death, and tries to help his struggling family with a secret infusion of funds to their whaling business on Lankiveil.",
"On Caladan, Vorian's descendant Orry Atreides is murdered on his wedding night by his new bride, who is secretly Tula Harkonnen, Griffin and Valya's younger sister.",
"Vorian and Orry's brother, Willem, confront Valya and a remorseful Tula in ''Navigators of Dune'' (2016).",
"Willem spares Tula's life when he learns that she is pregnant with Orry's child.",
"Valya believes Vorian is dead when his ship explodes, but he survives.==== Iblis Ginjo ====Iblis Ginjo is a human trustee, the enslaved head of a legion of other slaves, for the thinking machines in ''Dune: The Butlerian Jihad''.",
"Initially loyal to machine leader Omnius and hoping to eventually secure his immortality by becoming a cymek, Ginjo is manipulated into fostering ideas of rebellion as part of a psychological experiment by the independent robot Erasmus.",
"Ginjo begins to see the extent to which the thinking machines do not value human life, and when Erasmus murders the child of human captive Serena Butler, Ginjo spurs the slaves to revolt.",
"He flees with Serena and fellow disillusioned trustee Vorian Atreides.",
"In ''Dune: The Machine Crusade'', Ginjo (now Grand Patriarch of the Holy Jihad) and Serena (Priestess of the Jihad) have become the religious leaders of the human rebellion, now known the Butlerian Jihad, with Vorian and Xavier Harkonnen as its two generals.",
"Ginjo marries noblewoman Camie Boro, and fathers a daughter, Ticia Cenva with Zufa Cenva, the powerful leader of the telekinetic Sorceresses of Rossak.",
"Serena is named interim Viceroy upon her father's retirement, but is later relegated to a figurehead by Ginjo as he consolidates his power.",
"The humans begin to tire of war, but Serena and Ginjo know that true peace is not possible, and that the thinking machines must be destroyed.",
"Serena visits Omnius as an emissary of the Jihad under the pretense of negotiating peace, but secretly intends to provoke Omnius into killing her, thereby making her a martyr and reenergizing the Jihad.",
"Although Erasmus stops Omnius from murdering Serena, one of her Seraphim bodyguards, on orders from Ginjo, kills her instead.",
"Ginjo manufactures images of Serena being tortured at length and murdered by the thinking machines, silencing anti-war dissenters and galvanizing the Jihad back into action.",
"As the war against the thinking machines continues, Ginjo becomes more and more corrupt, and focused more on his own power and legacy.",
"He creates the Jipol (Jihad Police) to eliminate his political enemies, and orders organ raids on other League Worlds, casting blame on the thinking machines, to meet the demand for replacement human organs for injured Jihad troops.",
"When Xavier realizes the extent of Ginjo's corruption, he sacrifices his own life and reputation by steering the ship carrying himself and Ginjo into a sun.",
"His secrets dying with him, Ginjo becomes a martyred saint, and Xavier a traitor to humanity.==== Norma Cenva ====Norma Cenva is the inventor of foldspace technology, first mentioned in ''God Emperor of Dune''.",
"In the ''Legends of Dune'' trilogy, she is the daughter of Zufa Cenva, the powerful leader of the telekinetic Sorceresses of Rossak.",
"Norma is short and unattractive as compared to her tall, beautiful mother, and though her lack of telekinetic abilities disappoints Zufa, Norma is a mathematical genius who is excited to assist the famed Tio Holtzman, discoverer of the Holtzman effect, which makes Holtzman shields possible.",
"These force shields, capable of scrambling the gel-circuitry of thinking machines, are employed in ''Dune: The Butlerian Jihad'' to protect entire planets from invasion.",
"However, the machines soon realize that their human-machine hybrid cymeks can slip through the field to destroy the transmitters because they possessed human brains which were unaffected by the scrambler fields.",
"Norma then has the idea to use the field as an offensive weapon, projecting it with portable transmitters to knock out machines and their installations.",
"During this time, she also uses the Holtzman effect to invent suspensors and glowglobes, for which Holtzman takes credit.",
"In ''Dune: The Machine Crusade'', Holtzman calculates that the field could be modified to prevent penetration from physical projectiles, and Norma agrees, correcting the flaws in his concept but noting that objects could still pass through the shield at a slow enough speed.",
"She also predicts that when hit by a laser, the shield would react violently, resulting in an explosion with the same effects of a nuclear weapon.",
"Norma next studies Holtzman's original field equations to find a way to fold space, soon inventing the theory of space-folding and building a prototype space-folding ship.",
"She is sent away by Holtzman, who is threatened by her genius, shortly before he is killed by an explosive lasgun-shield interaction during a slave revolt.",
"Norma's ship is then used to fold space successfully by Zensunni slaves fleeing the violent rebellion.",
"Norma is captured and tortured by the Titan Xerxes in ''Dune: The Battle of Corrin'', which unleashes her latent psychic abilities.",
"She destroys Xerxes and six cymeks, and then uses these powers to rework her own body into a more beautiful, appealing one based on the many women of her ancestry.",
"The next year she and her mother's former lover, industrialist Aurelius Venport, establish a shipyard on Kolhar to produce space-folding ships, which will come to be known as heighliners.",
"Ever uncaring about her own fame, Norma credits the invention to Aurelius as a gift to him.",
"Aurelius puts the space-folding technology and shipyards at the disposal of the Jihad forces.",
"Initially, navigation for foldspace travel is fundamentally inexact, and only about nine out of every ten heighliners arrive at their intended destination safety.",
"Realizing that the spice melange amplifies her psychic and calculative abilities, Norma pioneers the use of massive concentrated doses to employ prescience to safely navigate foldspace.",
"Aurelius and Norma's son, Adrien Venport, establishes the Foldspace Shipping Company, and finds the first ten volunteers to undergo, like Norma before them, the process to become Navigators.",
"The Foldspace Shipping Company later becomes the Spacing Guild, monopolizing space commerce, transport, and interplanetary banking.In the ''Great Schools of Dune'' trilogy, the highly evolved Norma periodically advises her great-grandson, Josef Venport, a ruthless businessman and the head of Venport Holdings.",
"Her prescience allows her to envision long-term plans for her Navigators, and she manipulates Josef into evolving the company toward her goals.",
"She is also able to fold space without a Holtzman drive.",
"When Josef assassinates Emperor Salvador Corrino to protect his business interests, Norma intervenes to protect Josef from the wrath of Salvador's brother and successor, Roderick.",
"She eventually negotiates with Roderick: Norma will leave Josef and his research facility unprotected against Roderick's avenging forces in exchange for sparing all current and future Navigators, the creation of an independent Spacing Guild and a guarantee that the flow of spice will continue.",
"He agrees, but Norma saves Josef's life by beginning the process of making him a Navigator, exploiting the loophole she created in her deal with Roderick.Norma reappears as the '''Oracle of Time''' in the sequel novels ''Hunters of Dune'' and ''Sandworms of Dune'', which conclude the original series.",
"She warns the Guild Navigators that the \"final battle\" is upon them, and they must locate the wandering no-ship ''Ithaca'', which is fleeing both the Bene Gesserit and the mysterious observers Daniel and Marty.",
"The ship contains the ultimate Kwisatz Haderach, whom both sides in the great war between humanity and thinking machines want for their victory.",
"Daniel and Marty are in fact reincarnations of thinking machine leaders Omnius and Erasmus, poised to finally conquer humanity and seize control of the universe.",
"In ''Sandworms of Dune'', the Spacing Guild has begun replacing its Navigators with Ixian navigation devices at the prompting of Face Dancer infiltrators with their own plot to take over the universe.",
"Their supply of melange cut off, the obsolete Navigators are dying one by one.",
"As Navigator Edrik pursues alternate sources of the spice, he and the remaining Navigators seek the Oracle's assistance, but she is occupied with finding the ''Ithaca''.",
"As the forces of humanity make a last stand against the thinking machine forces and the ultimate Kwisatz Haderach, Duncan Idaho, faces Omnius, the Oracle gathers the last of the Navigators.",
"The weaponry and navigation of the human ships fail due to Face Dancer manipulations, but the Navigators intervene and are able to hold back the first wave of the machine attack.",
"The Oracle emerges on the capital of the new Synchronized Empire, and takes all traces of Omnius with her to an alternate dimension.",
"This paves the way for Duncan to bridge the gap between the humans and machines and guide the two into a peaceful coexistence.==== Raquella Berto-Anirul ====Raquella Berto-Anirul is the founder of the Bene Gesserit, and the granddaughter of Vorian Atreides.",
"In ''Dune: The Battle of Corrin'', Raquella and fellow doctor Mohandas Suk assist the Sorceresses of Rossak with a new outbreak of the plague deployed by the thinking machines to decimate humanity.",
"After being infected herself, Raquella is miraculously cured by \"healing water\" found on the planet.",
"Paranoid and fearing the doctor might somehow usurp her power as leader of the Sorceresses, Ticia Cenva poisons Raquella with the Rossak Drug.",
"Raquella's recovery has unlocked the genetic ability to render the poison harmless using her body chemistry, and she experiences the first iteration of what will ultimately be known as the spice agony.",
"Raquella is awakened to her genetic memories, becoming the first Reverend Mother.",
"Soon she also discovers the new ability to command others with Voice.",
"Raquella conceives a daughter with Suk, but remains on Rossak to continue her work as he pursues his goal to form the greatest medical school ever seen (later known as the Suk School).",
"Ticia dies, and Raquella assumes authority over the Sorceresses and their breeding programs, forming the Sisterhood.In ''Sisterhood of Dune'', Raquella thwarts Butlerian sympathizers within her own ranks, including her own granddaughter, Dorotea.",
"They correctly suspect that Raquella and her inner circle, including Valya Harkonnen, are using forbidden computers to manage their breeding index, which contains an immense amount of family data from across the Imperium.",
"Dorotea takes the Rossak Drug, and survives to become the second Reverend Mother.",
"She learns of the secret computers and alerts Emperor Salvador Corrino, who invades Rossak.",
"Raquella and Valya destroy the computers in advance, and Salvador disbands the Sisterhood.",
"Dorotea establishes an Orthodox Sisterhood sanctioned by Salvador, and Raquella and her followers find refuge on Wallach IX.",
"Valya becomes the third Reverend Mother.",
"In ''Mentats of Dune'', Raquella believes that the only hope for the Sisterhood to survive is for the Wallach IX sisters to reconcile with Dorotea's Orthodox faction.",
"Her health failing, Raquella summons Dorotea and forces her and Valya to put their differences aside and agree to work together for the good of the Sisterhood.",
"Naming them co-leaders, Raquella dies.",
"Valya however, still bitter about Dorotea's betrayal, uses her newly discovered power of Voice to force Dorotea to commit suicide.",
"Valya declares herself to be the sole Mother Superior, and ingratiates herself to the new Emperor, Salvador's brother Roderick.==== Other ====* '''''' is an ambitious industrialist who encourages Norma Cenva's scientific pursuits.",
"He eventually markets her inventions and helps her build a shipyard to produce her space-folding ships, and realizes the potential of the drug melange.",
"Aurelius and Norma marry and have five children, including Adrien.Later, Aurelius and Norma's mother, the Rossak Sorceress leader Zufa Cenva, are intercepted in space by the Titan Hecate.",
"Not knowing that Hecate is assisting the Jihad forces against the thinking machines, Zufa unleashes a telekenetic blast that kills herself, Aurelius and Hecate.",
"* , the Evermind, an artificial intelligence which is the leader of the thinking machines* , an independent robot who serves Omnius and is fascinated by the human race* Agamemnon, leader of the Titans, a human brain within a fearsome machine body, and biological father of Vorian Atreides* Gilbertus Albans, adopted human son of Erasmus, founder of the Order of Mentats* , a physician instrumental in fighting a catastrophic thinking machine-created plague among humans who later founds the Suk School of medicine* , the powerful leader of the telekinetic Sorceresses of Rossak, and the mother of Norma and Ticia* , daughter of Zufa Cenva and Iblis Ginjo, half-sister of Norma* , scientist who discovered the Holtzman effect, which makes interstellar space travel possible* Lord Niko Bludd, Holtzman's greedy patron* , co-pilot to Vorian Atreides* Manion Butler Sr., League of Nobles Viceroy and father of Serena Butler* Livia Butler, wife of Manion Sr. and mother of Serena, abbess of the City of Interspection* Manion Butler, \"Manion the Innocent\", Serena's martyred infant son* Octa Butler, Serena's sister and wife of Xavier Harkonnen* Wandra Butler, daughter of Xavier Harkonnen and Octa Butler* Quentin (Vigar) Butler, Wandra's husband* Faykan Butler, grandson of Xavier Harkonnen and Octa Butler, and son of Wandra and Quentin, who takes the name Faykan Corrino after the Battle of Corrin and founds the Imperial House Corrino* Rikov Butler, Faykan and Abulurd's brother, governor of Parmentier and primero of the Jihad, father of Rayna* Abulurd Butler, Faykan and Rikov's brother, who later takes the name .",
"He defies Vorian and ignites the Atreides-Harkonnen feud.",
"* Rayna Butler, Great-granddaughter of Xavier Harkonnen and Octa Butler who founds the Cult of Serena* , ruthless son of Aurelius Venport and Norma Cenva who founds the Foldspace Shipping Company, the precursor of the Spacing Guild* Jool Noret, legendary Ginaz mercenary* Yorek Thurr, head of the Jipol, Iblis Ginjo's secret police* Warrick, best friend of Liet-Kynes, killed while attempting the spice agony* El'him Wormrider, son of Selim* Selim Wormrider, leader of Zensunni outlaws on Arrakis and the first wormrider* Estes Atreides, Vorian's son by Leronica Tergiet, twin of Kagin* Kagin Atreides, Vorian's son by Leronica Tergiet, twin of Estes* Ajax, a Titan* Barbarossa, a Titan* Beowulf a Neo-Cymek, a new generation of human-machine hybrids created by the Titans* Chirox, reprogrammed robot used as a battle trainer on Ginaz* Dante, a Titan* , a Titan* Juno, a Titan* Tamerlane, a Titan* Tlaloc, a Titan* Xerxes, a Titan===Introduced in ''Hunters of Dune'' (2006)======= Doria ====Doria is an ambitious Honored Matre who reluctantly joins the Bene Gesserit as Murbella hopes to unite the opposing factions in ''Hunters of Dune''.",
"Though Doria seeks to learn the impressive skills of the Bene Gesserit, her Honored Matre impulsiveness and resistance to authority are difficult to shake.",
"A chief advisor to Murbella, Doria is one of the few assimilated Honored Matres with access to sensitive Bene Gesserit breeding records.",
"Doria and Bellonda are on opposite sides from the beginning.",
"Hoping to force them to at least respect each other's differences, Murbella makes them partners managing the spice operations on Chapterhouse.",
"Years later, Doria kills Bellonda in a final confrontation.",
"An outraged Murbella forces Doria to share minds with Bellonda, and makes her the sole Spice Operations Director.",
"Six years later, driven to the brink of insanity by Bellonda's incessant chatter within her mind, Doria is devoured by a sandworm.==== Hellica ====Hellica is the self-declared Matre Superior of the largest renegade Honored Matre force, based on the conquered planet Tleilax in the former capital Bandalong.",
"In ''Hunters of Dune'', Hellica forces captive Lost Tleilaxu Uxtal to employ the secret of the Tleilaxu axlotl tanks to produce increased quantities of the orange spice substitute used by the Honored Matres.",
"When Guild Navigator Edrik seeks Uxtal's knowledge of producing melange in the tanks, Hellica's price for his expertise is Edrik's help transporting a certain cargo.",
"He agrees, delivering by heighliner the Obliterators that destroy the planet Richese, where the Bene Gesserit are mass-producing weapons and armed battleships.",
"Later, Hellica attempts an Obliterator attack on Chapterhouse itself, but the plan fails.",
"Murbella's forces conquer Tleilax, and Hellica is killed, but Murbella realizes that the Matre Superior and some of her elite guard had actually been Face Dancer duplicates.==== Other ====* '''''' is the eldest daughter of Murbella and Duncan Idaho, born a few minutes before her twin sister Janess.",
"In ''Hunters of Dune'', Rinya and Janess are prodigies: ambitious, impatient, and unquestionably talented, but Janess possesses just a hint more caution.",
"Janess is obsessed with learning more about her father Duncan, and she often quotes his philosophical works.",
"Rinya always has to be first for everything, and she demands to be allowed to undergo the spice agony, wanting to become a Reverend Mother at the age of 14, just like Sheeana had done.",
"Though Janess tries to stop the ritual, Rinya insists, and dies in the ordeal.",
"* '''''' is the second daughter of Murbella and Duncan Idaho, born a few minutes after her twin sister Rinya.",
"In ''Hunters of Dune'', Janess and Rinya are prodigies: ambitious, impatient, and unquestionably talented, but Janess possesses just a hint more caution.",
"Janess is obsessed with learning more about her father Duncan, and she often quotes his philosophical works.",
"Rinya always has to be first for everything, and she demands to be allowed to undergo the spice agony, wanting to become a Reverend Mother at the age of 14, just like Sheeana had done.",
"Though Janess tries to stop the ritual, Rinya insists, and dies in the ordeal.",
"Janess later undergoes the agony herself at age 17, and is successful.",
"Ranked as a lieutenant in the forces of the combined Bene Gesserit/Honored Matre New Sisterhood, her first military assignment is to exterminate a renegade Honored Matre group who control a portion of the planet Gammu.",
"Janess is later promoted to Regimental Commandant, and adopts her father's last name.",
"* '''''' is a Bene Gesserit tasked to cultivate the Cult of Sheeana on Gammu.",
"In ''Hunters of Dune'', she discovers the Honored Matre plan to send Obliterators on a Spacing Guild heighliner to destroy Chapterhouse.",
"She and some of her followers barely escape Gammu with their lives, but manage to reach Chapterhouse and warn Murbella in time.",
"Soon after, Iriel is killed in the Bene Gesserit takeover of Gammu.",
"*'''''' is a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother banished to the aquatic planet Buzzell to work in the operation harvesting valuable soostones.",
"In ''Hunters of Dune'', Murbella's forces retake Buzzell from the conquering Honored Matres.",
"Murbella shares minds with Corysta, learning all she can about the situation on Buzzell but also experiencing Corysta's past.",
"She recognizes Corysta's value and loyalty and puts her in charge of the soostone operation.",
"Corysta manages to improve the efficiency and output of the operation, which is the Sisterhood's only source of revenue besides melange, and is essential to their plan to amass arms for a final battle with the Unknown Enemy.",
"Corysta's past is explored in the 2006 Brian Herbert/Kevin J. Anderson short story \"Dune: Sea Child\", in which Corysta is banished to Buzzell because she resists handing over to the Sisterhood the baby they had tasked her to conceive.",
"The Honored Matres later conquer the planet, enslaving the Bene Gesserit there.",
"Corysta nurtures a foundling Phibian until it, too, is taken from her by the Honored Matres when she refuses to tell them the secret location of Chapterhouse.",
"* is an enhanced, autonomous Face Dancer who appears to serve Daniel and Marty, but has his own agenda for domination of the universe.",
"* is a second-rank Lost Tleilaxu sent to Bandalong by Khrone in ''Hunters of Dune''.",
"Uxtal is tasked to pacify Honored Matre leader Hellica by producing the orange adrenaline-enhancing drug used by the Honored Matres with axlotl technology.",
"Khrone, however, has his own agenda for domination of the universe, and has Uxtal producing gholas for him as well.",
"* is the leader of the Lost Tleilaxu who is ultimately killed and replaced by one of Khrone's Face Dancers* is a Spacing Guild Navigator who seeks an alternate melange supply for his Navigators as the Guild begins replacing them with Ixian navigation machines.===Introduced in ''Great Schools of Dune'' (2012–2016)===* , the heir of a once-mighty family who seeks to restore their fortunes through service to the Landsraad* , Griffin's ambitious younger sister who joins the Sisterhood on Rossak* , the youngest Harkonnen sibling* , Padishah Emperor and Roderick's brother* , Emperor Salvador's brother and trusted advisor* , the flighty younger sister to Salvador and Roderick* , leader of an anti-technology faction within the Sisterhood who is Valya's nemesis* , the popular leader of the anti-technology Butlerian movement* , a Ginaz Swordmaster in the service of Manford Torondo* , an unscrupulous businessman who holds a near-monopoly on space travel, and the great-grandson of Norma Cenva* , Josef's wife and advisor* Dr. Ori Zhoma, a former Rossak Sister and the new director of the Suk Institute"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Vladimir Harkonnen"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Baron Vladimir Harkonnen''' () is a fictional character in the ''Dune'' franchise created by Frank Herbert.",
"He is primarily featured in the 1965 novel ''Dune'' and is also a prominent character in the ''Prelude to Dune'' prequel trilogy (1999–2001) by Herbert's son Brian, and Kevin J. Anderson.",
"The character is brought back as a ghola in the Herbert/Anderson sequels which conclude the original series, ''Hunters of Dune'' (2006) and ''Sandworms of Dune'' (2007).Baron Harkonnen is portrayed by Kenneth McMillan in David Lynch's 1984 film ''Dune''.",
"Ian McNeice plays the role in the 2000 Sci-Fi Channel miniseries ''Frank Herbert's Dune'' and its sequel, 2003's ''Children of Dune''.",
"Harkonnen is portrayed by Stellan Skarsgård in the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film ''Dune'' and its upcoming 2024 sequel ''Dune: Part Two''."
],
[
"Conception",
"Frank Herbert wanted a harsh-sounding name for the antagonistic family opposing House Atreides in ''Dune''.",
"He came across the name \"Härkönen\" in a California telephone book and thought that it sounded \"Soviet\", though it is in fact Finnish.",
"In earlier drafts of ''Dune'', the character was called \"Valdemar Hoskanner\"."
],
[
"Description",
"Herbert's \"Appendix IV: The Almanak en-Ashraf (Selected Excerpts of the Noble Houses)\" in ''Dune'' says of Harkonnen (in part):The character is usually described as the main antagonist of the novel.",
"Herbert writes in ''Dune'' that the Baron possesses a \"basso voice\" and is so \"grossly and immensely fat\" that he requires anti-gravity devices known as suspensors to support his weight.",
"He is one of the wealthiest members of the Landsraad and a bitter rival of Leto Atreides, and the Baron's \"legendary evil and intellect\" are unmatched by anyone else from House Harkonnen.",
"In the novel, the Baron feigns outrage over losing control of Arrakis to Leto but is actually conspiring to use the situation as an opportunity to destroy House Atreides once and for all.",
"William Hughes of ''The A.V.",
"Club'' describes the Baron as \"a decadent, monstrous gasbag of depravity and evil\".",
"As ruthless and cruel as he is intelligent and cunning, the Baron is \"crafty and power-hungry\" and has a talent for manipulating others and exploiting their weaknesses as well as a propensity for torture and blackmail.",
"''IGN'' describes the character as \"cruel, sadistic, and hedonistic\".",
"Travis Johnson of Flicks.com.au says that Harkonnen is written as \"a predatory homosexual given to pederasty and incest, an unrepentant rapist and murderer.\"",
"The Baron's sexual preference for young men is implied in ''Dune'' and ''Children of Dune''.",
"It is noted, however, that he \"once permitted himself to be seduced\" by a Bene Gesserit in the liaison which produced his secret daughter."
],
[
"Plotlines",
"The blue griffin emblem of House Harkonnen=== ''Dune'' ===As ''Dune'' begins, a longstanding feud exists between the Harkonnens of Giedi Prime and the Atreides of Caladan.",
"The Baron's intent to exterminate the Atreides line seems close to fruition as Duke Leto Atreides is lured to the desert planet Arrakis on the pretense of taking over the valuable melange operation there.",
"The Baron has an agent in the Atreides household: Leto's own physician, the trusted Suk doctor Wellington Yueh.",
"Though Suk Imperial Conditioning supposedly makes the subject incapable of inflicting harm, the Baron's twisted Mentat Piter De Vries notes:The Baron has taken Yueh's wife Wanna prisoner, threatening her with interminable torture unless Yueh complies with his demands.",
"Harkonnen also distracts Leto's Mentat Thufir Hawat from discovering Yueh by guiding Hawat toward another suspect: Leto's Bene Gesserit concubine Lady Jessica, of whom Hawat is already distrustful.",
"The Atreides are soon attacked by Harkonnen forces (secretly supplemented by the seemingly unstoppable Imperial Sardaukar) as Yueh disables the protective shields around the Atreides palace on Arrakis.",
"As instructed, Yueh takes Leto prisoner; however, desiring to slay the Baron, Yueh provides the captive Leto with a fake tooth filled with poisonous gas as a means of simultaneous assassination and suicide.",
"De Vries kills Yueh but he also dies with Leto in the assassination attempt; however Harkonnen survives.",
"The Baron then manipulates Hawat into his service, by convincing Hawat that Lady Jessica was the traitor and using Hawat's desire for revenge on Lady Jessica and the Emperor as motivation to assist House Harkonnen.Jessica flees into the desert with her and Leto's son Paul Atreides, and both are presumed dead.",
"Paul's prescience helps him determine the identity of Jessica's father, the \"maternal grandfather who cannot be named\" — the Baron himself.",
"Over the next two years, Harkonnen learns that his nephews Glossu Rabban and Feyd-Rautha are conspiring against him to usurp his throne; he lets them continue to do so, reasoning that they have to somehow learn to organize a conspiracy.",
"As punishment for a failed assassination attempt against him, Harkonnen forces Feyd to single-handedly slaughter all the female slaves who serve as Feyd's lovers.",
"He explains that Feyd has to learn the price of failure.The Baron's plan to assure Feyd's power is to install him as ruler of Arrakis after a period of tyrannical misrule by Rabban, making Feyd appear to be the savior of the people.",
"However, a crisis on Arrakis begins when the mysterious Muad'Dib emerges as a leader of the native Fremen tribes, uniting them against the rule of the Harkonnens.",
"Eventually, a series of Fremen victories against Beast Rabban threaten to disrupt the trade of the spice, inciting the Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV to intervene personally, leading several legions of Sardaukar.",
"After the emperor's arrival on Arrakis, both Corrino and Harkonnen are shocked to learn that rather than a native Fremen warlord, their opponent Muad'Dib is the still-living Paul Atreides, and the Emperor's intervention was part of his plan.",
"The Imperial forces fall prey to a surprise attack by the Fremen, who let a sandstorm short out the force field shields of the transport ships, disable them with projectile weapons, and then mount a mass assault using sandworms as siege-breakers.",
"Their enemies are left trapped on the planet, outnumbered by the many tribes and outgunned by the sandworms.",
"The Harkonnens' past ruthlessness further causes the enraged Fremen to give them little to no quarter; over the course of the battle their entire army is exterminated.The Harkonnen leadership are also all killed in the course of this battle.",
"Rabban dies first, in the early stages of the battle.",
"Baron Harkonnen himself is poisoned with a gom jabbar by Paul's sister Alia Atreides, a four-year-old born as a fully aware Fremen Reverend Mother, who reveals that she is his granddaughter to him just before his death.",
"His remaining heir Feyd-Rautha is killed in ritual combat by Paul Atreides.",
"House Harkonnen as a political entity is left virtually defunct, permanently excluded from galactic power, though Harkonnen ''blood'' is technically ascendant, as Imperial House Atreides is composed entirely of Vladimir Harkonnen's descendants.=== ''Children of Dune'' ===Alia had been born with her ancestral memories in the womb, a circumstance the Bene Gesserit refer to as Abomination, because in their experience it is inevitable that the individual will become possessed by the personality of one of their ancestors.",
"In ''Children of Dune'', Alia falls victim to this prediction when she shares control of her body with the ego-memory of the Baron Harkonnen, and eventually falls under his power.",
"Alia eventually commits suicide, realizing that Harkonnen's consciousness has surpassed her abilities to contain him.=== ''Prelude to Dune'' ===In the ''Prelude to Dune'' prequel series by Brian Herbert and Anderson, it is established that Baron Vladimir Harkonnen is the son and heir of Dmitri Harkonnen and his wife Victoria.",
"Harkonnen's father had been the head of House Harkonnen and ruled the planet Giedi Prime.",
"Trained since youth as a possible successor, Vladimir had been eventually chosen over his half-brother Abulurd (namesake of the original).",
"Unhappy with his brother's doings, Abulurd eventually marries Emmi Rabban and renounces the family name and his rights to the title.",
"Under the name Abulurd Rabban, he reigns as governor of the secondary Harkonnen planet Lankiveil.",
"Abulurd and his wife have two sons: Glossu Rabban (later nicknamed \"Beast Rabban\" after he murders his own father) and Feyd-Rautha; Vladimir later adopts the boys back into House Harkonnen, and Feyd becomes his designated heir.",
"The Baron's most prominent political rival is Duke Leto Atreides; the Harkonnens and the Atreides have been bitter enemies for millennia, since the Battle of Corrin that ended the Butlerian Jihad.",
"When Emperor Shaddam IV orchestrates a plot to destroy the \"Red Duke\" Leto, the Baron eagerly lends his aid.The young Baron Vladimir Harkonnen is described as an exceedingly handsome man, possessing red hair and a near-perfect physique.",
"The Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Gaius Helen Mohiam is instructed by the Sisterhood to collect his genetic material (through conception) for their breeding program.",
"As the Baron's homosexuality is something of an open secret, Mohiam blackmails him into having sexual relations with her and conceives his child.",
"When that daughter proves genetically undesirable, Mohiam kills her and returns to Harkonnen for a second try; at this point, he drugs and viciously rapes her.",
"She exacts her retribution by infecting him with a rare, incurable disease that later causes his obesity.",
"Mohiam's second child with the Baron is Jessica.",
"In ''Dune: House Harkonnen'', the deteriorating Baron at first walks with the assistance of a cane, then relies on belt-mounted suspensors to retain mobility.",
"He consults numerous doctors in the expanse of time between the ''Dune: House Atreides'' and ''Dune: House Harkonnen'', up to and including his future instrument Dr. Yueh, all of whom are ultimately no help.",
"To conceal this debilitation, he pretends that his obesity is due to intentional overindulgence, lest the Landsraad remove him from power.",
"When he determines that Mohiam inflicted him with the disease, he attempts to coerce her into revealing the cure, but soon discovers that there is none.",
"The Baron, Duke Leto, and Jessica herself are unaware that Jessica is secretly the Baron's daughter or that he has even fathered one.",
"In the year 10,176, the Baron's grandson Paul is born to Leto and Jessica.=== ''Hunters of Dune'' ===In ''Hunters of Dune'' (2006), the continuation of the original series by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, the Baron is resurrected as a ghola (5,029 years after the death of Alia) by the Lost Tleilaxu Uxtal, acting on orders from the Face Dancer Khrone.",
"Khrone intends to use the Baron ghola to manipulate a ghola of Paul Atreides, named Paolo.",
"Khrone tries various torture techniques for three years to awaken the 12-year-old Baron's genetic memories; these methods fail due to the Baron's sadomasochistic nature.",
"Khrone is successful when he imprisons the Baron in a sensory deprivation tank for a prolonged period; the Baron's memories of his former life return.",
"The reincarnated Baron is soon haunted by the voice of Alia in his mind; the source of this inner Alia is never explained."
],
[
"In adaptations",
"===1984 film===Kenneth McMillan plays Vladimir Harkonnen in ''Dune'' (1984)Baron Harkonnen is portrayed by Kenneth McMillan in David Lynch's 1984 film.",
"The obese and disheveled Baron is overtly unstable, and covered in oozing pustules.",
"William Hughes of ''The A.V.",
"Club'' deemed McMillan's facial prosthetics \"very memorable\".",
"Emmet Asher-Perrin of ''Tor.com'' wrote that \"Lynch's attempt is infamous for really leaning on the codified aspects of the Baron, to the point where his sore-ridden appearance has been called out as a likely connection to the AIDS epidemic, which was a prevalent health crisis while the film was in production.\"",
"Travis Johnson of Flicks.com.au noted that the Lynch film embraced \"the archetype of the depraved gay sadist\", which would not be acceptable in 2019.Asher-Perrin added, \"Lynch also makes a point of connecting the Baron's desire for men to deviancy and violence, deliberately juxtaposing his assault of a young man with a tender love-scene between Duke Leto and Lady Jessica Atreides.",
"\"===2000 miniseries===Ian McNeice plays Baron Harkonnen in the ''Dune'' miniseries (2000).Ian McNeice plays the Baron in the 2000 Sci-Fi Channel miniseries ''Frank Herbert's Dune'', and its sequel, 2003's ''Children of Dune''.",
"Asher-Perrin notes that the miniseries played down the negative aspects emphasized by the Lynch film, and writes, \"The Baron's appearance was not altered to make him seem ill, he never physically attacks anyone, and the miniseries paid more attention to the fact that the Baron was a rapist, his preference for men being incidental.\"",
"He also praises McNeice as a standout among the cast, writing that he \"manages to make the Baron Harkonnen—easily one of the most despicable characters in science fiction literature—every bit as conniving and vicious as he needs to be...and every bit as fascinating.",
"McNeice has a superb sense of how to make the baron mesmerizing to watch no matter how odiously he behaves\".",
"Austin Jones of ''Paste'' writes, \"McNeice commands his role as Baron Harkonnen, capturing the vile indulgence and vanity of a feudal lord\".===2021 and 2024 films===Stellan Skarsgård plays Baron Harkonnen in the 2021 film ''Dune'' and its 2024 sequel ''Dune: Part Two''.Baron Harkonnen is portrayed by Stellan Skarsgård in the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film ''Dune'' and its 2024 sequel ''Dune: Part Two''.",
"Skarsgård called the role \"small but important\", and noted, \"I had seven hours in make-up every day because I had to be really fat.\"",
"Villeneuve said:"
],
[
"Merchandising and influence",
"A line of ''Dune'' action figures from toy company LJN was released to lackluster sales in 1984.Styled after David Lynch's film, the collection featured a figure of Baron Harkonnen, as well as other characters.",
"In 2006, SOTA Toys produced a Baron Harkonnen action figure for their \"Now Playing Presents\" line.H.",
"R. Giger's Harkonnen Chair is a chair originally designed by the artist as set dressing for an unrealized 1970s adaptation of ''Dune'' by Alejandro Jodorowsky."
],
[
"Analysis",
"Thomas West of ''Screen Rant'' writes that \"there are few science fiction villains quite as compelling and darkly charismatic as the Baron\".",
"William Hughes of ''The A.V.",
"Club'' calls the Baron \"one of the most iconically awful villains in all of science fiction\", and Stuart Conover of ScienceFiction.com describes him as \"one of the most insidious villains\".",
"Maude Campbell of ''Popular Mechanics'' writes that the Baron is \"one of the most evil characters ever put to paper (including Darth Vader)\", and Jon Michaud of ''The New Yorker'' compares \"Herbert's scheming, backstabbing villain, the Baron Vladimir Harkonnen\" to the villainous Lannister family of George R. R. Martin's ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series.",
"Emmet Asher-Perrin suggests that \"what makes the Baron truly monstrous is the fact that he spends all of his time plotting murder, sowing discord, and destroying populations of people to get his way\".",
"Hughes writes that the evil Harkonnen is \"specifically designed to make the noble Atreides family seem that extra bit more dignified and pure\", with Jesse Schedeen of ''IGN'' agreeing that the Baron is \"as cruel and vindictive as Leto is noble and just.\"",
"Hughes goes on to say that Herbert \"successfully made the Baron so vampirically vile that he casts a (sometimes literal) shadow over the entire series.\"",
"Sandy Schaefer of ''Screen Rant'' calls the Baron \"a deliciously despicable antagonist\".While the novel suggests that the Baron's obesity might be the result of a genetic disease, the ''Prelude to Dune'' prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson explains that Harkonnen was once a fit, attractive but vain man who is given the incurable disease intentionally by the Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Mohiam after he drugs and rapes her.",
"Asher-Perrin suggests that in this narrative, \"the Baron's corpulence is meant to be comeuppance for doing something reprehensible, a physical punishment meant to hurt his vanity by taking away the attractiveness he so prized in himself.\""
],
[
"Family tree"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Baron Vladimir Harkonnen on IMDb"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Diffie–Hellman key exchange"
],
[
"Introduction",
"With Diffie-Hellman key exchange, two parties arrive at a common secret key, without passing the common secret key across the public channel.",
"'''Diffie–Hellman key exchange''' is a mathematical method of securely exchanging cryptographic keys over a public channel and was one of the first public-key protocols as conceived by Ralph Merkle and named after Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman.",
"DH is one of the earliest practical examples of public key exchange implemented within the field of cryptography.",
"Published in 1976 by Diffie and Hellman, this is the earliest publicly known work that proposed the idea of a private key and a corresponding public key.Traditionally, secure encrypted communication between two parties required that they first exchange keys by some secure physical means, such as paper key lists transported by a trusted courier.",
"The Diffie–Hellman key exchange method allows two parties that have no prior knowledge of each other to jointly establish a shared secret key over an insecure channel.",
"This key can then be used to encrypt subsequent communications using a symmetric-key cipher.Diffie–Hellman is used to secure a variety of Internet services.",
"However, research published in October 2015 suggests that the parameters in use for many DH Internet applications at that time are not strong enough to prevent compromise by very well-funded attackers, such as the security services of some countries.The scheme was published by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman in 1976, but in 1997 it was revealed that James H. Ellis, Clifford Cocks, and Malcolm J. Williamson of GCHQ, the British signals intelligence agency, had previously shown in 1969 how public-key cryptography could be achieved.Although Diffie–Hellman key agreement itself is a non-authenticated key-agreement protocol, it provides the basis for a variety of authenticated protocols, and is used to provide forward secrecy in Transport Layer Security's ephemeral modes (referred to as EDH or DHE depending on the cipher suite).The method was followed shortly afterwards by RSA, an implementation of public-key cryptography using asymmetric algorithms.Expired US patent 4,200,770 from 1977 describes the now public-domain algorithm.",
"It credits Hellman, Diffie, and Merkle as inventors."
],
[
"Name",
"In 2006, Hellman suggested the algorithm be called '''Diffie–Hellman–Merkle key exchange''' in recognition of Ralph Merkle's contribution to the invention of public-key cryptography (Hellman, 2006), writing:"
],
[
"Description",
"===General overview===Illustration of the concept behind Diffie–Hellman key exchangeDiffie–Hellman key exchange establishes a shared secret between two parties that can be used for secret communication for exchanging data over a public network.",
"An analogy illustrates the concept of public key exchange by using colors instead of very large numbers:The process begins by having the two parties, Alice and Bob, publicly agree on an arbitrary starting color that does not need to be kept secret.",
"In this example, the color is yellow.",
"Each person also selects a secret color that they keep to themselves – in this case, red and cyan.",
"The crucial part of the process is that Alice and Bob each mix their own secret color together with their mutually shared color, resulting in orange-tan and light-blue mixtures respectively, and then publicly exchange the two mixed colors.",
"Finally, each of them mixes the color they received from the partner with their own private color.",
"The result is a final color mixture (yellow-brown in this case) that is identical to their partner's final color mixture.If a third party listened to the exchange, they would only know the common color (yellow) and the first mixed colors (orange-tan and light-blue), but it would be very hard for them to find out the final secret color (yellow-brown).",
"Bringing the analogy back to a real-life exchange using large numbers rather than colors, this determination is computationally expensive.",
"It is impossible to compute in a practical amount of time even for modern supercomputers.===Cryptographic explanation===The simplest and the original implementation, later formalized as '''Finite Field Diffie-Hellman''' in ''RFC 7919'', of the protocol uses the multiplicative group of integers modulo ''p'', where ''p'' is prime, and ''g'' is a primitive root modulo ''p''.",
"These two values are chosen in this way to ensure that the resulting shared secret can take on any value from 1 to ''p''–1.Here is an example of the protocol, with non-secret values in blue, and secret values in''' red'''.# Alice and Bob publicly agree to use a modulus ''p'' = 23 and base ''g'' = 5 (which is a primitive root modulo 23).# Alice chooses a secret integer '''''a''''' = 4, then sends Bob ''A'' = ''g'''a''''' mod ''p''#* ''A'' = 5'''4''' mod 23 = 4 (in this example both A and a have the same value 4, but this is usually not the case) # Bob chooses a secret integer '''''b''''' = 3, then sends Alice ''B'' = ''g'''b''''' mod ''p''#* ''B'' = 5'''3''' mod 23 = 10# Alice computes '''''s''''' = ''B'''a''''' mod ''p''#* '''''s''''' = 10'''4''' mod 23 = 18# Bob computes '''''s''''' = ''A'''b''''' mod ''p''#* '''''s''''' = 4'''3''' mod 23 = 18# Alice and Bob now share a secret (the number 18).Both Alice and Bob have arrived at the same values because under mod p,:More specifically,:Only ''a'' and ''b'' are kept secret.",
"All the other values – ''p'', ''g'', ''ga'' mod ''p'', and ''gb'' mod ''p'' – are sent in the clear.",
"The strength of the scheme comes from the fact that ''gab'' mod ''p'' = ''gba'' mod ''p'' take extremely long times to compute by any known algorithm just from the knowledge of ''p'', ''g'', ''ga'' mod ''p'', and ''gb'' mod ''p''.",
"Such a function that is easy to compute but hard to invert is called a one-way function.",
"Once Alice and Bob compute the shared secret they can use it as an encryption key, known only to them, for sending messages across the same open communications channel.Of course, much larger values of ''a'', ''b'', and ''p'' would be needed to make this example secure, since there are only 23 possible results of ''n'' mod 23.However, if ''p'' is a prime of at least 600 digits, then even the fastest modern computers using the fastest known algorithm cannot find ''a'' given only ''g'', ''p'' and ''ga'' mod ''p''.",
"Such a problem is called the discrete logarithm problem.",
"The computation of ''ga'' mod ''p'' is known as modular exponentiation and can be done efficiently even for large numbers.Note that ''g'' need not be large at all, and in practice is usually a small integer (like 2, 3, ...).===Secrecy chart===The chart below depicts who knows what, again with non-secret values in blue, and secret values in''' red'''.",
"Here Eve is an eavesdropper – she watches what is sent between Alice and Bob, but she does not alter the contents of their communications.",
"* ''g'', public (primitive root) base, known to Alice, Bob, and Eve.",
"''g'' = 5* ''p'', public (prime) modulus, known to Alice, Bob, and Eve.",
"''p'' = 23* '''''a''''', Alice's private key, known only to Alice.",
"'''''a''''' = '''6'''* '''''b''''', Bob's private key known only to Bob.",
"'''''b''''' = '''15'''* ''A'', Alice's public key, known to Alice, Bob, and Eve.",
"''A'' = ''g'''a''''' mod ''p'' = 8* ''B'', Bob's public key, known to Alice, Bob, and Eve.",
"''B'' = ''g'''b''''' mod ''p'' = 19+ Alice Known Unknown ''p'' = 23 ''g'' = 5 '''''a''''' = '''6''' '''''b''''' ''A'' = 5'''a''' mod 23 ''A'' = 5'''6''' mod 23 = 8 '''''B''''' = '''19''' '''''s''''' = B'''a''' mod 23 '''''s''''' = 19'''''6''''' mod 23 = '''2''' + Bob Known Unknown ''p'' = 23 ''g'' = 5 '''''b''''' = '''15''' '''''a''''' ''B'' = 5'''''b''''' mod 23 ''B'' = 5'''15''' mod 23 = 19 '''''A''''' = '''8''' '''''s''''' = A'''b''' mod 23 '''''s''''' = 8'''''15''''' mod 23 = '''2''' + Eve Known Unknown ''p'' = 23 ''g'' = 5 '''''a''''', '''''b''''' ''A'' = 8, ''B'' = 19 '''''s'''''Now '''''s''''' is the shared secret key and it is known to both Alice and Bob, but ''not'' to Eve.",
"Note that it is not helpful for Eve to compute ''AB'', which equals ''g'''''''a''''' + '''''b''''' mod p.Note: It should be difficult for Alice to solve for Bob's private key or for Bob to solve for Alice's private key.",
"If it is not difficult for Alice to solve for Bob's private key (or vice versa), then an eavesdropper, Eve, may simply substitute her own private / public key pair, plug Bob's public key into her private key, produce a fake shared secret key, and solve for Bob's private key (and use that to solve for the shared secret key).",
"Eve may attempt to choose a public / private key pair that will make it easy for her to solve for Bob's private key.===Generalization to finite cyclic groups===Here is a more general description of the protocol:# Alice and Bob agree on a natural number ''n'' and a generating element ''g'' in the finite cyclic group ''G'' of order ''n''.",
"(This is usually done long before the rest of the protocol; ''g'' and ''n'' are assumed to be known by all attackers.)",
"The group ''G'' is written multiplicatively.# Alice picks a random natural number ''a'' with 1 a'' of ''G'' to Bob.# Bob picks a random natural number ''b'' with 1 b'' of ''G'' to Alice.# Alice computes the element ''(gb)a = gba'' of G.# Bob computes the element ''(ga)b = gab'' of G.Both Alice and Bob are now in possession of the group element ''gab = gba'', which can serve as the shared secret key.",
"The group ''G'' satisfies the requisite condition for secure communication as long as there is no efficient algorithm for determining ''gab'' given ''g'', ''ga'', and ''gb''.For example, the elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman protocol is a variant that represents an element of G as a point on an elliptic curve instead of as an integer modulo n. Variants using hyperelliptic curves have also been proposed.",
"The supersingular isogeny key exchange is a Diffie–Hellman variant that was designed to be secure against quantum computers, but it was broken in July 2022."
],
[
"Ephemeral and/or static keys",
"The used keys can either be ephemeral or static (long term) key, but could even be mixed, so called semi-static DH.",
"These variants have different properties and hence different use cases.",
"An overview over many variants and some also discussions can for example be found in NIST SP 800-56A.",
"A basic list:# ephemeral, ephemeral: Usually used for key agreement.",
"Provides forward secrecy, but no authenticity.# static, static: Would generate a long term shared secret.",
"Does not provide forward secrecy, but implicit authenticity.",
"Since the keys are static it would for example not protect against replay-attacks.# ephemeral, static: For example, used in ElGamal encryption or Integrated Encryption Scheme (IES).",
"If used in key agreement it could provide implicit one-sided authenticity (the ephemeral side could verify the authenticity of the static side).",
"No forward secrecy is provided.It is possible to use ephemeral and static keys in one key agreement to provide more security as for example shown in NIST SP 800-56A, but it is also possible to combine those in a single DH key exchange, which is then called triple DH (3-DH).=== Triple Diffie-Hellman (3-DH) ===In 1997 a kind of triple DH was proposed by Simon Blake-Wilson, Don Johnson, Alfred Menezes in \"Key Agreement Protocols and their Security Analysis (1997)\", which was improved by C. Kudla and K. G. Paterson in “Modular Security Proofs for Key Agreement Protocols (2005)” and shown to be secure.",
"It's also used or mentioned in other variants.",
"For example:* Extended Triple Diffie-Hellman* sci.crypt news group (from 18.08.2002)* Double Ratchet Algorithm * Signal ProtocolThe long term secret keys of Alice and Bob are denoted by ''a'' and ''b'' respectively, with public keys ''A'' and ''B'', as well as the ephemeral key pairs ''x, X'' and ''y, Y''.",
"Then protocol is:+ Triple Diffie-Hellman (3-DH) protocol Alice () Bob () The long term public keys need to be transferred somehow.",
"That can be done beforehand in a separate, trusted channel, or the public keys can be encrypted using some partial key agreement to preserve anonymity.",
"For more of such details as well as other improvements like side channel protection or explicit key confirmation, as well as early messages and additional password authentication, one could e.g.",
"have a look at \"Advanced modular handshake for key agreement and optional authentication\""
],
[
"Operation with more than two parties",
"Diffie–Hellman key agreement is not limited to negotiating a key shared by only two participants.",
"Any number of users can take part in an agreement by performing iterations of the agreement protocol and exchanging intermediate data (which does not itself need to be kept secret).",
"For example, Alice, Bob, and Carol could participate in a Diffie–Hellman agreement as follows, with all operations taken to be modulo ''p'':# The parties agree on the algorithm parameters ''p'' and ''g''.# The parties generate their private keys, named ''a'', ''b'', and ''c''.# Alice computes ''''' mod p''''' and sends it to Bob.# Bob computes '''() mod p = '' mod p''''' and sends it to Carol.# Carol computes '''() mod p = '' mod p''''' and uses it as her secret.# Bob computes '''''gb mod p''''' and sends it to Carol.# Carol computes '''() mod p = '' mod p''''' and sends it to Alice.# Alice computes '''() mod p = '' mod p'' = '' mod p''''' and uses it as her secret.# Carol computes ''''' mod p''''' and sends it to Alice.# Alice computes '''() mod p = '' mod p''''' and sends it to Bob.# Bob computes '''() mod p = '' mod p'' = '' mod p''''' and uses it as his secret.An eavesdropper has been able to see '' mod p'', '' mod p'', '' mod p'', '' mod p'', '' mod p'', and '' mod p'', but cannot use any combination of these to efficiently reproduce '' mod p''.To extend this mechanism to larger groups, two basic principles must be followed:* Starting with an \"empty\" key consisting only of ''g'', the secret is made by raising the current value to every participant's private exponent once, in any order (the first such exponentiation yields the participant's own public key).",
"* Any intermediate value (having up to ''N''-1 exponents applied, where ''N'' is the number of participants in the group) may be revealed publicly, but the final value (having had all ''N'' exponents applied) constitutes the shared secret and hence must never be revealed publicly.",
"Thus, each user must obtain their copy of the secret by applying their own private key last (otherwise there would be no way for the last contributor to communicate the final key to its recipient, as that last contributor would have turned the key into the very secret the group wished to protect).These principles leave open various options for choosing in which order participants contribute to keys.",
"The simplest and most obvious solution is to arrange the ''N'' participants in a circle and have ''N'' keys rotate around the circle, until eventually every key has been contributed to by all ''N'' participants (ending with its owner) and each participant has contributed to ''N'' keys (ending with their own).",
"However, this requires that every participant perform ''N'' modular exponentiations.By choosing a more desirable order, and relying on the fact that keys can be duplicated, it is possible to reduce the number of modular exponentiations performed by each participant to using a divide-and-conquer-style approach, given here for eight participants:# Participants A, B, C, and D each perform one exponentiation, yielding ''''; this value is sent to E, F, G, and H. In return, participants A, B, C, and D receive ''''.# Participants A and B each perform one exponentiation, yielding '''', which they send to C and D, while C and D do the same, yielding '''', which they send to A and B.# Participant A performs an exponentiation, yielding '''', which it sends to B; similarly, B sends '''' to A.",
"C and D do similarly.# Participant A performs one final exponentiation, yielding the secret '''' = '''', while B does the same to get '''' = ''''; again, C and D do similarly.# Participants E through H simultaneously perform the same operations using '''' as their starting point.Once this operation has been completed all participants will possess the secret '''', but each participant will have performed only four modular exponentiations, rather than the eight implied by a simple circular arrangement."
],
[
"Security",
"The protocol is considered secure against eavesdroppers if ''G'' and ''g'' are chosen properly.",
"In particular, the order of the group G must be large, particularly if the same group is used for large amounts of traffic.",
"The eavesdropper has to solve the Diffie–Hellman problem to obtain ''g''''ab''.",
"This is currently considered difficult for groups whose order is large enough.",
"An efficient algorithm to solve the discrete logarithm problem would make it easy to compute ''a'' or ''b'' and solve the Diffie–Hellman problem, making this and many other public key cryptosystems insecure.",
"Fields of small characteristic may be less secure.The order of ''G'' should have a large prime factor to prevent use of the Pohlig–Hellman algorithm to obtain ''a'' or ''b''.",
"For this reason, a Sophie Germain prime ''q'' is sometimes used to calculate , called a safe prime, since the order of ''G'' is then only divisible by 2 and ''q''.",
"''g'' is then sometimes chosen to generate the order ''q'' subgroup of ''G'', rather than ''G'', so that the Legendre symbol of ''ga'' never reveals the low order bit of ''a''.",
"A protocol using such a choice is for example IKEv2.",
"''g'' is often a small integer such as 2.Because of the random self-reducibility of the discrete logarithm problem a small ''g'' is equally secure as any other generator of the same group.If Alice and Bob use random number generators whose outputs are not completely random and can be predicted to some extent, then it is much easier to eavesdrop.In the original description, the Diffie–Hellman exchange by itself does not provide authentication of the communicating parties and is thus vulnerable to a man-in-the-middle attack.",
"Mallory (an active attacker executing the man-in-the-middle attack) may establish two distinct key exchanges, one with Alice and the other with Bob, effectively masquerading as Alice to Bob, and vice versa, allowing her to decrypt, then re-encrypt, the messages passed between them.",
"Note that Mallory must continue to be in the middle, actively decrypting and re-encrypting messages every time Alice and Bob communicate.",
"If she is ever absent, her previous presence is then revealed to Alice and Bob.",
"They will know that all of their private conversations had been intercepted and decoded by someone in the channel.",
"In most cases it will not help them get Mallory's private key, even if she used the same key for both exchanges.A method to authenticate the communicating parties to each other is generally needed to prevent this type of attack.",
"Variants of Diffie–Hellman, such as STS protocol, may be used instead to avoid these types of attacks.===Practical attacks on Internet traffic===The number field sieve algorithm, which is generally the most effective in solving the discrete logarithm problem, consists of four computational steps.",
"The first three steps only depend on the order of the group G, not on the specific number whose finite log is desired.",
"It turns out that much Internet traffic uses one of a handful of groups that are of order 1024 bits or less.",
"By precomputing the first three steps of the number field sieve for the most common groups, an attacker need only carry out the last step, which is much less computationally expensive than the first three steps, to obtain a specific logarithm.",
"The Logjam attack used this vulnerability to compromise a variety of Internet services that allowed the use of groups whose order was a 512-bit prime number, so called export grade.",
"The authors needed several thousand CPU cores for a week to precompute data for a single 512-bit prime.",
"Once that was done, individual logarithms could be solved in about a minute using two 18-core Intel Xeon CPUs.As estimated by the authors behind the Logjam attack, the much more difficult precomputation needed to solve the discrete log problem for a 1024-bit prime would cost on the order of $100 million, well within the budget of a large national intelligence agency such as the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA).",
"The Logjam authors speculate that precomputation against widely reused 1024-bit DH primes is behind claims in leaked NSA documents that NSA is able to break much of current cryptography.To avoid these vulnerabilities, the Logjam authors recommend use of elliptic curve cryptography, for which no similar attack is known.",
"Failing that, they recommend that the order, ''p'', of the Diffie–Hellman group should be at least 2048 bits.",
"They estimate that the pre-computation required for a 2048-bit prime is 109 times more difficult than for 1024-bit primes."
],
[
"Other uses",
"===Encryption===Public key encryption schemes based on the Diffie–Hellman key exchange have been proposed.",
"The first such scheme is the ElGamal encryption.",
"A more modern variant is the Integrated Encryption Scheme.===Forward secrecy===Protocols that achieve forward secrecy generate new key pairs for each session and discard them at the end of the session.",
"The Diffie–Hellman key exchange is a frequent choice for such protocols, because of its fast key generation.===Password-authenticated key agreement===When Alice and Bob share a password, they may use a password-authenticated key agreement (PK) form of Diffie–Hellman to prevent man-in-the-middle attacks.",
"One simple scheme is to compare the hash of '''s''' concatenated with the password calculated independently on both ends of channel.",
"A feature of these schemes is that an attacker can only test one specific password on each iteration with the other party, and so the system provides good security with relatively weak passwords.",
"This approach is described in ITU-T Recommendation X.1035, which is used by the G.hn home networking standard.An example of such a protocol is the Secure Remote Password protocol.===Public key===It is also possible to use Diffie–Hellman as part of a public key infrastructure, allowing Bob to encrypt a message so that only Alice will be able to decrypt it, with no prior communication between them other than Bob having trusted knowledge of Alice's public key.",
"Alice's public key is .",
"To send her a message, Bob chooses a random ''b'' and then sends Alice (unencrypted) together with the message encrypted with symmetric key .",
"Only Alice can determine the symmetric key and hence decrypt the message because only she has ''a'' (the private key).",
"A pre-shared public key also prevents man-in-the-middle attacks.In practice, Diffie–Hellman is not used in this way, with RSA being the dominant public key algorithm.",
"This is largely for historical and commercial reasons, namely that RSA Security created a certificate authority for key signing that became Verisign.",
"Diffie–Hellman, as elaborated above, cannot directly be used to sign certificates.",
"However, the ElGamal and DSA signature algorithms are mathematically related to it, as well as MQV, STS and the IKE component of the IPsec protocol suite for securing Internet Protocol communications."
],
[
"See also",
"* Elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman key exchange* Supersingular isogeny key exchange* Forward secrecy* Diffie–Hellman problem"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===General references===* * * * The History of Non-Secret Encryption JH Ellis 1987 (28K PDF file) ( HTML version)* The First Ten Years of Public-Key Cryptography Whitfield Diffie, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol.",
"76, no.",
"5, May 1988, pp: 560–577 (1.9MB PDF file)* Menezes, Alfred; van Oorschot, Paul; Vanstone, Scott (1997).",
"''Handbook of Applied Cryptography'' Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.",
".",
"( Available online)* Singh, Simon (1999) ''The Code Book: the evolution of secrecy from Mary Queen of Scots to quantum cryptography'' New York: Doubleday * An Overview of Public Key Cryptography Martin E. Hellman, IEEE Communications Magazine, May 2002, pp. 42–49.",
"(123kB PDF file)"
],
[
"External links",
"* Oral history interview with Martin Hellman, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.",
"Leading cryptography scholar Martin Hellman discusses the circumstances and fundamental insights of his invention of public key cryptography with collaborators Whitfield Diffie and Ralph Merkle at Stanford University in the mid-1970s.",
"* – ''Diffie–Hellman Key Agreement Method''.",
"E. Rescorla.",
"June 1999.",
"* – ''More Modular Exponential (MODP) Diffie–Hellman groups for Internet Key Exchange (IKE)''.",
"T. Kivinen, M. Kojo, SSH Communications Security.",
"May 2003.",
"* Summary of ANSI X9.42: Agreement of Symmetric Keys Using Discrete Logarithm Cryptography (64K PDF file) ( Description of ANSI 9 Standards)* Talk by Martin Hellman in 2007, YouTube video* Crypto dream team Diffie & Hellman wins $1M 2015 Turing Award (a.k.a.",
"\"Nobel Prize of Computing\")* A Diffie–Hellman demo written in Python3 This demo properly supports very-large key data and enforces the use of prime numbers where required."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Destry Rides Again"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Destry Rides Again''''' is a 1939 American Western comedy film directed by George Marshall and starring Marlene Dietrich and James Stewart.",
"The supporting cast includes Mischa Auer, Charles Winninger, Brian Donlevy, Allen Jenkins, Irene Hervey, Billy Gilbert, Bill Cody Jr., Lillian Yarbo, and Una Merkel.The opening credits list the story as \"Suggested by Max Brand's novel ''Destry Rides Again''\", but the movie is almost completely different.",
"It also bears no resemblance to the 1932 adaptation of the novel starring Tom Mix, which is often retitled as ''Justice Rides Again''.",
"In 1996, ''Destry Rides Again'' was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\"."
],
[
"Plot",
"James Stewart and Marlene Dietrich in ''Destry Rides Again''Saloon owner Kent, the unscrupulous boss of the fictional Western town of Bottleneck, has the town's sheriff, Mr. Keogh, killed when Keogh asks one too many questions about a rigged poker game.",
"Kent and Frenchy, a cheap saloon tramp who is his girlfriend, now have a stranglehold over the local cattle ranchers.",
"The town's crooked mayor, Hiram J. Slade, who is in collusion with Kent, appoints the town drunk, Washington Dimsdale, as the new sheriff, assuming that he will be easy to control and manipulate.",
"However, Dimsdale, a deputy under the famous lawman Tom Destry, promptly swears off drinking, and is able to call upon the latter's equally formidable son, Tom Destry Jr., to help him make Bottleneck a lawful, respectable town.Destry arrives in Bottleneck with Jack Tyndall, a cattleman, and his sister, Janice.",
"Destry initially confounds the townsfolk by refusing to strap on a gun and maintaining civility in dealing with everyone, including Kent and Frenchy.",
"This quickly makes him a disappointment to Dimsdale and a laughingstock to the townspeople; he is mockingly asked to \"clean up\" Bottleneck by being given a mop and bucket.",
"However, after a number of rowdy horsemen ride into town shooting their pistols in the air, he demonstrates uncanny expertise in marksmanship and threatens to jail them if they do it again, earning the respect of Bottleneck's citizens.Through the townsmen's evasive answers regarding the whereabouts of Keogh, Destry gradually begins to suspect that Keogh was murdered.",
"He confirms this by provoking Frenchy into admitting it, but without a location for the body, he lacks any proof.",
"Destry therefore deputizes Boris, a Russian immigrant whom Frenchy had earlier humiliated, and implies to Kent that he had found the body outside of town \"in remarkably good condition\".",
"When Kent sends a member of his gang to check on Keogh's burial site, Boris and Dimsdale follow, capture, and jail him.Although the gang member is charged with Keogh's murder (in the hope that he would implicate Kent in exchange for clemency), Mayor Slade appoints himself judge of the trial, making an innocent verdict a foregone conclusion.",
"To prevent this, Destry calls in a judge from a larger city in secret, but the plan is ruined after Boris accidentally gives away the other judge's name in the saloon.",
"Kent orders Frenchy to invite the deputy to her house while other gang members storm the sheriff's office and cause a breakout; now in love with Destry, she accepts.",
"When shots are fired, he rushes back, to find the cell empty and Dimsdale mortally wounded.",
"Destry returns to his room and puts on his gun belt, abandoning his previous commitment to nonviolence.Under Destry's command, the honest townsmen form a posse and prepare to attack the saloon, where Kent's gang is fortified, while Destry enters through the roof and looks for Kent.",
"At Frenchy's urging, the townswomen march in between the groups, preventing further violence, before breaking into the saloon and subduing the gang.",
"Kent narrowly escapes, and attempts to shoot Destry from the second floor; Frenchy takes the bullet for him, killing her, and Destry kills Kent.Some time later, Destry is shown to be the sheriff of a now lawful Bottleneck, repeating to children the stories that Dimsdale told him of the town's violent history.",
"He jokingly tells a story about marriage to Janice, implying a marriage between them will soon follow."
],
[
"Cast",
"As appearing in screen credits:* Marlene Dietrich as Frenchy, the saloon singer* James Stewart as Thomas Jefferson \"Tom\" Destry Jr., the new deputy* Mischa Auer as Boris Stavrogin, the henpecked Russian married to Lily Belle* Charles Winninger as Washington \"Wash\" Dimsdale, the new sheriff* Brian Donlevy as Kent, the saloon owner* Allen Jenkins as \"Gyp\" Watson* Warren Hymer as \"Bugs\" Watson* Irene Hervey as Janice Tyndall* Una Merkel as Lily Belle, \"Mrs. Callahan\"* Billy Gilbert as Bartender \"Loupgerou\"* Samuel S. Hinds as Judge Slade, the mayor* Jack Carson as Jack Tyndall* Tom Fadden as Lem Claggett* Virginia Brissac as Sophie Claggett* Edmund MacDonald as Rockwell* Lillian Yarbo as Clara, Frenchy's maid* Joe King as Sheriff Keogh* Dickie Jones as Claggett's boy* Ann E. Todd as Claggett's girl"
],
[
"Songs",
"Dietrich sings \"See What the Boys in the Back Room Will Have\" and \"You've Got That Look\", written by Frank Loesser, set to music by Frederick Hollander, which have become classics, as well as a revised version of Little Joe the Wrangler."
],
[
"Production",
"George Marshall, Marlene Dietrich and producer Joe Pasternak on the set of ''Destry Rides Again''Western writer Max Brand contributed the novel, ''Destry Rides Again'', but the film also owes its origins to Brand's serial \"Twelve Peers\", published in a pulp magazine.",
"In the original work, Harrison (or \"Harry\") Destry was not a pacifist.",
"As filmed in 1932, with Tom Mix in the starring role, the central character differed in that Destry did wear six-guns.The film was James Stewart's first Western (he would not return to the genre until 1950, with ''Winchester '73'', followed by ''Broken Arrow'').",
"The story featured a ferocious cat-fight between Marlene Dietrich and Una Merkel, which apparently caused a mild censorship problem at the time of release.The film also represented Dietrich's return to Hollywood after a string of flops at Paramount (\"Angel\", \"The Scarlet Empress\", \"The Devil is a Woman\") caused her, and a number of other stars, to be labelled \"box office poison\".",
"While vacationing at Cap d'Antibes with her family, her mentor Josef von Sternberg and her lover Erich Maria Remarque, she received an offer from Joe Pasternak to come to Universal at half the salary she had been receiving for most of the 1930s.",
"Pasternak had previously tried to sign Dietrich to Universal while she was still in Berlin.",
"Unsure of what to do she was advised by von Sternberg \"I made you into a Goddess.",
"Now show them you have feet of clay\".According to writer/director Peter Bogdanovich, Marlene Dietrich told him during an aircraft flight that she and James Stewart had an affair during shooting and that she became pregnant but had a surreptitious abortion without telling Stewart.Internationally, the film was released under the alternative titles ''Femme ou Démon'' in French and ''Arizona'' in Spanish."
],
[
"Reception",
"''Destry Rides Again'' was generally well accepted by the public, as well as critics.",
"It was reviewed by Frank S. Nugent in ''The New York Times'', who observed that the film did not follow the usual Hollywood type-casting.",
"On Dietrich's role, he characterized: \"It's difficult to reconcile Miss Dietrich's Frenchy, the cabaret girl of the Bloody Gulch Saloon, with the posed and posturing Dietrich we last saw in Mr. Lubitsch's 'Angel'.\"",
"Stewart's contribution was similarly treated, \"turning in an easy, likable, pleasantly humored performance.",
"\"In 2005, the film was nominated for American Film Institute's 100 Years... 100 Cheers list of most inspiring movies."
],
[
"Other versions",
"* Universal Pictures released an earlier film, also titled ''Destry Rides Again'' (1932), directed by Benjamin Stoloff and starring Tom Mix and ZaSu Pitts.",
"Apart from the title, the story has no connection with the later film and is sometimes retitled as ''Justice Rides Again''.",
"* A Lux Radio Theater version of the story was aired November 5, 1945, starred Jimmy Stewart and Joan Blondell, and can be heard on YouTube.",
"* An almost shot-for-shot remake of the 1939 production, ''Destry'' (1954), was also directed by George Marshall and stars Audie Murphy and Thomas Mitchell.",
"* A Broadway musical version of the story, ''Destry Rides Again'', opened in New York City at the Imperial Theatre on April 23, 1959, and played 472 performances.",
"Produced by David Merrick, the show had a book by Leonard Gershe, music and lyrics by Harold Rome, and starred Andy Griffith as Destry and Dolores Gray as Frenchy.",
"* ABC aired a short-lived television series in 1964, ''Destry'', based on the 1939 and 1954 films, starring John Gavin as the son of the movie's title character."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"Marlene Dietrich's character, Frenchy, was the inspiration for the character of Lili Von Shtupp in the Western parody ''Blazing Saddles''."
],
[
"References",
"'''Notes''''''Bibliography'''* Beaver, Jim.",
"\"James Stewart.\"",
"''Films in Review'', October 1980.",
"* Coe, Jonathan.",
"''James Stewart: Leading Man''.",
"London: Bloomsbury, 1994..* Eliot, Mark.",
"''Jimmy Stewart: A Biography''.",
"New York: Random House, 2006..* \"The Jimmy Stewart Museum Home Page.\"",
"''jimmy.org''.",
"Retrieved: February 18, 2007.",
"* Jones, Ken D., Arthur F. McClure and Alfred E. Twomey.",
"''The Films of James Stewart''.",
"New York: Castle Books, 1970.",
"* Pickard, Roy.",
"''Jimmy Stewart: A Life in Film''.",
"New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992..* Prendergast, Tom and Sara, eds.",
"\"Stewart, James\".",
"''International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers, 4th edition''.",
"London: St. James Press, 2000..* Prendergast, Tom and Sara, eds.",
"\"Stewart, James\".",
"''St.",
"James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, 5th edition''.",
"London: St. James Press, 2000..* Quirk, Lawrence J.",
"''James Stewart: Behind the Scenes of a Wonderful Life.''",
"Montclair, New Jersey: Applause Books, 2000..* Riva, Maria.",
"''Marlene Dietrich.''",
"New York: Ballantine Books, 1994..* Robbins, Jhan.",
"''Everybody's Man: A Biography of Jimmy Stewart''.",
"New York: G.P.",
"Putnam's Sons, 1985..* Thomas, Tony.",
"''A Wonderful Life: The Films and Career of James Stewart''.",
"Secaucus, New Jersey: Citadel Press, 1988.."
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * * * ''Destry Rides Again: Riding High'' an essay by Farran Smith Nehme at the Criterion Collection* ''Destry Rides Again'' on Lux Radio Theater: November 5, 1945* ''Destry Rides Again'' essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 298-299"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Derivative"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''derivative''' is a fundamental tool of calculus that quantifies the sensitivity of change of a function's output with respect to its input.",
"The derivative of a function of a single variable at a chosen input value, when it exists, is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point.",
"The tangent line is the best linear approximation of the function near that input value.",
"For this reason, the derivative is often described as the '''instantaneous rate of change''', the ratio of the instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of the independent variable.",
"The process of finding a derivative is called '''differentiation'''.There are multiple different notations for differentiation, two of the most commonly used being Leibniz notation and prime notation.",
"Leibniz notation, named after Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, is represented as the ratio of two differentials, whereas prime notation is written by adding a prime mark.",
"Higher order notations represent repeated differentiation, and they are usually denoted in Leibniz notation by adding superscripts to the differentials, and in prime notation by adding additional prime marks.",
"The higher order derivatives can be applied in physics; for example, while the first derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object's velocity, how the position changes as time advances, the second derivative is the object's acceleration, how the velocity changes as time advances.Derivatives can be generalized to functions of several real variables.",
"In this generalization, the derivative is reinterpreted as a linear transformation whose graph is (after an appropriate translation) the best linear approximation to the graph of the original function.",
"The Jacobian matrix is the matrix that represents this linear transformation with respect to the basis given by the choice of independent and dependent variables.",
"It can be calculated in terms of the partial derivatives with respect to the independent variables.",
"For a real-valued function of several variables, the Jacobian matrix reduces to the gradient vector."
],
[
"Definition",
"===As a limit===A function of a real variable is differentiable at a point of its domain, if its domain contains an open interval containing , and the limitexists.",
"This means that, for every positive real number (even very small), there exists a positive real number such that, for every such that and then is defined, and where the vertical bars denote the absolute value.",
"This is an example of the (ε, δ)-definition of limit.If the function is differentiable at , that is if the limit exists, then this limit is called the ''derivative'' of at .",
"Multiple notations for the derivative exist.",
"The derivative of at can be denoted , read as \" prime of \"; or it can be denoted , read as \"the derivative of with respect to at \" or \" by (or over) at \".",
"See below.",
"If is a function that has a derivative at every point in its domain, then a function can be defined by mapping every point to the value of the derivative of at .",
"This function is written and is called the ''derivative function'' or the ''derivative of'' .",
"The function sometimes has a derivative at most, but not all, points of its domain.",
"The function whose value at equals whenever is defined and elsewhere is undefined is also called the derivative of .",
"It is still a function, but its domain may be smaller than the domain of .For example, let be the squaring function: .",
"Then the quotient in the definition of the derivative isThe division in the last step is valid as long as .",
"The closer is to , the closer this expression becomes to the value .",
"The limit exists, and for every input the limit is .",
"So, the derivative of the squaring function is the doubling function: .The ratio in the definition of the derivative is the slope of the line through two points on the graph of the function , specifically the points and .",
"As is made smaller, these points grow closer together, and the slope of this line approaches the limiting value, the slope of the tangent to the graph of at .",
"In other words, the derivative is the slope of the tangent.===Using infinitesimals===One way to think of the derivative is as the ratio of an infinitesimal change in the output of the function to an infinitesimal change in its input.",
"In order to make this intuition rigorous, a system of rules for manipulating infinitesimal quantities is required.",
"The system of hyperreal numbers is a way of treating infinite and infinitesimal quantities.",
"The hyperreals are an extension of the real numbers that contain numbers greater than anything of the form for any finite number of terms.",
"Such numbers are infinite, and their reciprocals are infinitesimals.",
"The application of hyperreal numbers to the foundations of calculus is called nonstandard analysis.",
"This provides a way to define the basic concepts of calculus such as the derivative and integral in terms of infinitesimals, thereby giving a precise meaning to the in the Leibniz notation.",
"Thus, the derivative of becomes for an arbitrary infinitesimal , where denotes the standard part function, which \"rounds off\" each finite hyperreal to the nearest real.",
"Taking the squaring function as an example again,"
],
[
"Continuity and differentiability",
"If is differentiable at , then must also be continuous at .",
"As an example, choose a point and let be the step function that returns the value 1 for all less than , and returns a different value 10 for all greater than or equal to .",
"The function cannot have a derivative at .",
"If is negative, then is on the low part of the step, so the secant line from to is very steep; as tends to zero, the slope tends to infinity.",
"If is positive, then is on the high part of the step, so the secant line from to has slope zero.",
"Consequently, the secant lines do not approach any single slope, so the limit of the difference quotient does not exist.",
"However, even if a function is continuous at a point, it may not be differentiable there.",
"For example, the absolute value function given by is continuous at , but it is not differentiable there.",
"If is positive, then the slope of the secant line from 0 to is one; if is negative, then the slope of the secant line from to is .",
"This can be seen graphically as a \"kink\" or a \"cusp\" in the graph at .",
"Even a function with a smooth graph is not differentiable at a point where its tangent is vertical: For instance, the function given by is not differentiable at .",
"In summary, a function that has a derivative is continuous, but there are continuous functions that do not have a derivative.Most functions that occur in practice have derivatives at all points or almost every point.",
"Early in the history of calculus, many mathematicians assumed that a continuous function was differentiable at most points.",
"Under mild conditions (for example, if the function is a monotone or a Lipschitz function), this is true.",
"However, in 1872, Weierstrass found the first example of a function that is continuous everywhere but differentiable nowhere.",
"This example is now known as the Weierstrass function.",
"In 1931, Stefan Banach proved that the set of functions that have a derivative at some point is a meager set in the space of all continuous functions.",
"Informally, this means that hardly any random continuous functions have a derivative at even one point."
],
[
"Notation",
"One common symbol for the derivative of a function is Leibniz notation.",
"They are written as the quotient of two differentials and , which were introduced by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1675.It is still commonly used when the equation is viewed as a functional relationship between dependent and independent variables.",
"The first derivative is denoted by , read as \"the derivative of with respect to \".",
"This derivative can alternately be treated as the application of a differential operator to a function, Higher derivatives are expressed using the notation for the -th derivative of .",
"These are abbreviations for multiple applications of the derivative operator; for example, Unlike some alternatives, Leibniz notation involves explicit specification of the variable for differentiation, in the denominator, which removes ambiguity when working with multiple interrelated quantities.",
"The derivative of a composed function can be expressed using the chain rule: if and then Another common notation for differentiation is by using the prime mark in the symbol of a function .",
"This is known as ''prime notation'', due to the Joseph-Louis Lagrange.",
"The first derivative is written as , read as \" prime of \", or , read as \" prime\".",
"Similarly, the second and the third derivatives can be written as and , respectively.",
"For denoting the number of higher derivatives beyond this point, some authors use Roman numerals in superscript, whereas others place the number in parentheses, such as or The latter notation generalizes to yield the notation for the th derivative of .In Newton's notation or the ''dot notation,'' a dot is placed over a symbol to represent a time derivative.",
"If is a function of , then the first and second derivatives can be written as and , respectively.",
"This notation is used exclusively for derivatives with respect to time or arc length.",
"It is typically used in differential equations in physics and differential geometry.",
"However, the dot notation becomes unmanageable for high-order derivatives (of order 4 or more) and cannot deal with multiple independent variables.Another notation is ''D-notation'', which represents the differential operator by the symbol The first derivative is written and higher derivatives are written with a superscript, so the -th derivative is This notation is sometimes called ''Euler notation'', although it seems that Leonhard Euler did not use it, and the notation was introduced by Louis François Antoine Arbogast.",
"To indicate a partial derivative, the variable differentiated by is indicated with a subscript, for example given the function its partial derivative with respect to can be written or Higher partial derivatives can be indicated by superscripts or multiple subscripts, e.g.",
"and ."
],
[
"Rules of computation",
"In principle, the derivative of a function can be computed from the definition by considering the difference quotient and computing its limit.",
"Once the derivatives of a few simple functions are known, the derivatives of other functions are more easily computed using ''rules'' for obtaining derivatives of more complicated functions from simpler ones.",
"This process of finding a derivative is known as '''differentiation'''.===Rules for basic functions===The following are the rules for the derivatives of the most common basic functions.",
"Here, is a real number, and is the mathematical constant approximately .",
"* ''Derivatives of powers'':*: * ''Functions of exponential, natural logarithm, and logarithm with general base'':*: *: , for *: , for *: , for * ''Trigonometric functions'':*: *: *: * ''Inverse trigonometric functions'':*: , for *: , for *: ===Rules for combined functions===Given that the and are the functions.",
"The following are some of the most basic rules for deducing the derivative of functions from derivatives of basic functions.",
"* ''Constant rule'': if is constant, then for all ,*: * ''Sum rule'':*: for all functions and and all real numbers '''' and ''''.",
"* ''Product rule'':*: for all functions and .",
"As a special case, this rule includes the fact whenever is a constant because by the constant rule.",
"* ''Quotient rule'':*: for all functions and at all inputs where .",
"* ''Chain rule'' for composite functions: If , then*: === Computation example ===The derivative of the function given by isHere the second term was computed using the chain rule and the third term using the product rule.",
"The known derivatives of the elementary functions , , , , and , as well as the constant , were also used."
],
[
"Higher-order derivatives{{anchor|order of derivation|Order}}",
"''Higher order derivatives'' means that a function is differentiated repeatedly.",
"Given that is a differentiable function, the derivative of is the first derivative, denoted as .",
"The derivative of is the second derivative, denoted as , and the derivative of is the third derivative, denoted as .",
"By continuing this process, if it exists, the th derivative as the derivative of the th derivative or the ''derivative of order ''.",
"As has been discussed above, the generalization of derivative of a function may be denoted as .",
"A function that has successive derivatives is called '' times differentiable''.",
"If the th derivative is continuous, then the function is said to be of differentiability class .",
"A function that has infinitely many derivatives is called ''infinitely differentiable'' or ''smooth''.",
"One example of the infinitely differentiable function is polynomial; differentiate this function repeatedly results the constant function, and the infinitely subsequent derivative of that function are all zero.In one of its applications, the higher-order derivatives may have specific interpretations in physics.",
"Suppose that a function represents the position of an object at the time.",
"The first derivative of that function is the velocity of an object with respect to time, the second derivative of the function is the acceleration of an object with respect to time, and the third derivative is the jerk."
],
[
"In other dimensions",
"===Vector-valued functions===A vector-valued function of a real variable sends real numbers to vectors in some vector space .",
"A vector-valued function can be split up into its coordinate functions , meaning that .",
"This includes, for example, parametric curves in or .",
"The coordinate functions are real-valued functions, so the above definition of derivative applies to them.",
"The derivative of is defined to be the vector, called the tangent vector, whose coordinates are the derivatives of the coordinate functions.",
"That is,if the limit exists.",
"The subtraction in the numerator is the subtraction of vectors, not scalars.",
"If the derivative of exists for every value of , then is another vector-valued function.===Partial derivatives===Functions can depend upon more than one variable.",
"A partial derivative of a function of several variables is its derivative with respect to one of those variables, with the others held constant.",
"Partial derivatives are used in vector calculus and differential geometry.",
"As with ordinary derivatives, multiple notations exist: the partial derivative of a function with respect to the variable is variously denoted byamong other possibilities.",
"It can be thought of as the rate of change of the function in the -direction.",
"Here ∂ is a rounded ''d'' called the '''partial derivative symbol'''.",
"To distinguish it from the letter ''d'', ∂ is sometimes pronounced \"der\", \"del\", or \"partial\" instead of \"dee\".",
"For example, let , then the partial derivative of function with respect to both variables and are, respectively:In general, the partial derivative of a function in the direction at the point is defined to be:This is fundamental for the study of the functions of several real variables.",
"Let be such a real-valued function.",
"If all partial derivatives with respect to are defined at the point , these partial derivatives define the vectorwhich is called the gradient of at .",
"If is differentiable at every point in some domain, then the gradient is a vector-valued function that maps the point to the vector .",
"Consequently, the gradient determines a vector field.===Directional derivatives===If is a real-valued function on , then the partial derivatives of measure its variation in the direction of the coordinate axes.",
"For example, if is a function of and , then its partial derivatives measure the variation in in the and direction.",
"However, they do not directly measure the variation of in any other direction, such as along the diagonal line .",
"These are measured using directional derivatives.",
"Choose a vector , then the directional derivative of in the direction of at the point is:If all the partial derivatives of exist and are continuous at , then they determine the directional derivative of in the direction by the formula:===Total derivative, total differential and Jacobian matrix===When is a function from an open subset of to , then the directional derivative of in a chosen direction is the best linear approximation to at that point and in that direction.",
"However, when , no single directional derivative can give a complete picture of the behavior of .",
"The total derivative gives a complete picture by considering all directions at once.",
"That is, for any vector starting at , the linear approximation formula holds:Similarly with the single-variable derivative, is chosen so that the error in this approximation is as small as possible.",
"The total derivative of at is the unique linear transformation such thatHere is a vector in , so the norm in the denominator is the standard length on .",
"However, is a vector in , and the norm in the numerator is the standard length on .",
"If is a vector starting at , then is called the pushforward of by .If the total derivative exists at , then all the partial derivatives and directional derivatives of exist at , and for all , is the directional derivative of in the direction .",
"If is written using coordinate functions, so that , then the total derivative can be expressed using the partial derivatives as a matrix.",
"This matrix is called the Jacobian matrix of at :"
],
[
"Generalizations",
"The concept of a derivative can be extended to many other settings.",
"The common thread is that the derivative of a function at a point serves as a linear approximation of the function at that point.",
"* An important generalization of the derivative concerns complex functions of complex variables, such as functions from (a domain in) the complex numbers to .",
"The notion of the derivative of such a function is obtained by replacing real variables with complex variables in the definition.",
"If is identified with by writing a complex number as , then a differentiable function from to is certainly differentiable as a function from to (in the sense that its partial derivatives all exist), but the converse is not true in general: the complex derivative only exists if the real derivative is ''complex linear'' and this imposes relations between the partial derivatives called the Cauchy–Riemann equations – see holomorphic functions.",
"* Another generalization concerns functions between differentiable or smooth manifolds.",
"Intuitively speaking such a manifold is a space that can be approximated near each point by a vector space called its tangent space: the prototypical example is a smooth surface in .",
"The derivative (or differential) of a (differentiable) map between manifolds, at a point in , is then a linear map from the tangent space of at to the tangent space of at .",
"The derivative function becomes a map between the tangent bundles of and .",
"This definition is used in differential geometry.",
"* Differentiation can also be defined for maps between vector space, such as Banach space, in which those generalizations are the Gateaux derivative and the Fréchet derivative.",
"* One deficiency of the classical derivative is that very many functions are not differentiable.",
"Nevertheless, there is a way of extending the notion of the derivative so that all continuous functions and many other functions can be differentiated using a concept known as the weak derivative.",
"The idea is to embed the continuous functions in a larger space called the space of distributions and only require that a function is differentiable \"on average\".",
"* Properties of the derivative have inspired the introduction and study of many similar objects in algebra and topology; an example is differential algebra.",
"Here, it consists of the derivation of some topics in abstract algebra, such as rings, ideals, field, and so on.",
"* The discrete equivalent of differentiation is finite differences.",
"The study of differential calculus is unified with the calculus of finite differences in time scale calculus.",
"* The arithmetic derivative involves the function that is defined for the integers by the prime factorization.",
"This is an analogy with the product rule."
],
[
"See also",
"* Integral"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"** ** * *** ** ** * * * ** ** * ** * * ** * .",
"See the English version here.",
"** * ** * * ** * * **** *"
],
[
"External links",
"**Khan Academy: \"Newton, Leibniz, and Usain Bolt\"** Online Derivative Calculator from Wolfram Alpha."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Dravidian languages"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Dravidian languages''' (sometimes called '''Dravidic''') are a family of languages spoken by 250 million people, mainly in southern India, north-east Sri Lanka, and south-west Pakistan.Dravidian is first attested in the 2nd century BCE, as inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi script on cave walls in the Madurai and Tirunelveli districts of Tamil Nadu.The Dravidian languages with the most speakers are (in descending order of number of speakers) Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam, all of which have long literary traditions.Smaller literary languages are Tulu and Kodava.Together with several smaller languages such as Gondi, these languages cover the southern part of India and the northeast of Sri Lanka, and account for the overwhelming majority of speakers of Dravidian languages.Malto and Kurukh are spoken in isolated pockets in eastern India.Kurukh is also spoken in parts of Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh.",
"Brahui is mostly spoken in the Balochistan region of Pakistan, Irani Balochistan, Afghanistan and around the Marw oasis in Turkmenistan.",
"During the colonial period, Dravidian speakers emigrated to Southeast Asia, Mauritius, South Africa, Fiji and the Caribbean.",
"There are more-recent Dravidian-speaking diaspora communities in the Middle East, Europe, North America and Oceania.Dravidian place names along the Arabian Sea coast and Dravidian grammatical influence such as clusivity in the Indo-Aryan languages, namely, Marathi, Gujarati, Marwari, and Sindhi, suggest that Dravidian languages were spoken more widely across the Indian subcontinent before the spread of the Indo-Aryan languages.",
"Though some scholars have argued that the Dravidian languages may have been brought to India by migrations from the Iranian plateau in the fourth or third millennium BCE or even earlier, reconstructed proto-Dravidian vocabulary suggests that the family is indigenous to India.",
"Despite many attempts, the family has not been shown to be related to any other."
],
[
"Dravidian studies",
"''Linguistic Survey of India'' (1906) map of the distribution of Dravidian languagesThe 14th-century Sanskrit text ''Lilatilakam'', a grammar of Manipravalam, states that the spoken languages of present-day Kerala and Tamil Nadu were similar, terming them as \"Dramiḍa\".",
"The author does not consider the \"Karṇṇāṭa\" (Kannada) and the \"Āndhra\" (Telugu) languages as \"Dramiḍa\", because they were very different from the language of the \"Tamil Veda\" (''Tiruvaymoli''), but states that some people would include them in the \"Dramiḍa\" category.In 1816, Francis Whyte Ellis argued that Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Tulu and Kodava descended from a common, non-Indo-European ancestor.",
"He supported his argument with a detailed comparison of non-Sanskrit vocabulary in Telugu, Kannada and Tamil, and also demonstrated that they shared grammatical structures.",
"In 1844, Christian Lassen discovered that Brahui was related to these languages.",
"In 1856, Robert Caldwell published his ''Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages'', which considerably expanded the Dravidian umbrella and established Dravidian as one of the major language groups of the world.In 1961, T. Burrow and M. B. Emeneau published the ''Dravidian Etymological Dictionary'', with a major revision in 1984."
],
[
"Name",
"Caldwell coined the term \"Dravidian\" for this family of languages, based on the usage of the Sanskrit word in the work ''Tantravārttika'' by :The origin of the Sanskrit word '''' is the Tamil word ''''.",
"Kamil Zvelebil cites the forms such as ''dramila'' (in 's Sanskrit work ''Avantisundarīkathā'') and '''' (found in the Sri Lankan (Ceylonese) chronicle ''Mahavamsa'') and then goes on to say, \"The forms ''damiḷa''/''damila'' almost certainly provide a connection of ''''\" with the indigenous name of the Tamil language, the likely derivation being \"*'''' > *'''' > ''''- / ''damila''- and further, with the intrusive, 'hypercorrect' (or perhaps analogical) -''r''-, into ''''.",
"The -''m''-/-''v''- alternation is a common enough phenomenon in Dravidian phonology\".Bhadriraju Krishnamurti states in his reference book ''The Dravidian languages'': Based on what Krishnamurti states (referring to a scholarly paper published in the ''International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics''), the Sanskrit word '''' itself appeared later than '''', since the dates for the forms with -r- are centuries later than the dates for the forms without -r- ('''', ''''-, ''damela''- etc.",
")."
],
[
"Classification",
"The Dravidian languages form a close-knit family.",
"Most scholars agree on four groups:* '''South Dravidian''' (Tamil–Tulu, or South DravidianI)** Tamil–Kannada*** **** ***** ****** ******* ******** Tamil languages, including Tamil******** Malayalam languages, including Malayalam******* Irula****** Kodava***** Toda**** Kota*** Kannada languages, including Kannada and Badaga** *** Koraga*** Tulu*** Kudiya* '''South-Central Dravidian''' (Telugu-Kui, or South DravidianII)** ** Telugu languages, including Telugu** Gondi-Kui*** Gondi languages, including Gondi*** **** Konda**** ***** ****** Manda****** Pengo***** ****** Kuvi****** Kui* '''Central Dravidian''' (Kolami–Parji)** *** Kolami*** Naiki** *** Gadaba**** Ollari**** Kondekor*** Duruwa (or Parji)* '''North Dravidian''' (Brahui-Kurukh) ** Kurukh–Malto*** Kurukh (Oraon, Kisan)*** Malto (Kumarbhag Paharia, Sauria Paharia)** BrahuiThere are different proposals regarding the relationship between these groups.",
"Earlier classifications grouped Central and South-Central Dravidian in a single branch.",
"On the other hand, Krishnamurti groups South-Central and South Dravidian together.",
"There are other disagreements, including whether there is a Toda-Kota branch or whether Kota diverged first and later Toda (claimed by Krishnamurti).Some authors deny that North Dravidian forms a valid subgroup, splitting it into Northeast (Kurukh–Malto) and Northwest (Brahui).",
"Their affiliation has been proposed based primarily on a small number of common phonetic developments, including:* In some words, *k is retracted or spirantized, shifting to in Kurukh and Brahui, in Malto.",
"* In some words, *c is retracted to .",
"* Word-initial *v develops to .",
"This development is, however, also found in several other Dravidian languages, including Kannada, Kodagu and Tulu.McAlpin (2003) notes that no exact conditioning can be established for the first two changes, and proposes that distinct Proto-Dravidian *q and *kʲ should be reconstructed behind these correspondences, and that Brahui, Kurukh-Malto, and the rest of Dravidian may be three coordinate branches, possibly with Brahui being the earliest language to split off.",
"A few morphological parallels between Brahui and Kurukh-Malto are also known, but according to McAlpin they are analyzable as shared archaisms rather than shared innovations.In addition, ''Glottolog'' lists several unclassified Dravidian languages: Kumbaran, Kakkala (both of Tamil-Malayalam) and KhirwarA computational phylogenetic study of the Dravidian language family was undertaken by Kolipakam, et al.",
"(2018).",
"They support the internal coherence of the four Dravidian branches South (or South Dravidian I), South-Central (or South Dravidian II), Central, and North, but is uncertain about the precise relationships of these four branches to each other.",
"The date of Dravidian is estimated to be 4,500 years old."
],
[
"Distribution",
"Dravidian languages are mostly located in the southern and central parts of south Asia with 2 main outliers, Brahui having speakers in Balochistan and as far north are Merv, Turkmenistan and Kurukh to the east in Jharkhand and as far northeast as Bhutan, Nepal and Assam.",
"Historically Maharashtra, Gujarat and Sindh also had Dravidian speaking populations from the evidence of place names (like ''-v(a)li, -koṭ'' from Dravidian ''paḷḷi, kōṭṭai''), grammatical features in Marathi, Gujarati, and Sindhi and Dravidian like kinship systems in southern Indo–Aryan languages.",
"Proto-Dravidian could have been spoken in a wider area, perhaps into Central India or the western Deccan which may have had other forms of early Dravidian/pre-Proto-Dravidian or other branches of Dravidian which are currently unknown.Since 1981, the Census of India has reported only languages with more than 10,000 speakers, including 17 Dravidian languages.",
"In 1981, these accounted for approximately 24% of India's population.In the 2001 census, they included 214 million people, about 21% of India's total population of 1.02 billion.",
"In addition, the largest Dravidian-speaking group outside India, Tamil speakers in Sri Lanka, number around 4.7 million.",
"The total number of speakers of Dravidian languages is around 227 million people, around 13% of the population of the Indian subcontinent.The largest group of the Dravidian languages is South Dravidian, with almost 150 million speakers.",
"Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam make up around 98% of the speakers, with 75 million, 44 million and 37 million native speakers, respectively.The next-largest is the South-Central branch, which has 78 million native speakers, the vast majority of whom speak Telugu.",
"The total number of speakers of Telugu, including those whose first language is not Telugu, is around 85 million people.",
"This branch also includes the tribal language Gondi spoken in central India.The second-smallest branch is the Northern branch, with around 6.3 million speakers.",
"This is the only sub-group to have a language spoken in Pakistan — Brahui.The smallest branch is the Central branch, which has only around 200,000 speakers.",
"These languages are mostly tribal, and spoken in central India.Languages recognized as official languages of India appear here in '''boldface'''.+ North Dravidian languagesLanguageNumber of speakersLocationBrahui2,430,000Balochistan (Pakistan), Helmand (Afghanistan), Beluchistan.",
"Kerman (Iran)Kurukh2,280,000Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar (India)Malto234,000Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal (India)Kurambhag Paharia12,500Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha+ Central Dravidian languagesLanguageNumber of speakersLocationKolami122,000Maharashtra, TelanganaDuruwa51,000Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Andhra PradeshOllari15,000Odisha, Andhra PradeshNaiki10,000Maharashtra+ South-Central Dravidian languagesLanguageNumber of speakersLocation'''Telugu'''83,000,000Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and parts of Karnataka ( Chikkaballapura(27.07%), Kolar (22.67%), Bangalore Urban(13.99%), Bangalore Rural (12.84%), Bellary (9.68%), Raichur(8.11%),Chitradurga(5.39%), Yadgir(5.20%) );Tamil Nadu ( , Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Gujarat, Delhi, Puducherry, Andaman and Nicobar Islands.",
"Outside India in United States, Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, New Zealand, France, Germany, Italy, Malaysia, Mauritius, Fiji, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, South Africa.Gondi2,980,000Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Odisha, Andhra PradeshKui942,000Odisha, Andhra PradeshKoya360,000Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, ChhattisgarhMadiya360,000Chhattisgarh, Telangana, MaharashtraKuvi155,000Odisha, Andhra PradeshPengo350,000OdishaPardhan135,000Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Madhya PradeshKhirwar36,400Chhattisgarh (Surguja district)Chenchu26,000Andhra Pradesh, TelanganaKonda20,000Andhra Pradesh, OdishaMuria15,000Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, OdishaManda4,040Odisha+ South Dravidian languages Language Number of speakers Location '''Tamil''' 75,000,000Tamil Nadu, Puducherry (including Karaikal), parts of Andhra Pradesh (Chittoor, Nellore, Tirupati, Annamayya), parts of Karnataka (Bengaluru, Bengaluru Rural, Chamarajanagar, Kolar, Mysuru, Ramanagara), parts of Kerala (Palakkad, Idukki, Thiruvananthapuram), parts of Telangana (Hyderabad), parts of Maharashtra (Mumbai, Mumbai Suburban, Thane, Pune), parts of Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Surat), Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Mauritius, Canada, United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain, China, Saudi Arabia, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Thailand, Indonesia, Myanmar, Réunion and Seychelles'''Kannada''' 44,000,000Karnataka, parts of Kerala (Kasaragod, Kannur, Wayanad), parts of Maharashtra (Kolhapur, Solapur, Sangli), parts of Tamil Nadu (Chennai, Coimbatore, Salem, Nilgiris, Krishnagiri), parts of Andhra Pradesh (Anantapur, Kurnool), parts of Telangana (Hyderabad, Medak, Jogulamba Gadwal, Narayanpet, Sangareddy, Vikarabad district), parts of Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodara), United States, Australia, Germany, United Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Netherlands '''Malayalam''' 37,000,000 Kerala, Lakshadweep, Mahe district of Puducherry, Parts of Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Kodagu, Mysore and Bangalore), parts of Tamil Nadu (Chennai, Coimbatore, Nilgiris, and Kanyakumari), Maharashtra (Mumbai, Mumbai Suburban, Thane, Pune), Gujarat (Surat, Ahmedabad), Delhi, United Arab Emirates, United States, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, United Kingdom, Qatar, Bahrain, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Malaysia, Singapore, Israel, Ireland, Germany, Austria Finland, Japan, Pakistan Tulu 1,850,000 Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada, Udupi districts) and Kerala (Kasaragod district), Across Maharashtra and Gujarat, especially in cities like Mumbai, Thane, Surat, etc.",
"and Gulf Countries (UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain) Beary 1,500,000 Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada, Udupi districts) and Kerala (Kasaragod district) and Gulf Countries (UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain)Pattapu200,000+Andhra Pradesh Irula 200,000 Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris district), Karnataka (Mysore district) Kurumba 180,000 Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris district) Badaga 133,000 Karnataka (Mysore district), Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris district) Kodava 114,000 Karnataka (Kodagu district)Jeseri65,000LakshadweepYerukala58,000Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, TelanganaBetta Kurumba32,000Karnataka (Chamarajanagar district, Kodagu district, Mysore district), Kerala (Wayanad district), Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris District)Kurichiya29,000Kerala (Kannur district, Kozhikode district, Wayanad district)Ravula27,000Karnataka (Kodagu district), Kerala (Kannur district, Wayanad district)Mullu Kurumba26,000Kerala (Wayanad district), Tamil Nadu (The Nilgiris District)Sholaga24,000Tamil Nadu, Karnataka (Mysore district)Kaikadi26,000Madhya Pradesh (Betul district), Maharashtra (Amravati district)Paniya22,000Karnataka (Kodagu district), Kerala, Tamil Nadu Kanikkaran 19,000 Kerala, Tamil Nadu (Kanyakumari district, Tirunelveli district)Malankuravan18,600Tamil Nadu (Kanyakumari district), Kerala (Kollam district, Kottayam district, Thiruvananthapuram district)Muthuvan16,800Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district, Madurai district) Koraga 14,000 Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada, Udupi districts) and Kerala (Kasaragod district)Kumbaran10,000Kerala (Kozhikode district, Malappuram district, Wayanad district)Paliyan9,500Kerala (Idukki district, Ernakulam district, Kottayam district), Tamil Nadu, KarnatakaMalasar7,800Kerala (Palakkad district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district)Malapandaram5,900Kerala (Kollam district, Pathanamthitta district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district, Madurai district, Viluppuram district)Eravallan5,000Kerala (Palakkad district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district)Wayanad Chetti5,000Karnataka, Kerala (Wayanad district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district, The Nilgiris District, Erode district)Muduga3,400Kerala (Palakkad district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district, The Nilgiris District)Thachanadan3,000Kerala (Malappuram district, Wayanad district)Kadar2,960Kerala (Thrissur district, Palakkad district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district) Toda 1,560 Karnataka (Mysore district), Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris district)Attapady Kurumba1,370Kerala (Palakkad district)Kunduvadi1,000Kerala (Kozhikode district, Wayanad district)Mala Malasar1,000Kerala (Palakkad district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district)Pathiya1,000Kerala (Wayanad district) Kota 930 Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris district)Kalanadi750Kerala (Wayanad district)Holiya500Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat district, Seoni district), Maharashtra, KarnatakaAllar350Kerala (Palakkad district, Malappuram district)Aranadan200Kerala (Malappuram district)Vishavan150Kerala (Ernakulam district, Kottayam district, Thrissur district)+ Unclassified Dravidian languagesLanguageNumber of speakersLocationKhirwar26,000Chhattisgarh (Surguja district)Kumbaran10,000Cholanaikkan281 Kerala (Malappuram district)KakkalaKerala+ Extinct Dravidian languagesLanguageBranchLocationMalaryanMalayalamoid Kerala, Tamil NaduNagarchalGondicMadhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Chhindwara, Jabalpur, Mandla and Seoni districts)UllatanMalayalamoidKerala"
],
[
"Proposed relations with other families",
"Language families in South AsiaThe Dravidian family has defied all of the attempts to show a connection with other languages, including Indo-European, Hurrian, Basque, Sumerian, Korean, and Japanese.",
"Comparisons have been made not just with the other language families of the Indian subcontinent (Indo-European, Austroasiatic, Sino-Tibetan, and Nihali), but with all typologically similar language families of the Old World.",
"Nonetheless, although there are no readily detectable genealogical connections, Dravidian shares several areal features with the Indo-Aryan languages, which have been attributed to the influence of a Dravidian substratum on Indo-Aryan.Dravidian languages display typological similarities with the Uralic language group, and there have been several attempts to establish a genetic relationship in the past.",
"This idea has been popular amongst Dravidian linguists, including Robert Caldwell, Thomas Burrow, Kamil Zvelebil, and Mikhail Andronov.",
"The hypothesis is, however, rejected by most specialists in Uralic languages, and also in recent times by Dravidian linguists such as Bhadriraju Krishnamurti.In the early 1970s, the linguist David McAlpin produced a detailed proposal of a genetic relationship between Dravidian and the extinct Elamite language of ancient Elam (present-day southwestern Iran).",
"The Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis was supported in the late 1980s by the archaeologist Colin Renfrew and the geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, who suggested that Proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent.",
"(In his 2000 book, Cavalli-Sforza suggested western India, northern India and northern Iran as alternative starting points.)",
"However, linguists have found McAlpin's cognates unconvincing and criticized his proposed phonological rules as ''ad hoc''.",
"Elamite is generally believed by scholars to be a language isolate, and the theory has had no effect on studies of the language.",
"In 2012, Southworth suggested a \"Zagrosian family\" of West Asian origin including Elamite, Brahui and Dravidian as its three branches.Dravidian is one of the primary language families in the Nostratic proposal, which would link most languages in North Africa, Europe and Western Asia into a family with its origins in the Fertile Crescent sometime between the Last Glacial Period and the emergence of Proto-Indo-European 4,000–6,000 BCE.",
"However, the general consensus is that such deep connections are not, or not yet, demonstrable."
],
[
"Prehistory",
"The origins of the Dravidian languages, as well as their subsequent development and the period of their differentiation are unclear, partially due to the lack of comparative linguistic research into the Dravidian languages.",
"It is thought that the Dravidian languages were the most widespread indigenous languages in the Indian subcontinent before the advance of the Indo-Aryan languages.",
"Though some scholars have argued that the Dravidian languages may have been brought to India by migrations from the Iranian plateau in the fourth or third millennium BCE or even earlier, reconstructed proto-Dravidian vocabulary suggests that the family is indigenous to India.===Proto-Dravidian and onset of diversification===As a proto-language, the Proto-Dravidian language is not itself attested in the historical record.",
"Its modern conception is based solely on reconstruction.",
"It was suggested in the 1980s that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started disintegrating into various branches around the 3rd millennium BCE.",
"According to Krishnamurti, Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus civilization, suggesting a \"tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium.\"",
"Krishnamurti further states that South Dravidian I (including pre-Tamil) and South Dravidian II (including Pre-Telugu) split around the 11th century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same time.",
"Kolipakam et al.",
"(2018) give a similar estimate of 2,500 BCE for Proto-Dravidian.Historically Maharashtra, Gujarat and Sindh also had Dravidian speaking populations from the evidence of place names (like ''-v(a)li, -koṭ'' from Dravidian ''paḷḷi, kōṭṭai''), grammatical features in Marathi, Gujarati, and Sindhi and Dravidian like kinship systems in southern Indo–Aryan languages.",
"Proto-Dravidian could have been spoken in a wider area, perhaps into Central India or the western Deccan which may have had other forms of early Dravidian/pre-Proto-Dravidian or other branches of Dravidian which are currently unknown.Several geneticists have noted a strong correlation between Dravidian and the Ancestral South Indian (ASI) component of South Asian genetic makeup.",
"Narasimhan et al.",
"(2019) argue that the ASI component itself formed in the early 2nd millennium BCE from a mixture of a population associated with the Indus Valley civilization and a population resident in peninsular India.",
"They conclude that one of these two groups may have been the source of proto-Dravidian.",
"An Indus valley origin would be consistent with the location of Brahui and with attempts to interpret the Indus script as Dravidian.",
"On the other hand, reconstructed Proto-Dravidian terms for flora and fauna provide support for a peninsular Indian origin.===Indus Valley Civilisation===The Indus Valley civilisation (3300–1900 BCE), located in the Indus Valley region, is sometimes suggested to have been Dravidian.",
"Already in 1924, after discovering the Indus Valley Civilisation, John Marshall stated that (one of) the language(s) may have been Dravidic.",
"Cultural and linguistic similarities have been cited by researchers Henry Heras, Kamil Zvelebil, Asko Parpola and Iravatham Mahadevan as being strong evidence for a proto-Dravidian origin of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation.",
"The discovery in Tamil Nadu of a late Neolithic (early 2nd millennium BCE, i.e.",
"post-dating Harappan decline) stone celt allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to be significant for the Dravidian identification.Yuri Knorozov surmised that the symbols represent a logosyllabic script and suggested, based on computer analysis, an underlying agglutinative Dravidian language as the most likely candidate for the underlying language.",
"Knorozov's suggestion was preceded by the work of Henry Heras, who suggested several readings of signs based on a proto-Dravidian assumption.Linguist Asko Parpola writes that the Indus script and Harappan language are \"most likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family\".",
"Parpola led a Finnish team in investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis.",
"Based on a proto-Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the \"fish\" sign with the Dravidian word for fish, \"min\") but disagreeing on several other readings.",
"A comprehensive description of Parpola's work until 1994 is given in his book ''Deciphering the Indus Script''.===Northern Dravidian pockets===Although in modern times speakers of the various Dravidian languages have mainly occupied the southern portion of India, in earlier times they probably were spoken in a larger area.",
"After the Indo-Aryan migrations into north-western India, starting , and the establishment of the Kuru kingdom , a process of Sanskritisation of the masses started, which resulted in a language shift in northern India.",
"Southern India has remained majority Dravidian, but pockets of Dravidian can be found in central India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal.The Kurukh and Malto are pockets of Dravidian languages in central India, spoken by people who may have migrated from south India.",
"They do have myths about external origins.",
"The Kurukh have traditionally claimed to be from the Deccan Peninsula, more specifically Karnataka.",
"The same tradition has existed of the Brahui, who call themselves immigrants.",
"Holding this same view of the Brahui are many scholars such as L.H.",
"Horace Perera and M.Ratnasabapathy.The Brahui population of Pakistan's Balochistan province has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of a relict population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages.",
"However, it has been argued that the absence of any Old Iranian (Avestan) loanwords in Brahui suggests that the Brahui migrated to Balochistan from central India less than 1,000 years ago.",
"The main Iranian contributor to Brahui vocabulary, Balochi, is a western Iranian language like Kurdish, and arrived in the area from the west only around 1000 CE.",
"Sound changes shared with Kurukh and Malto also suggest that Brahui was originally spoken near them in central India.===Dravidian influence on Sanskrit===Dravidian languages show extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, but only a few traits of structural (either phonological or grammatical) borrowing from Indo-Aryan, whereas Indo-Aryan shows more structural than lexical borrowings from the Dravidian languages.",
"Many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the ''Rigveda'' (c.1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian.Vedic Sanskrit has retroflex consonants (/, ) with about 88 words in the ''Rigveda'' having unconditioned retroflexes.",
"Some sample words are '''', '''', '''', '''', '''' and ''''.Since other Indo-European languages, including other Indo-Iranian languages, lack retroflex consonants, their presence in Indo-Aryan is often cited as evidence of substrate influence from close contact of the Vedic speakers with speakers of a foreign language family rich in retroflex consonants.",
"The Dravidian family is a serious candidate since it is rich in retroflex phonemes reconstructible back to the Proto-Dravidian stage.In addition, a number of grammatical features of Vedic Sanskrit not found in its sister Avestan language appear to have been borrowed from Dravidian languages.",
"These include the gerund, which has the same function as in Dravidian.",
"Some linguists explain this asymmetrical borrowing by arguing that Middle Indo-Aryan languages were built on a Dravidian substratum.",
"These scholars argue that the most plausible explanation for the presence of Dravidian structural features in Indic is language shift, that is, native Dravidian speakers learning and adopting Indic languages due to elite dominance.",
"Although each of the innovative traits in Indic could be accounted for by internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once; moreover, it accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed."
],
[
"Phonology",
"Dravidian languages are noted for the lack of distinction between aspirated and unaspirated stops.",
"Some Dravidian languages do have native aspirates formed due to the plosive + laryngeal clusters, for e.g.",
"Telugu ''nalabhai'', Kannada ''emb(h)attu'', Adilabad Gondi ''phōṛd'', while many Dravidian languages have accepted large numbers of loanwords from Sanskrit and other Indo-Iranian languages in addition to their already vast vocabulary, in which the orthography shows distinctions in voice and aspiration, the words are pronounced in the Dravidian languages other than Brahui according to different rules of phonology and phonotactics: aspiration of plosives is generally absent, regardless of the spelling of the word.",
"For instance, Tamil does not distinguish between voiced and voiceless stops.",
"In fact, the Tamil alphabet lacks symbols for voiced and aspirated stops.",
"Brahui is an exception among the Dravidian languages in this regard, and on the contrary it possesses the entire inventory of aspirates employed in neighboring Sindhi.",
"While aspirates are particularly concentrated in the Indo-Aryan element of the lexicon, some Brahui words with Dravidian roots have developed aspiration as well.Dravidian languages are also characterized by a three-way distinction between dental, alveolar, and retroflex places of articulation as well as large numbers of liquids.",
"Currently the three-way coronal distinction is only found in Malayalam and the Nilagiri languages; others have merged the alveolar stops with dentals or retroflexes.===Proto-Dravidian===Proto-Dravidian had five short and long vowels: ''*a'', ''*ā'', ''*i'', ''*ī'', ''*u'', ''*ū'', ''*e'', ''*ē'', ''*o'', ''*ō''.",
"There were no diphthongs; ''ai'' and ''au'' are treated as *''ay'' and *''av'' (or *''aw'').The five-vowel system with phonemic length is largely preserved in the descendant subgroups, but there are some notable exceptions.",
"The Nilgiri languages (except Kota but including Kodagu) developing a series of central vowels which formed from vowels near retroflex and alveolar consonants.",
"The short ''u'' phoneme (mostly word finally) became ''ŭ/ụ'' /ɯ~ɨ~ə/ and also became phonemic in Tulu and Malayalam, mostly caused by loaning words with rounded /u/.",
"Brahui has slightly poorer vowel system, where short ''e'' and ''o'' merged with other vowels due to the influence of Indo-Aryan languages, leaving only long counterparts.The following consonantal phonemes are reconstructed: LabialDentalAlveolarRetroflexPalatalVelarGlottalNasals *m *n (*ṉ) *ṇ *ñ Plosives *p *t *ṯ *ṭ *c *k Semivowel *w *y *HRhotic *r *ẓ Lateral *l *ḷ * The *ṯ developed into a trill (with *r being a tap) in South and South Central Dravidian.",
"* All non Tamil-Malayalam languages (including modern spoken Tamil) developed a voicing distinction for plosives, if loans are included, all of them have a voicing distinction."
],
[
"Grammar",
"The most characteristic grammatical features of Dravidian languages are:* Dravidian languages are agglutinative.",
"* Word order is subject–object–verb (SOV).",
"* Most Dravidian languages have a clusivity distinction.",
"* The major word classes are nouns (substantives, numerals, pronouns), adjectives, verbs, and indeclinables (particles, enclitics, adverbs, interjections, onomatopoetic words, echo words).",
"* Proto-Dravidian used only suffixes, never prefixes or infixes, in the construction of inflected forms.",
"Hence, the roots of words always occurred at the beginning.",
"Nouns, verbs, and indeclinable words constituted the original word classes.",
"* There are two numbers and four different gender systems, the ancestral system probably having \"male:non-male\" in the singular and \"person:non-person\" in the plural.",
"* In a sentence, however complex, only one finite verb occurs, normally at the end, preceded if necessary by a number of gerunds.",
"* Word order follows certain basic rules but is relatively free.",
"* The main (and probably original) dichotomy in tense is past:non-past.",
"Present tense developed later and independently in each language or subgroup.",
"* Verbs are intransitive, transitive, and causative; there are also active and passive forms.",
"* All of the positive verb forms have their corresponding negative counterparts, negative verbs.===Nominal morphology=======Number and gender====The Dravidian languages have two numbers, singular and plural.",
"The singular is unmarked, the plural is expressed by a suffix.",
"The plural suffixes are ''-(n)k(k)a'' (cf.",
"Kui 'cows', Brahui 'mouths'), *-ḷ (cf.",
"Telugu 'trees', Ollari 'hands') and the combination of these two *-(n)k(k)aḷ common in SD (cf.",
"Tamil 'trees', Kannada 'trees').The individual Dravidian languages have different gender systems.",
"What they have in common is that the grammatical gender (genus) always corresponds to the natural gender of the word.",
"In addition to individual special developments, there are three main types in which the categories \"male\" or \"non-male\" as well as \"human\" and \"non-human\" play a central role:# The South Dravidian languages distinguish between masculine (human, masculine), feminine (human, non-masculine) and neuter (non-human) in the singular, and only between human and non-human in the plural.# The Central Dravidian and many South Central Dravidian languages distinguish only between masculine and non-masculine in both singular and plural.# Telugu and the North Dravidian languages distinguish between masculine and non-masculine in the singular, and between human and non-human in the plural.The three types are illustrated by the forms of the third-person demonstrative pronouns of the three languages:+Gender system types illustrated with third-person demonstrative pronouns m. Sg.",
"f. Sg.",
"n. Sg.",
"m. Pl.",
"f. Pl.",
"n. Pl.",
"Type 1: Tamil (South Dravidian) Type 2: Telugu (South Central Dravidian) Type 3: Kolami (Central Dravidian) There is no consensus as to which of these three types is the original.The gender is not explicitly marked for all nouns.",
"Thus in Telugu 'elder brother' is masculine and 'mother' non-masculine, without this being apparent from the pure form of the word.",
"However, many nouns are formed with certain suffixes that express gender and number.",
"For Proto-Dravidian, the suffixes *-an and *-anṯ could be used for the masculine singular (cf.",
"Tamil 'son', Telugu 'younger brother'), *-aḷ and *-i for the singular feminine (cf.",
"Kannada 'daughter', Malto 'girl') and *-ar for human plurals (cf.",
"Malayalam 'two persons', Kurukh 'men').====Case====Case is expressed by suffixes and more loosely connected postpositions.",
"The number of cases varies between four (Telugu) and eleven (Brahui).The nominative is always the unmarked base form of the word.",
"The other cases, collectively called oblique, are formed by adding suffixes to a stem that can either be identical to the nominative or formed by certain suffixes (e.g.",
"Tamil 'tree', oblique ).",
"Several oblique suffixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Dravidian, which are composed of the minimal components *-i- , *-a- , *-n- and *-tt-.",
"In many languages, the oblique is identical to the genitive.Proto-Dravidian case suffixes can be reconstructed for the three cases accusative, dative and genitive.",
"Other case suffixes only occur in individual branches of Dravidian.",
"* Accusative: *-ay (Tamil 'elephant', Malayalam 'him', Brahui 'this village'); *-Vn (Telugu 'wife', Gondi 'ox', Ollari 'panther')* Dative: *-(n)k(k)- (Tamil 'you'; Telugu 'for work', Kolami 'to the house')* Genitive: -*a/ā (Kannada 'to be', Gondi 'of the thief', Brahui 'of the bull'); *-in (Tamil 'of the king', Toda 'of the elder sister', Ollari 'of the girl')====Pronouns====Personal pronouns occur in the 1st and 2nd person.",
"In the 1st person plural there is an inclusive and exclusive form, i.e.",
"a distinction is made as to whether the person addressed is included.",
"There is also a reflexive pronoun that refers to the subject of the sentence and is constructed in the same way as personal pronouns.",
"The personal and reflexive pronouns reconstructed for Proto-Dravidian are listed in the table below.",
"In addition, there are special developments in some languages: The south and south-central Dravidian languages have transferred the *ñ initial sound of the 1st person plural inclusive to the 1st person singular (cf.",
"Malayalam ''ñān'', but oblique ''en'' < *yan).",
"The differences between the forms for the inclusive and exclusive we are partly blurred; Kannada has completely abandoned this distinction.",
"The languages of the Tamil-Kodagu group have formed a new exclusive 'we' by adding the plural suffix (cf.",
"Tamil ''nām'' 'we (incl.",
")', ''nāṅ-kaḷ'' 'we (excl.)').",
"Nom.",
"Obl.",
"Meaning 1.Sg.",
"''*yĀn'' ''*yAn'' I 1.Pl.",
"excl.",
"''*yĀm'' ''*yAm'' we (excl.)",
"1.Pl.",
"incl.",
"''*ñām'' ''*ñam'' we (incl.)",
"2.Sg.",
"''*nīn'' ''*nin'' you 2.Pl ''*nīm'' ''*nim'' you all Refl.",
"Sg.",
"''*tān'' ''*tan'' (he/she/it) himself Refl.",
"Pl.",
"''*tām'' ''*tam'' themselvesThe demonstrative pronouns also serve as personal pronouns of the 3rd person.",
"They consist of an initial vowel expressing the distance and a suffix expressing number and gender.",
"There are three levels of distance: the far distance is formed with the initial vowel *a-, the middle distance with *u- and the near distance with *i-.",
"The same deictic elements also occur in local ('here', 'there') and temporal adverbs ('now', 'then').",
"The original threefold distinction of the distance (e.g.",
"Kota ''avn'' 'he, that one', ''ūn'' 'he, this one', ''ivn'' 'he, this one') has only survived in a few languages spoken today, the yonder distance u- has mostly become obsolete instead a- and i- are used.",
"Interrogative pronouns are formed analogously to the demonstrative pronouns and are characterized by the initial syllable *ya- (e.g.",
"Kota ''evn'' 'which').Tamil-Telugu made another word ''*ñān'' for the 1SG pronoun back formed from 1P inclusive ''*ñām'', in parallel to *yān; some languages like Tamil retain both forms, ''yāṉ, nāṉ''.====Verbal morphology====The Dravidian verb is formed by adding tense, mood and personal suffixes to the root of the word.",
"Thus the Tamil word ''varukiṟēṉ'' 'I come' is composed of the verb stem ''varu-'', the present suffix ''-kiṟ'' and the suffix of the 1st person singular ''-ēṉ''.In Proto-Dravidian there are only two tenses, past and not past, while many daughter languages have developed a more complex tense system.The negation is expressed synthetically by a special negative verb form (cf.",
"Konda ''kitan'' 'he made', ''kiʔetan'' 'he did not').The verb stem can be modified by stem-forming suffixes in many Dravidian languages.",
"Thus Malto derives from the stem ''nud-'' 'to hide' the reflexive verb stem ''nudɣr-'' 'to hide'.Infinite verb forms depend on either a following verb or a following noun.",
"They serve to form more complex syntactic constructions.Verbal compounds can be formed in Dravidian, for example the Tamil ''konṭuvara'' 'to bring' is composed of an infinite form of the verb ''koḷḷa'' 'to hold' and the verb ''vara'' 'to come'.====Syntax====Characteristic of the Dravidian languages is a fixed subject–object–verb word order (SOV).",
"Accordingly, the subject comes first in the sentence (it can at most be preceded by circumstantial determinations of time and place) and the predicate always at the end of the sentence.",
"As is characteristic of SOV languages, in the Dravidian languages, attributes always come before their noun, subordinate clauses before main clauses, main verbs before auxiliary verbs, and postpositions are used instead of prepositions.",
"Only in the North Dravidian languages has the rigid SOV word order been relaxed.A simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate, which can be either a verb or a noun.",
"There is no copula in Dravidian.",
"The subject is usually in the nominative case, but in many Dravidian languages, in a sentence expressing a feeling, perception or possession, the subject is also in the dative case.",
"In all Dravidian languages except Malayalam, a verbal predicate agrees with a nominative subject.",
"Kui and Kuwi developed a system of congruence between object and verb.",
"In some Dravidian languages (Old Tamil, Gondi) even a nominal predicate takes personal endings.",
"Examples of simple sentences from Tamil:: ''avar eṉṉaik kēṭṭār.''",
"(he me asked) 'He asked me.'",
"(subject in nominative, verbal predicate): ''avar eṉ appā.''",
"(he my father) 'He is my father.'",
"(subject in nominative, nominal predicate): ''avarukku kōpam vantatu.''",
"(to-him anger it-came) 'He became angry.'",
"(subject in dative, verbal predicate): ''avarukku oru makaṉ.''",
"(to-him a son) 'He has a son.'",
"(subject in dative, nominal predicate)Complex sentences consist of a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.",
"In general, a sentence can contain only one finite verb.",
"The Dravidian languages have no conjunctions; subordinate clauses are formed just like parataxes by infinite verb forms.",
"These include the infinitive, the verbal participle, which expresses a sequence of actions, and the conditional, which expresses a conditionality.",
"Relative clauses correspond to constructions with the so-called adnominal participles.",
"Examples from Tamil:: ''avarai varac col.'' (him to-come tell) 'Tell him to come.'",
"(infinitive): ''kaṭaikku pōyi muṭṭaikaḷ koṇṭuvā.''",
"(to-the-shop go-then eggs get-come) 'Go to the shop and bring eggs.'",
"(verb participle): ''avaṉ poy coṉṉāl ammā aṭippāḷ.''",
"(he lie if-saying mother will-beat) 'If he lies, mother will beat him.'",
"(Conditional): ''avaṉ coṉṉatu uṇmai.''",
"(he said truth) 'What he says is true.'",
"(adnominal participle)These constructions are not possible for subordinate clauses with a nominal predicate, since no infinite forms can be formed for a noun.",
"Here one gets by with the so-called quotative verb (usually an infinite form of 'to say'), through which the nominal subordinate clause is embedded in the sentence structure.",
"Example from Tamil:: ''nāṉ avaṉ nallavaṉ eṉṟu niṉaikkiṟēṉ.''",
"(I he good-man-like-that thinking) 'I think he's a good man.'"
],
[
"Vocabulary",
"Word roots seem to have been monosyllabic in Proto-Dravidian as a rule.",
"Proto-Dravidian words could be simple, derived, or compound.",
"Iterative compounds could be formed by doubling a word, cf.",
"Tamil ''avar'' \"he\" and ''avaravar'' \"everyone\" or ''vantu'' \"coming\" and ''vantu vantu'' \"always coming\".",
"A special form of reduplicated compounds are the so-called echo words, in which the first syllable of the second word is replaced by ''ki'', cf.",
"Tamil ''pustakam'' \"book\" and ''pustakam-kistakam'' \"books and the like\".",
"Today's Dravidian languages have, in addition to the inherited Dravidian vocabulary, a large number of words from Sanskrit or later Indo-Aryan languages.",
"In Tamil, they make up a relatively small proportion, not least because of targeted linguistic puristic tendencies in the early 20th century, while in Telugu and Malayalam the number of Indo-Aryan loanwords is large.",
"In Brahui, which was strongly influenced by its neighboring languages due to its distance from the other Dravidian languages, only a tenth of the vocabulary is of Dravidian origin.",
"16 More recently, like all the languages of India, the Dravidian languages also have words borrowed from English on a large scale; less numerous are the loanwords from Portuguese .Dravidian words that have found their way into English are \"orange\" (via Sanskrit ''nāraṅga'', cf.",
"Tamil ''nāraṅkа̄y'' 6 onnŭ ondï ondu onji wïd̠ onnu okaṭi 7, oṇḍu undi okkod 7 oṇḍ asiṭ *onṯu 1 éka yek 2 iraṇṭŭ, reṇḍŭ 6 raṇḍŭ daṇḍï eraḍu eraḍŭ, iraḍŭ ēḍ jend reṇḍu raṇḍ irāṭ eṇṛ irāṭ *iraṇṭu 2 dvi do 3 mūṉṟŭ, mūṇŭ 6 mūnnŭ mūndï mūru mūji mūd̠ mūnnu mū̃ḍu muṇḍ mūndiŋ mūnd musiṭ *mūnt̠u tri seh 4 nāl, nālku, nāṉkŭ, nālŭ 6 nālu nālï nālku nālŭ nōng nāl nālugu nāluṅg nāliŋ nāx čār (II) *nāl, *nālnk(k)V, *nānk(k)V catúr cahār 5 aintŭ, añjŭ 6 añjŭ añji aidu ayinŭ, ainŭ üɀ añji ayidu,ēnu saiyuṅg, hayuṅ ayd 3 pancē (II) panč (II) *caymtu pañca panj 6 āṟŭ āṟŭ ārï āru āji ōr̠ ār āṟu sāruṅg, hāruṅg ār 3 soy (II) šaš (II) *cāṯu ṣáṣ śeś 7 ēḻŭ, yēḷŭ6 ēḻŭ ë̄ḷï ēḷu ēḍŭ, ēlŭ, ēḷŭ öw ēl ēḍu yeḍuṅg, ēṛuṅg ēḍ 3 say (II) haft (II) *ēẓ saptá haft 8 eṭṭŭ eṭṭŭ ëṭṭï eṇṭu enma, eṇma, eḍma öṭ ett enimidi aṛmur enumadī 3 āx (II) hašt (II) *eṇṭṭu aṣṭá haśt 9 oṉpatŭ 4 5 ombadŭ6 oṉbadŭ, ombadŭ 5 ombay 5 ombattu 5 ormba 5 wïnboθ 5 olimbō 5 tommidi unmāk tomdī 3 nāy (II) nōh (II) *toḷ, *toṇ náva noh 10 pathŭ pattŭ pattï hattu pattŭ pot patt padi pad padī 3 doy (II) dah (II) *paHtu dáśa dah# This is the same as the word for another form of the number one in Tamil and Malayalam, used as the indefinite article (\"a\") and when the number is an attribute preceding a noun (as in \"one person\"), as opposed to when it is a noun (as in \"How many are there?\"",
"\"One\").# The stem *īr is still found in compound words, and has taken on a meaning of \"double\" in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam.",
"For example, ''irupatu'' (20, literally meaning \"double-ten\"), ''iravai'' (20 in Telugu), \"iraṭṭi\" (\"double\") or ''iruvar'' (\"two people\", in Tamil) and \"ippattu\" (ipp-hattu, double ten\", in Kannada).# The Kolami numbers 5 to 10 are borrowed from Telugu.# The word ''toṇṭu'' was also used to refer to the number nine in ancient Sangam texts but was later completely replaced by the word ''oṉpatu''.# These forms are derived from \"one (less than) ten\".",
"Proto-Dravidian *toḷ/*toṇ (which could mean 9 or 9/10) is still used in Tamil and Malayalam as the basis of numbers such as 90 and 900, ''toṇṇūṟu'' (*100 = 90) as well as the Kannada ''tombattu'' (9*10 = 90).# Because of shared sound changes that have happened over the years in the majority of the Tamil dialects, the numbers 1–5 have different colloquial pronunciations, seen here to the right of their written, formal pronunciations.# In languages with words for one starts with ok(k)- it was taken from *okk- which originally meant \"to be united\" and not a numeral.",
"* Words indicated '''(II)''' are borrowings from Indo-Iranian languages (in Brahui's case, from Balochi)."
],
[
"Literature",
"The oldest known Tamil-Brahmi inscription, near Mangulam in Madurai districtFour Dravidian languages, viz.",
"Tamil, Kannada, Telugu and Malayalam, have lengthy literary traditions.",
"Literature in Tulu and Kodava is more recent.",
"Recently old literature in Gondi has been discovered as well.The earliest known Dravidian inscriptions are 76 Old Tamil inscriptions on cave walls in Madurai and Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu, dating from the 2nd century BCE.",
"These inscriptions are written in a variant of the Brahmi script called Tamil Brahmi.",
"In 2019, the Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department released a report on excavations at Keeladi, near Madurai, Tamil Nadu, including a description of potsherds dated to the 6th century BCE inscribed with personal names in the Tamil-Brahmi script.",
"However, the report lacks the detail of a full archaeological study, and other archaeologists have disputed whether the oldest dates obtained for the site can be assigned to these potsherds.",
"The earliest long text in Old Tamil is the ''Tolkāppiyam'', a work on Tamil grammar and poetics preserved in a 5th-century CE redaction, whose oldest layers could date from the late 2nd century or 1st century BCE.Kannada's earliest known inscription is the lion balustrade (''Simhakatanjana'') inscription excavated at the Pranaveshwara temple complex at Talagunda near Shiralakoppa of Shivamogga district, dated to 370 CE which replaced the Halmidi inscription in Hassan district (450 CE).",
"A 9th-century treatise on poetics, the ''Kavirajamarga'', is the first known literary work.",
"The earliest Telugu inscription, from Erragudipadu in Kadapa district, is dated 575.The first literary work is an 11th-century translation of part of the ''Mahābhārata''.",
"The earliest Malayalam text is the Vazhappally copper plate (9th century).",
"The first literary work is ''Rāmacaritam'' (12th century)."
],
[
"See also",
"* Dravidian Linguistics Association* Dravidian peoples* Dravidian nationalism* Tamil loanwords in Biblical Hebrew* ''Dreaming of Words''"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * ; Reprinted London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & co., ltd., 1913; rev.",
"ed.",
"by J.L.",
"Wyatt and T. Ramakrishna Pillai, Madras, University of Madras, 1961, reprint Asian Educational Services, 1998, .",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Vishnupriya Kolipakam et al.",
"(2018), ''A Bayesian phylogenetic study of the Dravidian language family'', Royal Society Open Science."
],
[
"External links",
"* Dravidian Etymological Dictionary.",
"Burrow and Emeneau's ''A Dravidian etymological dictionary'' (2nd ed., 1984) in a searchable online form."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Dracula"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Dracula''''' is a novel by Bram Stoker, published in 1897.An epistolary novel, the narrative is related through letters, diary entries, and newspaper articles.",
"It has no single protagonist and opens with solicitor Jonathan Harker taking a business trip to stay at the castle of a Transylvanian nobleman, Count Dracula.",
"Harker escapes the castle after discovering that Dracula is a vampire, and the Count moves to England and plagues the seaside town of Whitby.",
"A small group, led by Abraham Van Helsing, investigate, hunt and kill Dracula.",
"''Dracula'' was mostly written in the 1890s.",
"Stoker produced over a hundred pages of notes for the novel, drawing extensively from Transylvanian folklore and history.",
"Some scholars have suggested that the character of Dracula was inspired by historical figures like the Wallachian prince Vlad the Impaler or the countess Elizabeth Báthory, but there is widespread disagreement.",
"Stoker's notes mention neither figure.",
"He found the name ''Dracula'' in Whitby's public library while on holiday, thinking it meant ''devil'' in Romanian.Following its publication, ''Dracula'' was positively received by reviewers who pointed to its effective use of horror.",
"In contrast, reviewers who wrote negatively of the novel regarded it as excessively frightening.",
"Comparisons to other works of Gothic fiction were common, including its structural similarity to Wilkie Collins' ''The Woman in White'' (1859).",
"In the past century, ''Dracula'' became regarded as a seminal piece of Gothic fiction.",
"Modern scholars explore the novel within its historical context—the Victorian era—and discuss its depiction of gender roles, sexuality, and race.",
"''Dracula'' is one of the most famous pieces of English literature.",
"Many of the book's characters have entered popular culture as archetypal versions of their characters; for example, Count Dracula as the quintessential vampire, and Abraham Van Helsing as an iconic vampire hunter.",
"The novel, which is in the public domain, has been adapted for film over 30 times, and its characters have made numerous appearances in virtually all media."
],
[
"Plot",
"Jonathan Harker, a newly qualified English solicitor, visits Count Dracula at his castle in the Carpathian Mountains to help the Count purchase a house near London.",
"Ignoring the Count's warning, Harker wanders the castle at night and encounters three vampire women; Dracula rescues Harker, and gives the women a small child bound inside a bag.",
"Harker awakens in bed; soon after, Dracula leaves the castle, abandoning him to the women.",
"Harker escapes and ends up delirious in a Budapest hospital.",
"Dracula takes a ship called the ''Demeter'' for England with boxes of earth from his castle.",
"The captain's log narrates the crew's disappearance until he alone remains, bound to the helm to maintain course.",
"An animal resembling a large dog is seen leaping ashore when the ship runs aground at Whitby.Lucy Westenra's letter to her best friend, Harker's fiancée Mina Murray, describes her marriage proposals from Dr. John Seward, Quincey Morris, and Arthur Holmwood.",
"Lucy accepts Holmwood's, but all remain friends.",
"Mina joins Lucy on holiday in Whitby.",
"Lucy begins sleepwalking.",
"After his ship lands there, Dracula stalks Lucy.",
"Mina receives a letter about her missing fiancé's illness, and goes to Budapest to nurse him.",
"Lucy becomes very ill. Seward's old teacher, Professor Abraham Van Helsing, determines the nature of Lucy's condition, but refuses to disclose it.",
"He diagnoses her with acute blood-loss.",
"Van Helsing places garlic flowers around her room and makes her a necklace of them.",
"Lucy's mother removes the garlic flowers, not knowing they repel vampires.",
"While Seward and Van Helsing are absent, Lucy and her mother are terrified by a wolf and Mrs. Westenra dies of a heart attack; Lucy dies shortly thereafter.",
"After her burial, newspapers report children being stalked in the night by a \"bloofer lady\" (beautiful lady), and Van Helsing deduces it is Lucy.",
"The four go to her tomb and see that she is a vampire.",
"They stake her heart, behead her, and fill her mouth with garlic.",
"Jonathan Harker and his now-wife Mina have returned, and they join the campaign against Dracula.Everyone stays at Dr. Seward's asylum as the men begin to hunt Dracula.",
"Van Helsing finally reveals that vampires can only rest on earth from their homeland.",
"Dracula communicates with Seward's patient, Renfield, an insane man who eats vermin to absorb their life force.",
"After Dracula learns of the group's plot against him, he uses Renfield to enter the asylum.",
"He secretly attacks Mina three times, drinking her blood each time and forcing Mina to drink his blood on the final visit.",
"She is cursed to become a vampire after her death unless Dracula is killed.",
"As the men find Dracula's properties, they discover many earth boxes within.",
"The vampire hunters open each of the boxes and seal wafers of sacramental bread inside them, rendering them useless to Dracula.",
"They attempt to trap the Count in his Piccadilly house, but he escapes.",
"They learn that Dracula is fleeing to his castle in Transylvania with his last box.",
"Mina has a faint psychic connection to Dracula, which Van Helsing exploits via hypnosis to track Dracula's movements.",
"Guided by Mina, they pursue him.In Galatz, Romania, the hunters split up.",
"Van Helsing and Mina go to Dracula's castle, where the professor destroys the vampire women.",
"Jonathan Harker and Arthur Holmwood follow Dracula's boat on the river, while Quincey Morris and John Seward parallel them on land.",
"After Dracula's box is finally loaded onto a wagon by Romani men, the hunters converge and attack it.",
"After routing the Romani, Harker decapitates Dracula as Quincey stabs him in the heart.",
"Dracula crumbles to dust, freeing Mina from her vampiric curse.",
"Quincey is mortally wounded in the fight against the Romani.",
"He dies from his wounds, at peace with the knowledge that Mina is saved.",
"A note by Jonathan Harker seven years later states that the Harkers have a son, named Quincey."
],
[
"Background",
"=== Author ===As the acting manager of the Lyceum Theatre in London, Bram Stoker was a recognisable figure: he would greet evening guests, and served as assistant to the stage actor Henry Irving.",
"In a letter to Walt Whitman, Stoker described his own temperament as \"secretive to the world\", but he nonetheless led a relatively public life.",
"Stoker supplemented his income from the theatre by writing romance and sensation novels, and had published 18 books by his death in 1912.",
"''Dracula'' was Stoker's seventh published book, following ''The Shoulder of Shasta'' (1895) and preceding ''Miss Betty'' (1898).",
"Hall Caine, a close friend of Stoker's, wrote an obituary for him in ''The Daily Telegraph'', saying that—besides his biography on Irving—Stoker wrote only \"to sell\" and \"had no higher aims\".=== Influences ===Vlad III, more commonly known as Vlad the ImpalerMany figures have been suggested as inspirations for Count Dracula, but there is no consensus.",
"In his 1962 biography of Stoker, Harry Ludlam suggested that Ármin Vámbéry, a professor at the University of Budapest, supplied Stoker with information about Vlad Drăculea, commonly known as Vlad the Impaler.",
"Professors Raymond T. McNally and Radu Florescu popularised the idea in their 1972 book, ''In Search of Dracula''.",
"Benjamin H. LeBlanc writes that there a reference within the text to Vámbéry, an \"Arminius, of Buda-Pesh University\", who is familiar with the historical Vlad III and is a friend of Abraham Van Helsing, but an investigation by McNally and Florescu found nothing about \"Vlad, Dracula, or vampires\" within Vámbéry's published papers, nor in Stoker's notes about his meeting with Vámbéry.",
"Academic and ''Dracula'' scholar Elizabeth Miller calls the link to Vlad III \"tenuous\", indicating that Stoker incorporated a large amount of \"insignificant detail\" from his research, and rhetorically asking why he would omit Vlad III's infamous cruelty.Raymond McNally's ''Dracula Was A Woman'' (1983) suggests another historical figure as an inspiration: Elizabeth Báthory.",
"McNally argues that the imagery of ''Dracula'' has analogues in Báthory's described crimes, such as the use of a cage resembling an iron maiden.",
"Gothic critic and lecturer Marie Mulvey-Roberts writes that vampires were traditionally depicted as \"mouldering revenants, who dragged themselves around graveyards\", but—like Báthory—Dracula uses blood to restore his youth.",
"Recent scholarship has questioned whether Báthory's crimes were exaggerated by her political opponents, with others noting that very little is concretely known about her life.",
"A book that Stoker used for research, ''The Book of Were-Wolves'', does have some information on Báthory, but Miller writes that he never took notes on anything from the short section devoted to her.",
"In a facsimile edition of Bram Stoker's original notes for the book, Miller and her co-author Robert Eighteen-Bisang say in a footnote that there is no evidence she inspired Stoker.",
"In 2000, Miller's book-length study, ''Dracula: Sense and Nonsense'', was said by academic Noel Chevalier to correct \"not only leading ''Dracula'' scholars, but non-specialists and popular film and television documentaries\".Aside from the historical, Count Dracula also has literary progenitors.",
"Academic Elizabeth Signorotti argues that ''Dracula'' is a response to the lesbian vampire of Sheridan Le Fanu's ''Carmilla'' (1872), \"correcting\" its emphasis on female desire.",
"Bram Stoker's great-nephew, broadcaster Daniel Farson, wrote a biography of the author; in it, he doubts that Stoker was aware of the lesbian elements of ''Carmilla'', but nonetheless notes that it influenced him profoundly.",
"Farson writes that an inscription upon a tomb in ''Dracula'' is a direct allusion to ''Carmilla''.",
"Scholar Alison Milbank observes that as Dracula can transform into a dog, Carmilla can become a cat.",
"According to author Patrick McGrath, \"traces of ''Carmilla''\" can be found in the three female vampires residing in Dracula castle.",
"A short story written by Stoker and published after his death, \"Dracula's Guest\", has been seen as evidence of ''Carmilla'' influence.",
"According to Milbank, the story was a deleted first chapter from early in the original manuscript, and replicates ''Carmilla'' setting of Styria instead of Transylvania.Irish folklore has been suggested as a possible influence on Stoker.",
"Bob Curran, a lecturer in Celtic History and Folklore at the University of Ulster, Coleraine, suggests that Stoker may have drawn some inspiration for Dracula from an Irish vampire, Abhartach."
],
[
"Textual history",
"Stoker's handwritten notes about the novel's characters=== Composition ===Prior to writing the novel, Stoker researched extensively, assembling over 100 pages of notes, including chapter summaries and plot outlines.",
"The notes were sold by Bram Stoker's widow, Florence, in 1913, to a New York book dealer for £2.2s, ().",
"Following that, the notes became the property of Charles Scribner's Sons, and then disappeared until they were bought by the Rosenbach Museum and Library in Philadelphia in 1970.H.",
"P. Lovecraft wrote that he knew \"an old lady\" who was approached to revise the original manuscript, but that Stoker found her too expensive.",
"Stoker's first biographer, Harry Ludlam, wrote in 1962 that writing commenced on ''Dracula'' around 1895 or 1896.Following the rediscovery of Stoker's notes in 1972 by Raymond T. McNally and Radu Florescu, the two dated the writing of ''Dracula'' to between 1895 and 1897.Later scholarship has questioned these sets of dates.",
"In the first extensive study of the notes, Joseph S. Bierman writes that the earliest date within them is 8 March 1890, for an outline of a chapter that \"differs from the final version in only a few details\".",
"According to Bierman, Stoker always intended to write an epistolary novel, but originally set it in Styria instead of Transylvania; this iteration did not explicitly use the word ''vampire''.",
"For two summers, Stoker and his family stayed in the Kilmarnock Arms Hotel in Cruden Bay, Scotland, while he was actively writing ''Dracula''.Stoker's notes illuminate much about earlier iterations of the novel.",
"For instance, they indicate that the novel's vampire was intended to be a count, even before he was given the name ''Dracula''.",
"Stoker likely found the name ''Dracula'' in Whitby's public library while holidaying there with his wife and son in 1880.On the name, Stoker wrote: \"Dracula means devil.",
"Wallachians were accustomed to give it as a surname to any person who rendered himself conspicuous by courage, cruel actions or cunning\".",
"Stoker's initial plans for ''Dracula'' markedly differ from the final novel.",
"Had Stoker completed his original plans, a German professor called Max Windshoeffel \"would have confronted Count Wampyr from Styria\", and one of the Crew of Light would have been slain by a werewolf.",
"Stoker's earliest notes indicate that ''Dracula'' might have originally been intended to be a detective story, with a detective called Cotford and a psychical investigator called Singleton.=== Publication ===Doubleday & McClure, New York''Dracula'' was published in London in May 1897 by Archibald Constable and Company.",
"It cost 6 shillings, and was bound in yellow cloth and titled in red letters.",
"In 2002, Barbara Belford, a biographer, wrote that the novel looked \"shabby\", perhaps because the title had been changed at a late stage.",
"Although contracts were typically signed at least 6 months ahead of publication, ''Dracula'' was unusually signed only 6 days prior to publication.",
"For the first thousand sales of the novel, Stoker earned no royalties.",
"Following serialisation by American newspapers, Doubleday & McClure published an American edition in 1899.In the 1930s when Universal Studios purchased the rights to make a film version, it was discovered that Stoker had not fully complied with US copyright law, placing the novel into the public domain.",
"The novelist was required to purchase the copyright and register two copies, but he registered only one.",
"Stoker's mother, Charlotte Stoker, enthused about the novel to Stoker, predicting it would bring him immense financial success.",
"She was wrong; the novel, although reviewed well, did not make Stoker much money and did not cement his critical legacy until after his death.",
"Since its publication, ''Dracula'' has never been out of print.In 1901, ''Dracula'' was translated into Icelandic by Valdimar Ásmundsson under the title ''Makt Myrkranna'' (''Powers of Darkness'') with a preface written by Stoker.",
"In the preface, Stoker writes that the events contained within the novel are true, and that \"for obvious reasons\" he had changed the names of places and people.",
"Although scholars had been aware of the translation's existence since the 1980s because of Stoker's preface, none had thought to translate it back into English.",
"''Makt Myrkranna'' differs significantly from Stoker's novel.",
"Character names were changed, the length was abridged, and it was more overtly sexual than the original.",
"Dutch scholar Hans Corneel de Roos compared the translation favourably to Stoker's, writing that where ''Dracula'' meandered, the translation was concise and punchy."
],
[
"Major themes",
"===Gender and sexuality===Academic analyses of ''Dracula'' as sexually charged have become so frequent that a cottage industry has developed around the topic.",
"Sexuality and seduction are two of the novel's most frequently discussed themes, especially as it relates to the corruption of English womanhood.",
"Modern critical writings about vampirism widely acknowledge its link to sex and sexuality.",
"Bram Stoker himself was possibly homosexual; Talia Schaffer points to intensely homoerotic letters sent by him to the American poet Walt Whitman.",
"Stoker began writing the novel one month following the imprisonment of his friend Oscar Wilde for homosexuality.The novel's characters are often said to represent transgressive sexuality through the performance of their genders.",
"The primary sexual threat posed by Count Dracula is, Christopher Craft writes, that he will \"seduce, penetrate, and drain another male\", with Jonathan Harker's excitement about being penetrated by three vampire women serving as a mask and proxy for his homosexual desire.",
"His excitement also inverts standard Victorian gender roles; in succumbing to the vampire women, Harker assumes the traditionally feminine role of sexual passivity while the vampire women assume the masculinised role of acting.",
"Sexual depravity and aggression were understood by the Victorians as the exclusive domain of Victorian men, while women were expected to submit to their husband's sexual wishes.",
"Harker's desire to submit, and the scene's origin as a dream Stoker had, highlights the divide between societal expectations and lived realities of men who wanted more freedom in their sexual lives.",
"In the British version of the text, Harker hears the three vampire women whispering at his door, and Dracula tells them they can feed on him tomorrow night.",
"In the American version, Dracula insinuates that he will be feeding on Harker that night: \"To-night is mine!",
"To-morrow is yours!\"",
"Nina Auerbach and David J. Skal, in the Norton Critical Edition of the text, posit that Stoker thought the line would render the novel unpublishable in 1897 England, and that \"the America that produced his hero Walt Whitman would have been more tolerant of men feeding on men\".The novel's depiction of women continues to divide critics.",
"Elaine Showalter writes that Lucy Westenra and Mina Harker represent different aspects of the New Woman.",
"According to Showalter, Lucy represents the \"sexual daring\" of the New Woman, evidenced by how she wonders why a woman cannot marry three men if they all desire her.",
"Mina, meanwhile, represents the New Woman's \"intellectual ambitions\", citing her occupation as a schoolmaster, her keen mind, and her knowledge of shorthand.",
"Carol A. Senf writes that Stoker was ambivalent about the New Woman phenomenon.",
"Of the novel's five vampires, four are women, and all are aggressive, \"wildly erotic\", and driven only by their thirst for blood.",
"Mina Harker, meanwhile, serves as the antithesis of the other female characters, and plays a singularly important role in Dracula's defeat.",
"On the other hand, Judith Wasserman argues that the fight to defeat Dracula is really a battle for control over women's bodies.",
"Senf points out that Lucy's sexual awakening, and her reversal of gender-based sexual roles, is what Abraham Van Helsing considers a threat.===Race===''Dracula'', and specifically the Count's migration to Victorian England, is frequently read as emblematic of invasion literature, and a projection of fears about racial pollution.",
"A number of scholars have indicated that ''Dracula'' version of the vampire myth participates in antisemitic stereotyping.",
"Jules Zanger links the novel's portrayal of the vampire to the immigration of Eastern European Jews to ''fin de siècle'' England.",
"Between 1881 and 1900, the number of Jews living in England had increased sixfold because of pogroms and antisemitic laws elsewhere.",
"Jack Halberstam provides a list of Dracula's associations with antisemitic conceptions of Jewish people: his appearance, wealth, parasitic bloodlust, and \"lack of allegiance\" to one country.",
"In terms of his appearance, Halberstam notes Dracula's resemblance to other fictional Jews; for example, his long, sharp nails are compared to those of Fagin in Charles Dickens's ''Oliver Twist'' (1838), and Svengali of George du Maurier's ''Trilby'' (1895), who is depicted as animalistic and thin.The novel's depiction of Slovaks and Romani people has attracted some, albeit limited, scholarly attention.",
"Peter Arnds wrote that the Count's control over the Romani and his abduction of young children evokes real folk superstitions about Romani people stealing children, and that his ability to transform into a wolf is likewise related to xenophobic beliefs about the Romani as animalistic.",
"Although vagrants of all kinds were associated with animals, the Romani were victims of persecution in Europe due to a belief that they enjoyed \"unclean meat\" and lived among animals.",
"Stoker's description of the Slovaks draws heavily from a travel memoir by a British major.",
"Unlike the major's description, Harker's description is overtly imperialistic, labelling the people as \"barbarians\" and their boats as \"primitive\", emphasising their perceived cultural inferiority.Stephen Arata describes the novel as a case of \"reverse colonisation\"; that is, a fear of the non-white invading England and weakening its racial purity.",
"Arata describes the novel's cultural context of mounting anxiety in Britain over the decline of the British Empire, the rise of other world powers, and a \"growing domestic unease\" over the morality of imperial colonisation.",
"Manifesting also in other works aside from Stoker's novel, narratives of reverse colonisation indicate a fear of the \"civilised\" world being invaded by the \"primitive\".",
"What Dracula does to human bodies is not horrifying simply because he kills them, but because he transforms them into the racial Other.",
"Monika Tomaszewska associates Dracula's status as the racial Other with his characterisation as a degenerate criminal.",
"She explains that, at the time of the novel's composition and publication, the \"threatening degenerate was commonly identified as the racial Other, the alien intruder who invades the country to disrupt the domestic order and enfeeble the host race\".=== Disease ===The novel's representation of vampirism has been discussed as symbolising Victorian anxieties about disease.",
"The theme is discussed with far less frequency than others because it is discussed alongside other topics rather than as the central object of discussion.",
"For example, some connect its depiction of disease with race.",
"Jack Halberstam points to one scene in which an English worker says that the repugnant odour of Count Dracula's London home smells like Jerusalem, making it a \"Jewish smell\".",
"Jewish people were frequently described, in Victorian literature, as parasites; Halberstam highlights one particular fear that Jews would spread diseases of the blood, and one journalist's description of Jews as \"Yiddish bloodsuckers\".",
"In contrast, Mathias Clasen writes parallels between vampirism and sexually-transmitted diseases, specifically syphilis.",
"Martin Willis, a researcher focused on the intersection of literature and disease, argues that the novel's characterisation of vampirism makes it both the initial infection and resulting illness."
],
[
"Style",
"=== Narrative ===As an epistolary novel, ''Dracula'' is narrated through a series of documents.",
"The novel's first four chapters are related as the journals of Jonathan Harker.",
"Scholar David Seed notes that Harker's accounts function as an attempt to translocate the \"strange\" events of his visit to Dracula's castle into the nineteenth-century tradition of travelogue writing.",
"John Seward, Mina Murray and Jonathan Harker all keep a crystalline account of the period as an act of self-preservation; David Seed notes that Harker's narrative is written in shorthand to remain inscrutable to the Count, protecting his own identity, which Dracula threatens to destroy.",
"Harker's journal, for example, embodies the only advantage during his stay at Dracula's castle: that he knows more than the Count thinks he does.",
"The novel's disparate accounts approach a kind of narrative unity as the narrative unfolds.",
"In the novel's first half, each narrator has a strongly characterised narrative voice, with Lucy's showing her verbosity, Seward's businesslike formality, and Harker's excessive politeness.",
"These narrative styles also highlight the power struggle between vampire and his hunters; the increasing prominence of Van Helsing's broken English as Dracula gathers power represents the entrance of the foreigner into Victorian society.=== Genre ===''Dracula'' is a common reference text in discussions of Gothic fiction.",
"Jerrold E. Hogle notes Gothic fiction's tendency to blur boundaries, pointing to sexual orientation, race, class, and even species.",
"Relating this to ''Dracula'', he highlights that the Count \"can disgorge blood from his breasts\" in addition to his teeth; that he is attracted to both Jonathan Harker and Mina Murray; appears both racially western and eastern; and how he is an aristocrat able to mingle with homeless vagrants.",
"Stoker drew extensively from folklore in crafting Count Dracula, but many of the Count's physical attributes were typical of Gothic villains during Stoker's lifetime.",
"In particular, his hooked nose, pale complexion, large moustache and thick eyebrows were likely inspired by the villains of Gothic fiction.",
"Likewise, Stoker's selection of Transylvania has roots in the Gothic.",
"Writers of the mode were drawn to Eastern Europe as a setting because travelogues presented it as a land of primitive superstitions.",
"''Dracula'' deviates from Gothic tales before it by firmly establishing its time—that being the modern era.",
"The novel is an example of the Urban Gothic subgenre.",
"''Dracula'' became the subject of critical interest into Irish fiction during the early 1990s.",
"''Dracula'' is set largely in England, but Stoker was born in Ireland, which was at that time part of the British Empire, and lived there for the first 30 years of his life.",
"As a result, a significant body of writing exists on ''Dracula'', Ireland, England, and colonialism.",
"Calvin W. Keogh writes that Harker's voyage into Eastern Europe \"bears comparison with the Celtic fringe to the west\", highlighting them both as \"othered\" spaces.",
"Keogh notes that the Eastern Question has been both symbolically and historically associated with the Irish question.",
"In this reading, Transylvania functions as a stand-in for Ireland.",
"Several critics have described Count Dracula as an Anglo-Irish landlord."
],
[
"Reception",
"Upon publication, ''Dracula'' was well received.",
"Reviewers frequently compared the novel to other Gothic writers, and mentions of novelist Wilkie Collins and ''The Woman in White'' (1859) were especially common because of similarities in structure and style.",
"A review appearing in ''The Bookseller'' notes that the novel could almost have been written by Collins, and an anonymous review in ''Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art'' wrote that ''Dracula'' improved upon the style of Gothic pioneer Ann Radcliffe.",
"Another anonymous writer described Stoker as \"the Edgar Allan Poe of the nineties\".",
"Other favourable comparisons to other Gothic novelists include the Brontë sisters and Mary Shelley.Many of these early reviews were charmed by Stoker's unique treatment of the vampire myth.",
"One called it the best vampire story ever written.",
"''The Daily Telegraph'' reviewer noted that while earlier Gothic works, like ''The Castle of Otranto'', had kept the supernatural far away from the novelists' home countries, ''Dracula'' horrors occurred both in foreign lands—in the far-away Carpathian Mountains—and at home, in Whitby and Hampstead Heath.",
"An Australian paper, ''The Advertiser'', regarded the novel as simultaneously sensational and domestic.",
"One reviewer praised the \"considerable power\" of Stoker's prose and describing it as impressionistic.",
"They were less fond of the parts set in England, finding the vampire suited better to tales set far away from home.",
"The British magazine ''Vanity Fair'' noted that the novel was, at times, unintentionally funny, pointing to Dracula's disdain for garlic.",
"''Dracula'' was widely considered to be frightening.",
"A review appearing in ''The Manchester Guardian'' in 1897 praised its capacity to entertain, but concluded that Stoker erred in including so much horror.",
"Likewise, ''Vanity Fair'' opined that the novel was \"praiseworthy\" and absorbing, but could not recommend it to those who were not \"strong\".",
"Stoker's prose was commended as effective in sustaining the novel's horror by many publications.",
"A reviewer for the ''San Francisco Wave'' called the novel a \"literary failure\"; they elaborated that coupling vampires with frightening imagery, such as insane asylums and \"unnatural appetites\", made the horror too overt, and that other works in the genre, such as ''The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde'', had more restraint.Modern critics frequently write that ''Dracula'' had a mixed critical reception upon publication.",
"Carol Margaret Davison, for example, notes an \"uneven\" response from critics contemporary to Stoker.",
"John Edgar Browning, a scholar whose research focuses on ''Dracula'' and literary vampires, conducted a review of the novel's early criticism in 2012 and determined that ''Dracula'' had been \"a critically acclaimed novel\".",
"Browning writes that the misconception of ''Dracula'' mixed reception stems from a low sample size.",
"Of 91 contemporary reviews, Browning identified 10 as \"generally positive\"; 4 as \"mixed\" in their assessment; 3 as \"wholly or mostly negative\"; and the rest as positive and possessing no negative reservations.",
"Among the positive reviews, Browning writes that 36 were unreserved in their praise, including publications like ''The Daily Mail'', ''The Daily Telegraph'', and ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper''.",
"Other critical works have rejected the narrative of ''Dracula'' mixed response.",
"Raymond T. McNally and Radu Florescu's ''In Search of Dracula'' mentions the novel's \"immediate success\".",
"Other works about ''Dracula'', coincidentally also published in 1972, concur; Gabriel Ronay says the novel was \"recognised by fans and critics alike as a horror writer's stroke of genius\", and Anthony Masters mentions the novel's \"enormous popular appeal\".",
"Since the 1970s, ''Dracula'' has been the subject of significant academic interest, evidenced by its own peer-reviewed journal and the numerous books and articles discussing the novel."
],
[
"Legacy",
"=== Adaptations ===Bela Lugosi as Count Dracula in the 1931 film ''Dracula''The story of ''Dracula'' has been the basis for numerous films and plays.",
"Stoker himself wrote the first theatrical adaptation, which was presented at the Lyceum Theatre on 18 May 1897 under the title ''Dracula, or The Undead'' shortly before the novel's publication and performed only once, in order to establish his own copyright for such adaptations.",
"Although the manuscript was believed lost, the British Library possesses a copy.",
"It consists of extracts from the novel's galley proof with Stoker's own handwriting providing direction and dialogue attribution.The first film to feature Count Dracula was Károly Lajthay's ''Drakula halála'' (), a Hungarian silent film which allegedly premiered in 1921, though this release date has been questioned by some scholars.",
"Very little of the film has survived, and David J. Skal notes that the cover artist for the 1926 Hungarian edition of the novel was more influenced by the second adaptation of ''Dracula'', F. W. Murnau's ''Nosferatu''.",
"Critic Wayne E. Hensley writes that the narrative of ''Nosferatu'' differs significantly from the novel, but that characters have clear counterparts.",
"Bram Stoker's widow, Florence, initiated legal action against the studio behind ''Nosferatu'', Prana.",
"The legal case lasted two or three years, and in May 1924, Prana agreed to destroy all copies of the film.Christopher Lee as the title character in ''Dracula'' (1958)Visual representations of the Count have changed significantly over time.",
"Early treatments of Dracula's appearance were established by theatrical productions in London and New York.",
"Later prominent portrayals of the character by Béla Lugosi (in a 1931 adaptation) and Christopher Lee (firstly in the 1958 film and later its sequels) built upon earlier versions.",
"Chiefly, Dracula's early visual style involved a black-red colour scheme and slicked back hair.",
"Lee's portrayal was overtly sexual, and also popularised fangs on screen.",
"Gary Oldman's portrayal in ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' (1992), directed by Francis Ford Coppola and costumed by Eiko Ishioka, established a new default look for the character—a Romanian accent and long hair.",
"The assortment of adaptations feature many different dispositions and characteristics of the Count.",
"''Dracula'' has been adapted a large number of times across virtually all forms of media.",
"John Edgar Browning and Caroline Joan S. Picart write that the novel and its characters have been adapted for film, television, video games and animation over 700 times, with nearly 1000 additional appearances in comic books and on the stage.",
"Roberto Fernández Retamar deemed Count Dracula—along with characters such as Frankenstein's monster, Mickey Mouse and Superman—to be a part of the \"hegemonic Anglo-Saxon world's cinematic fodder\".",
"Across the world, completed new adaptations can be produced as often as every week.===Influence===''Dracula'' was not the first piece of literature to depict vampires, but the novel has nonetheless come to dominate both popular and scholarly treatments of vampire fiction.",
"Count Dracula is the first character to come to mind when people discuss vampires.",
"''Dracula'' succeeded by drawing together folklore, legend, vampire fiction and the conventions of the Gothic novel.",
"Wendy Doniger described the novel as vampire literature's \"centrepiece, rendering all other vampires BS or AS\".",
"It profoundly shaped the popular understanding of how vampires function, including their strengths, weaknesses, and other characteristics.",
"Bats had been associated with vampires before ''Dracula'' as a result of the vampire bat's existence—for example, ''Varney the Vampire'' (1847) included an image of a bat on its cover illustration.",
"But Stoker deepened the association by making Dracula able to transform into one.",
"That was, in turn, quickly taken up by film studios looking for opportunities to use special effects.",
"Patrick McGrath notes that many of the Count's characteristics have been adopted by artists succeeding Stoker in depicting vampires, turning those fixtures into clichés.",
"Aside from the Count's ability to transform, McGrath specifically highlights his hatred of garlic, sunlight, and crucifixes.",
"William Hughes writes critically of the Count's cultural omnipresence, noting that the character of Dracula has \"seriously inhibited\" discussions of the undead in Gothic fiction.Adaptations of the novel and its characters have contributed to its enduring popularity.",
"Even within academic discussions, the boundaries between Stoker's novel and the character's adaptation across a range of media have effectively been blurred.",
"Dacre Stoker suggests that Stoker's failure to comply with United States copyright law contributed to its enduring status, writing that writers and producers did not need to pay a licence fee to use the character."
],
[
"Notes and references",
"===Notes======References==="
],
[
"Bibliography",
"=== Books ===* * * * * * * ** ** * * * ** * ** * * * * * * ** ** ** * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * === Journal and newspaper articles ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==== Contemporary critical reviews ====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Websites ===* * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* '' Dracula'' at Standard Ebooks* , text version of 1897 edition.",
"* * ''Journal of Dracula Studies''"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"David Hume"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''David Hume''' (; born '''David Home'''; – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, historian, economist, librarian, and essayist, who is best known today for his highly influential system of philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism.",
"Beginning with ''A Treatise of Human Nature'' (1739–40), Hume strove to create a naturalistic science of man that examined the psychological basis of human nature.",
"Hume followed John Locke in rejecting the existence of innate ideas, concluding that all human knowledge derives solely from experience.",
"This places him with Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and George Berkeley as an empiricist.Hume argued that inductive reasoning and belief in causality cannot be justified rationally; instead, they result from custom and mental habit.",
"We never actually perceive that one event causes another but only experience the \"constant conjunction\" of events.",
"This problem of induction means that to draw any causal inferences from past experience, it is necessary to presuppose that the future will resemble the past, a metaphysical presupposition which cannot itself be grounded in prior experience.An opponent of philosophical rationalists, Hume held that passions rather than reason govern human behaviour, famously proclaiming that \"Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions.\"",
"Hume was also a sentimentalist who held that ethics are based on emotion or sentiment rather than abstract moral principle.",
"He maintained an early commitment to naturalistic explanations of moral phenomena and is usually accepted by historians of European philosophy to have first clearly expounded the is–ought problem, or the idea that a statement of fact alone can never give rise to a normative conclusion of what ''ought'' to be done.Hume denied that humans have an actual conception of the self, positing that we experience only a bundle of sensations, and that the self is nothing more than this bundle of perceptions connected by an association of ideas.",
"Hume's compatibilist theory of free will takes causal determinism as fully compatible with human freedom.",
"His philosophy of religion, including his rejection of miracles, and of the argument from design for God's existence, were especially controversial for their time.Hume left a legacy that affected utilitarianism, logical positivism, the philosophy of science, early analytic philosophy, cognitive science, theology, and many other fields and thinkers.",
"Immanuel Kant credited Hume as the inspiration that had awakened him from his \"dogmatic slumbers.\""
],
[
"Early life",
"Hume was born on 26 April 1711 (Old Style), as David Home, in a tenement on the north side of Edinburgh's Lawnmarket.",
"He was the second of two sons born to Catherine Home (née Falconer), daughter of Sir David Falconer of Newton, Midlothian and his wife Mary Falconer (née Norvell), and Joseph Home of Chirnside in the County of Berwick, an advocate of Ninewells.",
"Joseph died just after David's second birthday.",
"Catherine, who never remarried, raised the two brothers and their sister on her own.Hume changed his family name's spelling in 1734, as the surname 'Home' (pronounced as 'Hume') was not well-known in England.",
"Hume never married and lived partly at his Chirnside family home in Berwickshire, which had belonged to the family since the 16th century.",
"His finances as a young man were very \"slender\", as his family was not rich; as a younger son he had little patrimony to live on.Hume attended the University of Edinburgh at an unusually early ageeither 12 or possibly as young as 10at a time when 14 was the typical age.",
"Initially, Hume considered a career in law, because of his family.",
"However, in his words, he came to have: …an insurmountable aversion to everything but the pursuits of Philosophy and general Learning; and while my family fanceyed I was poring over Voet and Vinnius, Cicero and Virgil were the Authors which I was secretly devouring.He had little respect for the professors of his time, telling a friend in 1735 that \"there is nothing to be learnt from a Professor, which is not to be met with in Books\".",
"He did not graduate.=== \"Disease of the learned\" ===At age 18 or so, Hume made a philosophical discovery that opened up to him \"a new Scene of Thought\", inspiring him \"to throw up every other Pleasure or Business to apply entirely to it\".",
"As he did not recount what this scene exactly was, commentators have offered a variety of speculations.",
"One prominent interpretation among contemporary Humean scholarship is that this new \"scene of thought\" was Hume's realisation that Francis Hutcheson's theory of ''moral sense'' could be applied to the understanding of morality as well.From this inspiration, Hume set out to spend a minimum of 10 years reading and writing.",
"He soon came to the verge of a mental breakdown, first starting with a coldnesswhich he attributed to a \"Laziness of Temper\"that lasted about nine months.",
"Later, some scurvy spots broke out on his fingers, persuading Hume's physician to diagnose Hume as suffering from the \"Disease of the Learned\".Hume wrote that he \"went under a Course of Bitters and Anti-Hysteric Pills\", taken along with a pint of claret every day.",
"He also decided to have a more active life to better continue his learning.",
"His health improved somewhat, but in 1731 he was afflicted with a ravenous appetite and palpitations.",
"After eating well for a time, he went from being \"tall, lean and raw-bon'd\" to being \"sturdy, robust and healthful-like.\"",
"Indeed, Hume would become well known for being obese and having a fondness for good port and cheese, often using them as philosophical metaphors for his conjectures."
],
[
"Career",
"Although having noble ancestry, at age 25, Hume had no source of income and no learned profession.",
"As was common at his time, he became a merchant's assistant, despite having to leave his native Scotland.",
"He travelled via Bristol to La Flèche in Anjou, France.",
"There he had frequent discourse with the Jesuits of the College of La Flèche.Hume was derailed in his attempts to start a university career by protests over his alleged \"atheism\", also lamenting that his literary debut, ''A Treatise of Human Nature'', \"fell dead-born from the press.\"",
"However, he found literary success in his lifetime as an essayist, and a career as a librarian at the University of Edinburgh.",
"These successes provided him much needed income at the time.",
"His tenure there, and the access to research materials it provided, resulted in Hume's writing the massive six-volume ''The History of England'', which became a bestseller and the standard history of England in its day.",
"For over 60 years, Hume was the dominant interpreter of English history.",
"He described his \"love for literary fame\" as his \"ruling passion\" and judged his two late works, the so-called \"first\" and \"second\" enquiries, ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' and ''An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals'', as his greatest literary and philosophical achievements.",
"He would ask of his contemporaries to judge him on the merits of the later texts alone, rather than on the more radical formulations of his early, youthful work, dismissing his philosophical debut as juvenilia: \"A work which the Author had projected before he left College.\"",
"Despite Hume's protestations, a consensus exists today that his most important arguments and philosophically distinctive doctrines are found in the original form they take in the ''Treatise''.",
"Though he was only 23 years old when starting this work, it is now regarded as one of the most important in the history of Western philosophy.=== 1730s ===Hume worked for four years on his first major work, ''A Treatise of Human Nature'', subtitled \"Being an Attempt to Introduce the Experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects\", completing it in 1738 at age 28.Although many scholars today consider the ''Treatise'' to be Hume's most important work and one of the most important books in Western philosophy, critics in Great Britain at the time described it as \"abstract and unintelligible\".",
"As Hume had spent most of his savings during those four years, he resolved \"to make a very rigid frugality supply his deficiency of fortune, to maintain unimpaired his independency, and to regard every object as contemptible except the improvements of his talents in literature\".Despite the disappointment, Hume later wrote: \"Being naturally of a cheerful and sanguine temper, I soon recovered from the blow and prosecuted with great ardour my studies in the country.\"",
"There, in an attempt to make his larger work better known and more intelligible, he published the ''An Abstract of a Book lately Published'' as a summary of the main doctrines of the ''Treatise'', without revealing its authorship.",
"This work contained the same ideas, but with a shorter and clearer explanation.",
"Although there has been some academic speculation as to who actually wrote this pamphlet, it is generally regarded as Hume's creation.=== 1740s ===After the publication of ''Essays Moral and Political'' in 1741included in the later edition as ''Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary''Hume applied for the Chair of Pneumatics and Moral Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh.",
"However, the position was given to William Cleghorn after Edinburgh ministers petitioned the town council not to appoint Hume because he was seen as an atheist.An engraving of Hume from the first volume of his ''The History of England'', 1754In 1745, during the Jacobite risings, Hume tutored the Marquess of Annandale, an engagement that ended in disarray after about a year.",
"The Marquess could not follow with Hume's lectures, his father saw little need for philosophy, and on a personal level, the Marquess found Hume's dietary tendencies to be bizarre.",
"Hume then started his great historical work, ''The History of England'', which took fifteen years and ran to over a million words.",
"During this time, he was also involved with the Canongate Theatre through his friend John Home, a preacher.In this context, he associated with Lord Monboddo and other thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment in Edinburgh.",
"From 1746, Hume served for three years as secretary to General James St Clair, who was envoy to the courts of Turin and Vienna.",
"At that time Hume wrote ''Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding'', later published as ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''.",
"Often called the ''First Enquiry'', it proved little more successful than the ''Treatise'', perhaps because of the publication of his short autobiography ''My Own Life'', which \"made friends difficult for the first Enquiry\".",
"By the end of this period Hume had attained his well-known corpulent stature; \"the good table of the General and the prolonged inactive life had done their work\", leaving him \"a man of tremendous bulk\".In 1749 he went to live with his brother in the countryside, although he continued to associate with the aforementioned Scottish Enlightenment figures.=== 1750s–1760s ===Hume's religious views were often suspect and, in the 1750s, it was necessary for his friends to avert a trial against him on the charge of heresy, specifically in an ecclesiastical court.",
"However, he \"would not have come and could not be forced to attend if he said he was not a member of the Established Church\".",
"Hume failed to gain the chair of philosophy at the University of Glasgow due to his religious views.",
"By this time, he had published the ''Philosophical Essays'', which were decidedly anti-religious.",
"This represented a turning point in his career and the various opportunities made available to him.",
"Even Adam Smith, his personal friend who had vacated the Glasgow philosophy chair, was against his appointment out of concern that public opinion would be against it.",
"In 1761 all his works were banned on the '''''Index Librorum Prohibitorum'''''.Hume returned to Edinburgh in 1751.In the following year, the Faculty of Advocates hired him to be their Librarian, a job in which he would receive little to no pay, but which nonetheless gave him \"the command of a large library\".",
"This resource enabled him to continue historical research for ''The History of England''.",
"Hume's volume of ''Political Discourses'', written in 1749 and published by Kincaid & Donaldson in 1752, was the only work he considered successful on first publication.In 1753 Hume moved from his house on Riddles Court on the Lawnmarket to a house on the Canongate at the other end of the Royal Mile.",
"Here he lived in a tenement known as Jack's Land, immediately west of the still surviving Shoemakers Land.Eventually, with the publication of his six-volume ''The History of England'' between 1754 and 1762, Hume achieved the fame that he coveted.",
"The volumes traced events from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688 and was a bestseller in its day.",
"Hume was also a longtime friend of bookseller Andrew Millar, who sold Hume's ''History'' (after acquiring the rights from Scottish bookseller Gavin Hamilton), although the relationship was sometimes complicated.",
"Letters between them illuminate both men's interest in the success of the ''History''.",
"In 1762 Hume moved from Jack's Land on the Canongate to James Court on the Lawnmarket.",
"He sold the house to James Boswell in 1766."
],
[
"Later life",
"From 1763 to 1765, Hume was invited to attend Lord Hertford in Paris, where he became secretary to the British embassy.",
"Hume was well received in Paris, and while there he met with Isaac de Pinto.In 1765, Hume served as British Chargé d'affaires, writing \"despatches to the British Secretary of State\".",
"He wrote of his Paris life, \"I really wish often for the plain roughness of The Poker Club of Edinburgh…to correct and qualify so much lusciousness.\"",
"In 1766, upon returning to Britain, Hume encouraged his patron Lord Hertford to invest in a number of slave plantations, acquired by George Colebrooke and others in the Windward Islands.",
"In June 1766 Hume facilitated the purchase of the slave plantation by writing to Victor-Thérèse Charpentier, marquis d'Ennery, the French governor of Martinique, on behalf of his friend, John Stewart, a wine merchant whom he had lent £400 earlier in the same year.",
"According to Dr. Felix Waldmann, a former Hume Fellow at the University of Edinburgh, Hume's \"puckish scepticism about the existence of religious miracles played a significant part in defining the critical outlook which underpins the practice of modern science.\"",
"Waldmann has also made the disputed claim that Hume's views \"served to reinforce the institution of racialised slavery in the later 18th century.\"",
"In 1766, Hume left Paris to accompany Jean-Jacques Rousseau to England.",
"Once there, he and Rousseau fell out, leaving Hume sufficiently worried about the damage to his reputation from the quarrel with Rousseau.",
"So much so, that Hume would author an account of the dispute, titling it ''\"A concise and genuine account of the dispute between Mr. Hume and Mr. Rousseau''\".In 1767, Hume was appointed Under Secretary of State for the Northern Department.",
"Here, he wrote that he was given \"all the secrets of the Kingdom\".",
"In 1769 he returned to James' Court in Edinburgh, where he would live from 1771 until his death in 1776.Hume's nephew and namesake, David Hume of Ninewells (1757–1838), was a co-founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1783.He was a Professor of Scots Law at Edinburgh University and rose to be Principal Clerk of Session in the Scottish High Court and Baron of the Exchequer.",
"He is buried with his uncle in Old Calton Cemetery.=== Autobiography ===In the last year of his life, Hume wrote an extremely brief autobiographical essay titled \"My Own Life\", summing up his entire life in \"fewer than 5 pages\"; it contains many interesting judgments that have been of enduring interest to subsequent readers of Hume.",
"Donald Seibert (1984), a scholar of 18th-century literature, judged it a \"remarkable autobiography, even though it may lack the usual attractions of that genre.",
"Anyone hankering for startling revelations or amusing anecdotes had better look elsewhere.",
"\"Despite condemning vanity as a dangerous passion, in his autobiography Hume confesses his belief that the \"love of literary fame\" had served as his \"ruling passion\" in life, and claims that this desire \"never soured my temper, notwithstanding my frequent disappointments\".",
"One such disappointment Hume discusses in this account is in the initial literary reception of the ''Treatise'', which he claims to have overcome by means of the success of the ''Essays'': \"the work was favourably received, and soon made me entirely forget my former disappointment\".",
"Hume, in his own retrospective judgment, argues that his philosophical debut's apparent failure \"had proceeded more from the manner than the matter\".",
"He thus suggests that \"I had been guilty of a very usual indiscretion, in going to the press too early.",
"\"Hume also provides an unambiguous self-assessment of the relative value of his works: that \"my Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals; which, in my own opinion (who ought not to judge on that subject) is of all my writings, historical, philosophical, or literary, incomparably the best.\"",
"He also wrote of his social relations: \"My company was not unacceptable to the young and careless, as well as to the studious and literary\", noting of his complex relation to religion, as well as to the state, that \"though I wantonly exposed myself to the rage of both civil and religious factions, they seemed to be disarmed in my behalf of their wonted fury\".",
"He goes on to profess of his character: \"My friends never had occasion to vindicate any one circumstance of my character and conduct.\"",
"Hume concludes the essay with a frank admission:I cannot say there is no vanity in making this funeral oration of myself, but I hope it is not a misplaced one; and this is a matter of fact which is easily cleared and ascertained.=== Death ===David Hume's mausoleum by Robert Adam in the Old Calton Burial Ground, EdinburghDiarist and biographer James Boswell saw Hume a few weeks before his death from a form of abdominal cancer.",
"Hume told him that he sincerely believed it a \"most unreasonable fancy\" that there might be life after death.",
"Hume asked that his body be interred in a \"simple Roman tomb\", requesting in his will that it be inscribed only with his name and the year of his birth and death, \"leaving it to Posterity to add the Rest\".David Hume died at the southwest corner of St. Andrew's Square in Edinburgh's New Town, at what is now 21 Saint David Street.",
"A popular story, consistent with some historical evidence and with the help of coincidence, suggests that the street was named after Hume.His tomb stands, as he wished it, on the southwestern slope of Calton Hill, in the Old Calton Cemetery.",
"Adam Smith later recounted Hume's amusing speculation that he might ask Charon, Hades' ferryman, to allow him a few more years of life in order to see \"the downfall of some of the prevailing systems of superstition\".",
"The ferryman replied, \"You loitering rogue, that will not happen these many hundred years.… Get into the boat this instant.\""
],
[
"Writings",
"''A Treatise of Human Nature'' begins with the introduction: \"'Tis evident, that all the sciences have a relation, more or less, to human nature.… Even Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, and Natural Religion, are in some measure dependent on the science of Man.\"",
"The science of man, as Hume explains, is the \"only solid foundation for the other sciences\" and that the method for this science requires both experience and observation as the foundations of a logical argument.",
"In regards to this, philosophical historian Frederick Copleston (1999) suggests that it was Hume's aim to apply to the science of man the method of experimental philosophy (the term that was current at the time to imply natural philosophy), and that \"Hume's plan is to extend to philosophy in general the methodological limitations of Newtonian physics.",
"\"Until recently, Hume was seen as a forerunner of logical positivism, a form of anti-metaphysical empiricism.",
"According to the logical positivists (in summary of their verification principle), unless a statement could be verified by experience, or else was true or false by definition (i.e., either tautological or contradictory), then it was meaningless.",
"Hume, on this view, was a protopositivist, who, in his philosophical writings, attempted to demonstrate the ways in which ordinary propositions about objects, causal relations, the self, and so on, are semantically equivalent to propositions about one's experiences.Many commentators have since rejected this understanding of Humean empiricism, stressing an epistemological (rather than a semantic) reading of his project.",
"According to this opposing view, Hume's empiricism consisted in the idea that it is our knowledge, and not our ability to conceive, that is restricted to what can be experienced.",
"Hume thought that we can form beliefs about that which extends beyond any possible experience, through the operation of faculties such as custom and the imagination, but he was sceptical about claims to knowledge on this basis.=== Impressions and ideas ===A central doctrine of Hume's philosophy, stated in the very first lines of the ''Treatise of Human Nature'', is that the mind consists of perceptions, or the mental objects which are present to it, and which divide into two categories: \"All the perceptions of the human mind resolve themselves into two distinct kinds, which I shall call and .\"",
"Hume believed that it would \"not be very necessary to employ many words in explaining this distinction\", which commentators have generally taken to mean the distinction between ''feeling'' and ''thinking''.",
"Controversially, Hume, in some sense, may regard the distinction as a matter of degree, as he takes ''impressions'' to be distinguished from ideas on the basis of their force, liveliness, and vivacitywhat Henry E. Allison (2008) calls the \"FLV criterion.\"",
"''Ideas'' are therefore \"faint\" impressions.",
"For example, experiencing the painful sensation of touching a hot pan's handle is more forceful than simply thinking about touching a hot pan.",
"According to Hume, ''impressions'' are meant to be the original form of all our ideas.",
"From this, Don Garrett (2002) has coined the term ''copy principle,'' referring to Hume's doctrine that all ideas are ultimately copied from some original impression, whether it be a passion or sensation, from which they derive.==== Simple and complex ====After establishing the forcefulness of impressions and ideas, these two categories are further broken down into ''simple'' and ''complex'': \"simple perceptions or impressions and ideas are such as admit of no distinction nor separation\", whereas \"the complex are the contrary to these, and may be distinguished into parts\".",
"When looking at an apple, a person experiences a variety of colour-sensationswhat Hume notes as a complex impression.",
"Similarly, a person experiences a variety of taste-sensations, tactile-sensations, and smell-sensations when biting into an apple, with the overall sensationagain, a complex impression.",
"Thinking about an apple allows a person to form complex ideas, which are made of similar parts as the complex impressions they were developed from, but which are also less forceful.",
"Hume believes that complex perceptions can be broken down into smaller and smaller parts until perceptions are reached that have no parts of their own, and these perceptions are thus referred to as simple.==== Principles of association ====Regardless of how boundless it may seem; a person's imagination is confined to the mind's ability to recombine the information it has already acquired from the body's sensory experience (the ideas that have been derived from impressions).",
"In addition, \"as our imagination takes our most basic ideas and leads us to form new ones, it is directed by three principles of association, namely, resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect\":* The '''principle of resemblance''' refers to the tendency of ideas to become associated if the objects they represent resemble one another.",
"For example, someone looking at an illustration of a flower can conceive an idea of the physical flower because the idea of the illustrated object is associated with the physical object's idea.",
"* The '''principle of contiguity''' describes the tendency of ideas to become associated if the objects they represent are near to each other in time or space, such as when the thought of a crayon in a box leads one to think of the crayon contiguous to it.",
"* The '''principle of cause''' '''and effect''' refers to the tendency of ideas to become associated if the objects they represent are causally related, which explains how remembering a broken window can make someone think of a ball that had caused the window to shatter.Hume elaborates more on the last principle, explaining that, when somebody observes that one object or event consistently produces the same object or event, that results in \"an expectation that a particular event (a 'cause') will be followed by another event (an 'effect') previously and constantly associated with it\".",
"Hume calls this principle ''custom'', or ''habit'', saying that \"custom...renders our experience useful to us, and makes us expect, for the future, a similar train of events with those which have appeared in the past\".",
"However, even though custom can serve as a guide in life, it still only represents an expectation.",
"In other words: Experience cannot establish a necessary connection between cause and effect, because we can imagine without contradiction a case where the cause does not produce its usual effect…the reason why we mistakenly infer that there is something in the cause that necessarily produces its effect is because our past experiences have habituated us to think in this way.",
"Continuing this idea, Hume argues that \"only in the pure realm of ideas, logic, and mathematics, not contingent on the direct sense awareness of reality, can causation safely…be applied—all other sciences are reduced to probability\".",
"He uses this scepticism to reject metaphysics and many theological views on the basis that they are not grounded in fact and observations, and are therefore beyond the reach of human understanding.=== Induction and causation ===The cornerstone of Hume's epistemology is the problem of induction.",
"This may be the area of Hume's thought where his scepticism about human powers of reason is most pronounced.",
"The problem revolves around the plausibility of inductive reasoning, that is, reasoning from the observed behaviour of objects to their behaviour when unobserved.",
"As Hume wrote, induction concerns how things behave when they go \"beyond the present testimony of the senses, or the records of our memory\".",
"Hume argues that we tend to believe that things behave in a regular manner, meaning that patterns in the behaviour of objects seem to persist into the future, and throughout the unobserved present.",
"Hume's argument is that we cannot rationally justify the claim that nature will continue to be uniform, as justification comes in only two varieties—demonstrative reasoning and probable reasoning—and both of these are inadequate.",
"With regard to demonstrative reasoning, Hume argues that the uniformity principle cannot be demonstrated, as it is \"consistent and conceivable\" that nature might stop being regular.",
"Turning to probable reasoning, Hume argues that we cannot hold that nature will continue to be uniform because it has been in the past.",
"As this is using the very sort of reasoning (induction) that is under question, it would be circular reasoning.",
"Thus, no form of justification will rationally warrant our inductive inferences.Hume's solution to this problem is to argue that, rather than reason, natural instinct explains the human practice of making inductive inferences.",
"He asserts that \"Nature, by an absolute and uncontroulable ''sic'' necessity has determin'd us to judge as well as to breathe and feel.\"",
"In 1985, and in agreement with Hume, John D. Kenyon writes: Reason might manage to raise a doubt about the truth of a conclusion of natural inductive inference just for a moment ... but the sheer agreeableness of animal faith will protect us from excessive caution and sterile suspension of belief.Others, such as Charles Sanders Peirce, have demurred from Hume's solution, while some, such as Kant and Karl Popper, have thought that Hume's analysis has \"posed a most fundamental challenge to all human knowledge claims\".The notion of causation is closely linked to the problem of induction.",
"According to Hume, we reason inductively by associating constantly conjoined events.",
"It is the mental act of association that is the basis of our concept of causation.",
"At least three interpretations of Hume's theory of causation are represented in the literature:# the logical positivist;# the sceptical realist; and# the quasi-realist.Hume acknowledged that there are events constantly unfolding, and humanity cannot guarantee that these events are caused by prior events or are independent instances.",
"He opposed the widely accepted theory of causation that 'all events have a specific course or reason'.",
"Therefore, Hume crafted his own theory of causation, formed through his empiricist and sceptic beliefs.",
"He split causation into two realms: \"All the objects of human reason or enquiry may naturally be divided into two kinds, to wit, Relations of Ideas, and Matters of Fact.\"",
"Relations of Ideas are ''a priori'' and represent universal bonds between ideas that mark the cornerstones of human thought.",
"Matters of Fact are dependent on the observer and experience.",
"They are often not universally held to be true among multiple persons.",
"Hume was an Empiricist, meaning he believed \"causes and effects are discoverable not by reason, but by experience\".",
"He goes on to say that, even with the perspective of the past, humanity cannot dictate future events because thoughts of the past are limited, compared to the possibilities for the future.",
"Hume's separation between Matters of Fact and Relations of Ideas is often referred to as \"Hume's fork.",
"\"Hume explains his theory of causation and causal inference by division into three different parts.",
"In these three branches he explains his ideas and compares and contrasts his views to his predecessors.",
"These branches are the Critical Phase, the Constructive Phase, and Belief.",
"In the Critical Phase, Hume denies his predecessors' theories of causation.",
"Next, he uses the Constructive Phase to resolve any doubts the reader may have had while observing the Critical Phase.",
"\"Habit or Custom\" mends the gaps in reasoning that occur without the human mind even realising it.",
"Associating ideas has become second nature to the human mind.",
"It \"makes us expect for the future, a similar train of events with those which have appeared in the past\".",
"However, Hume says that this association cannot be trusted because the span of the human mind to comprehend the past is not necessarily applicable to the wide and distant future.",
"This leads him to the third branch of causal inference, Belief.",
"Belief is what drives the human mind to hold that expectancy of the future is based on past experience.",
"Throughout his explanation of causal inference, Hume is arguing that the future is not certain to be repetition of the past and that the only way to justify induction is through uniformity.The logical positivist interpretation is that Hume analyses causal propositions, such as \"A causes B\", in terms of regularities in perception: \"A causes B\" is equivalent to \"Whenever A-type events happen, B-type ones follow\", where \"whenever\" refers to all possible perceptions.",
"In his ''Treatise of Human Nature'', Hume wrote:Power and necessity…are…qualities of perceptions, not of objects…felt by the soul and not perceiv'd externally in bodies.This view is rejected by sceptical realists, who argue that Hume thought that causation amounts to more than just the regular succession of events.",
"Hume said that, when two events are causally conjoined, a necessary connection underpins the conjunction:Shall we rest contented with these two relations of contiguity and succession, as affording a complete idea of causation?",
"By no means…there is a ''necessary connexion'' to be taken into consideration.Angela Coventry writes that, for Hume, \"there is nothing in any particular instance of cause and effect involving external objects which suggests the idea of power or necessary connection\" and \"we are ignorant of the powers that operate between objects\".",
"However, while denying the possibility of knowing the powers between objects, Hume accepted the causal principle, writing: \"I never asserted so absurd a proposition as that something could arise without a cause.",
"\"It has been argued that, while Hume did not think that causation is reducible to pure regularity, he was not a fully-fledged realist either.",
"Simon Blackburn calls this a quasi-realist reading, saying that \"Someone talking of cause is voicing a distinct mental set: he is by no means in the same state as someone merely describing regular sequences.\"",
"In Hume's words, \"nothing is more usual than to apply to external bodies every internal sensation, which they occasion\".=== 'Self' ===Empiricist philosophers, such as Hume and Berkeley, favoured the bundle theory of personal identity.",
"In this theory, \"the mind itself, far from being an independent power, is simply 'a bundle of perceptions' without unity or cohesive quality\".",
"The self is nothing but a bundle of experiences linked by the relations of causation and resemblance; or, more accurately, the empirically warranted idea of the self is just the idea of such a bundle.",
"According to Hume:This view is supported by, for example, positivist interpreters, who have seen Hume as suggesting that terms such as \"self\", \"person\", or \"mind\" refer to collections of \"sense-contents\".",
"A modern-day version of the bundle theory of the mind has been advanced by Derek Parfit in his ''Reasons and Persons''.However, some philosophers have criticised Hume's bundle-theory interpretation of personal identity.",
"They argue that distinct selves can have perceptions that stand in relation to similarity and causality.",
"Thus, perceptions must already come parcelled into distinct \"bundles\" before they can be associated according to the relations of similarity and causality.",
"In other words, the mind must already possess a unity that cannot be generated, or constituted, by these relations alone.",
"Since the bundle-theory interpretation portrays Hume as answering an ontological question, philosophers like Galen Strawson see Hume as not very concerned with such questions and have queried whether this view is really Hume's.",
"Instead, Strawson suggests that Hume might have been answering an epistemological question about the causal origin of our concept of the self.",
"In the Appendix to the ''Treatise'', Hume declares himself dissatisfied with his earlier account of personal identity in Book 1.Corliss Swain notes that \"Commentators agree that if Hume did find some new problem\" when he reviewed the section on personal identity, \"he wasn't forthcoming about its nature in the Appendix.\"",
"One interpretation of Hume's view of the self, argued for by philosopher and psychologist James Giles, is that Hume is not arguing for a bundle theory, which is a form of reductionism, but rather for an eliminative view of the self.",
"Rather than reducing the self to a bundle of perceptions, Hume rejects the idea of the self altogether.",
"On this interpretation, Hume is proposing a \"no-self theory\" and thus has much in common with Buddhist thought (see ''anattā'').",
"Psychologist Alison Gopnik has argued that Hume was in a position to learn about Buddhist thought during his time in France in the 1730s.=== Practical reason ===''Practical reason'' relates to whether standards or principles exist that are also authoritative for all rational beings, dictating people's intentions and actions.",
"Hume is mainly considered an anti-rationalist, denying the possibility for practical reason, although other philosophers such as Christine Korsgaard, Jean Hampton, and Elijah Millgram claim that Hume is not so much of an anti-rationalist as he is just a sceptic of practical reason.Hume denied the existence of practical reason as a principle because he claimed reason does not have any effect on morality, since morality is capable of producing effects in people that reason alone cannot create.",
"As Hume explains in ''A Treatise of Human Nature'' (1740): Morals excite passions, and produce or prevent actions.",
"Reason of itself is utterly impotent in this particular.",
"The rules of morality, therefore, are not conclusions of our reason.",
"\"Since practical reason is supposed to regulate our actions (in theory), Hume denied practical reason on the grounds that reason cannot directly oppose passions.",
"As Hume puts it, \"Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them.\"",
"Reason is less significant than any passion because reason has no original influence, while \"A passion is an original existence, or, if you will, modification of existence.",
"\"Practical reason is also concerned with the value of actions rather than the truth of propositions, so Hume believed that reason's shortcoming of affecting morality proved that practical reason could not be authoritative for all rational beings, since morality was essential for dictating people's intentions and actions.=== Ethics ===Hume's writings on ethics began in the 1740 ''Treatise'' and were refined in his ''An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals'' (1751).",
"He understood ''feeling'', rather than ''knowing'', as that which governs ethical actions, stating that \"moral decisions are grounded in moral sentiment.\"",
"Arguing that reason cannot be behind morality, he wrote:Morals excite passions, and produce or prevent actions.",
"Reason itself is utterly impotent in this particular.",
"The rules of morality, therefore, are not conclusions of our reason.Hume's ''moral sentimentalism'' was shared by his close friend Adam Smith, and the two were mutually influenced by the moral reflections of their older contemporary, Francis Hutcheson.",
"Peter Singer claims that Hume's argument that morals cannot have a rational basis alone \"would have been enough to earn him a place in the history of ethics.",
"\"Hume also put forward the ''is–ought problem'', later known as ''Hume's Law'', denying the possibility of logically deriving what ''ought'' to be from what ''is''.",
"According to the ''Treatise'' (1740), in every system of morality that Hume has read, the author begins by stating facts about the world as it ''is'' but always ends up suddenly referring to what ''ought'' to be the case.",
"Hume demands that a reason should be given for inferring what ''ought to be'' the case, from ''what is'' the case.",
"This is because it \"seems altogether inconceivable, how this new relation can be a deduction from others.",
"\"Hume's theory of ethics has been influential in modern-day meta-ethical theory, helping to inspire emotivism, and ethical expressivism and non-cognitivism, as well as Allan Gibbard's general theory of moral judgment and judgments of rationality.=== Aesthetics ===Hume's ideas about aesthetics and the theory of art are spread throughout his works, but are particularly connected with his ethical writings, and also the essays \"Of the Standard of Taste\" and \"Of Tragedy\" (1757).",
"His views are rooted in the work of Joseph Addison and Francis Hutcheson.",
"In the ''Treatise'' (1740), he touches on the connection between beauty and deformity and vice and virtue.",
"His later writings on the subject continue to draw parallels of beauty and deformity in art with conduct and character.In \"Standard of Taste\", Hume argues that no rules can be drawn up about what is a tasteful object.",
"However, a reliable critic of taste can be recognised as objective, sensible and unprejudiced, and as having extensive experience.",
"\"Of Tragedy\" addresses the question of why humans enjoy tragic drama.",
"Hume was concerned with the way spectators find pleasure in the sorrow and anxiety depicted in a tragedy.",
"He argued that this was because the spectator is aware that he is witnessing a dramatic performance.",
"There is pleasure in realising that the terrible events that are being shown are actually fiction.",
"Furthermore, Hume laid down rules for educating people in taste and correct conduct, and his writings in this area have been very influential on English and Anglo-Saxon aesthetics.=== Free will, determinism, and responsibility ===Statue of Hume, sculpted by Alexander Stoddart, on the Royal Mile in EdinburghHume, along with Thomas Hobbes, is cited as a classical compatibilist about the notions of freedom and determinism.",
"''Compatibilism'' seeks to reconcile human freedom with the mechanist view that human beings are part of a deterministic universe, which is completely governed by physical laws.",
"Hume, on this point, was influenced greatly by the scientific revolution, particularly by Sir Isaac Newton.",
"Hume argued that the dispute between freedom and determinism continued over 2000 years due to ambiguous terminology.",
"He wrote: \"From this circumstance alone, that a controversy has been long kept on foot…we may presume that there is some ambiguity in the expression,\" and that different disputants use different meanings for the same terms.Hume defines the concept of necessity as \"the uniformity, observable in the operations of nature; where similar objects are constantly conjoined together,\" and liberty as \"a power of acting or not acting, according to the determinations of the will.\"",
"He then argues that, according to these definitions, not only are the two compatible, but liberty ''requires'' necessity.",
"For if our actions were not necessitated in the above sense, they would \"have so little in connexion with motives, inclinations and circumstances, that one does not follow with a certain degree of uniformity from the other.\"",
"But if our actions are not thus connected to the will, then our actions can never be free: they would be matters of \"chance; which is universally allowed to have no existence.\"",
"Australian philosopher John Passmore writes that confusion has arisen because \"necessity\" has been taken to mean \"necessary connexion.\"",
"Once this has been abandoned, Hume argues that \"liberty and necessity will be found not to be in conflict one with another.",
"\"Moreover, Hume goes on to argue that in order to be held morally responsible, it is required that our behaviour be caused or necessitated, for, as he wrote:Actions are, by their very nature, temporary and perishing; and where they proceed not from some ''cause'' in the character and disposition of the person who performed them, they can neither redound to his honour, if good; nor infamy, if evil.Hume describes the link between causality and our capacity to rationally make a decision from this an inference of the mind.",
"Human beings assess a situation based upon certain predetermined events and from that form a choice.",
"Hume believes that this choice is made spontaneously.",
"Hume calls this form of decision making the liberty of spontaneity.Education writer Richard Wright considers that Hume's position rejects a famous moral puzzle attributed to French philosopher Jean Buridan.",
"The Buridan's ass puzzle describes a donkey that is hungry.",
"This donkey has separate bales of hay on both sides, which are of equal distances from him.",
"The problem concerns which bale the donkey chooses.",
"Buridan was said to believe that the donkey would die, because he has no autonomy.",
"The donkey is incapable of forming a rational decision as there is no motive to choose one bale of hay over the other.",
"However, human beings are different, because a human who is placed in a position where he is forced to choose one loaf of bread over another will make a decision to take one in lieu of the other.",
"For Buridan, humans have the capacity of autonomy, and he recognises the choice that is ultimately made will be based on chance, as both loaves of bread are exactly the same.",
"However, Wright says that Hume completely rejects this notion, arguing that a human will spontaneously act in such a situation because he is faced with impending death if he fails to do so.",
"Such a decision is not made on the basis of chance, but rather on necessity and spontaneity, given the prior predetermined events leading up to the predicament.Hume's argument is supported by modern-day compatibilists such as R. E. Hobart, a pseudonym of philosopher Dickinson S. Miller.",
"However, P. F. Strawson argued that the issue of whether we hold one another morally responsible does not ultimately depend on the truth or falsity of a metaphysical thesis such as determinism.",
"This is because our so holding one another is a non-rational human sentiment that is not predicated on such theses.=== Religion ===Philosopher Paul Russell (2005) contends that Hume wrote \"on almost every central question in the philosophy of religion\", and that these writings \"are among the most important and influential contributions on this topic.\"",
"Touching on the philosophy, psychology, history, and anthropology of religious thought, Hume's 1757 dissertation \"The Natural History of Religion\" argues that the monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all derive from earlier polytheistic religions.",
"He went on to suggest that all religious belief \"traces, in the end, to dread of the unknown\".",
"Hume had also written on religious subjects in the first ''Enquiry'', as well as later in the ''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion''.==== Religious views ====Although he wrote a great deal about religion, Hume's personal views have been the subject of much debate.",
"Some modern critics have described Hume's religious views as agnostic or have described him as a \"Pyrrhonian skeptic\".",
"Contemporaries considered him to be an atheist, or at least un-Christian, enough so that the Church of Scotland seriously considered bringing charges of infidelity against him.",
"Evidence of his un-Christian beliefs can especially be found in his writings on miracles, in which he attempts to separate historical method from the narrative accounts of miracles.",
"Nevertheless, modern scholars have tended to dismiss the claims of Hume's contemporaries describing him as an atheist as coming from religiously intolerant people who did not understand Hume’s philosophy.",
"The fact that contemporaries suspected him of atheism is exemplified by a story Hume liked to tell:The best theologian he ever met, he used to say, was the old Edinburgh fishwife who, having recognized him as Hume the atheist, refused to pull him out of the bog into which he had fallen until he declared he was a Christian and repeated the Lord's prayer.However, in works such as \"Of Superstition and Enthusiasm\", Hume specifically seems to support the standard religious views of his time and place.",
"This still meant that he could be very critical of the Catholic Church, dismissing it with the standard Protestant accusations of superstition and idolatry, as well as dismissing as idolatry what his compatriots saw as uncivilised beliefs.",
"He also considered extreme Protestant sects, the members of which he called \"enthusiasts\", to be corrupters of religion.",
"By contrast, in \"The Natural History of Religion\", Hume presents arguments suggesting that polytheism had much to commend it over monotheism.",
"Additionally, when mentioning religion as a factor in his ''History of England'', Hume uses it to show the deleterious effect it has on human progress.",
"In his ''Treatise of Human Nature'', Hume wrote: \"Generally speaking, the errors in religions are dangerous; those in philosophy only ridiculous.",
"\"Lou Reich (1998) argues that Hume was a religious naturalist and rejects interpretations of Hume as an atheist.",
"Paul Russell (2008) writes that Hume was plainly sceptical about religious belief, although perhaps not to the extent of complete atheism.",
"He suggests that Hume's position is best characterised by the term \"irreligion,\" while philosopher David O'Connor (2013) argues that Hume's final position was \"weakly deistic\".",
"For O'Connor, Hume's \"position is deeply ironic.",
"This is because, while inclining towards a weak form of deism, he seriously doubts that we can ever find a sufficiently favourable balance of evidence to justify accepting any religious position.\"",
"He adds that Hume \"did not believe in the God of standard theism ... but he did not rule out all concepts of deity\", and that \"ambiguity suited his purposes, and this creates difficulty in definitively pinning down his final position on religion\".==== Design argument ====One of the traditional topics of natural theology is that of the existence of God, and one of the ''a posteriori'' arguments for this is the ''argument from design'' or the teleological argument.",
"The argument is that the existence of God can be proved by the design that is obvious in the complexity of the world, which ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' states is \"the most popular\", because it is:…the most accessible of the theistic arguments ... which identifies evidences of design in nature, inferring from them a divine designer ...",
"The fact that the universe as a whole is a coherent and efficiently functioning system likewise, in this view, indicates a divine intelligence behind it.In ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'', Hume wrote that the design argument seems to depend upon our experience, and its proponents \"always suppose the universe, an effect quite singular and unparalleled, to be the proof of a Deity, a cause no less singular and unparalleled\".",
"Philosopher Louise E. Loeb (2010) notes that Hume is saying that only experience and observation can be our guide to making inferences about the conjunction between events.",
"However, according to Hume: We observe neither God nor other universes, and hence no conjunction involving them.",
"There is no observed conjunction to ground an inference either to extended objects or to God, as unobserved causes.Hume also criticised the argument in his ''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion'' (1779).",
"In this, he suggested that, even if the world is a more or less smoothly functioning system, this may only be a result of the \"chance permutations of particles falling into a temporary or permanent self-sustaining order, which thus has the appearance of design\".A century later, the idea of order without design was rendered more plausible by Charles Darwin's discovery that the adaptations of the forms of life result from the natural selection of inherited characteristics.",
"For philosopher James D. Madden, it is \"Hume, rivaled only by Darwin, who has done the most to undermine in principle our confidence in arguments from design among all figures in the Western intellectual tradition\".Finally, Hume discussed a version of the anthropic principle, which is the idea that theories of the universe are constrained by the need to allow for man's existence in it as an observer.",
"Hume has his sceptical mouthpiece Philo suggest that there may have been many worlds, produced by an incompetent designer, whom he called a \"stupid mechanic\".",
"In his ''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion'', Hume wrote:Many worlds might have been botched and bungled throughout an eternity, ere this system was struck out: much labour lost: many fruitless trials made: and a slow, but continued improvement carried on during infinite ages in the art of world-making.==== Problem of miracles ====In his discussion of miracles, Hume argues that we should not believe miracles have occurred and that they do not therefore provide us with any reason to think God exists.",
"In ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' (Section 10), Hume defines a miracle as \"a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the Deity, or by the interposition of some invisible agent\".",
"Hume says we believe an event that has frequently occurred is likely to occur again, but we also take into account those instances where the event did not occur:A wise man ... considers which side is supported by the greater number of experiments.",
"... A hundred instances or experiments on one side, and fifty on another, afford a doubtful expectation of any event; though a hundred uniform experiments, with only one that is contradictory, reasonably beget a pretty strong degree of assurance.",
"In all cases, we must balance the opposite experiments ... and deduct the smaller number from the greater, in order to know the exact force of the superior evidence.Hume discusses the testimony of those who report miracles.",
"He wrote that testimony might be doubted even from some great authority in case the facts themselves are not credible: \"The evidence, resulting from the testimony, admits of a diminution, greater or less, in proportion as the fact is more or less unusual.",
"\"Although Hume leaves open the possibility for miracles to occur and be reported, he offers various arguments against this ever having happened in history.",
"He points out that people often lie, and they have good reasons to lie about miracles occurring either because they believe they are doing so for the benefit of their religion or because of the fame that results.",
"Furthermore, people by nature enjoy relating miracles they have heard without caring for their veracity and thus miracles are easily transmitted even when false.",
"Also, Hume notes that miracles seem to occur mostly in \"ignorant and barbarous nations\" and times, and the reason they do not occur in the civilised societies is such societies are not awed by what they know to be natural events.",
"Hume recognizes that over a long period time, various coincidences can provide the appearance of intention.",
"Finally, the miracles of each religion argue against all other religions and their miracles, and so even if a proportion of all reported miracles across the world fit Hume's requirement for belief, the miracles of each religion make the other less likely.Hume was extremely pleased with his argument against miracles in his ''Enquiry''.",
"He states, \"I flatter myself, that I have discovered an argument of a like nature, which, if just, will, with the wise and learned, be an everlasting check to all kinds of superstitious delusion, and consequently, will be useful as long as the world endures.\"",
"Thus, Hume's argument against miracles had a more abstract basis founded upon the scrutiny, not just primarily of miracles, but of all forms of belief systems.",
"It is a commonsense notion of veracity based upon epistemological evidence, and founded on a principle of rationality, proportionality and reasonability.The criterion for assessing Hume's belief system is based on the balance of probability whether something is more likely than not to have occurred.",
"Since the weight of empirical experience contradicts the notion for the existence of miracles, such accounts should be treated with scepticism.",
"Further, the myriad of accounts of miracles contradict one another, as some people who receive miracles will aim to prove the authority of Jesus, whereas others will aim to prove the authority of Muhammad or some other religious prophet or deity.",
"These various differing accounts weaken the overall evidential power of miracles.Despite all this, Hume observes that belief in miracles is popular, and that \"the gazing populace… receive greedily, without examination, whatever soothes superstition, and promotes wonder.",
"\"Critics have argued that Hume's position assumes the character of miracles and natural laws prior to any specific examination of miracle claims, thus it amounts to a subtle form of begging the question.",
"To assume that testimony is a homogeneous reference group seems unwise- to compare private miracles with public miracles, unintellectual observers with intellectual observers and those who have little to gain and much to lose with those with much to gain and little to lose is not convincing to many.",
"Indeed, many have argued that miracles not only do not contradict the laws of nature but require the laws of nature to be intelligible as miraculous, and thus subverting the law of nature.",
"For example, William Adams remarks that \"there must be an ordinary course of nature before anything can be extraordinary.",
"There must be a stream before anything can be interrupted.\"",
"They have also noted that it requires an appeal to inductive inference, as none have observed every part of nature nor examined every possible miracle claim, for instance those in the future.",
"This, in Hume's philosophy, was especially problematic.Little appreciated is the voluminous literature either foreshadowing Hume, in the likes of Thomas Sherlock or directly responding to and engaging with Hume—from William Paley, William Adams, John Douglas, John Leland, and George Campbell, among others.",
"Regarding the latter, it is rumoured that, having read Campbell's Dissertation, Hume remarked that \"the Scotch theologue had beaten him.",
"\"Hume's main argument concerning miracles is that miracles by definition are singular events that differ from the established laws of nature.",
"Such natural laws are codified as a result of past experiences.",
"Therefore, a miracle is a violation of all prior experience and thus incapable on this basis of reasonable belief.",
"However, the probability that something has occurred in contradiction of all past experience should always be judged to be less than the probability that either one's senses have deceived one, or the person recounting the miraculous occurrence is lying or mistaken, Hume would say, all of which he had past experience of.",
"For Hume, this refusal to grant credence does not guarantee correctness.",
"He offers the example of an Indian Prince, who, having grown up in a hot country, refuses to believe that water has frozen.",
"By Hume's lights, this refusal is not wrong and the prince \"reasoned justly;\" it is presumably only when he has had extensive experience of the freezing of water that he has warrant to believe that the event could occur.So, for Hume, either the miraculous event will become a recurrent event or else it will never be rational to believe it occurred.",
"The connection to religious belief is left unexplained throughout, except for the close of his discussion where Hume notes the reliance of Christianity upon testimony of miraculous occurrences.",
"He makes an ironic remark that anyone who \"is moved by faith to assent\" to revealed testimony \"is conscious of a continued miracle in his own person, which subverts all principles of his understanding, and gives him a determination to believe what is most contrary to custom and experience.\"",
"Hume writes that \"All the testimony whichever was really given for any miracle, or ever will be given, is a subject of derision.",
"\"=== As a historian of England ===Allan Ramsay, 1766; \"Where men are the most sure and arrogant, they are commonly the most mistaken, and have there given reins to passion, without that proper deliberation and suspense, which can alone secure them from the grossest absurdities.\"",
"—''An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals'', § 9.13 : Conclusion, Pt.",
"1 (1751)From 1754 to 1762 Hume published ''The History of England'', a six-volume work, that extends (according to its subtitle) \"From the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688.\"",
"Inspired by Voltaire's sense of the breadth of history, Hume widened the focus of the field away from merely kings, parliaments, and armies, to literature and science as well.",
"He argued that the quest for liberty was the highest standard for judging the past, and concluded that after considerable fluctuation, England at the time of his writing had achieved \"the most entire system of liberty that was ever known amongst mankind\".",
"It \"must be regarded as an event of cultural importance.",
"In its own day, moreover, it was an innovation, soaring high above its very few predecessors.\"",
"Hume's ''History of England'' made him famous as a historian before he was ever considered a serious philosopher.",
"In this work, Hume uses history to tell the story of the rise of England and what led to its greatness and the disastrous effects that religion has had on its progress.",
"For Hume, the history of England's rise may give a template for others who would also like to rise to its current greatness.Hume's ''The History of England'' was profoundly impacted by his Scottish background.",
"The science of sociology, which is rooted in Scottish thinking of the eighteenth century, had never before been applied to British philosophical history.",
"Because of his Scottish background, Hume was able to bring an outsider's lens to English history that the insulated English whigs lacked.Hume's coverage of the political upheavals of the 17th century relied in large part on the Earl of Clarendon's ''History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England'' (1646–69).",
"Generally, Hume took a moderate royalist position and considered revolution unnecessary to achieve necessary reform.",
"Hume was considered a Tory historian and emphasised religious differences more than constitutional issues.",
"Laird Okie explains that \"Hume preached the virtues of political moderation, but ... it was moderation with an anti-Whig, pro-royalist coloring.\"",
"For \"Hume shared the ... Tory belief that the Stuarts were no more high-handed than their Tudor predecessors\".",
"\"Even though Hume wrote with an anti-Whig animus, it is, paradoxically, correct to regard the ''History'' as an establishment work, one which implicitly endorsed the ruling oligarchy\".Historians have debated whether Hume posited a universal unchanging human nature, or allowed for evolution and development.The debate between Tory and the Whig historians can be seen in the initial reception to Hume's ''History of England''.",
"The whig-dominated world of 1754 overwhelmingly disapproved of Hume's take on English history.",
"In later editions of the book, Hume worked to \"soften or expunge many villainous whig strokes which had crept into it.",
"\"Hume did not consider himself a pure Tory.",
"Before 1745, he was more akin to an \"independent whig.\"",
"In 1748, he described himself as \"a whig, though a very skeptical one.\"",
"This description of himself as in between whiggism and toryism, helps one understand that his ''History of England'' should be read as his attempt to work out his own philosophy of history.Robert Roth argues that Hume's histories display his biases against Presbyterians and Puritans.",
"Roth says his anti-Whig pro-monarchy position diminished the influence of his work, and that his emphasis on politics and religion led to a neglect of social and economic history.Hume was an early cultural historian of science.",
"His short biographies of leading scientists explored the process of scientific change.",
"He developed new ways of seeing scientists in the context of their times by looking at how they interacted with society and each other.",
"He covers over forty scientists, with special attention paid to Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle, and Isaac Newton.",
"Hume particularly praised William Harvey, writing about his treatise of the circulation of the blood: \"Harvey is entitled to the glory of having made, by reasoning alone, without any mixture of accident, a capital discovery in one of the most important branches of science.",
"\"The ''History'' became a best-seller and made Hume a wealthy man who no longer had to take up salaried work for others.",
"It was influential for nearly a century, despite competition from imitations by Smollett (1757), Goldsmith (1771) and others.",
"By 1894, there were at least 50 editions as well as abridgements for students, and illustrated pocket editions, probably produced specifically for women.=== Political theory ===Many of Hume's political ideas, such as limited government, private property when there is scarcity, and constitutionalism, are first principles of liberalism.",
"Thomas Jefferson banned the ''History'' from University of Virginia, feeling that it had \"spread universal toryism over the land.\"",
"By comparison, Samuel Johnson thought Hume to be \"a Tory by chance ... for he has no principle.",
"If he is anything, he is a Hobbist.\"",
"A major concern of Hume's political philosophy is the importance of the rule of law.",
"He also stresses throughout his political essays the importance of moderation in politics, public spirit, and regard to the community.Throughout the period of the American Revolution, Hume had varying views.",
"For instance, in 1768 he encouraged total revolt on the part of the Americans.",
"In 1775, he became certain that a revolution would take place and said that he believed in the American principle and wished the British government would let them be.",
"Hume's influence on some of the Founders can be seen in Benjamin Franklin's suggestion at the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 that no high office in any branch of government should receive a salary, which is a suggestion Hume had made in his emendation of James Harrington's ''Oceana''.The legacy of religious civil war in 18th-century Scotland, combined with the relatively recent memory of the 1715 and 1745 Jacobite risings, had fostered in Hume a distaste for enthusiasm and factionalism.",
"These appeared to him to threaten the fragile and nascent political and social stability of a country that was deeply politically and religiously divided.",
"Hume thought that society is best governed by a general and impartial system of laws; he is less concerned about the form of government that administers these laws, so long as it does so fairly.",
"However, he also clarified that a republic must produce laws, while \"monarchy, when absolute, contains even something repugnant to law.",
"\"Hume expressed suspicion of attempts to reform society in ways that departed from long-established custom, and he counselled peoples not to resist their governments except in cases of the most egregious tyranny.",
"However, he resisted aligning himself with either of Britain's two political parties, the Whigs and the Tories:My views of ''things'' are more conformable to Whig principles; my representations of ''persons'' to Tory prejudices.The scholar Jerry Z. Muller argues that Hume's political thoughts have characteristics that later became typical for American and British conservatism, which contain more positive views of capitalism than conservatism does elsewhere.",
"Canadian philosopher Neil McArthur writes that Hume believed that we should try to balance our demands for liberty with the need for strong authority, without sacrificing either.",
"McArthur characterises Hume as a \"precautionary conservative,\" whose actions would have been \"determined by prudential concerns about the consequences of change, which often demand we ignore our own principles about what is ideal or even legitimate.\"",
"Hume supported the liberty of the press, and was sympathetic to democracy, when suitably constrained.",
"American historian Douglass Adair has argued that Hume was a major inspiration for James Madison's writings, and the essay \"Federalist No.",
"10\" in particular.Hume offered his view on the best type of society in an essay titled \"Idea of a Perfect Commonwealth\", which lays out what he thought was the best form of government.",
"He hoped that \"in some future age, an opportunity might be afforded of reducing the theory to practice, either by a dissolution of some old government, or by the combination of men to form a new one, in some distant part of the world\".",
"He defended a strict separation of powers, decentralisation, extending the franchise to anyone who held property of value and limiting the power of the clergy.",
"The system of the Swiss militia was proposed as the best form of protection.",
"Elections were to take place on an annual basis and representatives were to be unpaid.",
"Political philosophers Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, writing of Hume's thoughts about \"the wise statesman\", note that he \"will bear a reverence to what carries the marks of age.\"",
"Also, if he wishes to improve a constitution, his innovations will take account of the \"ancient fabric\", in order not to disturb society.In the political analysis of philosopher George Holland Sabine, the scepticism of Hume extended to the doctrine of government by consent.",
"He notes that \"allegiance is a habit enforced by education and consequently as much a part of human nature as any other motive.",
"\"In the 1770s, Hume was critical of British policies toward the American colonies and advocated for American independence.",
"He wrote in 1771 that \"our union with America…in the nature of things, cannot long subsist.",
"\"=== Contributions to economic thought ===Statues of David Hume and Adam Smith by David Watson Stevenson on the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in EdinburghHume expressed his economic views in his ''Political Discourses'', which were incorporated in ''Essays and Treatises'' as Part II of ''Essays, Moral and Political''.",
"To what extent he was influenced by Adam Smith is difficult to assess; however, both of them had similar principles supported from historical events.",
"At the same time Hume did not demonstrate concrete system of economic theory which could be observed in Smith's ''Wealth of Nations''.",
"However, he introduced several new ideas around which the \"classical economics\" of the 18th century was built.",
"Through his discussions on politics, Hume developed many ideas that are prevalent in the field of economics.",
"This includes ideas on private property, inflation, and foreign trade.",
"Referring to his essay \"Of the Balance of Trade\", economist Paul Krugman (2012) has remarked that \"David Hume created what I consider the first true economic model.",
"\"In contrast to Locke, Hume believes that private property is not a natural right.",
"Hume argues it is justified, because resources are limited.",
"Private property would be an unjustified, \"idle ceremonial,\" if all goods were unlimited and available freely.",
"Hume also believed in an unequal distribution of property, because perfect equality would destroy the ideas of thrift and industry.",
"Perfect equality would thus lead to impoverishment.David Hume anticipated modern monetarism.",
"First, Hume contributed to the theory of quantity and of interest rate.",
"Hume has been credited with being the first to prove that, on an abstract level, there is no quantifiable amount of nominal money that a country needs to thrive.",
"He understood that there was a difference between ''nominal'' and ''real'' money.Second, Hume has a theory of causation which fits in with the Chicago-school \"black box\" approach.",
"According to Hume, cause and effect are related only through correlation.",
"Hume shared the belief with modern monetarists that changes in the supply of money can affect consumption and investment.Lastly, Hume was a vocal advocate of a stable private sector, though also having some non-monetarist aspects to his economic philosophy.",
"Having a stated preference for rising prices, for instance, Hume considered government debt to be a sort of substitute for actual money, referring to such debt as \"a kind of paper credit.\"",
"He also believed in heavy taxation, believing that it increases effort.",
"Hume's economic approach evidently resembles his other philosophies, in that he does not choose one side indefinitely, but sees gray in the situation"
],
[
"Legacy",
"Hume's statue on Edinburgh's Royal Mile, sculpted by Alexander StoddartDue to Hume's vast influence on contemporary philosophy, a large number of approaches in contemporary philosophy and cognitive science are today called \"Humean.",
"\"The writings of Thomas Reid, a Scottish philosopher and contemporary of Hume, were often critical of Hume's scepticism.",
"Reid formulated his ''common sense'' philosophy, in part, as a reaction against Hume's views.Hume influenced, and was influenced by, the Christian philosopher Joseph Butler.",
"Hume was impressed by Butler's way of thinking about religion, and Butler may well have been influenced by Hume's writings.Attention to Hume's philosophical works grew after the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, in his ''Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics'' (1783), credited Hume with awakening him from his \"dogmatic slumber.",
"\"According to Arthur Schopenhauer, \"there is more to be learned from each page of David Hume than from the collected philosophical works of Hegel, Herbart and Schleiermacher taken together.\"A.",
"J. Ayer, while introducing his classic exposition of logical positivism in 1936, claimed:The views which are put forward in this treatise derive from…doctrines…which are themselves the logical outcome of the empiricism of Berkeley and David Hume.Albert Einstein, in 1915, wrote that he was inspired by Hume's positivism when formulating his theory of special relativity.Hume's problem of induction was also of fundamental importance to the philosophy of Karl Popper.",
"In his autobiography, ''Unended Quest'', he wrote: \"Knowledge ... is ''objective''; and it is hypothetical or conjectural.",
"This way of looking at the problem made it possible for me to reformulate Hume's ''problem of induction''.\"",
"This insight resulted in Popper's major work ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery''.",
"In his ''Conjectures and Refutations'', he wrote:I approached the problem of induction through Hume.",
"Hume, I felt, was perfectly right in pointing out that induction cannot be logically justified.Hume's rationalism in religious subjects influenced, via German-Scottish theologian Johann Joachim Spalding, the German neology school and rational theology, and contributed to the transformation of German theology in the Age of Enlightenment.",
"Hume pioneered a comparative history of religion, tried to explain various rites and traditions as being based on deception and challenged various aspects of rational and natural theology, such as the argument from design.Danish theologian and philosopher Søren Kierkegaard adopted \"Hume's suggestion that the role of reason is not to make us wise but to reveal our ignorance,\" though taking it as a reason for the necessity of religious faith, or ''fideism''.",
"The \"fact that Christianity is contrary to reason…is the necessary precondition for true faith.\"",
"Political theorist Isaiah Berlin, who has also pointed out the similarities between the arguments of Hume and Kierkegaard against rational theology, has written about Hume's influence on what Berlin calls the ''counter-Enlightenment'' and on German anti-rationalism.",
"Berlin has also once said of Hume that \"no man has influenced the history of philosophy to a deeper or more disturbing degree.",
"\"In 2003, philosopher Jerry Fodor described Hume's ''Treatise'' as \"the founding document of cognitive science.",
"\"Hume engaged with contemporary intellectuals including Jean-Jacques Rousseau, James Boswell, and Adam Smith (who acknowledged Hume's influence on his economics and political philosophy).Morris and Brown (2019) write that Hume is \"generally regarded as one of the most important philosophers to write in English.",
"\"In September 2020, the David Hume Tower, a University of Edinburgh building, was renamed to 40 George Square; this was following a campaign led by students of the university to rename it, in objection to Hume's writings related to race."
],
[
"Works",
"* 1734.",
"''A Kind of History of My Life''.",
"– MSS 23159 National Library of Scotland.",
"** A letter to an unnamed physician, asking for advice about \"the Disease of the Learned\" that then afflicted him.",
"Here he reports that at the age of eighteen \"there seem'd to be open'd up to me a new Scene of Thought\" that made him \"throw up every other Pleasure or Business\" and turned him to scholarship.",
"* 1739–1740.",
"''A Treatise of Human Nature: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects''.",
"** Hume intended to see whether the ''Treatise of Human Nature'' met with success, and if so, to complete it with books devoted to Politics and Criticism.",
"However, as Hume explained, \"It fell ''dead-born from the press'', without reaching such distinction as even to excite a murmur among the zealots\" and so his further project was not completed.",
"* 1740.",
"''An Abstract of a Book lately Published: Entitled A Treatise of Human Nature etc''.",
"** Anonymously published, but almost certainly written by Hume in an attempt to popularise his ''Treatise''.",
"This work is of considerable philosophical interest as it spells out what Hume considered \"The Chief Argument\" of the ''Treatise'', in a way that seems to anticipate the structure of the ''Enquiry concerning Human Understanding''.",
"* 1741.",
"''Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary'' (2st ed.",
")** A collection of pieces written and published over many years, though most were collected together in 1753–54.Many of the essays are on politics and economics; other topics include aesthetic judgement, love, marriage and polygamy, and the demographics of ancient Greece and Rome.",
"The Essays show some influence from Addison's ''Tatler'' and ''The Spectator'', which Hume read avidly in his youth.",
"* 1745.",
"''A Letter from a Gentleman to His Friend in Edinburgh: Containing Some Observations on a Specimen of the Principles concerning Religion and Morality, said to be maintain'd in a Book lately publish'd, intituled A Treatise of Human Nature etc''.",
"** Contains a letter written by Hume to defend himself against charges of atheism and scepticism, while applying for a chair at Edinburgh University.",
"* 1742.",
"\"Of Essay Writing.",
"\"* 1748.",
"''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.",
"''** Contains reworking of the main points of the ''Treatise'', Book 1, with the addition of material on free will (adapted from Book 2), miracles, the Design Argument, and mitigated scepticism.",
"''Of Miracles'', section X of the ''Enquiry'', was often published separately.",
"* 1751.",
"''An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals.",
"''** A reworking of material on morality from Book 3 of the ''Treatise'', but with a significantly different emphasis.",
"It \"was thought by Hume to be the best of his writings.",
"\"* 1752.",
"''Political Discourses'' (part II of ''Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary'' within the larger ''Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects'', vol.",
"1).",
"** Included in ''Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects'' (1753–56) reprinted 1758–77.",
"* 1752–1758.",
"''Political Discourses''/''Discours politiques''* 1757.",
"''Four Dissertations –'' includes 4 essays:** \"The Natural History of Religion\"** \"Of the Passions\"** \"Of Tragedy\"** \"Of the Standard of Taste\"* 1754–1762.",
"''The History of England'' – sometimes referred to as ''The History of Great Britain''.",
"** More a category of books than a single work, Hume's history spanned \"from the invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688\" and went through over 100 editions.",
"Many considered it ''the'' standard history of England in its day.",
"* 1760.",
"\"Sister Peg\"** Hume claimed to have authored an anonymous political pamphlet satirizing the failure of the British Parliament to create a Scottish militia in 1760.Although the authorship of the work is disputed, Hume wrote Dr. Alexander Carlyle in early 1761 claiming authorship.",
"The readership of the time attributed the work to Adam Ferguson, a friend and associate of Hume's who has been sometimes called \"the founder of modern sociology.\"",
"Some contemporary scholars concur in the judgment that Ferguson, not Hume, was the author of this work.",
"* 1776.",
"\"My Own Life.",
"\"** Penned in April, shortly before his death, this autobiography was intended for inclusion in a new edition of ''Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects''.",
"It was first published by Adam Smith, who claimed that by doing so he had incurred \"ten times more abuse than the very violent attack I had made upon the whole commercial system of Great Britain.",
"\"* 1777.",
"\"Essays on Suicide and the Immortality of the Soul.",
"\"* 1779.",
"''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion''.",
"** Published posthumously by his nephew, David Hume the Younger.",
"Being a discussion among three fictional characters concerning the nature of God, and is an important portrayal of the argument from design.",
"Despite some controversy, most scholars agree that the view of Philo, the most sceptical of the three, comes closest to Hume's own."
],
[
"See also",
"* Age of Enlightenment* George Anderson* Human science* ''Hume Studies''* Hume's principle* Humeanism* Mencius* Scientific scepticism* The Missing Shade of Blue"
],
[
"References",
"=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * Anderson, R. F. (1966).",
"''Hume's First Principles'', University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.",
"* * * * * * * * * Bongie, L. L. (1998).",
"''David Hume – Prophet of the Counter-Revolution''.",
"Liberty Fund, Indianapolis* * Broackes, Justin (1995).",
"''Hume, David'', in Ted Honderich (ed.)",
"''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', New York, Oxford University Press* * * * * * * * * * Daiches D., Jones P., Jones J.",
"(eds).",
"''The Scottish Enlightenment: 1730–1790 A Hotbed of Genius'' The University of Edinburgh, 1986.In paperback, The Saltire Society, 1996 * * * * * * Einstein, A.",
"(1915) ''Letter to Moritz Schlick'', Schwarzschild, B.",
"(trans.",
"& ed.)",
"in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', vol.",
"8A, R. Schulmann, A. J.",
"Fox, J. Illy, (eds.)",
"Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ (1998), p. 220.",
"* * * * * Flew, A.",
"(1986).",
"''David Hume: Philosopher of Moral Science'', Basil Blackwell, Oxford.",
"* * Fogelin, R. J.",
"(1993).",
"''Hume's scepticism''.",
"In Norton, D. F.",
"(ed.)",
"(1993).",
"''The Cambridge Companion to Hume'', Cambridge University Press, pp. 90–116.",
"* * * * * * * Graham, R. (2004).",
"''The Great Infidel – A Life of David Hume''.",
"John Donald, Edinburgh.",
"* * * * Harwood, Sterling (1996).",
"\"Moral Sensibility Theories\", in The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Supplement) (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.).",
"* * * * Hume, D. (1751).",
"''An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals''.",
"David Hume, ''Essays Moral, Political, and Literary'' edited with preliminary dissertations and notes by T.H.",
"Green and T.H.",
"Grose, 1:1–8.London: Longmans, Green 1907.",
"* * * * * * * * * * Hume, D. (1752–1758).",
"''Political Discourses'':Bilingual English-French (translated by Fabien Grandjean).",
"Mauvezin, France, Trans-Europ-Repress, 1993, 22 cm, V-260 p. Bibliographic notes, index.",
"* * * * Husserl, E. (1970).",
"''The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology'', Carr, D.",
"(trans.",
"), Northwestern University Press, Evanston.",
"* * * * * * Klibansky, Raymond and Mossner, Ernest C.",
"(eds.)",
"(1954).",
"''New Letters of David Hume''.",
"Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
"* Kolakowski, L. (1968).",
"''The Alienation of Reason: A History of Positivist Thought''.",
"Doubleday: Garden City.",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Penelhum, T. (1993).",
"''Hume's moral philosophy''.",
"In Norton, D. F.",
"(ed.",
"), (1993).",
"''The Cambridge Companion to Hume'', Cambridge University Press, pp. 117–147.",
"* Phillipson, N. (1989).",
"''Hume'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.",
"* * * Popkin, Richard H. (1993) \"Sources of Knowledge of Sextus Empiricus in Hume's Time\" Journal ''of the History of Ideas'', Vol.",
"54, No.",
"1.(Jan.",
"1993), pp. 137–141.",
"* Popkin, R. & Stroll, A.",
"(1993) ''Philosophy''.",
"Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd, Oxford.",
"* Popper.",
"K. (1960).",
"''Knowledge without authority''.",
"In Miller D.",
"(ed.",
"), (1983).",
"''Popper'', Oxford, Fontana, pp. 46–57.",
"* * * * * * Robbins, Lionel (1998).",
"''A History of Economic Thought: The LSE Lectures''.",
"Edited by Steven G. Medema and Warren J. Samuels.",
"Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.",
"* Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003).",
"''Introducing Political Philosophy''.",
"Icon Books.",
".",
"* * Russell, B.",
"(1946).",
"''A History of Western Philosophy''.",
"London, Allen and Unwin.",
"* * * Russell, Paul, \"Hume on Free Will\", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.",
"), online.",
"* * * * * Sgarbi, M. (2012).",
"\"Hume's Source of the 'Impression-Idea' Distinction\", Anales del Seminario de Historia de la Filosofía, 2: 561–576* * * * Spencer, Mark G., ed.",
"''David Hume: Historical Thinker, Historical Writer'' (Penn State University Press; 2013) 282 pages; Interdisciplinary essays that consider his intertwined work as historian and philosopher* Spiegel, Henry William, (1991).",
"''The Growth of Economic Thought'', 3rd Ed., Durham: Duke University Press.",
"* * * * Stroud, B.",
"(1977).",
"''Hume'', Routledge: London & New York.",
"* * Taylor, A. E. (1927).",
"''David Hume and the Miraculous'', Leslie Stephen Lecture.",
"Cambridge, pp.",
"53–54.reprinted in his ''Philosophical Studies'' (1934)* * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * Ardal, Pall (1966).",
"''Passion and Value in Hume's Treatise'', Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press.",
"* Bailey, Alan & O'Brien, Dan (eds.)",
"(2012).",
"''The Continuum Companion to Hume'', New York: Continuum.",
"* Bailey, Alan & O'Brien, Dan.",
"(2014).",
"''Hume's Critique of Religion: Sick Men's Dreams'', Dordrecht: Springer.",
"* Beauchamp, Tom & Rosenberg, Alexander (1981).",
"''Hume and the Problem of Causation'', New York, Oxford University Press.",
"* Beveridge, Craig (1982), review of ''The Life of David Hume'' by Ernest Campbell Mossner, in Murray, Glen (ed.",
"), ''Cencrastus'' No.",
"8, Spring 1982, p. 46, * Campbell Mossner, Ernest (1980).",
"''The Life of David Hume'', Oxford University Press.",
"* Gilles Deleuze (1953).",
"''Empirisme et subjectivité.",
"Essai sur la Nature Humaine selon Hume'', Paris: Presses Universitaires de France; trans.",
"''Empiricism and Subjectivity'', New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.",
"* * Demeter, Tamás (2014).",
"\"Natural Theology as Superstition: Hume and the Changing Ideology of Moral Inquiry.\"",
"In Demeter, T. et al.",
"(eds.",
"), ''Conflicting Values of Inquiry'', Leiden: Brill.",
"* Garrett, Don (1996).",
"''Cognition and Commitment in Hume's Philosophy''.",
"New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
"* Gaskin, J.C.A.",
"(1978).",
"''Hume's Philosophy of Religion''.",
"Humanities Press International.",
"* Harris, James A.",
"(2015).",
"''Hume: An Intellectual Biography''.",
"Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"* Hesselberg, A. Kenneth (1961).",
"''Hume, Natural Law and Justice''.",
"Duquesne Review, Spring 1961, pp. 46–47.",
"* Kail, P. J. E. (2007) ''Projection and Realism in Hume's Philosophy'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
"* Kemp Smith, Norman (1941).",
"''The Philosophy of David Hume''.",
"London: Macmillan.",
"* * Norton, David Fate (1982).",
"''David Hume: Common-Sense Moralist, Sceptical Metaphysician''.",
"Princeton: Princeton University Press.",
"* Norton, David Fate & Taylor, Jacqueline (eds.)",
"(2009).",
"''The Cambridge Companion to Hume'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"* Radcliffe, Elizabeth S.",
"(ed.)",
"(2008).",
"''A Companion to Hume'', Malden: Blackwell.",
"* Rosen, Frederick (2003).",
"''Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill'' (Routledge Studies in Ethics & Moral Theory).",
"* Russell, Paul (1995).",
"''Freedom and Moral Sentiment: Hume's Way of Naturalizing Responsibility''.",
"New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
"* Russell, Paul (2008).",
"''The Riddle of Hume's Treatise: Skepticism, Naturalism and Irreligion''.",
"New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
"* Stroud, Barry (1977).",
"''Hume'', London & New York: Routledge.",
"(Complete study of Hume's work parting from the interpretation of Hume's naturalistic philosophical programme).",
"* Wei, Jua (2017).",
"''Commerce and Politics in Hume’s History of England'', Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer online review* Willis, Andre C (2015).",
"''Toward a Humean True Religion: Genuine Theism, Moderate Hope, and Practical Morality'', University Park: Penn State University Press.",
"* Wilson, Fred (2008).",
"''The External World and Our Knowledge of It : Hume's critical realism, an exposition and a defence'', Toronto: University of Toronto Press."
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * The David Hume Collection at McGill University Library* * * * Books by David Hume at the Online Books Page* Hume Texts Online searchable texts, with related resources** Peter Millican.",
"''Papers and Talks on Hume''** Peter Millican.",
"* ** Translations of philosophical classics into contemporary English, from English, Latin, French and German.",
"* David Hume, at ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'':: Causation, Imagination, Moral Philosophy, Religion* ''David Hume: My Own Life'' and ''Adam Smith: obituary of Hume''* Bibliography of Hume's influence on Utilitarianism* The Hume Society, publishes ''Hume Studies'' and holds conferences"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Dalton Trumbo"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''James Dalton Trumbo''' (December 9, 1905 – September 10, 1976) was an American screenwriter who scripted many award-winning films, including ''Roman Holiday'' (1953), ''Exodus'', ''Spartacus'' (both 1960), and ''Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo'' (1944).",
"One of the Hollywood Ten, he refused to testify before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in 1947 during the committee's investigation of alleged Communist influences in the motion picture industry.Trumbo, the other members of the Hollywood Ten, and hundreds of other professionals in the industry were blacklisted by Hollywood.",
"He continued working clandestinely on major films, writing under pseudonyms or other authors' names.",
"His uncredited work won two Academy Awards for Best Story: for ''Roman Holiday'' (1953), which was presented to a front writer, and for ''The Brave One'' (1956), which was awarded to a pseudonym used by Trumbo.",
"When he was given public screen credit for both ''Exodus'' and ''Spartacus'' in 1960, it marked the beginning of the end of the Hollywood Blacklist for Trumbo and other affected screenwriters.",
"He finally was given full credit by the Writers' Guild for ''Roman Holiday'' in 2011, nearly 60 years after the fact."
],
[
"Origins",
"Trumbo was born in Montrose, Colorado, the son of Orus Bonham Trumbo and Maud (née Tillery) Trumbo.",
"His family moved to Grand Junction, Colorado in 1908.His paternal immigrant ancestor, a Protestant of Swiss origin named Jacob Trumbo, settled in the colony of Virginia in 1736.Orus Trumbo worked variously as a shoe clerk and collection agent, never earning enough to keep the family far from poverty.",
"Trumbo graduated from Grand Junction High School.",
"While still in high school, he worked for Walter Walker as a cub reporter for the ''Grand Junction Daily Sentinel,'' covering courts, the high school, the mortuary and civic organizations.",
"He attended the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1924 and 1925, working as a reporter for the ''Boulder Daily Camera'' and contributing to the school's humor magazine, yearbook, and newspaper.",
"He was a member of Delta Tau Delta International Fraternity.In 1924, Orus Trumbo relocated the family to California.",
"Shortly after, he fell ill and died, leaving Dalton to support his mother and siblings.",
"For nine years after his father died, Trumbo worked the night shift wrapping bread at a Los Angeles bakery and attended the University of California, Los Angeles (1926) and the University of Southern California (1928–1930).",
"During this time, he wrote movie reviews, 88 short stories, and six novels, all of which were rejected for publication."
],
[
"Career",
"===Early career===Trumbo began his professional writing career in the early 1930s, when several of his articles and stories were published in mainstream magazines, including ''McCall's'', ''Vanity Fair'', the ''Hollywood Spectator'' and ''The Saturday Evening Post''.",
"Trumbo was hired as managing editor of the ''Hollywood Spectator'' in 1934.Later he left the magazine to become a reader in the story department at Warner Bros. studio.His first published novel, ''Eclipse'' (1935), was released during the Great Depression.",
"Writing in the social realist style, Trumbo drew on his years in Grand Junction to portray a town and its people.",
"The book was controversial in his hometown, where many people took issue with his fictional portrayal.Trumbo started working in movies in 1937 but continued writing prose.",
"His anti-war novel ''Johnny Got His Gun'' won one of the early National Book Awards: the Most Original Book of 1939.It was inspired by an article Trumbo had read several years earlier: an account of a hospital visit by the Prince of Wales to a Canadian soldier who had lost all his limbs in World War I.During the late 1930s and early 1940s, Trumbo became one of Hollywood's highest-paid screenwriters, at about $4,000 per week while on assignment, and earning as much as $80,000 in one year.",
"He worked on such films as ''Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo'' (1944), ''Our Vines Have Tender Grapes'' (1945), and ''Kitty Foyle'' (1940), for which he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.===Political advocacy and blacklisting===Aligned with the Communist Party in the United States before the 1940s, Trumbo was an isolationist.",
"He joined the Communist Party in 1943, and remained active until 1947.He reaffiliated himself with the party in 1954.His novel ''The Remarkable Andrew'' featured the ghost of President Andrew Jackson appearing to caution the United States against getting involved in World War II and in support of the Nazi-Soviet pact.Shortly after Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Trumbo and his publisher decided to suspend reprinting ''Johnny Got His Gun'' until the end of the war.",
"During the war, Trumbo received letters from individuals \"denouncing Jews\" and using ''Johnny'' to support their arguments for \"an immediate negotiated peace\" with Nazi Germany; Trumbo reported these correspondents to the FBI.",
"Trumbo regretted this decision, which he called \"foolish\".",
"After two FBI agents showed up at his home, he understood that \"their interest lay not in the letters but in me\".In a 1946 article titled \"The Russian Menace\" published in Rob Wagner's ''Script Magazine'', Trumbo wrote from the perspective of a post-World War II Russian citizen.",
"He argued that Russians were likely fearful of the mass of U.S. military power that surrounded them, at a time when any sympathetic view toward Communist countries was viewed with suspicion.",
"He ended the article by stating, \"If I were a Russian ...",
"I would be alarmed, and I would petition my government to take measures at once against what would seem an almost certain blow aimed at my existence.",
"This is how it must appear in Russia today\".",
"He argued that the U.S. was a \"menace\" to Russia, rather than the more popular American view of Russia as the \"red menace\".",
"According to anti-Communist author Kenneth Billingsley, Trumbo had written in ''The Daily Worker'' that Communist influence in Hollywood had prevented films from being made from anti-Communist books, such as Arthur Koestler's ''Darkness at Noon'' and ''The Yogi and the Commissar''.Trumbo mugshot, Ashland penitentiaryWilliam R. Wilkerson, publisher and founder of ''The Hollywood Reporter'', published a July 29, 1946, \"TradeView\" column entitled \"A Vote For Joe Stalin\".",
"It named Trumbo and several others as Communist sympathizers, the first persons identified on what became known as \"Billy's Blacklist\".",
"In October 1947, drawing upon these names, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) summoned Trumbo and nine others to testify for their investigation as to whether Communist agents and sympathizers had surreptitiously planted propaganda in U.S. films.",
"The writers refused to give information about their own or any other person's involvement and were convicted for contempt of Congress.",
"They appealed the conviction to the Supreme Court on First Amendment grounds and lost.",
"Trumbo served eleven months in the federal penitentiary in Ashland, Kentucky, in 1950.In the 1976 documentary ''Hollywood On Trial'', Trumbo said: \"As far as I was concerned, it was a completely just verdict.",
"I had contempt for that Congress and have had contempt for it ever since.",
"And on the basis of guilt or innocence, I could never really complain very much.",
"That this was a crime or misdemeanor was the complaint, my complaint.",
"\"The MPAA issued a statement that Trumbo and his compatriots would not be permitted to work in the industry unless they disavowed Communism under oath.",
"After completing his sentence, Trumbo sold his ranch and moved his family to Mexico City with Hugo Butler and his wife Jean Rouverol, who had also been blacklisted.",
"In Mexico, Trumbo wrote 30 scripts (under pseudonyms) for B-movie studios such as King Brothers Productions.",
"In the case of ''Gun Crazy'' (1950), adapted from a short story by MacKinlay Kantor, Kantor agreed to be the front for Trumbo's screenplay.",
"Trumbo's role in the screenplay was not revealed until 1992.During this blacklist period, Trumbo also wrote ''The Brave One'' (1956) for the King Brothers.",
"Like ''Roman Holiday'', it received an Academy Award for Best Story he could not claim.",
"The script was credited to Robert Rich, a name borrowed from a nephew of the producers.",
"Trumbo recalled earning an average fee of $1,750 per film for 18 screenplays written in two years and said, \"None was very good\".He published ''The Devil in the Book'', an analysis of the conviction of 14 California Smith Act defendants, in 1956.The statute set criminal penalties for advocating the overthrow of the U.S. government and required all non-citizen adult residents to register with the government.===Later career===Ingo Preminger, the brother of producer-director Otto Preminger, was Dalton Trumbo's agent.",
"Otto Preminger hired Trumbo to write a screenplay for the film he intended to adapt from by Leon Uris' novel ''Exodus'' when the script he had commissioned from Uris was deemed unusable.",
"The producer-director decided to give Trumbo the screen credit.",
"Shortly thereafter, actor Kirk Douglas announced Trumbo had written the screenplay for Stanley Kubrick's film ''Spartacus'' (also 1960), adapted from the novel by Howard Fast.",
"With these actions, Preminger and Douglas helped end the power of the blacklist.",
"Trumbo was reinstated into the Writers Guild of America, West and was credited on all subsequent scripts.",
"The guild finally gave him full credit for the script of the 1953 film ''Roman Holiday'' in 2011.Trumbo directed the 1971 film adaptation of his novel ''Johnny Got His Gun'', starring Timothy Bottoms, Diane Varsi, Jason Robards and Donald Sutherland.",
"One of the last films Trumbo wrote, ''Executive Action'' (1973), was based on the Kennedy assassination.",
"The Academy officially recognized Trumbo as the winner of the Oscar for the 1956 film ''The Brave One'' in 1975, presenting him with a statuette."
],
[
"Personal life",
"In 1938, Trumbo married Cleo Fincher, who was born in Fresno, California, on July 17, 1916, and had moved with her divorced mother and her brother and sister to Los Angeles.",
"The Trumbos had three children: Nikola Trumbo (1939-2018), who became a psychotherapist; Christopher Trumbo (1940-2011), a filmmaker and screenwriter who became an expert on the Hollywood blacklist; and Melissa Trumbo (1945), known as Mitzi, a photographer.",
"Mitzi Trumbo dated comedian Steve Martin when they were both in their early 20s, which is recounted in Martin's 2007 book ''Born Standing Up''.",
"Martin wrote of her: \"Mitzi became my official photographer, and she snapped dozens of rolls of film, all to find the perfect publicity photo.",
"\"Cleo Trumbo died of natural causes at the age of 93 on October 9, 2009, at the home she shared with Mitzi Trumbo in Los Altos, California."
],
[
"Death and legacy",
"Trumbo died in 1976, in Los Angeles of a heart attack at the age of 70.He donated his body to scientific research.In 1993, Trumbo was posthumously awarded the Academy Award for writing ''Roman Holiday'' (1953).",
"The screen credit and award were previously given to Ian McLellan Hunter, who had been a front for Trumbo.",
"A new statue was made for this award because Hunter's son refused to hand over the one his father had received.In 2003, Christopher Trumbo mounted an Off-Broadway play based on his father's letters, called ''Trumbo: Red, White and Blacklisted'', in which a wide variety of actors played his father during the run, including Nathan Lane, Tim Robbins, Brian Dennehy, Ed Harris, Chris Cooper and Gore Vidal.",
"He adapted it as the documentary ''Trumbo'' (2007), which added archival footage and new interviews.A dramatization of Trumbo's life, also called ''Trumbo'', was released in November 2015.It starred Bryan Cranston in the title role and was directed by Jay Roach.",
"For his portrayal of Trumbo, Cranston was nominated for Best Actor at the 88th Academy Awards.The moving image collection of Trumbo is held at the Academy Film Archive and consists primarily of extensive 35 mm production materials relating to the 1971 anti-war film ''Johnny Got His Gun''.",
"In 2016, more than a hundred years after his birth, Trumbo was honored by the installation of a statue of him in front of the Avalon Theater on Main Street in Grand Junction, Colorado, his home town.",
"He was depicted writing a screenplay in a bathtub."
],
[
"Works",
"'''Selected film works'''* ''Road Gang'', 1936* ''Love Begins at 20'', 1936* ''Devil's Playground'', 1937* ''Fugitives for a Night'', 1938* ''A Man to Remember'', 1938* ''Five Came Back'', 1939 (with Nathanael West and J. Cody)* ''Curtain Call'', 1940* ''A Bill of Divorcement'', 1940* ''Kitty Foyle'', 1940* ''The Lone Wolf Strikes'', 1940* ''You Belong to Me,'' 1941 (story by)* ''The Remarkable Andrew'', 1942* ''Tender Comrade'', 1944* ''A Guy Named Joe'', 1944* ''Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo'', 1944* ''Our Vines Have Tender Grapes'', 1945* ''Gun Crazy'', 1950 (co-writer, front: Millard Kaufman)* ''He Ran All the Way'', 1951 (co-writer, front: Guy Endore)* ''Rocketship X-M'', 1951 (martian sequence, uncredited)* ''The Prowler'', 1951 (uncredited with Hugo Butler)* ''Roman Holiday'', 1953 (front: Ian McLellan Hunter)* ''They Were So Young'' 1954, (under pseudonym Felix Lutzkendorf)* ''The Boss'', 1956 (front: Ben L. Perry)* ''The Brave One'', 1956 (under pseudonym Robert Rich)* ''The Green-Eyed Blonde'', 1957 (front: Sally Stubblefield)* ''From the Earth to the Moon'', 1958 (co-writer, front: James Leicester)* ''Cowboy'', 1958 (front: Edmund H. North)* ''Spartacus'', 1960, dir.",
"by Stanley Kubrick (based on Howard Fast's 1951 novel of the same name)* ''Exodus'', 1960, dir.",
"by Otto Preminger (based on Leon Uris' 1958 novel of the same name)* ''The Last Sunset'', 1961* ''Town Without Pity'', 1961* ''Lonely are the Brave'', 1962* ''The Sandpiper'', 1965* ''Hawaii'', 1966 (based on the novel by James Michener, 1959)* ''The Fixer'', 1968* ''Johnny Got His Gun'', 1971 (also directed)* ''The Horsemen'', 1971* ''F.T.A.",
"'', 1972* ''Executive Action'', 1973* ''Papillon'', 1973 (based on the novel by Henri Charrière, 1969)'''Novels, plays and essays'''* ''Eclipse'', 1935* ''Washington Jitters'', 1936* ''Johnny Got His Gun'', 1939* ''The Remarkable Andrew'', 1940 (also known as ''Chronicle of a Literal Man'')* ''The Biggest Thief in Town'', 1949 (play)* ''The Time Out of the Toad'', 1972 (essays)* ''Night of the Aurochs'', 1979 (unfinished, ed.",
"R. Kirsch)* ''film \"Half A Sinner\" (1940, Universal Pictures) based on original story by Dalton Trumbo'''Non-fiction'''* ''Harry Bridges'', 1941* ''The Time of the Toad'', 1949* ''The Devil in the Book'', 1956* ''Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo'', 1942–62, 1970 (ed.",
"by H. Manfull)"
],
[
"See also"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Dalton Trumbo at Library of Congress Authorities – with 20 catalog records* Dalton Trumbo Papers at the Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research.",
"* \"Life and Career of Dalton Trumbo\", C-SPAN, July 9, 2015"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Delaware"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Delaware''' ( ) is a state in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States.",
"It borders Maryland to its south and west, Pennsylvania to its north, New Jersey to its northeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to its east.",
"The state's name derives from the adjacent Delaware Bay, which in turn was named after Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, an English nobleman and the Colony of Virginia's first colonial-era governor.Delaware occupies the northeastern portion of the Delmarva Peninsula, and some islands and territory within the Delaware River.",
"It is the 2nd smallest and 6th least populous state, but also the 6th most densely populated.",
"Delaware's most populous city is Wilmington, and the state's capital is Dover, the 2nd most populous city in Delaware.",
"The state is divided into three counties, the fewest number of counties of any of the 50 U.S. states; from north to south, the three counties are: New Castle County, Kent County, and Sussex County.The southern two counties, Kent and Sussex counties, historically have been predominantly agrarian economies.",
"New Castle is more urbanized and is considered part of the Delaware Valley metropolitan statistical area that surrounds and includes Philadelphia, the nation's 6th most populous city.",
"Delaware is considered part of the Southern United States by the U.S. Census Bureau, but the state's geography, culture, and history are a hybrid of the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the country.Before Delaware coastline was explored and developed by Europeans in the 16th century, the state was inhabited by several Native Americans tribes, including the Lenape in the north and Nanticoke in the south.",
"The state was first colonized by Dutch traders at Zwaanendael, near present-day Lewes, Delaware, in 1631.Delaware was one of the Thirteen Colonies that participated in the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War, in which the American Continental Army, led by George Washington, defeated the British, ended British colonization and establishing the United States as a sovereign and independent nation.On December 7, 1787, Delaware was the first state to ratify the Constitution of the United States, earning it the nickname \"The First State\".Since the turn of the 20th century, Delaware has become an onshore corporate haven whose corporate laws are deemed appealing to corporations; over half of all New York Stock Exchange-listed corporations and over three-fifths of the ''Fortune'' 500 is legally incorporated in the state."
],
[
"Etymology",
"Delaware was named after Delaware Bay, which in turn derived its name from Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr (1577–1618), the first governor of the Colony of Virginia.",
"The Delaware people, a name used by Europeans for Lenape people Indigenous to the Delaware Valley, also derive their name from the same source.The name ''de La Warr'' is from Sussex and of Anglo-French origin.",
"It came probably from a Norman lieu-dit ''La Guerre''.",
"This toponymic likely derived from Latin ''ager'', the Breton ''gwern'' or from the Late Latin (fallow).",
"The toponyms Gara, Gare, Gaire, (the sound Open central unrounded vowel|ä often mutated in Near-open front unrounded vowel|æ) also appear in historical texts cited by Lucien Musset, where the word ''ga(i)ra'' means gore.",
"It could also be linked with a patronymic from the Old Norse ''verr''."
],
[
"History",
"===Native Americans===Before Delaware was settled by European colonists, the present-day state was home to the Eastern Algonquian tribes known as the Unami Lenape, or Delaware, who lived mostly along the coast, and the Nanticoke who occupied much of the southern Delmarva Peninsula.",
"John Smith also shows two Iroquoian tribes, the Kuskarawock and Tockwogh, living north of the Nanticoke—they may have held small portions of land in the western part of the state before migrating across the Chesapeake Bay.",
"The Kuskarawocks were most likely the Tuscarora.The Unami Lenape in the Delaware Valley were closely related to Munsee Lenape tribes along the Hudson River.",
"They had a settled hunting and agricultural society, and they rapidly became middlemen in an increasingly frantic fur trade with their ancient enemy, the Minqua or Susquehannock.",
"With the loss of their lands on the Delaware River and the destruction of the Minqua by the Iroquois of the Five Nations in the 1670s, the remnants of the Lenape who wished to remain identified as such left the region and moved over the Alleghany Mountains by the mid-18th century.",
"Generally, those who did not relocate out of the state of Delaware were baptized, became Christian and were grouped together with other persons of color in official records and in the minds of their non-Native American neighbors.===Colonial Delaware===The Dutch were the first Europeans to settle in present-day Delaware in the middle region by establishing a trading post at Zwaanendael, near the site of Lewes in 1631.Within a year, all the settlers were killed in a dispute with Native American tribes living in the area.",
"In 1638, New Sweden, a Swedish trading post and colony, was established at Fort Christina (now in Wilmington) by Peter Minuit at the head of a group of Swedes, Finns and Dutch.",
"The colony of New Sweden lasted 17 years.",
"In 1651, the Dutch, reinvigorated by the leadership of Peter Stuyvesant, established a fort at present-day New Castle and, in 1655, they conquered the New Sweden colony, annexing it into the Dutch New Netherland.",
"Only nine years later, in 1664, the Dutch were conquered by a fleet of English ships by Sir Robert Carr under the direction of James, the Duke of York.",
"Fighting off a prior claim by Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, Proprietor of Maryland, the Duke passed his somewhat dubious ownership on to William Penn in 1682.Penn strongly desired access to the sea for his Pennsylvania province and leased what then came to be known as the \"Lower Counties on the Delaware\" from the Duke.Penn established representative government and briefly combined his two possessions under one General Assembly in 1682.However, by 1704 the Province of Pennsylvania had grown so large their representatives wanted to make decisions without the assent of the Lower Counties, and the two groups of representatives began meeting on their own, one at Philadelphia, and the other at New Castle.",
"Penn and his heirs remained proprietors of both and always appointed the same person Governor for their Province of Pennsylvania and their territory of the Lower Counties.",
"The fact that Delaware and Pennsylvania shared the same governor was not unique.",
"From 1703 to 1738 New York and New Jersey shared a governor.",
"Massachusetts and New Hampshire also shared a governor for some time.Dependent in early years on indentured labor, Delaware imported more slaves as the number of English immigrants decreased with better economic conditions in England.",
"The colony became a slave society and cultivated tobacco as a cash crop, although English immigrants continued to arrive.===American Revolution===A two-shilling, six-pence banknote issued by Delaware in 1777Like the other middle colonies, the Lower Counties on the Delaware initially showed little enthusiasm for a break with Britain.",
"The citizenry had a good relationship with the Proprietary government, and generally were allowed more independence of action in their Colonial Assembly than in other colonies.",
"Merchants at the port of Wilmington had trading ties with the British.New Castle lawyer Thomas McKean denounced the Stamp Act in the strongest terms, and Kent County native John Dickinson became the \"Penman of the Revolution\".",
"Anticipating the Declaration of Independence, Patriot leaders Thomas McKean and Caesar Rodney convinced the Colonial Assembly to declare itself separated from British and Pennsylvania rule on June 15, 1776.The person best representing Delaware's majority, George Read, could not bring himself to vote for a Declaration of Independence.",
"Only the dramatic overnight ride of Caesar Rodney gave the delegation the votes needed to cast Delaware's vote for independence.Initially led by John Haslet, Delaware provided one of the premier regiments in the Continental Army, known as the \"Delaware Blues\" and nicknamed the \"Blue Hen's Chicks\".",
"In August 1777 General Sir William Howe led a British army through Delaware on his way to a victory at the Battle of Brandywine and capture of the city of Philadelphia.",
"The only real engagement on Delaware soil was the Battle of Cooch's Bridge, fought on September 3, 1777, at Cooch's Bridge in New Castle County, although there was a minor Loyalist rebellion in 1778.Following the Battle of Brandywine, Wilmington was occupied by the British, and State President John McKinly was taken prisoner.",
"The British remained in control of the Delaware River for much of the rest of the war, disrupting commerce and providing encouragement to an active Loyalist portion of the population, particularly in Sussex County.",
"Because the British promised slaves of rebels freedom for fighting with them, escaped slaves flocked north to join their lines.Following the American Revolution, statesmen from Delaware were among the leading proponents of a strong central United States with equal representation for each state.===Slavery and race===Many colonial settlers came to Delaware from Maryland and Virginia, where the population had been increasing rapidly.",
"The economies of these colonies were chiefly based on labor-intensive tobacco and increasingly dependent on African slaves because of a decline in working class immigrants from England.",
"Most of the English colonists had arrived as indentured servants (contracted for a fixed period to pay for their passage), and in the early years the line between servant and slave was fluid.Most of the free African-American families in Delaware before the Revolution had migrated from Maryland to find more affordable land.",
"They were descendants chiefly of relationships or marriages between white servant women and enslaved, servant or free African or African-American men.",
"Under slavery law, children took the social status of their mothers, so children born to white women were free, regardless of their paternity, just as children born to enslaved women were born into slavery.",
"As the flow of indentured laborers to the colony decreased with improving economic conditions in England, more slaves were imported for labor and the caste lines hardened.By the end of the colonial period, the number of enslaved people in Delaware began to decline.",
"Shifts in the agriculture economy from tobacco to mixed farming resulted in less need for slaves' labor.",
"In addition local Methodists and Quakers encouraged slaveholders to free their slaves following the American Revolution, and many did so in a surge of individual manumissions for idealistic reasons.",
"By 1810, three-quarters of all blacks in Delaware were free.",
"When John Dickinson freed his slaves in 1777, he was Delaware's largest slave owner with 37 slaves.",
"By 1860, the largest slaveholder owned 16 slaves.Although attempts to abolish slavery failed by narrow margins in the legislature, in practical terms the state had mostly ended the practice.",
"By the 1860 census on the verge of the Civil War, 91.7% of the black population were free; 1,798 were slaves, as compared to 19,829 \"free colored persons\".An independent black denomination was chartered in 1813 by freed slave Peter Spencer as the \"Union Church of Africans\".",
"This followed the 1793 establishment in Philadelphia of the African Methodist Episcopal Church by Richard Allen, which had ties to the Methodist Episcopal Church until 1816.Spencer built a church in Wilmington for the new denomination.",
"This was renamed as the African Union First Colored Methodist Protestant Church and Connection, more commonly known as the A.U.M.P.",
"Church.",
"In 1814, Spencer called for the first annual gathering, known as the Big August Quarterly, which continues to draw members of this denomination and their descendants together in a religious and cultural festival.Delaware voted against secession on January 3, 1861, and so remained in the Union.",
"While most Delaware citizens who fought in the war served in the regiments of the state, some served in companies on the Confederate side in Maryland and Virginia Regiments.",
"Delaware is notable for being the only slave state from which no Confederate regiments or militia groups were assembled.",
"Delaware essentially freed the few slaves who were still in bondage shortly after the Civil War but rejected the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution; the 13th Amendment was rejected on February 8, 1865, the 14th Amendment was rejected on February 8, 1867, and the 15th Amendment was rejected on March 18, 1869.Delaware officially ratified the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments on February 12, 1901.===Reconstruction and industrialization===During the Reconstruction Era that followed the Civil War, Democratic Redeemer governments led by the South's Bourbon aristocracy continued to dominate the region and imposed explicitly white supremacist regimes in the former slave states.",
"The Delaware legislature declared Black people to be second-class citizens in 1866 and restricted their voting rights despite the Fifteenth Amendment, ensuring continued Democratic success in the state throughout most of the nineteenth century.",
"Fearful that the 1875 Civil Rights Act passed by Congress might establish racial equality, Delaware legislators passed Jim Crow laws that mandated segregation in public facilities.",
"The state's educational system was segregated by operation of law.",
"Delaware's segregation was written into the state constitution, which, while providing at Article X, Section 2, that \"no distinction shall be made on account of race or color\", nonetheless required that \"separate schools for white and colored children shall be maintained.",
"\"Beginning in the late nineteenth century, the Wilmington area grew into a manufacturing center.",
"Investment in manufacturing in the city grew from $5.5 million in 1860 to $44 million in 1900.The most notable manufacturer in the state was the chemical company DuPont, which to this day is heavily credited with making the state what it is today in many ways.",
"Because of Wilmington's growth, local politicians from the city and New Castle County pressured the state government to adopt a new constitution providing the north with more representation.",
"However, the subsequent 1897 constitution did not proportionally represent the north and continued to give the southern counties disproportionate influence.As manufacturing expanded, businesses became major players in state affairs and funders of politicians through families such as the Du Ponts.",
"Republican John Addicks attempted to buy a US Senate seat multiple times in a rivalry with the Du Ponts until the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment.",
"The allegiance of industries with the Republican party allowed them to gain control of the state's governorship throughout most of the twentieth century.",
"The GOP ensured Black people could vote because of their general support for Republicans and thus undid restrictions on Black suffrage.Delaware benefited greatly from World War I because of the state's large gunpowder industry.",
"DuPont, the most dominant business in the state by WWI, produced an estimated 40% of all gunpowder used by the Allies during the war.",
"It produced nylon in the state after the war and began investments into General Motors.",
"Additionally, the company invested heavily in the expansion of public schools in the state and colleges such as the University of Delaware in the 1910s and 1920s.",
"This included primary and secondary schools for Black people and women.",
"Delaware suffered less during the Great Depression than other states, but the depression spurred further migration from the rural south to urban areas.===World War II to present===Like in World War I, the state enjoyed a big stimulus to its gunpowder and shipyard industries in World War II.",
"New job opportunities during and after the war in the Wilmington area coaxed Black people from the southern counties to move to the city.",
"The proportion of blacks constituting the city's population rose from 15% in 1950 to over 50% by 1980.The surge of Black migrants to the north sparked white flight, in which middle class whites moved from the city to suburban areas, leading to ''de facto'' segregation of Northern Delaware's society.",
"In the 1940s and 1950s, Delaware attempted to integrate its schools, although the last segregated school in the state did not close until 1970.The University of Delaware admitted its first black student in 1948, and local courts ruled that primary schools had to be integrated.",
"Delaware's integration efforts partially inspired the US Supreme Court's decision in ''Brown v. Board of Education'', which found racial segregation in United States public schools to be unconstitutional.",
"The result of the ''Brown'' ruling was that Delaware became fully integrated, albeit with time and much effort.In October 1954, the city of Milford became the scene of one of the country's first pro-segregation boycotts after eleven Black students were enrolled in the previously all-white Milford High School.",
"Mass protests continued in Milford; the school board eventually ceded to the protestors, expelling the Black students.",
"The ensuing unrest, which included cross burnings, rallies, and pro-segregation demonstrations, contributed to desegregation in most of Southern Delaware being delayed for another ten years.",
"Sussex County did not start closing or integrating its segregated schools until 1965, 11 years after the ''Brown'' ruling.",
"Throughout the state, integration only encouraged more white flight, and poor economic conditions for the black population led to some violence during the 1960s.",
"Riots broke out in Wilmington in 1967 and again in 1968 in response to the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr, after which the National Guard occupied the city for nine months to prevent further violence.Since WWII, the state has been generally economically prosperous and enjoyed relatively high per capita income because of its location between major cities like Philadelphia, New York, and Washington, DC.",
"Its population grew rapidly, particularly in the suburbs in the north where New Castle county became an extension of the Philadelphia metropolitan area.",
"Americans, including migrants from Puerto Rico, and immigrants from Latin America flocked to the state.",
"By 1990, only 50% of Delaware's population consisted of natives to the state."
],
[
"Geography",
"The Twelve-Mile CircleMap of DelawareSunset in Woodbrook, DelawareThe Blackbird Pond on the Blackbird State Forest Meadows Tract in New Castle County, DelawareA field north of Fox Den Road along the Lenape Trail in Middle Run Valley Natural AreaDelaware is long and ranges from to across, with a land area of and a total area of , making it the second-smallest state by either metric in the United States after Rhode Island.",
"Delaware is bounded to the north by Pennsylvania; to the east by the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, New Jersey, and the Atlantic Ocean; and to the west and south by Maryland.",
"Small portions of Delaware are also situated on the eastern side of the Delaware River sharing land boundaries with New Jersey.",
"The state of Delaware, together with the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland and two counties of Virginia, form the Delmarva Peninsula, which stretches down the Mid-Atlantic Coast.The definition of the northern boundary of the state is unusual.",
"Most of the boundary between Delaware and Pennsylvania was originally defined by an arc extending from the cupola of the courthouse in the city of New Castle.",
"This boundary is often referred to as the Twelve-Mile Circle.",
"Although the Twelve-Mile Circle is often claimed to be the only territorial boundary in the U.S. that is a true arc, the Mexican boundary with Texas includes several arcs, and many cities in the South (such as Plains, Georgia) also have circular boundaries.This border extends all the way east to the low-tide mark on the New Jersey shore, then continues south along the shoreline until it again reaches the arc in the south; then the boundary continues in a more conventional way in the middle of the main channel (thalweg) of the Delaware River.To the west, a portion of the arc extends past the easternmost edge of Maryland.",
"The remaining western border runs slightly east of due south from its intersection with the arc.",
"The Wedge of land between the northwest part of the arc and the Maryland border was claimed by both Delaware and Pennsylvania until 1921, when Delaware's claim was confirmed.===Topography===Delaware is on a level plain, with the lowest mean elevation of any state in the nation.",
"Its highest elevation, located at Ebright Azimuth, near Concord High School, is less than above sea level.",
"The northernmost part of the state is part of the Piedmont Plateau with hills and rolling surfaces.The Atlantic Seaboard fall line approximately follows the Robert Kirkwood Highway between Newark and Wilmington; south of this road is the Atlantic Coastal Plain with flat, sandy, and, in some parts, swampy ground.",
"A ridge about high extends along the western boundary of the state and separates the watersheds that feed Delaware River and Bay to the east and the Chesapeake Bay to the west.===Climate===The Köppen climate classification for DelawareSince almost all of Delaware is a part of the Atlantic coastal plain, the effects of the ocean moderate its climate.",
"The state lies in the humid subtropical climate (Köppen ''Cfa'') zone.",
"Despite its small size (roughly from its northernmost to southernmost points), there is significant variation in mean temperature and amount of snowfall between Sussex County and New Castle County.",
"Moderated by the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay, the southern portion of the state has a milder climate and a longer growing season than the northern portion of the state.",
"The milder climate in southern Delaware allows for subtropical flora such as the windmill palm, needle palm, and dwarf palmetto.",
"Delaware's all-time record high of was recorded at Millsboro on July 21, 1930.The all-time record low of was also recorded at Millsboro, on January 17, 1893.The hardiness zones are 7B and 8A at the Delaware Beaches.===Environment===The transitional climate of Delaware supports a wide variety of vegetation.",
"In the northern third of the state are found Northeastern coastal forests and mixed oak forests typical of the northeastern United States.",
"In the southern two-thirds of the state are found Middle Atlantic coastal forests.",
"Trap Pond State Park, along with areas in other parts of Sussex County, for example, support the northernmost stands of bald cypress trees in North America.===Environmental management===Delaware provides government subsidy support for the clean-up of property \"lightly contaminated\" by hazardous waste, the proceeds for which come from a tax on wholesale petroleum sales."
],
[
"Municipalities",
"Wilmington is the state's most populous city (70,635) and its economic hub.",
"It is located within commuting distance of both Philadelphia and Baltimore.",
"Dover is the state capital and the second most populous city (38,079).===Counties===* Kent* New Castle* Sussex===Cities===* Delaware City* Dover* Harrington* Lewes* Middletown* Milford* New Castle* Newark* Rehoboth Beach* Seaford* Wilmington===Towns===* Bellefonte* Bethany Beach* Bethel* Blades* Bowers* Bridgeville* Camden* Cheswold* Clayton* Dagsboro* Delmar* Dewey Beach* Ellendale* Elsmere* Farmington* Felton* Fenwick Island* Frankford* Frederica* Georgetown* Greenwood* Hartly* Henlopen Acres* Houston* Kenton* Laurel* Leipsic* Little Creek* Magnolia* Millsboro* Millville* Milton* Newport* Ocean View* Odessa* Selbyville* Slaughter Beach* Smyrna* South Bethany* Townsend* Viola* Woodside* Wyoming===Villages===* Arden* Ardencroft* Ardentown===Unincorporated places===* Bear* Brookside* Christiana* Clarksville* Claymont* Dover Base Housing* Edgemoor* Glasgow* Greenville* Gumboro* Harbeson* Highland Acres* Hockessin* Kent Acres* Lincoln City* Long Neck* Marshallton* Mount Pleasant* North Star* Oak Orchard* Omar* Pennyhill* Pike Creek* Pike Creek Valley* Rising Sun-Lebanon* Riverview* Rodney Village* Roxana* Saint Georges* Sandtown* Stanton* Wilmington Manor* Woodland* Woodside East* YorklynFile:Dover Delaware.jpg|DoverFile:Newark DE Main Street.jpg|NewarkFile:High Street, Seaford, Delaware (2006).jpg|SeafordFile:Wilmington Delaware skyline.jpg|WilmingtonThe table below lists the ten largest municipalities in the state based on the 2020 United States census."
],
[
"Demographics",
"The population density map for DelawareThe United States Census Bureau determined that the population of Delaware was 989,948 on April 1, 2020, an increase from the 2010 census figure of 897,934.Delaware's history as a border state has led it to exhibit characteristics of both the Northern and the Southern regions of the United States.",
"Generally, the rural Southern (or \"Slower Lower\") regions of Delaware below the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal embody a Southern culture, while densely-populated Northern Delaware above the canal—particularly Wilmington, a part of the Philadelphia metropolitan area—has more in common with that of the Northeast and the North.",
"The U.S. Census Bureau designates Delaware as one of the South Atlantic States, but it is commonly associated with the Mid-Atlantic States or northeastern United States by other federal agencies, the media, and some residents.Delaware is the sixth most densely populated state, with a population density of 442.6 people per square mile, 356.4 per square mile more than the national average, and ranking 45th in population.",
"Delaware is one of five U.S. states (Maine, Vermont, West Virginia, Wyoming) that do not have a single city with a population over 100,000 as of the 2010 census.",
"The center of population of Delaware is in New Castle County, in the town of Townsend.According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 2,369 homeless people in Delaware.===Race and ethnicity===Ethnic origins in DelawareAccording to the 2010 United States census, the racial composition of the state was 68.9% White American (65.3% Non-Hispanic White, 3.6% White Hispanic), 21.4% Black or African American, 0.5% American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.2% Asian American, 0.0% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 3.4% some other race, and 2.7% of multiracial origin.",
"People of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race, made up 8.2% of the population.The 2022 American Community Survey estimated the state had a racial and ethnic makeup of 60.6% non-Hispanic whites, 23.6% Black or African American, 0.7% American Indian or Alaska Native, 4.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.9% multiracial, and 10.1% Hispanic or Latin American of any race.In the Native American community, the state has a Native American group, called in their own language Lenape, which was influential in the colonial period of the United States and is today headquartered in Cheswold, Kent County, Delaware.",
"A band of the Nanticoke tribe of American Indians today resides in Sussex County and is headquartered in Millsboro, Sussex County, Delaware.Delaware's population mainly consisted of people from the British Isles, African slaves, Germans and a few remaining Native Americans during the colonial era.",
"Irish, Germans, Italians, Poles, and Russian Jewish immigrants were attracted by the industries in the Wilmington area.",
"In the late 20th century a Puerto Rican community formed in Wilmington.",
"Guatemalan people migrated to Sussex county to work in Delaware's poultry industry.",
"A group of Native Americans in Delaware of mixed ethnicity, the Moors, live in Cheswold.",
"The descendants of the Nanticoke people live around Millsboro.",
"There is also a small numbers of Asians in New Castle county who work as scientific and engineering professionals.+ '''Delaware racial breakdown of population''' Racial composition 1990 2000 2010 White 80.3% 74.6% 68.9% Black 16.9% 19.2% 21.4% Asian 1.4% 2.1% 3.2% Native 0.3% 0.4% 0.5% Native Hawaiian andother Pacific Islander – – – Other race 1.1% 2.0% 3.4% Two or more races – 1.7% 2.7%The top countries of origin for Delaware's immigrants in 2018 were Mexico, India, Guatemala, China, and Jamaica.===Birth data===''Note: Births in table do not add up because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.",
"''+ Live Births by Single Race/Ethnicity of Mother Race 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 White: 7,204 (66.5%) 7,314 (66.7%) 7,341 (65.7%) ... ... ... ... ... ... > Non-Hispanic White 5,942 (54.8%) 5,904 (53.8%) 5,959 (53.4%) 5,827 (53.0%) 5,309 (48.9%) 5,171 (48.7%) 5,024 (47.6%) 4,949 (47.6%) 5,042 (48.1%) Black 3,061 (28.3%) 2,988 (27.2%) 3,134 (28.1%) 2,832 (25.7%) 2,818 (26.0%) 2,773 (26.1%) 2,804 (26.5%) 2,722 (26.2%) 2,711 (25.9%) Asian 541 (5.0%) 644 (5.9%) 675 (6.1%) 627 (5.7%) 646 (6.0%) 634 (6.0%) 624 (5.9%) 617 (5.9%) 538 (5.1%) Native American 25 (0.2%) 26 (0.2%) 16 (0.1%) 13 (0.1%) 23 (0.2%) 10 (0.1%) 18 (0.2%) 18 (0.2%) 12 (0.1%) ''Hispanic'' (of any race) ''1,348'' (12.4%) ''1,541'' (14.0%) ''1,532'' (13.7%) ''1,432'' (13.0%) ''1,748'' (16.1%) ''1,710'' (16.1%) ''1,737'' (16.4%) ''1,768'' (17.0%) ''1,826'' (17.4%) '''Total Delaware''' '''10,831''' (100%) '''10,972''' (100%) '''11,166''' (100%) '''10,992''' (100%) '''10,855''' (100%) '''10,621''' (100%) '''10,562''' (100%) '''10,392''' (100%) '''10,482''' (100%)* Since 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one ''Hispanic'' group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.===Languages===In 2000, 91% of Delaware residents of age5 and older spoke only English at home; 5% spoke Spanish.",
"French was the third most spoken language, used by 0.7% of the population, followed by Chinese (0.5%) and German (0.5%).",
"Legislation has been proposed in both the House and the Senate in Delaware to designate English as the official language.",
"Neither bill was passed in the legislature.===Sexual orientation===A 2012 Gallup poll found that Delaware's proportion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adults stood at 3.4% of the population.",
"This constitutes a total LGBT adult population estimate of 23,698 people.",
"The number of same-sex couple households in 2010 stood at 2,646.This grew by 41.65% from a decade earlier.",
"On July 1, 2013, same-sex marriage was legalized, and all civil unions would be converted into marriages.===Religion===The predominant religion practiced in Delaware is Christianity.",
"A 2014 estimate by the Pew Research Center found that members of Protestant churches accounted for almost half of the population, though the Roman Catholic Church was the largest single denomination in the state.",
"By 2020, the Public Religion Research Institute determined 61% of the population was Christian.",
"In 2022, the Public Religion Research Institute's survey revealed 60% were Christian, followed by Jews (3%), Hindus (1%), and New Agers (1%).The Association of Religion Data Archives reported in 2010 that the three largest Christian denominational groups in Delaware by number of adherents are the Catholic Church at 182,532 adherents, the United Methodist Church with 53,656 members reported, and non-denominational evangelical Protestants, who numbered 22,973.In 2020, the Association of Religion Data Archives reported the largest Christian denominations were the Catholic Church with 197,094; non-denominational Protestants with 49,392, and United Methodists with 39,959.The Roman Catholic Diocese of Wilmington and the Episcopal Diocese of Delaware oversee the parishes within their denominations.",
"The A.U.M.P.",
"Church, the oldest African-American denomination in the nation, was founded in Wilmington.",
"It still has a substantial presence in the state.",
"Reflecting new immigrant populations, an Islamic mosque has been built in the Ogletown area, and a Hindu temple in Hockessin.Delaware is home to an Amish community which resides west of Dover in Kent County, consisting of nine church districts and about 1,650 people.",
"The Amish first settled in Kent County in 1915.In recent years, increasing development has led to the decline in the number of Amish living in the community.A 2012 survey of religious attitudes in the United States found that 34% of Delaware residents considered themselves \"moderately religious\", 33% \"very religious\", and 33% as \"non-religious\".",
"At the 2014 Pew Research survey, 23% of the population were irreligious; the 2020 Public Religion Research Institute's survey determined 31% of the population were irreligious.",
"In 2022, the same study showed 33% of the population as irreligious."
],
[
"Economy",
"===Affluence===+ Average sale price for new & existing homes (in U.S. dollars)DE CountyMarch 2010March 2011New Castle229,000216,000Sussex323,000296,000Kent186,000178,000According to a 2020 study by Kiplinger, Delaware had the seventeenth most millionaires per capita in the United States; altogether, there were 25,937 such individuals.",
"The median income for Delaware households as of 2020 was $64,805.===Agriculture===''Picking Peaches in Delaware'', an illustration in an 1878 issue of ''Harper's Weekly''Delaware's agricultural output consists of poultry, nursery stock, soybeans, dairy products and corn.===Industries===, the state's unemployment rate was 3.7%.The state's largest employers are:* government (State of Delaware, New Castle County)* education (University of Delaware, Delaware Technical Community College)* banking (Bank of America, M&T Bank, JPMorgan Chase, Citigroup, Deutsche Bank)* chemical, pharmaceutical, technology (DuPont de Nemours Inc., AstraZeneca, Syngenta, Agilent Technologies)* healthcare (ChristianaCare (Christiana Hospital), Bayhealth Medical Center, Nemours Children's Hospital, Delaware)* farming, specifically chicken farming in Sussex County (Perdue Farms, Mountaire Farms, Allen Family Foods)* retail (Walmart, Walgreens, Acme Markets)====Industrial decline====Since the mid-2000s, Delaware has seen the departure of the state's automotive manufacturing industry (General Motors Wilmington Assembly and Chrysler Newark Assembly), the corporate buyout of a major bank holding company (MBNA), the departure of the state's steel industry (Evraz Claymont Steel), the bankruptcy of a fiber mill (National Vulcanized Fiber), and the diminishing presence of AstraZeneca in Wilmington.In late 2015, DuPont announced that 1,700 employees, nearly a third of its footprint in Delaware, would be laid off in early 2016.The merger of E.I.",
"du Pont de Nemours & Co. and Dow Chemical Company into DowDuPont took place on September 1, 2017.===Incorporation in Delaware===More than half of all U.S. publicly traded companies, and 63% of the Fortune 500, are incorporated in Delaware.",
"The state's attractiveness as a corporate haven is largely because of its business-friendly corporation law.",
"Franchise taxes on Delaware corporations supply about a fifth of the state's revenue.",
"Although \"USA (Delaware)\" ranked as the world's most opaque jurisdiction on the Tax Justice Network's 2009 Financial Secrecy Index, the same group's 2011 Index ranks the U.S. fifth and does not specify Delaware.",
"In Delaware, there are more than a million registered corporations, meaning there are more corporations than people.===Food and drink===Title 4, chapter 7 of the Delaware Code stipulates that alcoholic liquor be sold only in specifically licensed establishments, and only between 9:00a.m.",
"and 1:00a.m.",
"Until 2003, Delaware was among the several states enforcing blue laws and banned the sale of liquor on Sunday."
],
[
"Media",
"=== Newspapers ===Two daily newspapers are based in Delaware, the ''Delaware State News'', based in Dover and covering the two southern counties, and ''The News Journal'' covering Wilmington and northern Delaware.",
"The state is also served by several weekly, monthly and online publications.===Television===No standalone television stations are based solely in Delaware.",
"The northern part of the state is served by network stations in Philadelphia and the southern part by network stations in Salisbury, Maryland.",
"Philadelphia's ABC affiliate, WPVI-TV, maintains a news bureau in downtown Wilmington.",
"Salisbury's CBS affiliate, WBOC-TV, maintains bureaus in Dover and Milton.",
"Three Philadelphia-market stations—PBS member WHYY-TV, Ion affiliate WPPX, and MeTV affiliate WDPN-TV—all have Wilmington as their city of license, but maintain transmitters at the market antenna farm in Roxborough, Philadelphia and do not produce any Delaware-centric programming.===Radio===There are a numerous radio stations licensed in Delaware.",
"WDEL 1150AM, WHGE-LP 95.3 FM, WILM 1450 AM, WVCW 99.5, WMPH 91.7 FM, WSTW 93.7 FM, WTMC 1380 AM and WWTX 1290AM are licensed from Wilmington.",
"WRDX 92.9 FM is licensed from Smyrna.",
"WDOV 1410AM, WDSD 94.7 FM and WRTX 91.7 FM are licensed from Dover."
],
[
"Tourism",
"Rehoboth Beach, a popular vacation spot during the summer monthsFort Delaware State Park on Pea Patch Island, a popular spot during the spring and summer; a ferry takes visitors to the fort from nearby Delaware City.Delaware is home to First State National Historical Park, a National Park Service unit composed of historic sites across the state including the New Castle Court House, Green, and Sheriff's House, Dover Green, Beaver Valley, Fort Christina, Old Swedes' Church, John Dickinson Plantation, and the Ryves Holt House.",
"Delaware has several museums, wildlife refuges, parks, houses, lighthouses, and other historic places.Rehoboth Beach, together with the towns of Lewes, Dewey Beach, Bethany Beach, South Bethany, and Fenwick Island, comprise Delaware's beach resorts.",
"Rehoboth Beach often bills itself as \"The Nation's Summer Capital\" because it is a frequent summer vacation destination for Washington, D.C., residents as well as visitors from Maryland, Virginia, and in lesser numbers, Pennsylvania.",
"Vacationers are drawn for many reasons, including the town's charm, artistic appeal, nightlife, and tax-free shopping.",
"According to SeaGrant Delaware, the Delaware beaches generate $6.9billion annually and over $711million in tax revenue.Delaware is home to several festivals, fairs, and events.",
"Some of the more notable festivals are the Riverfest held in Seaford, the World Championship Punkin Chunkin formerly held at various locations throughout the state since 1986, the Rehoboth Beach Chocolate Festival, the Bethany Beach Jazz Funeral to mark the end of summer, the Apple Scrapple Festival held in Bridgeville, the Clifford Brown Jazz Festival in Wilmington, the Rehoboth Beach Jazz Festival, the Sea Witch Halloween Festival and Parade in Rehoboth Beach, the Rehoboth Beach Independent Film Festival, the Nanticoke Indian Pow Wow in Oak Orchard, Firefly Music Festival, and the Return Day Parade held after every election in Georgetown.In 2015, tourism in Delaware generated $3.1billion, which makes up five percent of the state's GDP.",
"Delaware saw 8.5million visitors in 2015, with the tourism industry employing 41,730 people, making it the 4th largest private employer in the state.",
"Major origin markets for Delaware tourists include Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York City, Washington, D.C., and Harrisburg, with 97% of tourists arriving to the state by car and 75% of tourists coming from a distance of or less.Delaware is also home to two large sporting venues.",
"Dover Motor Speedway is a race track in Dover, and Frawley Stadium in Wilmington is the home of the Wilmington Blue Rocks, a Minor League Baseball team that is currently affiliated with the Washington Nationals."
],
[
"Education",
"The University of Delaware in NewarkIn the early 1920s, Pierre S. du Pont served as president of the state board of education.",
"At the time, state law prohibited money raised from white taxpayers from being used to support the state's schools for black children.",
"Appalled by the condition of the black schools, du Pont donated four million dollars to construct 86 new school buildings.Delaware was the origin of ''Belton v. Gebhart'' (1952), one of the four cases which were combined into ''Brown v. Board of Education'', the Supreme Court of the United States decision that led to the end of officially segregated public schools.",
"Significantly, ''Belton'' was the only case in which the state court found for the plaintiffs, thereby ruling that segregation is unconstitutional.Unlike many states, Delaware's educational system is centralized in a state Superintendent of Education, with local school boards retaining control over taxation and some curriculum decisions.",
"This centralized system, combined with the small size of the state, likely contributed to Delaware becoming the first state, after completion of a three-year, $30million program ending in 1999, to wire every K-12 classroom in the state to the Internet., the Delaware Department of Education had authorized the founding of 25 charter schools in the state, one of them being all-girls.All teachers in the State's public school districts are unionized.",
", none of the State's charter schools are members of a teachers union.",
"One of the State's teachers' unions is Delaware State Education Association (DSEA).===Colleges and universities===* Delaware College of Art and Design* Delaware State University* Delaware Technical & Community College* Goldey-Beacom College* University of Delaware—Ranked 63rd in the U.S. and in top 201–250 in the world (Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2018)* Widener University School of Law* Wilmington University"
],
[
"Transportation",
"license plate design, introduced in 1959, is the longest-running one in U.S. history.The transportation system in Delaware is under the governance and supervision of the Delaware Department of Transportation (DelDOT).",
"Funding for DelDOT projects is drawn, in part, from the Delaware Transportation Trust Fund, established in 1987 to help stabilize transportation funding; the availability of the Trust led to a gradual separation of DelDOT operations from other Delaware state operations.",
"DelDOT manages programs such as a Delaware Adopt-a-Highway program, major road route snow removal, traffic control infrastructure (signs and signals), toll road management, Delaware Division of Motor Vehicles, the Delaware Transit Corporation (branded as \"DART First State\", the state government public transportation organization), and others.In 2009, DelDOT maintained 13,507 lane-miles, totaling 89 percent of the state's public roadway system, the rest being under the supervision of individual municipalities.",
"This far exceeds the national average (20 percent) for state department of transportation maintenance responsibility.===Roads===Delaware Route 1 (DE1) is a partial toll road linking Fenwick Island and Wilmington.One major branch of the U.S. Interstate Highway System, Interstate95 (I-95), crosses Delaware southwest-to-northeast across New Castle County.",
"Two Auxiliary Interstate Highway routes are also located in the state.",
"Interstate 495 (I-495) is an eastern bypass of Wilmington.",
"Interstate 295 (I-295) is a bypass of Philadelphia which begins south of Wilmington.",
"In addition to Interstate highways, there are six U.S. highways that serve Delaware: U.S.9, U.S.13, U.S.40, U.S.113, U.S.202, and U.S.301.There are also several state highways that cross the state of Delaware; a few of them include DE1, DE9, and DE404.U.S.13 and DE1 are primary north–south highways connecting Wilmington and Pennsylvania with Maryland, with DE1 serving as the main route between Wilmington and the Delaware beaches.",
"DE9 is a north–south highway connecting Dover and Wilmington via a scenic route along the Delaware Bay.",
"U.S.40 is a primary east–west route, connecting Maryland with New Jersey.",
"DE404 is another primary east–west highway connecting the Chesapeake Bay Bridge in Maryland with the Delaware beaches.",
"The state also operates three toll highways, the Delaware Turnpike, which is I-95, between Maryland and New Castle; the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway, which is DE1, between Wilmington and Dover; and the U.S. 301 toll road between the Maryland border and DE1 in New Castle County.A bicycle route, Delaware Bicycle Route 1, spans the north–south length of the state from the Maryland border in Fenwick Island to the Pennsylvania border north of Montchanin.",
"It is the first of several signed bike routes planned in Delaware.Delaware has about 875 bridges, 95 percent of which are under the supervision of DelDOT.",
"About 30 percent of all Delaware bridges were built before 1950, and about 60 percent of the number are included in the National Bridge Inventory.",
"Some bridges not under DelDOT supervision includes the four bridges on the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, which are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Delaware Memorial Bridge, which is under the bi-state Delaware River and Bay Authority.It has been noted that the tar and chip composition of secondary roads in Sussex County makes them more prone to deterioration than are the asphalt roadways in almost the rest of the state.",
"Among these roads, Sussex (county road) 236 is among the most problematic.===Ferries===The Cape May–Lewes FerryThree ferries operate in the state of Delaware:* Cape May–Lewes Ferry crosses the mouth of Delaware Bay between Lewes, Delaware and Cape May, New Jersey.",
"* Woodland Ferry (a cable ferry) crosses the Nanticoke River southwest of Seaford.",
"* Forts Ferry Crossing connects Delaware City with Fort Delaware and Fort Mott, New Jersey.===Rail and bus===Wilmington Station in WilmingtonAmtrak has two stations in Delaware along the Northeast Corridor; the relatively quiet Newark Rail Station in Newark, and the busier Wilmington Station in Wilmington.",
"The Northeast Corridor is also served by SEPTA's Wilmington/Newark Line, part of SEPTA Regional Rail, which serves Claymont, Wilmington, Churchmans Crossing, and Newark.Two Class I railroads, Norfolk Southern and CSX, provide freight rail service in northern New Castle County.",
"Norfolk Southern provides freight service along the Northeast Corridor and to industrial areas in Edgemoor, New Castle, and Delaware City.",
"CSX's Philadelphia Subdivision passes through northern New Castle County parallel to the Amtrak Northeast Corridor.",
"Multiple short-line railroads provide freight service in Delaware.",
"The Delmarva Central Railroad operates the most trackage of the short-line railroads, running from an interchange with Norfolk Southern in Porter south through Dover, Harrington, and Seaford to Delmar, with another line running from Harrington to Frankford and branches from Ellendale to Milton and from Georgetown to Gravel Hill.",
"The Delmarva Central Railroad connects with the Maryland and Delaware Railroad, which serves local customers in Sussex County.",
"CSX connects with the freight/heritage operation, the Wilmington and Western Railroad, based in Wilmington and the East Penn Railroad, which operates a line from Wilmington to Coatesville, Pennsylvania.The last north–south passenger trains through the main part of Delaware was the Pennsylvania Railroad's local Wilmington-Delmar train in 1965.This was a successor to the ''Del-Mar-Va Express'' and ''Cavalier'', which had run from Philadelphia through the state's interior, to the end of the Delmarva Peninsula until the mid-1950s.The DART First State public transportation system was named \"Most Outstanding Public Transportation System\" in 2003 by the American Public Transportation Association.",
"Coverage of the system is broad within northern New Castle County with close association to major highways in Kent and Sussex counties.",
"The system includes bus, subsidized passenger rail operated by Philadelphia transit agency SEPTA, and subsidized taxi and paratransit modes.",
"The paratransit system, consisting of a statewide door-to-door bus service for the elderly and disabled, has been described by a Delaware state report as \"the most generous paratransit system in the United States\".",
", fees for the paratransit service have not changed since 1988.===Air===, Delaware is served exclusively by Avelo Airlines out of Wilmington Airport, launching five routes to Florida on February 1.This put an end to an eight-month period during which Delaware had no scheduled air service, one of several since 1991.Various airlines had served Wilmington Airport, the latest departure being Frontier Airlines in June 2022.Delaware is centrally situated in the Northeast megalopolis region of cities along I-95.Therefore, Delaware commercial airline passengers most frequently use Philadelphia International Airport (PHL), Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport (BWI) and Washington Dulles International Airport (IAD) for domestic and international transit.",
"Residents of Sussex County will also use Wicomico Regional Airport (SBY), as it is located less than from the Delaware border.",
"Atlantic City International Airport (ACY), Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR), and Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport (DCA) are also within a radius of New Castle County.Other general aviation airports in Delaware include Summit Airport near Middletown, Delaware Airpark near Cheswold, and Delaware Coastal Airport near Georgetown.Dover Air Force Base, one of the largest in the country, is home to the 436th Airlift Wing and the 512th Airlift Wing.",
"In addition to its other responsibilities in the Air Mobility Command, it serves as the entry point and mortuary for U.S. military personnel (and some civilians) who die overseas."
],
[
"Law and government",
"Delaware's fourth and current constitution, adopted in 1897, provides for executive, judicial and legislative branches.===Legislative branch===The Delaware General Assembly meets in Delaware Legislative Hall in Dover.The Delaware General Assembly consists of a House of Representatives with 41 members and a Senate with 21 members.",
"It sits in Dover, the state capital.",
"Representatives are elected to two-year terms, while senators are elected to four-year terms.",
"The Senate confirms judicial and other nominees appointed by the governor.Delaware's U.S.",
"Senators are Tom Carper (Democrat) and Chris Coons (Democrat).",
"Delaware's single U.S. Representative is Lisa Blunt Rochester (Democrat).===Judicial branch===The Delaware Constitution establishes a number of courts:* The Delaware Supreme Court is the state's highest court.",
"* The Delaware Superior Court is the state's trial court of general jurisdiction.",
"* The Delaware Court of Chancery deals primarily in corporate disputes.",
"* The Family Court handles domestic and custody matters.",
"* The Delaware Court of Common Pleas has jurisdiction over a limited class of civil and criminal matters.Minor non-constitutional courts include the Justice of the Peace Courts and Aldermen's Courts.Significantly, Delaware has one of the few remaining Courts of Chancery in the nation, which has jurisdiction over equity cases, the vast majority of which are corporate disputes, many relating to mergers and acquisitions.",
"The Court of Chancery and the Delaware Supreme Court have developed a worldwide reputation for rendering concise opinions concerning corporate law which generally (but not always) grant broad discretion to corporate boards of directors and officers.",
"In addition, the Delaware General Corporation Law, which forms the basis of the Courts' opinions, is widely regarded as giving great flexibility to corporations to manage their affairs.",
"For these reasons, Delaware is considered to have the most business-friendly legal system in the United States; therefore a great number of companies are incorporated in Delaware, including 60% of the companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange.Delaware was the last U.S. state to use judicial corporal punishment, in 1952.===Executive branch===The executive branch is headed by the Governor of Delaware.",
"The current governor is John Carney (Democrat), who took office January 17, 2017.The lieutenant governor is Bethany Hall-Long.",
"The governor presents a \"State of the State\" speech to a joint session of the Delaware legislature annually.The executive branch also consists of the Attorney General of Delaware currently held by Kathy Jennings, the State Treasurer currently held by Colleen Davis, the Auditor of Accounts currently held by Lydia York and the Insurance Commissioner currently held by Trinidad Navarro.===Counties===Delaware is subdivided into three counties; from north to south they are New Castle, Kent and Sussex.",
"This is the fewest among all states.",
"Each county elects its own legislative body (known in New Castle and Sussex counties as '''County Council''', and in Kent County as '''Levy Court'''), which deal primarily in zoning and development issues.",
"Most functions which are handled on a county-by-county basis in other states—such as court and law enforcement—have been centralized in Delaware, leading to a significant concentration of power in the Delaware state government.",
"The counties were historically divided into hundreds, which were used as tax reporting and voting districts until the 1960s, but now serve no administrative role, their only current official legal use being in real estate title descriptions.===Politics===Joe Biden, the 46th president of the United States and a U.S. senator from Delaware from 1973 to 2009The Democratic Party holds a plurality of registrations in Delaware.",
"Currently, Democrats hold all positions of authority in Delaware, as well as majorities in the state Senate and House.",
"The Democrats have held the governorship since 1993, having won the last seven gubernatorial elections.",
"Democrats presently hold all the nine statewide elected offices, while the Republicans last won any statewide offices in 2014, State Auditor and State Treasurer.During the First and Second Party Systems, Delaware was a stronghold for the Federalist and Whig Parties, respectively.",
"After a relatively brief adherence to the Democratic Solid South following the US Civil War, Delaware became a Republican-leaning state from 1896 through 1948, voting for losing Republicans Charles Evans Hughes in 1916, Herbert Hoover in 1932, and Thomas Dewey in 1948.During the second half of the 20th century, Delaware was a bellwether state, voting for the winner of every presidential election from 1952 through 1996.Delaware's bellwether status came to an end when Delaware voted for Al Gore in 2000 by 13%.",
"Subsequent elections have continued to demonstrate Delaware's current strong Democratic lean: John Kerry carried the First State by 8% in 2004; Barack Obama carried it by 25% and by 19% in his two elections of 2008 and 2012; and Hillary Clinton carried it by 11% as she lost the Electoral College in 2016.In 2020, Delaware native (and Barack Obama's former vice president and running mate) Joe Biden headed the Democratic ticket; he carried his home state by just shy of 19% en route to a national 4.5% win.The dominant factor in Delaware's political shift has been the strong Democratic trend in heavily urbanized New Castle County, home to 55% of Delaware's population.",
"New Castle County has not voted Republican in a presidential election since 1988, and has given Democrats over 60% of its vote in every election from 2004 on.",
"In 1992, 2000, 2004, and 2016, the Republican presidential candidate carried both Kent and Sussex but lost by double digits each time in New Castle County, which was a large enough margin to tip the state to the Democrats.",
"New Castle County also elects a substantial majority of the state legislature; 27 of the 41 state house districts and 14 of the 21 state senate districts are based in New Castle County.In a 2020 study, Delaware was ranked as the 18th hardest state for citizens to vote in.===Freedom of information===Each of the 50 states of the United States has passed some form of freedom of information legislation, which provides a mechanism for the general public to request information of the government.",
"In 2011 Delaware passed legislation placing a 15 business day time limit on addressing freedom-of-information requests, to either produce information or an explanation of why such information would take longer than this time to produce.",
"A bill aimed at restricting Freedom of Information Act requests, Senate Bill 155, was discussed in committee.===Taxation===Tax is collected by the Delaware Division of Revenue.Delaware has six different income tax brackets, ranging from 2.2% to 5.95%.",
"The state does not assess sales tax on consumers.",
"The state does, however, impose a tax on the gross receipts of most businesses.",
"Business and occupational license tax rates range from 0.096% to 1.92%, depending on the category of business activity.Delaware does not assess a state-level tax on real or personal property.",
"Real estate is subject to county property taxes, school district property taxes, vocational school district taxes, and, if located within an incorporated area, municipal property taxes.Gambling provides significant revenue to the state.",
"For instance, the casino at Delaware Park Racetrack provided more than $100million to the state in 2010.In June 2018, Delaware became the first U.S. state to legalize sports betting following the Supreme Court ruling to overturn the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act of 1992 (PASPA).===Voter registration===+ Voter registration and party enrollment Party Number of voters Percentage Democratic 356,433 46.73% Republican 207,875 27.26% Unaffiliated 172,481 22.61% Independent Party of Delaware 10,516 1.38% Libertarian 2,096 0.27% Non-partisan 1,178 0.15% Conservative 773 0.10% Green 724 0.09% Liberal 695 0.09% Others 670 0.09% American Independent Party 531 0.07% American Delta Party 494 0.06% Working Families Party 315 0.04% Constitution 241 0.03% Socialist Workers Party 134 0.02% Blue Enigma Party 85 0.01% Natural Law Party 79 0.01% Mandalorians of Delaware 77 0.01% Reform 46 0.01% Total 762,661 100.00%"
],
[
"Culture and entertainment",
"===Festivals======Sports===NASCAR racing at Dover Motor Speedway in Dover;Professional teamsTeamSportLeagueDelaware Black FoxesRugby LeagueUSA Rugby LeagueDelaware Blue CoatsBasketballNBA G LeagueDelaware ThunderHockeyFederal Prospects Hockey LeagueDiamond State Roller GirlsRoller derbyWomen's Flat Track Derby AssociationWilmington Blue RocksBaseballHigh-A EastAs Delaware has no franchises in the major American professional sports leagues, many Delawareans follow either Philadelphia or Baltimore teams.",
"In the WNBA, the Washington Mystics enjoy a major following due to the presence of Wilmington native and University of Delaware product Elena Delle Donne.",
"The University of Delaware's football team has a large following throughout the state, with the Delaware State University and Wesley College teams also enjoying a smaller degree of support.Delaware is home to Dover Motor Speedway and Bally's Dover.",
"Dover Motor Speedway, also known as the ''Monster Mile'', is one of only 10 tracks in the nation to have hosted 100 or more NASCAR Cup Series races.",
"Bally's Dover is a popular harness racing facility.",
"It is the only co-located horse- and car-racing facility in the nation, with the Bally's Dover track located inside the Dover Motor Speedway track.Delaware is represented in rugby by the Delaware Black Foxes, a 2015 expansion club.Delaware has been home to professional wrestling outfit Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW).",
"CZW has been affiliated with the annual Tournament of Death and ECWA with its annual Super8 Tournament.Delaware's official state sport is bicycling."
],
[
"Foreign Affairs",
"=== Sister State ===Delaware has had a foreign sister state in Japan, named Miyagi Prefecture.",
"These two have shared relations since 1997, and have had exchange programs available for students that were briefly paused in wake of the earthquake and the tsunami that ensued in the prefecture during March 2011."
],
[
"Delawareans",
"Prominent Delawareans include the du Pont family of politicians and businesspersons, and the 46th and current president of the United States Joe Biden, whose family moved to Delaware during his childhood, and who later represented Delaware for 36 years in the United States Senate before becoming the 47th vice president of the United States."
],
[
"See also",
"* Index of Delaware-related articles* Outline of Delaware* ''''''''''* ''''''''''"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"===History===* ===General===* * * Delaware Tourism homepage* Delaware Map Data* Energy & Environmental Data for Delaware* USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Delaware* U.S. Census Bureau* Delaware State Facts from USDA* 2000 Census of Population and Housing for Delaware, U.S. Census Bureau* * * Delaware State Databases—Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Delaware state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Dictionary"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Langenscheidt dictionaries in various languagesA multi-volume Latin dictionary by Egidio ForcelliniDictionary definition entriesA '''dictionary''' is a listing of lexemes from the lexicon of one or more specific languages, often arranged alphabetically (or by consonantal root for Semitic languages or radical and stroke for logographic languages), which may include information on definitions, usage, etymologies, pronunciations, translation, etc.",
"It is a lexicographical reference that shows inter-relationships among the data.A broad distinction is made between general and specialized dictionaries.",
"Specialized dictionaries include words in specialist fields, rather than a complete range of words in the language.",
"Lexical items that describe concepts in specific fields are usually called terms instead of words, although there is no consensus whether lexicology and terminology are two different fields of study.",
"In theory, general dictionaries are supposed to be semasiological, mapping word to definition, while specialized dictionaries are supposed to be onomasiological, first identifying concepts and then establishing the terms used to designate them.",
"In practice, the two approaches are used for both types.",
"There are other types of dictionaries that do not fit neatly into the above distinction, for instance bilingual (translation) dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms (thesauri), and rhyming dictionaries.",
"The word dictionary (unqualified) is usually understood to refer to a general purpose monolingual dictionary.There is also a contrast between ''prescriptive'' or ''descriptive'' dictionaries; the former reflect what is seen as correct use of the language while the latter reflect recorded actual use.",
"Stylistic indications (e.g.",
"\"informal\" or \"vulgar\") in many modern dictionaries are also considered by some to be less than objectively descriptive.The first recorded dictionaries date back to Sumerian times around 2300 BCE, in the form of bilingual dictionaries, and the oldest surviving monolingual dictionaries are Chinese dictionaries .",
"The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was ''A Table Alphabeticall'', written in 1604, and monolingual dictionaries in other languages also began appearing in Europe at around this time.",
"The systematic study of dictionaries as objects of scientific interest arose as a 20th-century enterprise, called lexicography, and largely initiated by Ladislav Zgusta.",
"The birth of the new discipline was not without controversy, with the practical dictionary-makers being sometimes accused by others of having an \"astonishing\" lack of method and critical-self reflection."
],
[
"History",
"Catalan-Latin dictionary from the year 1696 with more than 1000 pages.",
"Gazophylacium Dictionary.",
"The oldest known dictionaries were cuneiform tablets with bilingual Sumerian–Akkadian wordlists, discovered in Ebla (modern Syria) and dated to roughly 2300 BCE, the time of the Akkadian Empire.",
"The early 2nd millennium BCE ''Urra=hubullu'' glossary is the canonical Babylonian version of such bilingual Sumerian wordlists.",
"A Chinese dictionary, the ''Erya'', is the earliest surviving monolingual dictionary; and some sources cite the ''Shizhoupian'' (probably compiled sometime between 700 BCE to 200 BCE, possibly earlier) as a \"dictionary\", although modern scholarship considers it a calligraphic compendium of Chinese characters from Zhou dynasty bronzes.",
"Philitas of Cos (fl.",
"4th century BCE) wrote a pioneering vocabulary ''Disorderly Words'' (Ἄτακτοι γλῶσσαι, '''') which explained the meanings of rare Homeric and other literary words, words from local dialects, and technical terms.",
"Apollonius the Sophist (fl.",
"1st century CE) wrote the oldest surviving Homeric lexicon.",
"The first Sanskrit dictionary, the Amarakośa, was written by Amarasimha .",
"Written in verse, it listed around 10,000 words.",
"According to the , the first Japanese dictionary was the long-lost 682 CE ''Niina'' glossary of Chinese characters.",
"Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi's 8th century ''Kitab al-'Ayn'' is considered the first dictionary of Arabic.",
"The oldest existing Japanese dictionary, the ''Tenrei Banshō Meigi'', was also a glossary of written Chinese.",
"In ''Frahang-i Pahlavig'', Aramaic heterograms are listed together with their translation in the Middle Persian language and phonetic transcription in the Pazend alphabet.",
"A 9th-century CE Irish dictionary, Sanas Cormaic, contained etymologies and explanations of over 1,400 Irish words.",
"In the 12th century, The Karakhanid-Turkic scholar Mahmud Kashgari finished his work \"Divan-u Lügat'it Türk\", a dictionary about the Turkic dialects, but especially Karakhanid Turkic.",
"His work contains about 7500 to 8000 words and it was written to teach non Turkic Muslims, especially the Abbasid Arabs, the Turkic language.",
"Al-Zamakhshari wrote a small Arabic dictionary called \"Muḳaddimetü'l-edeb\" for the Turkic-Khwarazm ruler Atsiz.",
"In the 14th century, the Codex Cumanicus was finished and it served as a dictionary about the Cuman-Turkic language.",
"While in Mamluk Egypt, Ebû Hayyân el-Endelüsî finished his work \"Kitâbü'l-İdrâk li-lisâni'l-Etrâk\", a dictionary about the Kipchak and Turcoman languages spoken in Egypt and the Levant.",
"A dictionary called \"Bahşayiş Lügati\", which is written in old Anatolian Turkish, served also as a dictionary between Oghuz Turkish, Arabic and Persian.",
"But it is not clear who wrote the dictionary or in which century exactly it was published.",
"It was written in old Anatolian Turkish from the Seljuk period and not the late medieval Ottoman period.",
"In India around 1320, Amir Khusro compiled the Khaliq-e-bari, which mainly dealt with Hindustani and Persian words.The French-language ''Petit Larousse'' is an example of an illustrated dictionary.Arabic dictionaries were compiled between the 8th and 14th centuries, organizing words in rhyme order (by the last syllable), by alphabetical order of the radicals, or according to the alphabetical order of the first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries).",
"The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the Qur'an and hadith, while most general use dictionaries, such as the ''Lisan al-`Arab'' (13th century, still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and ''al-Qamus al-Muhit'' (14th century) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals.",
"The ''Qamus al-Muhit'' is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the ''Lisan'' and the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.1612 ''Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca''In medieval Europe, glossaries with equivalents for Latin words in vernacular or simpler Latin were in use (e.g.",
"the Leiden Glossary).",
"The ''Catholicon'' (1287) by Johannes Balbus, a large grammatical work with an alphabetical lexicon, was widely adopted.",
"It served as the basis for several bilingual dictionaries and was one of the earliest books (in 1460) to be printed.",
"In 1502 Ambrogio Calepino's ''Dictionarium'' was published, originally a monolingual Latin dictionary, which over the course of the 16th century was enlarged to become a multilingual glossary.",
"In 1532 Robert Estienne published the ''Thesaurus linguae latinae'' and in 1572 his son Henri Estienne published the ''Thesaurus linguae graecae'', which served up to the 19th century as the basis of Greek lexicography.",
"The first monolingual Spanish dictionary written was Sebastián Covarrubias's ''Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española'', published in 1611 in Madrid, Spain.",
"In 1612 the first edition of the ''Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca'', for Italian, was published.",
"It served as the model for similar works in French and English.",
"In 1690 in Rotterdam was published, posthumously, the ''Dictionnaire Universel'' by Antoine Furetière for French.",
"In 1694 appeared the first edition of the (still published, with the ninth edition not complete ).",
"Between 1712 and 1721 was published the ''Vocabulario portughez e latino'' written by Raphael Bluteau.",
"The Royal Spanish Academy published the first edition of the (still published, with a new edition about every decade) in 1780; their ''Diccionario de Autoridades'', which included quotes taken from literary works, was published in 1726.The ''Totius Latinitatis lexicon'' by Egidio Forcellini was firstly published in 1777; it has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been published.The first edition of ''A Greek-English Lexicon'' by Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott appeared in 1843; this work remained the basic dictionary of Greek until the end of the 20th century.",
"And in 1858 was published the first volume of the Deutsches Wörterbuch by the Brothers Grimm; the work was completed in 1961.Between 1861 and 1874 was published the ''Dizionario della lingua italiana'' by Niccolò Tommaseo.",
"Between 1862 and 1874 was published the six volumes of ''A magyar nyelv szótára'' (Dictionary of Hungarian Language) by Gergely Czuczor and János Fogarasi.",
"Émile Littré published the between 1863 and 1872.In the same year 1863 appeared the first volume of the ''Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal'' which was completed in 1998.Also in 1863 Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl published the ''Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language''.",
"The Duden dictionary dates back to 1880, and is currently the prescriptive source for the spelling of German.",
"The decision to start work on the ''Svenska Akademiens ordbok'' was taken in 1787.===English dictionaries in Britain===The earliest dictionaries in the English language were glossaries of French, Spanish or Latin words along with their definitions in English.",
"The word \"dictionary\" was invented by an Englishman called John of Garland in 1220 he had written a book ''Dictionarius'' to help with Latin \"diction\".",
"An early non-alphabetical list of 8000 English words was the ''Elementarie'', created by Richard Mulcaster in 1582.The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was ''A Table Alphabeticall'', written by English schoolteacher Robert Cawdrey in 1604.The only surviving copy is found at the Bodleian Library in Oxford.",
"This dictionary, and the many imitators which followed it, was seen as unreliable and nowhere near definitive.",
"Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield was still lamenting in 1754, 150 years after Cawdrey's publication, that it is \"a sort of disgrace to our nation, that hitherto we have had no… standard of our language; our dictionaries at present being more properly what our neighbors the Dutch and the Germans call theirs, word-books, than dictionaries in the superior sense of that title.",
"\"In 1616, John Bullokar described the history of the dictionary with his \"English Expositor\".",
"''Glossographia'' by Thomas Blount, published in 1656, contains more than 10,000 words along with their etymologies or histories.",
"Edward Phillips wrote another dictionary in 1658, entitled \"The New World of English Words: Or a General Dictionary\" which boldly plagiarized Blount's work, and the two criticised each other.",
"This created more interest in the dictionaries.",
"John Wilkins' 1668 essay on philosophical language contains a list of 11,500 words with careful distinctions, compiled by William Lloyd.",
"Elisha Coles published his \"English Dictionary\" in 1676.It was not until Samuel Johnson's ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755) that a more reliable English dictionary was produced.",
"Many people today mistakenly believe that Johnson wrote the first English dictionary: a testimony to this legacy.",
"By this stage, dictionaries had evolved to contain textual references for most words, and were arranged alphabetically, rather than by topic (a previously popular form of arrangement, which meant all animals would be grouped together, etc.).",
"Johnson's masterwork could be judged as the first to bring all these elements together, creating the first \"modern\" dictionary.Johnson's dictionary remained the English-language standard for over 150 years, until the Oxford University Press began writing and releasing the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' in short fascicles from 1884 onwards.",
"It took nearly 50 years to complete this huge work, and they finally released the complete ''OED'' in twelve volumes in 1928.One of the main contributors to this modern dictionary was an ex-army surgeon, William Chester Minor, a convicted murderer who was confined to an asylum for the criminally insane.The OED remains the most comprehensive and trusted English language dictionary to this day, with revisions and updates added by a dedicated team every three months.===American English dictionaries===In 1806, American Noah Webster published his first dictionary, ''A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language''.",
"In 1807 Webster began compiling an expanded and fully comprehensive dictionary, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language;'' it took twenty-seven years to complete.",
"To evaluate the etymology of words, Webster learned twenty-six languages, including Old English (Anglo-Saxon), German, Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, Hebrew, Arabic, and Sanskrit.Webster completed his dictionary during his year abroad in 1825 in Paris, France, and at the University of Cambridge.",
"His book contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before.",
"As a spelling reformer, Webster believed that English spelling rules were unnecessarily complex, so his dictionary introduced spellings that became American English, replacing \"colour\" with \"color\", substituting \"wagon\" for \"waggon\", and printing \"center\" instead of \"centre\".",
"He also added American words, like \"skunk\" and \"squash\", which did not appear in British dictionaries.",
"At the age of seventy, Webster published his dictionary in 1828; it sold 2500 copies.",
"In 1840, the second edition was published in two volumes.",
"Webster's dictionary was acquired by G & C Merriam Co. in 1843, after his death, and has since been published in many revised editions.",
"Merriam-Webster was acquired by Encyclopedia Britannica in 1964.Controversy over the lack of usage advice in the 1961 ''Webster's Third New International Dictionary'' spurred publication of the 1969 ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'', the first dictionary to use corpus linguistics."
],
[
"Types",
"In a general dictionary, each word may have multiple meanings.",
"Some dictionaries include each separate meaning in the order of most common usage while others list definitions in historical order, with the oldest usage first.In many languages, words can appear in many different forms, but only the undeclined or unconjugated form appears as the headword in most dictionaries.",
"Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book, but some newer dictionaries, like StarDict and the ''New Oxford American Dictionary'' are dictionary software running on PDAs or computers.",
"There are also many online dictionaries accessible via the Internet.===Specialized dictionaries===According to the ''Manual of Specialized Lexicographies'', a specialized dictionary, also referred to as a technical dictionary, is a dictionary that focuses upon a specific subject field, as opposed to a dictionary that comprehensively contains words from the lexicon of a specific language or languages.",
"Following the description in ''The Bilingual LSP Dictionary'', lexicographers categorize specialized dictionaries into three types: A multi-field dictionary broadly covers several subject fields (e.g.",
"a business dictionary), a single-field dictionary narrowly covers one particular subject field (e.g.",
"law), and a sub-field dictionary covers a more specialized field (e.g.",
"constitutional law).",
"For example, the 23-language Inter-Active Terminology for Europe is a multi-field dictionary, the American National Biography is a single-field, and the African American National Biography Project is a sub-field dictionary.",
"In terms of the coverage distinction between \"minimizing dictionaries\" and \"maximizing dictionaries\", multi-field dictionaries tend to minimize coverage across subject fields (for instance, ''Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'' and ''Yadgar Dictionary of Computer and Internet Terms'') whereas single-field and sub-field dictionaries tend to maximize coverage within a limited subject field (''The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology'').Another variant is the glossary, an alphabetical list of defined terms in a specialized field, such as medicine (medical dictionary).===Defining dictionaries===The simplest dictionary, a defining dictionary, provides a core glossary of the simplest meanings of the simplest concepts.",
"From these, other concepts can be explained and defined, in particular for those who are first learning a language.",
"In English, the commercial defining dictionaries typically include only one or two meanings of under 2000 words.",
"With these, the rest of English, and even the 4000 most common English idioms and metaphors, can be defined.===Prescriptive vs. descriptive===Lexicographers apply two basic philosophies to the defining of words: ''prescriptive'' or ''descriptive''.",
"Noah Webster, intent on forging a distinct identity for the American language, altered spellings and accentuated differences in meaning and pronunciation of some words.",
"This is why American English now uses the spelling ''color'' while the rest of the English-speaking world prefers ''colour''.",
"(Similarly, British English subsequently underwent a few spelling changes that did not affect American English; see further at American and British English spelling differences.",
")Large 20th-century dictionaries such as the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (OED) and ''Webster's Third'' are descriptive, and attempt to describe the actual use of words.",
"Most dictionaries of English now apply the descriptive method to a word's definition, and then, outside of the definition itself, provide information alerting readers to attitudes which may influence their choices on words often considered vulgar, offensive, erroneous, or easily confused.",
"''Merriam-Webster'' is subtle, only adding italicized notations such as, ''sometimes offensive'' or ''stand'' (nonstandard).",
"''American Heritage'' goes further, discussing issues separately in numerous \"usage notes.\"",
"''Encarta'' provides similar notes, but is more prescriptive, offering warnings and admonitions against the use of certain words considered by many to be offensive or illiterate, such as, \"an offensive term for...\" or \"a taboo term meaning...\".Because of the widespread use of dictionaries in schools, and their acceptance by many as language authorities, their treatment of the language does affect usage to some degree, with even the most descriptive dictionaries providing conservative continuity.",
"In the long run, however, the meanings of words in English are primarily determined by usage, and the language is being changed and created every day.",
"As Jorge Luis Borges says in the prologue to \"El otro, el mismo\": \"''It is often forgotten that (dictionaries) are artificial repositories, put together well after the languages they define.",
"The roots of language are irrational and of a magical nature.",
"''\"Sometimes the same dictionary can be descriptive in some domains and prescriptive in others.",
"For example, according to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the ''Oxford English-Hebrew Dictionary'' is \"at war with itself\": whereas its coverage (lexical items) and glosses (definitions) are descriptive and colloquial, its vocalization is prescriptive.",
"This internal conflict results in absurd sentences such as ''hi taharóg otí kshetiré me asíti lamkhonít'' (she'll tear me apart when she sees what I've done to the car).",
"Whereas ''hi taharóg otí'', literally 'she will kill me', is colloquial, ''me'' (a variant of ''ma'' 'what') is archaic, resulting in a combination that is unutterable in real life.=== Historical dictionaries ===A historical dictionary is a specific kind of descriptive dictionary which describes the development of words and senses over time, usually using citations to original source material to support its conclusions.===Dictionaries for natural language processing===In contrast to traditional dictionaries, which are designed to be used by human beings, dictionaries for natural language processing (NLP) are built to be used by computer programs.",
"The final user is a human being but the direct user is a program.",
"Such a dictionary does not need to be able to be printed on paper.",
"The structure of the content is not linear, ordered entry by entry but has the form of a complex network (see Diathesis alternation).",
"Because most of these dictionaries are used to control machine translations or cross-lingual information retrieval (CLIR) the content is usually multilingual and usually of huge size.",
"In order to allow formalized exchange and merging of dictionaries, an ISO standard called Lexical Markup Framework (LMF) has been defined and used among the industrial and academic community.===Other types===* Bilingual dictionary* Collegiate dictionary (American) * Learner's dictionary (mostly British)* Electronic dictionary* Encyclopedic dictionary* Monolingual learner's dictionary** Advanced learner's dictionary* By sound** Rhyming dictionary* Reverse dictionary (Conceptual dictionary)* Visual dictionary* Satirical dictionary* Phonetic dictionary"
],
[
"Pronunciation",
"In many languages, such as the English language, the pronunciation of some words is not consistently apparent from their spelling.",
"In these languages, dictionaries usually provide the pronunciation.",
"For example, the definition for the word ''dictionary'' might be followed by the International Phonetic Alphabet spelling (in British English) or (in American English).",
"American English dictionaries often use their own pronunciation respelling systems with diacritics, for example ''dictionary'' is respelled as \"dĭk'''′'''shə-nĕr′ē\" in the American Heritage Dictionary.",
"The IPA is more commonly used within the British Commonwealth countries.",
"Yet others use their own pronunciation respelling systems without diacritics: for example, ''dictionary'' may be respelled as .",
"Some online or electronic dictionaries provide audio recordings of words being spoken."
],
[
"Examples",
"===Major English dictionaries======Dictionaries of other languages===Histories and descriptions of the dictionaries of other languages on Wikipedia include:* Arabic dictionaries * Chinese dictionaries* Dehkhoda Dictionary (Persian Language)* Dutch dictionaries* French dictionaries* German dictionaries* Japanese dictionaries* Polish dictionaries* Scottish Gaelic dictionaries* Scottish Language Dictionaries* Sindhi Language Dictionaries"
],
[
"Online dictionaries",
"The age of the Internet brought online dictionaries to the desktop and, more recently, to the smart phone.",
"David Skinner in 2013 noted that \"Among the top ten lookups on Merriam-Webster Online at this moment are ''holistic, pragmatic, caveat, esoteric'' and ''bourgeois.''",
"Teaching users about words they don't already know has been, historically, an aim of lexicography, and modern dictionaries do this well.\"",
"There exist a number of websites which operate as online dictionaries, usually with a specialized focus.",
"Some of them have exclusively user driven content, often consisting of neologisms.",
"Some of the more notable examples are given in List of online dictionaries and :Category:Online dictionaries."
],
[
"See also"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * * * * *Atkins, B.T.S.",
"& Rundell, Michael (2008) ''The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
"* (published in the UK as ''The Surgeon of Crowthorne'').",
"*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Guy Jean Forgue, \" The Norm in American English\", ''Revue Française d'Etudes Americaines'', Nov 1983, Vol.",
"8 Issue 18, pp.",
"451–461.An international appreciation of the importance of Webster's dictionaries in setting the norms of the English language."
],
[
"External links",
"* * Glossary of dictionary terms by the Oxford University Press*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"David D. Friedman"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''David Director Friedman''' (born February 12, 1945) is an American economist, physicist, legal scholar, author, and anarcho-capitalist theorist.",
"Although he studied chemistry and physics and not law or economics, he is known for his textbook writings on microeconomics and the libertarian theory of anarcho-capitalism, which is the subject of his most popular book, ''The Machinery of Freedom''.",
"Described by Walter Block as a \"free-market anarchist\" theorist, Friedman has also authored several other books and articles, including ''Price Theory: An Intermediate Text'' (1986), ''Law's Order: What Economics Has to Do with Law and Why It Matters'' (2000), ''Hidden Order: The Economics of Everyday Life'' (1996), and ''Future Imperfect'' (2008)."
],
[
"Life and work",
"David Friedman is the son of economists Rose and Milton Friedman.",
"He graduated ''magna cum laude'' from Harvard University in 1965, with a bachelor's degree in chemistry and physics.",
"He later earned a master's (1967) and a PhD (1971) in theoretical physics from the University of Chicago.",
"Despite his later career, he never took a class for credit in either economics or law.",
"He was a professor of law at Santa Clara University from 2005 to 2017, and a contributing editor for ''Liberty'' magazine.",
"He is currently a Professor Emeritus.",
"He is an atheist.",
"His son, Patri Friedman, has also written about libertarian theory and market anarchism, particularly seasteading.===''The Machinery of Freedom''===In his book ''The Machinery of Freedom'' (1973), Friedman sketched a form of anarcho-capitalism where all goods and services including law itself can be produced by the free market.",
"Friedman advocates an incrementalist approach to achieve anarcho-capitalism by gradual privatization of areas that government is involved in, ultimately privatizing the law itself.",
"In the book, he states his opposition to violent anarcho-capitalist revolution.He advocates a consequentialist version of anarcho-capitalism, arguing for it on a cost–benefit analysis of state versus no state.",
"It is contrasted with the natural-rights approach as propounded most notably by economist and libertarian theorist Murray Rothbard."
],
[
"Non-academic interests",
"Friedman is a longtime member of the Society for Creative Anachronism, where he is known as ''Duke Cariadoc of the Bow''.",
"He is known throughout the worldwide society for his articles on the philosophy of recreationism and practical historical recreations, especially those relating to the medieval Middle East.",
"His work is compiled in the popular ''Cariadoc's Miscellany''.",
"He is sometimes credited with founding the largest and longest-running SCA event, the Pennsic War; as king of the Middle Kingdom he challenged the East Kingdom, and later as king of the East accepted the challenge and lost (to himself).He was a teenage wargamer who taught his school friend, Jack Radey, founder of People's War Games, how to play such wargames as ''Tactics II''.",
"Radey relates how Friedman and himself wrote to Charles S. Roberts claiming that they had found a first turn winning strategy for each of the two sides.",
"Roberts replied that their interpretation of the rules was valid.He is a long-time science fiction fan, and has written two fantasy novels, ''Harald'' (Baen Books, 2006) and ''Salamander'' (2011).He has spoken in favor of a non-interventionist foreign policy."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"=== Nonfiction ===* 1988.''",
"Cariadoc's Miscellany''.",
"* 1990 (2nd ed.",
"; 1st ed.",
": 1986). ''",
"Price Theory: An Intermediate Text''.",
"Southwestern Publishing.",
"* 1996.",
"''Hidden Order: The Economics of Everyday Life''.",
".",
"* 2000.''",
"Law's Order: What Economics Has to Do with Law and Why It Matters''.",
"Princeton Univ.",
"Press.",
"* 2005.",
"\"The Case for Privacy\" in ''Contemporary Debates in Applied Ethics''.",
"Wiley-Blackwell.",
"* 2008.''",
"Future Imperfect: Technology and Freedom in an Uncertain World''.",
"* 2015 (3rd ed.",
"; 2nd ed.",
": 1989; 1st ed.",
": 1973).",
"''The Machinery of Freedom''.",
"* 2019.''",
"Legal Systems Very Different from Ours''.",
"=== Fiction ===* * ''Salamander'', 2011* ''Brothers'', 2020"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * Profile on the website of Santa Clara University* * ''Booknotes'' interview with Friedman on ''Hidden Order: The Economics of Everyday Life'', October 20, 1996.",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Diatomic molecule"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A space-filling model of the diatomic molecule dinitrogen, N2'''Diatomic molecules''' () are molecules composed of only two atoms, of the same or different chemical elements.",
"If a diatomic molecule consists of two atoms of the same element, such as hydrogen () or oxygen (), then it is said to be homonuclear.",
"Otherwise, if a diatomic molecule consists of two different atoms, such as carbon monoxide () or nitric oxide (), the molecule is said to be heteronuclear.",
"The bond in a homonuclear diatomic molecule is non-polar.A periodic table showing the elements that exist as homonuclear diatomic molecules under typical laboratory conditions.The only chemical elements that form stable homonuclear diatomic molecules at standard temperature and pressure (STP) (or typical laboratory conditions of 1 bar and 25 °C) are the gases hydrogen (), nitrogen (), oxygen (), fluorine (), and chlorine ().The noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon) are also gases at STP, but they are monatomic.",
"The homonuclear diatomic gases and noble gases together are called \"elemental gases\" or \"molecular gases\", to distinguish them from other gases that are chemical compounds.At slightly elevated temperatures, the halogens bromine () and iodine () also form diatomic gases.",
"All halogens have been observed as diatomic molecules, except for astatine and tennessine, which are uncertain.Other elements form diatomic molecules when evaporated, but these diatomic species repolymerize when cooled.",
"Heating (\"cracking\") elemental phosphorus gives diphosphorus ().",
"Sulfur vapor is mostly disulfur ().",
"Dilithium () and disodium () are known in the gas phase.",
"Ditungsten () and dimolybdenum () form with sextuple bonds in the gas phase.",
"Dirubidium () is diatomic."
],
[
"Heteronuclear molecules",
"All other diatomic molecules are chemical compounds of two different elements.",
"Many elements can combine to form heteronuclear diatomic molecules, depending on temperature and pressure.Examples are gases carbon monoxide (CO), nitric oxide (NO), and hydrogen chloride (HCl).Many 1:1 binary compounds are not normally considered diatomic because they are polymeric at room temperature, but they form diatomic molecules when evaporated, for example gaseous MgO, SiO, and many others."
],
[
"Occurrence",
"Hundreds of diatomic molecules have been identified in the environment of the Earth, in the laboratory, and in interstellar space.",
"About 99% of the Earth's atmosphere is composed of two species of diatomic molecules: nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%).",
"The natural abundance of hydrogen (H2) in the Earth's atmosphere is only of the order of parts per million, but H2 is the most abundant diatomic molecule in the universe.",
"The interstellar medium is dominated by hydrogen atoms."
],
[
"Molecular geometry",
"All diatomic molecules are linear and characterized by a single parameter which is the bond length or distance between the two atoms.",
"Diatomic nitrogen has a triple bond, diatomic oxygen has a double bond, and diatomic hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, iodine, and bromine all have single bonds."
],
[
"Historical significance",
"Diatomic elements played an important role in the elucidation of the concepts of element, atom, and molecule in the 19th century, because some of the most common elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, occur as diatomic molecules.",
"John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis assumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another.",
"For example, Dalton assumed water's formula to be HO, giving the atomic weight of oxygen as eight times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16.As a consequence, confusion existed regarding atomic weights and molecular formulas for about half a century.As early as 1805, Gay-Lussac and von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen, and by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called Avogadro's law and the assumption of diatomic elemental molecules.",
"However, these results were mostly ignored until 1860, partly due to the belief that atoms of one element would have no chemical affinity toward atoms of the same element, and also partly due to apparent exceptions to Avogadro's law that were not explained until later in terms of dissociating molecules.At the 1860 Karlsruhe Congress on atomic weights, Cannizzaro resurrected Avogadro's ideas and used them to produce a consistent table of atomic weights, which mostly agree with modern values.",
"These weights were an important prerequisite for the discovery of the periodic law by Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer."
],
[
"Excited electronic states",
"Diatomic molecules are normally in their lowest or ground state, which conventionally is also known as the state.",
"When a gas of diatomic molecules is bombarded by energetic electrons, some of the molecules may be excited to higher electronic states, as occurs, for example, in the natural aurora; high-altitude nuclear explosions; and rocket-borne electron gun experiments.",
"Such excitation can also occur when the gas absorbs light or other electromagnetic radiation.",
"The excited states are unstable and naturally relax back to the ground state.",
"Over various short time scales after the excitation (typically a fraction of a second, or sometimes longer than a second if the excited state is metastable), transitions occur from higher to lower electronic states and ultimately to the ground state, and in each transition results a photon is emitted.",
"This emission is known as fluorescence.",
"Successively higher electronic states are conventionally named , , , etc.",
"(but this convention is not always followed, and sometimes lower case letters and alphabetically out-of-sequence letters are used, as in the example given below).",
"The excitation energy must be greater than or equal to the energy of the electronic state in order for the excitation to occur.In quantum theory, an electronic state of a diatomic molecule is represented by the molecular term symbol:where is the total electronic spin quantum number, is the total electronic angular momentum quantum number along the internuclear axis, and is the vibrational quantum number.",
"takes on values 0, 1, 2, ..., which are represented by the electronic state symbols , , ,....For example, the following table lists the common electronic states (without vibrational quantum numbers) along with the energy of the lowest vibrational level () of diatomic nitrogen (N2), the most abundant gas in the Earth's atmosphere.",
"The subscripts and superscripts after give additional quantum mechanical details about the electronic state.",
"The superscript or determines whether reflection in a plane containing the internuclear axis introduces a sign change in the wavefunction.",
"The sub-script or applies to molecules of identical atoms, and when reflecting the state along a plane perpendicualr to the molecular axis, states that does not change are labelled (gerade), and states that change sign are labelled (ungerade).",
"State Energy (, cm−1) 0.0 49754.8 59306.8 59380.2 65851.3 67739.3 68951.2 71698.4The aforementioned fluorescence occurs in distinct regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, called \"emission bands\": each band corresponds to a particular transition from a higher electronic state and vibrational level to a lower electronic state and vibrational level (typically, many vibrational levels are involved in an excited gas of diatomic molecules).",
"For example, N2 - emission bands (a.k.a.",
"Vegard-Kaplan bands) are present in the spectral range from 0.14 to 1.45 μm (micrometres).",
"A given band can be spread out over several nanometers in electromagnetic wavelength space, owing to the various transitions that occur in the molecule's rotational quantum number, .",
"These are classified into distinct sub-band branches, depending on the change in .",
"The branch corresponds to , the branch to , and the branch to .",
"Bands are spread out even further by the limited spectral resolution of the spectrometer that is used to measure the spectrum.",
"The spectral resolution depends on the instrument's point spread function."
],
[
"Energy levels",
"The molecular term symbol is a shorthand expression of the angular momenta that characterize the electronic quantum states of a diatomic molecule, which are also eigenstates of the electronic molecular Hamiltonian.",
"It is also convenient, and common, to represent a diatomic molecule as two-point masses connected by a massless spring.",
"The energies involved in the various motions of the molecule can then be broken down into three categories: the translational, rotational, and vibrational energies.The theoretical study of the rotational energy levels of the diatomic molecules can be described using the below description of the rotational energy levels.",
"While the study of vibrational energy level of the diatomic molecules can be described using the harmonic oscillator approximation or using the quantum vibrational interaction potentials.",
"These potentials give more accurate energy levels because they take multiple vibrational effects into account.Concerning history, the first treatment of diatomic molecules with quantum mechanics was made by Lucy Mensing in 1926.===Translational energies===The translational energy of the molecule is given by the kinetic energy expression::where is the mass of the molecule and is its velocity.===Rotational energies===Classically, the kinetic energy of rotation is:::where:: is the angular momentum:: is the moment of inertia of the moleculeFor microscopic, atomic-level systems like a molecule, angular momentum can only have specific discrete values given by:::where is a non-negative integer and is the reduced Planck constant.Also, for a diatomic molecule the moment of inertia is:::where:: is the reduced mass of the molecule and:: is the average distance between the centers of the two atoms in the molecule.So, substituting the angular momentum and moment of inertia into Erot, the rotational energy levels of a diatomic molecule are given by:::===Vibrational energies===Another type of motion of a diatomic molecule is for each atom to oscillate—or vibrate—along the line connecting the two atoms.",
"The vibrational energy is approximately that of a quantum harmonic oscillator::::where:: is an integer:: is the reduced Planck constant and:: is the angular frequency of the vibration.===Comparison between rotational and vibrational energy spacings===The spacing, and the energy of a typical spectroscopic transition, between vibrational energy levels is about 100 times greater than that of a typical transition between rotational energy levels."
],
[
"Hund's cases",
"The good quantum numbers for a diatomic molecule, as well as good approximations of rotational energy levels, can be obtained by modeling the molecule using Hund's cases."
],
[
"Mnemonics",
"The mnemonics ''BrINClHOF'', pronounced \"Brinklehof\", ''HONClBrIF'', pronounced \"Honkelbrif\", “HOBrFINCl”, pronounced “Hoberfinkel”, and ''HOFBrINCl'', pronounced \"Hofbrinkle\", have been coined to aid recall of the list of diatomic elements.",
"Another method, for English-speakers, is the sentence: \"''Never Have Fear of Ice Cold Beer''\" as a representation of Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Fluorine, Oxygen, Iodine, Chlorine, Bromine."
],
[
"See also",
"*Symmetry of diatomic molecules* AXE method*Octatomic element*Covalent bond*Industrial gas"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"****"
],
[
"External links",
"* Hyperphysics – Rotational Spectra of Rigid Rotor Molecules* Hyperphysics – Quantum Harmonic Oscillator* 3D Chem – Chemistry, Structures, and 3D Molecules* IUMSC – Indiana University Molecular Structure Center"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Duopoly"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''duopoly''' (from Greek δύο, ''duo'' \"two\" and πωλεῖν, ''polein'' \"to sell\") is a type of oligopoly where two firms have dominant or exclusive control over a market, and most (if not all) of the competition within that market occurs directly between them.Duopoly is the most commonly studied form of oligopoly due to its simplicity.",
"Duopolies sell to consumers in a competitive market where the choice of an individual consumer choice cannot affect the firm in a duopoly market, as the defining characteristic of duopolies is that decisions made by each seller are dependent on what the other competitor does.",
"Duopolies can exist in various forms, such as Cournot, Bertrand, or Stackelberg competition.",
"These models demonstrate how firms in a duopoly can compete on output or price, depending on the assumptions made about firm behavior and market conditions.",
"''one'' ''two'' ''few'' ''sellers'' monopoly duopoly oligopoly ''buyers'' monopsony duopsony oligopsony"
],
[
"Duopoly models in economics and game theory",
"===Cournot Duopoly=== Cournot Model in Game Theory: In 1838, Antoine A. Cournot published a book titled \"Researches Into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth\" in which he introduced and developed this model for the first time.",
"As an imperfect competition model, Cournot duopoly (also known as Cournot competition), in which two firms with identical cost functions compete with homogenous products in a static context, is also known as Cournot competition.The Cournot model, shows that two firms assume each other's output and treat this as a fixed amount, and produce in their own firm according to this.The Cournot duopoly model relies on the following assumptions:* Each firm chooses a quantity to produce independently* All firms make this choice simultaneously* The cost structures of the firms are public informationIn this model, two companies, each of which chooses its own quantity of output, compete against each other while facing constant marginal and average costs.",
"The market price is determined by the sum of the output of two companies.",
"is the equation for the market demand function.",
"* Market with two firms i = 1, 2 with constant marginal cost ci* Inverse market demand for a homogeneous good: P(Q)=a-bQ * Where Q is the sum of both firms' production levels, Q = q1 + q2* Firms choose their quantity simultaneously (static game)* Firms maximize their profit: Π1(q1, q2) = (P(q1 + q2) − c1)*q1Π2(q1, q2) = (P(q1 + q2) − c2)*q2The general process for obtaining a Nash equilibrium of a game using the best response functions is followed in order to discover a Nash equilibrium of Cournot's model for a specific cost function and demand function.A Nash Equilibrium of the Cournot model is a (q1*, q2*) such thatFor a given q1* , q2* solves:MAXq1 Π1(q1, q2*) = (P(q1 + q2*) − c1)q1 andMAXq2 Π2(q1*, q2) = (P(q1* + q2) − c2)q2Given the other firm's optimal quantity, each firm maximizes its profit over the residual inverse demand.",
"In equilibrium, no firm can increase profits by changing its output levelTwo first order conditions equal to zero are the best response.Cournot's duopoly marked the beginning of the study of oligopolies, and specifically duopolies, as well as the expansion of the research of market structures, which had previously focussed on the extremes of perfect competition and monopoly.In the Cournot duopoly model, firms choose the quantity of output they produce simultaneously, taking into consideration the quantity produced by their competitor.",
"Each firm's profit depends on the total output produced by both firms, and the market price is determined by the sum of their outputs.",
"The goal of each firm is to maximize its profit given the output produced by the other firm.",
"This process continues until both firms reach a Nash equilibrium, where neither firm has an incentive to change its output level given the output of the other firm.===Bertrand Duopoly===Bertrand Model in Game Theory: The Bertrand competition was developed by a French mathematician called Joseph Louis François Bertrand after investigating the claims of the Cournot model in \"Researches into the mathematical principles of the theory of wealth, 1838\".According to the Cournot model, firms in a duopoly would be able to keep prices above marginal cost and hence be extremely profitable.",
"Bertrand took issue with this.",
"In this market structure, each firm could only choose whole amounts and each firm receives zero payoffs when the aggregate demand exceeds the size of the amount that they share with each other.",
"The market demand function is .The Bertrand model has similar assumptions to the Cournot model:* Two firms* Homogeneous products* Both firms know the market demand curve* However, unlike the Cournot model, it assumes that firms have the same MC .",
"It also assumes that MC is constantThe Bertrand model, in which, in a game of two firms, competes in price instead of output.",
"Each one of them will assume that the other will not change prices in response to its price cuts.",
"When both firms use this logic, they will reach a Nash equilibrium.",
"* Consider price competition among two firms (i = 1, 2) selling homogeneous good* Downward sloping market demand D(p), with D’(p)1 = c2 = c* Static game: firms set prices simultaneously* Rationing rule of demand:# lowest priced firm wins all demand at its price# if prices are tied, each firm gets half of market demand at this price* Firm i’s profits: Πi = (pi − c)Di(pi , pj)Let pm be the monopoly price, pm = argmaxp(p − c)D(p)* Firm i’s best response is:If pj> pm, Ri(pj)=pmIf c j ≤ pm ,Ri(pj) =pj-€If pj ≤ c, Ri(pj) =cFor rival prices above cost, each firm has incentive to undercut rival to get the whole demand.if rival prices below cost, firms make losses when it attracts demand; firm better off charging at cost level.",
"Nash equilibrium is p1 = p2 = cBertrand Paradox: Under static price competition with homogenous products and constant, symmetric marginal cost, firms price at the level of marginal cost and make no economic profits.In contrast to the Cournot model, the Bertrand duopoly model assumes that firms compete on price rather than quantity.",
"Each firm sets its price simultaneously, anticipating that the other firm will not change its price in response.",
"When both firms use this logic, they will reach a Nash equilibrium, where neither firm has an incentive to change its price given the price set by the other firm.",
"In this model, firms tend to price their products at the level of their marginal cost, resulting in zero economic profits, a phenomenon known as the Bertrand Paradox."
],
[
"Characteristics of duopoly",
"# Existence of only two sellers.# Interdependence: the action of each firm influences the demand faced by their rival.# Presence of monopoly elements: as long as products are differentiated, the firms enjoy some monopoly power, as each product will have some loyal customers.# It is the most basic form of oligopoly# Barriers to entry: high entry barriers are often present in duopolies, making it difficult for new firms to enter the market."
],
[
"Quality standards",
"In a duopoly, quality standards can play a significant role in the competitive dynamics between the two firms.",
"A low-quality manufacturer may benefit from a slightly stringent quality standard in the absence of sunk costs, whereas a high-quality producer may suffer from it.",
"Consumer welfare improves if the firm generating the higher quality does not considerably enhance its quality in response to its competitor's increase in quality.",
"Exit from the industry is triggered by a sufficiently strict requirement.",
"The high-quality producer exits first when there are no sunk costs.",
"In some cases, firms may engage in a quality competition, attempting to outdo one another by improving their products or services to attract more customers."
],
[
"Politics",
"Like a market, a political system can be dominated by two groups, which exclude other parties or ideologies from participation.",
"One party or the other tends to dominate government at any given time (the Majority party), while the other has only limited power (the Minority party).",
"According to Duverger's law, this tends to be caused by a simple winner-take-all voting system without runoffs or ranked choices.",
"The United States and many Latin American countries, such as Costa Rica, Guyana, and the Dominican Republic have two-party government systems.",
"'''Duopoly in Danish court politics'''The prime minister-finance minister duopoly is an unusual form of court politics.",
"There have been few other countries where the prime minister and the Treasury have had such a tumultuous relationship as Australia and the United Kingdom.",
"There have been some confrontations in the past when the Finance ministry did not have the full support of the prime minister, leading to internal ministerial battles over economic strategy.A permanent civil service is a basic requirement for the duopoly system to function properly.",
"The permanent civil service in general, and the Socialist Party in particular, are critical to the duopoly's effective operation.",
"The conventional inter-governmental duopoly is carried by civil servants.The duopoly is confronted with some quandaries, such as tensions between different groups in the office over their relative positions.",
"Departmental budget cuts are being made across the board.The prime ministerial-finance-ministry duopoly requires more credibility.",
"Trust is a rare commodity among Australians and Britons.",
"Denmark has a lot to offer.",
"The Danish duopoly works together.",
"Australia and the United Kingdom have competitive duopolies, and competitive duopolies are unstable."
],
[
"Types of duopoly",
"=== Cournot duopoly ===A Cournot duopoly is a model of strategic interaction between two firms where they simultaneously choose their output levels, assuming the rival's output level is fixed.",
"The firms compete on quantity, and each firm attempts to maximize its profit given the other firm's output level.",
"This leads to a Nash equilibrium where neither firm has an incentive to change its output, given the other firm's output.=== Bertrand duopoly ===In a Bertrand duopoly, two firms compete on price instead of quantity.",
"Each firm assumes that its rival's price is fixed and chooses its own price to maximize profit.",
"This model predicts that, under certain conditions, firms will set prices equal to marginal cost, leading to perfect competition.=== Stackelberg duopoly ===A Stackelberg duopoly is a model where one firm (the leader) chooses its output level first, followed by the other firm (the follower).",
"The follower observes the leader's output decision and adjusts its own output to maximize profit.",
"The Stackelberg model often results in a higher total output and lower market price than the Cournot and Bertrand models."
],
[
"Examples in business",
"A commonly cited example of a duopoly is that involving Visa and Mastercard, who between them control a large proportion of the electronic payment processing market.",
"In 2000 they were the defendants in a United States Department of Justice antitrust lawsuit.",
"An appeal was upheld in 2004.Examples, where two companies control an overwhelming proportion of a market, are:* Airbus and Boeing in the largest commercial aircraft market in the world* Nvidia and AMD in the GPU market* Intel and AMD in the desktop CPU market* Google's Android and Apple's iOS make up over 99% of the mobile operating system market* Coca-Cola and Pepsi in the soft drink market, resulting in the cola wars.",
"The two companies control nearly all of the cola beverage market.",
"* DC and Marvel in the American comic book market and movies* Woolworths and Coles in the Australian supermarket market* Myer and David Jones in the Australian upmarket department store market* Husqvarna and Stihl in the chainsaw market* Doppelmayr Garaventa Group and HTI Group consisting of Poma & Leitner in the market for ropeways, transport commonly used in mountainous regions, ski resorts, cities and amusement parks.",
"* Norfolk Southern and CSX operate a duopoly on freight rail traffic in the Eastern United States, and Union Pacific and BNSF form a duopoly operating in the Midwest, southern, and western United States.",
"* Wolfram Research and Mathworks and their flagship products Mathematica/Wolfram Desktop/Wolfram One/Wolfram Language and Matlab, respectively in the scientific and technical and mathematical computing field.",
"* Windows and Apple MacOS in the desktop operating system (OS) market."
],
[
"Media",
"In Finland, the state-owned broadcasting company Yleisradio and the private broadcaster Mainos-TV had a legal duopoly (in the economists' sense of the word) from the 1950s to 1993.No other broadcasters were allowed.",
"Mainos-TV operated by leasing air time from Yleisradio, broadcasting in reserved blocks between Yleisradio's own programming on its two channels.",
"This was a unique phenomenon in the world.",
"Between 1986 and 1992 there was an independent third channel but it was jointly owned by Yle and M-TV; only in 1993 did M-TV get its own channel.In Kenya, mobile service providers Safaricom and Airtel in Kenya form a duopoly in the Kenyan telecommunications industry.In Singapore, the mass media industry is presently dominated by two players, namely Mediacorp and SPH Media Trust.In the United Kingdom, the BBC and ITV formed an effective duopoly (with Channel 4 originally being economically dependent on ITV) until the development of multichannel from the 1990s onwards."
],
[
"Broadcasting",
"Duopoly is also used in the United States broadcast television and radio industry to refer to a single company owning two outlets in the same city.This usage is technically incompatible with the normal definition of the word and may lead to confusion, inasmuch as there are generally more than two owners of broadcast television stations in markets with broadcast duopolies.",
"In Canada, this definition is therefore more commonly called a \"twinstick\"."
],
[
"See also",
"*Monopoly*Oligopoly*Two-party system"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Dungeons & Dragons"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Dungeons & Dragons''''' (commonly abbreviated as '''''D&D''''' or '''''DnD''''') is a fantasy tabletop role-playing game (RPG) originally created and designed by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson.",
"The game was first published in 1974 by Tactical Studies Rules, Inc. (TSR).",
"It has been published by Wizards of the Coast, now a subsidiary of Hasbro, since 1997.The game was derived from miniature wargames, with a variation of the 1971 game ''Chainmail'' serving as the initial rule system.",
"''D&D'' publication is commonly recognized as the beginning of modern role-playing games and the role-playing game industry, and also deeply influenced video games, especially the role-playing video game genre.",
"''D&D'' departs from traditional wargaming by allowing each player to create their own character to play instead of a military formation.",
"These characters embark upon adventures within a fantasy setting.",
"A Dungeon Master (DM) serves as referee and storyteller for the game, while maintaining the setting in which the adventures occur, and playing the role of the inhabitants of the game world, known as non-player characters (NPCs).",
"The characters form a party and they interact with the setting's inhabitants and each other.",
"Together they solve problems, engage in battles, explore, and gather treasure and knowledge.",
"In the process, player characters earn experience points (XP) to level up, and become increasingly powerful over a series of separate gaming sessions.",
"Players choose a class when they create their character, which gives them special perks and abilities every few levels.The early success of ''D&D'' led to a proliferation of similar game systems.",
"Despite the competition, ''D&D'' has remained the market leader in the role-playing game industry.",
"In 1977, the game was split into two branches: the relatively rules-light game system of basic ''Dungeons & Dragons'', and the more structured, rules-heavy game system of ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' (abbreviated as ''AD&D'').",
"''AD&D'' 2nd Edition was published in 1989.In 2000, a new system was released as ''D&D'' 3rd edition, continuing the edition numbering from ''AD&D''; a revised version 3.5 was released in June 2003.These 3rd edition rules formed the basis of the d20 System, which is available under the Open Game License (OGL) for use by other publishers.",
"''D&D'' 4th edition was released in June 2008.The 5th edition of ''D&D'', the most recent, was released during the second half of 2014.In 2004, ''D&D'' remained the best-known, and best-selling, role-playing game in the US, with an estimated 20 million people having played the game and more than US$1 billion in book and equipment sales worldwide.",
"The year 2017 had \"the most number of players in its history—12 million to 15 million in North America alone\".",
"''D&D 5th edition'' sales \"were up 41 percent in 2017 from the year before, and soared another 52 percent in 2018, the game's biggest sales year yet\".",
"The game has been supplemented by many premade adventures, as well as commercial campaign settings suitable for use by regular gaming groups.",
"''D&D'' is known beyond the game itself for other ''D&D''-branded products, references in popular culture, and some of the controversies that have surrounded it, particularly a moral panic in the 1980s, which attempted to associate it with Satanism and suicide.",
"The game has won multiple awards and has been translated into many languages."
],
[
"Play overview",
"''Dungeons & Dragons'' is a structured yet open-ended role-playing game.",
"It is normally played indoors with the participants seated around a tabletop.",
"Typically, one player takes on the role of Dungeon Master (DM) while the others each control a single character, representing an individual in a fictional setting.",
"When working together as a group, the player characters (PCs) are often described as a \"party\" of adventurers, with each member often having their own area of specialty that contributes to the success of the group as a whole.",
"During the course of play, each player directs the actions of their character and their interactions with other characters in the game.",
"This activity is performed through the verbal impersonation of the characters by the players, while employing a variety of social and other useful cognitive skills, such as logic, basic mathematics and imagination.",
"A game often continues over a series of meetings to complete a single adventure, and longer into a series of related gaming adventures, called a \"campaign\".The results of the party's choices and the overall story line for the game are determined by the DM according to the rules of the game and the DM's interpretation of those rules.",
"The DM selects and describes the various non-player characters (NPCs) that the party encounters, the settings in which these interactions occur, and the outcomes of those encounters based on the players' choices and actions.",
"Encounters often take the form of battles with \"monsters\" – a generic term used in ''D&D'' to describe potentially hostile beings such as animals, aberrant beings, or mythical creatures.",
"In addition to jewels and gold coins, magic items form part of the treasure that the players often seek in a dungeon.",
"Magic items are generally found in treasure hoards, or recovered from fallen opponents; sometimes, a powerful or important magic item is the object of a quest.",
"The game's extensive rules – which cover diverse subjects such as social interactions, magic use, combat, and the effect of the environment on PCs – help the DM to make these decisions.",
"The DM may choose to deviate from the published rules or make up new ones if they feel it is necessary.The most recent versions of the game's rules are detailed in three Fifth Edition core rulebooks: The ''Player's Handbook'', the ''Dungeon Master's Guide'' and the ''Monster Manual''.The only items required to play the game are the rulebooks, a character sheet for each player, and a number of polyhedral dice.",
"Many players also use miniature figures on a grid map as a visual aid if desired, particularly during combat.",
"Some editions of the game presume such usage.",
"Many optional accessories are available to enhance the game, such as expansion rulebooks, pre-designed adventures and various campaign settings.===Game mechanics===''D&D'' uses polyhedral dice to resolve in-game events.",
"These are abbreviated by a 'd' followed by the number of sides.",
"Shown from left to right are a d20, d12, d%, d10, d8, d6, and a d4.A d% and d10 can be rolled together to produce a number between 1 and 100.Before the game begins, each player creates their player character and records the details (described below) on a character sheet.",
"First, a player determines their character's ability scores, which consist of Strength, Dexterity, Constitution, Intelligence, Wisdom, and Charisma.",
"Each edition of the game has offered differing methods of determining these scores.",
"The player then chooses a race (species), a character class (such as a fighter, rogue, or wizard), an alignment (a moral and ethical outlook), and other features to round out the character's abilities and backstory, which have varied in nature through differing editions.During the game, players describe their PCs' intended actions to the DM, who then describes the result or response.",
"Trivial actions, such as picking up a letter or opening an unlocked door, are usually automatically successful.",
"The outcomes of more complex or risky actions, such as scaling a cliff or picking a lock, are determined by rolling dice.",
"Different polyhedral dice are used for different actions.",
"For example, a twenty-sided die is used to determine whether a hit is made in combat, with other dice such as four, six, eight, ten, or even twelve-sided die used to determine how much damage was dealt.",
"Factors contributing to the outcome include the character's ability scores, skills, and the difficulty of the task.",
"In circumstances where a character is attempting to avoid a negative outcome, such as when dodging a trap or resisting the effect of a spell, a saving throw can be used to determine whether the resulting effect is reduced or avoided.",
"In this case the odds of success are influenced by the character's class, levels and ability scores.",
"In circumstances where a character is attempting to complete a task such as picking a lock, deactivating a trap, or pushing a boulder, a Difficulty Class must be hit or exceeded.",
"Relevant ability bonuses are added to help players succeed.As the game is played, each PC changes over time and generally increases in capability.",
"Characters gain (or sometimes lose) experience, skills and wealth, and may even alter their alignment or gain additional character classes.",
"The key way characters progress is by earning experience points (XP), which happens when they defeat an enemy or accomplish a difficult task.",
"Acquiring enough XP allows a PC to advance a level, which grants the character improved class features, abilities and skills.",
"XP can be lost in some circumstances, such as encounters with creatures that drain life energy, or by use of certain magical powers that come with an XP cost.Hit points (HP) are a measure of a character's vitality and health and are determined by the class, level and Constitution of each character.",
"They can be temporarily lost when a character sustains wounds in combat or otherwise comes to harm, and loss of HP is the most common way for a character to die in the game.",
"Death can also result from the loss of key ability scores or character levels.",
"When a PC dies, it is often possible for the dead character to be resurrected through magic, although some penalties may be imposed as a result.",
"If resurrection is not possible or not desired, the player may instead create a new PC to resume playing the game.===Adventures and campaigns===A Dungeon Master's notebook with a custom design adventureA typical ''Dungeons & Dragons'' game consists of an \"adventure\", which is roughly equivalent to a single story or quest.",
"The DM can either design an original adventure or follow one of the many premade adventures (also known as \"modules\") that have been published throughout the history of ''Dungeons & Dragons''.",
"Published adventures typically include a background story, illustrations, maps, and goals for players to achieve.",
"Some may include location descriptions and handouts, although they are not required for gameplay.",
"Although a small adventure entitled \"Temple of the Frog\" was included in the ''Blackmoor'' rules supplement in 1975, the first stand-alone ''D&D'' module published by TSR was 1978's ''Steading of the Hill Giant Chief'', written by Gygax.A linked series of adventures is commonly referred to as a \"campaign\".",
"The locations where these adventures occur, such as a city, country, planet, or entire fictional universe, are referred to as \"campaign settings\" or \"worlds.\"",
"''D&D'' settings are based in various fantasy genres and feature different levels and types of magic and technology.",
"Popular commercially published campaign settings for ''Dungeons & Dragons'' include ''Greyhawk'', ''Dragonlance'', ''Forgotten Realms'', ''Mystara'', ''Spelljammer'', ''Ravenloft'', ''Dark Sun'', ''Planescape'', ''Birthright'', and ''Eberron''.In addition to first-party campaigns and modules, two campaigns based on popular culture have been created.",
"The first, based on ''Stranger Things'', was released in May 2019.A campaign based on the ''Rick and Morty vs. Dungeons and Dragons'' comic book series was later released in November 2019.Alternatively, DMs may develop their own fictional worlds to use as campaign settings, either planning the adventure ahead or expanding on it as the players progress.===Miniature figures===''Dungeons & Dragons'' miniature figures.",
"The grid mat underneath uses one-inch squares, with the side length of each square usually representing either .The wargames from which ''Dungeons & Dragons'' evolved used miniature figures to represent combatants.",
"''D&D'' initially continued the use of miniatures in a fashion similar to its direct precursors.",
"The original ''D&D'' set of 1974 required the use of the ''Chainmail'' miniatures game for combat resolution.",
"By the publication of the 1977 game editions, combat was mostly resolved verbally.",
"Thus, miniatures were no longer required for game play, although some players continued to use them as a visual reference.In the 1970s, numerous companies began to sell miniature figures specifically for ''Dungeons & Dragons'' and similar games.",
"Licensed miniature manufacturers who produced official figures include Grenadier Miniatures (1980–1983), Citadel Miniatures (1984–1986), Ral Partha, and TSR itself.",
"Most of these miniatures used the 25 mm scale.Periodically, ''Dungeons & Dragons'' has returned to its wargaming roots with supplementary rules systems for miniatures-based wargaming.",
"Supplements such as ''Battlesystem'' (1985 and 1989) and a new edition of ''Chainmail'' (2001) provided rule systems to handle battles between armies by using miniatures."
],
[
"Development history",
"===Sources and influences===An immediate predecessor of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' was a set of medieval miniature rules written by Jeff Perren.",
"These were expanded by Gary Gygax, whose additions included a fantasy supplement, before the game was published as ''Chainmail''.",
"When Dave Wesely entered the Army in 1970, his friend and fellow Napoleonics wargamer Dave Arneson began a medieval variation of Wesely's Braunstein games, where players control individuals instead of armies.",
"Arneson used ''Chainmail'' to resolve combat.",
"As play progressed, Arneson added such innovations as character classes, experience points, level advancement, armor class, and others.",
"Having partnered previously with Gygax on ''Don't Give Up the Ship!",
"'', Arneson introduced Gygax to his Blackmoor game and the two then collaborated on developing \"The Fantasy Game\", the game that became ''Dungeons & Dragons'', with the final writing and preparation of the text being done by Gygax.",
"The name was chosen by Gygax's two-year-old daughter Cindy; upon being presented with a number of choices of possible names, she exclaimed, \"Oh Daddy, I like Dungeons & Dragons best!",
"\", although less prevalent versions of the story gave credit to his then wife Mary Jo.Many ''Dungeons & Dragons'' elements appear in hobbies of the mid-to-late 20th century.",
"For example, character-based role playing can be seen in improvisational theater.",
"Game-world simulations were well developed in wargaming.",
"Fantasy milieux specifically designed for gaming could be seen in Glorantha's board games, among others.",
"Ultimately, however, ''Dungeons & Dragons'' represents a unique blending of these elements.The world of ''D&D'' was influenced by world mythology, history, pulp fiction, and contemporary fantasy novels.",
"The importance of Tolkien's ''The Lord of the Rings'' and ''The Hobbit'' as an influence on ''D&D'' is controversial.",
"The presence in the game of halflings, elves, half-elves, dwarves, orcs, rangers, and the like, as well as the convention of diverse adventurers forming a group, draw comparisons to these works.",
"The resemblance was even closer before the threat of copyright action from Tolkien Enterprises prompted the name changes of hobbit to 'halfling', ent to 'treant', and balrog to 'balor'.",
"For many years, Gygax played down the influence of Tolkien on the development of the game.",
"However, in an interview in 2000, he acknowledged that Tolkien's work had a \"strong impact\" though he also said that the list of other influential authors was long.The ''D&D'' magic system, in which wizards memorize spells that are used up once cast and must be re-memorized the next day, was heavily influenced by the ''Dying Earth'' stories and novels of Jack Vance.",
"The original alignment system (which grouped all characters and creatures into 'Law', 'Neutrality' and 'Chaos') was derived from the novel ''Three Hearts and Three Lions'' by Poul Anderson.",
"A troll described in this work influenced the ''D&D'' definition of that monster.Other influences include the works of Robert E. Howard, Edgar Rice Burroughs, A. Merritt, H. P. Lovecraft, Fritz Leiber, L. Sprague de Camp, Fletcher Pratt, Roger Zelazny, and Michael Moorcock.",
"Monsters, spells, and magic items used in the game have been inspired by hundreds of individual works such as A. E. van Vogt's \"Black Destroyer\", Coeurl (the Displacer Beast), Lewis Carroll's \"Jabberwocky\" (vorpal sword) and the Book of Genesis (the clerical spell 'Blade Barrier' was inspired by the \"flaming sword which turned every way\" at the gates of Eden).===Edition history===''Dungeons & Dragons'' has gone through several revisions.",
"Parallel versions and inconsistent naming practices can make it difficult to distinguish between the different editions.====Original game====The original ''Dungeons & Dragons'', now referred to as ''OD&D'', was a small box set of three booklets published in 1974.With a very limited production budget of only $2000—with only $100 budgeted for artwork—it was amateurish in production and assumed the player was familiar with wargaming.",
"Nevertheless, it grew rapidly in popularity, first among wargamers and then expanding to a more general audience of college and high school students.",
"Roughly 1,000 copies of the game were sold in the first year followed by 3,000 in 1975, and many more in the following years.",
"This first set went through many printings and was supplemented with several official additions, such as the original Greyhawk and Blackmoor supplements (both 1975), as well as magazine articles in TSR's official publications and many fanzines.====Two-pronged strategy====In early 1977, TSR created the first element of a two-pronged strategy that would divide ''D&D'' for nearly two decades.",
"A ''Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set'' boxed edition was introduced that cleaned up the presentation of the essential rules, made the system understandable to the general public, and was sold in a package that could be stocked in toy stores.",
"Later in 1977, the first part of ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' (''AD&D'') was published, which brought together the various published rules, options and corrections, then expanded them into a definitive, unified game for hobbyist gamers.",
"TSR marketed them as an introductory game for new players and a more complex game for experienced ones; the ''Basic Set'' directed players who exhausted the possibilities of that game to switch to the advanced rules.As a result of this parallel development, the basic game included many rules and concepts which contradicted comparable ones in ''AD&D''.",
"John Eric Holmes, the editor of the basic game, preferred a lighter tone with more room for personal improvisation.",
"''AD&D'', on the other hand, was designed to create a tighter, more structured game system than the loose framework of the original game.",
"Between 1977 and 1979, three hardcover rulebooks, commonly referred to as the \"core rulebooks\", were released: the ''Player's Handbook'' (PHB), the ''Dungeon Master's Guide'' (DMG), and the ''Monster Manual'' (MM).",
"Several supplementary books were published throughout the 1980s, notably ''Unearthed Arcana'' (1985) that included a large number of new rules.",
"Confusing matters further, the original ''D&D'' boxed set remained in publication until 1979, since it remained a healthy seller for TSR.====Revised editions====In the 1980s, the rules for ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' and \"basic\" ''Dungeons & Dragons'' remained separate, each developing along different paths.In 1981, the basic version of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' was revised by Tom Moldvay to make it even more novice-friendly.",
"It was promoted as a continuation of the original ''D&D'' tone, whereas ''AD&D'' was promoted as advancement of the mechanics.",
"An accompanying ''Expert Set'', originally written by David \"Zeb\" Cook, allowed players to continue using the simpler ruleset beyond the early levels of play.",
"In 1983, revisions of those sets by Frank Mentzer were released, revising the presentation of the rules to a more tutorial format.",
"These were followed by ''Companion'' (1983), ''Master'' (1985), and ''Immortals'' (1986) sets.",
"Each set covered game play for more powerful characters than the previous.",
"The first four sets were compiled in 1991 as a single hardcover book, the ''Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia'', which was released alongside a new introductory boxed set.",
"''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd Edition'' was published in 1989, again as three core rulebooks; the primary designer was David \"Zeb\" Cook.",
"The ''Monster Manual'' was replaced by the ''Monstrous Compendium'', a loose-leaf binder that was subsequently replaced by the hardcover ''Monstrous Manual'' in 1993.In 1995, the core rulebooks were slightly revised, although still referred to by TSR as the 2nd Edition, and a series of ''Player's Option'' manuals were released as optional rulebooks.The release of ''AD&D 2nd Edition'' deliberately excluded some aspects of the game that had attracted negative publicity.",
"References to demons and devils, sexually suggestive artwork, and playable, evil-aligned character types – such as assassins and half-orcs – were removed.",
"The edition moved away from a theme of 1960s and 1970s \"sword and sorcery\" fantasy fiction to a mixture of medieval history and mythology.",
"The rules underwent minor changes, including the addition of non-weapon proficiencies – skill-like abilities that originally appeared in 1st Edition supplements.",
"The game's magic spells were divided into schools and spheres.",
"A major difference was the promotion of various game settings beyond that of traditional fantasy.",
"This included blending fantasy with other genres, such as horror (Ravenloft), science fiction (Spelljammer), and apocalyptic (Dark Sun), as well as alternative historical and non-European mythological settings.====Wizards of the Coast====In 1997, a near-bankrupt TSR was purchased by Wizards of the Coast.",
"Following three years of development, ''Dungeons & Dragons'' 3rd edition was released in 2000.The new release folded the Basic and Advanced lines back into a single unified game.",
"It was the largest revision of the ''D&D'' rules to date and served as the basis for a multi-genre role-playing system designed around 20-sided dice, called the d20 System.",
"The 3rd Edition rules were designed to be internally consistent and less restrictive than previous editions of the game, allowing players more flexibility to create the characters they wanted to play.",
"Skills and feats were introduced into the core rules to encourage further customization of characters.",
"The new rules standardized the mechanics of action resolution and combat.",
"In 2003, ''Dungeons & Dragons v.3.5'' was released as a revision of the 3rd Edition rules.",
"This release incorporated hundreds of rule changes, mostly minor, and expanded the core rulebooks.In early 2005, Wizards of the Coast's R&D team started to develop ''Dungeons & Dragons'' 4th Edition, prompted mainly by the feedback obtained from the ''D&D'' playing community and a desire to make the game faster, more intuitive, and with a better play experience than under the 3rd Edition.",
"The new game was developed through a number of design phases spanning from May 2005 until its release.",
"''Dungeons & Dragons'' 4th Edition was announced at Gen Con in August 2007, and the initial three core books were released June 6, 2008.4th Edition streamlined the game into a simplified form and introduced numerous rules changes.",
"Many character abilities were restructured into \"Powers\".",
"These altered the spell-using classes by adding abilities that could be used at will, per encounter, or per day.",
"Likewise, non-magic-using classes were provided with parallel sets of options.",
"Software tools, including player character and monster building programs, became a major part of the game.",
"This edition added the ''D&D Encounters'' program; a weekly event held at local stores designed to draw players back to the game by giving \"the busy gamer the chance to play ''D&D'' once a week as their schedules allow.",
"In the past, ''D&D'' games could take months, even years, and players generally had to attend every session so that the story flow wasn't interrupted.",
"With ''Encounters'', players can come and go as they choose and new players can easily be integrated into the story continuity\".==== 5th Edition ====On January 9, 2012, Wizards of the Coast announced that it was working on a 5th edition of the game.",
"The company planned to take suggestions from players and let them playtest the rules.",
"Public playtesting began on May 24, 2012.At Gen Con 2012 in August, Mike Mearls, lead developer for 5th Edition, said that Wizards of the Coast had received feedback from more than 75,000 playtesters, but that the entire development process would take two years, adding, \"I can't emphasize this enough ... we're very serious about taking the time we need to get this right.\"",
"The release of the 5th Edition, coinciding with ''D&D''s 40th anniversary, occurred in the second half of 2014.Since the release of 5th edition, dozens of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' books have been published including new rulebooks, campaign guides and adventure modules.",
"2017 had \"the most number of players in its history—12 million to 15 million in North America alone\".",
"Mary Pilon, for ''Bloomberg'', reported that sales of 5th edition ''Dungeon & Dragons'' \"were up 41 percent in 2017 from the year before, and soared another 52 percent in 2018, the game's biggest sales year yet.",
"...",
"In 2017, 9 million people watched others play D&D on Twitch, immersing themselves in the world of the game without ever having to pick up a die or cast a spell\".",
"In 2018, Wizards of the Coast organized a massive live-stream event, the Stream of Many Eyes, where ten live-streamed sessions of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' were performed on Twitch over three days.",
"This event won the Content Marketing Institute's 2019 award for best \"In-Person (Event) Content Marketing Strategy\".",
"''Dungeons & Dragons'' continued to have a strong presence on Twitch throughout 2019; this included a growing number of celebrity players and dungeon masters, such as Joe Manganiello, Deborah Ann Woll and Stephen Colbert.",
"Wizards of the Coast has created, produced and sponsored multiple web series featuring ''Dungeons & Dragons''.",
"These shows have typically aired on the official ''Dungeons & Dragons'' Twitch and YouTube channels.In 2020, Wizards of the Coast announced that ''Dungeons & Dragons'' had its 6th annual year of growth in 2019 with a \"300 percent increase in sales of their introductory box sets, as well as a 65% increase on sales in Europe, a rate which has more than quadrupled since 2014\".",
"In terms of player demographics in 2019, 39% of identified as female and 61% identified as male.",
"40% of players are considered Gen Z (24 years old or younger), 34% of players are in the age range of 25–34 and 26% of players are aged 35+.",
"In January 2021, the ''Los Angeles Times'' reported that according to Liz Schuh, head of publishing and licensing for Dungeons & Dragons, \"revenue was up 35% in 2020 compared with 2019, the seventh consecutive year of growth,\" and in 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, \"virtual play rose 86% ... aided by online platforms such as Roll20 and Fantasy Grounds\".",
"Sarah Parvini, for the ''Los Angeles Times'', wrote, \"players and scholars attribute the game's resurgent popularity not only to the longueurs of the pandemic, but also to its reemergence in pop culture—on the Netflix series ''Stranger Things'', whose main characters play D&D in a basement; on the sitcom ''The Big Bang Theory''; or via the host of celebrities who display their love for the game online\".Following an apology issued by Wizards of the Coast for offensive and racist material included in ''Spelljammer: Adventures in Space'' and the announced revisions to the product in September 2022, Christopher Perkins – Wizards' game design architect – announced a new inclusion review process for the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' studio in November 2022.This process will now require \"every word, illustration, and map\" to be reviewed at several steps in development \"by multiple outside cultural consultants prior to publication\".",
"The previous process only included cultural consultants at the discretion of the product lead for a project.",
"All products being reprinted will also go through this new review process and be updated as needed.==== 2024 revision ====In September 2021, it was announced that a backwards compatible \"evolution\" of 5th edition would be released in 2024 to mark the 50th anniversary of the game.",
"In August 2022, Wizards announced that the next phase of major changes for ''Dungeons & Dragons'' would occur under the ''One D&D'' initiative which includes a public playtest of the next version of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' and an upcoming virtual tabletop simulator with 3D environments developed using Unreal Engine.",
"Revised editions of the ''Player's Handbook'', ''Monster Manual'', and ''Dungeon Master's Guide'' are scheduled to be released in 2024.In April 2022, Hasbro announced that Wizards would acquire the D&D Beyond digital toolset and game companion from Fandom; the official transfer to Wizards occurred in May 2022.At the Hasbro Investor Event in October 2022, it was announced that Dan Rawson, former COO of Microsoft Dynamics 365, was appointed to the newly created position of Senior Vice President for the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' brand; Rawson will act as the new head of the franchise.",
"''Dicebreaker'' highlighted that Rawson's role is \"part of Wizards' plans to apply more resources to the digital side of D&D\" following the purchase of D&D Beyond by Hasbro earlier in the year.",
"Wizards of the Coast CEO Cynthia Williams and Hasbro CEO Chris Cocks, at a December 2022 Hasbro investor-focused web seminar, called the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' brand \"under monetized\".",
"They highlighted the high engagement of fans with the brand, however, the majority of spending is by Dungeon Masters who are only roughly 20% of the player base.",
"Williams commented that the increased investment in digital will \"unlock the type of recurrent spending you see in digital games\"."
],
[
"Licensing",
"Early in the game's history, TSR took no action against small publishers' production of ''D&D'' compatible material, and even licensed Judges Guild to produce ''D&D'' materials for several years, such as ''City State of the Invincible Overlord.''",
"This attitude changed in the mid-1980s when TSR took legal action to try to prevent others from publishing compatible material.",
"This angered many fans and led to resentment by the other gaming companies.",
"Although TSR took legal action against several publishers in an attempt to restrict third-party usage, it never brought any court cases to completion, instead settling out of court in every instance.",
"TSR itself ran afoul of intellectual property law in several cases.With the launch of ''Dungeons & Dragons'''s 3rd Edition, Wizards of the Coast made the d20 System available under the Open Game License (OGL) and d20 System trademark license.",
"Under these licenses, authors were free to use the d20 System when writing games and game supplements.",
"The OGL has allowed a wide range of unofficial commercial derivative work based on the mechanics of ''Dungeons and Dragons'' to be produced since 2000; it is credited with increasing the market share of d20 products'''' and leading to a \"boom in the RPG industry in the early 2000s\".With the release of the fourth edition, Wizards of the Coast introduced its Game System License, which represented a significant restriction compared to the very open policies embodied by the OGL.",
"In part as a response to this, some publishers (such as Paizo Publishing with its ''Pathfinder Roleplaying Game'') who previously produced materials in support of the ''D&D'' product line, decided to continue supporting the 3rd Edition rules, thereby competing directly with Wizards of the Coast.",
"Others, such as Kenzer & Company, returned to the practice of publishing unlicensed supplements and arguing that copyright law does not allow Wizards of the Coast to restrict third-party usage.During the 2000s, there has been a trend towards reviving and recreating older editions of ''D&D'', known as the Old School Revival.",
"This in turn inspired the creation of \"retro-clones\", games which more closely recreate the original rule sets, using material placed under the OGL along with non-copyrightable mechanical aspects of the older rules to create a new presentation of the games.Version 5.1 of the System Reference Document, released in 2023Alongside the publication of the 5th Edition, Wizards of the Coast established a two-pronged licensing approach.",
"The core of the 5th Edition rules have been made available under the OGL, while publishers and independent creators have also been given the opportunity to create licensed materials directly for Dungeons & Dragons and associated properties like the Forgotten Realms under a program called the DM's Guild.",
"The DM's Guild does not function under the OGL, but uses a community agreement intended to foster liberal cooperation among content creators.Wizards of the Coast has started to release 5th Edition products that tie into other intellectual properties—such as ''Magic: The Gathering'' with the ''Guildmasters' Guide to Ravnica'' (2018) and ''Mythic Odysseys of Theros'' (2020) source books.",
"Two 5th Edition starter box sets based on TV shows, ''Stranger Things'' and ''Rick and Morty'', were released in 2019.Source books based on ''Dungeons & Dragons'' live play series have also been released: ''Acquisitions Incorporated'' (2019) and ''Explorer's Guide to Wildemount'' (2020).Between November and December 2022, there was reported speculation that Wizards was planning on discontinuing the OGL for ''Dungeons & Dragons'' based on unconfirmed leaks.",
"In response to the speculation, Wizards stated in November 2022: \"We will continue to support the thousands of creators making third-party D&D content with the release of One D&D in 2024.\"",
"Limited details on the update to the OGL, including the addition of revenue reporting and required royalties, were released by Wizards in December 2022.Linda Codega, for ''Io9'' in January 2023, reported on the details from a leaked full copy of the OGL 1.1 including updated terms such as no longer authorizing use of the OGL1.0.Codega highlighted that \"if the original license is in fact no longer viable, every single licensed publisher will be affected by the new agreement.",
"...",
"The main takeaway from the leaked OGL 1.1 draft document is that WotC is keeping power close at hand\".",
"A week after the leak, Wizards issued a response which walked back several changes to the OGL; this response did not contain the updated OGL.",
"The Motley Fool highlighted that \"Hasbro pulled an abrupt volte-face and had its subsidiary D&D Beyond publish a mea culpa on its website\".",
"On January 27, 2023, following feedback received during the open comment period for the draft OGL1.2, Wizards of the Coast announced that the System Reference Document 5.1 (SRD 5.1) would be released under an irrevocable Creative Commons license (CC-BY-4.0) effective immediately and Wizards would no longer pursue deauthorizing the OGL1.0a."
],
[
"Reception",
"Eric Goldberg reviewed ''Dungeons & Dragons'' in ''Ares Magazine'' #1 (March 1980), rating it a 6 out of 9, and commented that \"''Dungeons and Dragons'' is an impressive achievement based on the concept alone, and also must be credited with cementing the marriage between the fantasy genre and gaming.\"",
"Eric Goldberg again reviewed ''Dungeons & Dragons'' in ''Ares Magazine'' #3 and commented that \"''D&D'' is the FRP game played most often in most places.\"",
"In the 1980 book ''The Complete Book of Wargames'', game designer Jon Freeman asked, \"What can be said about a phenomenon?",
"Aside from ''Tactics II'' and possibly ''PanzerBlitz'' (the first modern tactical wargame), this is the most significant war game since H.G.",
"Wells.\"",
"However, Freeman did have significant issues with the game, pointing out, \"On the other hand, beginning characters are without exception dull, virtually powerless, and so fragile\" which was not encouraging for \"newcomers.\"",
"He also called the magic system \"stupid\" feeling that many of the spells were \"redundant\" and \"the effects of the majority are hopelessly vague.\"",
"He found essential elements such as saving throws, hit points, and experience points \"undefined or poorly explained; the ratio of substance to \"holes\" compares unfavorably with the head of a tennis racquet.\"",
"He also noted the rules were \"presented in the most illiterate display of poor grammar, misspellings, and typographical errors in professional wargaming.\"",
"Despite all these issues, Freeman concluded \"As it was given birth, it is fascinating but misshapen; in its best incarnations, it's perhaps the most exciting and attractive specimen alive.",
"\"The game had more than three million players around the world by 1981, and copies of the rules were selling at a rate of about 750,000 per year by 1984.Beginning with a French language edition in 1982, ''Dungeons & Dragons'' has been translated into many languages beyond the original English.",
"By 1992, the game had been translated into 14 languages and sold over copies in 44 countries worldwide.",
"By 2004, consumers had spent more than on ''Dungeons & Dragons'' products and the game had been played by more than 20 million people.",
"As many as six million people played the game in 2007.David M. Ewalt, in his book ''Of Dice and Men'' (2013), praised that the game allows for a personal fantastical experience and stated that \"even though it's make-believe, the catharsis is real.",
"\"===Acclaim===The various editions of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' have won many Origins Awards, including ''All Time Best Roleplaying Rules of 1977'', ''Best Roleplaying Rules of 1989'', ''Best Roleplaying Game of 2000'' and ''Best Role Playing Game and Best Role Playing Supplement of 2014'' for the flagship editions of the game.",
"Both ''Dungeons & Dragons'' and ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' are Origins Hall of Fame Games inductees as they were deemed sufficiently distinct to merit separate inclusion on different occasions.",
"The independent ''Games'' magazine placed ''Dungeons & Dragons'' on their ''Games 100'' list from 1980 through 1983, then entered the game into the magazine's Hall of Fame in 1984.",
"''Games'' magazine included ''Dungeons & Dragons'' in their \"Top 100 Games of 1980\", saying \"The more players, the merrier.\"",
"''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' was ranked 2nd in the 1996 reader poll of ''Arcane'' magazine to determine the 50 most popular roleplaying games of all time.",
"''Dungeons & Dragons'' was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame in 2016 and into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2017.=== Later editions ===Later editions would lead to inevitable comparisons between the game series.",
"Scott Taylor for ''Black Gate'' in 2013 rated ''Dungeons & Dragons'' as #1 in the top ten role-playing games of all time, saying \"The grand-daddy of all games, ''D&D'' just keeps on going, and although there might always be 'edition wars' between players, that just says that it effectively stays within the consciousness of multiple generations of players as a relevant piece of entertainment.\"",
"Griffin McElroy, for ''Polygon'' in 2014, wrote: \"The game has shifted in the past four decades, bouncing between different rules sets, philosophies and methods of play.",
"Role-playing, character customization and real-life improvisational storytelling has always been at the game's core, but how those ideas are interpreted by the game system has changed drastically edition-to-edition\".",
"Dieter Bohn, for ''The Verge'' in 2014, wrote: \"Every few years there's been a new version of ''D&D'' that tries to address the shortcomings of the previous version and also make itself more palatable to its age.",
"...",
"The third edition got a reputation (which it didn't necessarily deserve) for being too complex and rules-focused.",
"The fourth edition got a reputation (which it didn't necessarily deserve) for being too focused on miniatures and grids, too mechanical.",
"Meanwhile, the company that owns ''D&D'' had released a bunch of its old material for free as a service to fans, and some of that was built up into a competing game called ''Pathfinder''.",
"''Pathfinder'' ultimately became more popular, by some metrics, than ''D&D'' itself\".",
"Bohn highlighted that the 5th Edition was \"designed for one purpose: to bring ''D&D'' back to its roots and win back everybody who left during the edition wars\".",
"Henry Glasheen, for ''SLUG Magazine'' in 2015, highlighted that after jumping ship during the 4th Edition era he was drawn back to ''Dungeons & Dragons'' with 5th Edition and he considers it \"the new gold standard for D20-based tabletop RPGs\".",
"Glasheen wrote \"Fifth Edition is a compelling reason to get excited about D&D again\" and \"while some will welcome the simplicity, I fully expect that plenty of people will stick to whatever system suits them best.",
"However, this edition is easily my favorite, ranking even higher than D&D 3.5, my first love in D&D\".Christian Hoffer, for ''ComicBook.com'' in 2022, highlighted the continuing fan debate on ''Dungeons & Dragons'' and ''Pathfinder's'' current editions which centers on ''Dungeons & Dragons'' 5th Edition's market dominance.",
"Hoffer wrote, \"the reality is that ''Dungeons & Dragons Fifth Edition'' is likely the most popular tabletop roleplaying game ever made, even more so than previous editions of the games.",
"5E has brought millions of new players to tabletop roleplaying games.",
"Many of those newer players have never heard of other roleplaying games, even popular ones like ''Vampire: The Masquerade'' or ''Cyberpunk'' or ''Pathfinder.''",
"...",
"Many content creators and publishers see 5E as their main path to survival and relevance even if it's not their preferred gaming system\".",
"In December 2023, James Whitbrook of ''Gizmodo'' highlighted \"''D&D'''s continued social influence\" with the release of related media such as the film ''Honor Among Thieves'', the ''Dungeons & Dragons: Adventures'' FAST channel, and the video game ''Baldur's Gate 3'' with the video game's \"blockbuster success\" credited \"for a 40% increase in Wizards of the Coast's earnings over 2022\".",
"However, Whitbrook opined that not even these successes \"could save ''Dungeons & Dragons'' from the greed of its owners\" with the OGL controversy and major layoffs by Hasbro bookending \"what should've been one of the greatest years for ''Dungeons & Dragons'' the game has ever seen—more popular than ever, more accessible than ever, more culturally relevant than ever—and in doing so transformed it into a golden era sullied with dark marks, overshadowed by grim caveats, a reflection that those with the most power in these spaces never really take the lessons they espoused to learn from their mistakes\".===Moral panic===At various times in its history, ''Dungeons & Dragons'' has received negative publicity, in particular from some Christian groups, for alleged promotion of such practices as devil worship, witchcraft, suicide, and murder, and for the presence of naked breasts in drawings of female humanoids in the original ''AD&D'' manuals (mainly monsters such as harpies, succubi, etc.).",
"These controversies led TSR to remove many potentially controversial references and artwork when releasing the 2nd Edition of ''AD&D''.",
"Many of these references, including the use of the names \"devils\" and \"demons\", were reintroduced in the 3rd edition.",
"The moral panic over the game led to problems for fans of ''D&D'' who faced social ostracism, unfair treatment, and false association with the occult and Satanism, regardless of an individual fan's actual religious affiliation and beliefs.",
"However, the controversy was also beneficial in evoking the Streisand Effect by giving the game widespread notoriety that significantly increased sales in the early 1980s in defiance of the moral panic.",
"''Dungeons & Dragons'' has been the subject of rumors regarding players having difficulty separating fantasy from reality, even leading to psychotic episodes.",
"The most notable of these was the saga of James Dallas Egbert III, the facts of which were fictionalized in the novel ''Mazes and Monsters'' and later made into a TV movie in 1982 starring Tom Hanks.",
"William Dear, the private investigator hired by the Egbert family to find their son when he went missing at college, wrote a book titled ''The Dungeon Master'' (1984) refuting any connection with D&D and Egbert's personal issues.",
"The game was blamed for some of the actions of Chris Pritchard, who was convicted in 1990 of murdering his stepfather.",
"Research by various psychologists, starting with Armando Simon, has concluded that no harmful effects are related to the playing of ''D&D''.",
"''Dungeons & Dragons'' has also been cited as encouraging people to socialize weekly or biweekly, teaching problem solving skills, which can be beneficial in adult life, and teaching positive moral decisions.=== Later criticism ===''D&D'' has been compared unfavorably to other role-playing games of its time.",
"Writing for ''Slate'' in 2008, Erik Sofge makes unfavorable comparisons between the violent incentives of ''D&D'' and the more versatile role-playing experience of ''GURPS''.",
"He claims that \"for decades, gamers have argued that since D&D came first, its lame, morally repulsive experience system can be forgiven.",
"But the damage is still being done: New generations of players are introduced to RPGs as little more than a collective fantasy of massacre.\"",
"This criticism generated backlash from ''D&D'' fans.",
"Writing for ''Ars Technica'', Ben Kuchera responded that Sofge had experienced a \"small-minded Dungeon Master who only wanted to kill things\", and that better game experiences are possible.In 2020, ''Polygon'' reported that \"the D&D team announced that it would be making changes to portions of its 5th edition product line that fans have called out for being insensitive\".",
"Sebastian Modak, for ''The Washington Post'', reported that the tabletop community has widely approved these changes.",
"Modak wrote that \"in its statement addressing mistakes around portrayals of different peoples in the D&D universe, Wizards of the Coast highlighted its recent efforts in bringing in more diverse voices to craft the new ''D&D'' source books coming out in 2021....",
"These conversations—around depictions of race and alleged treatment of employees of marginalized backgrounds and identities—have encouraged players to seek out other tabletop roleplaying experiences\".",
"Matthew Gault, for ''Wired'', reported positively on the roundtable discussions Wizards of the Coast has hosted with fans and community leaders on diversity and inclusion.",
"However, Gault also highlighted that other efforts, such as revisions to old material and the release of new material, have been less great and at times minimal.",
"Gault wrote, \"WotC appears to be trying to change things, but it keeps stumbling, and it's often the fans who pick up the pieces.",
"... WotC is trying to make changes, but it often feels like lip service.",
"...",
"The loudest voices criticizing D&D right now are doing it out of love.",
"They don't want to see it destroyed, they want it to change with the times\".",
"However, in 2022, academic Christopher Ferguson stated that the game \"was not associated with greater ethnocentrism (one facet of racism) attitudes\" after he conducted a survey study of 308 adults (38.2% non-White, and 17% ''Dungeons and Dragons'' players).",
"Ferguson concluded that Wizards of the Coast may be responding to a moral panic similar to that surrounding Satanism in the 1990s.Between November and December 2022, there was reported speculation that Wizards was planning to discontinue the Open Game License for ''Dungeons & Dragons'' based on unconfirmed leaks.",
"Following an initial response to the speculation by Wizards in November 2022, the company released limited details on the update to the OGL in December 2022.Linda Codega, writing for ''Io9'', reported on the details from a leaked full copy of the OGL 1.1 on January 5, 2023.Codega highlighted that \"every single licensed publisher will be affected by the new agreement.",
"...",
"The main takeaway from the leaked OGL 1.1 draft document is that WotC is keeping power close at hand\".",
"''ICv2'' commented that the leaked OGL had several controversial parts.",
"Following this leak, numerous news and industry focused outlets reported on negative reactions from both fans and professional content creators.",
"''TheStreet'' highlighted that \"the company's main competitors\" quickly pivoted away from the OGL in the time it took Wizards to settle on a response.",
"''Starburst'' commented that \"historically when the owners of ''Dungeons and Dragons'' attempt to restrict what people can do with the game, it leads to a boom in other tabletop roleplaying games.",
"This is happening right now\".",
"''TheStreet'' also commented that Wizards united its \"entire player base\" against it; both ''TheStreet'' and ''Io9'' highlighted the movement to boycott D&D Beyond and mass subscription cancellations with ''Io9'' stating that the \"immediate financial consequences\" forced a response by Wizards.",
"''Io9'' reported that Wizards' internal messaging on the response to the leak was this was a fan overreaction.",
"In the ensuing weeks, Wizards walked back changes to the OGL and solicited public feedback before pivoting away from the OGL to release the System Reference Document 5.1 (SRD 5.1) under an irrevocable creative commons license (CC-BY-4.0).",
"Edwin Evans-Thirlwell of ''The Washington Post'' wrote that \"pushback from fans, who criticized WotC's response as far from an apology and a dismissal of their legitimate concerns, led WotC to backpedal further\" and that the company \"appears to have committed an irreversible act of self-sabotage in trying to replace the OGL — squandering the prestige accumulated over 20 years in a matter of weeks\".",
"Both ''Io9'' and ''ComicBook.com'' called the major concessions – releasing the SRD 5.1 under the creative commons and no longer deauthorizing the OGL1.0a – announced by Wizards a \"huge victory\" for the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' community."
],
[
"Legacy and influence",
"''Dungeons & Dragons'' was the first modern role-playing game and it established many of the conventions that have dominated the genre.",
"Particularly notable are the use of dice as a game mechanic, character record sheets, use of numerical attributes, and gamemaster-centered group dynamics.",
"Within months of ''Dungeons & Dragons'''s release, new role-playing game writers and publishers began releasing their own role-playing games, with most of these being in the fantasy genre.",
"Some of the earliest other role-playing games inspired by ''D&D'' include ''Tunnels & Trolls'' (1975), ''Empire of the Petal Throne'' (1975), and ''Chivalry & Sorcery'' (1976).",
"The game's commercial success was a factor that led to lawsuits regarding distribution of royalties between original creators Gygax and Arneson.",
"Gygax later became embroiled in a political struggle for control of TSR which culminated in a court battle and Gygax's decision to sell his ownership interest in the company in 1985.The role-playing movement initiated by ''D&D'' would lead to release of the science fiction game ''Traveller'' (1977), the fantasy game ''RuneQuest'' (1978), and subsequent game systems such as Chaosium's ''Call of Cthulhu'' (1981), ''Champions'' (1982), ''GURPS'' (1986), and ''Vampire: The Masquerade'' (1991).",
"''Dungeons & Dragons'' and the games it influenced fed back into the genre's origin – miniatures wargames – with combat strategy games like ''Warhammer Fantasy Battles''.",
"''D&D'' also had a large impact on modern video games.Director Jon Favreau credits ''Dungeons & Dragons'' with giving him \"... a really strong background in imagination, storytelling, understanding how to create tone and a sense of balance.\"",
"ND Stevenson and the crew of ''She-Ra and the Princesses of Power'' were strongly influenced by ''Dungeons & Dragons'', with Stevenson calling it basically a D&D campaign, with Adora, Glimmer, and Bow falling into \"specific classes in D&D\".Curtis D. Carbonell, in the 2019 book ''Dread Trident: Tabletop Role-Playing Games and the Modern Fantastic'', wrote: \"Negative association with earlier niche 'nerd' culture have reversed.",
"5e has become inclusive in its reach of players, after years of focusing on a white, male demographic.",
"... At its simplest, the game system now encourages different types of persons to form a party not just to combat evil ... but to engage in any number of adventure scenarios\".",
"Academic Emma French, in ''Real Life in Real Time: Live Streaming Culture'' (2023), commented on the impact of actual play on the broader ''Dungeons & Dragons'' gaming culture – \"actual play media circumvents D&D's insulated or exclusionary aspects, skewing away from 'basement dwelling nerds' in favor of a networked, global fandom.",
"Live streaming is now a means of introducing individuals to the game, bringing it into the mainstream at a time when other geek pursuits have also achieved wider visibility and popularity\".",
"French highlighted that in 2020 \"no actual play live streams hosted by the official DnD channel featured an all-male cast—showing a massive shift from the brand ambassadors endorsed by Wizards of the Coast\" previously.",
"French argued that not only has the more accessible and inclusive actual play landscape impacted the gaming culture but it has also impacted the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' product itself from the promotion campaign of ''Tasha's Cauldron of Everything'' featuring \"diverse nerd celebrities\" to \"direct action taken against previous exclusionary behavior\" as seen in Wizards of the Coast statements on diversity and ''Dungeons & Dragons''.",
"French wrote, \"as actual play live streams broaden the range of customers that D&D can market itself to, it may enact real, seismic change to the mainstream perception of geek identity, and contribute to a push for diverse representation within geek subculture as a whole\"."
],
[
"Related products",
"''D&D'''s commercial success has led to many other related products, including ''Dragon'' and ''Dungeon'' magazines, an animated television series, a film series, an official role-playing soundtrack, novels, both ongoing and limited series licensed comics, and numerous computer and video games.",
"Hobby and toy stores sell dice, miniatures, adventures, and other game aids related to ''D&D'' and its game offspring.In November 2023, Hasbro's Entertainment One launched the ''Dungeons & Dragons Adventures'' FAST channel, available on platforms such as Amazon Freevee and Plex, which features new actual play web series, reruns of the animated ''Dungeons & Dragons'' series, and reruns of other ''Dungeons & Dragons'' web series."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"''D&D'' grew in popularity through the late 1970s and 1980s.",
"Numerous games, films, and cultural references based on ''D&D'' or ''D&D''-like fantasies, characters or adventures have been ubiquitous since the end of the 1970s.",
"''D&D'' players are (sometimes pejoratively) portrayed as the epitome of geekdom, and have become the basis of much geek and gamer humor and satire.",
"Since the release of 5th edition, the popularity of actual play web series and podcasts such as ''Critical Role'', ''Dimension 20'', and ''The Adventure Zone'', among many others, have experienced a growth in viewership and popularity.",
"According to Hasbro CEO Brian Goldner, viewers on Twitch and YouTube spent over 150 million hours watching ''D&D'' gameplay in 2020.Famous ''D&D'' players include Pulitzer Prize-winning author Junot Díaz, professional basketball player Tim Duncan, comedian Stephen Colbert, and actors Vin Diesel and Robin Williams.",
"''D&D'' and its fans have been the subject of spoof films, including ''The Gamers: Dorkness Rising''."
],
[
"See also",
"* ''D&D'' Championship Series"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * Archived copy of the article, taken 2009-07-13, page 2* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Unknown author'''* – select year on right of page.",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * An essay on the early history of the D&D hobby.",
"* Includes a suggested reading list on pages 255–256.",
"* Fannon, Sean Patrick.",
"''The Fantasy Roleplaying Gamer's Bible, 2nd Edition''.",
"Obsidian Studios, 1999.",
"* * * Gygax, Gary.",
"''Roleplaying Mastery''.",
"New York: Perigee, 1987..* Gygax, Gary.",
"''Master of the Game''.",
"New York: Perigee, 1989..* Miller, John J.",
"\"I Was a Teenage Half-Orc\", ''National Review'' Online, October 15, 2004.",
"* Miller, John J.",
"\"Dungeons & Dragons In a Digital World\", ''The Wall Street Journal'', July 1, 2008.",
"* * * Peterson, Jon.",
"''Playing at the World: A History of Simulating Wars, People and Fantastic Adventures, from Chess to Role-Playing Games''.",
"San Diego: Unreason, 2012..* * * An article about the conflict over the proprietary or open-source nature of ''Dungeons & Dragons''.",
"* Studies about fantasy roleplaying games – a list of academic articles about RPGs* Gamespy's 30th Anniversary of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' special"
],
[
"External links",
"* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Double jeopardy"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In jurisprudence, '''double jeopardy''' is a procedural defence (primarily in common law jurisdictions) that prevents an accused person from being tried again on the same (or similar) charges following an acquittal or conviction and in rare cases prosecutorial and/or judge misconduct in the same jurisdiction.",
"Double jeopardy is a common concept in criminal law - in civil law, a similar concept is that of .",
"The double jeopardy protection in criminal prosecutions only bars an identical prosecution for the same offense, however, a different offense may be charged on identical evidence at a second trial.",
"''Res judicata'' protection is stronger - it precludes any causes of action or claims that arise from a previously litigated subject matter.",
"A variation in common law countries is the peremptory plea, which may take the specific forms of ('previously acquitted') or ('previously convicted').",
"These doctrines appear to have originated in ancient Roman law, in the broader principle ('not twice against the same')."
],
[
"Availability as a legal defence",
"If a double-jeopardy issue is raised, evidence will be placed before the court, which will typically rule as a preliminary matter whether the plea is substantiated; if it is, the projected trial will be prevented from proceeding.",
"In some countries certain exemptions are permitted.",
"In Scotland a new trial can be initiated if, for example, the acquitted has made a credible admission of guilt.",
"Part of English law for over 800 years, it was partially abolished in England, Wales and Northern Ireland by the Criminal Justice Act 2003 where, following demand for change, serious offences may be re-tried following an acquittal if new and compelling evidence is found, and if the trial is found to be in the public's interest.",
"In some countries, including Canada, Mexico, and the United States, the guarantee against being \"twice put in jeopardy\" is a constitutional right.",
"In other countries, the protection is afforded by statute.In common law countries, a defendant may enter a peremptory plea of ('previously acquitted') or ('previously convicted'), with the same effect.Double jeopardy is not a principle of international law.",
"It does not apply between different countries, unless having been contractually agreed on between those countries as, for example, in the European Union (Art.",
"54 Schengen Convention), and in various extradition treaties between two countries."
],
[
"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights",
"The 72 signatories and 166 parties to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights recognise, under Article 14 (7): \"No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again for an offence for which he has already been finally convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of each country.\"",
"However, it does not apply to prosecutions by two different sovereigns (unless the relevant extradition treaty expresses a prohibition)."
],
[
"European Convention on Human Rights",
"All members of the Council of Europe (which includes nearly all European countries and every member of the European Union) have adopted the European Convention on Human Rights.",
"The optional Protocol No.",
"7 to the convention, Article 4, protects against double jeopardy: \"No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again in criminal proceedings under the jurisdiction of the same State for an offence for which he or she has already been finally acquitted or convicted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of that State.",
"\"All EU states ratified this optional protocol except for Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands.",
"In those member states, national rules governing double jeopardy may or may not comply with the provision cited above.Member states may, however, implement legislation which allows reopening of a case if new evidence is found or if there was a fundamental defect in the previous proceedings:In many European countries, the prosecution may appeal an acquittal to a higher court.",
"This is not regarded as double jeopardy, but as a continuation of the same case.",
"The European Convention on Human Rights permits this by using the phrase \"finally acquitted or convicted\" as the trigger for prohibiting subsequent prosecution."
],
[
"By country",
"=== Australia ===In contrast to other common law nations, Australian double jeopardy law has been held to further prevent the prosecution for perjury following a previous acquittal where a finding of perjury would controvert the acquittal.",
"This was confirmed in the case of ''R v Carroll'', where the police found new evidence convincingly disproving Carroll's sworn alibi two decades after he had been acquitted of murder charges in the death of Ipswich child Deidre Kennedy, and successfully prosecuted him for perjury.",
"Public outcry following the overturn of his conviction (for perjury) by the High Court has led to widespread calls for reform of the law along the lines of the England and Wales legislation.During a Council of Australian Governments (COAG) meeting of 2007, model legislation to rework double jeopardy laws was drafted, but there was no formal agreement for each state to introduce it.",
"All states have now chosen to introduce legislation that mirrors COAG's recommendations on \"fresh and compelling\" evidence.In New South Wales, retrials of serious cases with a minimum sentence of 20 years or more are now possible even if the original trial preceded the 2006 reform.",
"On 17 October 2006, the New South Wales Parliament passed legislation abolishing the rule against double jeopardy in cases where:* an acquittal of a \"life sentence offence\" (murder, violent gang rape, large commercial supply or production of illegal drugs) is debunked by \"fresh and compelling\" evidence of guilt;* an acquittal of a \"15 years or more sentence offence\" was tainted (by perjury, bribery, or perversion of the course of justice).On 30 July 2008, South Australia also introduced legislation to scrap parts of its double jeopardy law, legalising retrials for serious offences with \"fresh and compelling\" evidence, or if the acquittal was tainted.In Western Australia, amendments introduced on 8 September 2011 allow retrial if \"new and compelling\" evidence is found.",
"It applies to serious offences where the penalty was life imprisonment or imprisonment for 14 years or more.",
"Acquittal because of tainting (witness intimidation, jury tampering, or perjury) also permits retrial.In Tasmania, on 19 August 2008, amendments were introduced to allow retrial in serious cases if there is \"fresh and compelling\" evidence.In Victoria on 21 December 2011, legislation was passed allowing new trials where there is \"fresh and compelling DNA evidence, where the person acquitted subsequently admits to the crime, or where it becomes clear that key witnesses have given false evidence\".",
"However, retrial applications could only be made for serious offences such as murder, manslaughter, arson causing death, serious drug offences and aggravated forms of rape and armed robbery.In Queensland on 18 October 2007, the double jeopardy laws were modified to allow a retrial where fresh and compelling evidence becomes available after an acquittal for murder or a \"tainted acquittal\" for a crime carrying a 25-year or more sentence.",
"A \"tainted acquittal\" requires a conviction for an administration of justice offence, such as perjury, that led to the original acquittal.=== Canada ===The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms includes provisions such as section 11(h) prohibiting double jeopardy.",
"However, the prohibition only applies after an accused person has been \"finally\" convicted or acquitted.",
"Canadian law allows the prosecution to appeal an acquittal based on legal errors.",
"In rare circumstances, when a trial judge made all the factual findings necessary for a finding of guilt but misapplied the law, a court of appeal might also directly substitute an acquittal for a conviction.",
"These cases are not considered double jeopardy because the appeal and the subsequent conviction are deemed to be a continuation of the original trial.",
"For an appeal from an acquittal to be successful, the Supreme Court of Canada requires the Crown to show that an error in law was made during the trial and that it contributed to the verdict.",
"It has been argued that this test is unfairly beneficial to the prosecution.",
"For instance, in his book ''My Life in Crime and Other Academic Adventures'', Martin Friedland contends that the rule should be changed so that a retrial is granted only when the error is shown to be ''responsible'' for the verdict, not just a factor.Though the ''Charter'' permits appeals of acquittals, there are still constitutional limits imposed on the scope of these appeals.",
"In ''Corp.",
"Professionnelle des Médecins v. Thibault'', the Supreme Court struck down a provision of Quebec law that allowed appellate courts to conduct a ''de novo'' review of both legal and factual findings.",
"In doing so, it held that the scope of an appeal may not extend to challenging findings of fact where no legal error has been made.",
"At this point, the Court reasoned, the process ceases to be an appeal and instead becomes a new trial disguised as one.",
"A notable example cited by critics of Canada's appeal system is the case of Guy Paul Morin, who was wrongfully convicted in his second trial after the acquittal in his first trial was vacated by the Supreme Court.",
"Another notable use of the system occurred in the case of child murderer Guy Turcotte, the Quebec Court of Appeal overturned the initial verdict of not criminally responsible by reason of mental disorder and ordered a second trial after it found that the judge had erroneously instructed the jury.",
"Turcotte was later convicted of second-degree murder in the second trial.=== France ===Once all appeals have been exhausted on a case, the judgement is final and the action of the prosecution is closed (code of penal procedure, art.",
"6), except if the final ruling was forged.",
"Prosecution for a crime already judged is impossible even if incriminating evidence has been found.",
"However, a person who has been convicted may request another trial on the grounds of new exculpating evidence through a procedure known as ''révision''.French law allows the prosecution to appeal an acquittal.=== Germany ===The Basic Law (''Grundgesetz'') for the Federal Republic of Germany protects against double jeopardy if a final verdict is pronounced.",
"A verdict is final if nobody appeals against it.However, each trial party can appeal against a verdict in the first instance.",
"The prosecution or the defendants can appeal against a judgement if they disagree with it.",
"In this case, the trial starts again in the second instance, the court of appeal (''Berufungsgericht''), which reconsiders the facts and reasons and delivers a final judgement.If one of the parties disagrees with the second instance's judgement, they can appeal it only for formal judicial reasons.",
"The case will be checked in the third instance (''Revisionsgericht''), whether all laws are applied correctly.The rule applies to the whole \"historical event, which is usually considered a single historical course of actions the separation of which would seem unnatural\".",
"This is true even if new facts occur that indicate other crimes.The Penal Procedural Code (''Strafprozessordnung'') permits a retrial (''Wiederaufnahmeverfahren''), if it is in favour of the defendant or if the following events had happened:In the case of an order of summary punishment, which can be issued by the court without a trial for lesser misdemeanours, there is a further exception:In Germany, a felony is defined by § 12 (1) StGB as a crime that has a minimum of one year of imprisonment.=== India ===A partial protection against double jeopardy is a Fundamental Right guaranteed under Article 20 (2) of the Constitution of India, which states \"No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once\".",
"This provision enshrines the concept of ''autrefois convict'', that no one convicted of an offence can be tried or punished a second time.",
"However, it does not extend to ''autrefois acquit'', and so if a person is acquitted of a crime he can be retried.",
"In India, protection against ''autrefois acquit'' is a statutory right, not a fundamental one.",
"Such protection is provided by provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure rather than by the Constitution.=== Japan ===The Constitution of Japan, which came into effect on 3 May 1947, states in Article 39 thatHowever, in 1950, one defendant was found guilty in the District Court for crimes related to the election law and was sentenced to paying a fine.",
"The prosecutor wanted a stronger sentence and appealed to the High Court.",
"As a result, the defendant was sentenced to three months of imprisonment.",
"He appealed to the Supreme Court on the grounds that the sentence was excessive when compared with precedents and that he had been placed in double jeopardy, which was in violation of Article 39.On 27 September 1950, all fifteen judges of the Supreme Court made the Grand Bench Decision to rule against the defendant and declared that a criminal proceeding in the District Court, High Court and Supreme Court is all one case and that there is no double jeopardy.",
"In other words, if the prosecutor appeals against a judgement of not guilty or a guilty decision that they think does not impose a severe enough sentence, the defendant will not be placed in double jeopardy.On 10 October 2003, the Supreme Court made a landmark decision in the area of double jeopardy.",
"The case involved Article 235 of the Penal Code, which addresses \"simple larceny\", and Article 2 of the Law for Prevention and Disposition of Robbery, Theft, etc., which addresses \"habitual larceny\".",
"The Court ruled that in the event that there are two trials for separate cases of simple larceny, it will not be considered double jeopardy, even if the prosecutor could have charged both of them as a single crime of habitual larceny.",
"The defendant in this case had committed crimes of trespassing and simple larceny on 22 occasions.",
"The defence counsel argued that the crimes were actually one offence of habitual larceny and that charging them as separate counts was double jeopardy.",
"The Supreme Court ruled that it was within the prosecutor’s discretion as to whether to charge the defendant with one count of habitual larceny or to charge them with multiple counts of trespassing and simple larceny.",
"In either case, it is not considered double jeopardy.=== The Netherlands ===In the Netherlands, the state prosecution can appeal a not-guilty verdict at the bench.",
"New evidence can be applied during a retrial at a district court.",
"Thus one can be tried twice for the same alleged crime.",
"If one is convicted at the district court, the defence can make an appeal on procedural grounds to the supreme court.",
"The supreme court might admit this complaint, and the case will be reopened yet again, at another district court.",
"Again, new evidence might be introduced by the prosecution.On 9 April 2013 the Dutch senate voted 36 \"yes\" versus 35 \"no\" in favour of a new law that allows the prosecutor to re-try a person who was found not guilty in court.",
"This new law is limited to crimes where someone died and new evidence must have been gathered.",
"The new law also works retroactively.=== Pakistan ===Article 13 of the Constitution of Pakistan protects a person from being punished or prosecuted more than once for the same offence.",
"Section 403 of The Code of Criminal Procedure contemplates of a situation where as person having once been tried by a Court of competent jurisdiction and acquitted by such court cannot be tried again for the same offence or for any other offence based on similar facts.",
"The scope of section 403 is restricted to criminal proceedings and not to civil proceedings and departmental inquiries.=== Serbia ===This principle is incorporated into the Constitution of the Republic of Serbia and further elaborated in its Criminal Procedure Act.=== South Africa ===The Bill of Rights in the Constitution of South Africa forbids a retrial when there has already been an acquittal or a conviction.=== South Korea ===Article 13 of the South Korean constitution provides that no citizen shall be placed in double jeopardy.=== United Kingdom ======= England and Wales ====Double jeopardy has been permitted in England and Wales in certain (exceptional) circumstances since the Criminal Justice Act 2003.===== Pre-2003 =====The doctrines of ''autrefois acquit'' and ''autrefois convict'' persisted as part of the common law from the time of the Norman conquest of England; they were regarded as essential elements for protection of the subject's liberty and respect for due process of law in that there should be finality of proceedings.",
"There were only three exceptions, all relatively recent, to the rules:* The prosecution has a right of appeal against acquittal in summary cases if the decision appears to be wrong in law or in excess of jurisdiction.",
"* A retrial is permissible if the interests of justice so require, following appeal against conviction by a defendant.",
"* A \"tainted acquittal\", where there has been an offence of interference with, or intimidation of, a juror or witness, can be challenged in the High Court.In ''Connelly v DPP'' 1964 AC 1254, the Law Lords ruled that a defendant could not be tried for any offence arising out of substantially the same set of facts relied upon in a previous charge of which he had been acquitted, unless there are \"special circumstances\" proven by the prosecution.",
"There is little case law on the meaning of \"special circumstances\", but it has been suggested that the emergence of new evidence would suffice.A defendant who had been convicted of an offence could be given a second trial for an aggravated form of that offence if the facts constituting the aggravation were discovered after the first conviction.",
"By contrast, a person who had been acquitted of a lesser offence could not be tried for an aggravated form even if new evidence became available.===== Post-2003 =====Following the murder of Stephen Lawrence, the Macpherson Report recommended that the double jeopardy rule should be abrogated in murder cases, and that it should be possible to subject an acquitted murder suspect to a second trial if \"fresh and viable\" new evidence later came to light.",
"The Law Commission later added its support to this in its report \"Double Jeopardy and Prosecution Appeals\" (2001).",
"A parallel report into the criminal justice system by Lord Justice Auld, a past Senior Presiding Judge for England and Wales, had also commenced in 1999 and was published as the Auld Report six months after the Law Commission report.",
"It opined that the Law Commission had been unduly cautious by limiting the scope to murder and that \"the exceptions should ... extend to other grave offences punishable with life and/or long terms of imprisonment as Parliament might specify.\"",
"1999 was also the year of a highly-publicised case in which a man, David Smith, was convicted of the murder of a prostitute after having been acquitted of the \"almost identical\" murder of sex worker Sarah Crump 6 years previously.",
"Because of the double jeopardy laws that existed at the time, Smith could not be re-tried for Crump's murder, despite police insisting they were not looking for anybody else and that the case was closed and the BBC reporting that Smith had \"beat\" the earlier murder charge.",
"Both Jack Straw (then Home Secretary) and William Hague (then Leader of the Opposition) favoured the measures suggested by the Auld Report.",
"These recommendations were implemented—not uncontroversially at the time—within the Criminal Justice Act 2003, and this provision came into force in April 2005.It opened certain serious crimes (including murder, manslaughter, kidnapping, rape, armed robbery, and serious drug crimes) to a retrial, regardless of when committed, with two conditions: the retrial must be approved by the Director of Public Prosecutions, and the Court of Appeal must agree to quash the original acquittal due to \"new and compelling evidence\".",
"Then Director of Public Prosecutions, Ken Macdonald QC, said that he expected no more than a handful of cases to be brought in a year.Pressure by Ann Ming, the mother of 1989 murder victim Julie Hogg—whose killer, Billy Dunlop, was initially acquitted and subsequently confessed—also contributed to the demand for legal change.",
"On 11 September 2006, Dunlop became the first person to be convicted of murder following a prior acquittal for the same crime, in his case his 1991 acquittal of Hogg's murder.",
"Some years later he had confessed to the crime, and was convicted of perjury, but was unable to be retried for the killing itself.",
"The case was re-investigated in early 2005, when the new law came into effect, and his case was referred to the Court of Appeal, in November 2005, for permission for a new trial, which was granted.",
"Dunlop pleaded guilty to murder and was sentenced to life imprisonment, with a recommendation he serve no less than 17 years.On 13 December 2010, Mark Weston became the first person to be retried and found guilty of murder by a jury (Dunlop having confessed).",
"In 1996 Weston had been acquitted of the murder of Vikki Thompson at Ascott-under-Wychwood on 12 August 1995, but following the discovery in 2009 of compelling new evidence (Thompson's blood on Weston's boots) he was arrested and tried for a second time.",
"He was sentenced to life imprisonment, to serve a minimum of 13 years.In December 2018, convicted paedophile Russell Bishop was also retried and found guilty by a jury for the Babes in the Wood murders of two 9-year-old girls, Nicola Fellows and Karen Hadaway, on 9 October 1986.At the original trial in 1987, a key piece of the prosecution's case rested on the recovery of a discarded blue sweatshirt.",
"Under questioning, Bishop denied that the sweatshirt belonged to him, but his girlfriend, Jennifer Johnson, alleged the clothing was Bishop's, before she changed her story in the trial, telling the jury she had never seen the top before.",
"Attributed to a series of blunders in the prosecution's case, Bishop was acquitted by the jury after two hours of deliberations.",
"Three years later, Bishop was found guilty of the abduction, molestation, and attempted murder of a 7-year-old girl in February 1990.In 2014, re-examined by modern forensics, the sweatshirt contained traces of Bishop's DNA, and also had fibres on it from both of the girls' clothing.",
"Tapings taken from Karen Hadaway's arm also yielded traces of Bishop's DNA.",
"At the 2018 trial, a jury of seven men and five women returned a guilty verdict after two-and-a-half hours of deliberation.On 14 November 2019, Michael Weir became the first person to be twice found guilty of a murder.",
"He was originally convicted of the murder of Leonard Harris in 1999, but the conviction was quashed in 2000 by the Court of Appeal on a technicality.",
"In 2018, new DNA evidence had been obtained and palm prints from both murder scenes were matched to Weir.",
"Twenty years after the original conviction, Weir was convicted of the murder for a second time.In February 2020, Merseyside Police called for further reform to the double jeopardy law in England so as to allow previously acquitted suspects to be re-interviewed by police.",
"The force had wanted to re-interview a suspect in the unsolved case of the murders of John Greenwood and Gary Miller who had been acquitted of the crime in 1981, but were not permitted to do so.",
"The force had also not been allowed to re-charge the man of murder in 2019, causing them to publicly request that the law is changed and stating: \"We believe being able to re-question suspects could potentially lead to being able to demonstrate the new and compelling evidence needed to reopen particular cases, including the murders of John Greenwood and Gary Miller\".==== Scotland ====The double jeopardy rule no longer applies absolutely in Scotland since the Double Jeopardy (Scotland) Act 2011 came into force on 28 November 2011.The Act introduced three broad exceptions to the rule: where the acquittal had been tainted by an attempt to pervert the course of justice; where the accused admitted their guilt after acquittal; and where there was new evidence.==== Northern Ireland ====In Northern Ireland, the Criminal Justice Act 2003, effective 18 April 2005, makes certain \"qualifying offence\" (including murder, rape, kidnapping, specified sexual acts with young children, specified drug offences, defined acts of terrorism, as well as in certain cases attempts or conspiracies to commit the foregoing) subject to retrial after acquittal (including acquittals obtained before passage of the Act) if there is a finding by the Court of Appeal that there is \"new and compelling evidence.",
"\"=== United States ===The ancient protection of the Common Law against double jeopardy is maintained in its full rigour in the United States.",
"The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides:Conversely, double jeopardy comes with a key exception.",
"Under the multiple sovereignties doctrine, multiple sovereigns can indict a defendant for the same crime.",
"The federal and state governments can have overlapping criminal laws, so a criminal offender may be convicted in individual states and federal courts for exactly the same crime or for different crimes arising out of the same facts.",
"However, in 2016, the Supreme Court held that Puerto Rico is not a separate sovereign for purposes of the Double Jeopardy Clause.",
"The dual sovereignty doctrine has been the subject of substantial scholarly criticism.As described by the U.S. Supreme Court in its unanimous decision concerning '' Ball v. United States'' 163 U.S. 662 (1896), one of its earliest cases dealing with double jeopardy, \"the prohibition is not against being twice punished, but against being twice put in jeopardy; and the accused, whether convicted or acquitted, is equally put in jeopardy at the first trial.\"",
"The Double Jeopardy Clause encompasses four distinct prohibitions: subsequent prosecution after acquittal, subsequent prosecution after conviction, subsequent prosecution after certain mistrials, and multiple punishment in the same indictment.",
"Jeopardy \"attaches\" when the jury is impanelled, the first witness is sworn, or a plea is accepted.==== Prosecution after acquittal ====With two exceptions, the government is not permitted to appeal or retry the defendant once jeopardy attaches to a trial unless the case does not conclude.",
"Conditions which constitute \"conclusion\" of a case include* After the entry of an acquittal, whether:** an acquittal by jury verdict** a directed verdict before the case is submitted to the jury,** a directed verdict after a deadlocked jury,** an appellate reversal for sufficiency (except by direct appeal to a higher appellate court), or** an \"implied acquittal\" via conviction of a lesser included offence.",
"* re-litigating against the same defence a fact necessarily found by the jury in a prior acquittal, even if the jury hung on other counts.",
"In such a situation, the government is barred by collateral estoppel.In these cases, the trial is concluded and the prosecution is precluded from appealing or retrying the defendant over the offence to which they were acquitted.This principle does not prevent the government from appealing a pre-trial motion to dismiss or other non-merits dismissal, or a directed verdict after a jury conviction, nor does it prevent the trial judge from entertaining a motion for reconsideration of a directed verdict, if the jurisdiction has so provided by rule or statute.",
"Nor does it prevent the government from retrying the defendant after an appellate reversal other than for sufficiency, including ''habeas corpus'', or \"thirteenth juror\" appellate reversals notwithstanding sufficiency on the principle that jeopardy has not \"terminated\".The \"dual sovereignty\" doctrine allows a federal prosecution of an offence to proceed regardless of a previous state prosecution for that same offence and vice versa because \"an act denounced as a crime by both national and state sovereignties is an offence against the peace and dignity of both and may be punished by each\".",
"The doctrine is solidly entrenched in the law, but there has been a traditional reluctance in the federal executive branch to gratuitously wield the power it grants, due to public opinion being generally hostile to such action.==== Exceptions ====There are two exceptions to bans on retrying defendants.",
"If a defendant bribed a judge into acquitting him or her, the defendant was not in jeopardy and can be retried.",
"A member of the armed forces can be retried by court-martial in a military court, even if he or she has been previously acquitted by a civilian court.",
"This exception was used to prosecute Timothy Hennis for the Eastburn family murders after his previous trial acquitted him.An individual can be prosecuted by both the United States and an Indian tribe for the same acts that constituted crimes in both jurisdictions; it was established by the Supreme Court in ''United States v. Lara'' that as the two are separate sovereigns, prosecuting a crime under both tribal and federal law does not attach double jeopardy.==== Multiple punishment, including prosecution after conviction ====In ''Blockburger v. United States'' (1932), the Supreme Court announced the following test: the government may separately try and punish the defendant for two crimes if each crime contains an element that the other does not.",
"''Blockburger'' is the default rule, unless the governing statute legislatively intends to depart; for example, Continuing Criminal Enterprise (CCE) may be punished separately from its predicates, as can conspiracy.The ''Blockburger'' test, originally developed in the multiple punishments context, is also the test for prosecution after conviction.",
"In ''Grady v. Corbin'' (1990), the Court held that a double jeopardy violation could lie even where the ''Blockburger'' test was not satisfied, but ''Grady'' was later distinguished in ''United States v. Felix'' (1992), when the court reverted to the ''Blockburger'' test without completely dismissing the ''Grady'' interpretation.",
"The court eventually overruled ''Grady'' in ''United States v. Dixon'' (1993).==== Prosecution after mistrial ====The rule for mistrials depends upon who sought the mistrial.",
"If the defendant moves for a mistrial, there is no bar to retrial, unless the prosecutor acted in \"bad faith\", i.e.",
"goaded the defendant into moving for a mistrial because the government specifically wanted a mistrial.",
"If the prosecutor moves for a mistrial, there is no bar to retrial if the trial judge finds \"manifest necessity\" for granting the mistrial.",
"The same standard governs mistrials granted sua sponte.Retrials are not common, due to the legal expenses to the government.",
"However, in the mid-1980s Georgia antique dealer James Arthur Williams was tried a record four times for the murder of Danny Hansford and (after three mistrials) was finally acquitted on the grounds of self-defence.",
"The case is recounted in the book ''Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil,'' which was adapted into a film directed by Clint Eastwood (the movie combines the four trials into one)."
],
[
"See also",
"* Sam Sheppard* Emmett Till* David Smith, British man acquitted of the murder of a woman in 1993, only to be convicted of murdering another woman in an \"almost identical\" case in 1999"
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"=== Australia ===; In favour of current rule prohibiting retrial after acquittal* NSW Public Defenders Office; Opposing the rule that prohibits retrial after acquittal* Questioning Double Jeopardy* DoubleJeopardyReform.Org=== United Kingdom ===Research and Notes produced for the UK Parliament, summarising the history of legal change, views and responses, and analyses:* * ( direct download link)=== United States ===* FindLaw Annotation of the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution* Double Jeopardy Game on uscourts.gov (archived from the original on 2006-01-10)* Jack McCall (famous murder case involving a claim of double jeopardy)=== Other countries ===* Law Reform Commission of Ireland Consultation Paper on Prosecution Appeals Brought on Indictment"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Disbarment"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Disbarment''', also known as '''striking off''', is the removal of a lawyer from a bar association or the practice of law, thus revoking their law license or admission to practice law.",
"Disbarment is usually a punishment for unethical or criminal conduct but may also be imposed for incompetence or incapacity.",
"Procedures vary depending on the law society; temporary disbarment may be referred to as suspension."
],
[
"Australia",
"In Australia, states regulate the Legal Profession under state law, despite many participating in a uniform scheme.",
"Admission as a lawyer is the business of the admissions board and the Supreme Court.",
"Disciplinary proceedings may be commenced by the Bar Association or the Law Society of which one is a member, or the board itself."
],
[
"Germany",
"In Germany, a ''Berufsverbot'' is a ban on practicing a profession, which the government can issue to a lawyer for misconduct, ''Volksverhetzung'' or for serious mismanagement of personal finances.In April 1933, the Nazi government issued a ''Berufsverbot'' forbidding the practice of law by Jews, Communists, and other political opponents, except for those protected by the ''Frontkämpferprivileg''."
],
[
"United Kingdom",
"In the United Kingdom, the removal of the licence to practise of a barrister or Scottish advocate is called being \"disbarred\", whilst the removal of a solicitor from the rolls in England and Wales, Scotland, or Northern Ireland is called being \"struck off\"."
],
[
"United States",
"===Overview===Generally, disbarment is imposed as a sanction for conduct indicating that an attorney is not fit to practice law, willfully disregarding the interests of a client, commingling funds, or engaging in fraud which impedes the administration of justice.",
"In some states, any lawyer who is convicted of a felony is automatically suspended pending further disciplinary proceedings, or, in New York, automatically disbarred.",
"Automatic disbarment, although opposed by the American Bar Association, has been described as a convicted felon's just deserts.In the United States legal system, disbarment is specific to regions; one can be disbarred from some courts, while still being a member of the bar in another jurisdiction.",
"However, under the American Bar Association's Model Rules of Professional Conduct, which have been adopted in most states, disbarment in one state or court is grounds for disbarment in a jurisdiction which has adopted the Model Rules.Disbarment is quite rare: in 2011, only 1,046 lawyers were disbarred.",
"Instead, lawyers are usually sanctioned by their own clients through civil malpractice proceedings, or via fine, censure, suspension, or other punishments from the disciplinary boards.",
"To be disbarred is considered a great embarrassment and shame, even if one no longer wishes to continue a career in law.Because disbarment rules vary by area, different rules can apply depending on where a lawyer is disbarred.",
"Notably, the majority of US states have no procedure for permanently disbarring a person.",
"Depending on the jurisdiction, a lawyer may reapply to the bar immediately, after five to seven years, or be banned for life.===Notable U.S. disbarments===The 20th and the 21st centuries have seen one former U.S. president and one former U.S. vice president disbarred, and another former president suspended from one bar and caused to resign from another bar rather than face disbarment.Former vice president Spiro Agnew, having pleaded no contest (which subjects a person to the same criminal penalties as a guilty plea, but is not an admission of guilt for a civil suit) to charges of bribery and tax evasion, was disbarred from Maryland, the state of which he had previously been governor.Former president Richard Nixon was disbarred from New York in 1976 for obstruction of justice related to the Watergate scandal.",
"He had attempted to resign from the New York bar, as he had done with California and the Supreme Court, but his resignation was not accepted as he would not acknowledge that he was unable to defend himself from the charges brought against him.In 2001, following a 5-year suspension by the Arkansas bar, the United States Supreme Court suspended Bill Clinton, providing 40 days for him to contest disbarment.",
"He resigned before the end of the 40 day period, thus avoiding disbarment.Alger Hiss was disbarred for a felony conviction, but later became the first person reinstated to the bar in Massachusetts after disbarment.In 2007, Mike Nifong, the District Attorney of Durham County, North Carolina who presided over the 2006 Duke University lacrosse case, was disbarred for prosecutorial misconduct related to his handling of the case.In April 2012, a three-member panel appointed by the Arizona Supreme Court voted unanimously to disbar Andrew Thomas, former County Attorney of Maricopa County, Arizona, and a former close confederate of Maricopa County Sheriff Joe Arpaio.",
"According to the panel, Thomas \"outrageously exploited power, flagrantly fostered fear, and disgracefully misused the law\" while serving as Maricopa County Attorney.",
"The panel found \"clear and convincing evidence\" that Thomas brought unfounded and malicious criminal and civil charges against political opponents, including four state judges and the state attorney general.",
"\"Were this a criminal case,\" the panel concluded, \"we are confident that the evidence would establish this conspiracy beyond a reasonable doubt.",
"\"Jack Thompson, the Florida lawyer noted for his activism against Howard Stern, video games, and rap music, was permanently disbarred for various charges of misconduct.",
"The action was the result of several grievances claiming that Thompson had made defamatory, false statements and attempted to humiliate, embarrass, harass or intimidate his opponents.",
"The order was made on September 25, 2008, effective October 25.However, Thompson attempted to appeal to the higher courts in order to avoid the penalty actually taking effect.",
"Neither the US District court, nor the US Supreme Court would hear his appeal, rendering the judgment of the Florida Supreme Court final.Ed Fagan, a New York lawyer who prominently represented Holocaust victims against Swiss banks, was disbarred in New York (in 2008) and New Jersey (in 2009) for failing to pay court fines and fees; and for misappropriating client and escrow trust funds.F.",
"Lee Bailey, noted criminal defense attorney, was disbarred by the state of Florida in 2001, with reciprocal disbarment in Massachusetts in 2002.The Florida disbarment was the result of his handling of stock in the DuBoc marijuana case.",
"Bailey was found guilty of 7 counts of attorney misconduct by the Florida Supreme Court.",
"Bailey had transferred a large portion of DuBoc's assets into his own accounts, using the interest gained on those assets to pay for personal expenses.",
"In March 2005, Bailey filed to regain his law license in Massachusetts.",
"The book ''Florida Pulp Nonfiction'' details the peculiar facts of the DuBoc case along with extended interviews with Bailey that include his own defense.",
"Bailey is also best known for representing murder suspect O. J. Simpson in 1994."
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Dog tag"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A pair of blank dog tags on one ball chain'''Dog tag''' is an informal but common term for a specific type of identification tag worn by military personnel.",
"The tags' primary use is for the identification of casualties; they have information about the individual written on them, including identification and essential basic medical information such as blood type and history of inoculations.",
"They often indicate a religious preference as well.Dog tags are usually fabricated from a corrosion-resistant metal.",
"They commonly contain two copies of the information, either in the form of a single tag that can be broken in half, or as two identical tags on the same chain.",
"This purposeful duplication allows one tag, or half-tag, to be collected from an individual's dead body for notification, while the duplicate remains with the corpse if the conditions of battle prevent it from being immediately recovered.",
"The term arose and became popular because of the tags' resemblance to animal registration tags."
],
[
"History",
"U.S. Army dog tags from World War IIThe earliest mention of an identification tag for soldiers comes in Polyaenus (Stratagems 1.17) where the Spartans wrote their names on sticks tied to their left wrists.",
"A type of dog tag (\"signaculum\") was given to the Roman legionary at the moment of enrollment.",
"The legionary \"signaculum\" was a lead disk with a leather string, worn around the neck, with the name of the recruit and the indication of the legion of which the recruit was part.",
"This procedure, together with enrollment in the list of recruits, was made at the beginning of a four-month probatory period (\"probatio\").",
"The recruit obtained the military status only after the oath of allegiance (\"sacramentum\") at the end of \"probatio\", meaning that from a legal point of view the \"signaculum\" was given to a subject who was no longer a civilian, but not yet in the military.In more recent times, dog tags were provided to Chinese soldiers as early as the mid-19th century.",
"During the Taiping revolt (1851–66), both the Imperialists (i.e., the Chinese Imperial Army regular servicemen) and those Taiping rebels wearing a uniform wore wooden dog tags at the belt, bearing the soldier's name, age, birthplace, unit, and date of enlistment.=== American Civil War ===During the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865, some soldiers pinned paper notes with their name and home address to the backs of their coats.",
"Other soldiers stenciled identification on their knapsacks or scratched it in the soft lead backing of their army belt buckles.ID tags for Lt. Henry Correll of the 2nd Vermont Volunteer InfantryManufacturers of identification badges recognized a market and began advertising in periodicals.",
"Their pins were usually shaped to suggest a branch of service, and engraved with the soldier's name and unit.",
"Machine-stamped tags were also made of brass or lead with a hole and usually had (on one side) an eagle or shield, and such phrases as \"War for the Union\" or \"Liberty, Union, and Equality\".",
"The other side had the soldier's name and unit, and sometimes a list of battles in which he had participated.===Franco-Prussian War===On a volunteer basis Prussian soldiers had decided to wear identification tags in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.However, many rejected dog tags as a bad omen for their lives.",
"So until eight months after the Battle of Königgrätz, with almost 8,900 Prussian casualties, only 429 of them could be identified.",
"With the formation of the North German Confederation in 1867 Prussian military regulations became binding for the militaries of all North German member states.",
"With the Prussian ''Instruktion über das Sanitätswesen der Armee im Felde'' (i.e., instruction on the medical corps organisation of the army afield) issued on 29 April 1869 identification tags (then called ''Erkennungsmarke''; literally \"recognition mark\") were to be handed out to each soldier before deployment afield.",
"The Prussian Army issued identification tags for its troops at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.They were nicknamed ''Hundemarken'' (the German equivalent of \"dog tags\") and compared to a similar identification system instituted by the dog licence fee, adding tags to collars of those dogs whose owners paid the fee, in the Prussian capital city of Berlin at around the same time period.===World War I===A World War I German army dog tag indicating name, place of birth, battalion, unit and serial numberThe British Army introduced identity discs in place of identity cards in 1907, in the form of aluminium discs, typically made at regimental depots using machines similar to those common at fun fairs, the details being pressed into the thin metal one letter at a time.Army Order 287 of September 1916 required the British Army provide all soldiers with two official tags, both made of vulcanised asbestos fibre (which were more comfortable to wear in hot climates) carrying identical details, again impressed one character at a time.",
"The first tag, an octagonal green disc, was attached to a long cord around the neck.",
"The second tag, a circular red disc, was threaded on a 6-inch cord suspended from the first tag.",
"The first tag was intended to remain on the body for future identification, while the second tag could be taken to record the death.British and Empire/Commonwealth forces (Australia, Canada, and New Zealand) were issued essentially identical identification discs of basic pattern during the Great War, Second World War and Korea, though official identity discs were frequently supplemented by private-purchase items such as identity bracelets, particularly favoured by sailors who believed the official discs were unlikely to survive long immersion in water.The U.S. Army first authorized identification tags in War Department General Order No.",
"204, dated December 20, 1906, which essentially prescribes the Kennedy identification tag:The U.S. Army changed regulations on July 6, 1916, so that all soldiers were issued two tags: one to stay with the body and the other to go to the person in charge of the burial for record-keeping purposes.",
"In 1918, the U.S. Army adopted and allotted the service number system, and name and service numbers were ordered stamped on the identification tags.===World War II \"notched\" tags===One of the two identity discs issued by the South African Navy during World War II with rank, surname, initials, force number and religious affiliationBritish WWII RAF Dog tag of the Jewish soldier Astman, identification number 775923.There is a recurring myth about the notch situated in one end of the dog tags issued to United States Army personnel during World War II, and up until the Korean War era.",
"It was rumored that the notch's purpose was that, if a soldier found one of his comrades on the battlefield, he could take one tag to the commanding officer and stick the other between the teeth of the soldier to ensure that the tag would remain with the body and be identified.In reality, the notch was used with the Model 70 Addressograph Hand Identification Imprinting Machine (a pistol-type imprinter used primarily by the Medical Department during World War II).",
"American dogtags of the 1930s through 1980s were produced using a Graphotype machine, in which characters are debossed into metal plates.",
"Some tags are still debossed, using earlier equipment, and some are embossed (with raised letters) on computer-controlled equipment.In the Graphotype process, commonly used commercially from the early 1900s through the 1980s, a debossing machine was used to stamp characters into metal plates; the plates could then be used to repetitively stamp such things as addresses onto paper in the same way that a typewriter functions, except that a single stroke of the printer could produce a block of text, rather than requiring each character to be printed individually.",
"The debossing process creates durable, easily legible metal plates, well-suited for military identification tags, leading to adoption of the system by the American military.",
"It was also realized that debossed tags can function the same way the original Graphotype plates do.The Model 70 took advantage of this fact, and was intended to rapidly print all of the information from a soldier's dogtag directly onto medical and personnel forms, with a single squeeze of the trigger.",
"However, this requires that the tag being inserted with the proper orientation (stamped characters facing down), and it was believed that battlefield stress could lead to errors.",
"To force proper orientation of the tags, the tags are produced with a notch, and there is a locator tab inside the Model 70 which prevents the printer from operating if the tag is inserted with the notch in the wrong place (as it is if the tag is upside down).This feature was not as useful in the field as had been hoped, however, due to adverse conditions such as weather, dirt and dust, water, etc.",
"In addition, the Model 70 resembled a pistol, thus attracting the attention of snipers (who might assume that a man carrying a pistol was an officer).",
"As a result, use of the Model 70 hand imprinter by field medics was rapidly abandoned (as were most of the Model 70s themselves), and eventually the specification that tags include the locator notch was removed from production orders.",
"Existing stocks of tags were used until depleted, and in the 1960s it was not uncommon for a soldier to be issued one tag with the notch and one tag without.",
"Notched tags are still in production, to satisfy the needs of hobbyists, film production, etc., while the Model 70 imprinter has become a rare collector's item.It appears instructions that would confirm the notch's mythical use were issued at least unofficially by the Graves Registration Service during the Vietnam War to Army troops headed overseas.Dog tags are traditionally part of the makeshift battlefield memorials soldiers created for their fallen comrades.",
"The casualty's rifle with bayonet affixed is stood vertically atop the empty boots, with the helmet over the rifle's stock.",
"The dog tags hang from the rifle's handle or trigger guard."
],
[
"Non-military usage",
"===Medical condition identification===Some tags (along with similar items such as MedicAlert bracelets) are used also by civilians to identify their wearers and:* specify them as having health problems that may suddenly incapacitate their wearers and render them incapable of providing treatment guidance (as in the cases of heart problems, epilepsy, diabetic coma, accident or major trauma)* specify them as having health problems that may interact adversely with medical treatments, especially standard or \"first-line\" ones (as in the case of an allergy to common medications)* provide in case of emergency (\"ICE\") contact information* state a religious, moral, or other objection to artificial resuscitation, if a first responder attempts to administer such treatment when the wearer is non-responsive and thus unable to warn against doing so.",
"A DNR signed by a physician is still required in some states.Military personnel in some jurisdiction may wear a supplementary medical information tag.=== Fashion ===Dog tags have found their way into youth fashion as military chic.",
"Originally worn as a part of a military uniform by youth wishing to present a tough or militaristic image, dog tags have since reached wider fashion circles.",
"They may be inscribed with a person's details, beliefs or tastes, a favorite quote, or may bear the name or logo of a band or performer.",
"The wearing of dog tags as a fashion accessory can be considered disrespectful by some military personnel.Since the late 1990s, custom dog tags have been fashionable amongst musicians (particularly rappers), and as a marketing give-away item.",
"Numerous companies offer customers the opportunity to create their own personalized dog tags with their own photos, logos, and text.",
"Even high-end jewellers have featured gold and silver dog tags encrusted with diamonds and other jewels."
],
[
"Variations by country",
"=== Austria ===The Austrian ''Bundesheer'' used a single long, rectangular tag, with oval ends, stamped with blood group & Rh factor at the end, with ID number underneath.",
"Two slots and a hole stamped beneath allows the tag to be broken in halves, and the long bottom portion has both the ID number and a series of holes which allows the tag to be inserted into a dosimeter.",
"This has been replaced with a more conventional, wider and rounded rectangle which can still be halved, but lacks the dosimeter reading holes.=== Australia ===Australian dog tags, fitted with rubber dog tag silencersThe Australian Defence Force issues soldiers two tags of different shapes, one octagonal and one circular, containing the following information:* AS (denoting Australia, previously both AU and AUST have been used)* PMKeyS/Service number* First initial* Last name* Religious abbreviation (e.g.",
"RC – Roman Catholic, NREL – No religion)* Blood groupThe information is printed exactly the same on both discs.",
"In the event of a casualty, the circular tag is removed from the body.=== Belgium ===Belgian Forces identity tags are, like the Canadian and Norwegian, designed to be broken in two in case of fatality; the lower half is returned to the Belgian Defence staff, while the upper half remains on the body.",
"The tags contain the following information:* Upper half:** ''Belgisch Leger'' (Belgian Army) and Date of Birth in DD/MM/YYYY format.",
"** Surname with the addition of the first letter of given name.",
"** Service number and blood group with RH factor and optionally religion.",
"* Lower half: identical.",
"* Example:** Belgisch Leger 01/01/1991** Surname J** 1234567 O+ KATH=== Canada ===Canadian Forces ID Disk.",
"Name and service number are redacted.Canadian Forces identity discs (abbreviated \"ID discs\") are designed to be broken in two in the case of fatality; the lower half is returned to National Defence Headquarters with the member's personal documents, while the upper half remains on the body.",
"The tags contain the following information:* Upper half:** Service Number (SN)** Initials and surname** Religion (or \"NRE\" if none) and blood group with RH factor** The legend \"CDN FORCES CDN\" (or for foreign nationals, the name of the country the individual represents)** The text \"DO NOT REMOVE / NE PAS ENLEVER\" on the reverse* Lower half: identical, except no blood group or RH factor and the reverse is blank.Before the Service Number was introduced in the 1990s, military personnel were identified on the ID discs (as well as other documents) by their social insurance number.=== China ===The People's Liberation Army issues two long, rectangular tags.",
"All information is stamped in Simplified Chinese:* Full name* Gender* Date of birth* RIC number* PLA's ID number* Blood type* BranchPLA is introducing a two-dimensional matrix code on the second tag, the matrix code contains a link to the official database.",
"This allows the inquirer get more details about the military personnel.=== Colombia ===The Ejército Nacional de Colombia uses long, rectangular metal tags with oval ends tags stamped with the following information:* Family Name* First Name* Military ID Number* Blood Type* Branch of ServiceDuplicate tags are issued.",
"Often, tags are issued with a prayer inscribed on the reverse.=== Cyprus ===In Cyprus, identification tags include the following information:* Surname* First name* Service number (E.g., 11111/00/00B, where the first five digits are the ID, the second two are the year the soldier turned 18 years old, the last two digits are the year the soldier enlisted, and the letter is the enlistment group, either A or B)* Blood Group=== Denmark ===Danish military dog tagThe military of Denmark use dog tags made from small, rectangular metal plates.",
"The tag is designed to be broken into two pieces each with the following information stamped onto it:* Personal identification number* Surname* First nameAdditionally, the right hand side of each half-tag is engraved .Starting in 1985, the individual's service number (which is the same as the social security number) is included on the tag.",
"In case the individual dies, the lower half-tag is supposed to be collected, while the other will remain with the corpse.",
"In the army, navy, and air force but not in the national guard, the individual's blood type is indicated on the lower half-tag only, since this information becomes irrelevant if the individual dies.",
"In 2009, Danish dog tags were discontinued for conscripts.=== East Germany ===East German ''Erkennungsmarke'' (identification tag)The ''Nationale Volksarmee'' used a tag nearly identical to that used by both the Wehrmacht and the West German Bundeswehr.",
"The oval aluminum tag was stamped \"DDR\" (Deutsche Demokratische Republik) above the personal ID number; this information was repeated on the bottom half, which was intended to be broken off in case of death.",
"Oddly, the tag was not worn (but would have been in case of war), but required to be kept in a plastic sleeve in the back of the WDA (\"Wehrdienstausweis\") identity booklet.=== Ecuador ===The ''Placas de identificación de campaña'' consists of two long, rectangular steel or aluminum tags with rounded corners and a single hole punched in one end.",
"It is suspended by a US-type ball chain, with a shorter chain for the second tag.",
"The information on the tag is:* Family Name & First Name* Identification Number* Blood Group, plus \"RH\" and \"+\" or \"-\"=== Estonia ===Estonian dog tags are designed to be broken in two.",
"The dog tag is a metallic rounded rectangle suspended by a ball chain.",
"Information consists of four fields:* National identification number* Nationality* Blood Group* ReligionExample: * 39305231234* EST* A(II) Rh Pos (+)* NO=== Finland ===Blank Finnish dog tag (old model)In the Finnish Defence Forces, \"''tunnuslevy''\" or WWII term \"''tuntolevy''\" (Finnish for \"Identification plate\") is made of stainless steel and designed to be broken in two; however, the only text on it is the personal identification number and the letters \"FI\" or \"SF\" in older models, which stands for Suomi Finland, within a tower stamped atop of the upper half.=== France ===France issues either a metallic rounded rectangle (army) or disk (navy), designed to be broken in half, bearing family name & first name above the ID number.=== Germany ===See above for former ''East Germany''.Frontside of a German ID tag from 1961German Bundeswehr ID tags are an oval-shaped disc designed to be broken in half.",
"They are made of stainless steel, height and width.",
"The two sides contain different information which are mirrored upside-down on the lower half of the ID tag.",
"They feature the following information on segmented and numbered fields:On the front:* Field 1: blank (provided for Gender but never used)* Field 2: DEU (for Deutschland) (GE (for Germany) only on older ID tags)* Field 3: Religious preference (\"K\" or \"RK\" for Roman Catholic, \"E\" or \"EV\" for Protestant, \"O\" for Christian Orthodox, \"ISL\" for Islamic, \"JD\" for Jewish, blank if no preference)* Field 4: Personenkennziffer (service number: birth date in DDMMYY format, dash, capitalized first letter of last name, dash, and five-digit number based on soldier's home military administrative district, number of persons with the mentioned last name initial and same birthday, and an error-checking number but without dashes), ex.",
"101281-S-455(-)6(-)8On the back:* Field 5: Blood group (A, AB, B, 0)* Field 6: Rh factor (Rh+ or Rh-)* Field 7: Vaccination status (\"T82\" for Tetanus and year of basic immunization)* Fields 8–10: blank''Bundesamt für Wehrtechnik und Beschaffung'' of 2009-12-21 specifies shape, materials and characteristics for four parts:* ''Erkennungsmarke'' (identification tag) stainless steel (\"Edelstahl\")* ''Erkennungsmarke, nicht magnetisierbar'' (identification tag, non-magnetizable) for personnel working for special tasks, non-magnetic stainless steel* ''Sanitätswarnmarke'', short ''Warnmarke'' (health warn tag) aluminium, anodized red, carried only if necessary with a second chain depending from the lower half of the ID tag* ''Halskette'' (necklace) – ''Kugelkette'' DIN 5280, stainless steel – 2 parts: one long for neck and ID, one short for warn tag to ID tag.The ID tag is landscape-oval, breakable in two halves with 4–8 manual bends.",
"On the backside each half is 0.2 mm deep marked with \"DEU\" for ''Deutschland'', the non-magnetic type on both halves and both sides with \"NM\".The metal sheet is 0.7 mm thick, material codes X5CrNi1810 or 1.4301, weighs about 16 g. NM-variant shall consist of 1.4311 or 1.4401.Sharp edges have to be smoothed, then the plate electropolished.",
"Mechanical deburring and ball polishing is allowed.The letters stamped in for the person must stay readable after a glow test for 10 minutes in air at 1200 °C.The ball chain is of X5CrNi1810, diameter of ball is 3.5 mm, that of the wire 1.5 mm.",
"Closure is of 1.4301, stainless steel, too.",
"The long chain is 680 + 30 mm long, the short one 145 + 7 mm.",
"Breaking force of the chain including the closure must reach 100 N, after 10 min glow at 1200 °C in air at least 10 N.=== Greece ===In Greece, identification tags include the following information:* Surname* First name* Service number (where date of birth is included as \"class\")* Blood Group=== Hungary ===Hungarian 1978M current issue dog tagThe Hungarian army dog tag is made out of steel, forming a 25×35 mm tag designed to split diagonally.",
"Both sides contain the same information: the soldier's personal identity code, blood group and the word HUNGARIA.",
"Some may not have the blood group on them.",
"These are only issued to soldiers who are serving outside of the country.",
"If the soldier should die, one side is removed and kept for the army's official records, while the other side is left attached to the body.=== Iraq ===The Saddam-era Iraqi Army used a single, long, rectangular metal tag with oval ends, inscribed (usually by hand) with Name and Number or Unit, and occasionally Blood Type.=== Israel ===Israel Defense Forces Dog tag (issued 1966).",
"Identification number, last name, first name, blood type.Dog tags of the Israel Defense Forces are designed to be broken in two.",
"The information appears in three lines (twice):*Army identification number (\"mispar ishi\", literally \"personal number\".",
"A seven-digit number that is different from the nine-digit identification number for citizens).",
"* Last name* First Name* Blood Type (ABO group – in some years)Recruits are issued with 2 Dogtags (4 halves total), one remains whole and worn on a necklace, and the second is broken into its halves and placed in each military boot for the purpose of Identifying dead soldiers (IDF Military Boots contain pouches on their inner sides at the 1/3 calf height, the pouches have holes corresponding in size and placement to those on the discs, allowing for fastening, often via small cable ties).Originally the IDF issued two circular aluminum tags (1948 – late 1950s) stamped in three lines with serial number, family name, and first name.",
"The tags were threaded together through a single hole onto a cord worn around the neck.=== Italy ===Military dog tag, Italy World War IIRectangular piece, 35x45 mm, designed to be broken in two.",
"Includes soldier's first and last name, coded date and place of birth, identification number, religious affiliation, and blood group.=== Japan ===Japan follows a similar system to the US Army for its Japan Self-Defense Forces personnel, and the appearance of the tags is similar, although laser etched.",
"The exact information order is as follows.",
"* Japan Ground Self-Defense Force** JAPAN GSDF** First name, last name** Identification number** Blood type* Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force** First name, last name** Identification number** JAPAN MSDF** Blood type* Japan Air Self-Defense Force** First name, last name** Identification number** JAPAN ASDF** Blood type=== Malaysia ===Malaysian Armed Forces have two identical oval tags with this information:* NRIC number (The last digit is an odd number for a male soldier, and an even number for a female soldier.",
")* Service number* Full name* Blood type* Religion* Branch (e.g., TLDM)If more information needed, another two oval wrist tags are provided.",
"The term ''wrist tags'' can be used to refer to the bracelet-like wristwatch.",
"The additional tags only need to be worn on the wrist, with the main tags still on the neck.",
"All personnel are allowed to attach a small religious pendant or locket; this makes a quick identifiable reference for their funeral services.=== Mexico ===The Mexican Army uses two long identity tags, very similar to the ones used in the United States Army.",
"They are rectangular metal tags with oval ends, embossed with name, serial number, and blood type, plus Rh factor.=== Netherlands ===Dutch military identity tags, like the Canadian and Norwegian ones, are designed to be broken in two in case of a fatality; the lower end is returned to Dutch Defence Headquarters, while the upper half remains on the body.The tags contain the following information:* Upper half:** Name and family name** Service number** Nationality and religion** Blood group with RH factor* Lower half: identical.There is a difference in the Army and Air Force service number and the Navy service number:*The Army and Air Force service number is made up of the date of birth in YY.MM.DD.",
"format, for example 83.01.15, and a three-digit number, such as 123.",
"*The Navy service number is made up out of random five- or six-digit numbers.=== Norway ===Norwegian dog tags are designed to be broken in two like the Canadian and the Dutch version:* The top half contains the nationality, the eleven-digit birth number and the blood type.",
"* The bottom half contains the nationality and birth number and has a hole so the broken-off half can be hung on a ring.=== Poland ===Polish dog tags from the 1920s (right) and 1930s (left)The first dog tags were issued in Poland following the order of the General Staff of December 12, 1920.The earliest design (dubbed ''kapala'' in Polish, more properly called \"kapsel legitymacyjny\" – meaning \"identification cap\") consisted of a tin-made 30×50 mm rectangular frame and a rectangular cap fitting into the frame.",
"Soldiers' details were filled in a small ID card placed inside the frame, as well as on the inside of the frame itself.",
"The dog tag was similar to the tags used by the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I.",
"In case the soldier died, the frame was left with his body, while the lid was returned to his unit together with a note on his death.",
"The ID card was handed over to the chaplain or the rabbi.In 1928, a new type of dog tag was proposed by gen. bryg.",
"Stanisław Rouppert, Poland's representative at the International Red Cross.",
"It was slightly modified and adopted in 1931 under the name of Nieśmiertelnik wz.",
"1931 (literally \"Immortalizer mark 1931\").",
"The new design consisted of an oval piece of metal (ideally steel, but in most cases aluminum alloy was used), roughly 40 by 50 millimeters.",
"There were two notches on both sides of the tag, as well as two rectangular holes in the middle to allow for easier breaking of the tag in two halves.",
"The halves contained the same set of data and were identical, except the upper half had two holes for a string or twine to go through.",
"The data stamped on the dog tag from 2008 (wz.",
"2008) included:* Name* Surname* ID number (PESEL- Universal Electronic System for Registration of the Population)* \"blank\"* Blood Group with the name of Polish Army \"Siły Zbrojne RP\" and Polish Emblem.=== Rhodesia ===The former Republic of Rhodesia used two WW2 British-style compressed asbestos fiber tags, a No.",
"1 octagonal (grey) tag and a No.",
"2 circular (red) tag, stamped with identical information.",
"The red tag was supposedly fireproof and the grey tag rotproof.",
"The following information was stamped on the tags: Number, Name, Initials, & Religion; Blood Type was stamped on reverse.",
"The air force and BSAP often stamped their service on the reverse side above the blood group.=== Russia ===Russian dog tagThe Russian Armed Forces use oval metal tags, similar to the dog tags of the Soviet Army.",
"Each tag contains the title and the individual's alphanumeric number, as shown on the photo.=== Singapore ===The Singapore Armed Forces-issued dog tags are inscribed (not embossed) with up to four items:* NRIC number* Blood type* Religion* Drug allergies (if any; inscribed on the reverse)The dog tags consist of two metal pieces, one oval with two holes and one round with one hole.",
"A synthetic lanyard is threaded through both holes in the oval piece and tied around the wearer's neck.",
"The round piece is tied to the main loop on a shorter loop.=== South Africa ===The South African National Defense Force use two long, rectangular stainless steel tags with oval ends, stamped with :* Serial number* Name and initials* Religion* Blood type.=== South Korea ===The South Korean army issues two long, rectangular tags with oval ends, stamped (in Korean lettering).",
"The tags are worn on the neck with a ball chain.",
"The tags contain the information listed below:* Branch (Army, Air Force, Navy, Marines)* Service Number; the first two digits state the starting year of service and the other eight digits state the specific unit of the person.",
"* Name* Blood group followed by Rh factor=== South Vietnam ===The South Vietnamese Army and the South Vietnamese Navy used two American-style dog tags.",
"Some tags added religion on the back, e.g., Phật Giáo for Buddhist.",
"They were stamped or inscribed with: *Name*SQ (Số Quân, i.e., Service number) a 2-digit year number, followed by a military serial number*LM (loại máu, i.e., Blood Group, rH factor)=== Soviet Union ===During World War II, the Red Army did not issue metal dog tags to its troops.",
"They were issued small black Bakelite cylinders containing a slip of paper with a soldier's particulars written on it.",
"These do not hold up as well as metal dog tags.After World War II, the Soviet Army used oval metal tags, similar to today's dog tags of the Russian Armed forces.",
"Each tag contains the title and the individual's alphanumeric number.=== Spain ===Issues a single metal oval, worn vertically, stamped \"\" above and below the 3-slot horizontal break line.",
"It is stamped in 4 lines with:* 1st line – Religion* 2nd line – left side = blood group, right side = any medical allergies (SI or NO)* 3rd line – military service (ET, EA ...)* 4th (longest) line = DNI military number.",
"=== Sweden ===Swedish identification tags are designed to be able to break apart.",
"The information on them was prior to 2010 and are as follows:* Personal identity number (twice, once in the upper part and once below)* Surname*first and middle name(s)* Residence at birth* Blood type (only on some)*County code*Issue yearSwedish dog tags issued to Armed Forces personnel after 2010 are, for personal security reasons, only marked with a personal identity number.During the Cold War, dog tags were issued to everyone, often soon after birth, since the threat of total war also meant the risk of severe civilian casualties.",
"However, in 2010, the Government decided that the dog tags were not needed anymore.=== Switzerland ===Swiss Armed Forces ID tag is an oval shaped non reflective plaque, containing the following information:* Social insurance number* Surname* First name* Date of birth in DD.MM.YY formatOn the back side the letters CH (standing for ''Confoederatio Helvetica'') are engraved next to a Swiss cross.=== United Kingdom ===British World War II fibre-disc-type dog tagThe British Armed Forces currently use two circular non-reflecting stainless steel tags, referred to as \"ID Disks\", engraved with the following 'Big 5' details:# Blood group# Service Number# Last name (Surname)# Initials# Religion (Abbreviated, e.g; R.C – Roman Catholic)\t# Branch (\"RAF\" – only for RAF members)The discs are suspended from one long chain (24 inches long) and one short chain (4.5 inches long)During World War One and Two, service personnel were issued pressed fibre identity disks, one green octagonal shaped disc, and a red round disc (some army units issued a second red round disc to be attached to the service respirator).",
"The identity disks were hand stamped with the surname, initials, service number and religion of the holder and if in the Royal Air Force, the initials RAF.",
"The disks were worn around the neck on a 38\" length of cotton cord, this was often replaced by the wearer with a leather bootlace.",
"One tag was suspended below the main tag.The fibre identity disks in the RAF were still in use in 1999.From 1960 these were replaced with stainless steel ID tags on a green nylon cord, two circular and one oval.",
"The oval was withdrawn around 1990.=== United States ===An American dog tag showing the recipient's last name, first name, Social Security number, blood type, and religion.Tags are properly known as identification tags; the term \"dog tags\" has never been used in regulations.The U.S. Armed Forces typically carry two identical oval dog tags containing:;U.S. Air Force (Pre-2019)* Last name* First name and middle initial* Social Security number (Or DoD ID number post-2012), followed by \"AF\" indicating branch of service* Blood Group* Religion;U.S. Air Force (Modern)* Last name*First name and middle initial*DoD ID number without hyphens*Blood group and Rh factor*Religious Preference;U.S. Marine Corps* Last name* First and middle initials and suffix; blood group* EDIPI number* Branch (\"USMC\"); Gas mask size (S – small, M – medium, L – large)* Religious preference, or medical allergy if red medical tag;U.S. Navy (Historic, the U.S. Navy no longer issues dog tags)* Last name, first name, middle initial* Social Security number with no dashes or spaces followed immediately by \"USN\", space, blood group* Religion;U.S. Army* Last name* First name and middle initial* Dept of Defense ID number (replaced Social Security number in November 2015)* Blood type* Religion;U.S. Coast Guard (Historic, the U.S. Coast Guard no longer issues dog tags)* Last name, first name, middle initial* Social Security number, no dashes or spaces, followed immediately by \"USCG\"* Blood group* Religion==== Religious designation ====FSM as religion, made in response to a US Army representative refusing to print 'Atheist' on official dog tags.",
"Custom dog tags are permitted as long as they adhere to US Army regulations.During World War II, an American dog tag could indicate only one of three religions through the inclusion of one letter: \"P\" for Protestant, \"C\" for Catholic, or \"H\" for Jewish (from the word, \"Hebrew\"), or (according to at least one source) \"NO\" to indicate no religious preference.",
"Army regulations (606–5) soon included X and Y in addition to P, C, and H: the X indicating any religion not included in the first three, and the Y indicating either no religion or a choice not to list religion.By the time of the Vietnam War, some IDs spelled out the broad religious choices such as PROTESTANT and CATHOLIC, rather than using initials, and also began to show individual denominations such as \"METHODIST\" or \"BAPTIST\".",
"Tags did vary by service, however, such as the use of \"CATH,\" not \"CATHOLIC\" on some Navy tags.",
"For those with no religious affiliation and those who chose not to list an affiliation, either the space for religion was left blank or the words \"NO PREFERENCE\" or \"NO RELIGIOUS PREF\" (or the abbreviation \"NO PREF\") were included.Although American dog tags currently include the recipient's religion as a way of ensuring that religious needs will be met, some personnel have them reissued without religious affiliation listed—or keep two sets, one with the designation and one without—out of fear that identification as a member of a particular religion could increase the danger to their welfare or their lives if they fell into enemy hands.",
"Some Jewish personnel avoided flying over German lines during WWII with ID tags that indicated their religion, and some Jewish personnel avoid the religious designation today out of concern that they could be captured by extremists who are anti-Semitic.",
"Additionally, when American troops were first sent to Saudi Arabia during the Gulf War there were allegations that some U.S. military authorities were pressuring Jewish military personnel to avoid listing their religions on their ID tags."
],
[
"See also",
"* Medical tattoo, also known as a meat tag"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"External links",
"* Article on Vermont in the Civil War, with specific reference to First Sergeant (later Lieutenant) Henry Correll of the 2nd Vermont Volunteer Infantry, and an image of his identification tag.",
"* \"A Battlefield Souvenir?\"",
"– The Story of a Union Identity Disk in the Civil War´*Captain Richard W. Wooley.",
"\"A Short History of Identification Tags\".",
"''Quartermaster Professional Bulletin'', December, 1988.Retrieved 12 September 2007.",
"* \"Evaluation of the WWII German ID tag system\" – Article on the weak points of WWII era German ID tags based on observations made during the recovery of missing soldiers.",
"* Newsreports showing WWII German soldiers being exhumed with their identification tags* A guide for Reenactors and Collectors* \"What's your name soldier\" – Video explaining the weaknesses of WWII German identification tags with examples of mistakes that occurred"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Drum"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Drum of Company B, 40th New York Infantry Regiment, at the Battle of Gettysburg, 1863Talking drumA drum kitA Đông Sơn drum from 3rd to 2nd century BCA pair of conga drumsThe '''drum''' is a member of the percussion group of musical instruments.",
"In the Hornbostel-Sachs classification system, it is a membranophone.",
"Drums consist of at least one membrane, called a drumhead or drum skin, that is stretched over a shell and struck, either directly with the player's hands, or with a percussion mallet, to produce sound.",
"There is usually a resonant head on the underside of the drum.",
"Other techniques have been used to cause drums to make sound, such as the thumb roll.",
"Drums are the world's oldest and most ubiquitous musical instruments, and the basic design has remained virtually unchanged for thousands of years.Drums may be played individually, with the player using a single drum, and some drums such as the djembe are almost always played in this way.",
"Others are normally played in a set of two or more, all played by one player, such as bongo drums and timpani.",
"A number of different drums together with cymbals form the basic modern drum kit."
],
[
"Uses",
"Drums are usually played by striking with the hand, a beater attached to a pedal, or with one or two sticks with or without padding.",
"A wide variety of sticks are used, including wooden sticks and sticks with soft beaters of felt on the end.",
"In jazz, some drummers use brushes for a smoother, quieter sound.",
"In many traditional cultures, drums have a symbolic function and are used in religious ceremonies.",
"Drums are often used in music therapy, especially hand drums, because of their tactile nature and easy use by a wide variety of people.",
"In the 2000s, drums have also been used as a way to engage in aerobic exercise and is called cardio drumming.In popular music and jazz, \"drums\" usually refers to a drum kit or a set of drums (with some cymbals, or in the case of harder rock music genres, many cymbals), and \"drummer\" to the person who plays them.Drums acquired even divine status in places such as Burundi, where the ''karyenda'' was a symbol of the power of the king."
],
[
"Construction",
"The shell almost always has a circular opening over which the drumhead is stretched, but the shape of the remainder of the shell varies widely.",
"In the Western musical tradition, the most usual shape is a cylinder, although timpani, for example, use bowl-shaped shells.",
"Other shapes include a frame design (tar, Bodhrán), truncated cones (bongo drums, Ashiko), goblet shaped (djembe), and joined truncated cones (talking drum).A drum contains cylindrical shells can be open at one end (as is the case with timbales), or can have two drum heads, one head on each end.",
"Single-headed drums typically consist of a skin stretched over an enclosed space, or over one of the ends of a hollow vessel.",
"Drums with two heads covering both ends of a cylindrical shell often have a small hole somewhat halfway between the two heads; the shell forms a resonating chamber for the resulting sound.",
"Exceptions include the African slit drum, also known as a log drum as it is made from a hollowed-out tree trunk, and the Caribbean steel drum, made from a metal barrel.",
"Drums with two heads can also have a set of wires, called snares, held across the bottom head, top head, or both heads, hence the name snare drum.",
"On some drums with two heads, a hole or bass reflex port may be cut or installed onto one head, as with some 2010s era bass drums in rock music.On modern band and orchestral drums, the drumhead is placed over the opening of the drum, which in turn is held onto the shell by a \"counterhoop\" (or \"rim\"), which is then held by means of a number of tuning screws called \"tension rods\" that screw into lugs placed evenly around the circumference.",
"The head's tension can be adjusted by loosening or tightening the rods.",
"Many such drums have six to ten tension rods.",
"The sound of a drum depends on many variables—including shape, shell size and thickness, shell materials, counterhoop material, drumhead material, drumhead tension, drum position, location, and striking velocity and angle.Prior to the invention of tension rods, drum skins were attached and tuned by rope systems—as on the Djembe—or pegs and ropes such as on Ewe drums.",
"These methods are rarely used today, though sometimes appear on regimental marching band snare drums.",
"The head of a talking drum, for example, can be temporarily tightened by squeezing the ropes that connect the top and bottom heads.",
"Similarly, the tabla is tuned by hammering a disc held in place around the drum by ropes stretching from the top to bottom head.",
"Orchestral timpani can be quickly tuned to precise pitches by using a foot pedal."
],
[
"Sounds",
"American Indian-style drums for sale at the National Museum of the American IndianSeveral factors determine the sound a drum produces, including the type, shape and construction of the drum shell, the type of drum heads it has, and the tension of these drumheads.",
"Different drum sounds have different uses in music.",
"For example, the modern Tom-tom drum.",
"A jazz drummer may want drums that are high pitched, resonant and quiet whereas a rock drummer may prefer drums that are loud, dry and low-pitched.The drum head has the most effect on how a drum sounds.",
"Each type of drum head serves its own musical purpose and has its own unique sound.",
"Double-ply drumheads dampen high frequency harmonics because they are heavier and they are suited to heavy playing.",
"Drum heads with a white, textured coating on them muffle the overtones of the drum head slightly, producing a less diverse pitch.",
"Drum heads with central silver or black dots tend to muffle the overtones even more, while drum heads with perimeter sound rings mostly eliminate overtones.",
"Some jazz drummers avoid using thick drum heads, preferring single ply drum heads or drum heads with no muffling.",
"Rock drummers often prefer the thicker or coated drum heads.The second biggest factor that affects drum sound is head tension against the shell.",
"When the hoop is placed around the drum head and shell and tightened down with tension rods, the tension of the head can be adjusted.",
"When the tension is increased, the amplitude of the sound is reduced and the frequency is increased, making the pitch higher and the volume lower.The type of shell also affects the sound of a drum.",
"Because the vibrations resonate in the shell of the drum, the shell can be used to increase the volume and to manipulate the type of sound produced.",
"The larger the diameter of the shell, the lower the pitch.",
"The larger the depth of the drum, the louder the volume.",
"Shell thickness also determines the volume of drums.",
"Thicker shells produce louder drums.",
"Mahogany raises the frequency of low pitches and keeps higher frequencies at about the same speed.",
"When choosing a set of shells, a jazz drummer may want smaller maple shells, while a rock drummer may want larger birch shells."
],
[
"History",
"Moche ceramic vessel depicting a drummer.",
"Larco Museum Collection.",
"Lima-PeruDrums made with alligator skins have been found in Neolithic cultures located in China, dating to a period of 5500–2350 BC.",
"In literary records, drums manifested shamanistic characteristics and were often used in ritual ceremonies.The bronze Dong Son drum was fabricated by the Bronze Age Dong Son culture of northern Vietnam.",
"They include the ornate Ngoc Lu drum.===Animal drumming===Macaque monkeys drum objects in a rhythmic way to show social dominance and this has been shown to be processed in a similar way in their brains to vocalizations, suggesting an evolutionary origin to drumming as part of social communication.",
"Other primates including gorillas make drumming sounds by chest beating or hand clapping, and rodents such as kangaroo rats also make similar sounds using their paws on the ground.===Talking drums===Drums are used not only for their musical qualities, but also as a means of communication over great distances.",
"The talking drums of Africa are used to imitate the tone patterns of spoken language.",
"Throughout Sri Lankan history drums have been used for communication between the state and the community, and Sri Lankan drums have a history stretching back over 2500 years.===Drums in art===African drumDrumming may be a purposeful expression of emotion for entertainment, spiritualism and communication.",
"Many cultures practice drumming as a spiritual or religious passage and interpret drummed rhythm similarly to spoken language or prayer.",
"Drumming has developed over millennia to be a powerful art form.",
"Drumming is commonly viewed as the root of music and is sometimes performed as a kinesthetic dance.",
"As a discipline, drumming concentrates on training the body to punctuate, convey and interpret musical rhythmic intention to an audience and to the performer.===Military uses===Chinese troops used tàigǔ drums to motivate troops, to help set a marching pace, and to call out orders or announcements.",
"For example, during a war between Qi and Lu in 684 BC, the effect of drum on soldiers' morale is employed to change the result of a major battle.",
"Fife-and-drum corps of Swiss mercenary foot soldiers also used drums.",
"They used an early version of the snare drum carried over the player's right shoulder, suspended by a strap (typically played with one hand using traditional grip).",
"It is to this instrument that the English word \"drum\" was first used.",
"Similarly, during the English Civil War rope-tension drums would be carried by junior officers as a means to relay commands from senior officers over the noise of battle.",
"These were also hung over the shoulder of the drummer and typically played with two drum sticks.",
"Different regiments and companies would have distinctive and unique drum beats only they recognized.",
"In the mid-19th century, the Scottish military started incorporating pipe bands into their Highland regiments.During pre-Columbian warfare, Aztec nations were known to have used drums to send signals to the battling warriors.",
"The Nahuatl word for drum is roughly translated as ''huehuetl''.The Rig Veda, one of the oldest religious scriptures in the world, contains several references to the use of the ''Dundhubi'' (war drum).",
"Arya tribes charged into battle to the beating of the war drum and chanting of a hymn that appears in Book VI of the Rig Veda and also the Atharva Veda.",
"The dundhuhi was considered sacred and to capture one in battle would signal defeat of the enemy."
],
[
"Types",
"Handscroll detail of a Chinese percussionist playing a drum for a dancing woman, from a 12th-century remake of Gu Hongzhong's 10th-century originals, Song dynasty.Prince Imperial (later Emperor Pedro II of Brazil) with a toy drum, c. 1830* Aburukuwa* Ashiko* Atumpan* Bara* Bass drum* Batá* Bedug* Bodhrán* Bongo drums* Bougarabou* Cajón* Candombe drums* Chalice drum* Chenda* Cocktail drum* Conga* Crowdy-crawn* Darbuka* Damphu* Davul* Dayereh* Dhak* Dhimay* Dhol* Dholak* Djembe* Dong Son drum* Doumbek* Dunun* Ewe drums* Fontomfrom* Frame drum* Goblet drum* Hand drum* Idakka* Ilimba drum* Karyenda* Kendang* Kpanlogo* Lambeg drum* Log drum* Madal* Mridangam* Pahu* Pakhavaj* Repinique* Side drum (marching snare drum)* Slit drum* Snare drum* Surdo* Tabor* Tamborim* Tambourine* Taiko* Tabla* Talking drum* Tassa (Tasha drum)* Tapan* Tar* Tavil* Tenor drum* Timbales* Timpani* Tombak* Tom-tom drum* Tongue drum* Zabumba"
],
[
"See also",
"* Blast beat* Double drumming* Drum circle* Drumline* Drum machine* Drum replacement* Drumsticks* Electronic drum* Hearing the shape of a drum* Heavy metal gallop* List of drummers* Practice pad* Vibrations of a circular membrane"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"****** Drums (''Polish folk musical instruments'')*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Delphi"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Delphi among the main Greek sanctuaries'''Delphi''' (; ), in legend previously called '''Pytho''' (Πυθώ), was an ancient sacred precinct and the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient classical world.",
"The ancient Greeks considered the centre of the world to be in Delphi, marked by the stone monument known as the Omphalos of Delphi (navel).",
"According to the Suda, Delphi took its name from the Delphyne, the she-serpent (''drakaina'') who lived there and was killed by the god Apollo (in other accounts the serpent was the male serpent (''drakon'') Python).The sacred precinct occupies a delineated region on the south-western slope of Mount Parnassus.",
"It is now an extensive archaeological site, and since 1938 a part of Parnassos National Park.",
"The precinct is recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in having had a great influence in the ancient world, as evidenced by the various monuments built there by most of the important ancient Greek city-states, demonstrating their fundamental Hellenic unity.Adjacent to the sacred precinct is a small modern town of the same name."
],
[
"Names",
"'''Delphi''' shares the same root with the Greek word for womb, δελφύς ''delphys''.",
"'''Pytho''' (Πυθώ) is related to Pythia, the priestess serving as the oracle, and to Python, a serpent or dragon who lived at the site.",
"\"Python\" is derived from the verb πύθω (''pythō''), \"to rot\"."
],
[
"Delphi and the Delphic region",
"Today Delphi is a municipality of Greece as well as a modern town adjacent to the ancient precinct.",
"The modern town was created after removing buildings from the sacred precinct so that the latter could be excavated.",
"The two Delphis, old and new, are located on Greek National Road 48 between Amfissa in the west and Livadeia, capital of Voiotia, in the east.",
"The road follows the northern slope of a pass between Mount Parnassus on the north and the mountains of the Desfina Peninsula on the south.",
"The pass is of the river Pleistos, running from east to west, forming a natural boundary across the north of the Desfina Peninsula, and providing an easy route across it.On the west side the valley joins the north–south valley between Amfissa and Itea.On the north side of the valley junction a spur of Parnassus looming over the valley made narrower by it is the site of ancient Krisa, which once was the ruling power of the entire valley system.",
"Both Amphissa and Krissa are mentioned in the ''Iliad's'' Catalogue of Ships.",
"It was a Mycenaean stronghold.",
"Archaeological dates of the valley go back to the Early Helladic.",
"Krisa itself is Middle Helladic.",
"These early dates are comparable to the earliest dates at Delphi, suggesting Delphi was appropriated and transformed by Phocians from ancient Krisa.",
"It is believed that the ruins of Kirra, now part of the port of Itea, were the port of Krisa of the same name."
],
[
"Archaeology of the precinct",
"The polygonal wall, 1902The site was first briefly excavated in 1880 by Bernard Haussoullier (1852-1926) on behalf of the French School at Athens, of which he was a sometime member.",
"The site was then occupied by the village of Kastri, about 100 houses, 200 people.",
"Kastri (\"fort\") had been there since the destruction of the place by Theodosius I in 390.He probably left a fort to make sure it was not repopulated, however, the fort became the new village.",
"They were mining the stone for re-use in their own buildings.",
"British and French travelers visiting the site suspected it was ancient Delphi.",
"Before a systematic excavation of the site could be undertaken, the village had to be relocated, but the residents resisted.The opportunity to relocate the village occurred when it was substantially damaged by an earthquake, with villagers offered a completely new village in exchange for the old site.",
"In 1893, the French Archaeological School removed vast quantities of soil from numerous landslides to reveal both the major buildings and structures of the sanctuary of Apollo and of the temple to Athena, the Athena Pronoia along with thousands of objects, inscriptions, and sculptures.During the Great Excavation architectural members from a fifth-century Christian basilica, were discovered that date to when Delphi was a bishopric.",
"Other important Late Roman buildings are the Eastern Baths, the house with the peristyle, the Roman Agora, the large cistern usw.",
"At the outskirts of the city late Roman cemeteries were located.To the southeast of the precinct of Apollo lay the so-called Southeastern Mansion, a building with a 65-meter-long façade, spread over four levels, with four triclinia and private baths.",
"Large storage jars kept the provisions, whereas other pottery vessels and luxury items were discovered in the rooms.",
"Among the finds stands out a tiny leopard made of mother of pearl, possibly of Sassanian origin, on display in the ground floor gallery of the Delphi Archaeological Museum.",
"The mansion dates to the beginning of the fifth century and functioned as a private house until 580, later however it was transformed into a potter workshop.",
"It is only then, in the beginning of the sixth century, that the city seems to decline: its size is reduced and its trade contacts seem to be drastically diminished.",
"Local pottery production is produced in large quantities: it is coarser and made of reddish clay, aiming at satisfying the needs of the inhabitants.The Sacred Way remained the main street of the settlement, transformed, however, into a street with commercial and industrial use.",
"Around the agora were built workshops as well as the only intra muros early Christian basilica.",
"The domestic area spread mainly in the western part of the settlement.",
"The houses were rather spacious and two large cisterns provided running water to them.Archaeological Museum of Delphi, designed by Alexandros Tombazis===Delphi Archaeological Museum===The museum houses artifacts associated with ancient Delphi, including the earliest known notation of a melody, the Charioteer of Delphi, Kleobis and Biton, golden treasures discovered beneath the Sacred Way, the Sphinx of Naxos, and fragments of reliefs from the Siphnian Treasury.",
"Immediately adjacent to the exit is the inscription that mentions the Roman proconsul Gallio."
],
[
"Architecture of the precinct",
"Site plan of the upper Sacred Precinct, Delphi.",
"The outer wall that surrounds it is long by wide and is pierced by nine gates.Most of the ruins that survive today date from the most intense period of activity at the site in the sixth century BC.===Temple of Apollo===The ruins of the Temple of Apollo that are visible today date from the fourth century BC, and are of a peripteral Doric building.",
"It was erected by Spintharus, Xenodoros, and Agathon on the remains of an earlier temple, dated to the sixth century BC, which had been erected on the site of a seventh-century BC construction attributed in legend to the architects Trophonios and Agamedes.Ancient tradition accounted for four temples that successively occupied the site before the 548/7 BC fire, following which the Alcmaeonids built a fifth.",
"The poet Pindar celebrated the Alcmaeonids' temple in ''Pythian'' 7.8-9 and he also provided details of the third building (''Paean'' 8.65–75).",
"Other details are given by Pausanias (10.5.9-13) and the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (294 ff.).",
"The first temple was said to have been constructed out of olive branches from Tempe.",
"The second was made by bees out of wax and wings, but was miraculously carried off by a powerful wind and deposited among the Hyperboreans.",
"The third, as described by Pindar, was created by the deities Hephaestus and Athena, but its architectural details included Siren-like figures or \"Enchantresses\", whose baneful songs eventually provoked the Olympian deities to bury the temple in the earth (according to Pausanias, it was destroyed by earthquake and fire).",
"In Pindar's words addressed to the Muses:::::Muses, what was its fashion, shown::::By the skill in all arts::::Of the hands of Hephaestus and Athena?",
"::::Of bronze the walls, and of bronze::::Stood the pillars beneath,::::But of gold were six Enchantresses::::Who sang above the eagle.",
"::::But the sons of Cronus::::Opened the earth with a thunderbolt::::And hid the holiest of all things made.",
"::::::::Away from their children::::And wives, when they hung::::Their lives on the honey-hearted words.The fourth temple was said to have been constructed from stone by Trophonius and Agamedes.However, a 2019 theory gives a completely new explanation of the above myth of the four temples of Delphi.File:Delphi - panoramio (3).jpgFile:Delphi BW 2017-10-08 11-40-49.jpgFile:15.Δελφοί GR-H07-0007.jpgFile:Delfoi8.jpg===Treasuries===The reconstructed Treasury of the Athenians, built to commemorate their victory at the Battle of MarathonFrom the entrance of the upper site, continuing up the slope on the Sacred Way almost to the Temple of Apollo, are a large number of votive statues, and numerous so-called treasuries.",
"These were built by many of the Greek city-states to commemorate victories and to thank the oracle for her advice, which was thought to have contributed to those victories.",
"These buildings held the offerings made to Apollo; these were frequently a \"tithe\" or tenth of the spoils of a battle.",
"The most impressive is the now-restored Athenian Treasury, built to commemorate their victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC.The Siphnian Treasury was dedicated by the city of Siphnos, whose citizens gave a tithe of the yield from their silver mines until the mines came to an abrupt end when the sea flooded the workings.One of the largest of the treasuries was that of Argos.",
"Having built it in the late classical period, the Argives took great pride in establishing their place at Delphi amongst the other city-states.",
"Completed in 380 BC, their treasury seems to draw inspiration mostly from the Temple of Hera located in the Argolis.",
"However, recent analysis of the Archaic elements of the treasury suggest that its founding preceded this.Other identifiable treasuries are those of the Sicyonians, the Boeotians, Massaliots, and the Thebans.File:Treasury of the Boeotians.jpg|BoeotiansFile:Treasury of Cnidus 1.jpg|CnidiansFile:The Treasury of the Sicyonians on the Sacred Way at the Sanctuary of Apollo (Delphi) on October 4, 2020.jpg|SicyoniansFile:Sideview of the Siphnian Treasury at the Sanctuary of Apollo (Delphi) on October 4, 2020.jpg|Siphnians===Altar of the Chians===Located in front of the Temple of Apollo, the main altar of the sanctuary was paid for and built by the people of Chios.",
"It is dated to the fifth century BC by the inscription on its cornice.",
"Made entirely of black marble, except for the base and cornice, the altar would have made a striking impression.",
"It was restored in 1920.File:Replica of Serpent Column in Delphi and Altar of Apollo, 20M8126.jpgFile:GRIEKENLAND 023 (17669660608).jpgFile:Inscription delphi apollo.JPG|Ancient Greek inscription at the altar, naming Chios, \"ΧΙΟΙΣ\"===Stoa of the Athenians===View of the Athenian Treasury; the Stoa of the Athenians on the rightThe stoa, or open-sided, covered porch, is placed in an approximately east–west alignment along the base of the polygonal wall retaining the terrace on which the Temple of Apollo sits.",
"There is no archaeological suggestion of a connection to the temple.",
"The stoa opened to the Sacred Way.",
"The nearby presence of the Treasury of the Athenians suggests that this quarter of Delphi was used for Athenian business or politics, as stoas are generally found in market-places.Although the architecture at Delphi is generally Doric, a plain style, in keeping with the Phocian traditions that were Doric, the Athenians did not prefer the Doric.",
"The stoa was built in their own preferred style, the Ionic order, the capitals of the columns being a sure indicator.",
"In the Ionic order they are floral and ornate, although not so much as the Corinthian, which is in deficit there.",
"The remaining porch structure contains seven fluted columns, unusually carved from single pieces of stone (most columns were constructed from a series of discs joined).",
"The inscription on the stylobate indicates that it was built by the Athenians after their naval victory over the Persians in 478 BC, to house their war trophies.",
"At that time the Athenians and the Spartans were on the same side.File:Delphi-2.jpgFile:Greece-0842 (2216558634).jpgFile:Delphi, Stoa der Athener 2015-09 (1).jpg===Sibyl rock===The Sibyl rock is a pulpit-like outcrop of rock between the Athenian Treasury and the Stoa of the Athenians upon the Sacred Way that leads up to the temple of Apollo in the archaeological area of Delphi.",
"The rock is claimed to be the location from which a prehistoric Sibyl pre-dating the Pythia of Apollo sat to deliver her prophecies.",
"Other suggestions are that the Pythia might have stood there, or an acolyte whose function was to deliver the final prophecy.",
"The rock seems ideal for public speaking.File:Sibyl stone in Delphi.jpgFile:The Rock of Sibyl at the Sanctuary of Apollo (Delphi) on October 4, 2020.jpgFile:Rock of Sibyl, Rock of Leto, Delphi, Dlfi403.jpg===Theatre===The theatre at Delphi (as viewed near the top seats)The ancient theatre at Delphi was built farther up the hill from the Temple of Apollo giving spectators a view of the entire sanctuary and the valley below.",
"It was originally built in the fourth century BC, but was remodeled on several occasions, particularly in 160/159 B.C.",
"at the expenses of king Eumenes II of Pergamon and, in 67 A.D., on the occasion of emperor Nero's visit.The koilon (cavea) leans against the natural slope of the mountain whereas its eastern part overrides a little torrent that led the water of the fountain Cassotis right underneath the temple of Apollo.",
"The orchestra was initially a full circle with a diameter measuring seven meters.",
"The rectangular scene building ended up in two arched openings, of which the foundations are preserved today.",
"Access to the theatre was possible through the parodoi, i.e.",
"the side corridors.",
"On the support walls of the parodoi are engraved large numbers of manumission inscriptions recording fictitious sales of the slaves to the deity.",
"The koilon was divided horizontally in two zones via a corridor called diazoma.",
"The lower zone had 27 rows of seats and the upper one only eight.",
"Six radially arranged stairs divided the lower part of the koilon in seven tiers.",
"The theatre could accommodate approximately 4,500 spectators.On the occasion of Nero's visit to Greece in 67 A.D. various alterations took place.",
"The orchestra was paved and delimited by a parapet made of stone.",
"The proscenium was replaced by a low pedestal, the pulpitum; its façade was decorated in relief with scenes from myths about Hercules.",
"Further repairs and transformations took place in the second century A.D. Pausanias mentions that these were carried out under the auspices of Herod Atticus.",
"In antiquity, the theatre was used for the vocal and musical contests that formed part of the programme of the Pythian Games in the late Hellenistic and Roman period.",
"The theatre was abandoned when the sanctuary declined in Late Antiquity.",
"After its excavation and initial restoration it hosted theatrical performances during the Delphic Festivals organized by A. Sikelianos and his wife, Eva Palmer, in 1927 and in 1930.It has recently been restored again as the serious landslides posed a grave threat for its stability for decades.===Tholos===Tholos at the base of Mount Parnassus: 3 of 20 Doric columnsAthena Pronaia Sanctuary at DelphiThe tholos at the sanctuary of Athena Pronaea (Ἀθηνᾶ Προναία, \"Athena of forethought\") is a circular building that was constructed between 380 and 360 BC.",
"It consisted of 20 Doric columns arranged with an exterior diameter of 14.76 meters, with 10 Corinthian columns in the interior.The Tholos is located approximately a half a mile (800 m) from the main ruins at Delphi (at ).",
"Three of the Doric columns have been restored, making it the most popular site at Delphi for tourists to take photographs.The architect of the \"vaulted temple at Delphi\" is named by Vitruvius, in ''De architectura'' Book VII, as Theodorus Phoceus (not Theodorus of Samos, whom Vitruvius names separately).===Gymnasium===The ancient Gymnasium at DelphiThe gymnasium, which is half a mile away from the main sanctuary, was a series of buildings used by the youth of Delphi.",
"The building consisted of two levels: a stoa on the upper level providing open space, and a palaestra, pool, and baths on lower floor.",
"These pools and baths were said to have magical powers, and imparted the ability to communicate directly to Apollo.===Stadium===The mountain-top stadium at DelphiThe stadium is located farther up the hill, beyond the ''via sacra'' and the theatre.",
"It was built in the fifth century BC, but was altered in later centuries.",
"The last major remodelling took place in the second century AD under the patronage of Herodes Atticus when the stone seating was built and an (arched) entrance created.",
"It could seat 6500 spectators and the track was 177 metres long and 25.5 metres wide.===Hippodrome===It was at the Pythian Games that prominent political leaders, such as Cleisthenes, tyrant of Sikyon, and Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse, competed with their chariots.",
"The hippodrome where these events took place was referred to by Pindar, and this monument was sought by archaeologists for over two centuries.Traces of it have recently been found at Gonia in the plain of Krisa in the place where the original stadium had been sited.===Polygonal wall===Section of polygonal wall at Delphi, behind a pillar from the Athenian StoaA retaining wall was built to support the terrace housing the construction of the second temple of Apollo in 548 BC.",
"Its name is taken from the polygonal masonry of which it is constructed.",
"At a later date, from 200 BC onwards, the stones were inscribed with the manumission (liberation) contracts of slaves who were consecrated to Apollo.",
"Approximately a thousand manumissions are recorded on the wall.===Castalian spring===The sacred spring of Delphi lies in the ravine of the Phaedriades.",
"The preserved remains of two monumental fountains that received the water from the spring date to the Archaic period and the Roman, with the latter cut into the rock.===Roman Agora===thumbThe first set of remains that the visitor sees upon entering the archaeological site of Delphi is the Roman Agora, which was just outside the ''peribolos'', or precinct walls, of the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi.",
"The Roman Agora was built between the sanctuary and the Castalian Spring, approximately 500 meters away.",
"This large rectangular paved square used to be surrounded by Ionic porticos on its three sides.",
"The square was built in the Roman period, but the remains visible at present along the north and northwestern sides date to the Late Antique period.",
"An open market was probably established, where the visitors would buy ex-votos, such as statuettes and small tripods, to leave as offerings to the gods.",
"It also served as an assembly area for processions during sacred festivals.During the empire, statues of the emperor and other notable benefactors were erected here as evidenced by the remaining pedestals.",
"In late, Antiquity workshops of artisans were also created within the agora.===Athletic statues===The ''Charioteer of Delphi'', 478 or 474 BC, Delphi MuseumDelphi is famous for its many preserved athletic statues.",
"It is known that Olympia originally housed far more of these statues, but time brought ruin to many of them, leaving Delphi as the main site of athletic statues.",
"Kleobis and Biton, two brothers renowned for their strength, are modeled in two of the earliest known athletic statues at Delphi.",
"The statues commemorate their feat of pulling their mother's cart several miles to the Sanctuary of Hera in the absence of oxen.",
"The neighbors were most impressed and their mother asked Hera to grant them the greatest gift.",
"When they entered Hera's temple, they fell into a slumber and never woke, dying at the height of their admiration, the perfect gift.The Charioteer of Delphi is another ancient relic that has withstood the centuries.",
"It is one of the best known statues from antiquity.",
"The charioteer has lost many features, including his chariot and his left arm, but he stands as a tribute to athletic art of antiquity."
],
[
"Myths regarding the origin of the precinct",
"Vulva of the Earth, Ge or Gaia, with the two Phaedriades above resembling her breasts.",
"In this drawing the village of Castro still occupies the site.",
"The footprint of the modern road is in the foreground.",
"The village was thus entirely on the upper site.",
"Below the road is the Marmoria, or \"marble quarry\", where the villagers mined structural stone.",
"The picture below shows the site after the removal of the village.In the ''Iliad'', Achilles would not accept Agamemnon's peace offering even if it included all the wealth in the \"stone floor\" of \"rocky Pytho\" (I 404).",
"In the ''Odyssey'' (θ 79) Agamemnon crosses a \"stone floor\" to receive a prophecy from Apollo in Pytho, the first known of proto-history.",
"Hesiod also refers to Pytho \"in the hollows of Parnassus\" (Theogony 498).",
"These references imply that the earliest date of the oracle's existence is the eighth century BC, the probable date of composition of the Homeric works.",
"The main myths of Delphi are given in three literary \"loci\".",
"H. W. Parke, the Delphi scholar, complained that they are self-contradictory, thus unconsciously falling into the Plutarchian epistemology, that they reflect some common, objective historic reality against which the accounts can be compared.",
"Parke asserts that there is no Apollo, no Zeus, no Hera, and certainly never was a great, serpent-like monster, and that the myths are pure Plutarchian figures of speech, meant to be aetiologies of some oracular tradition.Homeric Hymn 3, \"To Apollo\", is the oldest of the three loci, dating to the seventh century BC (estimate).",
"Apollo travels about after his birth on Delos seeking a place for an oracle.",
"He is advised by Telephus to choose Crissa \"below the glade of Parnassus\", which he does, and has a temple built.",
"Killing the serpent that guards the spring.",
"Subsequently, some Cretans from Knossos sail up on a mission to reconnoitre Pylos.",
"Changing into a dolphin, Apollo casts himself on deck.",
"The Cretans do not dare to remove him but sail on.",
"Apollo guides the ship around Greece, ending back at Crisa, where the ship grounds.",
"Apollo enters his shrine with the Cretans to be its priests, worshipping him as ''Delphineus'', \"of the dolphin\".Zeus, a Classical deity, reportedly determined the site of Delphi when he sought to find the centre of his \"Grandmother Earth\" (Gaia).",
"He sent two eagles flying from the eastern and western extremities, and the path of the eagles crossed over Delphi where the omphalos, or navel of Gaia was found.According to Aeschylus in the prologue of the ''Eumenides'', the oracle had origins in prehistoric times and the worship of Gaia, a view echoed by H. W. Parke, who described the evolution of beliefs associated with the site.",
"He established that the prehistoric foundation of the oracle is described by three early writers: the author of the ''Homeric Hymn to Apollo'', Aeschylus in the prologue to the ''Eumenides'', and Euripides in a chorus in the ''Iphigeneia in Tauris''.",
"Parke goes on to say, \"This version Euripides evidently reproduces in a sophisticated form the primitive tradition which Aeschylus for his own purposes had been at pains to contradict: the belief that Apollo came to Delphi as an invader and appropriated for himself a previously existing oracle of Earth.",
"The slaying of the serpent is the act of conquest which secures his possession; not as in the ''Homeric Hymn'', a merely secondary work of improvement on the site.",
"Another difference is also noticeable.",
"The ''Homeric Hymn'', as we saw, implied that the method of prophecy used there was similar to that of Dodona: both Aeschylus and Euripides, writing in the fifth century, attribute to primeval times the same methods as used at Delphi in their own day.",
"So much is implied by their allusions to tripods and prophetic seats... he continues on p. 6 ...Another very archaic feature at Delphi also confirms the ancient associations of the place with the Earth goddess.",
"This was the Omphalos, an egg-shaped stone which was situated in the innermost sanctuary of the temple in historic times.",
"Classical legend asserted that it marked the 'navel' (Omphalos) or center of the Earth and explained that this spot was determined by Zeus who had released two eagles to fly from opposite sides of the earth and that they had met exactly over this place\".",
"On p. 7 he writes further, \"So Delphi was originally devoted to the worship of the Earth goddess whom the Greeks called Ge, or Gaia.",
"Themis, who is associated with her in tradition as her daughter and partner or successor, is really another manifestation of the same deity: an identity that Aeschylus recognized in another context.",
"The worship of these two, as one or distinguished, was displaced by the introduction of Apollo.",
"His origin has been the subject of much learned controversy: it is sufficient for our purpose to take him as the ''Homeric Hymn'' represents him – a northern intruder – and his arrival must have occurred in the dark interval between Mycenaean and Hellenic times.",
"His conflict with Ge for the possession of the cult site was represented under the legend of his slaying the serpent.One tale of the sanctuary's discovery states that a goatherd, who grazed his flocks on Parnassus, one day observed his goats playing with great agility upon nearing a chasm in the rock; the goatherd noticing this held his head over the chasm causing the fumes to go to his brain; throwing him into a strange trance.The Homeric Hymn to Delphic Apollo recalled that the ancient name of this site had been ''Krisa''.Others relate that the site was named '''Pytho''' (Πυθώ) and that Pythia, the priestess serving as the oracle, was chosen from their ranks by the priestesses who officiated at the temple.",
"Apollo was said to have slain Python, a ''drako'' (a male serpent or a dragon) who lived there and protected the navel of the Earth.",
"\"Python\" (derived from the verb πύθω (''pythō''), \"to rot\") is claimed by some to be the original name of the site in recognition of Python that Apollo defeated.The name ''Delphi'' comes from the same root as δελφύς ''delphys'', \"womb\" and may indicate archaic veneration of Gaia at the site.",
"Several other scholars discuss the likely prehistoric beliefs associated with the site.Apollo is connected with the site by his epithet Δελφίνιος ''Delphinios'', \"the Delphinian\".",
"The epithet is connected with dolphins (Greek δελφίς,-ῖνος) in the Homeric ''Hymn to Apollo'' (line 400), recounting the legend of how Apollo first came to Delphi in the shape of a dolphin, carrying Cretan priests on his back.",
"The Homeric name of the oracle is ''Pytho'' (Πυθώ).",
"Another legend held that Apollo walked to Delphi from the north and stopped at Tempe, a city in Thessaly, to pick laurel (also known as bay tree) which he considered to be a sacred plant.",
"In commemoration of this legend, the winners at the Pythian Games received a wreath of laurel picked in the temple."
],
[
"Oracle of Delphi",
"===The prophetic process===obol) struck at Delphi, 480 BC, obverse: Short tripod, reverse: Pellet within circle (omphalos or phiale)Perhaps Delphi is best known for its oracle, the Pythia, or sibyl, the priestess prophesying from the tripod in the sunken adyton of the Temple of Apollo.",
"The Pythia was known as a spokesperson for Apollo.",
"She was a woman of blameless life chosen from the peasants of the area.",
"Alone in an enclosed inner sanctum (Ancient Greek ''adyton'' – \"do not enter\") she sat on a tripod seat over an opening in the earth (the \"chasm\").",
"According to legend, when Apollo slew Python its body fell into this fissure and fumes arose from its decomposing body.",
"Intoxicated by the vapors, the sibyl would fall into a trance, allowing Apollo to possess her spirit.",
"In this state she prophesied.",
"The oracle could not be consulted during the winter months, for this was traditionally the time when Apollo would live among the Hyperboreans.",
"Dionysus would inhabit the temple during his absence.",
"Of note, release of fumes is limited in colder weather.The time to consult Pythia for an oracle during the year was determined from astronomical and geological grounds related to the constellations of Lyra and Cygnus.",
"Similar practice was followed in other Apollo oracles too.Hydrocarbon vapors emitted from the chasm.",
"While in a trance the Pythia \"raved\" – probably a form of ecstatic speech – and her ravings were \"translated\" by the priests of the temple into elegant hexameters.",
"It has been speculated that the ancient writers, including Plutarch who had worked as a priest at Delphi, were correct in attributing the oracular effects to the sweet-smelling ''pneuma'' (Ancient Greek for breath, wind, or vapor) escaping from the chasm in the rock.",
"That exhalation could have been high in the known anaesthetic and sweet-smelling ethylene or other hydrocarbons such as ethane known to produce violent trances.",
"Although, given the limestone geology, this theory remains debatable, the authors put up a detailed answer to their critics.Ancient sources describe the priestess using “laurel” to inspire her prophecies.",
"Several alternative plant candidates have been suggested including Cannabis, Hyoscyamus, Rhododendron, and Oleander.",
"Harissis claims that a review of contemporary toxicological literature indicates that oleander causes symptoms similar to those shown by the Pythia, and his study of ancient texts shows that oleander was often included under the term \"laurel\".",
"The Pythia may have chewed oleander leaves and inhaled their smoke prior to her oracular pronouncements and sometimes dying from the toxicity.",
"The toxic substances of oleander resulted in symptoms similar to those of epilepsy, the “sacred disease”, which may have been seen as the possession of the Pythia by the spirit of Apollo.Fresco of Delphic sibyl painted by Michaelangelo at the Sistine Chapel===Influence, devastations and a temporary revival===The Delphic oracle exerted considerable influence throughout the Greek world, and she was consulted before all major undertakings including wars and the founding of colonies.",
"She also was respected by the Greek-influenced countries around the periphery of the Greek world, such as Lydia, Caria, and even Egypt.The oracle was also known to the early Romans.",
"Rome's seventh and last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, after witnessing a snake near his palace, sent a delegation including two of his sons to consult the oracle.In 278 BC, a Thracian (Celtic) tribe raided Delphi, burned the temple, plundered the sanctuary and stole the \"unquenchable fire\" from the altar.",
"During the raid, part of the temple roof collapsed.",
"The same year, the temple was severely damaged by an earthquake, thus it fell into decay and the surrounding area became impoverished.",
"The sparse local population led to difficulties in filling the posts required.",
"The oracle's credibility waned due to doubtful predictions.The oracle flourished again in the second century AD, during the rule of emperor Hadrian, who is believed to have visited the oracle twice and offered complete autonomy to the city.By the 4th century, Delphi had acquired the status of a city.Constantine the Great looted several monuments in Eastern Mediterranean, including Delphi, to decorate his new capital, Constantinople.",
"One of those famous items was the bronze column of Plataea (The Serpent Column; Ancient Greek: Τρικάρηνος Ὄφις, Three-headed Serpent; Turkish: Yılanlı Sütun, Serpentine Column) from the sanctuary (dated 479 BC), relocated there from Delphi in AD 324, which can still be seen today standing destroyed at a square of Istanbul (where once upon a time was the Hippodrome of Constantinople, built by Constantine; Ottoman Turkish: Atmeydanı \"Horse Square\") with part of one of its heads kept in the Istanbul Archaeology Museums (İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri).Despite the rise of Christianity across the Roman Empire, the oracle remained a religious center throughout the fourth century, and the Pythian Games continued to be held at least until 424 AD; however, the decline continued.",
"The attempt of Emperor Julian to revive polytheism did not survive his reign.",
"Excavations have revealed a large three-aisled basilica in the city, as well as traces of a church building in the sanctuary's gymnasium.",
"The site was abandoned in the sixth or seventh centuries, although a single bishop of Delphi is attested in an episcopal list of the late eighth and early ninth centuries.===Religious significance of the oracle===Ruins of the ancient temple of Apollo at Delphi, overlooking the valley of PhocisDelphi became the site of a major temple to Phoebus Apollo, as well as the Pythian Games and the prehistoric oracle.",
"Even in Roman times, hundreds of votive statues remained, described by Pliny the Younger and seen by Pausanias.",
"Carved into the temple were three phrases: (''gnōthi seautón'' = \"know thyself\") and (''mēdén ágan'' = \"nothing in excess\"), and (''engýa pára d'atē'' = \"make a pledge and mischief is nigh\"), In antiquity, the origin of these phrases was attributed to one or more of the Seven Sages of Greece by authors such as Plato and Pausanias.",
"Additionally, according to Plutarch's essay on the meaning of the ''\"E at Delphi\"''—the only literary source for the inscription—there was also inscribed at the temple a large letter E. Among other things epsilon signifies the number 5.However, ancient as well as modern scholars have doubted the legitimacy of such inscriptions.",
"According to one pair of scholars, \"The actual authorship of the three maxims set up on the Delphian temple may be left uncertain.",
"Most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages.",
"\"According to the Homeric hymn to the Pythian Apollo, Apollo shot his first arrow as an infant that effectively slew the serpent Pytho, the son of Gaia, who guarded the spot.",
"To atone the murder of Gaia's son, Apollo was forced to fly and spend eight years in menial service before he could return forgiven.",
"A festival, the Septeria, was held every year, at which the whole story was represented: the slaying of the serpent, and the flight, atonement, and return of the god.The Pythian Games took place every four years to commemorate Apollo's victory.",
"Another regular Delphi festival was the \"Theophania\" (Θεοφάνεια), an annual festival in spring celebrating the return of Apollo from his winter quarters in Hyperborea.",
"The culmination of the festival was a display of an image of the deities, usually hidden in the sanctuary, to worshippers.The ''theoxenia'' was held each summer, centred on a feast for \"gods and ambassadors from other states\".",
"Myths indicate that Apollo killed the chthonic serpent Python guarding the Castalian Spring and named his priestess Pythia after her.",
"Python, who had been sent by Hera, had attempted to prevent Leto, while she was pregnant with Apollo and Artemis, from giving birth.The spring at the site flowed toward the temple but disappeared beneath, creating a cleft which emitted chemical vapors that purportedly caused the oracle at Delphi to reveal her prophecies.",
"Apollo killed Python, but had to be punished for it, since he was a child of Gaia.",
"The shrine dedicated to Apollo was originally dedicated to Gaia and shared with Poseidon.",
"The name Pythia remained as the title of the Delphic oracle.Erwin Rohde wrote that the Python was an earth spirit, who was conquered by Apollo, and buried under the omphalos, and that it is a case of one deity setting up a temple on the grave of another.",
"Another view holds that Apollo was a fairly recent addition to the Greek pantheon coming originally from Lydia."
],
[
"History",
"Occupation of the site at Delphi can be traced back to the Neolithic period with extensive occupation and use beginning in the Mycenaean period (1600–1100 BC).",
"In Mycenaean times Krissa was a major Greek land and sea power, perhaps one of the first in Greece, if the Early Helladic date of Kirra is to be believed.",
"The ancient sources indicate that the previous name of the Gulf of Corinth was the \"Krisaean Gulf\".",
"Like Krisa, Corinth was a Dorian state, and Gulf of Corinth was a Dorian lake, so to speak, especially since the migration of Dorians into the Peloponnesus starting about 1000 BC.",
"Krisa's power was broken finally by the recovered Aeolic and Attic-Ionic speaking states of southern Greece over the issue of access to Delphi.",
"Control of it was assumed by the Amphictyonic League, an organization of states with an interest in Delphi, in the early Classical period.",
"Krisa was destroyed for its arrogance.",
"The gulf was given Corinth's name.",
"Corinth by then was similar to the Ionic states: ornate and innovative, not resembling the spartan style of the Doric.===Ancient Delphi===Earlier myths include traditions that Pythia, or the Delphic oracle, already was the site of an important oracle in the pre-classical Greek world (as early as 1400 BC) and, rededicated from about 800 BC, when it served as the major site during classical times for the worship of the god Apollo.Speculative illustration of ancient Delphi by French architect Albert TournaireDelphi was since ancient times a place of worship for Gaia, the mother goddess connected with fertility.",
"The town started to gain pan-Hellenic relevance as both a shrine and an oracle in the seventh century BC.",
"Initially under the control of Phocaean settlers based in nearby Kirra (currently Itea), Delphi was reclaimed by the Athenians during the First Sacred War (597–585 BC).",
"The conflict resulted in the consolidation of the Amphictyonic League, which had both a military and a religious function revolving around the protection of the Temple of Apollo.",
"This shrine was destroyed by fire in 548 BC and then fell under the control of the Alcmaeonids who were banned from Athens.",
"In 449–448 BC, the Second Sacred War (fought in the wider context of the First Peloponnesian War between the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta and the Delian-Attic League led by Athens) resulted in the Phocians gaining control of Delphi and the management of the Pythian Games.In 356 BC, the Phocians under Philomelos captured and sacked Delphi, leading to the Third Sacred War (356–346 BC), which ended with the defeat of the former and the rise of Macedon under the reign of Philip II.",
"This led to the Fourth Sacred War (339 BC), which culminated in the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC) and the establishment of Macedonian rule over Greece.In Delphi, Macedonian rule was superseded by the Aetolians in 279 BC, when a Gallic invasion was repelled, and by the Romans in 191 BC.",
"The site was sacked by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 86 BC, during the Mithridatic Wars, and by Nero in 66 AD.",
"Although subsequent Roman emperors of the Flavian dynasty contributed toward to the restoration of the site, it gradually lost importance.The anti-pagan legislation of the late Roman Imperial era deprived ancient sanctuaries of their assets.",
"The emperor Julian attempted to reverse this religious climate, yet his \"pagan revival\" was particularly short-lived.",
"When the doctor Oreibasius visited the oracle of Delphi, in order to question the fate of paganism, he received a pessimistic answer:Tell the king that the flute has fallen to the ground.",
"Phoebus does not have a home any more, neither an oracular laurel, nor a speaking fountain, because the talking water has dried outIt was shut down during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire by Theodosius I in 381 AD.===Amphictyonic Council===The Amphictyonic Council was a council of representatives from six Greek tribes who controlled Delphi and also the quadrennial Pythian Games.",
"They met biannually and came from Thessaly and central Greece.",
"Over time, the town of Delphi gained more control of itself and the council lost much of its influence.===The sacred precinct in the Iron Age===Section of the frieze from the Treasury of the Siphnians, now in the museumExcavation at Delphi, which was a post-Mycenaean settlement of the late ninth century, has uncovered artifacts increasing steadily in volume beginning with the last quarter of the eighth century BC.",
"Pottery and bronze as well as tripod dedications continue in a steady stream, in contrast to Olympia.",
"Neither the range of objects nor the presence of prestigious dedications proves that Delphi was a focus of attention for a wide range of worshippers, but the large quantity of valuable goods, found in no other mainland sanctuary, encourages that view.Apollo's sacred precinct in Delphi was a Panhellenic Sanctuary, where every four years, starting in 586 BC athletes from all over the Greek world competed in the Pythian Games, one of the four Panhellenic Games, precursors of the Modern Olympics.",
"The victors at Delphi were presented with a laurel crown (''stephanos'') that was ceremonially cut from a tree by a boy who re-enacted the slaying of the Python.",
"(These competitions are also called stephantic games, after the crown.)",
"Delphi was set apart from the other games sites because it hosted the mousikos agon, musical competitions.These Pythian Games rank second among the four stephantic games chronologically and in importance.",
"These games, however, were different from the games at Olympia in that they were not of such vast importance to the city of Delphi as the games at Olympia were to the area surrounding Olympia.",
"Delphi would have been a renowned city regardless of whether it hosted these games; it had other attractions that led to it being labeled the \"omphalos\" (navel) of the earth, in other words, the centre of the world.Cyriacus of Ancona, first Westerner to describe the remains in Delphi in 1436The Society of Dilettanti organized a study expedition to Delphi in 1766In the inner ''hestia'' (hearth) of the Temple of Apollo, an eternal flame burned.",
"After the battle of Plataea, the Greek cities extinguished their fires and brought new fire from the hearth of Greece, at Delphi; in the foundation stories of several Greek colonies, the founding colonists were first dedicated at Delphi.===Abandonment and rediscovery===The Ottomans finalized their domination over Phocis and Delphi in about 1410 AD.",
"Delphi itself remained almost uninhabited for centuries.",
"It seems that one of the first buildings of the early modern era was the monastery of the Dormition of Mary or of Panagia (the Mother of God) built above the ancient gymnasium at Delphi.",
"It must have been toward the end of the fifteenth or in the sixteenth century that a settlement started forming there, which eventually ended up forming the village of Kastri.Ottoman Delphi gradually began to be investigated.",
"The first Westerner to describe the remains in Delphi was Cyriacus of Ancona, a fifteenth-century merchant turned diplomat and antiquarian, considered the founding father of modern classical archeology.",
"He visited Delphi in March 1436 and remained there for six days.",
"He recorded all the visible archaeological remains based on Pausanias for identification.",
"He described the stadium and the theatre at that date as well as some freestanding pieces of sculpture.",
"He also recorded several inscriptions, most of which are now lost.",
"His identifications, however, were not always correct: for example he described a round building he saw as the temple of Apollo while this was simply the base of the Argives' ex-voto.",
"A severe earthquake in 1500 caused much damage.In 1766, an English expedition funded by the Society of Dilettanti included the Oxford epigraphist Richard Chandler, the architect Nicholas Revett, and the painter William Pars.",
"Their studies were published in 1769 under the title ''Ionian Antiquities'', followed by a collection of inscriptions, and two travel books, one about Asia Minor (1775), and one about Greece (1776).",
"Apart from the antiquities, they also related some vivid descriptions of daily life in Kastri, such as the crude behaviour of the Muslim Albanians who guarded the mountain passes.In 1805 Edward Dodwell visited Delphi, accompanied by the painter Simone Pomardi.",
"Lord Byron visited in 1809, accompanied by his friend John Cam Hobhouse:Yet there I've wandered by the vaulted rillYes!",
"Sighed o'er Delphi's long deserted shrine,where, save that feeble fountain, all is still.He carved his name on the same column in the gymnasium as Lord Aberdeen, later Prime Minister, who had visited a few years before.",
"Proper excavation did not start until the late nineteenth century (see \"Excavations\" section) after the village had moved."
],
[
"Delphi in later art",
"Nocolas' Gerbel' fanciful Delphic castle''View of Delphi with Sacrificial Procession'' by Claude Lorrain''Delphi'' by Edward Lear features the PhaedriadesWilloughby Vera - Itea is a town located in GreeceFrom the sixteenth century onward, woodcuts of Delphi began to appear in printed maps and books.",
"The earliest depictions of Delphi were totally imaginary; for example, those created by Nikolaus Gerbel, who published in 1545 a text based on the map of Greece by N. Sofianos.",
"The ancient sanctuary was depicted as a fortified city.The first travelers with archaeological interests, apart from the precursor Cyriacus of Ancona, were the British George Wheler and the French Jacob Spon, who visited Greece in a joint expedition in 1675–1676.They published their impressions separately.",
"In Wheler's \"Journey into Greece\", published in 1682, a sketch of the region of Delphi appeared, where the settlement of Kastri and some ruins were depicted.",
"The illustrations in Spon's publication \"Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant, 1678\" are considered original and groundbreaking.Travelers continued to visit Delphi throughout the nineteenth century and published their books which contained diaries, sketches, and views of the site, as well as pictures of coins.",
"The illustrations often reflected the spirit of romanticism, as evident by the works of Otto Magnus von Stackelberg, where, apart from the landscapes (''La Grèce.",
"Vues pittoresques et topographiques'', Paris 1834) are depicted also human types (''Costumes et usages des peuples de la Grèce moderne dessinés sur les lieux'', Paris 1828).",
"The philhellene painter W. Williams has comprised the landscape of Delphi in his themes (1829).",
"Influential personalities such as F.Ch.-H.-L. Pouqueville, W.M.",
"Leake, Chr.",
"Wordsworth and Lord Byron are amongst the most important visitors of Delphi.After the foundation of the modern Greek state, the press became also interested in these travelers.",
"Thus \"Ephemeris\" writes (17 March 1889):In the ''Revues des Deux Mondes'' Paul Lefaivre published his memoirs from an excursion to Delphi.",
"The French author relates in a charming style his adventures on the road, praising particularly the ability of an old woman to put back in place the dislocated arm of one of his foreign traveling companions, who had fallen off the horse.",
"\"In Arachova the Greek type is preserved intact.",
"The men are rather athletes than farmers, built for running and wrestling, particularly elegant and slender under their mountain gear.\"",
"Only briefly does he refer to the antiquities of Delphi, but he refers to a pelasgian wall 80 meters long, \"on which innumerable inscriptions are carved, decrees, conventions, manumissions\".Gradually the first travelling guides appeared.",
"The revolutionary \"pocket\" books invented by Karl Baedeker, accompanied by maps useful for visiting archaeological sites such as Delphi (1894) and the informed plans, the guides became practical and popular.",
"The photographic lens revolutionized the way of depicting the landscape and the antiquities, particularly from 1893 onward, when the systematic excavations of the French Archaeological School started.",
"However, artists such as Vera Willoughby, continued to be inspired by the landscape.Delphic themes inspired several graphic artists.",
"Besides the landscape, Pythia and Sibylla become illustration subjects even on Tarot cards.",
"A famous example constitutes Michelangelo's Delphic Sibyl (1509), the nineteenth-century German engraving, Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, as well as the recent ink on paper drawing, \"The Oracle of Delphi\" (2013) by M. Lind.Modern artists are inspired also by the Delphic Maxims.",
"Examples of such works are displayed in the \"Sculpture park of the European Cultural Center of Delphi\" and in exhibitions taking place at the Archaeological Museum of Delphi."
],
[
"Delphi in later literature",
"Delphi inspired literature as well.",
"In 1814 W. Haygarth, friend of Lord Byron, refers to Delphi in his work \"Greece, a Poem\".",
"In 1888 Charles Marie René Leconte de Lisle published his lyric drama L’Apollonide, accompanied by music by Franz Servais.",
"More recent French authors used Delphi as a source of inspiration such as Yves Bonnefoy (Delphes du second jour) or Jean Sullivan (nickname of Joseph Lemarchand) in L'Obsession de Delphes (1967), but also Rob MacGregor's Indiana Jones and the Peril at Delphi (1991).The presence of Delphi in Greek literature is very intense.",
"Poets such as Kostis Palamas (The Delphic Hymn, 1894), Kostas Karyotakis (Delphic festival, 1927), Nikephoros Vrettakos (return from Delphi, 1957), Yannis Ritsos (Delphi, 1961–62) and Kiki Dimoula (Gas omphalos and Appropriate terrain 1988), to mention only the most renowned ones.",
"Angelos Sikelianos wrote The Dedication (of the Delphic speech) (1927), the Delphic Hymn (1927) and the tragedy Sibylla (1940), whereas in the context of the Delphic idea and the Delphic festivals he published an essay entitled \"The Delphic union\" (1930).",
"The nobelist George Seferis wrote an essay under the title \"Delphi\", in the book \"Dokimes\"."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Archaeological Site of Delphi-111178.jpg|The theatre at DelphiFile:Archaeological Site of Delphi-111180.jpg|Ruins of the theatre at DelphiFile:Archaeological Site of Delphi-111182.jpg|Stacked stonesFile:Phaedriades, Delphi, 060032.jpg|The Phaedriades"
],
[
"See also",
"* Aristoclea, Delphic priestess of the 6th century BC, said to have been tutor to Pythagoras* Ex voto of the Attalids (Delphi)* Franz Weber (activist) - made an honorary citizen of Delphi in 1997* Greek art* List of traditional Greek place names* Portico of the Aetolians"
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"Citations"
],
[
"Citation references",
"*Aimatidou-Argyriou, E. ''Delphi,'' Athens 2003*Bommelaer, J.-F., Laroche, D., ''Guide de Delphes.",
"Le site,'' Paris 1991*Broad, William J.",
"''The Oracle: Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind its Lost Secrets'', New York : Penguin, 2006..** Connelly, Joan Breton, ''Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece'', Princeton University Press, 2007.",
"*Call of Duty: Black Ops 4 (2018) \"Ancient Evil\"* Dempsey, T., Reverend, ''The Delphic oracle, its early history, influence and fall'', Oxford: B.H.",
"Blackwell, 1918.",
"*Castro Belen, Liritzis Ioannis and Nyquist Anne (2015) Oracular Functioning And Architecture of Five Ancient Apollo Temples Through Archaeastronomy: Novel Approach And Interpretation Nexus Network Journal, Architecture & Mathematics, 18(2), 373-395 (DOI:10.1007/s00004-015-0276-2)*Farnell, Lewis Richard, ''The Cults of the Greek States'', in five volumes, Clarendon Press, 1896–1909.(Cf.",
"especially, volume III and volume IV on the Pythoness and Delphi).",
"* * Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, ''The Delphic oracle, its responses and operations, with a catalogue of responses'', Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978.",
"* Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, ''Python; a study of Delphic myth and its origins'', New York, Biblio & Tannen, 1974.",
"*Goodrich, Norma Lorre, ''Priestesses'', New York: F. Watts, 1989.",
"*Guthrie, William Keith Chambers, ''The Greeks and their Gods'', 1955.",
"*Hall, Manly Palmer, ''The Secret Teachings of All Ages'', 1928.Ch.",
"14 cf.",
"Greek Oracles, www, PRS* Harissis H. 2015.“A Bittersweet Story: The True Nature of the Laurel of the Oracle of Delphi” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine.",
"Volume 57, Number 3, Summer 2014, pp.",
"295-298.",
"* *Herodotus, ''The Histories''* Homeric Hymn to Pythian Apollo**Kolonia, R., ''The Archaeological Museum of Delphi,'' Athens 2006** * Manas, John Helen, ''Divination, ancient and modern'', New York, Pythagorean Society, 1947.",
"* * *Petrakos, B.",
"''Delph,'' Athens 1977*Plutarch \"Lives\"*Rohde, Erwin, ''Psyche'', 1925.",
"* Seyffert, Oskar, \"Dictionary of Classical Antiquities\" , London: W. Glaisher, 1895.",
"*Spiller, Henry A., John R. Hale, and Jelle Z. de Boer.",
"\"The Delphic Oracle: A Multidisciplinary Defense of the Gaseous Vent Theory.\"",
"''Clinical Toxicology'' 40.2 (2000) 189–196.",
"*West, Martin Litchfield, ''The Orphic Poems'', 1983.."
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * Davies, J. K. (1998).",
"Finance, Administrations, and Realpolitik: The Case of Fourth-Century Delphi.",
"In M''odus Operandi: Essays in Honour of Geoffrey Rickman.''",
"Edited by M. Austin, J. Harries, and C. Smith, 1–14.London: Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, Suppl.",
"71.",
"* Davies, John.",
"(2007).",
"\"The Origins of the Festivals, especially Delphi and the Pythia.\"",
"In ''Pindar’s Poetry, Patrons, and Festivals: From Archaic Greece to the Roman Empire.''",
"Edited by Simon Hornblower and Catherine Morgan, 47–69.Oxford: Oxford Univ.",
"Press.",
"** Kindt, Julia.",
"(2016).",
"''Revisiting Delphi: Religion and Storytelling in Ancient Greece.",
"Cambridge Classical Studies.''",
"Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.",
"* * * * Morgan, Catherine.",
"(1990).",
"''Athletes and Oracles.",
"The Transformation of Olympia and Delphi in the Eighth Century BC.''",
"Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ.",
"Press.",
"* Partida, Elena C. (2002).",
"''The Treasuries at Delphi: An Architectural Study.''",
"Jonsered, Denmark: Paul Åströms.",
"* Scott, Michael, ''Delphi: A History of the Center of the Ancient World'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014).",
"* Scott, Michael.",
"(2010).",
"''Delphi and Olympia: The Spatial Politics of Panhellenism in the Archaic and Classical Periods.''",
"Cambridge and New York: Cambridge Univ.",
"Press.",
"* Temple, Robert K.G., \"Fables, Riddles, and Mysteries of Delphi\", ''Proceedings of 4th Philosophical Meeting on Contemporary Problems'', No 4, 1999 (Athens, Greece) In Greek and English.",
"* Weir, Robert G. (2004).",
"''Roman Delphi and its Pythian games.",
"BAR Series 1306''.",
"Oxford: Hadrian.===5th-century evidence===*Petrides, P., 2010, ''La céramique protobyzantine de Delphes.",
"Une production et son contexte'', École française d’Athènes, Fouilles de Delphes V, Monuments figurés 4, Paris – Athènes.",
"*Petrides, P., Déroche, V., Badie, A., 2014,''Delphes de l’Antiquité tardive.",
"Secteur au Sud-est du Péribole, École française d’Athènes,'' Fouilles de Delphes II, Topographie et Architecture 15, Paris-Athènes.",
"*Petrides, P., 1997, «Delphes dans l’Antiquité tardive : première approche topographique et céramologique», BCH 121, pp. 681–695.",
"*Petrides, P., 2003, «Αteliers de potiers protobyzantins à Delphes », in Χ. ΜΠΑΚΙΡΤΖΗΣ (ed.",
"), 7ο Διεθνές Συνέδριο Μεσαιωνικής Κεραμικής της Μεσογείου, Θεσσαλονίκη 11-16 Οκτωβρίου 1999, Πρακτικά, Αθήνα, pp. 443–446.",
"*Petrides, P., 2005, «Un exemple d’architecture civile en Grèce : les maisons protobyzantines de Delphes (IVe–VIIe s.)», Mélanges Jean-Pierre Sodini, Travaux et Mémoires 15, Paris, pp. 193–204.",
"*Petrides, P., Demou, J., 2011, « La redécouverte de Delphes protobyzantine », Pallas 87, pp.",
"267–281."
],
[
"External links",
"* * * VirtualDelphi will help you picture the monuments of Delphi by reconstructing their sight and placing them in their historical time frame."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Digital Equipment Corporation"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Digital Equipment Corporation''' ('''DEC''' ), using the trademark '''Digital''', was a major American company in the computer industry from the 1960s to the 1990s.",
"The company was co-founded by Ken Olsen and Harlan Anderson in 1957.Olsen was president until he was forced to resign in 1992, after the company had gone into precipitous decline.The company produced many different product lines over its history.",
"It is best known for the work in the minicomputer market starting in the mid-1960s.",
"The company produced a series of machines known as the PDP line, with the PDP-8 and PDP-11 being among the most successful minis in history.",
"Their success was only surpassed by another DEC product, the late-1970s VAX \"supermini\" systems that were designed to replace the PDP-11.Although a number of competitors had successfully competed with Digital through the 1970s, the VAX cemented the company's place as a leading vendor in the computer space.As microcomputers improved in the late 1980s, especially with the introduction of RISC-based workstation machines, the performance niche of the minicomputer was rapidly eroded.",
"By the early 1990s, the company was in turmoil as their mini sales collapsed and their attempts to address this by entering the high-end market with machines like the VAX 9000 were market failures.",
"After several attempts to enter the workstation and file server market, the DEC Alpha product line began to make successful inroads in the mid-1990s, but was too late to save the company.DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq in what was at that time the largest merger in the history of the computer industry.",
"During the purchase, some parts of DEC were sold to other companies; the compiler business and the Hudson Fab were sold to Intel.",
"At the time, Compaq was focused on the enterprise market and had recently purchased several other large vendors.",
"DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence.",
"However, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own.",
"Compaq subsequently merged with Hewlett-Packard (HP) in May 2002."
],
[
"History",
"=== Origins (1944–1958) ===Original Digital Equipment Corporation logo designed by Elliot Hendrickson in 1957, used from 1957 to 1993Alternate logo, briefly used concurrentlyDEC was headquartered at a former wool mill in Maynard, Massachusetts, from 1957 until 1992.Ken Olsen and Harlan Anderson were two engineers who had been working at MIT Lincoln Laboratory on the lab's various computer projects.",
"The Lab is best known for their work on what would today be known as \"interactivity\", and their machines were among the first where operators had direct control over programs running in real-time.",
"These had started in 1944 with the famed Whirlwind, which was originally developed to make a flight simulator for the US Navy, although this was never completed.",
"Instead, this effort evolved into the SAGE system for the US Air Force, which used large screens and light guns to allow operators to interact with radar data stored in the computer.When the Air Force project wound down, the Lab turned their attention to an effort to build a version of the Whirlwind using transistors in place of vacuum tubes.",
"In order to test their new circuitry, they first built a small 18-bit machine known as TX-0, which first ran in 1956.When the TX-0 successfully proved the basic concepts, attention turned to a much larger system, the 36-bit TX-2 with a then-enormous 64 kWords of core memory.",
"Core was so expensive that parts of TX-0's memory were stripped for the TX-2, and what remained of the TX-0 was then given to MIT on permanent loan.At MIT, Ken Olsen and Harlan Anderson noticed something odd: students would line up for hours to get a turn to use the stripped-down TX-0, while largely ignoring a faster IBM machine that was also available.",
"The two decided that the draw of interactive computing was so strong that they felt there was a market for a small machine dedicated to this role, essentially a commercialized TX-0.They could sell this to users where the graphical output or real-time operation would be more important than outright performance.",
"Additionally, as the machine would cost much less than the larger systems then available, it would also be able to serve users that needed a lower-cost solution dedicated to a specific task, where a larger 36-bit machine would not be needed.In 1957, when the pair and Ken's brother Stan sought capital, they found that the American business community was hostile to investing in computer companies.",
"Many smaller computer companies had come and gone in the 1950s, wiped out when new technical developments rendered their platforms obsolete, and even large companies like RCA and General Electric were failing to make a profit in the market.",
"The only serious expression of interest came from Georges Doriot and his American Research and Development Corporation (AR&D).",
"Worried that a new computer company would find it difficult to arrange further financing, Doriot suggested the fledgling company change its business plan to focus less on computers, and even change their name from \"Digital Computer Corporation\".The pair returned with an updated business plan that outlined two phases for the company's development.",
"They would start by selling computer modules as stand-alone devices that could be purchased separately and wired together to produce a number of different digital systems for lab use.",
"Then, if these \"digital modules\" were able to build a self-sustaining business, the company would be free to use them to develop a complete computer in their Phase II.",
"The newly christened \"Digital Equipment Corporation\" received $70,000 from AR&D for a 70% share of the company, and began operations in a Civil War-era textile mill in Maynard, Massachusetts, where plenty of inexpensive manufacturing space was available.=== Digital modules (1958) ===System Building Blocks (System Module) 1103 hex-inverter card (both sides)PDP-1 System Building Block #4106, circa 1963 - note that one transistor (yellow) has been replacedIn early 1958, DEC shipped its first products, the \"Digital Laboratory Module\" line.",
"The Modules consisted of a number of individual electronic components and germanium transistors mounted to a circuit board, the actual circuits being based on those from the TX-2.The Laboratory Modules were packaged in an extruded aluminum housing, intended to sit on an engineer's workbench, although a rack-mount bay was sold that held nine laboratory modules.",
"They were then connected together using banana plug patch cords inserted at the front of the modules.",
"Three versions were offered, running at 5 MHz (1957), 500 kHz (1959), or 10 MHz (1960).",
"The Modules proved to be in high demand by other computer companies, who used them to build equipment to test their own systems.",
"Despite the recession of the late 1950s, the company sold $94,000 worth of these modules during 1958 alone (), turning a profit at the end of its first year.The original Laboratory Modules were soon supplemented with the \"Digital System Module\" line, which were identical internally but packaged differently.",
"The Systems Modules were designed with all of the connections at the back of the module using 22-pin Amphenol connectors, and were attached to each other by plugging them into a backplane that could be mounted in a 19-inch rack.",
"The backplanes allowed 25 modules in a single 5-1/4 inch section of rack, and allowed the high densities needed to build a computer.The original laboratory and system module lines were offered in 500 kilocycle, 5 megacycle and 10 megacycle versions.",
"In all cases, the supply voltages were -15 and +10 volts, with logic levels of -3 volts (passive pull-down) and 0 volts (active pull-up).DEC used the System Modules to build their \"Memory Test\" machine for testing core memory systems, selling about 50 of these pre-packaged units over the next eight years.",
"The PDP-1 and LINC computers were also built using System Modules (see below).Modules were part of DEC's product line into the 1970s, although they went through several evolutions during this time as technology changed.",
"The same circuits were then packaged as the first \"R\" (red) series \"Flip-Chip\" modules.",
"Later, other Flip-Chip module series provided additional speed, much higher logic density, and industrial I/O capabilities.",
"DEC published extensive data about the modules in free catalogs that became very popular.=== PDP-1 family (1960) ===A PDP-1 system, with Steve Russell, developer of Spacewar!",
"at the console.",
"This is a canonical example of the PDP-1, with the console typewriter on the left, CPU and main control panel in the center, the Type 30 display on the right.With the company established and a successful product on the market, DEC turned its attention to the computer market once again as part of its planned \"Phase II\".",
"In August 1959, Ben Gurley started design of the company's first computer, the PDP-1.In keeping with Doriot's instructions, the name was an initialism for \"Programmable Data Processor\", leaving off the term \"computer\".",
"As Gurley put it, \"We aren't building computers, we're building 'Programmable Data Processors'.\"",
"The prototype was first shown publicly at the Joint Computer Conference in Boston in December 1959.The first PDP-1 was delivered to Bolt, Beranek and Newman in November 1960, and formally accepted the next April.",
"The PDP-1 sold in basic form for $120,000 ().",
"By the time production ended in 1969, 53 PDP-1s had been delivered.The PDP-1 was supplied standard with 4096 words of core memory, 18-bits per word, and ran at a basic speed of 100,000 operations per second.",
"It was constructed using many System Building Blocks that were packaged into several 19-inch racks.",
"The racks were themselves packaged into a single large mainframe case, with a hexagonal control panel containing switches and lights mounted to lie at table-top height at one end of the mainframe.",
"Above the control panel was the system's standard input/output solution, a punched tape reader and writer.",
"Most systems were purchased with two peripherals, the Type 30 vector graphics display, and a Soroban Engineering modified IBM Model B Electric typewriter that was used as a printer.",
"The Soroban system was notoriously unreliable, and often replaced with a modified Friden Flexowriter, which also contained its own punched tape system.",
"A variety of more-expensive add-ons followed, including magnetic tape systems, punched card readers and punches, and faster punched tape and printer systems.When DEC introduced the PDP-1, they also mentioned larger machines at 24, 30 and 36 bits, based on the same design.",
"During construction of the prototype PDP-1, some design work was carried out on a 24-bit PDP-2, and the 36-bit PDP-3.Although the PDP-2 never proceeded beyond the initial design, the PDP-3 found some interest and was designed in full.",
"Only one PDP-3 appears to have been built, in 1960, by the CIA's Scientific Engineering Institute (SEI) in Waltham, Massachusetts.",
"According to the limited information available, they used it to process radar cross section data for the Lockheed A-12 reconnaissance aircraft.",
"Gordon Bell remembered that it was being used in Oregon some time later, but could not recall who was using it.In November 1962, DEC introduced the $65,000 PDP-4.The PDP-4 was similar to the PDP-1 and used a similar instruction set, but used slower memory and different packaging to lower the price.",
"Like the PDP-1, about 54 PDP-4s were eventually sold, most to a customer base similar to the original PDP-1.In 1964, DEC introduced its new Flip Chip module design, and used it to re-implement the PDP-4 as the PDP-7.The PDP-7 was introduced in December 1964, and about 120 were eventually produced.",
"An upgrade to the Flip Chip led to the R series, which in turn led to the PDP-7A in 1965.The PDP-7 is most famous as the machine for which the Unix operating system was originally written.",
"Unix ran only on DEC systems until the Interdata 8/32.A more dramatic upgrade to the PDP-1 series was introduced in August 1966, the PDP-9.The PDP-9 was instruction-compatible with the PDP-4 and −7, but ran about twice as fast as the −7 and was intended to be used in larger deployments.",
"At only $19,900 in 1968, the PDP-9 was a big seller, eventually selling 445 machines, more than all of the earlier models combined.Even while the PDP-9 was being introduced, its replacement was being designed, and was introduced as 1969's PDP-15, which re-implemented the PDP-9 using integrated circuits in place of modules.",
"Much faster than the PDP-9 even in basic form, the PDP-15 also included a floating point unit and a separate input/output processor for further performance gains.",
"Over 400 PDP-15's were ordered in the first eight months of production, and production eventually amounted to 790 examples in 12 basic models.",
"However, by this time other machines in DEC's lineup could fill the same niche at even lower price points, and the PDP-15 would be the last of the 18-bit series.=== PDP-8 family (1962) ===A PDP-8 on display at the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C.",
"This example is from the first generation of PDP-8s, built with discrete transistors and later known as the ''Straight 8''.In 1962, Lincoln Laboratory used a selection of System Building Blocks to implement a small 12-bit machine, and attached it to a variety of analog-to-digital (A to D) input/output (I/O) devices that made it easy to interface with various analog lab equipment.",
"The LINC proved to attract intense interest in the scientific community, and has since been referred to as the first real minicomputer, a machine that was small and inexpensive enough to be dedicated to a single task even in a small lab.Seeing the success of the LINC, in 1963 DEC took the basic logic design but stripped away the extensive A to D systems to produce the PDP-5.The new machine, the first outside the PDP-1 mould, was introduced at WESTCON on August 11, 1963.A 1964 ad expressed the main advantage of the PDP-5, \"Now you can own the PDP-5 computer for what a core memory alone used to cost: $27,000\".",
"116 PDP-5s were produced until the lines were shut down in early 1967.Like the PDP-1 before it, the PDP-5 inspired a series of newer models based on the same basic design that would go on to be more famous than its parent.On March 22, 1965, DEC introduced the PDP-8, which replaced the PDP-5's modules with the new R-series modules using Flip Chips.",
"The machine was re-packaged into a small tabletop case, which remains distinctive for its use of smoked plastic over the CPU which allowed one to easily see the logic modules plugged into the wire-wrapped backplane of the CPU.",
"Sold standard with 4 kWords of 12-bit core memory and a Teletype Model 33 ASR for basic input/output, the machine listed for only $18,000.The PDP-8 is referred to as the first ''real'' minicomputer because of its sub-$25,000 price.",
"Sales were, unsurprisingly, very strong, and helped by the fact that several competitors had just entered the market with machines aimed directly at the PDP-5's market space, which the PDP-8 trounced.",
"This gave the company two years of unrestricted leadership, and eventually 1450 \"straight eight\" machines were produced before it was replaced by newer implementations of the same basic design.DEC hit an even lower price-point with the PDP-8/S, the S for \"serial\".",
"As the name implies the /S used a serial arithmetic unit, which was much slower but reduced costs so much that the system sold for under $10,000.DEC then used the new PDP-8 design as the basis for a new LINC, the two-processor LINC-8.The LINC-8 used one PDP-8 CPU and a separate LINC CPU, and included instructions to switch from one to the other.",
"This allowed customers to run their existing LINC programs, or \"upgrade\" to the PDP-8, all in software.",
"Although not a huge seller, 142 LINC-8s were sold starting at $38,500.Like the original LINC to PDP-5 evolution, the LINC-8 was then modified into the single-processor PDP-12, adding another 1000 machines to the 12-bit family.",
"Newer circuitry designs led to the PDP-8/I and PDP-8/L in 1968.In 1975, one year after an agreement between DEC and Intersil, the Intersil 6100 chip was launched, effectively a PDP-8 on a chip.",
"This was a way to allow PDP-8 software to be run even after the official end-of-life announcement for the DEC PDP-8 product line.=== PDP-6 and PDP-10 families (1963 and 1968) ===A \"B\" (blue) series Flip Chip module containing nine transistors, 1971While the PDP-5 introduced a lower-cost line, 1963's PDP-6 was intended to take DEC into the mainframe market with a 36-bit machine.",
"However, the PDP-6 proved to be a \"hard sell\" with customers, as it offered few obvious advantages over similar machines from the better-established vendors like IBM or Honeywell, in spite of its low cost around $300,000.Only 23 were sold, or 26 depending on the source, and unlike other models the low sales meant the PDP-6 was not improved with successor versions.",
"However, the PDP-6 is historically important as the platform that introduced \"Monitor\", an early time-sharing operating system that would evolve into the widely used TOPS-10.When newer Flip Chip packaging allowed the PDP-6 to be re-implemented at a much lower cost, DEC took the opportunity to refine their 36-bit design, introducing the PDP-10 in 1968.The PDP-10 was as much a success as the PDP-6 was a commercial failure; about 700 mainframe PDP-10s were sold before production ended in 1984.The PDP-10 was widely used in university settings, and thus was the basis of many advances in computing and operating system design during the 1970s.",
"DEC later re-branded all of the models in the 36-bit series as the \"DECsystem-10\", and PDP-10s are generally referred to by the model of their CPU, starting with the \"KA10\", soon upgraded to the \"KI10\" (I:Integrated circuit); then to \"KL10\" (L:Large-scale integration ECL logic); also the \"KS10\" (S: Small form factor).",
"Unified product line upgrades produced the compatible DECSYSTEM-20, along with a TOPS-20 operating system that included virtual memory support.The Jupiter Project was supposed to continue the mainframe product line into the future by using gate arrays with an innovative Air Mover Cooling System, coupled with a built-in floating point processing engine called \"FBOX\".",
"The design was intended for a top tier scientific computing niche, yet the critical performance measurement was based upon COBOL compilation which did not fully utilize the primary design features of Jupiter technology.",
"When the Jupiter Project was cancelled in 1983, some of the engineers adapted aspects of the 36-bit design into a forthcoming 32-bit design, releasing the high-end VAX8600 in 1985.=== PDP-11 (1970) ===EPFL DEC's successful entry into the computer market took place during a fundamental shift in the underlying organization of the machines from word lengths based on 6-bit characters to those based on 8-bit words needed to support ASCII.",
"DEC began studies of such a machine, the PDP-X, but Ken Olsen did not support it as he could not see how it offered anything their existing 12-bit or 18-bit machines didn't.",
"This led the leaders of the PDP-X project to leave DEC and start Data General, whose 16-bit Data General Nova was released in 1969 and was a huge success.The success of the Nova finally prompted DEC to take the switch seriously, and they began a crash program to introduce a 16-bit machine of their own.",
"The new system was designed primarily by Harold McFarland, Gordon Bell, Roger Cady, and others.",
"The project was able to leap forward in design with the arrival of Harold McFarland, who had been researching 16-bit designs at Carnegie Mellon University.",
"One of his simpler designs became the basis for the new design, although when they first viewed the proposal, management was not impressed and almost cancelled it.The result was the PDP-11, released in 1970.It differed from earlier designs considerably.",
"In particular, the new design did not include many of the addressing modes that were intended to make programs smaller in memory, a technique that was widely used on other DEC machines and CISC designs in general.",
"This would mean the machine would spend more time accessing memory, which would slow it down.",
"However, the machine also extended the idea of multiple \"General Purpose Registers\" (GPRs), which gave the programmer flexibility to use these high-speed memory caches as they needed, potentially addressing the performance issues.Unibus slots with the CPU, DK drive controller and other optionsA major advance in the PDP-11 design was DEC's Unibus, which supported all peripherals through memory mapping.",
"This allowed a new device to be added easily, generally only requiring plugging a hardware interface board into the backplane and possibly adding a jumper to the wire wrapped backplane, and then installing software that read and wrote to the mapped memory to control it.",
"The relative ease of interfacing spawned a huge market of third party add-ons for the PDP-11, which made the machine even more useful.The combination of architectural innovations proved superior to competitors and the \"11\" architecture was soon the industry leader, propelling DEC back to a strong market position.",
"The design was later expanded to allow paged physical memory and memory protection features, useful for multitasking and time-sharing.",
"Some models supported separate instruction and data spaces for an effective virtual address size of 128 kB within a physical address size of up to 4 MB.",
"Smaller PDP-11s, implemented as single-chip CPUs, continued to be produced until 1996, by which time over 600,000 had been sold.The RT-11 interactive help screen displayed on a VT100 display terminalThe PDP-11 supported several operating systems, including Bell Labs' new Unix operating system as well as DEC's DOS-11, RSX-11, IAS, RT-11, DSM-11, and RSTS/E.",
"Many early PDP-11 applications were developed using standalone paper-tape utilities.",
"DOS-11 was the PDP-11's first disk operating system, but was soon supplanted by more capable systems.",
"RSX provided a general-purpose multitasking environment and supported a wide variety of programming languages.",
"IAS was a time-sharing version of RSX-11D.",
"Both RSTS and Unix were time-sharing systems available to educational institutions at little or no cost, and these PDP-11 systems were destined to be the \"sandbox\" for a rising generation of engineers and computer scientists.",
"Large numbers of PDP-11/70s were deployed in telecommunications and industrial control applications.",
"AT&T Corporation became DEC's largest customer.RT-11 provided a practical real-time operating system in minimal memory, allowing the PDP-11 to continue DEC's critical role as a computer supplier for embedded systems.",
"Historically, RT-11 also served as the inspiration for many microcomputer OS's, as these were generally being written by programmers who cut their teeth on one of the many PDP-11 models.",
"For example, CP/M used a command syntax similar to RT-11's, and even retained the awkward PIP program used to copy data from one computer device to another.",
"As another historical footnote, DEC's use of \"/\" for \"switches\" (command-line options) would lead to the adoption of \"\\\" for pathnames in MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows as opposed to \"/\" in Unix.The evolution of the PDP-11 followed earlier systems, eventually including a single-user deskside personal computer form, the MicroPDP-11.In total, around 600,000 PDP-11s of all models were sold, and a wide variety of third-party peripheral vendors had also entered the computer product ecosystem.",
"It was even sold in kit form as the Heathkit H11, although it proved too expensive for Heathkit's traditional hobbyist market.=== VAX (1977) ===DEC VAX 11/780-5 at Living Computers: Museum + Labs The introduction of semiconductor memory in the early 1970s, and especially dynamic RAM shortly thereafter, led to dramatic reductions in the price of memory as the effects of Moore's Law were felt.",
"Within years, it was common to equip a machine with all the memory it could address, typically 64 kB on 16-bit machines.",
"This led vendors to introduce new designs with the ability to address more memory, often by extending the address format to 18 or 24-bits in machines were otherwise similar to their earlier 16-bit designs.In contrast, DEC decided to make a more radical departure.",
"In 1976, they began the design of a machine whose entire architecture was expanded from the 16-bit PDP-11 to a new 32-bit basis.",
"This would allow the addressing of very large memories, which were to be controlled by a new virtual memory system, and would also improve performance by processing twice as much data at a time.",
"The system would, however, maintain compatibility with the PDP-11, by operating in a second mode that sent its 16-bit words into the 32-bit internals, while mapping the PDP-11's 16-bit memory space into the larger virtual 32-bit space.The result was the VAX architecture, where VAX stands for Virtual Address eXtension (from 16 to 32 bits).",
"The first computer to use a VAX CPU was the VAX-11/780, announced in October 1977, which DEC referred to as a ''superminicomputer''.",
"Although it was not the first 32-bit minicomputer, the VAX-11/780's combination of features, price, and marketing almost immediately propelled it to a leadership position in the market after it was released in 1978.VAX systems were so successful that in 1983, DEC canceled its Jupiter project, which had been intended to build a successor to the PDP-10 mainframe, and instead focused on promoting the VAX as the single computer architecture for the company.Supporting the VAX's success was the VT52, one of the most successful smart terminals.",
"Building on earlier less successful models, the VT05 and VT50, the VT52 was the first terminal that did everything one might want in a single inexpensive chassis.",
"The VT52 was followed by the even more successful VT100 and its follow-ons, making DEC one of the largest terminal vendors in the industry.",
"This was supported by a line of inexpensive computer printers, the DECwriter line.",
"With the VT and DECwriter series, DEC could now offer a complete top-to-bottom system from computer to all peripherals, which formerly required collecting the required devices from different suppliers.The VAX processor architecture and family of systems evolved and expanded through several generations during the 1980s, culminating in the NVAX microprocessor implementation and VAX 7000/10000 series in the early 1990s.=== Early microcomputers (1982–1986) ===When a DEC research group demonstrated two prototype microcomputers in 1974—before the debut of the MITS Altair—Olsen chose to not proceed with the project.",
"The company similarly rejected another personal computer proposal in 1977.At the time these systems were of limited utility, and Olsen famously derided them in 1977, stating \"There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home.\"",
"Unsurprisingly, DEC did not put much effort into the microcomputer area in the early days of the market.",
"In 1977, the Heathkit H11 was announced; a PDP-11 in kit form.",
"At the beginning of the 1980s, DEC built the VT180 (codenamed \"Robin\"), which was a VT100 terminal with an added Z80-based microcomputer running CP/M, but this product was initially available only to DEC employees.It was only after IBM had successfully launched the IBM PC in 1981 that DEC responded with their own systems.",
"In 1982, DEC introduced not one, but three incompatible machines which were each tied to different proprietary architectures.",
"The first, the DEC Professional, was based on the PDP-11/23 (and later, the 11/73) running the RSX-11M+ derived, but menu-driven, P/OS (\"Professional Operating System\").",
"This DEC machine easily outperformed the PC, but was more expensive than, and completely incompatible with IBM PC hardware and software, offering far fewer options for customizing a system.Unlike CP/M and DOS microcomputers, every copy of every program for the Professional had to be provided with a unique key for the particular machine and CPU for which it was bought.",
"At that time this was mainstream policy, because most computer software was either bought from the company that built the computer or custom-constructed for one client.",
"However, the emerging third-party software industry disregarded the PDP-11/Professional line and concentrated on other microcomputers where distribution was easier.",
"At DEC itself, creating better programs for the Professional was not a priority, perhaps from fear of cannibalizing the PDP-11 line.",
"As a result, the Professional was a superior machine, running inferior software.",
"In addition, a new user would have to learn an awkward, slow, and inflexible menu-based user interface which appeared to be radically different from PC DOS or CP/M, which were more commonly used on the 8080- and 8088-based microcomputers of the time.",
"A second offering, the DECmate II was the latest version of the PDP-8-based word processors, but not really suited to general computing, nor competitive with Wang Laboratories' popular word processing equipment.DEC Rainbow 100, floor-mountedThe most popular early DEC microcomputer was the dual-processor (Z80 and 8088) Rainbow 100, which ran the 8-bit CP/M operating system on the Z80 and the 16-bit CP/M-86 operating system on the Intel 8088 processor.",
"It could also run a UNIX System III implementation called VENIX.",
"Applications from standard CP/M could be re-compiled for the Rainbow, but by this time users were expecting custom-built (pre-compiled binary) applications such as Lotus 1-2-3, which was eventually ported along with MS-DOS 2.0 and introduced in late 1983.Although the Rainbow generated some press, it was unsuccessful due to its high price and lack of marketing and sales support.",
"By late 1983 IBM was outselling DEC's personal computers by more than ten to one.A further system was introduced in 1986 as the VAXmate, which included Microsoft Windows 1.0 and used VAX/VMS-based file and print servers along with integration into DEC's own DECnet-family, providing LAN/WAN connection from PC to mainframe or supermini.",
"The VAXmate replaced the Rainbow, and in its standard form was the first widely marketed diskless workstation.=== Networking and clusters (1984) ===In 1984, DEC launched its first 10 Mbit/s Ethernet.",
"Ethernet allowed scalable networking, and VAXcluster allowed scalable computing.",
"Combined with DECnet and Ethernet-based terminal servers (LAT), DEC had produced a networked storage architecture which allowed them to compete directly with IBM.",
"Ethernet replaced Token Ring, and went on to become the dominant networking model in use today.In September 1985, DEC became the fifth company to register a .com domain name (dec.com).Along with the hardware and protocols, DEC also introduced the VAXcluster concept, which allowed several VAX machines to be tied together into a single larger storage system.",
"VAXclusters allowed a DEC-based company to scale their services by adding new machines to the cluster at any time, as opposed to buying a faster machine and using that to replace a slower one.",
"The flexibility this offered was compelling, and allowed DEC to attack high-end markets formerly out of their reach.=== Late 1980s diversification ===The PDP-11 and VAX lines continued to sell in record numbers.",
"Better yet, DEC was competing very well against the market leader, IBM, taking an estimated $2 billion away from them in the mid-1980s.",
"In 1986, DEC's profits rose 38% when the rest of the computer industry experienced a downturn, and by 1987 the company was threatening IBM's number one position in the computer industry.",
"Not long thereafter came IBM's VAX Killer offerings, at a time when DEC had twice the sales of IBM in the mid-range computer market.At its peak, DEC was the second-largest computer company in the world, with over 100,000 employees.",
"It was during this time that the company branched out development into a wide variety of projects that were far from its core business in computer equipment.",
"The company invested heavily in custom software.",
"In the 1970s and earlier most software was custom-written to serve a specific task, but by the 1980s the introduction of relational databases and similar systems allowed powerful software to be built in a modular fashion, potentially saving enormous amounts of development time.",
"Software companies like Oracle became the new darlings of the industry, and DEC started their own efforts in every \"hot\" niche, in some cases several projects for the same niche.",
"Some of these products competed with DEC's own partners, notably Rdb which competed with Oracle's products on the VAX, part of a major partnership only a few years earlier.Although many of these products were well designed, most of them were DEC-only or DEC-centric, and customers frequently ignored them and used third-party products instead.",
"This problem was further exacerbated by Olsen's aversion to traditional advertising and his belief that well-engineered products would sell themselves.",
"Hundreds of millions of dollars were spent on these projects, at the same time that workstations using RISC microprocessors were starting to approach VAX CPUs in performance.=== Early 1990s faltering and attempted turnaround ===As microprocessors continued to improve in the 1980s, it soon became clear that the next generation would offer performance and features equal to the best of DECs low-end minicomputer lineup.",
"Worse, the Berkeley RISC and Stanford MIPS designs were aiming to introduce 32-bit designs that would outperform the fastest members of the VAX family, DEC's cash cow.Constrained by the huge success of their VAX and VMS products, which followed the proprietary model, the company was very late to respond to these threats.",
"In the early 1990s, DEC found its sales faltering and its first layoffs followed.",
"The company that created the minicomputer, a dominant networking technology, and arguably the first computers for personal use, had abandoned the \"low end\" market, whose dominance with the PDP-8 had built the company in a previous generation.",
"Decisions about what to do about this threat led to infighting within the company that seriously delayed their responses.One group suggested that every possible development in the industry be poured into the construction of a new VAX family that would leapfrog the performance of the existing machines.",
"This would limit the market erosion in the top-end segment, where profit margins were maximized and DEC could continue to survive as a minicomputer vendor.",
"This line of thought led, eventually, to the VAX 9000 series, which were plagued with problems when they were first introduced in October 1989, already two years late.",
"The problems took so long to work out, and the prices of the systems were so high, that DEC was never able to make the line the success they hoped.Others within the company felt that the proper response was to introduce their own RISC designs and use those to build new machines.",
"However, there was little official support for these efforts, and no less than four separate small projects ran in parallel at various labs around the US.",
"Eventually these were gathered into the PRISM project, which delivered a credible 32-bit design with some unique features allowing it to serve as the basis of a new VAX implementation.",
"Infighting with teams dedicated to DEC's big iron made funding difficult, and the design was not finalized until April 1988, and then cancelled shortly thereafter.",
"The PRISM project was accompanied by the MICA project, which intended to consolidate VMS and ULTRIX into a single operating system.Another group concluded that new workstations like those from Sun Microsystems and Silicon Graphics would take away a large part of DEC's existing customer base before the new VAX systems could address the issues, and that the company needed its own Unix workstation as soon as possible.",
"Fed up with slow progress on both the RISC and VAX fronts, a group in Palo Alto started a skunkworks project to introduce their own systems.",
"Selecting the MIPS processor, which was widely available, introducing the new DECstation series with the model 3100 on January 11, 1989.These systems would see some success in the market, but were later displaced by similar models running the Alpha.==== 32-bit MIPS and 64-bit Alpha systems (1992) ====Inside view of AlphaServer 2100Eventually, in 1992, DEC launched the DECchip 21064 processor, the first implementation of their Alpha instruction set architecture, initially named Alpha AXP; the \"AXP\" was a \"non-acronym\" and was later dropped.",
"This was a 64-bit RISC architecture as opposed to the 32-bit CISC architecture used in the VAX.",
"It is one of the first \"pure\" 64-bit microprocessor architectures and implementations rather than an extension of an earlier 32-bit architecture.",
"The Alpha offered class-leading performance at its launch and was used in the massively-parallel Cray T3D.",
"Subsequent variants continued that performance trend into the 2000s, along with the Alpha-derived Pentium Pro, II, and III CPUs.",
"An AlphaServer SC45 supercomputer was still ranked No.",
"6 in the world in November 2004.Alpha-based computers comprising the DEC AXP series, later the AlphaStation, and AlphaServer series respectively superseded both the VAX and MIPS architecture in DEC's product lines.",
"They supported OpenVMS, DEC OSF/1 AXP (later known as Digital Unix or Tru64 UNIX) and Microsoft's then-new operating system, Windows NT, an operating system made possible by ex-Digital Equipment Corporation engineers.In 1998, following the takeover by Compaq Computer Corporation, a decision was made that Microsoft would no longer support and develop Windows NT for the Alpha series computers, a decision that was seen as the beginning of the end for the Alpha series computers.==== StrongARM (1995) ====In the mid-1990s, Digital Semiconductor collaborated with ARM Limited to produce the StrongARM microprocessor.",
"This was based in part on ARM7 and in part on DEC technologies like Alpha, and was targeted at embedded systems and portable devices.",
"It was highly compatible with the ARMv4 architecture and was very successful, competing effectively against rivals such as the SuperH and MIPS architectures in the portable digital assistant market.",
"Microsoft subsequently dropped support for these other architectures in their Pocket PC platform.",
"In 1997, as part of a lawsuit settlement, the StrongARM intellectual property was sold to Intel.",
"They continued to produce StrongARM, as well as developing it into the XScale architecture.",
"Intel subsequently sold this business to Marvell Technology Group in 2006.=== Palmer's reign (1992–1998) ===Redesigned logo introduced in 1993At its peak in the late 1980s, DEC had $14 billion in sales and ranked among the most profitable companies in the US.",
"With its strong staff of engineers, DEC was expected to usher in the age of personal computers, but the commonly misunderstood belief then argued by the board to its shareholders was that Mr. Olsen was openly skeptical of the desktop machines, stating \"the personal computer will fall flat on its face in business\", and regarding them as \"toys\" used for playing video games.",
"This was made in 1977 about what could be more characterised as home automation devices.The board forced Olsen to resign as president in July 1992 after 2 years of losses in operating income.",
"He was replaced by Robert Palmer as the company's president.",
"DEC's board of directors also granted Palmer the title of chief executive officer (\"CEO\"), a title that had never been used during DEC's 35-year existence.",
"Palmer had joined DEC in 1985 to run Semiconductor Engineering and Manufacturing.",
"His relentless campaign to be CEO, and success with the Alpha microprocessor family, made him a candidate to succeed Olsen.",
"At the same time a more modern logo was designedPalmer restructured DEC into nine business units that reported directly to him.",
"Nonetheless, DEC continued to suffer record losses, including a loss of $260.5 million for the quarter that ended on September 30, 1992.It reported $2.8 billion in losses for its fiscal year 1992.January 5, 1993, saw the retirement of John F. Smith as senior vice president of operations, the second in command at DEC, and his position was not filled.",
"A 35-year company veteran, he had joined DEC in 1958 as the company's 12th employee, passing up a chance to work for Bell Laboratories in New Jersey to work for DEC. Smith rose to become one of the three senior vice presidents in 1987 and was widely considered among the potential successors to Ken Olsen, especially when Smith was appointed chief operating officer in 1991.Smith became a corporate spokesman on financial issues, and had filled in at trouble spots for which Olsen ordered more attention.",
"Smith was passed over in favor of Palmer when Olsen was forced to resign in July 1992, though Smith stayed on for a time to help turn around the struggling company.In June 1993, Palmer and several of his top lieutenants presented their reorganization plans to applause from the board of directors, and several weeks later DEC reported its first profitable quarter in several years.",
"However, on April 15, 1994, DEC reported a loss of $183 million—three to four times higher than the loss many people on Wall Street had predicted (compared with a loss of $30 million in the comparable period a year earlier), causing the stock price on the NYSE to plunge $5.875 to $23, a 20% drop.",
"The losses at that point totaled $339 million for the current fiscal year.",
"Sales of the VAX, long the company's biggest moneymaker, continued to decline, which in turn also hurt DEC's lucrative service and maintenance business (this made up more than a third of DEC's revenue of $14 billion in the 1993 fiscal year), which declined 11% year over year to $1.5 billion in the most recent quarter.Market acceptance of DEC Alpha computers and chips had been slower than the company had hoped, even though Alpha's sales for the quarter estimated at $275 million were up significantly from $165 million in the December quarter.",
"DEC had also made a strong push into personal computers and workstations, which had even lower margins than Alpha computers and chips.",
"Also, DEC was playing catchup with its own Unix offerings for client-server networks, as it long emphasized its own VMS software, while corporate computer users based their client-server networks on the industry-standard Unix software (of which Hewlett Packard was one of the market leaders).",
"DEC's problems were similar to that of larger rival IBM, due to the fundamental shift in the computer industry that made it unlikely that DEC could ever again operate profitably at its former size of 120,000 employees, and while its workforce had been reduced to 92,000 people many analysts expected that they would have to cut another 20,000.==== Selloffs ====DECpc 425SE Color: a notebook computer released by Digital in 1993During the profitable years up until the early 1990s, DEC was a company that boasted that it never had a general layoff.",
"Following the 1992 economic downturn, layoffs became regular events as the company continually downsized to try to stay afloat.",
"Palmer was tasked with the goal of bringing DEC back to profitability, which he attempted to do by changing the established DEC business culture, hiring new executives from outside the company, and selling off various non-core business units:* Worldwide training was spun off to form an independent/new company called Global Knowledge Network.",
"* Rdb, DEC's database product, was sold to Oracle.",
"* Rights to the PDP-11 line and several PDP-11 operating systems were sold to Mentec in 1994, though DEC continued to produce some PDP-11 hardware for a few years.",
"* Disk and DLT technologies was sold to Quantum Corporation in 1994.",
"* Text terminal business (VT100 and its successors) was sold in August 1995 to Boundless Technologies.",
"* CORBA-based product, ObjectBroker, and its messaging software, MessageQ, were sold to BEA Systems, Inc in March 1997.",
"* Printer business was sold in 1997 to GENICOM (now TallyGenicom), which then produced models bearing the Digital logo.",
"* Networking business was sold c.1997 to Cabletron Systems, and subsequently spun off as Digital Network Products Group.",
"* DECtalk and DECvoice voice products were spun off, and eventually arrived at Fonix Speech Group.=== Acquisition by Compaq (1998) ===Through 1997, DEC began discussions with Compaq on a possible merger.",
"Several years earlier, Compaq had considered a bid for DEC but became seriously interested only after DEC's major divestments and refocusing on the Internet in 1997.At that time, Compaq was making strong moves into the enterprise market, and DEC's multivendor global services organization and customer support centers offered a real opportunity to expand their support and sales worldwide.",
"Compaq was not interested in a number of DEC's product lines, which led to the series of sell-offs.",
"Notable among these was DEC's Hudson Fab, which made most of their custom chips, a market that made little sense to Compaq's \"industry standard\" marketing.",
"DEC had previously sold its semiconductor plant in South Queensferry to Motorola in 1995, with an understanding that Motorola would continue to produce Alpha processors at the facility, along with continuing a two-year foundry agreement with AMD to continue producing the Am486 processor.This led to an interesting solution to the problem of selling off the division for a reasonable profit.",
"In May 1997, DEC sued Intel for allegedly infringing on its Alpha patents in designing the original Pentium, Pentium Pro, and Pentium II chips.",
"As part of a settlement, much of DEC's chip design and fabrication business was sold to Intel.",
"This included DEC's StrongARM implementation of the ARM computer architecture, which Intel marketed as the XScale processors commonly used in Pocket PCs.",
"The core of Digital Semiconductor, the Alpha microprocessor group, remained with DEC, while the associated office buildings went to Intel as part of the Hudson fab.On January 26, 1998, what remained of the company was sold to Compaq in what was the largest merger up to that time in the computer industry.",
"At the time of Compaq's acquisition announcement, DEC had a total of 53,500 employees, down from a peak of 130,000 in the 1980s, but it still employed about 65% more people than Compaq to produce about half the volume of sales revenues.",
"After the merger closed, Compaq moved aggressively to reduce DEC's high selling, general, and administrative (SG&A) costs (equal to 24% of total 1997 revenues) and bring them more in line with Compaq's SG&A expense ratio of 12% of revenues.Compaq used the acquisition to move into enterprise services and compete with IBM, and by 2001 services made up over 20% of Compaq's revenues, largely due to the DEC employees inherited from the merger.",
"DEC's own PC manufacturing was discontinued after the merger closed.",
"As Compaq did not wish to compete with one of its key partner suppliers, the remainder of Digital Semiconductor (the Alpha microprocessor group) was sold to Intel, which placed those employees back in their Hudson (Massachusetts) office, which they had vacated when the site was sold to Intel in 1997.Compaq struggled as a result of the merger with DEC, and was acquired by Hewlett-Packard in 2002.Compaq, and later HP, continued to sell many of the former DEC products but re-branded with their own logos.",
"For example, HP now sells what were formerly DEC's StorageWorks disk/tape products, as a result of the Compaq acquisition.The Digital logo was used up until 2004, even after the company ceased to exist, as the logo of Digital GlobalSoft, an IT services company in India (which was a 51% subsidiary of Compaq).",
"Digital GlobalSoft was later renamed \"HP GlobalSoft\" (also known as the \"HP Global Delivery India Center\" or HP GDIC), and no longer uses the Digital logo."
],
[
"Research and people",
"DEC's Research Laboratories (or Research Labs, as they were commonly known) conducted DEC's corporate research.",
"Some of them were continued in operation by Compaq and are still operated by Hewlett-Packard.",
"The laboratories were:* Cambridge Research Laboratory (CRL) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, US* MetroWest Technology Campus (MTC) in Maynard, Massachusetts, US* Network Systems Laboratory (NSL) in Palo Alto, California, US* Systems Research Center (SRC) in Palo Alto, California, US* Paris Research Laboratory (PRL) in Paris, France* Western Research Laboratory (WRL) in Palo Alto, California, US* Western Software Laboratory (WSL) in Palo Alto, California, USSome of the former employees of DEC's Research Labs or DEC's R&D in general include:* Gordon Bell: technical visionary, VP Engineering 1972–1983; later moved to Microsoft Research* Leonard Bosack: a co-founder of Cisco Systems* Mike Burrows: an author of the Burrows–Wheeler transform* Luca Cardelli: co-designer of the Modula-3 language * Dave Cutler: led RSX-11M, VAX/VMS, VAXELN and MICA operating systems development; then led Windows NT development at Microsoft* Ed deCastro: became co-founder of Data General Corporation* Alan Eustace: co-author of early profiling tools; a Senior Vice President of Engineering at Google; a world-record breaker in the stratosphere jump (2014)* Jim Gettys: early developer of X Window System* Henri Gouraud: inventor of the Gouraud shading* Jim Gray: a Turing Award winner for database research; went missing on a ship trip* Alan Kotok: chief architect of the PDP-10 series and prolific member of World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)* Leslie Lamport: a Turing Award recipient; first creator of LaTeX macros;* Butler Lampson: a contributor to a wide range of personal computing concepts like WYSIWYG text formatting program* Scott A. McGregor: co-author of the X Window System, version 11* Louis Monier: an Internet and software entrepreneur* Isaac Nassi: contributor to Ada programming language; co-author of the Nassi–Shneiderman diagram * Radia Perlman: a pioneer in computer networking standartization; author of Spanning Tree Protocol* Marcus Ranum: a computer and network security developer credited with a number innovations in firewalls* Brian Reid: an inventor of Scribe markup language; pioneer in networking and firewalls* Paul Vixie: a co-author of the BIND DNS server software* Sanjay Ghemawat* Jeff Dean* Patrick O'Neil: a computer scientist well known for his works on databasesSome of the former employees of Digital Equipment Corp were responsible for developing DEC Alpha and StrongARM:* Daniel W. Dobberpuhl* Jim Keller* Rich WitekGrace Hopper worked for Digital Equipment Corporation as a consultant after her retirement from the United States NavySome of the work of the Research Labs was published in the ''Digital Technical Journal'', which was in published from 1985 until 1998.At least some of the research reports are available online."
],
[
"Legacy and accomplishments",
", decades-old hardware (including PDP-11, VAX, and AlphaServer) is being emulated to allow legacy software to run on modern hardware; funding for this is planned to last at least until 2030.DEC supported the ANSI standards, especially the ASCII character set, which survives in Unicode and the ISO 8859 character set family.",
"DEC's own Multinational Character Set also had a large influence on ISO 8859-1 (Latin-1) and, by extension, Unicode.DEC VAXstationBeyond DECsystem-10/20, PDP, VAX and Alpha, DEC was known for its work in communication subsystem designs, such as Ethernet, DNA (DIGITAL Network Architecture: predominantly DECnet products), DSA (Digital Storage Architecture: disks/tapes/controllers), and its \"dumb terminal\" subsystems including VT100 and DECserver products.===Software===* The first versions of the C language and the Unix operating system ran on DEC's PDP series of computers (first on a PDP-7, then the PDP-11), which were among the first commercially viable minicomputers, although for several years DEC itself did not encourage the use of Unix.",
"* DEC produced widely used and influential interactive operating systems, including OS-8, TOPS-10, TOPS-20, RSTS/E, RSX-11, RT-11, and OpenVMS.",
"PDP computers, in particular the PDP-11 model, inspired a generation of programmers and software developers.",
"Some PDP-11 systems more than 25 years old (software and hardware) are still being used to control and monitor factories, transportation systems and nuclear plants.",
"DEC was an early champion of time-sharing systems.",
"* The command-line interfaces found in DEC's systems, eventually codified as DCL, would look familiar to any user of modern microcomputer CLIs; those used in earlier systems, such as CTSS, IBM's JCL, or Univac's time-sharing systems, would look utterly alien.",
"Many features of the CP/M and MS-DOS CLI show a recognizable family resemblance to DEC's OSes, including command names such as DIR and HELP and the \"name-dot-extension\" file naming conventions.",
"* Notes-11 and its follow-on product, , were two of the first examples of online collaboration software, a category that has become to be known as groupware.",
"Len Kawell, one of the original Notes-11 developers, later joined Lotus Development Corporation and contributed to their Lotus Notes product.",
"* The MUMPS programming language, with its built-in database, was developed on the PDP-7, 9, and 15 series machines.",
"MUMPS is still widely used in medical information systems, such as those provide by Meditech and Epic Systems.",
"* The Babel Fish machine translation service was developed by DEC researchers, and was one of the first machine translators to achieve broad success using natural language processing techniques.",
"* ALL-IN-1 was an office automation system developed by Skip Walter and others in Central Engineering under Gordon Bell.",
"They developed a customizable list of application invocations and the robust DECMail product that provided one of the first commercially available electronic mail systems.===Hardware======= DECtape ====One of the most unusual peripherals produced for the PDP-10 was the DECtape.",
"The DECtape was a length of special 3/4-inch wide magnetic tape wound on 5-inch reels.",
"The recording format was a highly reliable redundant 10-track design using fixed-length numbered data \"blocks\" organized into a standard file structure, including a directory.",
"Files could be written, read, changed, and deleted on a DECtape as though it were a disk drive.",
"For greater efficiency, the DECtape drive could read and write to a DECtape in both directions.In fact, some PDP-10 systems had no disks at all, using DECtapes alone for their primary data storage.",
"The DECtape was also widely used on other PDP models, since it was much easier to use than hand-loading multiple paper tapes.",
"Primitive early time-sharing systems could use DECtapes as system devices and swapping devices.",
"Although superior to paper tape, DECtapes were relatively slow, and were supplanted once reliable disk drives became affordable.==== Magnetic disk storage ====DEC disk plattersDEC was both a manufacturer and a buyer of magnetic disk storage, offering more than 100 different models of hard disk drive (HDD) and floppy disk drive (FDD) during its existence.",
"In the 1970s, it was the single largest OEM purchaser of HDDs, procuring from Diablo, Control Data Corporation, Information Storage Systems, and Memorex, among others.DEC's first internally developed HDD was the RS08, a 256 kWord fixed-head contact-start-stop drive using plated media; it shipped in 1969.Beginning in the 1970s, DEC moved first its HDD manufacturing and then its mass storage development labs to Colorado Springs.DEC pioneered a number of HDD technologies, including sampled data servos (RL01, 1977) and serial HDD interfaces (Standard Disk Interconnect, 1983).",
"The last internally developed disk drive family (RA9x series) used plated media, departing from the HDD industry trend to carbon overcoated sputtered media.",
"DEC designated a $400 million investment to bring this product line into production.",
"The RA92 (1.5 GB) was introduced in 1992, using a 14-inch platter.DEC purchased its FDDs from OEMs such as Shugart Associates, Toshiba, and Sony.==== RX50 ====The way the 400 KB DEC standard RX50 floppy disk drive supported DEC's initial offerings seemed to encapsulate their approach to the personal computer market.",
"Although the mechanical drive hardware was nearly identical to other 5 \" floppy disk drives available on competing systems, DEC sought to differentiate their product by using a proprietary disk format for the data written on the disk.",
"The DEC format had a higher capacity for data, but the RX50 drives were incompatible with other PC floppy drives.",
"This required DEC owners to buy higher-priced, specially formatted floppy media, which was harder to obtain through standard distribution channels.",
"DEC attempted to enforce exclusive control over its floppy media sales by copyrighting its proprietary disk format, and requiring a negotiated license agreement and royalty payments from anybody selling compatible media.",
"The proprietary data format meant that RX50 floppies were not interchangeable with other PC floppies, further isolating DEC products from the developing de facto standard PC market.",
"Hardware hackers and DEC enthusiasts eventually reverse-engineered the RX50 format, but the damage had already been done, in terms of market confusion and isolation.==== Video and Interactive Information Server ====The Video-on-Demand project at DEC started in 1992, following Ken Olsen's retirement.",
"At the time the company was rapidly downsizing under Robert Palmer, and it was difficult to gain funding for any new project.",
"DEC's Interactive Video Information Server architecture gained traction and excelled over those of other companies, in that it was highly scalable, using a gateway to set up interactive video delivery sessions on large numbers of video and information servers.",
"Initially high-end VAXes were used, then Alphas.The scalability feature allowed it to win contracts for many of the video-on-demand trials in the 1993–95 timeframe, since the system could theoretically accommodate unlimited interactive video streams and other non-video content.The design was proposed and incorporated into the MPEG-2 international standard.",
"Its object-oriented interface became the mandatory user-to user core interface in DSM-CC, widely used in video stream and file delivery for MPEG-2 compliant systems.Commercially, DEC's Digital and Interactive Information System was used by Adlink to distribute advertising to over two million subscribers.==== Other ====* VAX and MicroVAX computers (very widespread in the 1980s) running VAX/VMS formed one of the most important proprietary networks, DECnet, which linked business and research facilities.",
"The DECnet protocols formed one of the first peer-to-peer networking standards, with DECnet phase I being released in the mid-1970s.",
"Email, file sharing, and distributed collaborative projects existed within the company long before their value was recognized in the market.",
"* The LA36 and LA120 dot matrix printers became industry standards and may have hastened the demise of the Teletype Corporation.",
"* The VT100 computer terminal became the industry standard, implementing a useful subset of the ANSI X3.64 standard, and even today terminal emulators such as HyperTerminal, PuTTY and Xterm still emulate a VT100 (or its more capable successor, the VT220).",
"* DEC invented Digital Linear Tape (DLT), formerly known as CompacTape, which began as a compact backup medium for MicroVAX systems, and later grew to capacities of 800 gigabytes.",
"* Work on the first hard-disk-based MP3 player, the Personal Jukebox, started at the DEC Systems Research Center.",
"(The project was started about a month before the merger into Compaq was completed.",
")* DEC's Western Research Lab created the Itsy Pocket Computer.",
"This was developed into the Compaq iPaq line of PDAs, which replaced the Compaq Aero PDA.",
"* DEC also produced a proprietary personal computer known as the Rainbow 100.It could run either MS-DOS or CP/M but from a hardware standpoint it was largely incompatible with the IBM PC.===Networking===* DEC, Intel and Xerox, through their collaboration to create the DIX standard, were champions of Ethernet, but DEC is the company that made Ethernet commercially successful.",
"Initially, Ethernet-based DECnet and LAT protocols interconnected VAXes with DECserver terminal servers.",
"Starting with the Unibus to Ethernet adapter, multiple generations of Ethernet hardware from DEC were the de facto standard.",
"The CI \"computer interconnect\" adapter was the industry's first network interface controller to use separate transmit and receive \"rings\".",
"* DEC also invented clustering, an operating system technology that treated multiple machines as one logical entity.",
"Clustering permitted sharing of pooled disk and tape storage via the HSC50/70/90 and later series of Hierarchical Storage Controllers (HSC).",
"The HSCs delivered the first hardware RAID 0 and RAID 1 capabilities and the first serial interconnects of multiple storage technologies.",
"This technology was the forerunner to architectures such as Network of Workstations, which are used for massively cooperative tasks such as web searches and drug research.",
"* The X Window System is the network transparent window system used on Unix and Linux and available on other operating systems such as MacOS.",
"It was developed at MIT jointly between Project Athena and the Laboratory for Computer Science.",
"DEC was the primary sponsor for the project, which was a contemporary of the GNU Project but not associated with it.",
"* In the period 1994–99 Linus Torvalds developed versions of Linux on early AlphaServer systems provided by the engineering department.",
"Compaq software engineers developed special Linux kernel modules.",
"A well-known Linux distribution that ran on AlphaServer systems was Red Hat 7.2.Another distribution that ran on Alpha was Gentoo Linux.",
"* DEC was one of the first businesses connected to the Internet, with ''dec.com'', registered in 1985, being one of the first of the now ubiquitous ''.com'' domains.",
"DEC's ''gatekeeper.dec.com'' was a well-known software repository during the pre-World Wide Web days, and DEC was also the first computer vendor to open a public website, on October 1, 1993.The popular AltaVista, created by DEC, was one of the first comprehensive Internet search engines.",
"(Although Lycos was earlier, it was much more limited.",
")* DEC once held the Class A IP address block 16.0.0.0/8.===Corporate===* Digital Federal Credit Union (DCU) is a credit union which was chartered in 1979 for employees of DEC. Today its field of membership is open to existing family members, over 900 different sponsors, several communities in Massachusetts and several organizations.",
"Many of the sponsors are companies that had acquired pieces of DEC.* Matrix management"
],
[
"User organizations",
"DECUS - LogoDigital Equipment CorporationUsers SocietyOriginally the users' group was called DECUS (Digital Equipment Computer User Society) during the 1960s to 1990s.",
"When Compaq acquired DEC in 1998, the users group was renamed CUO, the Compaq Users' Organisation.",
"When HP acquired Compaq in 2002, CUO became HP-Interex, although there are still DECUS groups in several countries.",
"In the United States, the organization is represented by the Encompass organization; currently Connect."
],
[
"Financial history",
"+ Table of early sales growth Year Net salesNotes 1962 $6,535,502 1963$9,906,968+51.6% 1964 $10,909,565 1965 $14,982,920+37.3% 1966 $22,776,434 +209% of 1964 1967 $38,895,782 +260% of 1965 Year #Employees Net salesNotes 1968 2,600 $57,339,400+47.4% (in Net sales) 1969 4,360 $87,867,000+53.2% (compared to prior year) 1970 5,800 $135,408,000+54.1% 1971 6,200 $146,849,000 1972 7,800 $166,262,000"
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Works cited",
"* (''Present''), \"Digital Equipment Corporation: Nineteen Fifty-Seven to the Present\", DEC Press, 1978* * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* \"Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC): A Case Study of Indecision, Innovation and Company Failure\", David Thomas Goodwin, Ph.D. thesis, University of Amsterdam, 2016*Several editions of the '''' were published by DEC, giving information about their PDP line of computers.",
"The editions were:** ''Small Computer Handbook'' (1973)** ''PDP8/e, PDP8/m & PDP8/f, Small Computer Handbook'' (1973)** ''Small Computer Handbook'' (1970 edition)"
],
[
"External links",
"* GBell's CyberMuseum for Digital Equipment Corp (DEC)* Rise and Fall of Digital (Equipment Corporation), a company chronicle at a German computer museum* Ken Olsen, New England Economic Adventure* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Dead Kennedys"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Dead Kennedys''' are an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978.The band was one of the defining punk bands during its initial eight-year run.Dead Kennedys' lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing political figures and authority in general, as well as popular culture and even the punk movement itself.",
"During their initial incarnation between 1978 and 1986, they attracted considerable controversy for their provocative lyrics and artwork.",
"Several stores refused to stock their recordings, provoking debate about censorship in rock music; in the mid-1980s, vocalist and primary lyricist Jello Biafra became an active campaigner against the Parents Music Resource Center.",
"This culminated in an obscenity trial between 1985 and 1986, which resulted in a hung jury.The group released a total of four studio albums and one EP before disbanding in 1986.Following the band's dissolution, Biafra continued to collaborate and record with other artists including D.O.A., NoMeansNo and his own bands Lard and the Guantanamo School of Medicine, as well as releasing several spoken word performances.In 2000 (upheld on appeal in 2003), Biafra lost an acrimonious legal case initiated by his former Dead Kennedys bandmates over songwriting credits and unpaid royalties.",
"In 2001, the band reformed without Biafra; various singers have since been recruited for vocal duties.",
"Although Dead Kennedys have continued to perform over the years, they have not released any new material since their fourth studio album, ''Bedtime for Democracy'', in 1986."
],
[
"History",
"=== Formation of the band (1978–1979) ===Dead Kennedys formed in June 1978 in San Francisco, California, when East Bay Ray (Raymond Pepperell) advertised for bandmates in the newspaper ''The Recycler'', after seeing a ska-punk show at Mabuhay Gardens in San Francisco.",
"The original band lineup consisted of East Bay Ray on lead guitar, Klaus Flouride (Geoffrey Lyall) on bass, Jello Biafra (Eric Reed Boucher) on vocals, Ted (Bruce Slesinger) on drums and 6025 (Carlos Cadona) on rhythm guitar.",
"This lineup recorded their first demos.",
"Their first live show was on July 19, 1978, at Mabuhay Gardens in San Francisco, California.",
"They were the opening act on a bill that included DV8 and Negative Trend with The Offs headlining.Dead Kennedys played numerous shows at local venues afterward.",
"Due to the provocative name of the band, they sometimes played under pseudonyms, including \"The DK's\", \"The Sharks\", \"The Creamsicles\" and \"The Pink Twinkies\".",
"''San Francisco Chronicle'' columnist Herb Caen wrote in November 1978, \"Just when you think tastelessness has reached its nadir, along comes a punk rock group called 'The Dead Kennedys', which will play at Mabuhay Gardens on Nov. 22, the 15th anniversary of John F. Kennedy's assassination.\"",
"Despite mounting protests, the owner of Mabuhay declared, \"I can't cancel them NOW—there's a contract.",
"Not, apparently, the kind of contract some people have in mind.\"",
"However, despite popular belief, the name was not meant to insult the Kennedy family, but according to Ray, \"the assassinations were in much more poor taste than our band.",
"We actually respect the Kennedy family.",
".",
".",
".",
"When JFK was assassinated, when Martin Luther King was assassinated, when RFK was assassinated, the American Dream was assassinated.",
".",
".",
".",
"Our name is actually homage to the American Dream.",
"\"6025 left the band in March 1979 under somewhat unclear circumstances, generally considered to be musical differences.",
"In June, the band released their first single, \"California über alles\", on Biafra and East Bay Ray's independent label, Alternative Tentacles.",
"The band followed with a poorly attended East Coast tour, being a new and fairly unknown band at the time, without a full album release.=== ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables'' (1980–1981) ===Biafra performing liveIn early 1980, they recorded and released the single \"Holiday in Cambodia\".",
"In June, the band recorded their debut album, ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables'', released in September of that year on the UK label Cherry Red.",
"The album reached number 33 on the UK Albums Chart.",
"Since its initial release, it has been re-released by several other labels, including IRS, Alternative Tentacles, and Cleopatra.",
"The newest reissue—the special 25th-anniversary edition—features the original artwork and a bonus 55-minute DVD documenting the making of the album as well as the band's early years.On March 25, 1980, Dead Kennedys were invited to perform at the Bay Area Music Awards in an effort to give the event some \"new wave credibility\", in the words of the organizers.",
"The day of the performance was spent practicing the song they were asked to play, the underground hit \"California über alles\".",
"The band became the talking point of the ceremony when after about 15 seconds into the song, Biafra stopped the band—in a manner reminiscent of Elvis Costello's ''Saturday Night Live'' appearance—and said, \"Hold it!",
"We've gotta prove that we're adults now.",
"We're not a punk rock band, we're a new wave band.\"",
"The band, all wearing white shirts with a big, black S painted on the front, pulled black ties from around the backs of their necks to form a dollar sign, then started playing a new song titled \"Pull My Strings\", a barbed, satirical attack on the ethics of the mainstream music industry, which contained the lyrics, \"Is my cock big enough, is my brain small enough, for you to make me a star?\".",
"The song also referenced The Knack's song \"My Sharona\".",
"\"Pull My Strings\" was never recorded for a studio release, though the performance at the Bay Area Music Awards, which was one of only two times that the song was ever performed, was released on the band's 1987 compilation album ''Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death''.",
"In a 2017 interview about the show Klaus stated, \"We did one other performance of it at The Mabuhay and that was the only other time we performed it... like within a week of the Bammies\" This performance was not recorded.In January 1981, Ted announced that he wanted to leave to pursue a career in architecture and would help look for a replacement.",
"He played his last concert in February 1981.His replacement was D. H. Peligro (Darren Henley).",
"Around the same time, East Bay Ray had tried to pressure the rest of the band to sign to the major record label Polydor Records; Biafra stated that he was prepared to leave the group if the rest of the band wanted to sign to the label, though East Bay Ray asserts that he recommended against signing with Polydor.",
"Polydor decided not to sign the band after they learned that Dead Kennedys' next single was to be entitled \"Too Drunk to Fuck\".When \"Too Drunk to Fuck\" came out in May 1981 it caused controversy in the UK, as the BBC feared the single would reach the Top 30, which would necessitate its title being mentioned on ''Top of the Pops''.",
"It was never played, although it was called \"'Too Drunk' by the Kennedys\" by presenter Tony Blackburn.=== ''In God We Trust, Inc.'', ''Plastic Surgery Disasters'' and Alternative Tentacles Records (1981–1985) ===Dead Kennedys in 1983.From left: Klaus Flouride, Jello Biafra, D.H. Peligro, and East Bay RayAfter Peligro joined the band, the extended play ''In God We Trust, Inc.'' (1981) saw them move toward a more aggressive hardcore/thrash sound.",
"In addition to the EP's controversial artwork depicting a gold Christ figure on a cross of dollar bills, the lyrics contained Biafra's most biting social and political commentary yet, and songs such as \"Moral Majority\", \"Nazi Punks Fuck Off!\"",
"and \"We've Got a Bigger Problem Now\" placed Dead Kennedys as the spokesmen of social protest, while \"Dog Bite\", a cover version of ''Rawhide'' and various joke introductions showed a much more whimsical side.",
"In 1982, they released their second studio album, ''Plastic Surgery Disasters''.",
"The album's cover features a withered starving African child's hand being held and dwarfed by a white man's hand, a picture that had won the World Press Photo award in 1980, taken in Karamoja district in Uganda by Mike Wells.The band's music had evolved considerably in a short time, moving away from hardcore formulae toward a more innovative jazz-informed style, featuring musicianship and dynamics far beyond other bands in the genre (thus effectively removing the music from that genre).",
"By now the group had become a de facto political force, pitting itself against rising elements of American social and political life such as the religious right, Ronald Reagan and the idle rich.",
"The band continued touring all over the United States, as well as Europe and Australia, and gained a large underground following.",
"While they continued to play live shows during 1983 and 1984, they took a break from releasing new records to concentrate on the Alternative Tentacles record label, which would become synonymous with DIY alternative culture.",
"The band continued to write and perform new material during this time, which would appear on their next album (some of these early performances can be seen in the ''DMPO's on Broadway'' video, originally released by Dirk Dirksen and later reissued on Rhino).=== ''Frankenchrist'' and obscenity trial (1985–1986) ===The release of the album ''Frankenchrist'' in 1985 showed the band had grown in musical proficiency and lyrical maturity.",
"While there were still a number of loud/fast songs, much of the music featured an eclectic mix of instruments including trumpets and synthesizers.",
"Around this time Klaus Flouride released the similarly experimental solo EP ''Cha Cha Cha With Mr. Flouride''.",
"Lyrically, the band continued their trademark social commentary, with songs such as \"MTV Get Off The Air\" and \"Jock-O-Rama (Invasion of the Beef Patrol)\" poking fun at mainstream America.However, the controversy that erupted over H.R.",
"Giger's ''Penis Landscape'', included as an insert with the album, dwarfed the notoriety of its music.",
"The artwork caused a furor with the newly formed Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC).",
"In December 1985 a teenage girl purchased the album at the Wherehouse Records store in Los Angeles County.",
"The girl's mother wrote letters of complaint to the California Attorney General and to Los Angeles prosecutors.",
"In June 1986, members of the band, along with other parties involved in the distribution of ''Frankenchrist'', were charged criminally with distribution of harmful matter to minors.",
"The store where the teen actually purchased the album was never named in the lawsuit.",
"The criminal charges focused on an illustration by H.R.",
"Giger, titled \"Work 219: Landscape XX\" (also known as ''Penis Landscape'').",
"Included as a poster with the album, ''Penis Landscape'' depicts nine copulating penises and vaginas.Members of the band and others in the chain of distribution were charged with violating the California Penal Code on a misdemeanor charge carrying a maximum penalty of up to a year in county jail and a base fine of up to $2,000.Biafra says that during this time government agents invaded and searched his home.",
"The prosecution tried to present the poster to the jury in isolation for consideration as obscene material, but Judge Susan Isacoff ruled that the poster must be considered along with the music and lyrics.",
"The charges against three of the original defendants, Ruth Schwartz (owner of Mordam Records), Steve Boudreau (a distributor involved in supplying ''Frankenchrist'' to the Los Angeles Wherehouse store), and Salvatore Alberti (owner of the factory where the record was pressed), were dismissed for lack of evidence.In August 1987, the case went to the jury with two remaining defendants: Jello Biafra and Michael Bonanno (former Alternative Tentacles label manager).",
"However, the criminal trial ended with a hung jury, split 7 to 5 in favor of acquittal.",
"District Attorneys Michael Guarino and Ira Riener made a motion for a retrial which was denied by Judge Isacoff, Superior Court Judge for the County of Los Angeles.",
"The album, however, was banned from many record stores nationwide.After the break up of the band, Jello Biafra brought up the court case on ''The Oprah Winfrey Show''.",
"Biafra was on the show with Tipper Gore as part of a panel discussion on the issues of \"controversial music lyrics\" and censorship.=== ''Bedtime for Democracy'' and break-up (1986) ===In addition to the obscenity lawsuit, the band became increasingly disillusioned with the underground scene as well.",
"The hardcore scene, which had been a haven for free-thinking intellectuals and downtrodden nonconformists, was attracting a more violent audience that imposed an increasing level of brutality on other concertgoers and began to alienate many of the bands and individuals who had helped pioneer the movement in the early 1980s.",
"In earlier years the band had criticized neo-Nazi skinheads for trying to ruin the punk scene, but just as big a problem was the popularity of increasingly macho hardcore bands, which brought the group (and their genre) an audience that had little to do with the ideas/ideals they stood for.",
"Biafra penned new songs such as \"Chickenshit Conformist\" and \"Anarchy for Sale\" that articulated the band's feelings about the \"dumbing down\" of punk rock.",
"During the summer they recorded these for their final album, ''Bedtime for Democracy'', which was released in November.",
"The artwork, depicting a defaced Statue of Liberty overrun with Nazis, media, opportunists, Klan members, corrupt government officials, and religious zombies, echoed the idea that neither America itself or the punk scene were safe havens any more for \"your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free\".",
"The album contains a number of fast/short songs interspersed with jazz (\"D.M.S.O.",
"\"), spoken word (\"A Commercial\") and psychedelia (\"Cesspools In Eden\").The band decided to split up in January 1986, prior to the recording and release of ''Bedtime for Democracy'', and played their last live show with the original lineup on 21 February.",
"Biafra went on to speak about his political beliefs on numerous television shows and he released a number of spoken-word albums.",
"Ray, Flouride, and Peligro also went on to solo careers.=== Reforming of new band line-up and death of Peligro (2001–present) ===In 2001, Ray, Peligro, and Flouride reformed the Dead Kennedys, with former Dr. Know singer Brandon Cruz replacing Biafra on vocals.",
"The band played under the name \"DK Kennedys\" for a few concerts, but later reverted to \"Dead Kennedys\" permanently.",
"They played across the continental United States, Europe, Asia, South America, and Russia.",
"Brandon Cruz left the band in May 2003 and was replaced by Jeff Penalty.",
"The band has released two live albums of archival performances on Manifesto Records: ''Mutiny on the Bay'', compiled from various live shows including a recording from their last show with Biafra in 1986, and ''Live at the Deaf Club'', a recording of a 1979 performance at the Deaf Club in San Francisco which was greeted with more enthusiasm.On October 9, 2007, a best of album titled ''Milking the Sacred Cow'' was released.",
"It includes two previously unreleased live versions of \"Soup Is Good Food\" and \"Jock-O-Rama\", originally found on ''Frankenchrist''.Jeff Penalty left the band in March 2008 in what he describes as a \"not amicable split.\"",
"In a statement released, Jeff said that, following a series of disputes, the band had secretly recruited a new singer and played a gig in his neighbourhood, although he also stated he was \"really proud of what we were able to accomplish with Dead Kennedys\".",
"He was replaced by former Wynona Riders singer Ron \"Skip\" Greer.",
"D. H. Peligro also left the band to \"take some personal time off\".",
"He was replaced for a tour by Translator drummer Dave Scheff.On August 21, 2008, the band announced an extended break from touring due to the health-related issues of Flouride and Peligro.",
"They stated their plans to collaborate on new projects.",
"The band performed a gig in Santa Rosa, California in June 2009, with Peligro returning to the drum kit.In August 2010, Dead Kennedys announced plans for a short East Coast tour.",
"The lineup assembled for this tour contained East Bay Ray, Peligro, Greer, and bassist Greg Reeves replacing Flouride, who was taking \"personal time off\" from the band.",
"The tour dates included performances in Philadelphia, New York City, Boston, Washington, D.C., Portland, Maine and Hawaii.",
"The band has played a reworked version of their song \"MTV Get Off the Air\", re-titled \"MP3 Get Off the Web\", with lyrics criticizing music piracy during their October 16, 2010, concert at the Rock and Roll Hotel in Washington, D.C.Dead Kennedys had world tours in 2013 and in 2014, the latter mostly in North American cities.",
"In 2015 and 2016 they toured again, including South America, where they had not played since 2001.In 2017, East Bay Ray revealed that the band and Jello Biafra had been approached by the Punk-oriented music festival Riot Fest about a potential reunion.",
"While Ray and the rest of the band expressed interest in the concept, Biafra refused.On April 26, 2019, the group released ''DK40'', a live compilation album celebrating 40 years since the band formed.On October 28, 2022, D.H. Peligro died from an overdose of heroin and fentanyl, although it was initially believed to have been from possible head trauma from a fall at his home that day.",
"Since Peligro's death, the band has performed in the UK with Santi Guardiola and the United States with Steve Wilson filling in on drums."
],
[
"Conflicts between members",
"=== Royalties lawsuit ===In the late 1990s, former band members discovered they were being underpaid in terms of royalties from Alternative Tentacles.",
"East Bay Ray, Klaus Flouride, and D. H. Peligro claimed that Jello Biafra had conspired to pay them lower royalty rates and then attempted to disguise the precise nature of the money owed.",
"Biafra claimed that the failure to pay these royalties was an accounting mistake.In 1998, the other three members of the band sued Biafra over these allegedly unpaid royalties.",
"A jury ruled in their favor in May 2000, finding Biafra and Alternative Tentacles \"guilty of malice, oppression and fraud\".",
"Malice was defined for the jury as \"conduct which is intended to cause injury or despicable conduct which is carried with a willful and conscious disregard for the rights of others\".",
"Biafra's appeal was denied in June 2003; he had to pay the outstanding royalties as well as punitive damages, and was forced to hand over the rights to the majority of Dead Kennedys' back catalogue to the Decay Music partnership.This dispute caused minor waves within punk circles.",
"Biafra claims that East Bay Ray had long expressed displeasure with Alternative Tentacles and with the amount of money he received from them, thus the original incentive for the discovery of the back payments.",
"It was found out that Alternative Tentacles was paying Dead Kennedys less per CD than all the other bands, including Biafra himself, and not informing his other bandmates, which was the fraud.",
"Biafra accused the band of wanting to license the famous Dead Kennedys song \"Holiday in Cambodia\" for use in a Levi's jeans commercial, which the band denied.",
"However, an instrumental loop from \"Holiday in Cambodia\" was part of the 1981 black comedy feature film ''Neighbors'', though it was not included on the soundtrack.",
"The band maintains that the Levi's story was completely fictitious and invented by Biafra to discredit them.=== Disputes over new commercial activities ===Matters were stirred up even further when the three bandmates invited Jello Biafra to \"bury the hatchet\" in the form of a band reunion.",
"Jello Biafra felt it was unprofessional because no one contacted him directly.",
"In addition, Biafra was disdainful of the reunion, and having long expressed his disdain for nostalgia and rock reunion/oldies tours in particular, argued that the whole affair was motivated by greed.Several DVDs, re-issues, and live albums have been released since the departure of Biafra most recently on Manifesto Records.",
"According to Biafra, the live albums are \"cash-ins\" on Dead Kennedys' name and his music.",
"Biafra also accused the releases of the new live material of having poor sound quality.",
"Furthermore, he has stated he is not receiving any royalties from the sale of any Manifesto Records releases.",
"Consequently, he has discouraged fans from buying any Dead Kennedy reissues.",
"The other band members denied Biafra's accusations regarding the live releases, and have defended the mixes as an effort of hard work.",
"Biafra dismissed the new group as \"the world's greediest karaoke band.\"",
"Nevertheless, in 2003, Klaus Flouride said of performances without the band's former frontman: \"There hasn't been a show yet that people didn't really like.",
"\"Biafra further criticized them for advertising shows using his own image taken from the original 1980s incarnation of the band, which he labeled as false advertising.",
"He attacked the reformed Dead Kennedys in a song called \"Those Dumb Punk Kids (Will Buy Anything)\", which appears on his second collaboration with sludge metal band the Melvins, ''Sieg Howdy!",
"''Biafra told an audience at a speaking gig in Trenton, New Jersey, that the remaining Dead Kennedys have licensed their single \"Too Drunk to Fuck\" to be used in a rape scene in a Robert Rodriguez movie.",
"The reference is to a lounge cover of the song, recorded by the band Nouvelle Vague, played during a scene in the ''Planet Terror'' segment of ''Grindhouse'', although no rape takes place, and in fact the would-be rapist is killed by the would-be victim.",
"The scene in ''Planet Terror'' has would-be rapist, \"Rapist No.",
"1\" (Quentin Tarantino) order one-legged stripper \"Cherry Darlin\" (Rose McGowan) to get up off the floor and dance.",
"At this point Tarantino hits play on a cassette recorder and Nouvelle Vague's cover of \"Too Drunk To Fuck\" plays.",
"Biafra, disapproving of the situation, later wrote, \"This is their lowest point since Levi's...",
"This goes against everything the Dead Kennedys stands for in spades...",
"The terrified woman later 'wins' by killing Tarantino, but that excuse does not rescue this at all.",
"I wrote every note of that song and this is not what it was meant for....",
"Some people will do anything for money.",
"I can't help but think back to how prudish Klaus Flouride was when he objected to H. R. Giger's painting on the \"Frankenchrist\" (sic) poster, saying he couldn't bear to show it to his parents.",
"I'd sure love to be a fly on the wall when he tries to explain putting a song in a rape scene for money to his teenage daughter...",
"The deal was pushed through by a new business manager the other three hired.",
"\"The reformed Dead Kennedys followed their court victory by releasing reissues of all Dead Kennedys albums (except ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables'', to which they did not have the rights until 2005), releasing several new archival concert DVDs, and licensing several songs to ''The Manchurian Candidate'' remake and the ''Tony Hawk's Pro Skater'' video game.",
"East Bay Ray claims he received a fax from Alternative Tentacles purporting Biafra approved the licensing for the game.The band claims on their website that they still pay close attention to an anti-corporate ideology, despite performing on September 5, 2003, at a festival in Turkey that was sponsored by Coca-Cola, noting that they have since pulled out of a show in Los Angeles when they found that it was being sponsored by Coors.",
"However, Biafra claims the previous licensing deals prove otherwise."
],
[
"Logo",
"\"DK\" logoThe original logo was created by Winston Smith.",
"He later contributed artwork for the covers of ''In God We Trust, Inc.'', ''Plastic Surgery Disasters'', ''Frankenchrist'', ''Bedtime for Democracy'', ''Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death'', the back cover of the \"Kill the Poor\" single and the Alternative Tentacles logo.",
"When asked about the \"DK\" logo in an interview, Jello Biafra explained, \"...I wanted to make sure it was something simple and easy to spray-paint so people would graffiti it all over the place, and then I showed it to Winston Smith.",
"He played around with it, came back with a bunch of designs that had the circle and slightly 3-D looking letters and he had ones with different patterns behind it.",
"I liked the one with bricks, but ultimately I thought simple red behind it was the boldest and the best.\""
],
[
"Music and lyrics",
"Dead Kennedys have been described as one of the first hardcore punk bands.",
"They were noted for the harshness of their lyrics, which generally combined biting social satire while expressing a staunchly left-wing view of contemporary America.",
"Unlike other leftist punk bands who use more direct sloganeering, Dead Kennedys' lyrics were often snide.",
"For example, \"Holiday in Cambodia\" is a multi-layered satire targeting both yuppies and Cambodia's recently deposed Khmer Rouge regime.",
"Or, on \"Jock-O-Rama\", featured on Frankenchrist, they mock southern small towns whose residents’ lives revolve around high school football."
],
[
"Influence",
"Dead Kennedys have influenced multiple acts such as System of a Down, Green Day, Faith No More, Rage Against the Machine, Sepultura, Descendents, Bad Religion, Slayer, X, Minutemen, The Hives, Saves the Day and Screeching Weasel among others."
],
[
"Members",
"'''Current members'''* East Bay Ray – guitars (1978–1986, 2001–present)* Klaus Flouride – bass, backing vocals (1978–1986, 2001–2010, 2011–present)* Ron \"Skip\" Greer – lead vocals (2008–present)* Steve Wilson – drums (2023–present)'''Former members'''* Jello Biafra – lead vocals (1978–1986)* 6025 – rhythm guitar (1978–1979)* Ted – drums (1978–1981)* D. H. Peligro – drums, backing vocals (1981–1986, 2001–2008, 2009–2022; his death)* Brandon Cruz – lead vocals (2001–2003)* Jeff Penalty – lead vocals (2003–2008)* Dave Scheff – drums (2008)* Greg Reeves – bass (2010–2011)* Santi Guardiola – drums (2023)=== Timeline ==="
],
[
"Discography",
"* ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables'' (1980)* ''Plastic Surgery Disasters'' (1982)* ''Frankenchrist'' (1985)* ''Bedtime for Democracy'' (1986)"
],
[
"Videography",
"* ''The Art of Punk – Dead Kennedys'' (The Museum of Contemporary Art) (2013) Documentary featuring the art of Winston Smith"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of bands from the San Francisco Bay Area* Ronald Reagan in music"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * Alternative Tentacles's Dead Kennedys Biography"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"DNA"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The structure of the DNA double helix (type B-DNA).",
"The atoms in the structure are colour-coded by element and the detailed structures of two base pairs are shown in the bottom right.Simplified diagram'''Deoxyribonucleic acid''' (; '''DNA''') is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix.",
"The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses.",
"DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids.",
"Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life.The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides.",
"Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases (cytosine C, guanine G, adenine A or thymine T), a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group.",
"The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds (known as the phosphodiester linkage) between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone.",
"The nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules (A with T and C with G), with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA.",
"The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, the single-ringed pyrimidines and the double-ringed purines.",
"In DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine.Both strands of double-stranded DNA store the same biological information.",
"This information is replicated when the two strands separate.",
"A large part of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences.",
"The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparallel.",
"Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (or ''bases'').",
"It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes genetic information.",
"RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription, where DNA bases are exchanged for their corresponding bases except in the case of thymine (T), for which RNA substitutes uracil (U).",
"Under the genetic code, these RNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation.Within eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes.",
"Before typical cell division, these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing a complete set of chromosomes for each daughter cell.",
"Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus as nuclear DNA, and some in the mitochondria as mitochondrial DNA or in chloroplasts as chloroplast DNA.",
"In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm, in circular chromosomes.",
"Within eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins, such as histones, compact and organize DNA.",
"These compacting structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed."
],
[
"Properties",
"Chemical structure of DNA; hydrogen bonds shown as dotted lines.",
"Each end of the double helix has an exposed 5' phosphate on one strand and an exposed 3′ hydroxyl group (—OH) on the other.DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides.",
"The structure of DNA is dynamic along its length, being capable of coiling into tight loops and other shapes.",
"In all species it is composed of two helical chains, bound to each other by hydrogen bonds.",
"Both chains are coiled around the same axis, and have the same pitch of .",
"The pair of chains have a radius of .",
"According to another study, when measured in a different solution, the DNA chain measured wide, and one nucleotide unit measured long.",
"The buoyant density of most DNA is 1.7g/cm3.DNA does not usually exist as a single strand, but instead as a pair of strands that are held tightly together.",
"These two long strands coil around each other, in the shape of a double helix.",
"The nucleotide contains both a segment of the backbone of the molecule (which holds the chain together) and a nucleobase (which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix).",
"A nucleobase linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside, and a base linked to a sugar and to one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide.",
"A biopolymer comprising multiple linked nucleotides (as in DNA) is called a polynucleotide.The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar groups.",
"The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a pentose (five-carbon) sugar.",
"The sugars are joined by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings.",
"These are known as the 3′-end (three prime end), and 5′-end (five prime end) carbons, the prime symbol being used to distinguish these carbon atoms from those of the base to which the deoxyribose forms a glycosidic bond.Therefore, any DNA strand normally has one end at which there is a phosphate group attached to the 5′ carbon of a ribose (the 5′ phosphoryl) and another end at which there is a free hydroxyl group attached to the 3′ carbon of a ribose (the 3′ hydroxyl).",
"The orientation of the 3′ and 5′ carbons along the sugar-phosphate backbone confers directionality (sometimes called polarity) to each DNA strand.",
"In a nucleic acid double helix, the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand: the strands are antiparallel.",
"The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are said to have a directionality of five prime end (5′ ), and three prime end (3′), with the 5′ end having a terminal phosphate group and the 3′ end a terminal hydroxyl group.",
"One major difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with the 2-deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by the related pentose sugar ribose in RNA.animated version).The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by two forces: hydrogen bonds between nucleotides and base-stacking interactions among aromatic nucleobases.",
"The four bases found in DNA are adenine (), cytosine (), guanine () and thymine ().",
"These four bases are attached to the sugar-phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate.",
"Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming and base pairs.=== Nucleobase classification ===The nucleobases are classified into two types: the purines, and , which are fused five- and six-membered heterocyclic compounds, and the pyrimidines, the six-membered rings and .",
"A fifth pyrimidine nucleobase, uracil (), usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring.",
"In addition to RNA and DNA, many artificial nucleic acid analogues have been created to study the properties of nucleic acids, or for use in biotechnology.=== Non-canonical bases ===Modified bases occur in DNA.",
"The first of these recognized was 5-methylcytosine, which was found in the genome of ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' in 1925.The reason for the presence of these noncanonical bases in bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) is to avoid the restriction enzymes present in bacteria.",
"This enzyme system acts at least in part as a molecular immune system protecting bacteria from infection by viruses.",
"Modifications of the bases cytosine and adenine, the more common and modified DNA bases, play vital roles in the epigenetic control of gene expression in plants and animals.A number of noncanonical bases are known to occur in DNA.",
"Most of these are modifications of the canonical bases plus uracil.",
"* Modified '''Adenine'''** N6-carbamoyl-methyladenine** N6-methyadenine* Modified '''Guanine'''** 7-Deazaguanine** 7-Methylguanine* Modified '''Cytosine'''** N4-Methylcytosine** 5-Carboxylcytosine** 5-Formylcytosine** 5-Glycosylhydroxymethylcytosine** 5-Hydroxycytosine** 5-Methylcytosine* Modified '''Thymidine'''** α-Glutamythymidine** α-Putrescinylthymine* '''Uracil''' and modifications** Base J** Uracil** 5-Dihydroxypentauracil** 5-Hydroxymethyldeoxyuracil* Others** Deoxyarchaeosine** 2,6-Diaminopurine (2-Aminoadenine)=== Grooves ===DNA major and minor grooves.",
"The latter is a binding site for the Hoechst stain dye 33258.Twin helical strands form the DNA backbone.",
"Another double helix may be found tracing the spaces, or grooves, between the strands.",
"These voids are adjacent to the base pairs and may provide a binding site.",
"As the strands are not symmetrically located with respect to each other, the grooves are unequally sized.",
"The major groove is wide, while the minor groove is in width.",
"Due to the larger width of the major groove, the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove than in the minor groove.",
"As a result, proteins such as transcription factors that can bind to specific sequences in double-stranded DNA usually make contact with the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove.",
"This situation varies in unusual conformations of DNA within the cell ''(see below)'', but the major and minor grooves are always named to reflect the differences in width that would be seen if the DNA was twisted back into the ordinary B form.=== Base pairing ===282px282pxTop, a '''''' base pair with three hydrogen bonds.",
"Bottom, an '''''' base pair with two hydrogen bonds.",
"Non-covalent hydrogen bonds between the pairs are shown as dashed lines.In a DNA double helix, each type of nucleobase on one strand bonds with just one type of nucleobase on the other strand.",
"This is called complementary base pairing.",
"Purines form hydrogen bonds to pyrimidines, with adenine bonding only to thymine in two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine bonding only to guanine in three hydrogen bonds.",
"This arrangement of two nucleotides binding together across the double helix (from six-carbon ring to six-carbon ring) is called a Watson-Crick base pair.",
"DNA with high GC-content is more stable than DNA with low -content.",
"A Hoogsteen base pair (hydrogen bonding the 6-carbon ring to the 5-carbon ring) is a rare variation of base-pairing.",
"As hydrogen bonds are not covalent, they can be broken and rejoined relatively easily.",
"The two strands of DNA in a double helix can thus be pulled apart like a zipper, either by a mechanical force or high temperature.",
"As a result of this base pair complementarity, all the information in the double-stranded sequence of a DNA helix is duplicated on each strand, which is vital in DNA replication.",
"This reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in organisms.==== ssDNA vs. dsDNA ====Most DNA molecules are actually two polymer strands, bound together in a helical fashion by noncovalent bonds; this double-stranded (dsDNA) structure is maintained largely by the intrastrand base stacking interactions, which are strongest for stacks.",
"The two strands can come apart—a process known as melting—to form two single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) molecules.",
"Melting occurs at high temperatures, low salt and high pH (low pH also melts DNA, but since DNA is unstable due to acid depurination, low pH is rarely used).The stability of the dsDNA form depends not only on the -content (% basepairs) but also on sequence (since stacking is sequence specific) and also length (longer molecules are more stable).",
"The stability can be measured in various ways; a common way is the melting temperature (also called ''Tm'' value), which is the temperature at which 50% of the double-strand molecules are converted to single-strand molecules; melting temperature is dependent on ionic strength and the concentration of DNA.",
"As a result, it is both the percentage of base pairs and the overall length of a DNA double helix that determines the strength of the association between the two strands of DNA.",
"Long DNA helices with a high -content have more strongly interacting strands, while short helices with high content have more weakly interacting strands.",
"In biology, parts of the DNA double helix that need to separate easily, such as the Pribnow box in some promoters, tend to have a high content, making the strands easier to pull apart.In the laboratory, the strength of this interaction can be measured by finding the melting temperature ''Tm'' necessary to break half of the hydrogen bonds.",
"When all the base pairs in a DNA double helix melt, the strands separate and exist in solution as two entirely independent molecules.",
"These single-stranded DNA molecules have no single common shape, but some conformations are more stable than others.=== Amount ===karyogram of a human.",
"It shows 22 homologous chromosomes, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the sex chromosome (bottom right), as well as the mitochondrial genome (to scale at bottom left).",
"The blue scale to the left of each chromosome pair (and the mitochondrial genome) shows its length in terms of millions of DNA base pairs.In humans, the total female diploid nuclear genome per cell extends for 6.37 Gigabase pairs (Gbp), is 208.23 cm long and weighs 6.51 picograms (pg).",
"Male values are 6.27 Gbp, 205.00 cm, 6.41 pg.",
"Each DNA polymer can contain hundreds of millions of nucleotides, such as in chromosome 1.Chromosome 1 is the largest human chromosome with approximately 220 million base pairs, and would be long if straightened.In eukaryotes, in addition to nuclear DNA, there is also mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) which encodes certain proteins used by the mitochondria.",
"The mtDNA is usually relatively small in comparison to the nuclear DNA.",
"For example, the human mitochondrial DNA forms closed circular molecules, each of which contains 16,569 DNA base pairs, with each such molecule normally containing a full set of the mitochondrial genes.",
"Each human mitochondrion contains, on average, approximately 5 such mtDNA molecules.",
"Each human cell contains approximately 100 mitochondria, giving a total number of mtDNA molecules per human cell of approximately 500.However, the amount of mitochondria per cell also varies by cell type, and an egg cell can contain 100,000 mitochondria, corresponding to up to 1,500,000 copies of the mitochondrial genome (constituting up to 90% of the DNA of the cell).=== Sense and antisense ===A DNA sequence is called a \"sense\" sequence if it is the same as that of a messenger RNA copy that is translated into protein.",
"The sequence on the opposite strand is called the \"antisense\" sequence.",
"Both sense and antisense sequences can exist on different parts of the same strand of DNA (i.e.",
"both strands can contain both sense and antisense sequences).",
"In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, antisense RNA sequences are produced, but the functions of these RNAs are not entirely clear.",
"One proposal is that antisense RNAs are involved in regulating gene expression through RNA-RNA base pairing.A few DNA sequences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and more in plasmids and viruses, blur the distinction between sense and antisense strands by having overlapping genes.",
"In these cases, some DNA sequences do double duty, encoding one protein when read along one strand, and a second protein when read in the opposite direction along the other strand.",
"In bacteria, this overlap may be involved in the regulation of gene transcription, while in viruses, overlapping genes increase the amount of information that can be encoded within the small viral genome.=== Supercoiling ===DNA can be twisted like a rope in a process called DNA supercoiling.",
"With DNA in its \"relaxed\" state, a strand usually circles the axis of the double helix once every 10.4 base pairs, but if the DNA is twisted the strands become more tightly or more loosely wound.",
"If the DNA is twisted in the direction of the helix, this is positive supercoiling, and the bases are held more tightly together.",
"If they are twisted in the opposite direction, this is negative supercoiling, and the bases come apart more easily.",
"In nature, most DNA has slight negative supercoiling that is introduced by enzymes called topoisomerases.",
"These enzymes are also needed to relieve the twisting stresses introduced into DNA strands during processes such as transcription and DNA replication.=== Alternative DNA structures ===A, B and Z-DNADNA exists in many possible conformations that include A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA forms, although only B-DNA and Z-DNA have been directly observed in functional organisms.",
"The conformation that DNA adopts depends on the hydration level, DNA sequence, the amount and direction of supercoiling, chemical modifications of the bases, the type and concentration of metal ions, and the presence of polyamines in solution.The first published reports of A-DNA X-ray diffraction patterns—and also B-DNA—used analyses based on Patterson functions that provided only a limited amount of structural information for oriented fibers of DNA.",
"An alternative analysis was proposed by Wilkins ''et al.''",
"in 1953 for the ''in vivo'' B-DNA X-ray diffraction-scattering patterns of highly hydrated DNA fibers in terms of squares of Bessel functions.",
"In the same journal, James Watson and Francis Crick presented their molecular modeling analysis of the DNA X-ray diffraction patterns to suggest that the structure was a double helix.Although the ''B-DNA form'' is most common under the conditions found in cells, it is not a well-defined conformation but a family of related DNA conformations that occur at the high hydration levels present in cells.",
"Their corresponding X-ray diffraction and scattering patterns are characteristic of molecular paracrystals with a significant degree of disorder.Compared to B-DNA, the A-DNA form is a wider right-handed spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and a narrower, deeper major groove.",
"The A form occurs under non-physiological conditions in partly dehydrated samples of DNA, while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands, and in enzyme-DNA complexes.",
"Segments of DNA where the bases have been chemically modified by methylation may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the Z form.",
"Here, the strands turn about the helical axis in a left-handed spiral, the opposite of the more common B form.",
"These unusual structures can be recognized by specific Z-DNA binding proteins and may be involved in the regulation of transcription.=== Alternative DNA chemistry ===For many years, exobiologists have proposed the existence of a shadow biosphere, a postulated microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life.",
"One of the proposals was the existence of lifeforms that use arsenic instead of phosphorus in DNA.",
"A report in 2010 of the possibility in the bacterium GFAJ-1 was announced, though the research was disputed, and evidence suggests the bacterium actively prevents the incorporation of arsenic into the DNA backbone and other biomolecules.=== Quadruplex structures ===DNA quadruplex formed by telomere repeats.",
"The looped conformation of the DNA backbone is very different from the typical DNA helix.",
"The green spheres in the center represent potassium ions.At the ends of the linear chromosomes are specialized regions of DNA called telomeres.",
"The main function of these regions is to allow the cell to replicate chromosome ends using the enzyme telomerase, as the enzymes that normally replicate DNA cannot copy the extreme 3′ ends of chromosomes.",
"These specialized chromosome caps also help protect the DNA ends, and stop the DNA repair systems in the cell from treating them as damage to be corrected.",
"In human cells, telomeres are usually lengths of single-stranded DNA containing several thousand repeats of a simple TTAGGG sequence.These guanine-rich sequences may stabilize chromosome ends by forming structures of stacked sets of four-base units, rather than the usual base pairs found in other DNA molecules.",
"Here, four guanine bases, known as a guanine tetrad, form a flat plate.",
"These flat four-base units then stack on top of each other to form a stable G-quadruplex structure.",
"These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the edges of the bases and chelation of a metal ion in the centre of each four-base unit.",
"Other structures can also be formed, with the central set of four bases coming from either a single strand folded around the bases, or several different parallel strands, each contributing one base to the central structure.In addition to these stacked structures, telomeres also form large loop structures called telomere loops, or T-loops.",
"Here, the single-stranded DNA curls around in a long circle stabilized by telomere-binding proteins.",
"At the very end of the T-loop, the single-stranded telomere DNA is held onto a region of double-stranded DNA by the telomere strand disrupting the double-helical DNA and base pairing to one of the two strands.",
"This triple-stranded structure is called a displacement loop or D-loop.95px95pxSingle branchMultiple branchesBranched DNA can form networks containing multiple branches.=== Branched DNA ===In DNA, fraying occurs when non-complementary regions exist at the end of an otherwise complementary double-strand of DNA.",
"However, branched DNA can occur if a third strand of DNA is introduced and contains adjoining regions able to hybridize with the frayed regions of the pre-existing double-strand.",
"Although the simplest example of branched DNA involves only three strands of DNA, complexes involving additional strands and multiple branches are also possible.",
"Branched DNA can be used in nanotechnology to construct geometric shapes, see the section on uses in technology below.=== Artificial bases ===Several artificial nucleobases have been synthesized, and successfully incorporated in the eight-base DNA analogue named Hachimoji DNA.",
"Dubbed S, B, P, and Z, these artificial bases are capable of bonding with each other in a predictable way (S–B and P–Z), maintain the double helix structure of DNA, and be transcribed to RNA.",
"Their existence could be seen as an indication that there is nothing special about the four natural nucleobases that evolved on Earth.",
"On the other hand, DNA is tightly related to RNA which does not only act as a transcript of DNA but also performs as molecular machines many tasks in cells.",
"For this purpose it has to fold into a structure.",
"It has been shown that to allow to create all possible structures at least four bases are required for the corresponding RNA, while a higher number is also possible but this would be against the natural principle of least effort.===Acidity===The phosphate groups of DNA give it similar acidic properties to phosphoric acid and it can be considered as a strong acid.",
"It will be fully ionized at a normal cellular pH, releasing protons which leave behind negative charges on the phosphate groups.",
"These negative charges protect DNA from breakdown by hydrolysis by repelling nucleophiles which could hydrolyze it.===Macroscopic appearance===Impure DNA extracted from an orangePure DNA extracted from cells forms white, stringy clumps."
],
[
"Chemical modifications and altered DNA packaging",
"75px95px97pxcytosine5-methylcytosinethymineStructure of cytosine with and without the 5-methyl group.",
"Deamination converts 5-methylcytosine into thymine.=== Base modifications and DNA packaging ===The expression of genes is influenced by how the DNA is packaged in chromosomes, in a structure called chromatin.",
"Base modifications can be involved in packaging, with regions that have low or no gene expression usually containing high levels of methylation of cytosine bases.",
"DNA packaging and its influence on gene expression can also occur by covalent modifications of the histone protein core around which DNA is wrapped in the chromatin structure or else by remodeling carried out by chromatin remodeling complexes (see Chromatin remodeling).",
"There is, further, crosstalk between DNA methylation and histone modification, so they can coordinately affect chromatin and gene expression.For one example, cytosine methylation produces 5-methylcytosine, which is important for X-inactivation of chromosomes.",
"The average level of methylation varies between organisms—the worm ''Caenorhabditis elegans'' lacks cytosine methylation, while vertebrates have higher levels, with up to 1% of their DNA containing 5-methylcytosine.",
"Despite the importance of 5-methylcytosine, it can deaminate to leave a thymine base, so methylated cytosines are particularly prone to mutations.",
"Other base modifications include adenine methylation in bacteria, the presence of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in the brain, and the glycosylation of uracil to produce the \"J-base\" in kinetoplastids.=== Damage ===A covalent adduct between a metabolically activated form of Benzo(a)pyrene|benzo''a''pyrene, the major mutagen in tobacco smoke, and DNADNA can be damaged by many sorts of mutagens, which change the DNA sequence.",
"Mutagens include oxidizing agents, alkylating agents and also high-energy electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light and X-rays.",
"The type of DNA damage produced depends on the type of mutagen.",
"For example, UV light can damage DNA by producing thymine dimers, which are cross-links between pyrimidine bases.",
"On the other hand, oxidants such as free radicals or hydrogen peroxide produce multiple forms of damage, including base modifications, particularly of guanosine, and double-strand breaks.",
"A typical human cell contains about 150,000 bases that have suffered oxidative damage.",
"Of these oxidative lesions, the most dangerous are double-strand breaks, as these are difficult to repair and can produce point mutations, insertions, deletions from the DNA sequence, and chromosomal translocations.",
"These mutations can cause cancer.",
"Because of inherent limits in the DNA repair mechanisms, if humans lived long enough, they would all eventually develop cancer.",
"DNA damages that are naturally occurring, due to normal cellular processes that produce reactive oxygen species, the hydrolytic activities of cellular water, etc., also occur frequently.",
"Although most of these damages are repaired, in any cell some DNA damage may remain despite the action of repair processes.",
"These remaining DNA damages accumulate with age in mammalian postmitotic tissues.",
"This accumulation appears to be an important underlying cause of aging.Many mutagens fit into the space between two adjacent base pairs, this is called ''intercalation''.",
"Most intercalators are aromatic and planar molecules; examples include ethidium bromide, acridines, daunomycin, and doxorubicin.",
"For an intercalator to fit between base pairs, the bases must separate, distorting the DNA strands by unwinding of the double helix.",
"This inhibits both transcription and DNA replication, causing toxicity and mutations.",
"As a result, DNA intercalators may be carcinogens, and in the case of thalidomide, a teratogen.",
"Others such as benzo(a)pyrene|benzo''a''pyrene diol epoxide and aflatoxin form DNA adducts that induce errors in replication.",
"Nevertheless, due to their ability to inhibit DNA transcription and replication, other similar toxins are also used in chemotherapy to inhibit rapidly growing cancer cells."
],
[
"Biological functions",
"Location of eukaryote nuclear DNA within the chromosomesDNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes.",
"The set of chromosomes in a cell makes up its genome; the human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes.",
"The information carried by DNA is held in the sequence of pieces of DNA called genes.",
"Transmission of genetic information in genes is achieved via complementary base pairing.",
"For example, in transcription, when a cell uses the information in a gene, the DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA sequence through the attraction between the DNA and the correct RNA nucleotides.",
"Usually, this RNA copy is then used to make a matching protein sequence in a process called translation, which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides.",
"In an alternative fashion, a cell may copy its genetic information in a process called DNA replication.",
"The details of these functions are covered in other articles; here the focus is on the interactions between DNA and other molecules that mediate the function of the genome.=== Genes and genomes ===Genomic DNA is tightly and orderly packed in the process called DNA condensation, to fit the small available volumes of the cell.",
"In eukaryotes, DNA is located in the cell nucleus, with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts.",
"In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.",
"The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its genotype.",
"A gene is a unit of heredity and is a region of DNA that influences a particular characteristic in an organism.",
"Genes contain an open reading frame that can be transcribed, and regulatory sequences such as promoters and enhancers, which control transcription of the open reading frame.In many species, only a small fraction of the total sequence of the genome encodes protein.",
"For example, only about 1.5% of the human genome consists of protein-coding exons, with over 50% of human DNA consisting of non-coding repetitive sequences.",
"The reasons for the presence of so much noncoding DNA in eukaryotic genomes and the extraordinary differences in genome size, or ''C-value'', among species, represent a long-standing puzzle known as the \"C-value enigma\".",
"However, some DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional non-coding RNA molecules, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression.T7 RNA polymerase (blue) producing an mRNA (green) from a DNA template (orange)Some noncoding DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes.",
"Telomeres and centromeres typically contain few genes but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes.",
"An abundant form of noncoding DNA in humans are pseudogenes, which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation.",
"These sequences are usually just molecular fossils, although they can occasionally serve as raw genetic material for the creation of new genes through the process of gene duplication and divergence.=== Transcription and translation ===A gene is a sequence of DNA that contains genetic information and can influence the phenotype of an organism.",
"Within a gene, the sequence of bases along a DNA strand defines a messenger RNA sequence, which then defines one or more protein sequences.",
"The relationship between the nucleotide sequences of genes and the amino-acid sequences of proteins is determined by the rules of translation, known collectively as the genetic code.",
"The genetic code consists of three-letter 'words' called ''codons'' formed from a sequence of three nucleotides (e.g.",
"ACT, CAG, TTT).In transcription, the codons of a gene are copied into messenger RNA by RNA polymerase.",
"This RNA copy is then decoded by a ribosome that reads the RNA sequence by base-pairing the messenger RNA to transfer RNA, which carries amino acids.",
"Since there are 4 bases in 3-letter combinations, there are 64 possible codons (43 combinations).",
"These encode the twenty standard amino acids, giving most amino acids more than one possible codon.",
"There are also three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons signifying the end of the coding region; these are the TAG, TAA, and TGA codons, (UAG, UAA, and UGA on the mRNA).DNA replication: The double helix is unwound by a helicase and topoisomerase.",
"Next, one DNA polymerase produces the leading strand copy.",
"Another DNA polymerase binds to the lagging strand.",
"This enzyme makes discontinuous segments (called Okazaki fragments) before DNA ligase joins them together.=== Replication ===Cell division is essential for an organism to grow, but, when a cell divides, it must replicate the DNA in its genome so that the two daughter cells have the same genetic information as their parent.",
"The double-stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for DNA replication.",
"Here, the two strands are separated and then each strand's complementary DNA sequence is recreated by an enzyme called DNA polymerase.",
"This enzyme makes the complementary strand by finding the correct base through complementary base pairing and bonding it onto the original strand.",
"As DNA polymerases can only extend a DNA strand in a 5′ to 3′ direction, different mechanisms are used to copy the antiparallel strands of the double helix.",
"In this way, the base on the old strand dictates which base appears on the new strand, and the cell ends up with a perfect copy of its DNA.=== Extracellular nucleic acids ===Naked extracellular DNA (eDNA), most of it released by cell death, is nearly ubiquitous in the environment.",
"Its concentration in soil may be as high as 2 μg/L, and its concentration in natural aquatic environments may be as high at 88 μg/L.",
"Various possible functions have been proposed for eDNA: it may be involved in horizontal gene transfer; it may provide nutrients; and it may act as a buffer to recruit or titrate ions or antibiotics.",
"Extracellular DNA acts as a functional extracellular matrix component in the biofilms of several bacterial species.",
"It may act as a recognition factor to regulate the attachment and dispersal of specific cell types in the biofilm; it may contribute to biofilm formation; and it may contribute to the biofilm's physical strength and resistance to biological stress.Cell-free fetal DNA is found in the blood of the mother, and can be sequenced to determine a great deal of information about the developing fetus.Under the name of environmental DNA eDNA has seen increased use in the natural sciences as a survey tool for ecology, monitoring the movements and presence of species in water, air, or on land, and assessing an area's biodiversity.=== Neutrophil extracellular traps ===Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are networks of extracellular fibers, primarily composed of DNA, which allow neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, to kill extracellular pathogens while minimizing damage to the host cells."
],
[
"Interactions with proteins",
"All the functions of DNA depend on interactions with proteins.",
"These protein interactions can be non-specific, or the protein can bind specifically to a single DNA sequence.",
"Enzymes can also bind to DNA and of these, the polymerases that copy the DNA base sequence in transcription and DNA replication are particularly important.=== DNA-binding proteins ===Interaction of DNA (in orange) with histones (in blue).",
"These proteins' basic amino acids bind to the acidic phosphate groups on DNA.Structural proteins that bind DNA are well-understood examples of non-specific DNA-protein interactions.",
"Within chromosomes, DNA is held in complexes with structural proteins.",
"These proteins organize the DNA into a compact structure called chromatin.",
"In eukaryotes, this structure involves DNA binding to a complex of small basic proteins called histones, while in prokaryotes multiple types of proteins are involved.",
"The histones form a disk-shaped complex called a nucleosome, which contains two complete turns of double-stranded DNA wrapped around its surface.",
"These non-specific interactions are formed through basic residues in the histones, making ionic bonds to the acidic sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA, and are thus largely independent of the base sequence.",
"Chemical modifications of these basic amino acid residues include methylation, phosphorylation, and acetylation.",
"These chemical changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones, making the DNA more or less accessible to transcription factors and changing the rate of transcription.",
"Other non-specific DNA-binding proteins in chromatin include the high-mobility group proteins, which bind to bent or distorted DNA.",
"These proteins are important in bending arrays of nucleosomes and arranging them into the larger structures that make up chromosomes.A distinct group of DNA-binding proteins is the DNA-binding proteins that specifically bind single-stranded DNA.",
"In humans, replication protein A is the best-understood member of this family and is used in processes where the double helix is separated, including DNA replication, recombination, and DNA repair.",
"These binding proteins seem to stabilize single-stranded DNA and protect it from forming stem-loops or being degraded by nucleases.The lambda repressor helix-turn-helix transcription factor bound to its DNA targetIn contrast, other proteins have evolved to bind to particular DNA sequences.",
"The most intensively studied of these are the various transcription factors, which are proteins that regulate transcription.",
"Each transcription factor binds to one particular set of DNA sequences and activates or inhibits the transcription of genes that have these sequences close to their promoters.",
"The transcription factors do this in two ways.",
"Firstly, they can bind the RNA polymerase responsible for transcription, either directly or through other mediator proteins; this locates the polymerase at the promoter and allows it to begin transcription.",
"Alternatively, transcription factors can bind enzymes that modify the histones at the promoter.",
"This changes the accessibility of the DNA template to the polymerase.As these DNA targets can occur throughout an organism's genome, changes in the activity of one type of transcription factor can affect thousands of genes.",
"Consequently, these proteins are often the targets of the signal transduction processes that control responses to environmental changes or cellular differentiation and development.",
"The specificity of these transcription factors' interactions with DNA come from the proteins making multiple contacts to the edges of the DNA bases, allowing them to \"read\" the DNA sequence.",
"Most of these base-interactions are made in the major groove, where the bases are most accessible.The restriction enzyme EcoRV (green) in a complex with its substrate DNA=== DNA-modifying enzymes ======= Nucleases and ligases ====Nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA strands by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bonds.",
"Nucleases that hydrolyse nucleotides from the ends of DNA strands are called exonucleases, while endonucleases cut within strands.",
"The most frequently used nucleases in molecular biology are the restriction endonucleases, which cut DNA at specific sequences.",
"For instance, the EcoRV enzyme shown to the left recognizes the 6-base sequence 5′-GATATC-3′ and makes a cut at the horizontal line.",
"In nature, these enzymes protect bacteria against phage infection by digesting the phage DNA when it enters the bacterial cell, acting as part of the restriction modification system.",
"In technology, these sequence-specific nucleases are used in molecular cloning and DNA fingerprinting.Enzymes called DNA ligases can rejoin cut or broken DNA strands.",
"Ligases are particularly important in lagging strand DNA replication, as they join the short segments of DNA produced at the replication fork into a complete copy of the DNA template.",
"They are also used in DNA repair and genetic recombination.==== Topoisomerases and helicases ====Topoisomerases are enzymes with both nuclease and ligase activity.",
"These proteins change the amount of supercoiling in DNA.",
"Some of these enzymes work by cutting the DNA helix and allowing one section to rotate, thereby reducing its level of supercoiling; the enzyme then seals the DNA break.",
"Other types of these enzymes are capable of cutting one DNA helix and then passing a second strand of DNA through this break, before rejoining the helix.",
"Topoisomerases are required for many processes involving DNA, such as DNA replication and transcription.Helicases are proteins that are a type of molecular motor.",
"They use the chemical energy in nucleoside triphosphates, predominantly adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to break hydrogen bonds between bases and unwind the DNA double helix into single strands.",
"These enzymes are essential for most processes where enzymes need to access the DNA bases.==== Polymerases ====Polymerases are enzymes that synthesize polynucleotide chains from nucleoside triphosphates.",
"The sequence of their products is created based on existing polynucleotide chains—which are called ''templates''.",
"These enzymes function by repeatedly adding a nucleotide to the 3′ hydroxyl group at the end of the growing polynucleotide chain.",
"As a consequence, all polymerases work in a 5′ to 3′ direction.",
"In the active site of these enzymes, the incoming nucleoside triphosphate base-pairs to the template: this allows polymerases to accurately synthesize the complementary strand of their template.",
"Polymerases are classified according to the type of template that they use.In DNA replication, DNA-dependent DNA polymerases make copies of DNA polynucleotide chains.",
"To preserve biological information, it is essential that the sequence of bases in each copy are precisely complementary to the sequence of bases in the template strand.",
"Many DNA polymerases have a proofreading activity.",
"Here, the polymerase recognizes the occasional mistakes in the synthesis reaction by the lack of base pairing between the mismatched nucleotides.",
"If a mismatch is detected, a 3′ to 5′ exonuclease activity is activated and the incorrect base removed.",
"In most organisms, DNA polymerases function in a large complex called the replisome that contains multiple accessory subunits, such as the DNA clamp or helicases.RNA-dependent DNA polymerases are a specialized class of polymerases that copy the sequence of an RNA strand into DNA.",
"They include reverse transcriptase, which is a viral enzyme involved in the infection of cells by retroviruses, and telomerase, which is required for the replication of telomeres.",
"For example, HIV reverse transcriptase is an enzyme for AIDS virus replication.",
"Telomerase is an unusual polymerase because it contains its own RNA template as part of its structure.",
"It synthesizes telomeres at the ends of chromosomes.",
"Telomeres prevent fusion of the ends of neighboring chromosomes and protect chromosome ends from damage.Transcription is carried out by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase that copies the sequence of a DNA strand into RNA.",
"To begin transcribing a gene, the RNA polymerase binds to a sequence of DNA called a promoter and separates the DNA strands.",
"It then copies the gene sequence into a messenger RNA transcript until it reaches a region of DNA called the terminator, where it halts and detaches from the DNA.",
"As with human DNA-dependent DNA polymerases, RNA polymerase II, the enzyme that transcribes most of the genes in the human genome, operates as part of a large protein complex with multiple regulatory and accessory subunits."
],
[
"Genetic recombination",
"250px250pxStructure of the Holliday junction intermediate in genetic recombination.",
"The four separate DNA strands are coloured red, blue, green and yellow.",
"A current model of meiotic recombination, initiated by a double-strand break or gap, followed by pairing with an homologous chromosome and strand invasion to initiate the recombinational repair process.",
"Repair of the gap can lead to crossover (CO) or non-crossover (NCO) of the flanking regions.",
"CO recombination is thought to occur by the Double Holliday Junction (DHJ) model, illustrated on the right, above.",
"NCO recombinants are thought to occur primarily by the Synthesis Dependent Strand Annealing (SDSA) model, illustrated on the left, above.",
"Most recombination events appear to be the SDSA type.A DNA helix usually does not interact with other segments of DNA, and in human cells, the different chromosomes even occupy separate areas in the nucleus called \"chromosome territories\".",
"This physical separation of different chromosomes is important for the ability of DNA to function as a stable repository for information, as one of the few times chromosomes interact is in chromosomal crossover which occurs during sexual reproduction, when genetic recombination occurs.",
"Chromosomal crossover is when two DNA helices break, swap a section and then rejoin.Recombination allows chromosomes to exchange genetic information and produces new combinations of genes, which increases the efficiency of natural selection and can be important in the rapid evolution of new proteins.",
"Genetic recombination can also be involved in DNA repair, particularly in the cell's response to double-strand breaks.The most common form of chromosomal crossover is homologous recombination, where the two chromosomes involved share very similar sequences.",
"Non-homologous recombination can be damaging to cells, as it can produce chromosomal translocations and genetic abnormalities.",
"The recombination reaction is catalyzed by enzymes known as recombinases, such as RAD51.The first step in recombination is a double-stranded break caused by either an endonuclease or damage to the DNA.",
"A series of steps catalyzed in part by the recombinase then leads to joining of the two helices by at least one Holliday junction, in which a segment of a single strand in each helix is annealed to the complementary strand in the other helix.",
"The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral junction structure that can be moved along the pair of chromosomes, swapping one strand for another.",
"The recombination reaction is then halted by cleavage of the junction and re-ligation of the released DNA.",
"Only strands of like polarity exchange DNA during recombination.",
"There are two types of cleavage: east-west cleavage and north–south cleavage.",
"The north–south cleavage nicks both strands of DNA, while the east–west cleavage has one strand of DNA intact.",
"The formation of a Holliday junction during recombination makes it possible for genetic diversity, genes to exchange on chromosomes, and expression of wild-type viral genomes."
],
[
"Evolution",
"DNA contains the genetic information that allows all forms of life to function, grow and reproduce.",
"However, it is unclear how long in the 4-billion-year history of life DNA has performed this function, as it has been proposed that the earliest forms of life may have used RNA as their genetic material.",
"RNA may have acted as the central part of early cell metabolism as it can both transmit genetic information and carry out catalysis as part of ribozymes.",
"This ancient RNA world where nucleic acid would have been used for both catalysis and genetics may have influenced the evolution of the current genetic code based on four nucleotide bases.",
"This would occur, since the number of different bases in such an organism is a trade-off between a small number of bases increasing replication accuracy and a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes.",
"However, there is no direct evidence of ancient genetic systems, as recovery of DNA from most fossils is impossible because DNA survives in the environment for less than one million years, and slowly degrades into short fragments in solution.",
"Claims for older DNA have been made, most notably a report of the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal 250 million years old, but these claims are controversial.Building blocks of DNA (adenine, guanine, and related organic molecules) may have been formed extraterrestrially in outer space.",
"Complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine, and thymine, have also been formed in the laboratory under conditions mimicking those found in outer space, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites.",
"Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the universe, may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar cosmic dust and gas clouds.In February 2021, scientists reported, for the first time, the sequencing of DNA from animal remains, a mammoth in this instance over a million years old, the oldest DNA sequenced to date."
],
[
"Uses in technology",
"=== Genetic engineering ===Methods have been developed to purify DNA from organisms, such as phenol-chloroform extraction, and to manipulate it in the laboratory, such as restriction digests and the polymerase chain reaction.",
"Modern biology and biochemistry make intensive use of these techniques in recombinant DNA technology.",
"Recombinant DNA is a man-made DNA sequence that has been assembled from other DNA sequences.",
"They can be transformed into organisms in the form of plasmids or in the appropriate format, by using a viral vector.",
"The genetically modified organisms produced can be used to produce products such as recombinant proteins, used in medical research, or be grown in agriculture.=== DNA profiling ===Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood, semen, skin, saliva or hair found at a crime scene to identify a matching DNA of an individual, such as a perpetrator.",
"This process is formally termed DNA profiling, also called ''DNA fingerprinting''.",
"In DNA profiling, the lengths of variable sections of repetitive DNA, such as short tandem repeats and minisatellites, are compared between people.",
"This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA.",
"However, identification can be complicated if the scene is contaminated with DNA from several people.",
"DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys, and first used in forensic science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988 Enderby murders case.The development of forensic science and the ability to now obtain genetic matching on minute samples of blood, skin, saliva, or hair has led to re-examining many cases.",
"Evidence can now be uncovered that was scientifically impossible at the time of the original examination.",
"Combined with the removal of the double jeopardy law in some places, this can allow cases to be reopened where prior trials have failed to produce sufficient evidence to convince a jury.",
"People charged with serious crimes may be required to provide a sample of DNA for matching purposes.",
"The most obvious defense to DNA matches obtained forensically is to claim that cross-contamination of evidence has occurred.",
"This has resulted in meticulous strict handling procedures with new cases of serious crime.DNA profiling is also used successfully to positively identify victims of mass casualty incidents, bodies or body parts in serious accidents, and individual victims in mass war graves, via matching to family members.DNA profiling is also used in DNA paternity testing to determine if someone is the biological parent or grandparent of a child with the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child.",
"Normal DNA sequencing methods happen after birth, but there are new methods to test paternity while a mother is still pregnant.=== DNA enzymes or catalytic DNA ===Deoxyribozymes, also called DNAzymes or catalytic DNA, were first discovered in 1994.They are mostly single stranded DNA sequences isolated from a large pool of random DNA sequences through a combinatorial approach called in vitro selection or systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX).",
"DNAzymes catalyze variety of chemical reactions including RNA-DNA cleavage, RNA-DNA ligation, amino acids phosphorylation-dephosphorylation, carbon-carbon bond formation, etc.",
"DNAzymes can enhance catalytic rate of chemical reactions up to 100,000,000,000-fold over the uncatalyzed reaction.",
"The most extensively studied class of DNAzymes is RNA-cleaving types which have been used to detect different metal ions and designing therapeutic agents.",
"Several metal-specific DNAzymes have been reported including the GR-5 DNAzyme (lead-specific), the CA1-3 DNAzymes (copper-specific), the 39E DNAzyme (uranyl-specific) and the NaA43 DNAzyme (sodium-specific).",
"The NaA43 DNAzyme, which is reported to be more than 10,000-fold selective for sodium over other metal ions, was used to make a real-time sodium sensor in cells.=== Bioinformatics ===Bioinformatics involves the development of techniques to store, data mine, search and manipulate biological data, including DNA nucleic acid sequence data.",
"These have led to widely applied advances in computer science, especially string searching algorithms, machine learning, and database theory.",
"String searching or matching algorithms, which find an occurrence of a sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters, were developed to search for specific sequences of nucleotides.",
"The DNA sequence may be aligned with other DNA sequences to identify homologous sequences and locate the specific mutations that make them distinct.",
"These techniques, especially multiple sequence alignment, are used in studying phylogenetic relationships and protein function.",
"Data sets representing entire genomes' worth of DNA sequences, such as those produced by the Human Genome Project, are difficult to use without the annotations that identify the locations of genes and regulatory elements on each chromosome.",
"Regions of DNA sequence that have the characteristic patterns associated with protein- or RNA-coding genes can be identified by gene finding algorithms, which allow researchers to predict the presence of particular gene products and their possible functions in an organism even before they have been isolated experimentally.",
"Entire genomes may also be compared, which can shed light on the evolutionary history of particular organism and permit the examination of complex evolutionary events.=== DNA nanotechnology ===atomic force microscopy at right.",
"DNA nanotechnology is the field that seeks to design nanoscale structures using the molecular recognition properties of DNA molecules.DNA nanotechnology uses the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create self-assembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties.",
"DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of biological information.",
"This has led to the creation of two-dimensional periodic lattices (both tile-based and using the ''DNA origami'' method) and three-dimensional structures in the shapes of polyhedra.",
"Nanomechanical devices and algorithmic self-assembly have also been demonstrated, and these DNA structures have been used to template the arrangement of other molecules such as gold nanoparticles and streptavidin proteins.",
"DNA and other nucleic acids are the basis of aptamers, synthetic oligonucleotide ligands for specific target molecules used in a range of biotechnology and biomedical applications.=== History and anthropology ===Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical information, and, by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms, their phylogeny.",
"This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in evolutionary biology.",
"If DNA sequences within a species are compared, population geneticists can learn the history of particular populations.",
"This can be used in studies ranging from ecological genetics to anthropology.=== Information storage ===DNA as a storage device for information has enormous potential since it has much higher storage density compared to electronic devices.",
"However, high costs, slow read and write times (memory latency), and insufficient reliability has prevented its practical use."
],
[
"History",
"Maclyn McCarty (left) shakes hands with Francis Crick and James Watson, co-originators of the double-helix model based on the X-ray diffraction data and insights of Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling.Pencil sketch of the DNA double helix by Francis Crick in 1953DNA was first isolated by the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher who, in 1869, discovered a microscopic substance in the pus of discarded surgical bandages.",
"As it resided in the nuclei of cells, he called it \"nuclein\".",
"In 1878, Albrecht Kossel isolated the non-protein component of \"nuclein\", nucleic acid, and later isolated its five primary nucleobases.In 1909, Phoebus Levene identified the base, sugar, and phosphate nucleotide unit of RNA (then named \"yeast nucleic acid\").",
"In 1929, Levene identified deoxyribose sugar in \"thymus nucleic acid\" (DNA).",
"Levene suggested that DNA consisted of a string of four nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups (\"tetranucleotide hypothesis\").",
"Levene thought the chain was short and the bases repeated in a fixed order.",
"In 1927, Nikolai Koltsov proposed that inherited traits would be inherited via a \"giant hereditary molecule\" made up of \"two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template\".",
"In 1928, Frederick Griffith in his experiment discovered that traits of the \"smooth\" form of ''Pneumococcus'' could be transferred to the \"rough\" form of the same bacteria by mixing killed \"smooth\" bacteria with the live \"rough\" form.",
"This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carries genetic information.In 1933, while studying virgin sea urchin eggs, Jean Brachet suggested that DNA is found in the cell nucleus and that RNA is present exclusively in the cytoplasm.",
"At the time, \"yeast nucleic acid\" (RNA) was thought to occur only in plants, while \"thymus nucleic acid\" (DNA) only in animals.",
"The latter was thought to be a tetramer, with the function of buffering cellular pH.In 1937, William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns that showed that DNA had a regular structure.In 1943, Oswald Avery, along with co-workers Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty, identified DNA as the transforming principle, supporting Griffith's suggestion (Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment).",
"Erwin Chargaff developed and published observations now known as Chargaff's rules, stating that in DNA from any species of any organism, the amount of guanine should be equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine should be equal to thymine.",
"A blue plaque outside The Eagle pub commemorating Crick and WatsonLate in 1951, Francis Crick started working with James Watson at the Cavendish Laboratory within the University of Cambridge, UK.",
"DNA's role in heredity was confirmed in 1952 when Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in the Hershey–Chase experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the enterobacteria phage T2.In May 1952, Raymond Gosling, a graduate student working under the supervision of Rosalind Franklin, took an X-ray diffraction image, labeled as \"Photo 51\", at high hydration levels of DNA.",
"This photo was given to Watson and Crick by Maurice Wilkins and was critical to their obtaining the correct structure of DNA.",
"Franklin told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside.",
"Before then, Linus Pauling, and Watson and Crick, had erroneous models with the chains inside and the bases pointing outwards.",
"Franklin's identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the two DNA strands were antiparallel.",
"In February 1953, Linus Pauling and Robert Corey proposed a model for nucleic acids containing three intertwined chains, with the phosphates near the axis, and the bases on the outside.",
"Watson and Crick completed their model, which is now accepted as the first correct model of the double helix of DNA.",
"On 28 February 1953 Crick interrupted patrons' lunchtime at The Eagle pub in Cambridge, UK to announce that he and Watson had \"discovered the secret of life\".The 25 April 1953 issue of the journal ''Nature'' published a series of five articles giving the Watson and Crick double-helix structure DNA and evidence supporting it.",
"The structure was reported in a letter titled \"''MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid'', in which they said, \"It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material.\"",
"This letter was followed by a letter from Franklin and Gosling, which was the first publication of their own X-ray diffraction data and of their original analysis method.",
"Then followed a letter by Wilkins and two of his colleagues, which contained an analysis of ''in vivo'' B-DNA X-ray patterns, and which supported the presence ''in vivo'' of the Watson and Crick structure.In April 2023, scientists, based on new evidence, concluded that Rosalind Franklin was a contributor and \"equal player\" in the discovery process of DNA, rather than otherwise, as may have been presented subsequently after the time of the discovery.In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.",
"Nobel Prizes are awarded only to living recipients.",
"A debate continues about who should receive credit for the discovery.In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the central dogma of molecular biology, which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the \"adaptor hypothesis\".",
"Final confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 through the Meselson–Stahl experiment.",
"Further work by Crick and co-workers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons, allowing Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley, and Marshall Warren Nirenberg to decipher the genetic code.",
"These findings represent the birth of molecular biology.In 1986 DNA analysis was first used for criminal investigative purposes when police in the UK requested Alec Jeffreys of the University of Leicester to verify or disprove a suspect's rape-murder \"confession.\"",
"In this particular case, the suspect had confessed to two rape-murders, but had later retracted his confession.",
"DNA testing at the university labs soon disproved the veracity of the suspect's original \"confession,\" and the suspect was exonerated from the murder-rape charges."
],
[
"See also",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * First published in October 1974 by MacMillan, with foreword by Francis Crick; the definitive DNA textbook, revised in 1994 with a nine-page postscript.",
"* * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * DNA binding site prediction on protein* DNA the Double Helix Game From the official Nobel Prize web site* DNA under electron microscope* Dolan DNA Learning Center* Double Helix: 50 years of DNA, ''Nature''* * * ENCODE threads explorer ENCODE home page at Nature* Double Helix 1953–2003 National Centre for Biotechnology Education* Genetic Education Modules for Teachers – ''DNA from the Beginning'' Study Guide* * \"Clue to chemistry of heredity found\".",
"''The New York Times'', June 1953.First American newspaper coverage of the discovery of the DNA structure* DNA from the Beginning Another DNA Learning Center site on DNA, genes, and heredity from Mendel to the human genome project.",
"* The Register of Francis Crick Personal Papers 1938 – 2007 at Mandeville Special Collections Library, University of California, San Diego* Seven-page, handwritten letter that Crick sent to his 12-year-old son Michael in 1953 describing the structure of DNA.",
"See Crick's medal goes under the hammer, Nature, 5 April 2013."
]
] | wikipedia |
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